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THE  LIBRARY 
OF 

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OF  CALIFORNIA 

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DBPABTMEWT  OF  ASTRONOMY 

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'*r  toe  AfXiELES 


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^mfSfEMarrt  of  cAuroswA 

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GIFT  OF  rMi:Di.:HirK  C.  LEONARD 


THE 

AMERICANA 

y4  Universal  Reference  Library 


COMPRISING    THE    ARTS     AND    SCIENCES, 

LITERATURE,    HISTORY,    BIOGRAPHY, 

GEOGRAPHY,   COMMERCE,   ETC., 

OF    THE    WORLD 


EDI  TOR- IN-  CHIEF 

FREDERICK     CONVERSE     BEACH 

EDITOR    SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN 
MANAGING    EDITOR 

GEORGE    EDWIN    RINES 

ASSISTED    BY    MORK    THAN    TWO    THOUSAND    OF    THE    MOST    EMINENT 
SCHOLARS    AND    AUTHORITIES    IN    AMERICA    AND    EUROPE 


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IN  SIXTEEN  VOLUMES 
ILLUSTRATED 


SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN    COMPILING    DEP'T 

225    FIFTH    AVENUE,    NEW   YORK 


Copyright  1903-1906, 

BY 

Fredekick  Converse  Beach. 


Copyright    1907-1908, 


Frederick  Converse  Beach. 


FOR  READING  iiOOfJ  ONLY 

A  Few  of  the  Leading  Articles  in  Vohime  Two 

WRITTEN  AND  SIGNED  BY  SPECIALISTS 
AUGUSTINIANISM    John  Grier  Hibben 

Professor  of   Philosophy,    Princeton    University 

AUGUSTINIANS    ....' Thomas  C.  Middleton,  O.S.A. 

AUTOMOBILE    Marius  C.  Krarup 

Formerly  Editor  of  '  The  Automobile  ' 

BACTERIA  AND  BACTERIOLOGY A.   C.  Abbott 

Bacteriologist,   University  of  Pennsylvania 

BALTIMORE,    Md William  H.  Love 

Secretary  Board  of  Trade 

BAND  SAW  BLADES Edward   C.   Mershon 

Of  W.   B.   Mershon  &  Co.,   Saginaw,  Mich. 

BANKS  AND  BANKING O.  P.  Austin 

United   States   Treasury   Department 

BANKS  AND  BANKING,  AMERICAN Levi  Parsons  Morton 

BANKING  INSTITUTIONS Willis  S.  Paine 

President  Consolidated  National  Bank,  New  York 

BANKS,  SAVINGS  . . . . , William   Hanhart 

Secretary    "  Savings    Bank    Section,"    American    Bankers'    Association 

BANQUETS Miles  Bradford 

Author  of  '  Carlotta  and  I  ' 

BAPTISTS  IN  AMERICA Henry  Clay  Vedder 

Crozer  Theological   Seminary 

BARBADOES Marrion    Wilcox 

Authority  on  Latin-America 

BATH,  HISTORY  OF  THE John   R.   Meader 

Editor  American  Year  Book 

BEARINGS,  ANTI-FRICTION   Henry  Southern 

Engineer   of  the  American   Compound    Bearing   Co. 

BEEKEEPING  E.  R.  Root 

Author  of  '  A.  B.  C.  of  Bee  Culture  '  and  Editor  of  '  Gleanings  in  Bee  Culture  ' 

BEET Samuel   Eraser 

Instructor  in   Agronomy,   Cornell   University 

BEETHOVEN Henry  T.  Finck 

Musical   Critic   '  Evening  Post,'   New   York 

BERKELEY,  GEORGE  H.  W.  Wright 

Of  Cornell  University 

BERLIN    .E.  HiRscHBERc 

Director  of  Statistical  Bureau  of  Berlin 

BIBLE Charles   Woodruff   Shields 

Prof,  of  Harmony  of  Science  and  Revealed  Religion,  Princeton  University 

BIRDS ;•.•••. Ernest  Ingersoll 

Editorial  Staff,   Encyclopedia  Americana 

BLIND,  EDUCATION  OF  THE Edward  Ellis  Allen 

Principal  Pennsylvania  Institution  for  the  Instruction  of  the  Blind 

BOILER A.  D.  Risteen 

Hartford  Steam  Boiler  Insp.  and  Ins.  Co. 

BOOK  OF  THE  DEAD Samuel  A.   Binion 

Author  of  '  Ancient   Egypt  or  Mizraim  ' 

BOOKBINDING    Edwin  Ives 

Of  Edwin  Ives  &  Sons,  New  York 

BOOKKEEPING Edgar  M.  Barber 

Expert    Accountant,    U.    S.    Appraiser's    Office 

BOOTS  AND  SHOES Frederick  D.  Hull 

Vice-President  '  The  Shoe  Retailer,'  New  York  and  Boston 

BOSTON    M.  A.  DeWolfe  Howe 

Author  of  'Boston:  The  Place  and  the  People' 

BOTANICAL  GARDENS   D.  T.   MacDougal 

Director  of  Laboratories,  New  York  Botanical  Garden 

BOTANY    Frederick  V.  Covillb 

Chief  Botanist,  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture 


613833 


KEY  TO   PRONUNCIATION. 


a 

far,  father 

a 

fate,   hate 

a  or  a 

at,   fat 

a 

air,  care 

a 

ado,   sofa 

a 

all,  fall 

ch 

choose,  church 

eel,  we 

bed,  end 

her,  over :  also  Fr.  e,  as  in  de;  eu, 
as  in  neuf ;  and  oeu,  as  in  boeuf, 
coeur;  Ger.  o  (or  oe),  as  in 
okonomie. 


e 

befall,  elope 

e 

agent,  trident 

ff 

off,  trough 

g 

gas,  get 

&w 

anguish,  guava 

h  hat,  hot 

h  or  H     Ger.  cJi,  as  in  nicht,  wacht 

hw  what 

1  file,  ice 

i  or  1        him,  it 

I  between  e  and  i,  mostly  in  Oriental 

final  syllables,  as,  Ferid-ud-din 

j  gem,  genius 

kw  quaint,  quite 

&  Fr.  nasal  m  or  n,  as  in  embonpoint, 

Jean,  temps 


h  Span,  n,  as  in  canon  (can'yon),  pinon 

(pen'yon) 

ng  mingle,  singing 

nk  bank,  ink 

6  no,  open 

o  or  o  not,   on 

6  corn,  nor 

6  p.tom,    symbol 

o  book,  look 

'oi  oil,  soil ;  also  Ger.  eu,  as  in  heutel 

6  or  oo  fool,  rule 

ou  or  ow  allow,  bowsprit 


s 

satisf}-,  sauce 

sh 

show,  sure 

th 

thick,  thin 

fh 

father,  thither 

u 

mute,  use 

u  or  u 

but,  us 

u 

pull,  put 

ii 

between  u  and 

z 
zh 


Miiller 

of,  very 

(consonantal)  yes,  young 

pleasant,  rose 
azure,  pleasure 


'  (prime),  "  (secondary)  accents,  to  indicate 
syllabic  stress 


THE 

ENCYCLOPEDIA 

AMERICANA 


Atahualpa,  a'ta-wal'pa  (atahii,  Latin 
virtus  and  allpa,  sweet),  a  Peruvian 
inca,  the  son  of  Huayna  Capac, 
eleventh  inca.  His  brother  Huascar 
succeeded  Huayna  Capac ;  but  Ata- 
hualpa obtained  the  kingdom  of 
Quito,  and  a  civil  war  broke  out 
between  the  brothers ;  though  the  details  are 
not  accurately  known,  it  appears  that  when 
Pizarro  was  beginning  to  move  inland  Huas- 
car had  been  defeated  and  thrown  into 
prison,  and  Atahualpa  had  become  inca.  Pi- 
zarro set  out  in  September  1532,  and  made 
for  Cassamarca,  where  the  inca  was.  On 
15  Nov.  Pizarro  entered  Cassamarca,  and  sent 
to  request  an  interview  with  the  inca.  On  the 
evening  of  the  next  day,  Atahualpa  entered  the 
great  square  of  Cassamarca,  accompanied  by 
some  five  or  six  thousand  men,  while  Pizarro's 
artillery  and  soldiers  were  planted  in  readiness 
in  the  streets  opening  off  the  square.  The  in- 
terview was  carried  on  by  the  priest  Vicente  de 
Valverde,  through  an  interpreter.  He  stated 
briefly  and  dogmatically  the  principal  points  of 
the  Christian  faith  and  the  Roman  Catholic  pol- 
icy, and  concluded  by  calling  upon  Atahualpa 
to  become  a  Christian,  obey  the  commands  of 
the  Pope,  give  up  the  administration  of  his  king- 
dom, and  pay  tribute  to  Charles  V.,  to  whom 
had  been  granted  the  conquest  of  these  lands. 
To  this  the  inca  at  first  returned  a  very  tem- 
perate answer.  The  priest  retired,  and  Pizarro 
at  once  gave  the  signal  for  attack.  The  Span- 
iards rushed  out  suddenly,  and  the  Peruvians, 
astonished  and  defenseless,  were  cut  down  in 
hundreds.  Atahualpa,  thus  treacherously  cap- 
tured, offered  an  enormous  sum  of  money  as  a 
ransom,  and  fulfilled  his  engagement ;  but  Pi- 
zarro still  detained  him,  until  the  Spaniards 
should  have  arrived  in  sufficient  numbers  to 
secure  the  country.  While  in  captivity,  Ata- 
hualpa gave  secret  orders  for  the  assassination 
of  his  brother  Huascar,  and  also  endeavored  to 
raise  an  army  to  expel  the  invaders.  His  plans 
were  betrayed,  and  Pizzaro  at  once  brought  him 
to  trial.  He  was  condemned  to  death,  and,  as 
Vol.  ?— I 


being  an  idolater,  to  death  by  fire.  Atahualpa, 
however,  professed  himself  a  Christian,  received 
baptism;  and  his  sentence  was  then  altered  into 
death  by  strangulation.  His  body  was  after- 
ward burned,  and  the  ashes  conveyed  to  Quito. 
Consult  Prescott,  *  Conquest  of  Peru.* 

Atakapa,  a'ta-ka'pa,  the  designation  of  an 
extinct  cannibal  tribe  who  occupied  the  west 
gulf  coast  of  Louisiana. 

Atala,  a'ta'la,  a  romance  of  the  American 
wilderness,  by  Chateaubriand,  published  in  1801. 
It  is  the  extravagant  and  artificial  but  beautiful 
story  of  two  lovers  —  a  young  Indian  brave, 
Chactas  (that  is,  Choctaw),  and  an  Indian 
maiden,  Atala. 

At'alan'ta,  the  name  of  two  heroines  in 
Greek  mythology.  One  was  a  native  of  Ar- 
cadia, celebrated  for  her  skill  in  archery.  She 
slew  with  her  arrows  the  Centaurs  Rhoecus  and 
Hylseus,  sailed  to  Colchis  with  the  Argonauts, 
and  was  present  at  the  chase  of  the  Caledonian 
boar,  which  she  first  wounded ;  hence  Meleager 
awarded  to  her  the  prize.  She  was  renowned 
for  her  beauty  and  swiftness  in  running.  She 
stipulated  that  every  candidate  for  her  hand 
should  run  a  race  with  her,  and  if  he  conquered 
her  she  was  his  own,  but  if  he  was  conquered  he 
was  doomed  to  death  at  her  hand.  Many  had 
fallen  victims  in  the  attempt,  when  Meilanion, 
by  the  aid  of  Aphrodite,  overcame  her.  The 
goddess  gave  him  three  golden  apples,  which  he 
threw  behind  him,  one  after  another,  as  he  ran. 
Atalanta  stopped  to  pick  them  up.  and  Meilanion 
reached  the  goal  before  her.  She  accordingly 
became  his  wife.  The  other  Atalanta,  who  can- 
not very  well  be  distinguished  from  the  preced- 
ing, the  same  stories  being  told  about  both,  is 
connected  with  Boeotia  and  Boeotian  localities. 
She  is  said  to  have  been  married  to  Hippo- 
menes.     See  Morris.   <Atalanta's   Race.' 

At'alan'ta  in  Cal'ydon,  a  tragedy  by  Alger- 
non Charles  Swinburne,  published  in  1864.  It 
deals  with  a  Greek  theme,  and  employs  the 
Greek  chorus  and  semichorus  in  its  amplifica- 
tion.   To  this  chorus  are  given   several   songs, 


ATAMAN  —  ATCHISON 


which  exemplify  the  highest  charms  of  Swin- 
burne's verse  —  his  inexhaustible  wealth  of 
imagery,  and  his  flawless  musical  sense.  The 
story  is  founded  upon  the  hunting  of  the  Cale- 
donian boar. 

At'aman,  the  title  of  the  chief  of  the  Cos- 
sack tribes.     See  Hetman. 

Ataulfus,  Ataulf  or  Adolf,  king  of  the 
Visigoths.  The  date  of  his  birth  is  unknown. 
He  was  the  brother-in-law  of  Alaric,  whom 
he  assisted  in  the  sieges  of  Rome.  After 
Alaric's  death  he  went  to  Gaul  and  married 
Galla  Placidia,  sister  of  the  emperor,  June 
414.  In  the  same  year  he  went  to  Spain  and 
was  assassinated  at  Barcelona  in  415. 

At'avism  (Latin  atavus,  originally  "an- 
cestor," later  specialized  as  "great-great-great- 
grandfather*') :  in  biology,  the  reappearance  in 
an  organic  being  of  specific  ancestral  peculiari- 
ties which  have  not  appeared  in  intermediate 
generations,  or  of  peculiarities  of  ancestral  side 
branches  not  represented  in  the  direct  line.  It 
is  often  loosely  used  as  synonymous  with  rever- 
sion, but  in  scientific  usage  the  latter  is  not 
the  reappearance  of  single  characteristics,  and 
certainly  not  of  abnormal  ones,  but  the  return  in 
general  type  to  the  primitive  type  from  which 
the  special  race  was  evolved.  In  this  sense,  it 
may  be  said  that  reversion  is  the  extreme 
backward  limit  of  atavism.  For  example,  the 
birth  of  a  six-fingered  child  with  a  six-fingered 
grandfather  or  uncle  but  normal  parents  would 
be  atavism ;  but  the  approach  of  human  beings 
left  on  a  desert  island  to  the  prognathous  and 
hairy  type  of  the  simians,  were  it  conceivable, 
would  be  reversion.  Sometimes  the  two  are 
hardly  to  be  discriminated ;  thus,  the  appearance 
of  a  tail-bone  or  pointed  ears  would  be  an 
atavism  recalling  the  primitive  type,  as  are 
horses  with  toes,  yet  not  quite  a  reversion.  A 
true  reversion  is  the  banded  pigeon  which  is  a 
frequent  "sport'*  among  fancy  breeds ;  and  the 
still  commoner  mongrel  "yellow  dog,"  a  rever- 
sion to  the  jackal  type.  Atavisms  are  part  of 
the  perpetual  family  wonders,  the  reproduction 
of  minute  special  features,  habits,  tricks  of  be- 
havior, even  tastes  and  fashions  of  speech,  char- 
acteristic of  distant  relatives  or  far-back  ances- 
tors, but  perhaps  obliterated  for  long  periods. 
In  sociology,  especially  criminology,  the  word  is 
used  precisely  in  the  sense  of  reversion  to  primi- 
tive instincts  and  passions,  supposed  to  be  over- 
laid or  suppressed  by  civilization.  The  criminal 
on  this  theory  is  a  being  who  has  lost  his 
evolved  characteristics,  and  gone  backward  to 
the  primitive  savage.  This,  however,  has  too 
many  flaws  to  be  scientifically  acceptable. 

Atax'ia,  an  irregularity  of  function,  but  the 
term  is  usually  applied  to  inco-ordination  of 
muscular  movements.  It  is  a  phenomenon  seen 
in  many  disordered  states  of  the  body  and  not 
confined  to  the  one  disease,  locomotor  ataxia. 
Thus,  ataxia  is  a  common  symptom  of  alco- 
holic intoxication.  Two  forms  of  ataxia  may 
be  distinguished,  static  and  motor.  In  static 
ataxia  there  is  an  irregularity  in  the  maintenance 
of  attitudes  and  positions.  This  form  of  ataxia 
is  common  in  chronic  cocaine  poisoning  and  is 
present  in  some  severe  cases  of  chorea,  or  St. 
Vitus'  dance.  The  patients'  limbs  seem  to  give 
way  beneath  them  and  there  is  a  restless  irregu- 


larity in  attitude  and  pose.  Static  ataxia  is  alsQ 
a  symptom  in  certain  types  of  insanity,  notably 
the  disease  termed  catatonia.  Motor  ataxia  is  a 
much  commoner  form  of  this  condition.  In 
alcoholic  intoxication  it  is  well  developed  and 
the  loss  of  control,  largely  due  to  diminution  of 
the  function  of  the  sensory  nerves,  is  too  well 
known  to  need  description.  In  a  number  of 
diseases  of  the  nervous  system  ataxia  of  the 
muscles_  of  the  arms,  lips,  tongue,  trunk,  and 
lower  limbs  is  a  prominent  symptom.  Ataxia 
is  to  be  distinguished  from  loss  of  the  sense  of 
equilibrium.  See  Cerebellum  ;  Co-ordination  ; 
Equilibrium;  Hemiplegia;  Locomotor  Ataxia; 
Sclerosis. 

Atbara,  at-ba'ra  (Bahr-el-Agivad,  or  Black 
River),  an  important  tributary  of  the  Nile.  It 
rises  in  Abyssinia  to  the  northwest  of  Lake 
Tzana,  flows  to  the  north,  receiving  several  large 
tributaries,  especially  the  Mareb  and  Tacazze, 
and  enters  the  Nile  lat.  17°  N. 

Atchafalaya,  ach'a-fa-ll'j^a,  a  river  in 
Louisiana,  an  outlet  of  the  Red  River.  It  flows 
southward  through  Grand  Lake,  and  enters  the 
Gulf  of  Mexico  by  Atchafalaya  Bay.  Its  length 
is  estimated  at  250  miles  and  it  is  supposed  to 
have  been  formerly  the  principal  channel  of  the 
Red  River. 

Atcheen,  a  province  of  the  Dutch  Indies, 
until  1873  an  independent  state  in  the  north- 
west part  of  Sumatra.  Area  20,471  square 
miles,  and  containing  a  population  of  about 
500,000.     See  AcHiN. 

Atch'ison,  David  Rice,  American  legis- 
lator; b.  Frogtown,  Ky.,  11  Aug.  1807;  d.  26 
June  1886.  He  was  educated  for  the  bar,  and 
began  practising  in  Missouri,  in  1830.  He  was 
elected  to  the  legislature  in  1834  and  1838;  was 
appointed  judge  of  the  Platte  county  circuit 
court ;  and,  in  1843,  while  holding  this  office, 
was  appointed  United  States  senator  to  fill  a  va- 
cancy. He  was  twice  elected  to  the  last  ofiice, 
and  during  several  sessions  was  president  pro 
tern,  of  the  Senate.  During  Sunday  4  March 
1849,  he  was  the  legal  President  of  the  United 
States,  as  Gen.  Taylor,  the  President-elect,  was 
not  sworn  into  office  until  the  following  day. 
Senator  Atchison  became  conspicuous  in  the 
slavery  debates  and  in  the  Kansas-Nebraska 
struggle,  because  of  his  strong  pro-slavery 
views.  The  city  of  Atchison,  Kan.,  was  named 
after  him. 

Atch'ison,  Kan.,  a  city  and  county-seat  of 
Atchison  County ;  on  the  Missouri  River,  20 
miles  above  Fort  Leavenworth  and  on  the  Atchi- 
son, T.  &  S.  F.,  the  Chicago,  R.  I.  &  Pacific, 
the  Burlington  &  Q.  and  other  railroads.  The 
city  is  beautifully  situated  on  the  "Great  Bend*' 
of  the  Missouri  River,  and  because  of  its  excel- 
lent river  and  extensive  railroad  facilities  it  is 
an  important  commercial  centre,  and  one  of  the 
principal  cities  of  the  State.  It  exports  large 
quantities  of  grain,  flour,  live-stock,  coal, 
lumber,  fruit,  and  general  agricultural  produce. 
The  wholesale  trade  of  the  city  in  gro- 
ceries, drugs,  hardware,  etc.,  is  also  very 
extensive,  representing  annually  more  than  $50,- 
000,000.  The  manufacturing  interests  of  Atchi- 
son are  important,  there  being  over  50  large 
industrial    establishments,    including    grain    elc- 


ATCHISON 


vators,  flouring-mills,  foundries,  railroad 
shops,  carriage  works,  brick  yards,  fur- 
niture, broom  and  harness  factories,  etc.  The 
city  contains  many  attractive  buildings,  notably 
the  county  court-house  and  government  build- 
ing, and  the  union  depot  erected  at  a  cost  of 
$140,000.  The  Missouri  River  is  bridged  by  a 
noteworthy  structure  some  1,200  feet  long. 
There  are  three  parks  in  the  city  —  Forest.  City 
and  Central ;  three  banks  with  a  combined  cap- 
ital of  $300,000  and  an  annual  business  of 
$7,000,000;  daily,  weekly  and  monthly  periodi- 
cals, and  gas,  electric-light,  sewer,  water  and 
electric  railway  plants.  Atchison  is  the  seat  of 
the  State  Soldiers'  Orphans'  Home ;  Wells'  In- 
sane Asylum ;  Allaman's  Hospital ;  Midland 
College  (Lutheran)  ;  Saint  Benedict's  College 
(Roman  Catholic)  ;  Blount  Saint  Scholastica's 
Academy  (Roman  Catholic)  :  has  a  fine  public 
library  and  an  excellent  system  of  public  educa- 
tion (8  public  and  3  parish  schools).  The 
school  board  is  chosen  by  popular  vote.  The 
city  is  governed  by  a  mayor,  elected  every  two 
years,  and  a  municipal  council  of  10  members. 
The  mayor  appoints  the  administrative  officials 
who  are  subject  to  confirmation  by  the  city 
council.  The  city  was  first  settled  in  1854  and 
was  named  in  honor  of  Senator  D.  R.  Atchison. 
It  was  incorporated  as  a  city  in  1859.  Pop. 
(1904)  16,925.  H.  B.  HoRX, 

Editor  Atchison  Champion. 

Atchison,   Topeka    &    Santa    Fe    Railway, 

The,  one  of  the  most  important  railways  in 
the  United  States,  and  including  a  long  list  of 
auxiliary  companies.  The  charter  was  granted 
3  March  1863,  the  route  prescribed  being  from 
Atchison  on  the  ^Missouri  River  to  the  western 
boundary  of  the  State  of  Kansas,  in  the  direc- 
tion of  Santa  Fe,  New  ^lexico,  a  distance  esti- 
mated at  500  miles.  The  time  for  completion 
was  limited  to  10  years,  which  expired  3  March 
1873.  Five  years  and  six  months  were  allowed 
to  pass  without  commencing  operations.  In 
September  1868  the  charter  was  transferred  to 
new  parties.  In  1869  28  miles  were  built ;  in 
1870  34  miles  ;  in  1871  75  miles.  The  western 
boundary  of  Kansas  not  having  been  established, 
it  was  estimated  that  the  remainder  to  be  built, 
with  only  one  year  for  the  completion  of  the 
road  and  telegraph  line  which  was  to  accompany 
it,  was  345  miles.  By  great  effort  the  means 
were  provided,  and  the  work  completed  with 
rapidity  then  unprecedented,  and  the  cars  were 
run  over  the  entire  line  from  the  Missouri  River 
to  Colorado,  about  470  miles,  on  the  28th  day 
of  December  1872,  thereby  saving  the  land 
grant,  which  would  have  been  forfeited  had  the 
road  not  been  completed  before  3  ^larch  1873. 
The  road  was  remarkably  well  built,  much  better 
than  the  majorit}'  of  western  raihvays  at  that 
time,  and  in  general  construction  bore  compar- 
ison with  the  best  roads  either  east  or  west. 
It  ran  for  the  greater  part  in  the  valley  of  the 
Arkansas  River,  with  easy  grades  and  curves. 
and_  almost  immediately  developed  an  amount  of 
business  that  surprised  the  ownership  and  the 
public.  The  part  which  this  railway  has  had  in 
the  building  up  of  Kansas.  Colorado  and  other 
sections  through  which  it  runs  cannot  be  over- 
estimated. It  opened  vast  tracts  of  productive 
land  to  settlement,  and  drew  a  large  emigration 
from   the    East   to   that    region,   where   thriving 


towns  and  fertile  farms  took  the  place  of  what 
had  been  a  desert.  The  road  acquired  a  large 
share  of  through  business  in  1876  by  leasmg  the 
Pueblo  &  Arkansas  Valley  and  the  Kansas  City, 
Topeka  &  Western.  Steel  rails  were  adopted  in 
place  of  iron,  and  neither  effort  nor  expense 
were  spared  to  bring  the  road  up  to  the  highest 
standard. 

The  growth  of  the  Atchison,  Topeka  &  Santa 
Fe  in  30  years  is  shown  by  recent  statistics.  In 
1875  the  gross  earnings  of  the  system  were 
$1,500,000,  operating  expenses  $700,000;  and  net 
earnings  $800,000;  in  1902  the  gross  earnings 
were  $59,100,000;  operating  expenses  $33,000,- 
000 ;  and  net  earnings  $25,200,000.  The  growth 
of  mileage  has  been  equally  rapid.  In  1875  the 
road  only  extended  from  Kansas  City  and 
Atchison  to  Wichita  and  Pueblo,  711  miles.  On 
30  June  1902  the  main  track  mileage  operated 
was  about  7,900,  which  has  since  been  added  to 
considerably  by  the  acquisition  of  new  lines. 
The  rolling  stock,  about  28  years  ago.  consisted 
of  38  locomotives  and  1.028  cars,  including  two 
Pullmans.  By  recent  figures  it  was  1.3 12  loco- 
motives and  36.370  cars.  Locomotive  repairs 
were  $60,000  in  the  early  period,  and  $3,700,000 
in  the  present.  Grain  shipments  in  1875  were 
28,400  tons,  and  w^ere  by  late  figures  1,550,000 
tons.  Live  stock  jumped  from  87,500  head  to 
870,000  head.  Passenger  and  freight  traffic 
showed  proportionate  increase.  These  figures 
give  an  idea  not  only  of  the  growth  of  the 
Atchison,  Topeka  &  Santa  Fe  system,  but  also 
of  the  strides  made  by  the  Western  United 
States  in  the  past  30  years. 

In  the  annual  report  of  the  Atchison,  To- 
peka &  Santa  Fe  for  1904  President  Edward  P. 
Ripley  says : 

"The  large  increase  in  the  system  earnings 
reflects  the  rapid  growth  of  the  territory  served 
by  your  lines  in  population  and  wealth,  and  this 
growth  is  likelj-  to  continue.  Many  miles  of 
your  main  lines  are  fed  by  but  few  branches, 
and  extensive  territory  that  should  furnish 
profitable  traffic  to  the  system  still  remains,  in 
a  great  measure,  undeveloped  for  want  of  ade- 
quate railroad  facilities.  The  construction  of 
additional  branches  and  feeders  will  be  desirable 
in  the  near  future,  in  order  to  increase  the 
earnings  of  the  system  and  strengthen  its  posi- 
tion, and  in  order  to  furnish  additional  trans- 
portation facilities  to  the  growing  territory 
through  which  the  system  extends.  Further- 
more, the  traffic  on  your  main  lines  has  become 
so  dense  that  the  construction  of  second  tracks 
and  provision  for  additional  equipment  will  soon 
be  imperative.  Since  the  year  1896  more  than 
$30,000,000  of  surplus  net  income  has  been  ap- 
plied to  the  development  and  enlargement  of 
your  properties,  and  it  is  expected  that  a  con- 
siderable amount  of  surplus  net  income  will  be 
applied  in  like  manner  hereafter :  but  it  is  the 
opinion  of  your  directors  that  additional  capital 
should  be  obtained  during  the  next  few  years 
for  the  purposes  above  referred  to.  and  it  is  be- 
lieved that  the  expenditure  of  this  capital  will 
result  in  a  substantial  increase  of  the  surplus 
net  income  of  the  company.'* 

The  gross  earnings  for  the  year  amounted  to 
$68,171,200,    an    increase   of   $5,820,802   as    com 
pared  with  1903.     The  operating  expenses  show 
an   increase  of  $3,784,922.     The  mileage   of  the 
railroad  increased  214.46.     Of  this  increase.  134 


ATE  — ATHABASCA  PASS 


miles  was  due  to  the  completion  of  the  Eastern 
Oklahoma  Railway.  It  also  includes  the  Gulf, 
Beaumont  &  Kansas  City  Railroad,  which  was 
leased  during  the  year. 

Ate,  a'te,  among  the  Greeks  the  goddess 
of  hate,  injustice,  crime,  and  retribution.  Ac- 
cording to  Homer  she  was  the  daughter  of 
Zeus,  but  according  to  Hesiod,  the  daughter 
of  Eris  (Strife).  She  was  a  vengeful  god- 
dess and  was  banished  from  Olympus  by  Zeus, 
whom  she  had  induced  to  take  an  oath  of 
which  he  subsequently  repented.  Her  influence 
was  always  pernicious,  and  in  her  journeyings 
over  the  earth  she  atiflicted  mankind,  but  she 
was  followed  by  other  goddesses,  the  benevo- 
lent daughters  of  Zeus,  who  restored  those  who 
had  come  under  Ate's  evil  influence. 

At'eles,  a  genus  of  South  American  mon- 
keys of  the  division  with  long  prehensile  tails, 
to  which  the  name  Sapajou  is  sometimes  collec- 
tively applied.  The  head  is  round,  and  the 
facial  angle  about  60  degrees ;  the  limbs  are  re- 
markably long  and  slender,  upon  which  account 
the  English  name  of  spider  monkey  is  some- 
times used  as  a  generic  designation ;  the  fore- 
limbs  are  either  destitute  of  a  thumb  or  have  a 
rudimentary  one. 

Ateles'tite,  a  native  basic  arsenate  of  bis- 
muth, having  the  formula  3Bi2O3.As2Oo.2H2O. 
It  is  yellow  in  color,  and  translucent  with  an 
adamantine  lustre.  It  occurs  in  small  mono- 
clinic  crystals,  at  Schneeberg,  Saxony. 

Ateliers  Nationaux,  a-te-lia'  na'syo'no', 
national  workshops  established  by  the  provi- 
sional government  of  France  in  1848.  Previous 
'■o  the  outbreak  of  the  revolution  of  Feb.  1848, 
there  had  been  two  years  of  scarcity,  inunda- 
tion, and  commercial  crisis.  Ateliers  nationaux, 
or  national  workshops,  were  opened  at  once. 
The  workmen  were  organized  under  lieutenants 
and  brigadiers  of  their  election.  The  number  of 
applicants,  including  arrivals  from  the  prov- 
inces, at  length  exceeded  100,000,  and  the  total 
expense  reached  nearly  16,000,000  francs.  The 
men  were  employed  on  roads,  railways,  earth- 
works, etc.,  but  it  was  impossible  to  find  work 
for  the  whole,  and  a  great  part  of  the  labor  was 
unprofitable.  There  were  besides  30.000  to 
40,000  women  employed  in  preparing  articles  of 
outfit  for  the  army,  whose  work  left  only  a 
trifling  loss.  In  June  the  Constituent  Assembly 
resolved  upon  the  immediate  closing  of  the  ate- 
liers. This  rash  step  provoked  the  insurrec- 
tion of  the  Red  Republicans  (23d-26th  June), 
suppressed  by  Gen.  Cavaignac  with  fearful 
slaughter.  In  Lyons  the  ateliers  were  closed 
wihout  disturbance,  but  in  some  other  towns 
trouble  was  occasioned. 

At'ella'nae  Fab'ulae  (called  also  Oscan 
plays),  a  kind  of  light  interlude  between  tragedy 
and  comedy,  performed  by  freeborn  young  Ro- 
mans. This  kind  of  a  play  is  said  to  have  origi- 
nated in  Afella,  a  city  of  the  Oscans,  between 
Capua  and  Naples,  and  a  few  disconnected  frag- 
ments are  all  that  remain  of  a  national  Ital- 
ian comedy,  consisting  of  farce  seasoned  by 
satire. 

Atesh'ga  (the  place  of  fire),  a  place  much 
revered  by  Persian  fire-worshippers.  It  is  on 
the  peninsula  of  Apsheron,   on   the   west  coast 


of  the  Caspian,  and  is  visited  by  large  numbers 
of  pilgrims,  who  bow  before  the  sacred  flames 
issuing  from  the  bituminous  soil. 

Ath,  at,  a  town  of  Belgium,  14  miles  from 
Mons.  It  has  a  hospital  and  college  and  im- 
portant manufactures  of  linen,  lace,  cutlery, 
soap,  and  large  hammers.  It  was  formerly  a 
fortress.     Pop.    (1900)    11,100. 

Ath'a,  a  false  prophet  in  the  reign  of  the 
Caliph  j\lehedy,  or  his  predecessor,  Al-mansur. 
He  taught  the  doctrine  of  metempsychosis,  and 
claimed  to  be  an  incarnation  of  divinity.  He 
had  lost  one  of  his  eyes,  on  account  of  which 
he  always  wore  a  veil,  whence  he  received  the 
epithet  of  Mokanna.  He  is  the  hero  of  Moore's 
"Veiled  Prophet  of  Khorassan*  in  'Lalla 
Rookh.' 

Athabasca,  ath'a-bas'ka,  a  district  in 
northwestern  Canada  formed  in  1882  and  en- 
larged in  1895.  It  contains  251,965  square  miles, 
including  8,805  square  miles  of  water  area,  and 
is  bounded  on  the  north  by  the  district  of  Mac- 
kenzie, on  the  east  by  the  district  of  Keewatin. 
on  the  south  by  the  districts  of  Saskatchewan 
and  Alberta,  and  on  the  west  by  British  Co- 
lumbia. The  district  is  watered  by  the  Atha- 
basca and  Peace  rivers.  There  are  numerous 
lakes  in  the  district,  chief  of  which  are  Atha- 
basca in  the  north  and  Reindeer  in  the  east. 
The  climate  varies  greatly  but  is  not  so  severe 
as  the  high  latitudes  would  seem  to  imply,  and 
the  air  is  very  clear  and  bracing.  The  snow 
and  rainfall  is  not  great,  but  during  the  grow- 
ing months  of  summer  the  rains  are  abundant, 
which  add  much  to  the  productiveness  of  the 
district.  The  soil  in  the  western  part  of  the 
district  is  very  fertile,  and  wheat,  potatoes,  and 
other  cereals  are  readily  grown.  In  the  east- 
ern section  the  soil  is  less  fertile,  being  rocky 
and  sandy.  The  fur  trade  is  still  a  consid- 
erable industry.  The  country  is  well  wooded 
with  spruce,  pine,  and  poplar.  In  the  west  the 
aspen  trees  predominate,  growing  to  consider- 
able size.  The  population  of  the  district  is 
small,  consisting  mostly  of  Indians  (1,239)  and 
half-breeds,  who  support  themselves  by  hunt- 
ing, but  the  immigration  to  the  Northwest  will 
soon  seek  this  productive  territory.  The  principal 
settlement  is  Dunvegan.  in  the  southwest.  On  i 
Sept.  1905  the  province  was  divided,  the  westerly 
portion  being  united  to  Alberta,  and  the  easterly 
portion  combined  with  Saskatchewan  and  Assini- 
boia  to  form  the  province  of  Saskatchewan. 

Athabasca,  (i)  the  name  of  a  river  in 
northwestern  Canada  which  has  its  source  in  the 
eastern  slopes  of  the  Rocky  Mountains,  near 
Mount  Brown,  pursues  a  tortuous  course  to  the 
north  till  it  falls  into  Lake  Athabasca.  (2) 
The  name  of  a  Canadian  lake,  in  the  northwest 
territories,  also  called  Lake  of  the  Hills,  230 
miles  in  length  and  averaging  14  miles  in  width. 
Near  its  southwestern  extremity  it  receives  the 
Athabasca  River  and  discharges  its  waters 
northward  by  the  Great  Slave  River.  The  noi;th 
shore  is  high  and  rocky  and  thickly  wooded  with 
firs  and  poplars,  etc.,  the  south  shore  is  level. 

Athabasca  Pass,  a  narrow  passage  in  the 
Canadian  Rocky  Mountains,  between  Mount 
Brown  and  Mount  Hooker.  It  crosses  the 
boundary  between  the  district  of  Alberta  and 
British  Columbia. 


ATHALIAH  —  ATHANASIUS 


Ath'ali'ah,  the  daughter  of  Ahab,  king  of 
Israel,  and  wife  of  Joram,  king  of  Judah. 
She  was  a  woman  of  abandoned  character,  and 
fond  of  power,  who,  after  the  death  of  her  son 
Ahaziah,  opened  her  way  to  the  throne  by  the 
murder  of  42  princes  of  the  royal  blood.  She 
reigned  six  years  ;  in  the  seventh  the  high  priest 
Jehoiada  placed  Joash,  the  young  son  of  Aha- 
ziah, on  the  throne  of  his  father.  Athaliah, 
attracted  by  the  noise  of  the  people  who  were 
crowding  to  the  coronation  of  Joash,  entered 
with  them  into  the  temple,  where  the  ceremony 
was  going  on.  At  the  sight  of  the  new  king, 
surrounded  by  priests,  Levites,  great  officers  of 
the  kingdom,  and  the  joyful  people,  she  was  be- 
side herself;  she  tore  her  hair,  and  cried  out, 
^Treason!'*  Jehoiada  ordered  her  to  be  imme- 
diately led  from  the  temple  by  the  officers,  and 
commanded  that  all  who  should  offer  to  defend 
her  should  be  slain ;  but  she  was  put  to  death 
at  the  gate  of  the  palace  without  opposition. 
The  altars  of  Baal,  which  she  had  erected,  were 
thrown  down,  and  the  worship  of  God  restored 
(about  877  B.C.)  (2  Kings  viii.  ix.).  This  story 
is  the  theme  of  Racine's  ^Athalie,^  written  at 
the   request   of  Aladame   de   Maintenon. 

Athalie,  a'ta-le,  a  famous  tragedy  by  Ra- 
cine, based  on  the  Bible  story  of  Athaliah.  It 
was  first  performed  in  1600.  Rachel  won  her 
greatest  triumphs  in  this  play. 

Ath'amas,  the  son  of  .^olus,  and  husband 
of  Nephele,  the  cloud  goddess.  Their  children 
were  Helle  and  Phryxus.  Being  afterward  sep- 
arated from  Nephele,  he  had  by  Ino,  his  second 
wife,  Learchus,  Melicertes,  and  Eurycleia.  Ath- 
amas,  having  lost  his  reason  through  the  anger 
of  Hera,  and  taking  Ino  and  her  children  for 
a  lioness  and  her  whelps,  seized  Learchus  and 
dashed  him  against  a  stone ;  while  Ino,  with 
Melicertes  in  her  arms,  plunged  into  the  sea, 
and  became  the  sea  goddess  Leucothea,  Mel- 
icertes being  transformed  into  Palaenon,  a  di- 
vinity worshipped  by  sailors.  Athamas  now 
abandoned  Boeotia  and  fled  to  Phthiotis,  where 
he  built  Alos,  and  united  himself  with  Themisto. 

Athan'agild,  the  14th  king  of  the  Spanish 
Visigoths,  who  succeeded  .\gila  in  554,  and  died 
in  566.  Being  threatened  by  Agila.  he  applied 
for  aid  to  Justinian,  emperor  of  the  Ea.st,  who 
sent  troops,  and  Athanagild  defeated  his  adver- 
sary, who  was  obliged  to  retire  to  Merida.  Ath- 
anagild was  re-established  at  Toledo,  which  he 
made  his  capital. 

Athan'aric,  a  king  of  the  Visigoths  in 
Thrace  about  the  middle  of  the  4th  century: 
d.  Constantinople,  25  Jan.  381.  The  emperor 
Valens  made  war  upon  him  and  compelled  him 
to  sue  for  peace,  but  Athanaric  would  not  come 
upon  the  Roman  territory  to  sign  the  treat}', 
while  Valens  thought  it  beneath  his  dignity  to 
visit  the  barbarian  at  home.  Accordingly  a 
bridge  of  boats  was  constructed  across  the 
Danube,  and  the  two  potentates  met  in  the 
middle.  In  380  he  w-as  compelled  to  flee  to 
Constantinople,  where  Theodosius  received 
him  hospitably,  and  gave  him  a  small  pension 
until  his  death.  See  Hodgkin,  <  Italy  and  Her 
Invaders,^  Vol.  I.   (1880). 

Athanasian  (ath'a-na'zhan)  Creed.  See 
Creed. 


Athanasius  (ath'a-na'zhi-us)  Saint,  Bishop 
of  Alexandria,  a  celebrated  Greek  theologian: 
b.  Ale.xandria  about  296;  d.  373.  He  had 
a  Christian  education,  and  came  into  the  family 
of  Alexander,  afterward  archbishop  of  Alexan- 
dria. Alexander  took  him  to  the  council  at 
Nice,  where  he  gained  the  highest  esteem  of  the 
fathers  by  the  talents  he  displayed  in  the  Arian 
controversy.  About  326  he  became  bishop  of  Al- 
exandria. The  complaints  and  accusations  of  his 
enemies  at  length  induced  the  emperor  Constan- 
tine  to  summon  him  in  334  before  the  councils  of 
Tyre  and  Jerusalem,  but  his  judges  could  do 
nothing,  however,  further  than  suspend  him 
from  his  office.  He  still  continued  in  the  dis- 
charge of  his  duties  until  the  emperor,  deceived 
by  new  falsehoods,  banished  him  to  Treves. 
The  death  of  Constantine  put  an  end  to  this  ban- 
ishment at  the  end  of  a  year  and  some  months. 
Constantius,  emperor  of  the  East,  recalled  the 
holy  patriarch.  His  return  to  Alexandria  re- 
sembled a  triumph.  The  Arians  made  new 
complaints  against  him,  and  he  was  condemned 
by  90  Arian  bishops  assembled  at  Antioch.  while 
100  orthodox  bishops,  assembled  at  Alexandria, 
declared  him  innocent.  Pope  Julius  confirmed 
this  sentence,  in  conjunction  with  more  than 
300  bishops  assembled  at  Sardis  from  the  east 
and  west,  and  in  consequence  of  this  he  re- 
turned a  second  time  to  his  diocese.  But  when 
Constans,  emperor  of  the  West,  died,  and  Con- 
stantius became  master  of  the  whole  empire, 
the  Arians  ventured  to  rise  up  against  Athana- 
sius. Athanasius,  displaced  for  a  third  time, 
fled  into  the  deserts  of  Eg}'pt.  His  enemies 
pursued  him  even  here,  and  set  a  price  on  his 
head.  To  relieve  the  hermits  who  dwelt  in 
these  solitary  places,  and  who  would  not  betray 
his  retreat,  from  suffering  on  his  account,  he 
went  into  those  parts  of  the  desert  which  were 
entirely  uninhabited.  He  was  followed  by  a 
faithful  servant,  who,  at  the  risk  of  his  life,  sup- 
plied him  with  the  means  of  subsistence.  In 
this  undisturbed  spot  Athanasius  composed 
many  writings,  full  of  eloquence,  to  strengthen 
the  faith  of  the  believers,  or  e.xpose  the  false- 
hood of  his  enemies.  When  Julian  theApostate 
ascended  the  throne  he  allowed  the  orthodox 
bishops  to  return  to  their  churches.  Athanasius 
therefore  returned  after  an  absence  of  six  years. 
The  mildness  which  he  exercised  toward  his 
enemies  was  imitated  in  Gaul,  Spain,  Italy,  and 
Greece,  and  restored  peace  to  the  Church.  But 
this  peace  was  interrupted  by  the  complaints  of 
the  heathen,  whose  temples  the  zeal  of  Athan- 
asius kept  always  empty.  They  excited  the  em- 
peror against  him,  and  he  was  obliged  to  flee  to 
Thebais  to  save  his  life.  The  death  of  the 
emperor  and  the  accession  of  Jovian  again 
brought  him  back;  but  Valens  becoming  em- 
peror eight  months  after,  and  the  Arians  re- 
covering the  superiority,  he  was  once  more 
compelled  to  flee.  He  concealed  himself  four 
months,  until  Valens,  moved  by  the  pressing 
entreaties  and  threats  of  the  Alexandrians,  al- 
lowed him  to  return.  From  this  period  he  re- 
mained undisturbed  in  his  office  until  he  died, 
2,72,-  Of  the  46  years  of  his  official  life  he 
spent  20  in  banishment,  and  the  greater  part  of 
the  remainder  in  defending  the  Nicene  Creed. 
Athanasius  is  one  of  the  greatest  men  of  whom 
the  Church  can  boast.  His  deep  mind,  his  noble 
heart,    his    invincible   courage,   his    living   faith, 


ATHAPASCAN  STOCK— ATHENAGORAS 


his  unbounded  benevolence,  sincere  humility, 
lofty  eloquence,  and  strictly  virtuous  life,  gained 
the  honor  and  love  of  all.  His  voluminous 
writings,  which  are  chiefly  controversial  and 
dogmatical,  treat  of  the  mysterious  doctrines  of 
the  Trinitv,  the  incarnation  of  Christ,  and  the 
divinity  o'f  the  Holy  Spirit.  His  'Apology 
Against  the  Arians,^  addressed  to  the  emperor 
Constantine,  is  a  masterpiece.  The  creed  which 
goes  under  his  name  w^as  not  written  by  him, 
but  belongs  to  a  later  time.  (See  Creed.)  The 
most  complete  edition  of  of  his  works  is  that 
published  at  Padua  in  1777  (4  vols,  folio). 

Bibliograpliv. —  Bright,  'Lessons  from  the 
Lives  of  Three  Great  Fathers^  (1890)  ;  Farrar, 
< Lives  of  the  Fathers'  (1889)  ;  Fisher,  'History 
of  Christian  Doctrine^  (1896)  ;  Harnack.  "His- 
tory of  Dogma.>  Vol.  IV.  (1898):  M5hler, 
'Athanasius  and  the  Church  of  His  Time'  ; 
Hergenrother,  'Athanasius  the  Great,  Gorres 
Gessellschaft.' 

Athapascan  Stock  (also  Tinnch),  of  Ameri- 
can Indians,  and  one  of  their  most  numerous 
and  widely  distributed  linguistic  and  ethnolog- 
ical groups.  The  type-name  is  taken  from  a 
northwest  Canadian  group,  the  western  Alontag- 
nais:  but  the  tribes  are  scattered  from  Alaska 
to  Mexico.  The  original  stock  were  semi- 
arctic,  along  the  Yukon  and  Mackenzie,  fierce 
and  energetic,  but  of  a  low  type  of  culture ;  and 
spread  southward  by  conquest  on  both  sides  of 
the  Rocky  ]\Iountains.  They  are  divided  into 
three  chief  groups,  the  northern,  the  Pacific, 
and  the  southern.  The  first  are  those  in  the 
original  home. —  northwest  Canada  and  interior 
Alaska, —  Montagnais,  Montagnards,  Chippe- 
wayan,  Kutchin,  etc.  These  number  about 
8,500.  The  second  are  those  of  Washington, 
Oregon,  and  California,  except  the  Thlinkeet 
coast  tribes,  which  extend  along  the  Alaskan 
coast  also.  These  are  few  and  scattered  tribes. 
about  900  souls  in  all.  The  southern,  and  far 
the  most  important,  comprises  some  23.500 
mostly  of  the  great  .Apache  and  Navajo  confed- 
eracies, also  the  Jicarillas  and  Mescaleros,  and 
the   Lipan,  of  Mexico. 

Atharvana,  at'har'vana,  the  fourth  of  the 
Indian  Vedas.  Its  language  is  more  modern 
than  that  of  the  other  three.  The  theological 
treatises,  regarded  as  52  in  number,  called  Up- 
anishads,  are  appended  to  the  Atharvan  Veda. 

A'theism,  the  denial  of  the  existence  of  a 
God.  Among  the  Greeks  atheism  consisted  in  a 
denial  or  non-recognition  of  the  gods  of  the 
State.  Socrates  was  put  to  death  for  assert- 
ing the  superiority  of  the  divine  wisdom  to  the 
other  gods,  as  the  ruler  and  disposer  of  the  uni- 
verse, thus  contradicting  Greek  mythology, 
which  assigned  that  office  to  Zeus.  In  Latin 
times  atheism  still  continued  to  be  a  negation, 
with  no  pretension  to  rank  as  a  system.  It 
was  closely  akin  to  that  cultured  unbelief  which 
extensively  prevailed  among  the  Humanists  dur- 
ing the  early  part  of  the  Renaissance.  The 
atheism  of  the  i8th  century  was  a  protest 
against  current  religious  hypocrisy;  and,  like 
its  predecessors,  put  forward  little  or  nothing 
to  replace  the  system  it  attempted  to  destroy. 
The  atheism  of  the  19th  century  may  be  taken 
to  mclude  every  philosophic  system  which  re- 
jects the  notion  of  a  personal  Creator;  in  this 
sense  it  ranks   as   a  genus,   of  which    Atomism, 


Pantheism,  Positivism,  etc.,  are  species.  Strict- 
h-,  it  is  the  doctrine  that  sees  in  matter  the 
sole  principle  of  the  universe.  Popularly,  athe- 
ism consists  in  the  denial  of  a  God;  this  view  is 
probably  founded  on  the  mistranslation  of 
Psalms  xiv.  i,  and  liii.  I,  which  should  be, 
"The  fool  hath  said  in  his  heart,  Xo  God  for 
m.e,"  that  is,  he  wilfully  rejects  God,  at  the 
same   time   knowing  that   he   is. 

Ath'el,  or  Mthel,  an  Old  English  \vord 
signifying  noble,  eminent,  not  only  in  blood  or 
by  descent,  but  in  mind.  It  is  frequently  a 
part  of  Anglo-Saxon  proper  names. 

Ath'eling,  a  title  of  honor  among  the 
Anglo-Saxons,  meaning  one  who  is  of  noble 
blood.  The  title  was  gradually  confined  to 
princes  of  the  blood  royal,  and  in  the  9th  and 
loth  centuries  applied  exclusively  to  the  sons 
or  brothers  of  the  reigning  king.  It  was  first 
conferred  on  Edgar  by  Edward  the  Confessor, 
his  grand-uncle,  who  bestowed  it  when  he  de- 
signed  to  make  him   successor  to   himself. 

Athelney,  ath'el-nT,  a  marshy  island  in 
Somersetshire,  England,  about  seven  miles 
southeast  of  Bridgewater.  It  is  formed  by  the 
junction  of  the  rivers  Parret  and  Tone.  Al- 
fred the  Great  established  a  fortified  post  here 
during  a  Danish  invasion,  and  afterward  found- 
ed an  abbey  which  has  entirely  vanished. 

Ath'elstan,  a  Saxon  monarch,  the  first  to 
assume  the  title  of  king  of  England.  He  suc- 
ceeded his  father,  Edward  the  Elder,  in  925, 
and  died  in  Gloucester,  2~  Oct.  940.  He  was 
victorious  in  his  wars  with  the  Danes  of  North- 
umberland, and  the  Scots,  by  whom  they  were 
assisted.  After  the  overthrow  of  his  enemies 
at  Brunanburh  (937),  which  became  famous  in 
Saxon  song,  he  governed  in  peace  and  with 
great  ability. 

Ath'enae'um,  the  general  name  of  temples 
to  Athena,  but  more  especially  applied  to  the 
temple  at  Athens,  frequented  by  poets,  learned 
men,  and  orators.  Instruction  was  also  given 
there  to  the  youth,  and  in  later  times  the  name 
was  applied  to  all  places  of  education  for  the 
young.  The  same  name  w-as  given  at  Rome  to 
the  celebrated  school  which  Hadrian  estab- 
lished on  the  Capitoline  ]\Iount  about  135  a.d. 
Many  learned  men  received  ample  salaries  for 
giving  instruction  in  this  institution,  and  that 
they  might  be  enabled  to  study  at  leisure.  Here 
also  learned  men  assembled  to  exchange  ideas. 

Ath'enaeus,  a  Greek  rhetorician  and  gram- 
marian, who  lived  at  Xaucratis.  in  Egypt,  then 
at  Alexandria,  and  afterward  at  Rome,  at  the 
end  of  the  2d  and  beginning  of  the  3d  century 
after  Christ.  He  has  left  an  encyclopedic  work 
in  the  form  of  conversation,  called  the  'Feast 
of  the  Learned'  vDeipnosophistse),  a  rich  but 
ill-arranged  treasury  of  historical,  antiquarian, 
philosophical,  grammatical,  and  other  know- 
ledge. The  principal  editions  are  those  of 
Schweighiiuser  (1801-7)  ;  Dindorf  (1827)  ; 
Meineke    (1859-67). 

Ath'enag'oras,  a  Christian  philosopher  of 
Athens,  who  wrote  in  Greek  an  'Apology  for 
the  Christians.'  addressed  to  the  emperor  Mar- 
cus Aurelius.  in  177.  This  work  defends  the 
Christians  from  the  accusations  brought  against 
them  by  the  heathens   (of  atheism,  of  incest,  of 


ATHENAIS  —  ATHENS 


eating  murdered  children,  and  the  like),  with  a 
philosophical  spirit  and  in  a  lively  and  forcible 
style. 

Ath'ena'is,  or  Eudocia,  empress  of  the 
East,  daughter  of  the  Athenian  philosopher 
Leontius :  b.  Athens  about  393-4  -^-d.  ;  d. 
Jerusalem  about  465.  Athenais  gaining  the 
favor  of  Pulcheria,  sister  of  the  emperor  The- 
odosius,  a  youth  of  20  years  of  age,  presently 
became  the  wife  of  Theodosius  and  was  per- 
suaded to  receive  baptism  by  the  name  of  Eu- 
■docia.  By  Theodosius  she  had  a  daughter, 
Eudoxia,  who  was  married  to  Valentian  III., 
emperor  of  the  West.  She  was  indisposed  to 
submit  to  the  authority  of  Pulcheria,  who  vir- 
tually ruled  the  empire  of  the  East,  and  a  quar- 
rel ensued,  in  which  Eudocia  had  for  a  time 
the  ascendency;  but  the  jealousy  of  her  husband 
being  aroused,  the  authority  of  Pulcheria  was 
restored,  and  Eudocia  was  permitted  to  retire 
to  Jerusalem.  When  her  daughter  and  grand- 
daughters were  taken  prisoners  by  Genseric  she 
became  reconciled  to  the  orthodox  Church. 

Athene,  a-the'ne.      See  Minerva. 

Athene,  Temple  of.     See  .Egina. 

Athen'odo'rus,  a  Greek  sculptor  of  the 
Rhodian  school,  who,  with  his  father,  Agesan- 
der.  and  Polydorus,  executed  the  celebrated 
group  of  the  "Laocoon." 

Ath'ens,  Ala.,  county-seat  of  Limestone 
County,  situated  on  the  Louisville  &  N.  railroad, 
107  miles  south  of  Nashville,  Tenn.,  85  miles 
north  of  Birmingham.  Athens  has  a  cotton 
factory,  knitting  mill,  sash,  door  and  bhnd  fac- 
tory, two  large  lumber  mills.  State  Agricultural 
School ;  Athens  Female  College,  under  owner- 
ship and  direction  of  North  Alabama  Confer- 
ence, Methodist  Episcopal  Church  south.  Has 
five  churches  for  whites  and  several  churches 
for  colored  population,  and  two  newspapers. 
Surrounded  by  a  splendid  agricultural  country 
and  has  many  advantages.  City  owms  and  oper- 
ates water  and  light  plant  and  the  town  has  an 
excellent  sewer  system.  City  also  owns  and 
operates  a  dispensary. 

Robert  ^L  Rawls, 
Editor  '^Alabama  Courier? 

Ath'ens,  Ga.,  a  city  and  county-seat  of 
Clarke  County,  on  the  Oconee  River,  and  the 
Central  of  G.,  the  Georgia,  the  Northeastern  of 
G.,  and  the  Seaboard  A.  L.  R.R.'s,  67  miles  east 
of  Atlanta,  the  State  capital.  It  is  in  a  cotton- 
growing  region;  has  a  large  trade  in  that  staple; 
and  contains  cotton  and  woolen,  rotton-secd  oil, 
bobbin,  and  hosiery  mills,  iron  works,  furniture 
factories,  and  other  industrial  plants.  It  is  the 
seat  of  the  L'niversity  of  Georgia,  the  State  Col- 
lege of  Agriculture  and  Mechanic  Arts,  Lucy 
Cobb  Institute,  Knox  Institute,  Jeruel  Academy, 
and  a  State  Normal  School.  There  are  electric 
light  and  street  railway  plants,  two  national 
banks,  several  hotels,  and  daily,  weekly,  and 
monthlj'  periodicals.  The  assessed  property 
valuation  exceeds  $6,000,000.  Athens  was  first 
settled  in  1801.     Pop.  (1904)   14.000. 

Ath'ens  (ancient  Greek.  Afheiiai),  the  cap- 
ital of  the  kingdom  of  Greece,  anciently  the 
capital  of  the  State  of  Attica  and  the  centre  of 
Greek  culture.     Its  origin  and  early  history  are 


shrouded  in  darkness.  It  is  situated  in  the  cen- 
tral plain  of  Attica,  about  four  miles  from  the 
Saronic  Gulf  or  Gulf  of  Athens,  an  arm  of  the 
yEgean  Sea,  running  in  between  the  mainland 
of  Greece  and  the  Peloponnesus.  The  site  is 
irregular,  the  city  having  been  built  on  and 
around  several  hills  rising  from  the  plain. 
Mount  Lycabettus,  on  the  northeast,  overlook- 
ing the  whole.  The  principal  eminence  within 
the  city  boundary  was  the  Acropolis,  the  site 
first  built  on ;  west  from  the  Acropolis  was  a 
lower  hill,  called  the  Areopagus ;  southwest 
from  the  Areopagus  was  the  Pnyx  and  south 
from  the  Pnyx  the  Museum ;  toward  the  sea  on 
the  south  the  view  was  unimpeded.  On  the 
east  of  the  city  was  the  stream  known  as  the 
Ilissus,  and  on  the  west  the  Cephissus.  The 
Acropolis  was  often  called  Polis  or  the  city, 
from  its  having  formed  the  original  nucleus  of 
the  town,  while  the  whole  city,  or  sometimes 
only  the  lower  city,  as  distinct  from  the  Acro- 
polis, was  called  Asty.  In  the  Areopagus  and 
the  line  of  hills  that  run  north  and  south  to  the 
west  of  it  traces  of  numerous  dwellings  cut  in 
the  rocks  have  recently  been  found.  At  its  most 
flourishing  period,  in  the  5th  century  B.C., 
Athens  w-as  connected  with  its  port-town 
Pirseeus  and  the  harbors  of  Pirseeus  and  ]Muny- 
chia  by  two  massive  walls  550  feet  apart,  while 
a  third  wall  ran  to  the  less  important  harbor  of 
Phalerum.  The  first  was  considered  the  most 
convenient,  and  was  one  of  the  emporiums  of 
Grecian  commerce.  The  surrounding  coast  was 
covered  with  magnificent  buildings,  whose 
splendor  vied  with  those  of  the  city.  The  walls 
of  rough  stone  which  connected  the  harbors 
with  the  city  were  so  broad  that  carriages  could 
go  on  their  top.  The  Acropolis  contained  the 
most  splendid  works  of  art  of  which  Athens 
could  boast.  Its  chief  ornament  was  the  Par- 
thenon or  Temple  of  Athena  Parthenos  (the 
Virgin).  This  magnificent  building  was  228 
feet  long,  loi  broad,  and  66  high.  It  was  built 
under  the  administration  of  Pericles,  and  fin- 
ished in  438  B.C.  It  was  of  the  Doric  order  of 
architecture,  and  was  built  of  marble,  resting 
upon  a  basement  of  limestone.  It  had  columns 
on  all  sides,  8  at  either  front  and  17  at  the  sides, 
counting  the  corner  columns  twice.  These 
columns  were  fully  six  feet  in  diameter  at  the 
base,  and  34  feet  high.  The  structure  was 
adorned  both  within  and  without  with  statues, 
reliefs,  and  other  sculptures.  Inside  the  temple 
stood  the  statue  of  Athena  by  Phidias,  a  master- 
piece of  art,  nearly  40  feet  high,  the  unclothed 
portions  formed  of  ivory,  the  drapery  of  plates 
of  gold,  the  weight  of  which  was  estimated  at  44 
talents.  The  Propylaea,  a  magnificent  building, 
built  of  white  marble,  formed  the  entrance  to 
the  Acropolis,  of  which  it  covered  the  whole 
western  end.  A  splendid  marble  stair,  70  feet 
broad,  led  up  to  the  Propylaea.  The  chief  build- 
ing on  the  Acropolis,  in  addition  to  the  Parthe- 
non and  the  Propylaea,  was  the  Erechtheum,  a 
kind  of  double  temple,  especially  sacred  to 
Athena  Polias  (or  Athena,  guardian  of  the 
city),  and  Erechtheus,  or  Poseidon.  On  the 
Acropolis  also  were  other  temples,  altars,  stat- 
ues, etc..  including  a  colossal  bronze  statue  of 
Athena  Promachos,  50  or  60  feet  high.  On  the 
south  slope  of  the  Acropolis  were  the  theatre  of 
Dionysus,  the  Odeum  of  Pericles,  and  the  later 
Odeum  of  Herodes,  the  latter  two  buildings 
being    intended    for    musical    competitions.      In 


ATHENS 


the  lower  city  the  greatest  pieces  of  architecture 
were  the  temples  of  Theseus  and  Olympian 
Zeus,  one  of  which  stood  on  the  northwest,  the 
other  on  the  southeast  side  of  the  Acropolis. 
The  first  was  of  Doric  architecture,  and  resem- 
bled the  Parthenon.  On  the  metopes  of  this 
temple  the  famous  deeds  of  Hercules  and  The- 
seus were  excellently  represented.  The  temple 
of  Zeus  Olympius  was  of  Corinthian  architec- 
ture, and  was  the  largest  temple  in  Athens,  and 
the  greatest  ever  erected  to  the  supreme  deity 
of  the  Greeks.  It  was  begun  by  Pisistratus, 
and  continued  from  time  to  time  until  at  length, 
after  700  years,  it  was  finished  by  Hadrian. 
The  outside  of  this  temple  was  adorned  by  120 
fluted  columns,  60  feet  high,  and  6  feet  in  diam- 
eter. It  was  354  feet  long  and  171  broad. 
Other  structures  deserving  of  notice  were  the 
Horologium  of  Andronicus  Cyrrhestes  or  the 
«Temple  of  the  Winds,"  the  choragic-  monu- 
ment of  Lysicrates,  and  the  Stoa  Poikile  or 
gallery  of  paintings.  Besides  these  wonderful 
works  of  art  Athens  contained  many  other 
places  which  must  always  be  interesting  from 
the  recollections  connected  with  them.  Such  a 
spot  was  the  renowned  Academy  where  Plato 
taught,  lying  about  six  stadia  north  of  the  city, 
and  consisting  of  a  gymnasium  surrounded  by 
walks,  groves,  and  fountains.  Such  a  place  was 
the  Lyceum,  where  Aristotle  taught,  and  which, 
through  him,  became  the  seat  of  the  Peripatetic 
School.  It  lay  on  the  bank  of  the  Ilissus,  oppo- 
site the  city,  and  was  also  used  for  gymnastic 
exercises.  Not  far  from  thence  was  the  less 
renowned  Cynosarges.  where  Antisthenes,  the 
founder  of  the  Cynic  School,  taught.  The  sects 
of  Zeno  and  Epicurus  held  their  meetings  in 
the  city.  Zeno  chose  the  well-known  Poikile, 
and  Epicurus  established  himself  in  a  garden 
within  the  walls,  for  he  loved  both  society  and 
rural  quiet.  Not  only  literarj',  but  political 
assemblies  gave  a  particular  interest  to  different 
places  in  Athens.  Here  was  the  court  of  Areo- 
pagus, where  that  illustrious  body  gave  their 
decisions ;  the  Prytaneum  or  senate-house ;  the 
Pnyx,  where  the  free  people  of  Athens  deliber- 
ated. After  23  centuries  of  war  and  devasta- 
tion, of  changes  from  civilized  to  savage  mas- 
ters, have  passed  over  this  great  city,  its  ruins 
still  excite  astonishment.  The  northern  wing 
of  the  Propylsea  is  still  tolerably  perfect,  and 
the  inner  wall,  with  its  five  gateways  leading 
into  the  Acropolis,  still  stands.  The  Parthenon 
remained  almost  entire  till  1687,  when  it  was 
much  injured  by  an  explosion  of  gunpowder 
during  the  siege  of  Athens  by  the  Venetians. 
It  is  now  a  magnificent  ruin.  Its  two  pedi- 
ments represented,  respectively,  the  contest  of 
Poseidon  and  Athena  for  Athens  and  the  birth 
of  the  goddess,  while  the  metopes  represented  a 
number  of  events  in  which  the  goddess  or  he- 
roes connected  with  Athens  took  part.  A  great 
number  of  these  sculptures  are  now  in  the  Brit- 
ish Museum.  In  the  whole  of  this  mutilated 
building  we  find  an  indescribable  expression  of 
grandeur  and  sublimity.  Near  the  Propylaea  is 
the  small  but  elegant  temple  of  Nike  Apteros 
(Wingless  Victory),  which  having  been  de- 
stroyed in  1687,  was  re-erected  in  1835  from  its 
remains.  There  are  well-preserved  remains 
to  be  seen  of  the  Erechtheum.  especially  the 
beautiful  female  figures  called  Caryatides,  sup- 
porting the  roof  of  the  southern  portico.     The 


Temple  of  the  Winds  is  still  tolerably  perfe'rt. 
Its  form  is  an  octagon :  on  each  side  it  is  cov- 
ered with  reliefs,  which  represent  one  of  the 
principal  winds.  The  choragic  monument  of 
Lysicrates  also  remains.  It  consists  of  a  ped- 
estal surrounded  by  a  colonnade,  and  is  sur- 
mounted by  a  dome  of  Corinthian  architecture. 
Outside  of  the  city  are  the  lofty  ruins  of  the 
temple  of  the  Olympian  Zeus.  Of  120  pillars 
16  remain,  but  none  of  the  statues  are  in  exist- 
ence. The  pedestals  and  inscriptions  are  scat- 
tered here  and  there,  and  partly  buried  in  the 
earth.  The  main  body  of  the  temple  of  Theseus 
has  remained  almost  entire,  and  it  now  contains 
a  collection  of  ancient  sculpture.  On  the  hill 
where  the  famous  court  of  Areopagus  held  its 
sittings  are  tO'  be  seen  steps  hewn  in  the  rock, 
places  for  the  judges  to  sit,  and  over  aga-'nst 
these  the  stations  of  the  accuser  and  the  ac- 
cused. The  hill  became  a  Turkish  burial- 
ground,  and  is  covered  with  monuments.  The 
Pnyx,  the  place  of  assembly  for  the  people,  not 
far  from  the  Areopagus,  is  very  nearly  in  its 
primitive  state.  One  may  see  the  place  from 
which  the  orators  spoke  hewn  in  the  rock,  thf; 
seats  of  the  scribes,  and  at  both  ends  the  places 
of  those  officers  whose  duty  it  was  to  preser-'e 
silence,  and  to  make  known  the  events  of  puV 
lic  deHberations.  The  niches  are  still  to  be 
seen  where  those  who  had  any  favor  to  ask  of 
the  people  deposited  their  petitions.  The  spot 
occupied  by  the  Lyceum  is  only  known  by  a 
quantity  of  fallen  stones.  The  ground  occu- 
pied by  the  gardens  of  the  Academy  is  still 
well  cultivated  and  fertile.  The  long  walls  are 
totally  destroyed,  though  the  foundations  are 
yet  to  be  found  on  the  plain.  The  Piraeus  has 
scarcely  anything  of  its  ancient  splendor,  ex- 
cept a  few  ruined  pillars  scattered  here  and 
there,  though  it  promises  to  become  a  handsome 
modern  town,  and  has  again  a  harbor  filled 
with  shipping,  engaged  in  carrying  on  a  con- 
siderable trade.  The  most  thorough  investiga- 
tion of  the  places  among  the  ruins  of  Athens 
worthy  of  attention  is  contained  in  Leake's 
^Topography  of  Athens,  with  Some  Remarks 
on  its  Antiquities^  (1821,  with  an  atlas  in 
folio;  2d  ed.  1841).  Other  valuable  works  on 
the  same  subject  are  such  as  Stuart  and  Rev- 
ett's  ^Antiquities  of  Athens^  (1762-1816)  ; 
Dodwell's  *Tour  Through  Greece^  ;  Words- 
worth's ^Athens  and  Attica-*  ;  Curtius'  ^Attische 
Studien^  ;  Dyer's  "^Ancient  Athens*  ;  and  Wach- 
smuth's  "^Die  Stadt  Athen  in  Alterthum.*  An- 
cient Athens  is  believed  to  have  had  a  popula- 
tion of  not  more  than  200,000. 

Athens  was  at  no  time  so  splendid  as  under 
the  Antonines,  when  the  magnificent  works  of 
from  eight  to  ten  centuries  stood  in  view,  and 
the  edifices  of  Pericles  were  in  equal  preserva- 
tion with  the  new  buildings.  Plutarch  himself 
wonders  how  the  ancient  structures  could  re- 
tain such  a  perpetual  freshness.  Pausanias.  wha 
traveled  in  Greece  at  this  time,  that  is,  in  the 
2d  century  after  Christ,  has  left  a  valuable  ac- 
count of  the  state  of  Athens  as  he  saw  it. 
Many  of  the  edifices  of  later  times  were  due  to 
foreign  potentates,  rulers  of  Pergamus.  of 
Egypt,  of  Rome.  But  after  a  time  the  whole- 
sale robberies  of  collectors,  the  removal  of 
great  quantities  of  the  works  of  art,  first  to^ 
Rome  and  then  to  Constantinople,  Christian 
zeal,   and  the  attacks   of  barbarians,   made   sad 


PARTHENON  AND  ACROPOLIS. 


I.  Acropolis  from  the  Hill  of  the  Museum.  2.  Parthenon   (west  front)  restored. 


ATHENS  —  ATHERTON 


inroads  among  the  monuments.  When  Justin- 
ian closed  the  schools  of  the  philosophers  in 
529,  Athens  soon  ceased  to  be  a  centre  of  intel- 
lectual activity.  The  Parthenon  was  turned 
into  a  church  of  the  Virgin  Mary,  and  Saint 
George  stepped  into  the  place  of  Theseus.  In 
1456  Athens  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  Turks, 
under  whom  the  Parthenon  became  a  mosque. 
When  it  was  selected  as  the  capital  of  the 
modern  kingdom  in  1833,  it  had  only  a  scanty 
population  inhabiting  a  scene  of  ruins. 

Modern  Athens  lies  mostly  northward  and 
eastward  from  the  Acropolis,  and  consists  of 
well-built  streets,  the  most  important  being 
Piratus,  Athens,  Stadion,  and  University. 
Among  the  principal  buildings  are  the  royal 
palace,  the  university,  the  academy  of  science 
and  art,  the  polytechnic,  the  national  museum, 
the  observatory,  the  chamber  of  deputies,  ex- 
hibition buildings,  new  theatre,  and  new  library. 
The  palace  (1838-43)  is  a  conspicuous  but  un- 
attractive building  of  limestone  with  marble 
portico.  The  National  University,  founded  in 
1837,  is  a  handsome  structure,  with  a  large 
number  of  teachers  and  an  attendance  of  over 
2,000  students.  The  academy  is  a  beautiful 
building  faced  with  Pentelic  marble ;  the  new 
National  Library  is  also  a  fine  building,  contain- 
ing over  200,000  volumes,  and  so  is  the  Poly- 
technic School,  part  of  which  is  occupied  as  a 
museum,  and  contains  the  Schliemann  and  other 
collections.  Saint  Nicodemus,  the  largest  and 
finest  of  the  Byzantine  churches  (62  feet  long 
by  45  wide),  dates  from  the  nth  century. 
Athens  is  well  equipped  with  educational  insti- 
tutions, possessing  besides  the  National  Uni- 
versity and  Polytechnic  School,  a  number  of 
high  schools,  a  gymnasium,  a  school  for  the 
higher  education  of  girls  and  female  teachers, 
orphanages  for  boys  and  girls,  and  four  foreign 
archaeological  schools  or  institutes,  the  French, 
German,  American,  and  British.  The  city  is 
governed  by  a  mayor  elected  every  four  years, 
with  a  council  of  18  members.  There  is  a  mu- 
nicipal fire  department  and  the  city  controls  the 
gas,  electric  light  and  waterworks,  but  the 
water  supply  is  so  inefficient  that  the  inhabi- 
tants are  obliged  to  have  recourse  to  water-car- 
riers. Street  cars  cross  the  city  in  all  direc- 
tions and  it  is  an  important  railroad  centre. 
The  bathing  resort  of  Phaleron.  adjoining  the 
Fort  of  Pirseus,  is  connected  with  Athens  by 
a  suburban  railroad.  The  city  has  very  little 
manufacturing,  although  the  financial  centre  of 
the  kingdom,  and  its  trade  is  concerned  chiefly 
with  its  own  requirements.  Pop.  (1896) 
1 1 1 ,486. 

Ath'ens,  Ohio,  a  town  and  county-seat 
of  Athens  County,  situated  on  the  Baltimore  & 
O.  S.  W.,  the  Toledo  &  O.  C,  the  Hocking  V. 
&  T.,  and  the  Kanawha  &  :\I.  R.R.'s.  Athens 
was  settled  in  1797,  and  in  181 1  was  incorp- 
orated. The  government  is  by  a  mayor,  elected 
every  two  years,  and  a  village  council.  The 
town  owns  and  operates  the  waterworks.  It  is 
the  seat  of  Ohio  State  University  fq.v.)  and  of 
the  Southeastern  Ohio  Insane  Asylum,  and 
manufactures  lumber  and  brick.  Pop.  (1900) 
3,066. 

Ath'ens,  Tenn.,  a  town  and  county-seat  of 
McMinn  County,  on  the  Southern  R.R.  half 
way  between  Knoxville  and  Chattanooga,  56 
miles  to  either  city.     The  town   was   incorpor- 


ated in  1868.  It  has  woolen  mills,  spinning 
mills,  lumber  factories  and  two  newspapers.  It 
is  the  seat  of  Grant  Memorial  University  (q.v.). 
Pop.  (1904)  2,600.  w.  T.  Lane, 

Editor   *^ Athens  Post.^ 

Ath'ens,  Texas,  city  and  county-seat  of 
Henderson  County;  at  the  junction  of  the 
Saint  Louis  &  S.  and  the  Texas  &  N.  O.  R.R.'s., 
75  miles  from  Dallas.  It  is  an  important  manu- 
facturing town  and  has  pressed  brick,  fire  brick 
and  tile  works,  cotton  oil  mills,  potteries,  and 
other  industries.  There  are  excellent  public 
schools,  four  churches,  and  two  national  banks. 
Athens  was  first  settled  in  1850  and  was  incor- 
porated as  a  city  in  1901.    Pop.  (1900)  3,200. 

Ath'ens  of  America,  a  name  frequently  ap- 
plied to  Boston,  Mass.,  on  account  of  her  in- 
tellectual and  literary  pre-eminence. 

Ath'ens  of  the  North,  a  name  given  to 
Edinburgh,  Scotland,  on  account  of  the  pictur- 
esqueness  of  the  site  and  beauty  of  architecture, 
as  well  as  intellectual  distinction.  Copenhagen 
also  is  often  so  called. 

Ath'ens  of  the  West,  a  name  given  to 
Cordova,  Spain,  the  centre  of  Arab  learning 
and  culture  in  the  Middle  Ages. 

Ath'ens,  American  School  at,  an  institu- 
tion for  classical  study,  founded  in  Athens, 
Greece,  in  1882.  It  is  affiliated  with  the  Arch- 
aeological Institute  of  America,  and  is  man- 
aged by  a  committee  representing  the  colleges  in 
the  United  States  which  contribute  to  its  sup- 
port. The  building  was  erected  by  means  of 
private  subscriptions,  on  grounds  donated  by 
the  Greek  government,  and  the  institution  has 
an  endowment  of  $50,000. 

Ath'erine,  a  small  fish,  from  five  to  six 
inches   long,  called  also  the  sandsmelt. 

Atheroma,  a  term  sometimes  applied  to 
the  process  of  arteriosclerosis  as  a  whole,  but 
best  restricted  to  that  type  of  chronic  degenera- 
tion of  the  blood  vessels  associated  with  soften- 
ing of  the  tissues  and  their  infiltration  with 
the  necrotic  products,  fat  cholesterin,  etc.  See 
Arteries,  Dise.\ses  of. 

Atherton,  Charles  Gordon,  American  pol- 
itician:  b.  Amherst,  N.  H.,  1804;  d.  iNIanchester, 
N.  H.,  15  Nov.  1853.  He  was  graduated  from 
Harvard  in  1822,  was  a  member  of  the  New 
Hampshire  legislature  for  five  years  and  speaker 
of  the  lower  house  for  four,  and  in  1837-43  was 
a  Democratic  representative  from  New  Hamp- 
shire in  Congress.  In  1843-9  and  1852-3  he 
was  a  member  of  the  Senate.  On  11  Dec.  1838 
he  introduced  in  the  house  the  so-called  "Ather- 
ton gag"  resolution,  which  provided  that  all 
bills  or  petitions  on  the  subject  of  slavery 
should  be  "laid  on  the  table  without  being  de- 
bated, printed,  or  referred."  The  resolution 
was  passed  by  a  vote  of  126  to  yj,,  and  remained 
in  effect  until  1844.  It  was  resolutely  opposed 
l^y  J-  Q-  Adams,  who  advocated  the  "right  of 
petition.''  Adams  was  ultimately  victorious,  and 
on  3  Dec.  1844  the  21st  rule  of  the  House,  pro- 
viding that  no  paper  praying  the  abolition  of 
slavery  or  the  slave  trade  should  be  in  any  wise 
entertained,  was  abolished  by  a  vote  of  108  tc^ 
80.     See  G.^G-RULEs. 

Atherton,  George  William,  American  edu- 
cator: b.  Boxford,  Mass.,  20  June  1837;  d.  Belle- 
fonte,   Pa.,  24  July   igo6.     He  worked  his  way 


ATHERTON  —  ATHLETICS 


through  Phillips  Kxeter  Academy  and  Yale  Col- 
lege ;  was  professor  of  political  economy  and 
constitutional  law  in  Rutgers  College,  N.  J.,  in 
1869-82;  was  admitted  to  the  bar  of  New  Jersey 
in  1878;  and  from  1882-1906  was  president  of 
the  Pennsylvania  State  College. 

Ath'erton,  Gertrude  Franklin  (Horn), 
American  novelist :  b.  San  Francisco  in  1857. 
Since  the  death  of  her  husband  she  has  chiefly 
pursued  a  literary  career.  She  has  written 
'The  Doomswoman*  (1892):  'Before  the 
Gringo  Came*  (1894)  ;  <A  Whirl  Asunder' 
(1895);  'Patience  Sparhawk  and  Her  Times' 
(1897)  ;  'American  Wives  and  English  Hus- 
bands' (1898):  'The  Californians'  (1898);  'A 
Daughter  of  the  Vine'  (1899)  ;  'The  Valiant 
Runaways'  (1899);  ^Senator  Worth'  (1900); 
'The  Aristocrats'  (1901)  ;  'The  Conqueror' 
(1902);  'The  Splendid  Idle  Forties'  (1902).  a 
revision  of  'Before  the  Gringo  Came';  'The 
Bell  in  the  Fog'    (1905). 

Ath'erton,  a  manufacturing  town  of  Eng- 
land, Lancashire,  13  miles  northwest  of  Manches- 
ter, containing  cotton-factories,  collieries,  iron- 
works.    Pop.   (1900)    16,200. 

Ath'erton  Res'olu'tions.     See  Gag  Rules. 

Athetosis,  a  peculiar  movement,  usually 
cf  the  hands  and  fingers,  occurring  after  some 
destructive  process  in  the  brain.  It  is  seen  in 
the  young  who  have  suffered  severe  injuries  at 
birth  and  sometimes  following  an  apoplectic 
stroke. 

Ath'letes  (Greek,  athlctai),  combatants  who 
took  part  in  the  public  games  of  Greece;  also 
young  men  who  went  through  the  gymnastic 
exercises  to  harden  themselves  and  to  become 
fit  to  bear  arms.  In  a  narrower  sense  athletes 
were  those  who  made  the  athletic  or  gymnastic 
exercises  their  principal  business,  particularly 
wrestlers  and  boxers.  Their  business  was  to 
contend  at  the  public  festivals,  and  they  regu- 
lated their  habits  of  life  for  this  end.  Not  onh^ 
the  applause  of  the  people,  but  also  crowns  and 
statues,  were  conferred  upon  the  victor.  He 
was  led  in  triumph ;  his  name  was  written  in 
the  public  records ;  and  poets  sang  his  praise. 
He  also  received  peculiar  privileges,  had  a  year- 
ly pension,  and  the  foremost  seat  at  the  sacred 
games. 

Athlet'ics,  or  Athletism,  is  the  exhibition 
of  man's  physical  prowess  in  games  of  skill 
and  endurance,  and  though  in  the  passing  cen- 
turies it  has  undergone  many  phases,  it  is  prac- 
tically the  same  to-day  as  when  the  Olympian 
games,  which  were  resumed  at  the  Pan-Ameri- 
can Exhibition  at  Buffalo  in  igoi,  were  originally 
given  2,500  years  ago,  and  Greece  was  in 
her  prime.  Then  not  only  Greek  met  Greek, 
but  the  influence  of  the  Olympian,  Pythean,  Ne- 
mean  and  Isthmian  games  was  felt  to  the  far- 
thest extremities  of  Asia.  After  the  fall  of 
Rome,  the  mantle  of  physical  prowess  which 
that  nation  had  inherited  from  the  Greeks,  fell 
upon  the  shoulders  of  the  sturdy  Norseman, 
whose  chief  glory  was  in  his  individual  capacity 
to  bear  unflinchingly  the  stress  and  strain  of  con- 
tests and  the  elements.  They  bred  into  the  bone, 
the  hardihood,  and  love  of  personal  achievement 
which  in  turn  carried  the  current  through  the 
Dark  Ages,  even  into  those  of  the  exaggerated 
chivairy,    which   C'ervantes  killed    with   ridicule 


in  'Don  Quixote.^  The  spirit  of  the  Greek, 
Roman,  and  Norseman  planted  its  seeds  in  the 
hardy  Anglo-Saxons,  who  in  turn  transplanted 
them  into  Virginian  and  New  England  soils  on 
the  northern  continent  of  America,  where  its  in- 
fluence has  been  felt,  even  to  the  entire  disap- 
pearance of  the  softer  Latin  races'  supremacy. 
It  is  not  surprising,  therefore,  that,  with  the  dis- 
appearance of  the  earlier  modes  of  life  of  the 
first  settlers,  calling  for  all  the  physical  strain 
that  the  human  frame  was  capable  of,  and  the 
return  of  the  comparative  leisure  which  in  early 
youth  now  surrounds  the  American  universities 
and  colleges,  there  has  re-appeared  a  yearning 
after  opportunities  to  supply,  artificially,  if  so  it 
must  be,  the  stress  and  contest,  physical  effort, 
and  the  proof  of  supremacy  of  the  earlier  ages, 
when  such  conditions  were  compulsory.  It  was 
in  the  blood,  and  it  came  out,  much  to  the  na- 
tion's benefit.  First  in  the  form  of  isolated  col- 
lege and  club  contests,  and  subsequently  in  such 
a  volume  as  to  need  a  separation  of  contests  into 
classes  and  the  creation  of  an  especial  federa- 
tion of  the  separate  units,  to  regulate  and  control 
it.  In  the  beginning,  athletics  developed  in  this 
or  that  college,  or  university,  or  club,  acting 
separately  and  indiscriminately  in  its  scope.  Ul- 
timately the  lines  of  natural  cleavage  forced 
athletics  into  its  two  great  branches :  one  out- 
doors, commonly  known  as  track-events ;  the 
other,  those  carried  on  in  a  gymnasium.  The 
out-door  events  are  those  which  are  now  usually 
meant  when  the  term  athletics  is  used.  The  de- 
velopment of  these  came  tentatively.  First  one 
college,  or  university,  or  club,  then  another,  or- 
ganized outdoor  contests,  until  at  length  the  net 
was  spread  over  all  the  rising  generation,  and 
the  Amateur  Athletic  Union  was  formed,  whose 
fundamental  rule  is  that  "no  person  shall  be 
eligible  to  compete  in  any  athletic  meeting,  game 
or  entertainment  given  or  sanctioned  by  this 
Union  who  has  (i)  received  or  competed  for 
compensation  or  reward,  in  any  form,  for  the 
display,  exercise  or  example  of  his  skill  in  or 
knowledge  of  any  athletic  exercise,  or  for  ren- 
dering personal  service  of  any  kind  to  any  ath- 
letic organization,  or  for  becoming  or  continuing 
a  member  of  an}'  athletic  organization;  or  (2) 
has  entered  any  competition  under  a  name  other 
than  his  own,  or  from  a  club  of  which  he  was 
not  at  that  time  a  member  in  good  standing; 
or  (3)  has  knowingly  entered  any  competition 
open  to  any  professional  or  professionals,  or  has 
knowingly  competed  with  any  professional  for 
anj'  prize  or  token ;  or  (4)  has  issued  or  allowed 
to  be  issued  in  his  behalf  any  challenge  to 
compete  against  any  professional,  or  for  money; 
or  (5)  has  pawned,  bartered  or  sold  any  prize 
won  in  athletic  competition ;  or  (6)  is  not  a 
registered  athlete.  Nor  shall  any  person  resid- 
ing within  the  territory  of  any  active  member 
of  this  Union  be.  eligible  to  compete  for  or  tc« 
enter  any  competition  as  a  member  of  any  club 
in  the  territory  of  any  other  active  member  of 
this  Union,  unless  he  shall  have  been  elected  to 
membership  in  such  club  prior  to  i  April  1891 ; 
provided,  however,  that  this  restriction  as  to 
residence  shall  not  apply  to  undergraduates  con- 
nected with  any  allied  college  athletic  organiza- 
tion. 

"No  one  shall  be  eligible  to  compete  in  any 
athletic  meeting,  games  or  entertainment  given 
or  sanctioned  by  this  Union,  unless  he  shall  be 


ATHLONE ;    ATHOL 


a  duly  registered  athlete,  a  member  of  the  or- 
ganization from  which  he  enters,  and  shall  not 
have  competed  from  any  club  in  this  Union  dur- 
ing a  period  of  three  months  next  preceding 
such  entry ;  nor  shall  any  member  of  any  club 
in  this  Union,  or  any  club  in  any  district  in  this 
Union  be  allowed  to  compete  in  case  he  has  with- 
in one  year  competed  as  a  member  of  any  other 
club  then  in  this  Union,  except  with  the  consent 
of  such  other  club,  which  consent  shall  be  filed 
with  the  registration  committee  of  his  district 
prior  to  such  competition  unless  such  other  club 
shall  have  disbanded  or  practically  ceased  to 
exist ;  provided  that  the  requirements  of  this 
section  shall  not  apply  to  any  athletic  meeting, 
games,  or  entertainment,  the  entries  for  which 
are  confined  to  the  club  or  organization  giving 
such  meeting   or  entertainment. 

*'No  athlete  who  has  been  released  from  a 
club  which  is  a  member  of  this  Union,  and  who 
competes  for  another  club  directly  thereafter, 
shall  be  allowed  to  compete  again  for  the  club 
he  was  released  from  for  one  year  from  the 
date  of  his  release,  except  that  the  club  has 
disbanded  or  ceased  to  exist. 

"No  person  shall  be  eligible  to  compete  for 
or  enter  any  competition  as  a  member  of  any 
club  in  the  territory  of  any  active  member  of 
this  Union,  unless  he  shall  have  resided  within 
the  territory  of  said  active  member  at  least  four 
months  previous  to  entering  for  competition ; 
nor  shall  any  person  be  eligible  to  enter  or 
compete  in  anj'  district  championship  meeting 
unless  he  shall  have  been  a  bona-fide  resident 
of  such  district  for  at  least  six  months  prior 
to  the  holding  of  such  championship  meeting ; 
and  no  person  shall  be  eligible  to  compete  in  a 
championship  meeting  of  more  than  one  dis- 
trict in  one  year.  The  restrictions  contained  m 
this  section  shall  not  afifect  the  eligibility  of  an 
undergraduate  connected  with  any  allied  college 
athletic  organization  who  shall  have  been  elect- 
ed to  membership  in  any  club  of  this  Union  prior 
to  20  Nov.  1899,  to  represent  such  club  as 
long  as  he  remains  an  undergraduate;  nor  shall 
these  restrictions  apply  to  an  undergraduate  com- 
peting for  any  college  belonging  to  an  allied 
body.* 

The  Amateur  Athletic  Union  (A.A.U.)  of  the 
United  States  has  jurisdiction  over  the  following 
out-door  sports  among  amateurs :  Baseball,  bi- 
cycling, boating,  bowling,  cross-country  running, 
football,  hurdle-racing,  jumping,  lacrosse,  lawn- 
tennis,  pole-vaulting,  putting  the  weight,  quoits, 
racquets,  running,  skating,  sculling,  swimming, 
throwing  the  hammer,  throwing  weights,  tug  of 
war,  and  walking.  The  Union  consists  of  the 
Metropolitan  Assoc,  comprising  the  States  of 
New  York  and  New  Jersey,  north  of  Trenton ; 
the  N'ctv  England  Assoc,  comprising  Maine, 
New  Hampshire,  Vermont,  Massachusetts, 
Rhode  Island,  and  Connecticut;  the  Atlantic 
Assoc,  comprising  New  Jersey,  south  of  and 
including  Trenton,  Delaware,  Maryland,  Penn- 
sylvania, West  Virginia,  District  of  Columbia, 
Virginia,  North  Carolina,  South  Carolina,  Flor- 
ida, and  Georgia;  the  Central  Assoc,  comprising 
Ohio,  Illinois,  Indiana,  Michigan,  Wisconsin, 
Iowa,  Minnesota ;  the  Pacific  Assoc,  compris- 
ing California.  Arizona,  Nevada,  Utah,  Idaho, 
Oregon,  and  Washington  ;  the  Southern  Assoc, 
comprising  Alabama,  Louisiana.  Florida,  Mis- 
sissippi,   Texas,    Georgia,    and    Tennessee;    the 


JJ'estern  Assoc,  comprising  Missouri,  Wyom- 
ing, Arkansas,  Oklahoma,  South  Dakota,  North 
Dakota,  Indian  Territory,  Kansas,  Kentucky, 
New  Mexico,  and  Colorado;  and  the  Pacific 
N^ortlizvest  Assoc,  comprising  Idaho.  Mon- 
tana, Oregon,  Washington,  and  Alaska.  All 
its  meetings  are  under  the  direction  of  "a 
games  committee,"  one  referee,  two  or  more  in- 
spectors, three  judges  at  finish,  three  or  more 
timekeepers,  a  starter,  a  clerk  of  the  course,  a 
scorer,  and  a  marshal ;  besides  which  all  the  con- 
ditions and  restrictions  for  various  events:  the 
number  of  throws  allowed,  the  size  of  the  area 
of  preliminary  effort,  as  in  shot-putting,  etc., 
are  subject  to  definitions  from  time  to  time 
prornulgated,  and  imposed,  by  virtue  of  the  au- 
thority of  the  A.  A.   U.   in  meeting  assembled. 

The  athletic  events  at  outdoor  field  meetings 
are  for  100,  220,  440,  and  880  yards  run ;  i  and  5 
mile  run  ;  i  and  3  mile  walk  ;  2  mile  bicycle  ride  ; 
pole  vault  for  height ;  running  high  and  broad 
jumps:  throwing  16-pound  hammer;  throwing 
56-pound  weight,  for  distance;  putting  16-pound 
shot;  120  yards  hurdle-race,  10  flights  3  feet  6 
inches  high  ;  220  yards  hurdle-race,  10  flights  2 
feet  6  inches  high  ;  and  at  indoor  meetings,  for 
runs  of  75,  150,  300,  600,  and  1,000  yards;  2 
mile  run ;  three  quarter  mile  and  4  mile  walk ; 
standing,  broad,  and  high  jumps;  three  stand- 
ing broad  jumps;  running  hop.  step,  and  jump; 
pole  vault  for  distance ;  throwing  56-pound 
weight  for  height ;  putting  24-pound  shot ;  200 
yards  hurdle-race,  10  flights  3  feet  6  inches 
high ;  300  yards  hurdle-race,  10  flights  2  feet  6 
inches  high  ;  and  tug  of  war,  4  men,  unlimited 
\\eight.  The  associations  award  in  each  year 
three  prizes  for  all-round  excellence  to  the  three 
athletes  making  the  highest  three  aggregate 
scores,  and  two  prizes  for  individual  excellence. 
The  Intercollegiate  Association  of  Amateur  Ath- 
letes of  America  is  the  governing  body  of  inter- 
college  athletics.  Its  championships  must  be 
won  at  the  annual  meeting.  See  also  Gym- 
XASTics ;    Educational  Athletics. 

Bibliography. —  Stonehange,  'Rural  Sports,^ 
illustrated:  Cassell,  'Sports  and  Pastimes,^ 
with  700  illustrations;  'Athletics'  (by  various 
authors)  in  the  'Encyclopedia  of  Sport'  ;  James 
Sullivan,   "Athletic  Almanacks'    (issued  yearly). 

Athlone,  ath-lon',  a  town  of  Ireland,  on 
the  Shannon,  about  67  miles  west  b}'  north  of 
Dublin.  It  is  divided  by  the  river  into  two  nearly 
equal  parts,  which  communicate  by  a  handsome 
stone  bridge  of  five  arches.  It  is  one  of  the 
chief  depots  for  troops  and  military  stores  ;  and 
the  barracks,  occupying  a  height  above  the  river, 
can  accommodate  1,500  men,  and  have  attached 
an  ordnance  yard,  magazines,  and  armory  pro- 
vided with  15,000  stand  of  arms.  By  means  of 
a  canal  the  Shannon  has  been  rendered  navigable 
for  71  miles  above  the  town,  which,  being  also 
terminus  of  four  important  railways,  carries  on  a 
brisk  trade.  The  chief  industrial  establishment 
is  an  extensive  woolen  factory,  and  there  are 
also  large  saw-mills.     Pop.  (1891)  6,742. 

Ath'ol,  ^lass.,  a  town  in  Worcester 
County,  on  Miller's  River,  and  the  Boston  & 
A.,  and  Fitchburg  R.R.'s ;  26  miles  northwest  of 
Worcester.  It  contains  several  villages,  has 
electric  railways  connecting  with  the  suburbs, 
and  is  principally  engaged  in  the  manufacture 
of  cotton  warps,  shoes,  sewing-silk,  fine  me- 
chanical   tools     matches,    organ-cases,    pocket- 


ATHOL  —  ATKINSON 


books,  billiard-tables,  and  furniture.  The  town 
has  two  national  banks,  public  library,  high 
school,  several  weekly  and  monthly  periodicals, 
and  a  property  valuation  exceeding  $4,000,000. 
Pop.  (1900)  7,061. 

Athol,  ath'61,  or  Athole,  a  mountainous 
and  romantic  district,  situated  in  the  north  of 
Perthshire,  Scotland.  It  gives  the  title  of  duke 
to  a  branch  of  the  house  of  Murray,  and  the 
duke  owns  the  greater  part  of  the  district. 

Athor,  a'thor,  Hathor,  or  Hether,  an  Egyp- 
tian goddess,  identified  with  Aphrodite  (Venus). 
Her  symbol  was  the  cow  bearing  between  its 
horns  the  solar  disk  and  hawk  feather  plumes. 
Her  chief  temple  was  at  Denderah.  From  her 
the  third  month  of  the  Egyptian  year  derived 
its  name. 

Athos,  now  Hagion  Oros  or  Monte  Sanio 
(Holy  Mountain),  a  high  mountain  in  European 
Turkey,  forming  the  extremity  of  a  long  chain  of 
mountains  which  runs  through  a  peninsula  jut- 
ting into  the  Archipelago.  The  peninsula  is 
about  30  miles  long  and  5  miles  broad.  It  is 
covered  with  forests  of  various  kinds  of  trees, 
and  with  vineyards  and  plantations  of  olive  and 
other  fruit-trees.  The  surface  is  very  irregular, 
and  the  coast  displays  numerous  creeks  and  in- 
lets of  the  sea.  In  ancient  history  the  peninsula 
is  mentioned  chiefly  on  account  of  the  ship- 
wreck which  here  befell  the  Persian  fleet  under 
Mardonius  in  493  B.C.,  and  on  account  of  the 
canal  which,  in  order  to  avoid  a  similar  calam- 
ity, Xerxes  caused  to  be  cut  through  the  isth- 
mus that  joins  the  peninsula  to  the  mainland. 
The  whole  peninsula,  as  well  as  the  mountain, 
which  is  about  6,700  feet  above  the  level  of  the 
sea,  receives  the  name  of  Athos.  It  contains 
some  20  monasteries,  and  a  multitude  of  her- 
mitages, inhabited  by  about  6,000  monks  and  her- 
mits, of  the  Order  of  St.  Basil.  They  are  ex- 
tremely industrious :  they  diligently  cultivate  the 
soil,  grow  vines  and  olives,  vegetables,  etc.,  and 
actively  engage  in  fishing,  and  they  also  carve 
statues  of  the  saints,  Agni  Dei.  crucifixes,  rosa- 
ries, etc.,  which  they  send  to  the  small  town  of 
Karyes,  on  the  mountain,  where  weekly  markets 
are  held,  and  to  the  rest  of  Europe,  especially  to 
Russia.  They  also  collect  alms  to  pay  their 
heavy  yearly  tax  to  the  Porte.  There  is  an 
academy  in  which  the  younger  monks  receive  in- 
struction in  various  subjects.  The  libraries  of 
the  monasteries  are  rich  in  literary  treasures, 
particularly  in  manuscripts,  partly  procured  from 
Constantinople  before  its  conquest  by  the  Turks, 
partly  presented  to  them  from  the  same  place, 
and  partly  written  by  the  laborious  monks. 
Many  books  have  been  brought  thence  to  the 
great  collections  at  Paris,  Vienna,  etc.,  and  the 
rest  are  but  little  used  among  the  monks  them- 
selves. Their  monasteries  and  churches  are  the 
only  ones  in  the  Ottoman  empire  w'hich  have 
bells.  Every  nation  belonging  to  the  Greek 
Church  has  here  one  or  more  monasteries  of 
its  own,  annually  visited  by  pilgrims  from  Rus- 
sia, Servia,  Bulgaria,  etc.,  as  well  as  from  Greece, 
Asia  Minor,  and  Constantinople.  The  privileges 
which  the  members  of  the  various  establish- 
ments enjoy  they  owe  to  Murad  II.,  who,  on 
account  of  their  voluntary  submission,  even  be- 
fore the  capture  of  Constantinople,  granted  them 
his  protection.  Hermits  were  established  on 
Athos  in  the  middle  of  the  9th  century,  and  the 


first  monastery,  that  of  St.  Lavra,  w^as  founded 
by  the  monk  Athanasius  in  968. 

Athos,  a'tds',  a  character  who  figures  in 
Dumas'  'Musketeer^  novels.  He  is  one  of  the 
three  guardsmen  associated  with  d'Artagan. 

Athy,  a-thi',  a  market-town  in  Ireland,  ^7 
miles  southwest  of  Dublin,  with  Protestant  and 
Roman  Catholic  churches,  extensive  county  jail,, 
police  barracks,  etc.  It  has  a  large  trade  in 
corn,  by  canal  and  river,  and  is  an  important 
railway-station. 

Atitlan,  a'te-tlan',  a  lake,  mountain  and 
town  of  Central  America,  in  Guatemala.  The 
lake  is  about  24  miles  long  and  10  broad ;  the 
mountain  an  active  volcano,  12,160  feet  high. 
The  town,  known  also  as  Santiago  de  Atitlan,. 
is  located  on  the  side  of  the  mountain,  and  is 
chiefly  known  for  its  medicinal  springs.  Pop. 
(1903)  about  10,000. 

At'ka  Mackerel.      See  Greenling. 

At'kinsoHj  Edward,  American  economist: 
b.  Brookline,  Mass.,  10  Feb.  1827;  d.  Boston, 
II  Dec.  1905.  He  invented  a  cooking-stove 
called  the  << Aladdin  Oven.»  and  was  president 
of  the  Boston  ^Manufacturers"  Mutual  Fire  In- 
surance Co.  since  1878.  His  wide  reputation  was 
due  chiefly  to  the  fact  that  for  40  years  he  was 
a  prolific  writer  of  pamphlets  on  economic,  com- 
mercial, and  political  subjects,  including  banking, 
competition,  railroads,  fire-prevention,  economic 
legislation,  industrial  education,  the  money  and 
tariff  questions,  and  colonial  expansion.  He 
vigorously  opposed  the  war  in  the  Philippines, 
and  during  1899-1900  published  the  ^Anti-Impe- 
rialist' in  support  of  his  views.  The  following  is 
a  selected  list  of  his  more  important  publications : 
^  Cheap  Cotton  by  Free  Labor'  (1861)  ;  <  Collec- 
tion of  Revenue'  (1866)  ;  ^Reform  of  the  Legal- 
Tender  Act'  (1874)  ;  *The  Fire-Engineer,  the 
Architect,  and  the  Underwriter'  (1880)  ;  'Dis- 
tribution of  Products'  (1885)  ;  ^The  Margin  of 
Profit'  (1887)  ;  ^Taxation  and  Work'  :  < Science 
of  Nutrition'  ;  ^Prevention  of  Loss  b}-  Fire.' 

At'kinson,  George  Francis,  American 
botanist:  b.  Raisinville,  Mich.,  26  Jan.  1854. 
He  was  educated  at  Olivet  College,  Michigan, 
and  Cornell  University,  and  taught  general  zo- 
ology, biology,  and  entomology  in  the  universi- 
ties of  North  Carolina,  South  Carolina,  and  the 
Alabama  Agricultural  and  Mechanical  College. 
He  was  assistant  and  professor  of  cryptogamic 
botany  at  Cornell,  1892-6,  and  professor  of  bot- 
any there  since  1896.  He  has  written:  ^Biology 
of  Ferns'  ;  'Stories  of  Plant  Life'  ;  Studies  of 
American  Fungi.' 

At'kinson,  John,  American  clergj-man:  b. 
Deerfield,  N.  J.,  6  Sept.  1835 ;  d.  Haverstraw, 
N.  Y..  8  Dec.  1897.  He  entered  the  Methodist 
niinistrj--  in  1853,  and  held  pastorates  in  Newark, 
Jersey  City,  Chicago,  Bay  City,  Adrian,  and 
Haverstraw.  He  was  the  author  of  the  hymn 
'Shall  We  Meet  Beyond  the  River.'  He  wrote: 
'The  Living  Way'  (1856)  ;  'Memorials  of 
Methodism  in  New  Jersey'  (2d  ed.  i860)  ; 
'The  Garden  of  Sorrows'  (1868)  ;  'Centennial 
History  of  American  Methodism'    (1884). 

At'kinson,  John  Christopher,  noted  Eng- 
lish clergyman  and  antiquary:  b.  Eddhangor, 
England,  1814;  d.  1900.  He  was  for  half  a  cen- 
tury vicar  of  the  parish  of  Danby  in  the  North 
Riding  of  Yorkshire,  which  he  has  described  ia 


ATKINSON  ;    ATLANTA 


his  delightful  'Forty  Years  in  a  Moorland  Par- 
ish^ (1891).  He  wrote  much  on  natural  history, 
and  his  ^  Walks,  Talks,  Travels  and  Exploits  of 
Two  School-Boys*  (1859)  ;  *Play  Hours  and 
Half  Holidays*  (1880);  ^  British  Birds'  Eggs 
and  Xests*  (1861),  and  <The  Last  of  the  Giant 
Killers*    (1891),  have  been  widely  read. 

At'kinson,  Thomas,  American  bishop:  b. 
Mansfield,  Va.,  6  Aug.  1807;  d.  Wilmington, 
N.  C,  4  Jan.  1881.  He  was  graduated  from 
Hampden-Sidney  College,  Virginia,  in  1825,  and 
practised  law  for  nine  years.  Ordained  priest  in 
the  Episcopal  Church  in  1837,  he  served  as  rec- 
tor in  Norfolk  and  Lynchburg,  Va.,  and  Balti- 
more, Md.,  whence  he  was  elected  third  bishop 
of  North  Carolina,  26  May  1853.  He  was  an 
able  administrator  and  prominent  in  the  coun- 
cils of  his  Church.  He  published  various  ser- 
mons and  Episcopal  charges. 

Atlanta,  the  capital  of  Georgia  and  the 
countj'-seat  of  Fulton  County,  is  situated  at  the 
foot  of  the  Appalachian  chain  of  mountains  on 
the  ridge  dividing  the  watershed  of  the  Atlantic 
Ocean  from  that  of  the  Gulf  of  Mexico.  The  al- 
titude of  1,050  feet  at  the  lowest  point  and  1,100 
feet  at  the  highest,  makes  the  climate  cooler  than 
the  latitude,  23°  44'  58-8",  would  indicate,  and 
the  air  has  a  bracing  effect  conducive  to  mental 
and  physical  vigor.  This  commanding  site  was 
determined  by  the  building  of  railroads  in  the 
first  half  of  the  19th  century.  The  village  of 
Marthasville  was  first  a  terminus  of  the  line 
from  Savannah  and  INIacon.  As  one  road  after 
another  centred  there,  the  place  grew  rapidly; 
its  destiny  as  a  business  centre  was  foreseen,  and 
the  name  changed  to  Atlanta.  Here  eastern  and 
western  traffic  meet.  Atlanta  was  an  important 
strategic  point  in  the  Civil  War.  In  1861  it  be- 
came a  depot  of  Confederate  military  supplies, 
and  this  made  it  an  objective  point  in  Gen 
Sherman's  march  to  the  sea.  After  a  siege  of 
several  weeks  he  occupied  the  city  (see  Jones- 
BORO,  Battle  of,  and  Fall  of  Atlanta),  and  by 
his  order  it  was  bvirned  17  Nov.  1864.  In  later 
years  Gen.  Sherman  described  the  strategic  posi- 
tion of  Atlanta  by  comparing  it  to  the  wrist  of 
a  hand  whose  fingers  reached  the  five  principal 
ports  of  the  gulf  and  south  Atlantic  coast. 
During  the  Spanish  war  the  city  was  headquar- 
ters for  the  Department  of  the  Gulf.  Twice  the 
test  of  war  has  approved  the  site,  and  twice  a 
city  has  been  built  on  the  same  spot.  In  1865  the 
militarj^  government  of  Georgia  was  established 
there.  The  legislature  removed  from  Milledge- 
ville,  and  Atlanta  became  the  capital  of  the 
state  during  the  reconstruction  era.  It  was  made 
the  permanent  capital  by  vote  of  the  people  in 
1877,  and  the  capitol  building  was  completed  in 
1889  at  a  cost  of  $1,000,000.  The  exterior  is  of 
oolitic  limestone,  and  the  interior  is  ornamented 
with  Georgia  marble.  The  Cotton  Exposition  of 
1881,  projected  by  citizens  of  Atlanta,  was  a 
rallying  point  for  southern  industry.  Atlanta 
now  became  the  business  centre  of  the  southeast- 
ern States  and  shared  the  general  growth.  From 
39,000  in  1880,  its  population  grew  to  89.872  in 
1900.  At  the  beginning  of  1903  the  number  of 
buildings  indicated  loo.ooc  population.  A  postal 
census  then  gave  a  population  of  110,000  in  the 
city  and  suburbs.  The  city  assessment  showed 
^57,000,000  of  taxable  wealth.  A  second  exposi- 
tion, held  in  1895,  greatly  stimulated  the  growth 


of  business.  Bank  clearings  increased  from 
$56,000,000  in  1894  to  $131,000,000  in  1902.  In 
same  period  bank  deposits  grew  from  less  than 
$4,000,000  to  $12,750,000.  Business  has  recently 
increased  four  times  as  fast  as  population,  al- 
though that  has  grown  at  the  rate  of  4  per  cent 
a  year.  The  increase  of  postal  receipts  in  1902 
was  16  per  cent,  and  that  of  bank  clearings  18  per 
cent.  Postal  receipts  for  the  year  ending  30 
June  1902,  were  $415,546.14.  Congress  has  ap- 
propriated $200,000  for  an  entire  block  of  ground 
upon  which  to  erect  a  $1,000,000  post-office.  The 
wholesale  and  retail  trade  of  the  year  1902  is  es- 
timated at  $50,000,000.  The  mule  market  is  one 
of  the  most  important  in  the  country.  Sales  for 
the  year  1902-03  are  estimated  at  62,500  head, 
valued  at  $7,000,000.  Total  trade  and  manufac- 
tures, $80,000,000.  As  a  manufacturing  centre, 
Atlanta's  strength  is  in  variety.  The  census  of 
1900  reported  395  establishments  with  $16,085,- 
114  of  capital,  9,368  wage-earners,  $3,106,039  to- 
tal wages,  and  $16,721,899  of  products.  An  in- 
vestigation made  by  the  Atlanta  Chamber  of  Com- 
merce in  December  1902,  showed  that  the  prod- 
ucts had  increased  to  $20,400,000,  the  wage-earn- 
ers to  11,000,  and  the  total  wages  to  $1,600,000. 
The  most  important  products  are  cotton 
goods,  fertilizers,  gins,  engines,  car-wheels,  ma- 
chinery, lumber,  sheet-metal  work,  terra-cotta, 
brick,  wagons,  carriages  and  buggies,  furniture, 
confectionery,  crackers,  cigars,  coffins,  chemicals, 
printing,  lithographir.g,  electrotyping,  engraving, 
paper-bags,  flour  and  meal,  paints,  varnish,  cot- 
ton-seed oil  and  cake,  ice,  harness,  belting,  hos- 
iery, suspenders,  underwear,  neckwear,  woolen 
goods,  clothing,  trunks,  and  condiments. 

The  factories  of  the  city  use  45,000  horse- 
power furnished  by  steam  and  electricity.  A 
massive  masonry  dam  is  under  construction  at 
Bull  Sluice  Shoals  on  the  Chattahoochee,  and  a 
plant  costing  $2,000,000,  to  be  completed  by  the 
middle  of  1904,  will  deliver  11,000  horse-power 
of  electric  current  in  the  city.  This  has  given 
a  new  impetus  to  manufacturing,  much  of  the 
additional  power  having  been  taken  in  advance 
of  completion.  Atlanta's  central  position  has 
made  it  southern  headquarters  for  large  busi- 
ness concerns.  It  is  the  third  insurance  centre 
of  the  United  States,  with  premium  collections 
estimated  at  $8,000,000  per  annum,  and  is  head- 
quarters for  the  railways,  telegraphs,  telephones, 
and  the  large  industrial  corporations  doing  busi- 
ness in  the  southern  or  southeastern  States. 
The  concentration  of  these  interests  has  created 
such  a  demand  for  quarters  that  Atlanta  has 
more  fire-proof  office  buildings  than  any  other 
southern  city.  A  fire-proof  hotel  with  over  300 
rooms  was  recently  completed.  With  other  ex- 
cellent hotels,  Atlanta  has  been  famous  for  many 
years  as  "A  Convention  City.**  Atlanta  is  the 
most  important  centre  of  publication  for  news- 
papers and  periodicals  in  the  southern  States. 
The  postal  receipts  for  second-class  matter  were 
$44,064.76  in  the  fiscal  year  ending  with  June 
1902,  exceeding  that  of  Brooklyn,  Baltimore, 
Buffalo,  Washington  city.  Omaha,  New  Orleans, 
Louisville,  and  Indianapolis. 

The  public  school  system  embraces  gramrnar 
schools  and  high  schools,  with  14,000  pupils. 
Three  business  colleges  have  700  students. 
Medical  and  dental  colleges  have  800.  Tw< 
female  colleges,  a  female  seminary,  and  several 
select  schools  for  boys  have  an  attendance  of  550 


ATLANTA  UNIVERSITY —ATLANTIC  OCEAN 


The  Georgia  Institute  of  Technology,  with  481 
students,  is  the  most  important  institution  for 
higher  education.  It  has  textile,  mechanical  en- 
gineering, and  electrical  engineering  schools,  and 
machine-shop  practice,  in  addition  to  literary  and 
scientific  courses.  The  total  number  of  students 
in  these  institutions  for  white  youth  is  2,500.  A 
site  has  been  given  and  funds  are  partially 
raised  for  a  Presbyterian  university,  the  total 
investment  of  which  will  be  $1,000,000. 

There  are  six  institutions  for  the  higher  edu- 
cation of  colored  youth,  with  a  total  attendance 
of  2,265.  They  include  literary  and  scientific 
schools,  theology,  industrial  training,  and  a 
training  school  for  nurses.  Charities  are  nu- 
merous and  include  such  educational  features  as 
free  kindergartens,  night  schools,  and  three  or- 
phan asylums.  Grady  Hospital  is  supported  by 
the  city ;  St.  Joseph's  Infirmary  by  the  Roman 
Catholics,  and  the  Presbyterian  Hospital  by  the 
Presbyterians.  Private  hospitals  or  sanatoriums 
are  numerous  and  well  equipped.  There  are  two 
theatres  with  2,500  and  2,000  seating  capacity, 
and  two  lyceum  or  lecture  associations.  Carne- 
gie Library  is  a  white  marble  building  in  classic 
style,  and  contains  20,000  volumes.  The  book 
circulation  is  11.000,  one  fourth  among  juveniles. 
There  are  131  churches,  including  missions,  and 
the  attendance  in  fair  weather  averages  25  per 
cent  of  the  population.  The  total  membership 
exceeds  a  third  of  the  population.  Railway  fa- 
cilities include  10  radiating  lines,  five  of  which 
belong  to  the  Southern  Ry.,  and  three  controlled 
by  the  Louisville  &  N.  system.  A  union  depot 
to  cost  $900,000  is  under  construction.  Belt  lines 
complete  the  terminal  system.  Local  transporta- 
tion is  unified  in  a  system  of  well-equipped  street 
railways,  covering  142  miles  of  track,  100  miles 
within  the  cit}^  the  rest  extending  eight  miles 
out.  The  area  of  the  city  is  11  square  miles,  and 
the  boundary  a  circle  of  SV2  miles  diame- 
ter, extended  in  two  suburbs.  Street  im- 
provements since  1880  cost  $3,807,667,  including 
100  miles  of  sewers,  63  of  paved  streets,  227  of 
sidewalks.  Six  miles  of  streets  are  paved  with 
asphalt,  the  remainder  with  granite  blocks,  ma- 
cadam, and  vitrified  brick.  The  city  waterworks 
takes  its  supply  from  the  Chattahoochee  River 
above  Peachtree  Creek,  in  a  sparsely  populated 
district.  By  settling  and  filtration  water  is  puri- 
fied. Two  engines  of  15,000,000  gallons  daily 
capacity  each  pump  it  into  the  city.  The  con- 
sumption in  1902  was  8,966,000  gallons  a  day. 
For  domestic  use  water  is  supplied  at  10  cents 
per  thousand  gallons.  At  this  rate,  with  some 
reduction  to  manufacturers,  the  city  makes  a 
profit.  Fire,  police,  sanitary,  and  other  city  de- 
partments are  well  equipped  and  efficient.  The 
city  government  is  administered  bv  a  mayor  and 
general  council.  Appropriation  bills  are  voted 
separately  by  two  legislative  branches,  and  the 
mayor  has  a  veto.  Bonded  debt  is  limited  by 
State  Constitution  to  7  per  cent  of  the  taxable 
wealth.  The  charter  requires  a  sinking  fund  to 
retire  all  borias  m  30  years  from  date  of  issue. 
Atlanta  is  one  of  ten  cities  designated  bv  the 
secretary  of  the  treasury  whose  bonds  might  be 
used  as  security  for  federal  deposits.  The  tax 
rate  is  i^  per  cent  and  the  assessment  averages 
60  per  cent  of  actual  value. 

The  cool  and  invigorating  climate  makes  At- 
lanta a  desirable  place  of  residence,  the  mean 
summer  temperature  being  77  ;  winter  44.  Streets 
are  made  attractive  by  grassy  lawns  and  shade 


trees.  Grant  Park,  Piedmont  Park,  Lakewood. 
East  Lake,  Ponce  De  Leon  Spring,  and  the  Chat- 
tahoochee River  are  outing  resorts.  A  bill  has 
been  introduced  in  Congress  to  make  a  national 
military  park  on  the  battle  ground  north  of  the 
city.  Public  spirit  is  strong  in  Atlanta.  The 
Chamber  of  Commerce,  Clearing  House  Associa- 
tion, Credit  Men's  Association,  Manufacturers' 
Association,  and  Freight  Bureau  are  organs  for 
concerted  action  among  business  men.  The 
Greater  Georgia  Association,  projected  by  the 
Atlanta  Chamber  of  Commerce,  unites  the  ef- 
forts of  Georgia  towns,  cities,  and  counties  to 
develop  the  resources  of  the  State.  Fraternal 
and  social  organizations  are  numerous  and  ac- 
tive. Religious  denominatioas  are  well  organ- 
ised. \v.  G.  Cooper. 

Atlan'ta  University,  a  co-educational  (non- 
sectarian)  institution,  in  Atlanta,  Ga.,  organized 
in  1869.  In  1905  it  had  18  professors,  340  stu- 
dents, 12,000  volumes  in  the  library,  grounds  and 
buildings  valued  at  $250,000;  productive  funds, 
$54,000;  benefactions,  $36,000,  and  an  income  of 
$54,000,  graduates  508. 

Atlantes,  at'-lan'tez,  in  architecture,  colos- 
sal statues  of  men  used  instead  of  pillars  to 
support  an  entablature.  Roman  architects  called 
them  tclaiuoncs   (Greek). 

Atlan'tic,  Iowa,  a  city  and  county-seat  of 
Cass  County,  situated  on  the  Chicago,  R.  I.  & 
P.  R.R.,  80  miles  southwest  of  Des  Moines. 
It  has  various  manufacturing  interests,  includ- 
ing iron  and  bridge  works,  planing  mills,  can- 
ning factories,  starch-works,  soap-factory,  and 
two  machine  shops.  It  was  chartered  as  a  city 
in  1869.     Pop.   (1900)   5,046. 

Atlan'tic  City,  N.  J.,  a  city  and  seaside 
resort  in  Atlantic  County ;  on  the  Atlantic  Ocean 
and  on  the  Reading  and  the  Pennsylvania  R.R.'s. 
It  is  built  on  a  long,  sandy  island,  known  as 
Absecom  Beach,  60  miles  southeast  of  Phila- 
delphia. The  island  stretches  along  the  coast 
for  10  miles ;  has  an  average  width  of  three 
fourths  of  a  mile,  and  is  from  four  to  five  miles 
from  the  mainland.  At  the  north  end  is  the 
Absecom  Light,  well  known  to  coastwise  sailors. 
The  city  has  several  miles  of  bathing  beach,  a 
magnificent  promenade  on  the  ocean  front,  nearly 
100  hotels  and  boarding  houses,  electric  lights, 
public  schools,  churches  of  the  principal  de- 
nominations, seven  national  banks,  and  daily, 
weekly,  and  monthly  periodicals.  It  is  probably 
the  most  important  all-the-year-round  resort  in 
the  United  States,  its  splendid  climate  giving  it 
a  large  popular  patronage  even  in  the  dead  of 
winter.  The  assessed  property  valuation  exceeds 
$14,000,000.  A  fire  in  April  1902  destroyed  many 
hotels  and  other  buildings  and  led  to  a  mu- 
nicipal enactment  that  all  structures  henceforth 
erected  within  the  municipal  limits  must  be 
fireproof.  Atlantic  City  was  first  settled  in 
1854.  It  is  governed  by  a  mayor  and  a  city 
council  of  17  elected  by  popular  vote.  Pop. 
(1890)  13,055;  (1900)  33,000;  (in  summer) 
150,000. 

Atlan'tic  Ocean,  the  vast  expanse  of  water 
lying  between  the  w^estern  coasts  of  Europe  and 
Africa,  and  the  eastern  coasts  of  North  and 
South  America,  and  extending  from  the  Arctic 
to  the  Antarctic  Seas.  Its  greatest  breadth  is 
between  the  western  coast  of  North  Africa  and 
the  eastern  coast  of  Florida  in  North  America, 


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CARNEGIE  LIBRARY. 


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GEORGIA  SCHOOL  OF  TECHNOLOGY. 


ATLANTIC  OCEAN 


a  distance  of  4,150  miles.  If  the  Gulf  of  Mexico, 
in  reality  one  of  its  bays,  be  included,  it  will 
extend  to  5,000  miles.  Its  least  breadth,  between 
Norway  and  Greenland,  is  about  930  miles.  Be- 
tween Cape  St.  Roque,  Brazil,  and  Sierra  Leone, 
the  breadth  is  1,730  miles.  Its  superficial  extent 
has  been  estimated  at  25,000,000  square  miles. 
From  the  number  and  extent  of  its  inlets,  gulfs, 
and  bays,  its  coast  lines  are  of  great  length,  the 
eastern  being  upward  of  32,000  miles,  and  the 
western  upward  of  55,000.  Its  principal  inlets 
and  bays  are  Baffin  and  Hudson  bays,  the  Gulfs 
of  Mexico,  Honduras,  and  San  Juan,  the  North 
Sea  or  German  Ocean,  the  Bay  of  Biscay,  and 
the  Gulf  of  Guinea.  The  principal  islands  north 
of  the  equator  are  Iceland,  the  Faroe,  and  Brit- 
ish islands,  the  Azores,  Canaries,  and  Cape  de 
Verd  islands,  Newfoundland,  Cape  Breton,  and 
the  West  India  islands ;  and  south  of  the  equa- 
tor, Ascension,  St.  Helena,  Trinidad,  Columbus, 
and  Tristan  da  Cunha,  the  last  three  being  mere 
rocks. 

Currents. —  The  great  currents  of  the  Atlantic 
are  of  two  kinds,  drift  and  stream.  Drift  cur- 
rents are  produced  by  the  wind,  either  by  the 
perpetual  or  trade  winds,  or  by  prevailing  winds. 
Those  having  the  former  origin  are  constant, 
running  always  in  the  same  direction,  and  gen- 
erally with  a  nearly  equal  velocitj' ;  those  having 
the  latter  are  not  so  constant,  neither  do  they 
always  run  in  the  same  direction,  nor  at  a  simi- 
lar rate.  The  drift  currents  produced  by  the 
trade  winds  are  found  between  the  tropics  ;  those 
resulting  from  prevailing  winds,  north  and  south 
of  the  parallels  of  30°.  Stream  currents  are  due 
indirectly  to  the  influence  of  winds,  being  pro- 
duced by  drift  currents,  of  which  they  are  con- 
tinuations. As  these  currents  travel  for  great 
distances  they  meet  with  many  obstacles  in 
their  course,  which  result  in  changes  of  direction. 
A  stream  current  may  thus  be  successively  pro- 
pelled by  different  currents,  or  consist  in  the 
combination  of  different  stream  currents.  A 
third  kind  of  currents  is  produced  by  the  flow  of 
the  water  to  restore  the  level  disturbed  by  other 
currents.  This  is  called  a  current  of  indraught. 
The  great  currents  of  the  Atlantic  are  the  Gulf 
Stream,  the  equatorial  current  —  which  may  be 
divided  into  the  main  equatorial  current,  the 
north  equatorial  current,  and  the  south  equa- 
torial currents  —  the  North  African  and  Guinea 
current,  the  South  connecting  current,  the  South- 
ern Atlantic  current.  Cape  Horn  current,  Rennel 
current,  and  the  Arctic  current. 

The  Gulf  Stream  is  a  continuation  of  the 
main  equatorial  current,  and  partly  of  the  north 
equatorial  current,  both  western  drift  currents 
produced  by  the  trade  winds.  The  former 
passes  across  the  Atlantic  to  the  American 
coast,  upon  which  it  strikes  from  Cape  St.  Roque 
to  the  Antilles.  On  being  turned  by  the  coast 
it  runs  along  it  at  a  rate  of  30  to  50  miles  per 
day,  and  sometimes  at  a  higher  speed,  till  it 
enters  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  from  which,  having 
previously  received  part  of  the  waters  of  the 
north  equatorial  current,  it  issues  between  Flo- 
rida and  Cuba  under  the  name  of  the  Gulf 
Stream.  It  afterward  flows  nearly  parallel  to 
the  coast  of  the  United  States,  separated  from  it 
by  a  belt  of  cold  water.  Off  Cape  Hatteras  it 
spreads  into  an  expanding  channel,  reaching  a 
breadth  of  167  miles,  and  consisting  of  three 
warm  sections  with  two  cold  belts  interposed. 


On  passing  Sandy  Hook  it  turns  east  and  con- 
tinues to  be  recognizable,  partly  by  the  blue  color 
derived^from  the  silt  of  the  Mississippi,  till  about 
Ion.  30°  W.,  where,  with  a  greatly  diminished 
temperature,  it  is  found  flowing  nearly  due 
east.  The  equatorial  current,  so  called  from  its 
being  under  the  line,  commences  on  the  western 
coast  of  Africa,  about  lat.  10°  S.,  or  nearly 
opposite  St.  Paul  de  Loando.  From  this  point 
it  pursues  a  northwest  direction  till  it  makes 
Ion.  0°,  when  it  proceeds  due  west  on  both  sides 
of  the  equator,  till  it  arrives  at  Cape  St.  Roque 
in  South  America,  when  it  is  divided  into  two 
branches,  one  running  along  the  Guiana  coast, 
and  into  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  as  already  men- 
tioned, the  other  along  the  coast  of  Brazil,  and 
so  called  the  Brazil  current.  The  latter  is  re- 
inforced by  the  south  equatorial  current,  which, 
however,  is  not  distinctly  separable  from  the 
main  equatorial  current.  The  length  of  the 
equatorial  current,  from  the  coast  of  Africa  to 
Cape  St.  Roque,  is  2,500  miles.  Its  breadth  near 
the  commencement  is  185  miles;  opposite  Cape 
Palmas,  420;  and  before  dividing,  about  Ion. 
31°  or  32°  W.,  it  is  510.  Its  average  velocity, 
which  is  greater  in  summer  than  in  winter,  is 
from  25  to  30  miles  a  day.  The  North  African 
and  Guinea  current  originates  between  the 
Azores  and  Cape  Finisterre  in  Spain.  It  flows 
in  a  southeasterly  direction,  and  after  sending 
a  mass  of  water  into  the  ^lediterranean  it  pur- 
sues a  southerly  course  to  Cape  Mesurada,  south 
of  Sierra  Leone,  keeping  at  a  considerable  dis- 
tance from  the  land.  It  then  flows  rapidly  for 
1,000  miles  due  east  to  the  Bight  of  Biafra, 
v/here  it  seems  to  mingle  with  the  equatorial 
current.  It  is  led  from  the  west  by  the  Guinea 
counter  current,  a  back  flow  of  water  between 
the  main  and  the  north  equatorial  currents.  The 
south  connecting  current  strikes  across  the 
South  Atlantic  from  the  Brazil  current,  then 
turns  north,  and  finally  joins  the  great  equa- 
torial current.  The  South  Atlantic  or  South 
African  current  originates  north  of  the  Cape  of 
Good  Hope,  from  which  it  flows  in  a  northwest- 
erly direction,  at  a  rate  of  from  15  to  30  miles 
a  day,  and  eventually  merges  into  the  equatorial 
current.  Cape  Horn  current  flows  constantly 
from  the  Antarctic  and  South  Seas  into  the 
Atlantic  Ocean,  its  general  direction  being  east- 
northeast  and  northeast.  Rennel  current,  which 
is  possibly  a  continuation  of  the  Gulf  Stream, 
enters  the  Bay  of  Biscay  from  the  west,  curves 
round  its  coast,  and  then  turns  northwest  to- 
ward Cape  Clear  in  Ireland.  The  Greenland  or 
Arctic  current  runs  along  the  east  coast  of 
Greenland  to  Cape  Farewell :  having  doubled 
this  cape,  it  flows  up  toward  Davis  Strait,  from 
which  it  receives  an  inflow  of  water,  and  then 
turns  to  the  south  along  the  coast  of  Labrador, 
and  continues  along  the  coast  of  the  United 
States,  from  which  it  separates  the  Gulf  Stream 
by  a  cold  band  of  water.  Immense  masses  of 
ice  are  borne  south  by  this  current  from  the 
Polar  seas,  and  carried  into  warmer  regions, 
where  they  gradually  dissolve  and  disappear. 
In  the  interior  of  the  North  Atlantic  there  is  a 
large  area  comparatively  free  from  currents,  ly- 
ing between  20°  and  30°  N.  and  30°  to  60" 
W.  It  is  called  the  Sargasso  Sea,  from  the 
large  quantity  of  sea  weed  which  drifts  into  it. 
A  similar  area  exists  in  the  South  Atlantic,  to 
which  the  same  name  is  occasionally  applied  by 


ATLANTIC  TELEGRAPH  —  ATLAS 


analog>%  though  it  is  destitute  of  sea  weed.  It 
extends  between  20°  and  30''  S.  and  0°  and 
25°  W.  Besides  the  surface  currents,  recent 
investigation  has  established  the  existence  of  a 
general  oceanic  circulation,  consisting  of  an  un- 
der current  of  cold  water  flowing  from  the 
Poles  to  the  equator,  and  an  upper  current  of 
warm  water  from  the  equator  to  the  Poles. 

The  winds  of  the  Atlantic  are  not  peculiar  to 
that  ocean,  but  identical  with  those  that  prevail 
in  the  same  latitudes  in  the  other  seas  around  the 
globe.  The  most  remarkable  of  these  are  the 
perennial  or  trade  winds,  which  blow  constantly 
in  one  direction,  namely,  from  east  to  west,  or 
nearly  so.  The  tract  of  the  trade  winds  to  the 
north  of  a  zone,  which  is  almost  always  found 
on  the  north  side  of  the  equator,  is  called  the 
region  of  the  northeast  trade  wind,  from  blow- 
ing one  or  two  points  north  of  east ;  that  to  the 
south,  the  region  of  the  southeast  trade  wind, 
from  blowing  south  of  east.  The  northeast 
trade  wind  blows  with  less  steadiness  than  the 
southeast,  but  toward  the  West  India  islands 
it  keeps  generally  steady  between  east  and 
northeast.  The  trade  winds  are  constant  only 
at  a  considerable  distance  from  land,  and  be- 
come more  steady  the  greater  the  expanse  of 
water  over  which  they  blow. 

Depths. —  The  greatest  depth  yet  discovered 
in  the  Atlantic  is  to  the  north  of  the  island 
of  Porto  Rico,  in  the  West  Indies,  namely, 
27,366  feet.  Formerly  depths  of  40,000  or 
50,000  feet  were  reported,  but  this  was  owing 
to  defective  sounding  apparatus.  The  geog- 
raphy of  the  ocean  bed  is  now  pretty  well 
known,  especially  in  the  North  Atlantic.  Cross- 
sections  of  the  North  Atlantic  between  Europe 
and  America  show  that  its  bed  may  be  repre- 
sented as  exhibiting  two  great  valleys  lying  in 
a  northerly  and  southerly  direction,  and  separat- 
ed by  an  intervening  ridge.  Each  of  these  val- 
leys is  about  500  miles  in  width.  The  mean 
depth  of  the  east  valley  is  about  14,000  or  15,000 
feet,  and  it  can  be  traced  from  the  equator  to 
the  latitude  of  the  Faroes,  where  it  terminates, 
or  over  an  extent  of  3,700  miles.  The  west 
valley  has  a  maximum  depth  of  16,800  feet,  and 
can  be  traced  from  the  latitude  of  the  Azores 
as  far  north  as  Greenland,  where  it  bifurcates, 
the  deeper  portion  pointing  north  up  Baffin 
Bay.  The  submarine  ridge  dividing  these  two 
valleys  appears  to  be  very  uniform  in  depth 
below  the  surface,  having  1,600  fathoms  of  wa- 
ter above  it  from  the  Azores  to  the  latitude 
of  the  Hebrides.  It  then  rises  gradually  till  at 
last  it  culminates  in  Iceland.  On  this  plateau 
the  Atlantic  telegraph  cables  have  been  laid, 
and  from  it  the  first  specimens  of  deep-sea 
mud  were  brought  up.  This  was  found  on 
examination  by  the  microscope  to  consist  to 
a  large  extent  of  calcareous  shells  {Foramini- 
fera),  not  water-worn,  but  quite  perfect,  show- 
ing that  the  water  at  such  depths  can  have 
little  or  no  motion.  No  sandy  particles  were 
found  in  the  mud.  The  South  Atlantic  is  not 
so  well  known  as  the  North,  but  so  far  as 
soundings  yet  prove  it  has  not  a  greater  depth 
than  the  latter,  the  greatest  depth  found  being 
2,900  fathoms,  in  lat.  28°  S.  It  would  ap- 
pear to  be  separated  from  the  North  Atlantic 
by  a  rocky  ridge,  on  which  rest  the  islands  of 
Ascension,  Fernando  de  Noronha,  and  St.  Paul. 
The  saltness  and  specific  gravity  of  the  Atlantic 


differ  in  various  parts,  and  gradually  diminish 
from  the  tropics  to  the  poles,  and  also  from 
within  a  short  distance  of  the  tropics  to  the 
equator.  In  the  neighborhood  of  the  British 
Isles  the  salt  is  given  as  one  thirty  eighth  of  the 
weight  of  the  water.     See  Ocean  Current. 

Atlan'tic  Telegraph.    See  Telegraph. 

Atlan'tides,  a  name  given  to  the  Pleiades, 
the  seven  daughters  of  Atlas  or  of  his  brother 
Hesperus. 

Atlan'tis,  or  Atlan'tica,  a  large  island 
traditionally  asserted  to  have  once  existed  in 
the  ocean  immediately  beyond  the  Strait  of 
Cades ;  that  is,  in  what  is  now  called  the 
Atlantic  Ocean,  a  short  distance  west  of  the 
Strait  of  Gibraltar.  Homer,  Horace,  and  some 
others  made  two  Atlanticas,  distinguished  as 
the  Hesperides  and  the  Elysian  Fields,  and  be- 
lieved to  be  the  abodes  of  the  blessed.  Plato 
states  that  an  easy  passage  existed  from  the 
one  Atlantis  into  other  islands,  which  lay  near 
a  continent  exceeding  in  size  all  Europe  and 
Asia.  Some  have  thought  this  America.  At- 
lantis is  represented  as  having  ultimately  sunk 
beneath  the  waves,  leaving  only  isolated  rocks 
and  shoals  in  its  place.  Geologists  have  discov- 
ered that  the  coast  line  of  western  Europe  did 
once  run  farther  in  the  direction  of  America 
than  now ;  but  its  submergence  seems  to  have 
taken  place  long  before  historic  times.  *^The 
New  Atlantis^  is  the  title  which  Lord  Bacon 
gives  to  a  literary  fragment,  in  which  he  sketch- 
ed out  an  ideal  commonwealth. 

Atlan'tis,  a  romance  of  the  antediluvian 
world,  by  Ignatius  Donnelly  (1882). 

Atlan'tosau'rus.     See  Camarasaurus. 

Atlas,  an  extensive  mountain  system  in 
North  Africa,  starting  near  Cape  Nun,  on  the 
Atlantic  Ocean,  traversing  Morocco,  Algiers, 
and  Tunis,  and  terminating  on  the  coast  of  the 
Mediterranean.  It  is  divided  into  the  great 
and  little  Atlas.  The  little  Atlas  is  the  range 
nearest  the  sea-coast ;  the  great  is  more  inland, 
and  borders  on  the  desert.  In  fact,  however, 
the  two  ranges  are  one  and  the  same  system, 
though  sometimes  connected  only  by  separate 
mountains,  or  ranges  of  low  hills.  On  the 
coast,  the  range  skirts  the  Mediterranean,  from 
Cape  Spartel,  and  the  straits  of  Gibraltar,  to 
Cape  Bon,  on  the  northeast  of  Tunis.  The 
Atlantic  shore  is  sometimes  sandy  and  low,  at 
other  times  formed  by  cliffs,  which  do  not  at- 
tain any  great  height,  except  at  Cape  Ghir. 
The  Mediterranean  shore,  between  Capes  Spar- 
tel and  Bon,  is  generally  rugged,  and  in  places 
attains  a  considerable  height.  Between  Cape 
Bon  and  the  gulf  of  Gabes  it  is  rocky,  but  with- 
out reaching  any  great  elevation.  The  southern 
slope  of  the  Atlas  reaches  the  great  desert, 
from  which  it  is  . separated  by  a  region  of 
sand  hills,  shifting  with  every  strong  wind,  and 
gradually  making  encroachments  on  the  fertile 
lands  at  the  foot  of  the  mountains.  On  the 
west  of  the  gulf  of  Gabes,  Mount  Nofusa,  the 
If. St  eastern  spur  of  the  Atlas,  joins  Mount  Ga- 
rian,  which  extends  into  the  regency  of  Tripoli. 
The  French  geographers  include  within  the 
limits  of  the  Atlas  their  own  province  of  Alge- 
ria, together  with  the  empire  of  Morocco,  and 
a  part  of  Tunis.  The  whole  area  is  500,000 
square  miles,  including  a  great  variety  of  sur- 
face,  mountains,   valleys,   and   extensive   plains. 


ATLAS  —  ATMOSPHERE 


The  loftiest  peaks  form  a  diagonal  line,  striking 
across  the  general  course  of  the  mountains  from 
southwest    to    northeast.     This    Ime    begins    at 
Cape  Ghir,  on  the  Atlantic,  which  rises  almost 
perpendicularly   from   the   sea  to  a  great  eleva- 
tion.    It  then  stretches  away,  east  of  the  meridi- 
an  of   Morocco,   then   turns  abruptly  northeast, 
and  from  this  quarter  four  important  rivers  take 
their  rise,  the  Wady  Oum  Erbegh    (Morbeya), 
the  Muluia,  the  Tafilet,  and  the  Draa.     At  this 
precise    spot,    the    loftiest    peaks    of   the    whole 
mass  seem  to  be  brought  together,  and  the  most 
elevated  chain  runs  away  north.     The  principal 
chain    traverses    a    region    called    the    desert    of 
Ansad,  the  boundary  line  between  Morocco  and 
Algiers.     Here    the    name    great    Atlas    is    first 
applied.     The  principal  chain  recurs  in  Algeria, 
where  its  highest  part  is  called  Wanashrees,  or 
Warensenis,    and    terminates    on    the    banks    of 
the   Shelliff,    whose   valley   makes   a   gap   in    its 
course.     It   reappears   southwest   of  Algiers,    in 
the   lofty   summits   of   the   Jurjura.     From   this 
point,  the  chain   follows  a  direction   parallel  to 
the   coast,  then   it   dips   again   to   the   southeast, 
and  takes  the  name  of  the  mountains  of  Wan- 
nooga.     Further  on  to  the  east,   we  meet  it  as 
the    Djebel    Aiires,   and    approaching   the    coast 
again,  it  penetrates  into  the  territory  of  Tunis, 
under  the  name  of  Mount   Tipara,  terminating 
at  Cape  Blanco  and  Cape  Zibeb,  on  the  north 
of  the  city  of  Tunis.     The  highest  summits,  the 
Miltsin    (11,400   feet),   southeast  of  the   city   of 
Morocco,   and  other  mountains  near  the  Wady 
Oum  Erbegh,   and  the   Muluia,  are  rarely  free 
from  snow.     The  greatest  heights  of  the  entire 
system  are  the  Jebel  Ayashi    (14,600  feet),  and 
Tamjurt  (14,500  feet).     The  little  Atlas  is  by  no 
means  so  lofty,  its  highest  peak,  Shelia,  having  an 
altitude  of  only  7,611   feet.     The  great  Atlas  is 
the  water-shed  of  the  province.     The  rivers  flow- 
ing north  from  this  line  force  their  way  through 
the  lesser  Atlas  to  the  Mediterranean,  while  those 
that   take   their   rise  on  the   southern   slope   are 
lost   in  the  marshes  of  the  desert.     There  are 
several     defiles    through    the    Atlas,    the    best 
known    of   which   are    those   of  the    Beboonan, 
leading  to  Terodant  in  Morocco,  and  the  Biban, 
or  Iron  gate  on  the  east,  leading  from  Algiers 
to   Constantine.     The  geological   constitution   of 
these   mountains    presents    old    limestone   alter- 
nating  with    a    schist,   oftentimes   passing  to   a 
.veil-characterized    micaceous    schist,    or    gneiss. 
The  stratification  of  the  gneiss  is  also  very  ir- 
regular,   only    presenting    organic    debris;    then 
come    schistose   clays,   alternating   with   second- 
aiy  limestones;  then  come  limestone  with  white 
clays,    and    iron    sands    resting    on    blue    clay. 
This    formation    is    particularly    developed    near 
Oran,  and  the  plains  in  which  the  soil  is  formed 
from   it   are   of  great    fertility.     Volcanic    rocks 
have  been  found  in  small  quantities.     There  are 
veins    of    iron,    copper,    and    lead.     Saltpetre   is 
found    near    Terodant.     x\bout    50    miles    from 
the  same  towm,  excellent  malleable  iron  is  found. 
At    Elala    there    are    copper   and    silver   mines. 
The    vegetation    embraces    all    the    varieties    of 
T)oth  temperate  and  tropical  climates.     The  At- 
las was  known  to  the  ancients,  and  the  Romans 
formed  several  colonies  in  the  district. 

AtTas,  an  anatomical  term  applied  to  the 

first  vertebra  of  the  neck,   which   supports  the 

head.     It   is  connected  with   the  occipital   bone 

in    such   a   way   as   to   permit    of   the   nodding 

\'oi.  2 — ^ 


movement  of  the  head,  and  rests  on  the  second 
vertebra  or  axis,  their  union  allowing  the  head 
to  turn  from  side  to  side. 

At'las,  in  Greek  mythology,  the  Titan 
v/hom  Zeus  condemned  to  bear  the  vault  of 
heaven.  The  same  name  is  given  to  a  collection 
of  maps  and  charts,  and  was  first  used  by 
Gerard  Mercator  in  the  i6th  century,  the  figure 
of  Atlas  bearing  the  globe  being  represented  on 
the  title-pages  of  such  works. 

At'lee,  Washington  Lemuel,  American 
surgeon:  b.  Lancaster,  Pa.,  22  Feb.  1808;  d.  6 
Sept.  1878.  He  became  noted  as  a  pioneer  in 
ovariotomy  and  the  removal  of  uterine  fibroid 
tumors,  and  published  <  Ovarian  Tumors' 
(1873)  ^Struggles  and  Triumphs  of  Ovariotomy' 
(1875),  and  a  prize  essay  on  'Fibroid  Tumors 
of  the  Uterus'    (1876). 

At'midom'eter,  an  instrument  for  measur- 
ing the  evaporation  from  water,  ice,  snow,  etc. 
It  consists  of  two  glass  or  metal  bulbs,  one  of 
them  placed  above  the  other,  with  which  it 
communicates  by  a  narrow  neck.  The  instru- 
m.ent  having  been  immersed  in  a  vessel  of  wa- 
ter through  a  circular  hole  in  which  the  steam 
rises,  distilled  v;ater  is  gradually  poured  into 
the  pan  above,  causing  it  to  sink  to  the  point 
at  which  the  zero  of  the  stem  is  on  a  level 
with  the  cover  of  the  vessel.  As  then  the  water 
in  the  pan  gradually  evaporates,  the  steam 
slowly  ascends,  the  amount  of  evaporation  being 
indicated  in  grains  on  the  graduated  scale. 

Atmorysis,  the  separation  of  the  compo- 
nents of  a  gaseous  mixture  by  means  of  diffu- 
sion.    See  Diffusion. 

Atmom'eter,  an  instrument  invented  by 
Sir  John  Leslie  for  measuring  the  quantity  of 
moisture  exhaled  in  the  open  air  in  a  given  time 
from  any  humid  surface.  It  consists  of  a  very 
thin  ball  of  porous  earthenware,  from  one  to 
three  inches  in  diameter,  having  a  small  neck 
firmly  cemented  to  a  long  and  rather  wide  tube 
of  glass,  to  which  is  adapted  a  brass  cap  with 
a  narrow  collar  of  leather  to  fit  closely.  It  is 
filled  w^ith  distilled  or  pure  water,  and  its  cap 
screwed  tightly.  It  is  then  suspended  out  of 
doors  where  it  is  exposed  freely  to  the  action 
of  the  wind,  but  sheltered  from  rain.  As  the 
water  evaporates  from  the  external  surface  of 
the  ball,  it  transudes  through  its  porous  sub- 
stance, and  the  waste  is  measured  by  the  cor- 
responding descent  of  the  liquid  in  the  stem. 
To  test  the  amount  of  this  descent,  there  is  a 
finely-graduated  scale.  When  the  water  has 
sunk  to  the  bottom  of  the  stem,  the  latter  re- 
quires to  be  filled  anew. 

At'mosphere  (Greek,  "vaporous  sphere''), 
in  ordinary  usage,  the  gaseous  envelope  that 
surrounds  the  earth.  The  atmosphere  consists 
chiefly  of  the  gases  oxygen  and  nitrogen,  not 
chemically  combined,  but  mechanically  mixed 
in  the  proportion  of  about  21  volumes  of  oxy- 
gen to  79  of  nitrogen.  It  also  contains  small 
quantities  of  carbon  dioxid,  organic  matter,  wa- 
ter vapor,  argon,  and  other  substances.  (For 
a  more  precise  statement  of  its  composition,  see 
Air.)  At  the  surface  of  the  earth  it  has  a  den- 
sity of  about  i/8ooth  of  that  of  water,  though 
this  varies  somewhat  with  the  height  above  the 
sea  level  at  which  the  determination  is  made, 
and  with  the  temperature  and  barometric  pres- 
sure prevailing  at   the   time.     The  presence   of 


ATMOSPHERE 


free  nitrogen  in  the  atmosphere  may  be  attribut- 
ed, probably,  to  the  comparative  inertness  of 
that  gas,  so  far  as  any  tendency  to  form  chem- 
ical compounds  is  concerned.  The  presence  of 
free  oxygen  cannot  be  explained  in  this  man- 
ner, however,  because  oxygen  is  one  of  the  most 
active  chemical  substances  known.  It  appears 
more  probable  that  oxygen  is  present  in  the 
free  state  simply  on  account  of  the  immense 
quantity  of  that  element  that  the  earth  contains. 
In  past  geological  times,  it  combined  with  prac- 
tically all  of  the  oxidizable  minerals  that  were 
near  enough  to  the  surface  of  the  earth  to  be 
accessible  to  it,  and  the  present  supply  of  free 
oxygen  in  the  atmosphere  must  be  regarded  as 
merely  the  excess  of  that  element  that  re- 
m.ained  unused,  after  all  the  possible  oxidations 
had  been  effected.  According  to  this  view,  the 
earth  (at  least  in  its  more  superficial  parts)  is 
a  gigantic,  burned-out  cinder ;  and  this  accords 
with  the  estimates  that  chemists  and  geologists 
make,  that  nearly  one  half  of  the  weight  of  the 
earth's  crust  consists  of  oxygen.  It  is  likely 
that  in  past  ages,  and  particularly  in  the  carbon- 
iferous period  when  the  vegetation  that  gave  rise 
to  our  modern  coal  fields  was  flourishing,  the 
quantity  of  carbon  dioxid  present  in  the  atmo- 
sphere was  considerably  greater  than  at  the 
present  time.  Part  of  this  gas  was  absorbed  by 
plants,  its  carbon  being  stored  in  the  coal  beds 
and  its  oxygen  returned  to  the  air ;  but  it  is 
likely  that  by  far  the  greater  portion  combined 
with  lime  and  other  similar  earths  to  produce 
the  present  vast  deposits  of  limestone  and  other 
carbonated  minerals  and  rocks.  At  the  present 
day,  carbon  dioxid  is  being  absorbed  from  the 
atmosphere  by  plants,  and  returned  to  it  again 
by  animals,  and  by  factories  in  which  coal  is 
burned.  We  have  no  means  of  knowing  wheth- 
er the  balance  is  being  preserved,  so  far  as  this 
constituent  of  the  atmosphere  is  concerned,  or 
not ;  because  the  mass  of  the  entire  atmosphere 
is  too  vast  for  the  composition  to  be  sensibly 
changed  by  these  causes,  since  the  time  when 
exact  analyses  became  possible. 

Galileo  observed  that  water  cannot  be  drawn 
up  by  a  suction  pump  or  other  equivalent  device, 
to  a  greater  distance  than  about  34  feet.  He 
did  not  succeed  in  explaining  the  existence  of 
this  limiting  height,  but  his  friend  and  amanu- 
ensis Torricelli,  who  succeeded  him  as  profes- 
sor at  Florence,  afterward  made  the  shrewd 
guess  that  water  rises  in  such  a  pump  for  the 
reason  that  the  atmosphere  exerts  a  certain  pres- 
sure upon  all  terrestrial  objects,  and  that  when 
a  portion  of  this  pressure  is  removed  from  the 
water  in  the  suction  tube  of  the  pump,  it  is  the 
pressure  of  the  atmosphere  upon  the  water 
external  to  the  pump  that  causes  the  water  in 
the  pump-tu.be  to  rise ;  and  he  saw  that  if  that 
were  the  case,  it  would  follow  that  a  pump 
could  only  "draw^^  water  up  to  the  particular 
height  at  which  the  pressure  due  to  the  water- 
column  so  "drawn  up**  would  precisely  balance 
that  of  the  atmosphere.  The  limit  of  34  feet 
corresponds  (as  is  easily  shown  by  a  simple 
calculation)  to  a  pressure  of  about  15  pounds 
to  the  square  inch ;  and  hence  Torricelli  inferred 
that  the  atmosphere  exerts  a  pressure  of  that 
amount  upon  all  objects.  Meditating  upon  this 
hypothesis,  it  occurred  to  him  that  if  his  explan- 
ation were  indeed  correct;  the  atmosphere  would 
be   able   to    raise   mercury    (which    is   about    14 


times  as  heavy  as  water)  to  only  about  one 
fourteenth  of  the  height  to  which  it  can  raise 
water.  He  accordingly  (in  1643)  procured  a 
glass  tube  some  35  inches  long,  and  closed  at 
one  end.  Placing  it  with  the  open  end  up- 
ward, he  filled  it  with  mercury.  He  then  cov- 
ered the  open  end  to  prevent  the  escape  of  the 
mercury,  and  inverted  the  tube  so  that  its  mouth, 
dipped  into  a  basin  also  filled  with  mercury. 
Upon  uncovering  the  open  end  of  the  tube,  he 
was  gratified  to  see  that  the  mercury  in  the  tube  at 
once  sank  until  its  upper  surface  stood  at  about 
30  inches  above  that  in  the  basin.  This  experi- 
ment proved  that  the- atmosphere  exerts  a  pres- 
sure equal  to  that  due  to  a  column  of  mercury 
30  inches  high ;  or,  in  other  words,  equal  to 
about  14.7  pounds  per  square  inch.  Additional 
proofs  were  soon  given,  also.  Thus  Pascal  sug- 
gested that  if  the  explanation  were  true,  thi 
pressure  ought  to  be  less  at  the  top  of  a  moun- 
tain, than  in  a  lower  place;  because  the  moun- 
tain projects  up  into  the  atmosphere  so  -fai 
that  there  is  a  sensibly  smaller  height  of  ail 
above  it  then  there  is  above  a  point  in  a  valley. 
The  experiment  was  actually  carried  out  by 
M.  Perrier,  who  carried  an  apparatus  like  Tor- 
ricelli's  (now  known  as  a  "barometer**)  to  the 
summit  of  a  mountain  in  Auvergne  called  the 
Puy  de  Dome,  and  found  at  the  top  of  this 
mountain  (which  is  4,800  feet  high)  the  atmo- 
sphere could  sustain  only  about  27  inches  of 
mercury,  although  after  returning  to  the  plains, 
below,  the  full  height  of  30  inches  was  agam 
observed.  Shortly  afterward  (in  1650)  the 
air-pump  was  invented  by  Guericke,  and  the 
pressure  of  the  atmosphere  was  demonstrated 
beyond  any  doubt  whatever,  by  numerous  direct 
experiments. 

The  pressure  of  the  atmosphere  varies  some- 
what from  day  to  day,  and  even  from  hour  to. 
hour,  as  well  as  with  the  latitude  and  with  the 
height  above  the  sea.  For  scientific  purposes 
the  normal  atmospheric  pressure  is  now  gen- 
erally taken  to  be  equal  to  the  pressure  due  to  a 
column  of  pure  mercury  760  millimeters. 
(29.9212  inches)  high,  at  the  level  of  the  sea^ 
in  latitude  45°  ;  the  mercury  being  at  the  tem- 
perature 32°  F.  The  pressure  so  defined  is 
called  an  "atmosphere** ;  or,  more  briefly  and 
conveniently,  an  "atmo.**  The  "atmosphere*' 
of  pressure,  as  so  defined,  is  nearly  equal  to  a 
pressure  of  one  million  dynes  per  square  centi- 
meter, and  it  has  therefore  been  proposed  to 
take  one  million  dynes  per  square  centimeter 
as  the  standard  atmosphere  of  pressure,  calling 
it  an  "absolute  atmosphere,**  because  the  dyne 
is  a  unit  in  the  "absolute  system'*  of  units. 
This  proposal  has  not  yet  been  adopted  by  physi- 
cists to  anjf  great  extent.     See  Units. 

Knowing  the  pressure  exerted  by  the  atmo- 
sphere upon  each  square  inch  of  the  earth's 
surface  to  be  about  14.7  pounds,  and  knowing 
the  dimensions  of  the  earth,  it  is  not  difficult  to 
calculate  the  total  weight  of  the  entire  atmo- 
sphere. The  calculation,  when  performed,  shows 
that  the  mass  of  the  atmosphere  is  about 
i/i,ooo,oooth  of  that  of  the  whole  eartn. 

If  the  atmosphere  were  of  uniform  density, 
it  would  be  easy  to  calculate  the  height  to  which 
it  extends.  We  should  only  have  to  divide  the 
pressure  upon  one  square  inch  of  the  earth's, 
surface  by  the  weight  of  a  cubic  inch  of  the  air^ 
and   the   quotient   would   be   the  height    of   the 


ATMOSPHERIC  ENGINE  — ATMOSPHERIC  RAILWAY 


atmosphere,  in  inches.  Thus  a  cubic  inch  of  air, 
at  a  pressure  of  30  inches  of  mercury  and  at 
the  temperature  of  freezing  water  weighs  about 
0.000749  of  an  ounce ;  and  as  a  column  of  mer- 
cury 30  inches  high  exerts  a  static  pressure  of 
about  235.8  ounces,  it  follows  that  if  the  at- 
mosphere were  homogeneous  (that  is,  of  uni- 
form density  throughout),  its  height  would  be 
about  253.8-^0.000749  =  314,000  inches,  or  4.97 
miles,  when  the  air  has  a  temperature  of  32'  F., 
and  the  barometric  pressure  is  30  inches.  The 
height  so  calculated  is  convenient  for  use  in  cer- 
tain physical  computations,  and  is  called  the 
"height  of  the  homogeneous  atmosphere."  If 
we  turn  from  this  problem  to  the  more  difficult 
one  of  determining  the  actual  height  of  the  at- 
mosphere, we  find  that  no  satisfactory  results 
can  be  given.  As  we  go  up,  the  strata  become 
rarer  and  rarer,  for  the  reason  that  the  lower 
layers  are  weighed  down  and  compressed  by 
those  above,  and  at  increasing  heights  there  is 
less  and  less  air  above,  to  exert  this  compression. 
At  great  heights  the  atmosphere  becomes  more 
and  more  attenuated,  and  thins  out  by  insensible 
gradations  into  a  perfect  vacuum.  There  is  no 
definite  boundarj',  immediately  below  which 
there  is  an  atmosphere,  and  immediately  above 
v.'hich  there  is  none.  Glaisher  and  Coxwell,  in 
their  famous  balloon  ascension  of  5  Sept.  1862, 
attained  an  actual  elevation  of  over  29,000  feet, 
and  observed  a  barometric  height  of  9.5  inches 
(corrected)  ;  but  it  is  certain  that  the  atmo- 
sphere extends  far  higher  than  this.  Some  esti- 
mates, based  on  the  calculated  heights  of  shoot- 
ing stars  when  they  first  become  luminous,  place 
the  limit  at  which  the  atmosphere  has  a  density 
sufficient  to  produce  any  observable  effects,  at 
about  200  miles ;  but,  as  has  been  pointed  out 
above,  all  estimates  of  this  kind  are  necessarily 
indefinite  and  unsatisfying.  (For  some  of  the 
questions  raised  in  connection  with  the  limits 
of  the  atmosphere,  see  G.\ses,  Kinetic  Theory 

OF.) 

The  atmosphere,  as  might  be  expected  from 
its  relatively  great  depth,  exhibits  an  absorption 
spectrum  (see  Spectroscope),  and  this  varies  to 
a  certain  extent  from  time  to  time.  A  portion 
of  this  absorption  spectrum  is  due  to  the  pres- 
ence of  water  vapor,  and  the  "rain  bands"  in  the 
spectrum  have  been  utilized  to  a  limited  extent 
(though  not  very  generally)  in  connection  with 
W'eather  predictions.  It  is  also  known  that  the 
atmosphere  is  less  transparent  to  the  rays  at  the 
blue  end  of  the  spectrum  than  to  tliose  in  the 
middle  and  toward  the  red  end.  The  experi- 
ments of  Professor  S.  P.  Langley,  on  the  ex- 
pedition of  the  United  States  Signal  Service  to 
Mount  Whitney,  demonstrated  that  this  selective 
absorption  is  so  great  that  the  sun  would  appear 
distinctly  bluish,  instead  of  white  or  yellowish 
as  it  does  under  actual  conditions,  if  we  could 
see  it  from  a  point  outside  of  our  own  atmo- 
sphere. (See  Langley,  < Researches  on  Solar 
Heat,>  1884.) 

Little  is  yet  known  concerning  the  electrical 
phenomena  of  the  atmosphere.  In  clear,  calm 
weather,  the  atmosphere  appears  to  be  always 
positively  electrified,  with  respect  to  the  earth, 
and  the  diflference  in  potential  increases  greatly 
during  snow  storms  and  high  winds.  In  thun- 
der storms  it  is  subject  to  sudden  and  violent 
oscillations,  as  might  be  expected.  Many  the- 
ories   have    been   proposed   to   account    for    the 


electrification  so  observed,  particularly  for  the 
enormously  high  potentials  that  are  in  evidence 
during  thunder  storms;  but  none  has  yet  met 
with  general  acceptance.  It  was  formerly 
thought  that  the  evaporation  and  condensation 
of  water  had  much  to  do  with  it,  but  no  ex- 
perimental evidence  has  been  adduced  to  justify 
this  hypothesis,  although  physicists  have  given 
it  the  most  careful  attention.  Bartoli  and  Pet- 
tinelli  made  exhaustive  experiments  in  connec- 
tion with  it,  both  with  water  and  with  organic 
compounds;  but  always  without  obtaining  any 
favorable  results.  Kelvin,  MacLean,  and  Gall 
observed  electrification  when  dry  air  bubbled 
through  a  liquid,  the  air  being  electrified  nega- 
tively in  the  case  of  pure  water,  and  positively 
in  the  case  of  sulphuric  acid  or  salt  water.  Ap- 
parently these  are  all  friction  phenomena,  and  it 
is  not  certain  that  they  have  any  bearing  on 
the  electrical  phenomena  of  the  atmosphere. 
We  know,  from  numerous  experiments,  that 
dust  facilitates  the  condensation  of  aqueous  va- 
por, and  numerous  authorities  have  endeavored 
to  trace  a  similar  connection  between  dust  and 
the  development  of  high  electric  potentials  in  the 
atmosphere.  No  certain  results  have  been  at- 
tained, however,  as  may  be  judged  from  the 
fact  that  in  the  12  years  immediately  preceding 
1902,  no  less  than  25  new  thunder-storm  theories 
were  proposed,  6  of  these  being  published  dur- 
ing the  year  1895.  See  also  Meteorology; 
Wind. 

Atmospheric  Engine,  an  early  form  of 
pumping  engine,  invented  by  Papin  in  1695  and 
subsequently  improved  by  Newcomen  and  Watt. 
The  steam  cylinder  is  vertical  and  single  acting, 
the  piston  being  alternately  forced  upward  by 
steam,  and  downward  by  the  pressure  of  the  at- 
mosphere.    See  Steam  and  Steam  Engine. 

Atmospheric  Line.     See  Indicator. 

Atmospheric  Railway,  a  railway  in  which 
the  propulsive  force  designed  to  move  the  car- 
riages along  is  that  of  the  atmosphere.  The 
notion  of  such  a  method  of  locomotion  seems 
first  to  have  suggested  itself,  in  the  latter  part 
of  the  17th  century,  to  the  French  physician 
Papin,  whose  name  is  forever  associated  with 
the  celebrated  digester.  In  1810,  Mr.  Medhurst 
published  a  work  entitled  ^A  New  Method  of 
Conveying  Letters  and  Goods  by  Air.^  His  pro- 
posal was  to  construct  a  close  tunnel,  in  whick 
the  carriages, —  the  last  of  them  provided  with 
a  piston  fitting  the  tunnel, —  should  be  propelled 
by  air  forced  in  behind  them.  Vallance,  of 
Brighton,  in  1825,  recommended,  as  an  improve- 
ment on  this  plan,  the  exhaustion  of  the  air 
in  front.  About  1835,  Henry  Pinkus,  an  Amer- 
ican, residing  in  England,  patented  a  scheme 
for  placing  the  carriages  in  the  open  air,  but 
connecting  them  below  with  a  small  tunnel, 
having  a  narrow  slit  above,  with  ingeniously 
constructed  apparatus  to  render  the  tunnel  tem- 
porarily air-tight,  notwithstanding  the  slit.  Not 
much  was  done  to  carry  out  the  patent ;  and 
Pinkus'  scheme  of  what  he  called  a  pneumatic 
railway  was  considered  as  having  failed,  when, 
in  1840,  Messrs.  Clegg  and  Samuda  brought 
forward  a  somewhat  similar  project  under  the 
name  of  the  "Atmospheric  Railway.''  An  e>- 
perimental  fragment  of  line  laid  down  near 
Wormwood  Scrubs,  just  outside  of  London,  on 
the  Great  Western  line,  was  successful,  a?  was 


ATOLL  — ATOMIC  THEORY 


one  designed  for  actual  use  from  Kingstown 
to  Dalkey,  in  Ireland,  another  between  London 
and  Croydon,  and  a  third  in  South  Devon ; 
but  these  have  been  since  abandoned,  and  all 
that  now  remains  to  represent  this  mode  of 
propulsion  is  the  pneumatic  dispatch  tube,  used 
for  transmitting  parcels  to  short  distances.  See 
Wire-rope. 

Atoll,  a-tol',  the  Polynesian  name  for  coral 
islands  of  the  ringed  type  enclosing  a  lagoon  in 
the  centre.  They  are  found  chiefly  in  the  Pa- 
cific in  archipelagos,  and  occasionally  are  of 
large  size.  Suadiva  Atoll  is  44  miles  by  34, 
and  Rimsky  54  by  20.     See  Coral  Islands. 

Atomic'ity.     See  Valency. 

Atomic  Theory,  in  chemistry,  the  theory 
whose  fundamental  doctrine  is  that  all  matter 
is  composed  of  ultramicroscopic  particles, 
separated  by  spaces  either  entirely  destitute 
of  matter,  or  at  least  containing  it  in  a  very 
attenuated  state.  Such  a  theory  was  taught  by 
Lucretius  and  other  ancient  philosophers,  but 
the  views  of  these  early  writers  were  neces- 
sarily vague  and  indefinite,  and  the  atomic  theo- 
ry, as  held  by  chemists  of  to-day,  is  generally 
attributed  to  the  English'  scientist,  John  Dalton. 
In  the  early  part  of  the  19th  century  Dalton 
called  attention  to  the  fact  that  when  sub- 
stances combine  chemically  they  do  so  in  cer- 
tain definite  proportions.  His  reasoning  was 
something  Hke  this :  In  100  pounds  of  carbon 
monoxid  there  are  42.9  pounds  of  carbon,  and 
57.1  pounds  of  oxygen.  In  the  same  weight  of 
carbon  dioxid  there  are  27.3  pounds  of  carbon, 
and  72.7  pounds  of  oxygen.  These  are  merely 
experimental  facts,  obtainable  by  direct  analy- 
sis, and  they  involve  no  hypothesis  whatever. 
No  particular  relations  are  discernible  among 
the  numbers  stated  above ;  but  Dalton  dis- 
covered that  if  the  same  facts  are  stated  in  a 
different  way,  a  very  remarkable  relation  ap- 
pears. Thus,  suppose  we  calculate  what  weight 
of  oxygen  is  combined  with  each  pound  of  car- 
bon in  'the  two  gases.  In  carbon  monoxid  we 
find  that  there  are  57.1  -^  42.9=  1.33  pounds  of 
oxygen  to  each  pound  of  carbon,  and  in  carbon 
dioxid  we  find  that  there  are  72.7^-27.3  =  2.66 
pounds  to  each  pound  of  carbon.  One  of  these 
numbers  being  exactly  twice  the  other,  we  con- 
clude that  carbon  can  unite  with  oxygen  in  two 
proportions,  the  quantity  of  oxygen,  per  unit 
weight  of  carbon,  being  twice  as  great  in  one 
case  as  in  the  other.  Dalton  observed  similar 
relations  among  other  compounds, —  in  fact,  his 
theory  first  occurred  to  him  while  he  was  study- 
ing the  simpler  compounds  of  carbon  and  hy- 
drogen ;  and  after  turning  the  matter  over  in 
his  mind  he  came  to  the  conclusion  that  the 
facts  can  best  be  explained  by  assuining  that 
matter  consists  of  exceedingly  minute,  indivisi- 
ble particles  or  atoms,  each  of  which  has  a 
definite  weight.  When  two  bodies  combine 
chemically,  he  conceived  their  atoms  to  come  to- 
gether in  pairs,  or  in  threes,  or  fours,  according 
to  the  compound  formed ;  and  he  devised  sym- 
bols to  represent  the  various  elementary  bodies 
and  their  compounds.  Thus  oxygen  was  repre- 
sented by  a  circle  with  a  white  centre,  hydrogen 
by  a  circle  with  a  dot  in  the  centre,  nitrogen 
by  a  circle  crossed  by  a  vertical  straight  line, 
and  carbon  by  a  solid  black  circle.  His  nota- 
tion has  no  advantages  over  the  one  now  in  com- 


mon use,  and  hence,  in  what  follows,  we  shall 
adopt  the  modern  symbols.  As  water  was  the 
only  compound  of  oxygen  and  hydrogen  that 
Dalton  knew,  he  naturally  represented  it  by  the 
symbol  OH,  considering  that  in  it  the  particles 
of  oxygen  and  hydrogen  are  united  in  pairs. 
Taking  the  hydrogen  atom  as  the  unit,  it  fol- 
lows that  the  weight  of  the  oxygen  atom  must 
be  8,  if  Dalton's  view  of  the  composition  of  wa- 
ter is  correct ;  for  experiment  shows  that  in  a 
given  mass  of  water  there  is  eight  times  as 
miuch  oxygen,  by  weight,  as  there  is  hydrogen. 
Carbon  monoxid  was  represented  by  the  sym- 
bol OC,  and  since  for  each  unit  of  its  oxvgen 
(by  weight)  this  gas  contains  ^  of  a  unit  of 
carbon,  it  follows  that  the  atomic  weight  of 
carbon  is  ^  of  that  of  oxygen.  Hence  the 
weight  of  the  carbon  atom  is  6,  the  weight  of 
the  hydrogen  atom  being  arbitrarily  taken,  as 
before,  as  i.  Carbon  dioxid  was  represented  by 
the  symbol  OCO.  Ammonia  gas,  being  the  only 
compound  of  hydrogen  and  nitrogen  known  to 
Dalton,  was  represented  by  the  simple  symbol 
NH ;  and  since  experiment  shows  that  am- 
monia gas  contains  (by  weight)  47^  times  as 
much  nitrogen  as  hydrogen,  the  atomic  weight 
of  nitrogen  must  be  4^,  or  4.67.  In  presenting 
the  foregoing  sketch  of  Dalton's  views,  use  has 
been  made  of  better  experimental  data  than  were 
available  in  his  time,  in  order  that  the  relation 
of  his  system  of  atomic  weights  to  the  modern 
system  may  be  more  clearly  seen.  A  few  of  his 
actual  determinations  of  atomic  weights,  from 
the  imperfect  data  that  he  had,  are  given  in  the 
accompanying  table.     These   were  published   in 


Element 

Atomic     Weight 

Hydrogen 

Nitrogen 

Carbon 

Phosphorus 

Oxygen 

I.O 

4.2 
4.3 
7.2 

S-5 

1805,  and  his  general  theory  of  chemical  com- 
pounds was  given  in  the  first  volume  of  his 
*New  System  of  Chemical  Philosophy,^  pub- 
lished in  1808.  All  subsequent  researches  have 
tended  to  confirm  Dalton's  fundamental  con- 
ception, that  matter  is  discontinuous  in  its  ulti- 
mate nature,  and  consists  of  discrete  atoms 
which  come  together  in  definite  groups  when 
chemical  combination  occurs.  And  we  agree 
with  him,  to-day,  in  the  belief  that  the  so-called 
"atomic  weights*  of  substances  are  really  the 
true  relative  weiglifs  of  their  atoms;  the  weight 
of  the  hydrogen  atom  being  taken  as  unity.  Soon 
after  Dalton's  theory  had  been  announced,  it  was 
observed  that  there  are  simple  volumetric  rela- 
tions among  gases  when  they  combine.  Thus  it 
was  noticed  that  2  volumes  of  hydrogen  com- 
bine with  I  volume  of  oxygen  to  form  water ; 
that  I  volume  of'  hydrogen  combines  with  I 
volume  of  chlorine  to  form  2  volumes  of  hydro- 
chloric acid  gas ;  and  so  on.  This  being  the 
fact,  it  was  suggested  by  Avogadro  in  181 1,  and 
independently  by  Ampere  in  1813,  that  all  gases, 
v/hen  under  the  same  conditions  of  temperature 
and  pressure,  contain  the  same  number  of  con- 
stituent particles  per  unit  of  volume.  This 
principle,  known  as  "Avogadro's  Law."  has 
been  of  the  greatest  service  to  chemistry.  Its 
truth  was  long  questioned,  but  as  it  has  led  to 
results  of  great  value,  and  has  been  found  to  be 
in   conformity    with    all    other   known    facts   of 


ATOMIC  THEORY 


chemistry,  it  is  now  accepted  without  reserve 
as  a  fundamental  principle  of  nature.  More- 
over, the  kinetic  theory  of  gases  has  shown 
that  it  is  a  mathematical  necessity,  if  gases  are 
admitted  to  consist  of  elastic  particles,  flying 
about  through  space,  and  colliding  with  one 
another,  and  with  the  walls  of  their  containing 
vessels.  (See  Gases,  Kinetic  Theory  of.) 
But  if  Avogadro's  law  be  admitted  to  be  a 
fact  of  nature,  it  becomes  necessary,  at  once,  to 
make  an  important  modification  in  Dalton's  the- 
ory. For  it  is  plain  that  if  i  cubic  inch  of  hydro- 
gen, containing  (say)  )i  atoms,  combines  with  i 
cubic  inch  of  chlorine,  also  containing  n  atoms, 
to  produce  2  cubic  inches  of  hydrochloric  acid 
gas,  containing  n  con.stituent  particles  alto- 
gether, then  the  number  of  such  particles  in 
each  cubic  inch  of  the  hydrochloric  acid  gas  is 
only  n  -^  2 ;  whereas  Avogadro's  law  requires 
us  to  admit  the  existence  of  n  particles  per 
cubic  inch,  in  the  compound  gas  as  well  as  in 
each  of  its  constituents.  It  follows,  therefore, 
that  when  the  rl  and  the  CI  combine,  their  ulti- 
mate particles  do  not  simply  unite  in  pairs. 
There  is  no  way  to  explain  the  observed  facts, 
consistently  with  Avogadro's  law,  unless  we  as- 
sume that  the  ultimate  particles  of  H  and  CI  are 
both  compound,  and  that  when  these  gases  com- 
bine, their  particles  split  in  two,  half  a  particle 
of  the  one  combining  with  half  a  particle  of  the 
other,  to  produce  a  whole  particle  of  HCl.  In 
other  words,  Avogadro's  law  compels  us  to 
admit  that  the  little  corpuscles  of  which  mat- 
ter is  composed,  and  which  we  have  heretofore 
called  atoms,  are  really  (in  some  cases,  at 
least)  systems  composed  of  still  smaller  bodies. 
To  distinguish  between  the  two  kinds  of  parti- 
cles —  namely,  between  the  systems  and  their 
component  bodies  —  it  therefore  becomes  neces- 
sary to  introduce  a  new  term.  The  systems  are 
called  "molecules'^  (literally,  "tiny  masses"), 
and  their  constituent  parts  are  still  called 
"atoms."  To  put  the  case  in  another  way,  the 
smallest  parts  into  which  a  given  substance  can 
be  conceived  to  be  divided,  without  changing 
its  chemical  character,  are  called  "molecules" ; 
while  the  word  "atom"  is  reserved  for  the 
smallest  portion  of  a  substance  that  can  enter 
into  a  chemical  combination.  A  molecule  is  a 
system  of  atoms  capable  of  independent  exist- 
ence ;  and  an  atom  is  one  of  the  parts  into 
v/hich  the  molecule  of  a  substance  divides,  as  a 
preliminary  to  entering  into  a  chemical  com- 
bination. 

We  have  but  little  information,  up  to  the 
present  time,  concerning  the  number  of  atoms 
entering  into  the  molecules  of  the  different  ele- 
ments. The  molecules  of  cadmium,  mercury, 
zinc,  and  indium  are  believed  to  be  monatomic, 
at  least  when  those  bodies  are  in  the  gaseous 
state;  so  that  in  these  cases  there  is  no  differ- 
ence between  a  molecule  and  an  atom.  The 
same  is  apparently  true  of  the  newly  discovered 
gases,  argon,  helium,  neon,  krypton,  and  xenon. 
Hydrogen,  nitrogen,  oxygen,  selenium,  and 
tellurium  are  believed  to  be  diatomic :  that  is, 
their  molecules  are  believed  to  contain  two 
atoms  each.  Phosphorus  and  arsenic  are  be- 
lieved to  be  tetratomic,  their  molecules  contain- 
ing four  atoms  each.  Chlorine,  bromine,  and 
iodine  are  diatomic  at  temperatures  below  iioo° 
F.,  but  above  iioo°  their  molecules  are  believed 
(by  some  authorities)   to  break  up  into  single 


atoms,  so  that  at  about  2200°  F.  two  thirds  of 
the  little  particles  present  in  these  substances 
are  free  atoms,  while  the  remaining  one  third 
continue  to  exist  as  diatomic  molecules.  Sul- 
phur is  hexatomic  at  900°  F.,  but  its  molecules 
break  up  somewhat  at  higher  temperatures,  and 
are  practically  all  diatomic  above  1500°.  Ac- 
cording to  this  view  of  the  case,  if  H  stands 
for  the  atom  of  hydrogen  and  CI  for  the  atom 
of  chlorine,  what  happens  when  a  molecule  of 
one  of  these  gases  combines  with  a  molecule  of 
the  other  is  not  simply  H-|-C1=:HC1,  because 
the  molecule  of  hydrogen  must  be  represented 
by  H2  and  that  of  chlorine  by  CI2.  Hence  the 
process  of  combination  consists  of  two  parts,  the 
first  of  which  is 

H,         -f        CI2       =    H  +  H   -f-   Cl  +  Cl 

Molecule        Molecule        Atoms  of       Atoms  of 

of  hydrogen     of  chlorine      hydrogen       chlorine 

The  atoms  of  hydrogen  and  chlorine,  thus 
set  free,  then  combine  to  form  hydrochloric 
acid,  in  the  following  manner : 

H  +  H  -f-  CI  +  CI  =  HCl  +  HCl : 
or  we  may  write  the  whole  operation  in  the  fol- 
lowing simple  manner : 

H.  +  CU  =  2HC1. 

Dalton,  assuming  that  the  formula  of  am- 
monia is  NH,  and  knowing  by  experiment  that 
the  weight  of  the  nitrogen  present  is  4.67  times 
as  great  as  the  weight  of  the  hydrogen,  would 
conclude  that  the  atomic  weight  of  nitrogen  is 
4.67 ;  but  since  experiment  shov/s  that  when 
ammonia  gas  is  separated  into  its  constituent 
elements,  2  volumes  of  the  ammonia  yield  I 
volume  of  nitrogen  and  3  volumes  of  hydrogen, 
Avogadro's  law  requires  us  to  conclude  that  the 
true  formula  for  ammonia  is  NH3 ;  and  hence 
we  must  take  3  X  4.67  =  14  as  the  atomic 
weight  of  nitrogen.  This  example  will  suffice  to 
show  how  Avogadro's  law  obliged  chemists  to 
modify  the  atomic  weights  that  would  be  ob- 
tained by  the  methods  known  to  Dalton.  Di' 
rect  analysis  of  compounds  of  an  element  whose 
atomic  weight  is  desired  will  give  either  that 
atomic  weight  itself,  <5f  some  simple  multiple  or 
submultiple  of  it ;  but  to  decide  between  these 
several  multiples  (as  for  example  between  4.67 
and  14,  in  the  case  cited  above),  it  is  necessary 
to  have  recourse  to  Avogadro's  law,  or  to  some 
other  equally  general  principle.  Unfortunately 
Avogadro's  law  cannot  always  be  applied  to 
the  determination  of  atomic  weights,  because  it 
frequently  happens  that  no  coi^pound  of  the 
element  under  examination  can  be  obtained  in 
the  gaseous  condition,  or  that  the  gaseous  com- 
pounds that  can  be  obtained  are  unsatisfactory, 
for  one  reason  or  another,  and  not  adapted  to 
the  determination  of  the  particular  multiple  that 
should  be  selected  as  the  atomic  weight  of  the 
element.  In  such  cases  recourse  may  be  had 
to  the  law  of  Dulong  and  Petit,  or  to  the  "pe- 
riodic law"  of  Meyer  and  Mendeleeff.  In  1819 
two  distinguished  French  physicists,  MM.  Du- 
long and  Petit,  announced  that  the  specific  heats 
of  13  elements  upon  which  they  had  made  care- 
ful experiments  are  inversely  proportional  to  the 
respective  atomic  weights  of  those  elements.  In 
other  words,  that  the  product  of  the  specific  heat 
and  the  atomic  weight  (which  product  is  called 
the  "atomic  heat")  is  the  same  for  all  of  them. 
This  remarkable  generalization  did  not  meet 
with  universal  and  immediate  acceptance,  be- 
cause   it    failed    in   numerous    cases    unless   the 


ATOMIC  THEORY 


atomic  weights  of  the  corresponding  elements 
were  changed  somewhat  from  the  values  that 
had  been  previously  assigned  to  them  from 
purely  cnemical  considerations.  Thus  in  the 
case  of  bismuth,  platinum,  silver,  and  cobalt,  Du- 
long  and  Petit  substituted  multiples  or  submul- 
tiples  of  the  atomic  weights  then  in  use;  and 
other  changes  were  also  made.  Moreover,  the 
law  could  not  possibly  be  exact,  because  the  spe- 
cific heats  of  bodies  are  not  constant,  but  vary 
with  the  temperature,  and  sometimes  to  a  con- 
siderable extent.  Subsequent  experimenters  have 
paid  great  attention  to  Dulong  and  Petit's  law, 
however,  and  now  that  the  atomic  weights  of 
the  more  familiar  elements  have  been  pretty 
well  determined  in  one  way  and  another,  the 
law  is  found  to  be  surprisingly  near  to  the 
truth,  and  most  of  the  changes  for  which  they 
contended,  in  connection  with  previously  ac- 
cepted atomic  weights,  have  since  been  made. 
A  list  of  ten  elements  whose  specific  heats  have 
been  well  determined  are  presented  in  the  table, 
to  illustrate  the  degree  of  accuracy  with  which 


Element 

Atomic 
Weight 

Specific 
Heat 

("Atomic 
Product 
Heat  ") 

Lithium 

Aluminum.  .  .  . 
Potassium.  . .  . 

Copper 

Silver 

Antimony.  .  .  . 

Tungsten 

Gold 

Bismuth 

Uranium 

7- 
27. 
39- 
63. 

107. 

119. 

183. 

196. 

207. 

238. 

0.941 

0.214 

0.166 

0.0952 

0.0570 

0.0508 

0.0334 

0.0324 

0.0308 

0.0277 

6.6 
5-8 
6.5 
6.0 
6.1 
6.1 
6.1 
6.4 
6.4 
6.6 

a  proposed  element  may  be  expected  to  conform 
to  it.  The  atomic  weights  in  the  table  range 
from  7  to  238,  and  yet  when  we  multipl)'  each 
one  by  the  corresponding  specific  heat,  we  find 
that  the  product  (or "atomic  heat")  remains  con- 
stant, or  nearly  so.  In  some  cases  (notably  for 
boron,  silicon,  and  carbon),  a  large  deviation 
from  the  law  is  observed ;  but  these  exceptions 
cannot  be  considered  in  the  present  place.  As 
an  example  of  the  use  of  Dulong  and  Petit's  law, 
the  case  of  silver  may  be  cited.  Previous  to 
the  publication  of  that  law,  the  atomic  weight 
of  silver  had  been  taken  at  215.  Dulong  and 
Petit  pointed  out  that  if  this  value  were  retained, 
the  product  of  the  atomic  weight  and  the  spe- 
cific heat  greatly  exceeded  the  value  6,  to  which 
many  of  the  other  elements  approximated.  They 
therefore  proposed  to  halve  the  then  accepted 
atomic  weight  of  this  element,  and  to  make  (of 
course)  a  corresponding  change  in  the  formulas 
of  all  compounds  of  silver.  Regnault  con- 
firmed their  experiments,  and  repeated  their  de- 
mand that  the  atomic  weight  be  halved.  But 
Berzelius,  then  the  greatest  living  authority  on 
such  matters,  refused  to  consent  to  the  change, 
on  the  ground  that  silver  and  sodium  com- 
pounds are  isomorphous  (see  Isomorphism), 
and  that  the  analogy  between  the  formulas  of 
their  corresponding  compounds  would  be  de- 
stroyed, if  the  atomic  weight  of  silver  were 
halved,  while  that  of  sodium  was  left  unchanged. 
Regnault  then  determined  the  specific  heat  of 
metallic  sodium,  and  showed  that  the  atomic 
weight  of  that  element  should  also  be  halved,  in 
order  for  it  to  conform  to  Dulong  and  Petit's 
law.  Berzelius'  objection  thus  lost  its  force, 
and  the  atomic  weights  of  both  silver  and   so- 


dium were  ultimately  halved,  by  universal  con- 
sent. The  "periodic  law,"  already  referred  to, 
cannot  be  adequately  treated  in  this  place  (see 
Periodic  Law)  ;  but  it  may  be  said  that  when 
the  known  elements  are  arranged  in  the  order  of 
their  atomic  weights,  it  is  found  that  certain 
attributes  recur  in  a  remarkable  "periodic"  man- 
ner, as  we  pass  from  one  end  of  the  array  to 
the  other.  This  fact  is  of  great  assistance  in  the 
determination  of  atomic  weights,  because  any 
great  error  in  the  assignment  of  the  atomic 
weight  of  an  element  would  throw  that  ele- 
ment, among  others  with  which  it  would  have 
relations,  entirely  out  of  harmony  with  those 
that  prevail  in  other  parts  of  the  array.  This 
"periodic"  classification  is  so  powerful  and  far- 
reaching,  that  the  existence  of  new  and  previous- 
ly unsuspected  elements  has  been  predicted  by 
it,  and  afterward  verified  (in  some  cases)  by 
the  actual  discovery  of  the  elements  themselves. 
The  newly  discovered  gas  "argon"  (q.v.)  affords 
an  interesting  case  of  the  determination  of  an 
atomic  weight  by  indirect  means.  Argon  has  re- 
sisted all  attempts  to  make  it  combine  with  other 
substances,  and  hence  it  has  been  impossible, 
thus  far,  to  analyze  any  of  its  compounds.  Its 
density  was  found,  by  direct  experiment,  to  be 
about  20  times  as  great  as  that  of  hydrogen. 
Now  if,  as  Avogadro's  law  states,  a  cubic  inch 
of  argon  contains  just  as  many  molecules  as  a 
cubic  inch  of  hydrogen  (under  the  same  condi- 
tions of  temperature  and  pressure),  then  it  fol- 
lows that  a  molecule  of  argon  weighs  20  times 
as  much  as  a  molecule  of  hydrogen,  or  40  times 
as  much  as  an  atom  of  hydrogen.  To  find  the 
weight  of  an  atom  of  argon  we  therefore  merely 
have  to  divide  40  by  the  number  of  atoms  that 
there  are  in  its  molecule.  For  an  explanation 
of  the  method  by  which  the  number  of  atoms 
in  the  molecule  of  such  a  gas  is  obtained,  we 
must  refer  to  the  article  G.a.ses,  Kinetic  The- 
ory of;  it  will  suffice,  in  the  present  place,  to 
state  that  it  was  found  that  argon  is  monatomic, 
its  molecule  containing  but  a  single  atom. 
Therefore  the  conclusion  was,  that  the  atomic 
weight  of  argon  is  about  40.  The  "periodic 
law"  was  not  of  any  great  service  in  this  case, 
because  the  properties  of  the  new  gas  proved  to 
be  so  unlike  those  of  any  previously  known  sub- 
stance that  its  proper  place  in  the  general 
scheme  could  not  be  even  guessed  until  its 
atomic  weight  had  been  determined.  The  sub- 
sequent discovery  of  helium  and  the  other  inert 
gases  of  the  same  group  showed,  however,  that 
the  atomic  weight  already  assigned  to  argon  is 
in  reasonably  good  accordance  with  the  periodic 
law. 

Chemists  educated  in  recent  years  can  hardly 
conceive  the  confusion  that  prevailed  half  a 
century  ago,  while  the  principles  that  have  been 
outlined  above  were  struggling  for  recognition 
and  universal  adoption.  There  was  no  agree- 
ment as  to  what  atomic  weights  nor  what  for- 
mulas should  be  used.  Mendeleefif  says  :  "Some 
took  o=:8  and  others  0=16.  Water  in  the 
first  case  would  be  HO  and  hydrogen  peroxid 
HO2,  and  in  the  second  case  (as  is  now  gen- 
erally accepted)  water  would  be  H2O  and  hydro- 
gen peroxid  Hi>02  or  HO.  Discussion  and  con- 
fusion were  reigning.  In  i860  the  chemists  of 
the  whole  world  met  at  Carlsriihe  for  the  pur- 
pose of  arriving  at  some  agreement  on  the  sub- 
ject.    There    was    great    diflterence    of    opinion, 


ATOMIC  THEORY 


and  a  conditional  agreement  (or  compromise) 
was  proposed  and  defended  with  the  greatest 
acumen  by  the  ranks  of  science.  A  conditional 
agreement  was  not  arrived  at,  and  ought  not  to 
have  been;  but  instead  of  it,  truth,  in  the  form 
of  the  law  of  Avogadro-Gerhardt,  received  by 
means  of  the  Congress  a  wider  development,  and 
soon  afterward  conquered  all  minds.  Then  the 
new  so-called  Gerhardt  atomic  weights  establish- 
ed themselves,  and  in  the  seventies  they  had  al- 
ready become  generally  used.  As  soon  as  a  few 
of  the  atomic  weights  had  been  determined  with 
some  little  degree  of  precision,  it  became  evident 
that  they  came  nearer  to  exact  integers  than  one 
would  naturally  expect  them  to,  judging  from 
the  theory  of  probability.  As  early  as  1815, 
Prout  made  the  assumption  (since  known  as 
*Prout's  Hypothesis")  that  the  true  values  of 
these  atomic  weights  are  really  integral  num- 
bers ;  .and  he  drew  the  inference  that  all  elements 
are  composed  of  hydrogen.  Thus  nitrogen, 
whose  atomic  weight  is  almost  exactly  14,  he 
believed  to  contain  14  times  as  many  atoms  to 
the  molecule  as  hydrogen  contains,  and  he  be- 
lieved  the  fundamental  atom  to  be  the  same  in 
each  case.  Ihere  is  nothing  about  this  assump- 
tion which  conflicts  with  what  has  been  said 
above  about  nitrogen  being  a  diatomic  gas ;  for 
all  that  Avogadro's  law  positively  shows  is  that 
when  a  molecule  of  that  gas  divides,  it. splits  into 
halves,  and  therefore  contains  an  even  num- 
ber of  atoms.  In  the  absence  of  any  evidence  to 
the  contrary  we  assume  it  to  be  simply  diatom- 
ic, although  we  must  always  remember  that  fu- 
ture research  may  require  us  to  admit  if  to  be 
tetratomic,  hexatomic,  or  even  more  complex. 
Front's  hypothesis  has  provoked  a  great  deal  of 
discussion,  and  since  it  was  first  proposed  it  has 
been  attacked  and  defended  by  many  distin- 
guished chemists ;  and  although  rather  in  dis- 
favor at  present,  we  can  hardly  yet  say  that  it 
has  been  finally  laid  to  rest.  One  can  scarcely 
glance  at  a  table  of  atomic  weights  (such  as  that 
here  presented)  without  being  impressed  by 
the  manifest  tendency  shown  by  these  atomic 
weights  to  approach  integral  values.  Of  course 
there  are  conspicuous  exceptions  —  chlorine,  for 
example  —  but  the  fact  that  many  of  the  atomic 
weights  are  nearly  integral  demands  some  sort 
of  an  explanation.  What  that  explanation  may 
ultimately  prove  to  be,  we  cannot  now  guess ; 
but  it  is  possible  that  it  will  be  found  in  the  de- 
velopment of  the  remarkable  corpuscular  hy- 
pothesis of  Prof.  J.  J.  Thomson.  (See  Elec- 
tron.) The  atomic  weight  of  oxygen  was  long 
thought  to  be  precisely  16 ;  very  careful  experi- 
ments then  indicated  that  15.96  is  a  closer  ap- 
proximation to  the  real  fact ;  and  it  has  recent- 
ly been  ascertained  that  15.88  is  a  still  better 
approximation.  It  is  a  matter  of  choice  what 
element  is  taken  as  having  the  atomic  weigiit 
unity,  hydrogen  having  been  chosen  for  this 
purpose  merely  because  it  is  the  lightest  element 
known.  For  many  purposes  it  would  be  con- 
venient if  the  atomic  weight  of  oxygen  were 
precisely  16;  but  this  value  is  now  known  to  be 
incompatible  with  the  assumption  that  the  atom- 
ic weight  of  hydrogen  is  i.  Chemists  have 
therefore  been  in  the  habit,  in  recent  years, 
of  multiplying  all  the  atomic  weights,  as  de- 
duced on  the  hypothesis  that  H^=i,  by  a  con- 
stant number,  so  determined  as  to  make  the 
atomic  weight  of  oxygen  come  precisely  16.     It 


happens  that  this  number  is  1.008,  and  this  is 
therefore  the  atomic  weight  that  must  be  as- 
signed to  hydrogen,  if  we  are  to  adopt  a  scale 
on  which  the  atomic  weight  of  oxygen  is  to  be 
precisely  16.  A  majority  of  the  chemists  of  the 
world  now  use  this  modified  scale,  on  which  the 
atomic  weight  of  hydrogen  is  taken  as  1.008; 
and  the  scale  so  established  is  known  as  the 
^'International"  scale  of  atomic  weights.  A  table 
of  the  atomic  weights  of  the  elements,  both  for 
H  =  i,  and  for  0=16,  is  presented  herewith. 

TABLE    OF     ATOMIC     WEIGHTS. 


Element 


Symbol 


Aluminum. . . . 
Antimony.  . .  . . 

Argon 

Arsenic 

Barium 

Bismuth 

Boron 

Bromine 

Cadmium 

Caesium 

Calcium 

Carbon 

Cerium 

Chlorine 

Chromium. .  .  . 

Cobalt 

Columbium.  .  . 

Copper 

Erbium 

Fluorin 

Gadolinium.  .  . 

Gallium 

Germanium. . . 
Glucinum.  .  .  . , 

Gold 

Helium 

Hydrogen. . .  . 

Indium - 

Iodine 

Iridium 

Iron 

Krypton 

Lanthanum.  . . 

Lead 

Lithium 

Magnesium.  . . 
Manganese.  . . 

Mercury 

Molybdenum.  , 
Neodymium.  . 

Neon 

Nickel 

Nitrogen 

Osmium 

Oxygen 

Palladium.  . .  . 
Phosphorus.  . . 

Platinum 

Potassium.  . .  . 
Praseodymium 
Rhodium.  .  .  . 
Rubidium.  .  . 
Ruthenium.  . 
Samarium.  .  . 
Scandium.  .  . 
Selenium.  . .  , 

Silicon 

Silver 

Sodium 

Strontium.  . . 

Sulphur 

Tantalum.  . . 
Tellurium.  .  . 
Thallium.  .  .  . 
Thorium.  . .  . 
Thulium.  . . . 

Tin 

Titanium.  .  .  . 
Tungsten.  . . 
Uranium.  . . . 
Vanadium.  . . 

Xenon 

Ytterbium.  . . 
Yttrium.  ... 

Zinc. 

Zirconium.  .  . 


A! 
Sb 
A 
As 
Ba 
Bi 
B 
Br 
Cd 
Cs 
Ca 
C 
Ce 
CI 
Cr 
Co 
Cb 
Cu 
E 
F 
Gd 
Ga 
Ge 
Gl 
Au 
He 
H 
In 
I 

Ir 
Fe 
Kr 
La 
Pb 
Li 
Mg 
Mn 
Hg 
Mo 
Nd 
Ne 
Ni 
N 
Os 
O 
Pd 
P 
Pt 
K 
Pr 
Rh 
Rb 
Ru 
Sa 
Sc 
Se 
Si 
Ag 
Na 
Sr 
S 

Ta 
Te 
Tl 
Th 
Tu 
Sn 
Ti 
W 
U 
V 
X 
Yt 
Y 
Zn 
Zr 


Atomic     Weight 


H=i. 


0=16. 


26.9 
1 19.1 

39-6 

74.4 
136.4 
206.9 

10.9 

7936 

III. 6 

132. 

39-7 
1 1. 91 

139- 

35.18 

51-7 

58.56 

93-3 
63.1 

164.8 
18.9 

155- 
69-5 
71-5 
903 

195.7 
4- 
I. 

113.1 

125-9 

191-5 
55-6 
81.2 

137. 

205-35 
6.98 
24.18 
54-6 

198.8 
95-3 

142-5 
19.9 
58.3 
13-93 

189.6 
15.88 

105.2 
30.77 

193-3 
38.86 

1394 

102.2 
84.76 

100.9 

148.9 
43-8 
78.5 
28.2 

107.12 

22.83 

86.94 

31-83 
181.6 
126. 

202.6 
230.8 
170. 
I  17.6 

47-7 
182.6 
237-7 

50.8 
127. 
172. 

88.3 

64.9 

90. 


27.1 
120. 
39-9 
75- 
137-4 
208.S 

1 1. 
79.96 
112.4 
133- 
40. 

12. 
140. 

35-45 

52-1 

59- 

94- 

63-6 
166. 

19- 
156. 

70. 

72. 
9-1 
197.2 
4- 

i.oo» 
114. 
126.8s 
193- 

56. 

81.8 
138 
206.9 
7.03 

24.36 

55- 
200.3 

96. 
143.6 

20. 

58.7 

14.01 
191. 

16. 
106. 

31. 
194.8 

39.  IS 
140.5 
103. 

8s-4 
101.7 
ISO. 

44.1 

79.1 

28.4 
107.93 

23.05 

87.6 

32.06 
183. 
127. 
204.1 

171. 
118.5 

48.1 
184. 
239.5 

51-2 
128. 

173- 
89- 
65-4 
90.7 


ATONEMENT 


The  many  questions  that  suggest  themselves 
as  to  the  size  and  physical  nature  of  atoms  be- 
long properly  to  the  domain  of  physics,  and  are 
discussed  under  the  heading  Molecular  Theory. 
The  day  will  doubtless  come  when  the  phy- 
sicist and  the  chemist  will  find  some  common 
ground  for  the  discussion  of  the  nature  of  atoms 
and  molecules ;  but  at  present  these  two  sciences 
deal  with  such  widely  different  classes  of  phe- 
nomena that  no  such  common  ground  can  be 
discerned.  The  atom  and  the  molecule  of  the 
physicist  appear  to  be  hardly  capable  of  pos- 
sessing the  properties  that  the  chemist  demands ; 
but  this  difficulty  may  one  day  be  overcome.  See 
Chemistry  ;  Electron  ;  Molecular  Theory  ; 
Gases.  Kinetic  Theory  of;  Valency;  Spectro- 
scope ;  Periodic  Law.      ^  ^  Risteen,  Ph.D. 

Editorial  Staff  ^-Encyclopedia  Americana? 

Atonement.  The  Atonement  is  the  caption 
under  which  Christian  theology  introduces  the 
discussion  of  the  application  of  the  merits  of 
the  life  and  death  of  Christ  to  the  reconcilia- 
tion of  fallen  man  to  his  Creator,  as  well  as 
of  the  acceptance  thereof  by  the  Divinity.  It 
expresses  the  crowning  effect  of  the  incarna- 
tion. It  is,  in  this  sense,  an  attempt  at  an  ex- 
planation of  the  coming  of  the  Redeemer.  In 
a  general  way  it  means  compensation,  restora- 
tion, expiation,  satisfaction,  ransom.  It  is  a 
word  made  up  etymologically  of  at  and  one, 
and  suggests  that  two  who  were  divided  have 
become  one  again.  It  embraces  all  that  the 
Saviour  accomplished  to  nullify  the  effects  of 
sin.  The  atonement  is  considered  to  have  re- 
paired the  consequences  of  the  primal  trans- 
gression, all  the  moral  consequences,  say  some, 
say  most  of  the  authorities.  As  to  the  physical 
outcome  of  the  rebellion  in  Eden,  it  claims  no 
change  save,  that  through  it,  man  has  been 
enabled  to  bear  patiently  and  meritoriously  all 
the  ills  of  existence  and  to  wrest  from  what  is 
evil  a  good  that  worketh  unto  satisfaction.  The 
atonement  idea  is  co-existent  with  what,  in 
order  to  avoid  conflict  with  those  who  think 
otherwise,  may  be  called  Biblical  humanity ; 
that  is,  the  race  whose  chronicle  is  found  in 
the  pages  of  Scripture.  It  has  no  meaning  for 
those  who  reject  the  inspiration  of  Holy  Writ 
or  for  those  whose  beliefs  are  antagonistic  to 
Christianity.  With  these,  if  there  be  any  atone- 
ment at  all,  it  lies  in  an  evolution,  by  virtue 
of  which  man  develops  from  worse  to  better 
and  in  the  ^'process  of  the  suns''  reaches,  un- 
aided, to  a  deliverance  and  a  perfection  far 
surpassing  even  the  dreams  of  Christianity. 
The  subject  is  a  vast  one.  It  has  many  and 
far-reaching  ramifications  which  are  constantly 
in  contact  with  every  issue  of  soteriological 
study.  To  confine  it  within  the  limits  of  an 
encyclopedic  article  necessarily  cramps  it  and 
scarcely  -makes  for  completeness.  All  that  can 
be  done  is  to  present  its  general  features,  the 
basis  on  which  it  rests,  and  some  of  the  opin- 
ions which  deserve  attention  in  the  different 
stages  of  development  incidental  to  its  growth. 
The  fact  upon  which  the  doctrine  reposes  is 
that  narrated  in  Genesis  iii.,  wherein  the  pre- 
varication of  the  first  couple  is  said  to  draw 
on  them  and  posterity  the  curse  of  the  Al- 
mighty, which  He  tempers  with  the  promise  of 
a  Redeemer  to  come.  This  violation  nf  Gnd's 
command,    while    it    rendered    Adam    and    Eve 


criminal  and  placed  them  under  a  ban,  was  at 
the  same  time  an  insult  outraging,  as  much  as 
anything  finite  could,  the  infinite  perfections. 
Thus  a  condition  was  brought  about  which 
consigned  man  to  punishment  and  left  an  af- 
front against  the  Creator  to  be,  in  some  way 
or  other,  atoned  for.  In  this  plight  the  whole 
race  was  involved  and  became  ostracized  from 
God.  All  humanity  was  confronted  by  a  God 
whose  infinite  justice  called  for  an  indemnity 
of  some  kind  as  a  reparation  for  the  indignity 
offered  to  His  perfections,  by  a  penal  sentence 
to  be  endured,  by  the  loss  of  innocence,  by  the 
unbridling  of  concupiscence  and  by  a  slavery 
which  reduced  it  to  the  thrall  of  the  prince  of 
the  powers  of  darkness.  Immediately  is  per- 
ceived the  gaping  breach  which  the  atonement 
had  to  bridge  over.  Could  the  restoration  be 
achieved  by  man  himself  and  alone,  or  by  en- 
tire humanity?  The  general  answer  is  a  nega- 
tive. It  is  clear  from  the  attitude  into  which 
man  was  forced  by  his  sin  what  the  questions 
are  which  in  this  discussion  call  for  a  reply. 
The  views  entertained  by  theologians  are  not 
marked  by  very  harmonious  notes.  There  is  a 
very  great  discrepancy  of  opinion.  Like  other 
doctrines,  that  of  the  atonement  did  not  come 
into  existence  full  grown.  It  was  not  formu- 
lated in  the  beginning.  Hints  of  its  nature  are 
found  in  the  New  Testament.  By  Christians 
up  to  the  time  of  the  Reformation  it  was  re- 
ceived from  individual  teachers,  by  whom,  as 
by  the  laity,  it  was  instinctively  grasped,  though 
scarcely  expressed,  and  thus  in  many  forms 
traversed  the  duration  of  nearly  15  centuries. 
Whenever,  during  all  that  period,  it  was 
treated  by  the  fathers  and  doctors  and  other 
writers,  there  was  unanimity  on  this  one  point : 
that  the  atonement  was  effected  by  the  incar- 
nate Son  of  God  and  that  the  satisfaction  was 
complete  and  answered  all  the  exactions  of  a 
just  Deity,  while  it  simply  deluged  man  with  a 
sea  of  spiritual  blessings.  Their  contention, 
summed  up,  was  that  it  was  in  the  absolute 
power  of  God  to  pardon  man  without  any 
atonement,  without  sending  His  Christ.  In 
His  wisdom,  however,  consulting  not  only  the 
great  wrong  perpetrated  against  Him,  but  the 
welfare  of  His  creatures.  He  decreed  the  in- 
carnation of  His  divine  Son,  the  second  person 
of  the  Blessed  Trinity.  That  Son  incarnated 
was  both  God  and  man,  possessing  two  natures 
in  one  person.  This  person  was  divine.  As 
all  acts  are  attributable  to  the  personality  of 
the  individual,  it  followed  that  the  acts  of  the 
God-man  were  divine,  and  so,  whether  proceed- 
ing from  the  human  nature  or  not,  they  were 
infinite  in  value.  It  was  necessary  for  an  atone- 
ment act  to  have  infinity,  because  sin,  though 
committed  by  a  finite  agent,  was  in  a  measure 
infinite,  si.nce  its  malice  was  directed  towards 
a  being  infinite  in  nature.  Theologians  made 
the  distinction  that  sin  was  finite  subjectively, 
but  objectively  infinite.  The  divinity  of  the 
person  made  the  atonement  secure  on  the  side 
of  the  Father.  Man  was  doubly  privileged. 
The  Redemption  of  Christ  obtained  for  him, 
through  grace  which  had  its  efficacy  in  the 
blood  of  the  Saviour,  the  remission  of  sin,  and 
strengthened  him  against  his  own  weakness, 
his  own  passion  and  the  wiles  of  the  enemy 
from  wh-^se  thraldom  he  had  been  rescued. 
In  a  word,  the  insult  to  the  Father  was  wiped 


ATONEMENT 


out;  man  was  restored  to  the  old  friendship, 
was  endowed  with  the  means  of  justification 
and  sanctification  and  his  feet  put  on  a  path  to 
the  vision  of  God,  in  the  enjoyment  of  which 
sin  becomes  an  impossibiHty  and  happiness  is 
supreme.  With  very  few  exceptions  this,  more 
or  less  completely,  was  the  form  the  atonement 
took  in  the  thoughts  of  the  large  majority  of 
teachers  of  the  Church  for  a  decade  and  half 
of  centuries.  They  labored  to  hold  up  the  dig- 
nity and  liberality  of  the  atonement.  The  Atoner 
was  Christ,  and  He  atoned  through  His  sac- 
rifice on  the  cross  in  a  manner  ample  beyond 
all  human  reckoning.  But  the  atonement  was 
not  a  thing  of  Christianity  only;  its  effects 
reached  back  to  the  whole  past  of  man,  for  the 
Lamb  who  atoned  was  <'slain  from  the  founda- 
tion of  the  world.'*  They  argued  that  the  re- 
demption was  universal  as  to  time  and  place 
and  for  all  the  generations  of  man.  All  the 
peoples  before  Christ  came  within  its  pale.  No 
man,  however  incult,  fell  outside  of  the  plan 
of  redemption.  Everyone  everywhere  could 
find  its  blessings  within  his  reach.  It  wrought 
from  alpha  to  omega  on  the  race.  Not  the 
chosen  people  only,  but  the  Gentiles  as  well 
participated  in  its  benefits.  It  was  taught  in 
the  period  under  reflexion  that  just  as  soon 
as  tht  Pvcdeemer  was  foretold  to  Adam  and 
Eve  the  atonement  began  to  energize  in  some 
inexplicable  manner,  but  always  with  a  view 
to  the  merits  of  Qirist,  who  was  to  come  in 
the  fulness  of  time  and  pay  the  ransom.  The 
concession  of  the  Creator  in  granting  a  Re- 
deemer who  was  to  make  plenary  atonement  for 
every  man  until  the  passing  away  of  the  race 
was,  before  the  incarnation,  a  promissory  note  — 
if  it  may  be  allowed  to  use  the  term  —  a  prom- 
issory note  of  salvation  accepted  and  honored 
by  the  Maker,  who  knew  that  at  the  appointed 
time  a  priceless  amount  would  be  stored  up 
for  its  redemption.  The  atonement  idea,  that 
is,  the  necessity  of  making  amends  to  a  Ruler 
whose  mandates  had  been  and  were  being  vio- 
lated, prevailed  everywhere  in  the  ancient 
world  and  was  not  confined  to  the  descendants 
of  Abraham.  Sacrifices,  propitiatory  and  ex- 
piatory, so  common  among  the  ancient  idolators, 
are  evidence  sufficient.  Among  them  was  an 
uppermost  thought  that  reconciliation  with  God 
or  wMth  the  gods  could  not  be  brought  about 
by  individual  efforts  alone.  The  sacrifices  of 
Israel  emphasize  the  essence  of  all  atonement. 
A  victim  was  always  called  for.  Something 
outside  of  the  transgressor  had  to  be  offered 
to  effect  the  lifting  of  the  ban.  That  blood 
offerings,  or  others,  were  ineffective,  save  in- 
directly and  by  a  mysterious  connection  with 
the  oblation  of  Christ,  is  admitted  throughout 
the  extent  of  ante-Reform  tradition.  In  the 
Jewish  mind  the  concept  of  sacrifice  in  a  mul- 
titude of  cases  connoted  effusion  of  blood.  The 
Hebrews  were  instructed  that  transgressions 
placed  on  the  back  of  the  victim  died  with  the 
victim.  This  only  in  a  measure,  for  it  does 
not  appear  that  they  professed  that  after  the 
death  of  the  victim  the  guilt  of  the  sacrificers 
was  cancelled  without  any  further  act  or  co- 
operation on  their  part.  Repentance  was  nec- 
essary and  each  had  to  do  his  utmost  to  share 
by  individual  action  in  the  redeeming  work  of 
the  sacrificial  object.  The  vexed  subject  of 
imputation    (q.    v.)    recurs    frequently   but   can- 


not be  touched  here.  The  religion  of  the  Jews 
was  distinguished  by  the  number  and  variety 
of  its  sacrifices.  But  atonement  was  ever  be- 
fore their  eyes.  Yom  hakkippurim,  or  Day 
of  Atonement,  is  another  proof.  It  was  a 
penitential  occasion.  Its  austerity  was  rigor- 
ous. From  the  evening  of  the  Qth  to  the  even- 
ing of  the  loth  of  the  seventh  month  no  bodily 
labor  could  be  done,  no  food  taken  under  pen- 
alty of  death.  All  the  ritual  was  carried  out 
by  the  high  priest,  who  offered  sacrifices  for 
the  sins  of  himself,  of  the  priesthood  and  of 
the  people.  For  the  typical  meaning  of  these 
ceremonies  see  Heb.  viii-x,  and  for  a  descrip- 
tion of  the  solemnity  cf.  Lev.  xvi.  These  types 
ceased  with  the  advent  of  Christ.  Mention 
has  already  been  made  of  the  gradual  develop- 
ment of  the  doctrine  of  atonement.  From  the 
death  of  the  Saviour  it  was  admitted  that  "Je- 
sus died,  the  just  for  the  unjust,  to  redeem 
mankind  from  the  bondage  of  corruption  and 
to  restore  the  broken  connection  between  heav- 
en and  earth.''  Different  ways  of  looking  at 
this  fundamental  axiom  of  Christianity  in  gen- 
eral, have  suggested  various  explanations.  The 
conditions  of  the  dispute  led  to  many  questions 
which  relate  to  the  incarnation.  The  one  thing 
the  teaching  Church  held  to  was  that  Christ 
as  man  is  the  first  and  supreme  mediator  be- 
tween God  and  man  (i  Tim.  ii.  5).  Because 
as  man  He  was  a  created  being  He  is  below 
God,  but  is  above  all  creatures  by  reason 
of  the  plenitude  of  His  grace  and  glory.  As 
man  He  offered  to  God  a  satisfaction  so  singu- 
larly adequate  that  by  it  was  destroyed  "the 
handwriting  of  the  decree"  so  adverse  to  us, 
and  by  it  also  man  was  endowed  with  all  that 
is  requisite  to  be  in  friendly  association  with 
God,  by  grace  in  the  present  and  by  glory  in 
the  future.  Others,  ministerially  or  otherwise, 
may  co-operate  in  uniting  God  and  man,  but 
Christ  is  the  chief  and  first  and  literally  the 
only   mediator    (Billot). 

The  doctrine  of  the  incarnation  in  its  en- 
tirety illumines  this  subject,  but  of  it  and  of 
other  cognate  subjects,  such  as  justification  and 
original  sin,  notice  cannot  be  taken  here.  The 
atonement,  as  such,  has  not  been  treated  spe- 
cifically by  early  writers,  and  it  would  be  diffi- 
cult to  put  one's  finger  on  any  dogmatic  decree 
in  which  it  is  definitely  formulated.  Just  as 
from  definitions  here  and  there  spread  over 
the  volume  of  authoritative  teaching  the  na- 
ture of  the  atonement  is  elicited,  so  from  the 
utterances  of  ecclesiastical  writers  one  is  able 
to  reach  a  conclusion  in  harmony  with  the  af- 
firmation of  tradition.  The  view  still  claiming 
attention  bases  itself  on  Scripture.  Texts  there- 
from are  not  necessary  for  the  present  writing: 
they  embrace  the  prophetic  language  of  the 
Old  and  the  literal  language  of  the  New  Tes- 
tament. The  Apostolic  Fathers,  from  Clement 
to  Polycarp,  are  satisfied  with  stating  the  fun- 
damental idea  that  "Christ  died  for  us"  and 
for  our  sakes.  Irenaeus  and  Origen  insist  that 
a  price  had  to  be  paid  to  Satan  because  Satan 
had  gained  a  rightful  mastery  over  and  own- 
ership of  men,  for  which  the  only  equivalent 
was  the  blood  of  Jesus.  This  view  was  never 
universal,  but  now  and  again  it  is  brought  for- 
ward, even  up  to  the  time  of  Peter  Lombard. 
The  Fathers  and  writers  from  Origen  to  An- 
selm  wrote  more  systematically  on  nearly  every 


ATONEMENT 


topic,  but  were  unanimous  in  maintaining  that 
the  death  of  Christ  was  the  sacrifice  unique  and 
par  excellence  and  amply  satisfactory.  Some 
do,  others  do  not,  endeavor  to  explain  whether 
and  why  this  sacrifice  was  imperative.  This  is 
true  of 'the  Church  East  and  West,  Greek  and 
Latin.  Two  ideas  are  prominent :  the  infinite 
value  of  the  human  acts  of  Christ,  and  the  need 
of  grace  for  human  weakness.  More  stress  is 
placed  on  the  incarnation  than  on  its  concom- 
itant effecting  of  the  atonement.  "The  work  of 
mediation  was  summed  up  but  not  exhausted 
in  the  dying.  He  was  a  priest  and  a  sacrifice 
from  the  beginning,  and  is  and  always  will  be. 
The  imitability  of  Christ's  career  was  not 
confined  to  the  death  on  the  cross,  but  as  well 
to   the   whole   existence"    (Newman). 

Occasionally  a  peculiar  view  would  startle 
the  world,  but  without  changing  the  generally 
accepted  opinion.  Anselm  (1033)  in  his  <Cur 
Deus  homo^  vigorously  opposes  the  view  of 
Origen  and  others  concerning  the  so-called  bar- 
gain by  which  the  Almighty,  through  Christ, 
purchased  back  the  souls  of  men  from  the 
grasp  of  Satan.  Then  came  the  age  of  the 
Schoolmen.  It  has  been  the  custom  to_  look 
upon  these  men  as  triflers  and  hair  splitters, 
but  what  Huxley  says  of  Saint  Thomas  is,  with 
modification,  applicable  to  many  of  these  very 
imperfectly  known  and  much  abused  investi- 
gators: "His  marvelous  grasp  and  subtlety  of 
intellect  seem  to  me  to  be  almost  without  a 
parallel"  (Science  and  Morals).  They  all  united 
in  declaring  that  Christ  by  His  sacrifice  was 
the  Atoner.  They  differ  in  their  explanation  of 
some  points  connected  with  the  incarnation 
which  are  irrelevant  here.  They  are  broad  and 
moderate  in  their  views.  Christ  not  only  freed 
us  from  sin,  says  Aquinas,  but  won  for  us 
grace  and  glory,  and  it  was  fitting  that  by 
death  He  should  overcome  the  power  of  death, 
but  His  death  need  not  have  been  a  violent  one. 
Over  the  questfon  whether  the  incarnation  was 
an  absolute  necessity  or  only  something  con- 
gruous, they  run  through  every  note  of  the 
gamut  of  argument.  Duns  Scotus  is  one  of 
the  principal  figures  in  the  discussion.  Among 
other  views  he  maintains  that  a  mere  man 
conceived  without  sin,  or  a  good  angel,  could 
have  made  satisfaction  for  the  entire  race  had 
it  pleased  God  to  accept  it.  Express  treatises 
on  the  atonement  cannot  be  found.  It  is  al- 
ways treated  as  an  adjunct  of  the  incarnation. 
There  have  been  many  pious  and  devotional 
essays  on  this  topic.  Since  the  days  of  the 
scholastics  all  Catholic  analysis  of  the  atone- 
ment can  be  traced  back  to  them  or  to  the 
Fathers  and  doctors.  The  Reform  opens  with 
the  15th  century  of  modern  times,  and  those 
leaders  only  who  have  left  an  indelible  impress 
upon  their  followers  will  receive  attention. 
Arians,  and  those  who  reject  the  divinity  of 
Christ  directly  or  by  implication,  fall  outside 
this   inquiry. 

An  insistent  tenet  of  the  Reformers  is,  that 
Christ  reconciled  God  to  us,  whereas  the  Tri- 
dentine  Council  teaches  that  He  reconciled  us 
to  God.  The  Divinity  by  the  very  force  of  the 
divine  perfections.  Catholics  hold,  remained  in 
itself  unchanged.  The  fall  affected  man,  that 
is,  man  by  his  transgression  placed  himself  vol- 
untarily under  the  ban  of  infinite  justice  and 
willingly    subjected    himself    to    all    the    conse- 


quences of  his  disobedience.  Man  alone 
changed.  God's  attitude  was  always  the  same. 
In  one  of  his  bulls  Leo  X.  (1520)  condemned 
41  propositions  of  Luther,  some  of  which  in 
one  way  or  another  refer  to  the  doctrine  of  the 
atonement.  In  the  sixth  session  of  the  Council 
of  Trent  the  decrees  on  justification,  on  the 
advent  of  Christ,  on  justification,  etc.,  set  forth 
a  basis  for  views  on  the  Atonement  which  are 
in  opposition  to  those  of  Luther  and  others. 
Luther  denies  the  supernatural  character  of 
man's  original  sanctity.  God,  according  to  Lu- 
ther, planted  in  the  very  essence  of  human 
nature  the  capabilities  and  the  acts  of  virtue. 
Hence  no  freedom  of  will.  Sin  is  of  the  es- 
sence of  man.  Man  is  wholly  evil.  Calvin 
asserts  that  everything  coming  from  man's  cor- 
rupt nature  is  damnable  and  so  can  in  no  way 
co-operate  in  the  atonement.  It  must  all  occur 
outside  of  himself.  He  contributes  nothing. 
He  is  justified;  he  is  reconciled  to  God,  or 
God  is  reconciled  to  him  through  faith  in  the 
merits  of  Christ,  whose  obedience  becomes 
man's  obedience  and  whose  righteousness  be- 
comes man's  justification.  In  this  way  the  Cre- 
ator remits  sin,  reputes  man  just  and  rewards 
him  with  eternal  life.  Christ  made  satisfaction 
for  sinners  in  two  ways :  by  fulfilling  the  law  in 
their  place  and  by  enduring  the  curse  and  pen- 
alty of  the  law.  Everything  in  the  atonement  be- 
comes vicarious.  Another  person  is  substituted 
for  the  debtor  and  the  criminal.  These  doc- 
trines are  gathered  from  the  Epistles  of  Saint 
Paul.  Only  the  bare  statement  has  been  here 
presented  of  the  doctrine  of  the  Reformers. 
A  review  of  the  reasons  advanced  to  sustain 
this  teaching  would  repay  the  student.  Those 
who  came  after  Luther  and  Calvin  and  Me- 
lancthon  modified  in  a  lesser  or  greater  degree 
this  teaching  and  modified  the  idea  of  trans- 
ference as  atonement  and  demanded  at  least 
some  co-operation,  on  the  part  of  the  sinner. 
Imputation  soon  became  the  great  battleground 
of  controversy.  Investigation  will  reveal  that 
in  the  Protestant  churches  there  has  been  a 
recoil  from  the  positive  utterances  of  the  Re- 
formers. The  disparity  existing  between  the 
above  and  what  can  be  gleaned  from  the  early 
and  modern  history  of  the  Catholic  Church  is 
undoubtedly  marked.  So  much  so  that  Pusey 
in  his  introductory  essay  to  'Essays  on  the 
Reunion  of  Christendom^  observes:  "The  Lu- 
theran and  the  Catholic  belief  are  as  like  two 
different  religions  as  any  can  be,  wherein  the  be- 
lief as  to  the  adorable  Trinity  and  the  incarna- 
tion is  the  same.  The  zvhole  doctrine  of  the  ap- 
plication of  the  merits  of  Christ  to  fallen  man 
and  the  condition  of  man  in  consequence  of 
the  fall  is  radically  different."  In  fact,  the 
difference  is  so  radical  that  there  is  no  possi- 
bility of  confounding,  one  with  the  other.  All 
Protestant  theology  from  the  rise  of  that  re- 
ligion is  a  literature  which  is  within  the  reach 
of  any  one  to  consult,  and  further  quotations 
or  references  are  unnecessary.  "Just  as  the 
justice  of  man  binds  the  judge  to  'punish  the 
criminal,  so  is  some  penalty  exacted  from  man 
by  virtue  of  the  same  attribute,  which,  of 
course,  is  more  perfect  in  the  divinity.  It  is 
not  the  spirit  of  vengeance  which  animates 
God.  In  spite  of  the  transgression  God's  love 
remains  as  it  was  in  the  beginning,  without 
diminution  or  alteration  of  any  kind.     The  Son 


ATONEMENT 


of  man  died  for  all  men  sufficiently,  for  the 
elect  efficiently.  Satisfaction  is  required  of 
man.  But  that  satisfaction  is  amply  made  by 
man  by  believing,  who  thus  becomes  one  with 
the  Redeemer  and  shares  with  Him  in  the  re- 
demption He  wrought  as  the  Head  of  the  Re- 
deemed. This  is  enough  to  excite  love  and 
repentance     and    the    striving    after     holiness." 

Everything  bracketed  above,  though  taken 
from  different  writers,  expresses  the  view  of  the 
Atonement  as  held  by  Protestant  expounders. 

In  later  years,  both  in  Germany  and  else- 
where, the  theology  outside  of  the  Catholic 
Church,  while  apparently  concordant  with  the 
opinion  of  the  necessity  of  man's  co-operation, 
harks  back,  consciously  or  unconsciously,  to  the 
belief  of  Luther  and  his  immediate  disciples  that 
Christ  atoned  fully,  and  so  fully  that  the  sinner 
need  only  by  some  interior  act  appropriate  to 
himself  the  work  already  done  by  the  Saviour. 
Where  there  is  any  insistence  that  man  must 
of  himself  do  something  positive,  in  so  much 
is  that  insistence  at  variance  with  the  thought 
that  in  the  beginning  of  the  Reformation  was 
spread  broaocast  among  the  adherents  of  the 
New  Religion.  Might  there  not  be  drawn  a 
distinction  between  atonement  and  salvation? 
The  atonement  would  mean  that  Christ  had 
done  all  that  was  necessary  to  reconcile  man 
with  God,  but  there  could  be  no  salvation  un- 
less man  turned  to  God  through  the  path  of 
the  atonement  and  by  individual  repentance  and 
satisfaction  so  comported  himself  as  to  bring 
by  voluntary  acts  his  life  into  entire  harmony 
with  the  will  of  his  Creator.  No  solution  of 
the  evidently  complicated  nature  of  the  atone- 
ment will  compel  conviction  which  does  not 
answer  adequately  the  following  questions : 
What  is  the  relation  of  the  Atonement  to  an 
offended  God?  What  was  His  acceptance  of 
the  sacrifice?  How  far  did  that  sacrifice  in 
itself  go  towards  bringing  God  and  man  to- 
gether? Was  it  alone  enough  to  liberate  man 
so  absolutely  that  after  the  death  of  the  victim 
no  more  was  expected  on  his  part?  How  were 
the  outraged  excellences  of  the  Godhead  —  His 
justice.  His  mercy.  His  love  —  compensated  for 
the  injury  done  them  by  sin?  Did  that  injury 
really  affect  the  divine  nature?  It  may  be  ad- 
vanced here  that  in  every  theory  which  pos- 
sesses any  serious  claim  to  assent  the  Su- 
preme Being  remained  unimpaired  in  the  beauty 
of  His  perfection,  and  it  was  due  to  the  in- 
finite justice  of  God  to  demand  a  congruous 
if  not  a  condign  reparation.  What  part  does 
Satan  play  in  the  plan  of  redemption?  Has  a 
solution  been  presented?  Is  it  and  will  it  al- 
ways be  an  impenetrable  mystery?  It  is  a  mat- 
ter so  significant  for  Christians  that  they  have 
the  right  to  expect  from  some  form  of  Chris- 
tianity a  clear  exposition  based  on  Scripture 
and  authoritative  teaching.  For  Christians  it 
means  salvation,  regarding  which  certainty  is 
security  and  doubt  a  calamity. 

Thus  much  for  Christianity,  which  empha- 
sizes the  necessity  of  an  atonement.  All  Chris- 
tians admit  Christ  as  the  fountain  head  of  all 
reconciliation  of  man  with  God.  But  the  world 
is  far  from  being  entirely  or  even  largely 
Christian.  In  the  world  to-day  there  are  about 
1,500,000,000  human  souls,  of  which  number 
only  a  little  over  400,000,000  have  received  the 


religion  of  Christ.  Half  of  these,  it  is  com- 
puted are  Catholics,  the  remainder  are  Prot- 
estants or  Catholics  of  some  kind  or  other,  but 
divided  from  the  See  of  Rome.  The  rest  of 
the  race  is  either  Jewish  or  Mohammedan  or 
belongs  to  some  Oriental  form  of  worship  or 
is  out  and  out  heathen.  Will  Christianity  as- 
sume the  responsibility  of  stating  that  beyond 
its  pale  the  atonement  does  not  reach  and  that 
therefore  for  the  pagan  there  is  hope  neither 
here  nor  hereafter?  Some  mention  has  already 
been  made  of  the  Jews  and  their  manner  of 
atonement.  Their  views  have  crystallized  into 
the  shape  which  their  orthodox  members  adopt 
to-day  and  which  they  base  upoji  certain  books 
of  the  Old  Testament,  upon  their  Talmud  and 
their  Targum.  It  differs  in  no  way  materially 
from  the  teachings  of  Piloses  and  the  Law  and 
the  Prophets.  They  lived  in  the  past  as  they 
are  living  now  in  the  hope  of  a  great  Deliverer 
to  whom  every  act  of  worship  bore  and  bears 
reference.  In  some  way  or  other  these  typical 
ceremonies,  it  is  said,  influenced  Jehovah  to 
make  them  the  promise:  "I  will  be  merciful  to 
their  iniquities,  and  their  sins  I  will  remember  no 
more.^>  (Hebrews  viii,  12.)  The  space  of  this 
article  is  inadequate  to  include  even  the 
most  summary  account  of  the  atonement  idea 
as  it  was  understood  by  the  nations  outside  of 
the  chosen  people.  Research  has  made  it  ad- 
missible that  everywhere  there  have  been  re- 
ligious beliefs,  opinions  and  practices  pointing  to 
the  acknowledgment  of  a  Supreme  Being  and 
judgment  to  come  and  a  reward  or  punishment 
in  a  life  beyond  this.  With  this  are  apparently 
connected  sacrifices  which  no  matter  how  ac- 
companied by  fanaticism  and  superstition  are 
an  attestation  of  an  homage  paid  to  a  deity,  a 
homage  of  praise,  or  petition,  or  thanksgiving 
or  of  supplication  for  pardon  —  an  homage 
which  was  inspired  by  an  underlying  sentiment 
of  the  need  of  appeasing  some  offended  divin- 
ity. Yet  it  is  not  easy  to  trace  this  need  in 
those  religions  which  are  so  widespread  in  the 
Levant  and  furthest  East  and  proclaim  as 
fundamental  Fatalism,  Metempsy-chosis  and 
Pantheism.  The  investigation  of  the  subject 
of  atonement  as  advanced  by  the  followers  of 
Christ,  by  those  followers  who  profess  that 
Jesus  was  the  Son  of  God,  that  is,  was  Divine, 
among  other  questions  inevitably  suggests  the 
question  of  the  possibility  of  salvation  for  all 
individuals  of  the  race  whose  creed  negatives 
Christianity  altogether.  Some  reply,  adequate 
or  otherwise,  may  be  found  in  the  dogma  that 
"Christ  died  for  all  men,''  whence  the  inference 
is  deducible  that  even  those  who  never  heard  of 
the  Redeemer,  or  the  atonement,  cannot  but  be 
affected  by  that  death.  How?  is  a  large  thesis. 
That  the  problem  has  been  approached  by  hon- 
est and  able  thinkers  is  plain  to  the  readers  of 
history.  In  the  Christian  world  there  is  no 
small  number  who  deny  the  primal  fall  and 
hence  see  nothing  urgent  in  the  discussion  of 
the  atonement.  The  Messiah  has  not  yet 
reached  this  earth  say  the  Jews,  Christ  was 
not  God,  say  the  Arians.  there  is  no  God,  say 
the  Atheists,  if  there  be  He  is  unknowable,  say 
the  Agnostics.  For  all  these  the  atonement  has 
very  slight,  if  any,  significance.  Teacher?  of 
note  advance  the  theory,  basing  it  on  Scrip- 
ture, that  the  first  tradition  of  a  redeemer  to 


ATOSSA  —  ATRIUM 


come  and  who  was  to  atone,  was  carried  by  the 
earlier  peoples  as  they  grew  and  scattered  and 
populated  the  earth.  The  Jewish  idea  brought 
by  the  Israelites  in  their  wanderings  and  cap- 
tivities and  assimilated  by  the  tribes  and  na- 
tions among  whom  they  dwelt,  was  in  the  lapse 
of  time  weakened  or  metamorphosed,  or  adapted 
to  pagan  beliefs  and  so  corrupted.  "The  only 
theory  which  accounts  for  all  these  facts,^'  says 
Rawlinson,  "is  that  of  a  primeval  revelation 
variously  corrupted  through  the  manifold  and 
multiform  deterioration  of  human  nature,  in 
different  races  and  places.^' 

Bibliography. —  Various  commentaries  on  the 
Fourth  Gospel  and  the  Epistles  of  Saint  Paul ; 
Canones  Concil  Trident;  Luther's  'de  Servo 
Arbitrio,^  <Two  Catechisms,^  etc.:  Augsburg 
Confession;  Melancthon's  <Loci  Theologici^  ; 
Mohler's  'Symbolism^  ;  Oxenham's  'The  Cath- 
olic Doctrine  of  the  Atonement'  ;  Calvin's 
'Christianse  Religionis  Institutio,'  etc.;  various 
theological  tracts  on  the  incarnation ;  Campbell, 
'Nature  of  the  Atonement'  ;  Hallam,  'Litera- 
ture of  Europe'  ;  writings  of  the  Fathers  and 
Doctors;  Grotius  on  'Satisfaction';  Prof.  Jow- 
ett,  'Essay  on  Atonement  and  Satisfaction'  ; 
Coleridge,  'Aids  to  Reflection'  ;  Bishop  Forbes, 
'Thirty-nine  Articles.'  p    ^    ^j,^^^^^ 

Saint-Thomas'  Rectory,  New  York. 

Atos'sa,  the  daughter  of  Cyrus,  530 
B.C.  She  was  successively  married  to  Cambyses, 
Smerdis,  one  of  the  Magi,  and  Darius,  son  of 
Hydaspes,  the  last  of  whom  she  incited  to  in- 
vade Greece.  The  word  served  as  a  poetical 
name  given  by  Pope,  in  his  'Moral  Essays,'  to 
Sarah,  Duchess  of  Marlborough. 

Atrato,  a-tra'to,  a  river  of  Colombia,  of 
note,  because  it  has  repeatedly  been  made  to 
bear  a  part  in  schemes  for  a  ship-canal  across 
the  Isthmus  of  Panama.  Rising  on  the  Western 
Cordillera  at  an  altitude  of  10,560  feet,  above  sea- 
level,  it  runs  305  miles  northwest  through  low, 
swampy  country  and  falls  by  several  mouths, 
interrupted  by  bars,  into  the  Gulf  of  Darien.  It 
is  navigable  by  steamers  for  fully  250  miles,  be- 
ing 750  to  1,000  feet  wide,  and  8  to  70  feet  deep. 
A  route,  surveyed  by  the  United  States  govern- 
ment in  1871,  proposed  to  connect  the  Atrato  and 
the  Jurador,  flowing  into  the  Pacific,  by  a  canal 
48  miles  long.  At  the  Paris  International  Con- 
gress (1879),  that  route  was,  with  various  others, 
discussed  and  rejected  in  favor  of  De  Lesseps' 
line  from  Limon  to  Panama.  Gold-dust  is  found 
in  and  about  the  Atrato. 

Atrau'li,  a  town  of  India,  in  the  northwest 
provinces.  It  is  clean,  well  built,  and  has  a  good 
trade.     Pop.   14,374. 

Atrebates,  a-treb'a-tez,  or  at're-ba'tez,  the 
ancient  inhabitants  of  that  part  of  Gallia  Belgica 
afterward  called  Artois.  A  colony  of  them 
settled  in  Britain,  in  a  part  of  Berkshire  and 
Oxfordshire. 

Atrek,  a-trek',  a  river  of  Asia,  forming  the 
boundary  between  Persia  and  the  Russian  Trans- 
caspian  territory,  and  flowing  into  the  Caspian. 
Its  length  is  over  300  miles. 

Atreus,  a'troos,  in  fabulous  history,  the 
son  of  Pelops  and  Hippodamia.  He  and  his 
brother,  Thyestes,  murdered  their  half-brother, 
Chrysippus,   from  jealousy  of  the  affection  en- 


tertained for  him  by  their  father.  Thereupon 
they  fled  to  Eurystheus,  with  whose  daughter^ 
Aerope,  Atreus  united  himself,  and  after  the 
death  of  his  father-in-law  became  king  of  My- 
cene.  Thyestes  had  two  sons  by  the  wife  of  his 
brother,  and  was  banished  by  Atreus.  Thirsting; 
for  revenge,  Thyestes  conveyed  away  secretly  a 
son  of  his  brother,  and  instigated  him  to  murder 
his  own  father.  This  design  was  discovered,, 
and  the  youth,  whom  Atreus  thought  to  be  the 
son  of  his  brother,  was  put  to  death.  Too  late 
did  the  unhappy  father  perceive  his  mistake.  A 
horrible  revenge  was  necessary  to  give  him  con- 
solation. He  pretended  to  be  reconciled  to 
Thyestes,  and  invited  him  with  his  two  sons  to  a 
feast,  and  after  he  had  caused  the  latter  to  be 
secretly  slain  he  placed  a  dish  made  of  their  flesh 
before  Thyestes.  When  the  father  had  finished 
eating  Atreus  brought  the  bones  of  his  sons  and 
showed  him  the  dreadful  revenge  which  he  had 
taken.  Atreus  (or  his  son  Pleisthenes)  was  the- 
father  of  Agamemnon  and  Menelaus,  who  are 
hence  called  the  Atridae,  Atrides  (the  singular) 
being  often  distinctively  applied  to  Agamem- 
non. 

A'treus,  Treasury  of,  a  subterranean 
building  at  Mycenae,  so  styled  by  Pausanias  and 
frequently  referred  to  as  "the  tomb  of  Agamem- 
non." It  is  a  vaulted  tomb  resembling  a  bee-hive 
in  construction,  its  arch  being  composed  of  pro- 
jecting horizontal  courses  of  stone  narrowing  as. 
the  top  is  approached.  It  contains  a  circular 
chamber  50  feet  wide  with  a  smaller  square  one 
adjoining. 

Atri,  a'tre,  Italy,  the  ancient  Adria;  a 
town  of  the  province  of  Teramo,  in  Italy;  14 
miles  southeast  of  the  city  of  Teramo,  on  the 
Brindiri  R.R.  There  are  some  ruins  of  ancient 
walls  and  buildings.  The  cathedral  is  inter- 
esting for  its  frescoes,  and  a  15th-century  paint- 
ing of  the  Madonna  worshipping  the  child.  It 
manufactures  silk,  soap,  and  licorice.  Pop. 
(1901)   13.448. 

At'riplex,  a  large  genus  of  succulent  plants 
of  the  natural  order  Chcnopodiaccce,  widely  dis- 
tributed in  tropical  and  temperate  climates. 
Many  of  the  species  are  weeds,  but  some,  known 
as  saltbush  (for  example,  A.  Icptocarpa  and  A, 
semibaccata)  are  used  as  forage  plants  in  Aus- 
tralia, where  they  are  native  upon  the  alkali  soils^ 
They  have  also  proved  promising  in  the  alkali 
soils  of  the  western  United  States.  (Consult 
Circular  3,  Division  of  Agrostology,  United 
States  Department  of  Agriculture,  Washington.) 
A.  hortcnsis,  orach  (q.v.)  or  sea-purslane,  an 
erect  annual  herb  with  yellowish-green  or  red 
leaves,  was  formerly  very  popular  as  a  substi- 
tute for  spinach  and  is  still  so  used  to  some  ex- 
tent. A  few  species  are  also  cultivated  for  orna- 
ment. 

A'trium,  the  entrance  hall  and  most  im- 
portant apartment  in  ancient  Roman  houses.  It 
was  usually  ornamented  with  statues  and  various 
family  relics,  and  in  the  roof  there  was  an  open- 
ing called  the  compluvium,  toward  which  the 
roof  sloped  so  as  to  throw  the  rain-water  into  a 
cistern  in  the  floor  known  as  the  impluvinm.  In 
this  room  the  nuptial  couch  was  placed,  and  here 
the  matron  with  the  women  of  the  household  sat 
and  spun.  It  was  also  used  as  a  reception  room 
for  visitors  and  clients.  In  mediaeval  times,  till! 
the  1 2th  century,  the  name  was  given  to  a  cov- 


ATROPA  —  ATTAINDER 


ered  court,  somewhat  on  the  model  of  the  ancient 
atrium,  constructed  in  front  of  the  principal 
doors  of  an  edifice.  Later  the  cloister  at  the 
side  of  the  church,  for  the  use  of  the  monks, 
took  the  place  of  the  atrium. 

At'ropa,  a  genus  of  plants  of  the  natural 
order  Solanacecc.  Its  best  known  species  is 
•;>robably  A.  belladonna.     See  Belladonna. 

Atrophy,  a  term  denoting  a  diminution  in 
the  size  of  the  organs,  or  tissues  that  make  up 
the  body.  It  is  part  of  the  physiological  process 
in  its  simpler  forms,  as  many  parts  of  the  body 
atrophy  and  become  of  secondary  service  in 
adult  life ;  the  thj'mus  gland  and  umbilical  ves- 
sels being  examples.  It  may  also  be  a  symptom 
of  disease,  particularly  in  affections  of  the 
nervous  system  in  which  the  trophic  fibres  of 
an  organ  are  involved.  It  may  also  indicate  a 
perverted  state  of  nutrition.     See  Nutrition. 

At'ropine,  a  crystalline  alkaloid  obtained 
from  the  deadly  nightshade.  It  is  extremely 
poisonous.  Large  doses  cause  delirium,  convul- 
sions, and  finally  stupor  and  death.  It  is  em- 
ployed for  several  purposes  in  medicine,  to  re- 
lieve pain  or  spasm,  and  to  arrest  excessive 
sweats.  The  physiological  action  of  atropine  is 
chiefly  exerted  on  the  nervous  system.  It  is  a 
strong  stimulant,  particularly  of  the  motor  and 
respiratory  centres,  and  paralyzes  the  end  fila- 
ments of  many  nerves,  particularly  those  that 
supply  the  secretorj'  glands,  the  involuntary 
muscles,  and  the  heart.  Its  chief  poisonous 
symptoms  are,  in  the  stage  of  excitement,  dry- 
ness of  the  mouth  and  pharynx,  with  anes- 
thesia, a  hot  dry  skin,  dilatation  of  the  pupil 
with  blurred  vision,  due  to  paralysis,  ex- 
treme restlessness,  due  to  the  motor  excita- 
tion, a  noisy,  busy,  and  incoherent  brain 
action,  perhaps  a  delirium,  quickened  pulse, 
quickened  respiration.  This  stage  may  pass 
into  one  of  depression  in  which  the  patient 
becomes  comatose,  the  pulse  and  respiration 
DCcome  slowed  and  death  results  from  as- 
phyxia. Treatment  of  the  poisoning  should 
include  prompt  washing  of  the  stomach,  emet- 
ics being  of  no  service  because  of  the  aues- 
thesia,  artificial  respiration,  infusions  oi  hot 
coffee,  and  general  supportive  measures.  See 
Belladonna  ;    Solanace.e. 

Atropos,  at'ro-pos,  the  eldest  of  the  Fates, 
who  cuts  the  thread  of  human  life  with  her 
shears. 

Atsuta,  at-soo'ta,  Japan,  a  town  in  the 
southern  part  of  Honishu,  practically  a  suburb 
of  Nagoya,  with  which  it  is  connected  by  rail. 
It  contains  a  number  of  Shintoese  temples,  in 
one  of  which  the  sword  formmg  part  of  the 
Japanese  imperial  regalia,  is  kept.  Pop.  (1898) 
24.291. 

Attache,  a'ta'sha',  a  military,  naval  or  sub- 
ordinate member  of  the  diplomatic  service  at- 
tached to  an  embassy  or  legation.  Modern 
usage  in  effect  restricts  the  term  to  subordinate 
officers  of  an  embassy  or  legation. 

Attach'ment,  in  law,  a  taking  of  a  person, 
goods,  or  estate  by  virtue  of  a  writ  or  precept. 
It  is  distinguished  from  an  arrest  by  proceeding 
out  of  a  higher  court  by  precept  or  writ,  where- 
as the  latter  proceeds  out  of  an  inferior  court 
by  precept  only.  An  arrest  lies  only  against  the 
body  of  a  person,   whereas  an   attachment   lies 


often  against  the  goods  only,  and  sometimes 
against  the  body  and  goods.  It  differs  from 
a  distress  in  that  an  attachment  does  not  extend 
to  lands,  while  a  distress  cannot  touch  the 
body.  In  the  United  States  attachment  may  be 
defined  as  the  taking  into  the  custody  of  the 
law  the  person  or  property  of  one  already  before 
the  court,  or  whom  it  is  sought  to  bring  before 
the  court;  also  a  writ  for  this  purpose.  To 
some  extent  it  is  of  the  nature  of  a  criminal 
process.  In  some  States  a  plaintiff  can  at  the 
beginning  of  an  action  to  recover  money  attach 
the  property  of  the  defendant  as  a  security  for 
the  payment  of  the  judgment  expected  to  be 
recovered ;  and  in  case  of  recovery  the  property 
is  applied  in  satisfaction  of  the  judgment.  But 
the  more  usual  rule  is  that  there  can  be  no 
seizure  of  property,  except  in  specified  cases, 
till  the  rights  of  the  parties  have  been  settled 
by  judgment  of  the  court.  The  exceptions  are 
chiefly  in  cases  where  the  defendant  is  a  non- 
resident or  a  fraudulent  debtor,  or  is  attempting 
to  conceal  or  remove  his  property.  In  some 
States,  attachments  are  distinguished  as  foreign 
and  domestic  —  the  former  issued  against  a 
non-resident  having  property  with  the  jurisdic- 
tion of  the  State,  the  latter  against  a  resident  in 
the  State;  jurisdiction  over  the  person  or  prop- 
erty being  necessary  for  an  attachment.  An 
attachment  issued  under  a  State  law  not  adopt- 
ed by  Congress,  or  by  a  rule  of  court,  cannot 
be  sustained  in  a  United  States  court. 

Attack',  a  term  denotmg  the  openmg  act 
ot  hostility  by  a  force  seekmg  to  dislodge  an 
enemy  from  its  position.  It  is  considered  more 
advantageous  to  offer  than  to  await  attack, 
even  in  a  defensive  war.  The  historic  forms  of 
attack  are:  (i)  The  parallel;  (2)  The  form 
in  which  both  the  wmgs  attack  and  the  centre 
is  kept  back;  (3)  The  form  in  which  the  centre 
is  pushed  forward  and  the  wings  kept  back  ; 
(4)  The  famous  oblique  mode,  dating  at  least 
from  Epaminondas,  and  employed  by  Frederick 
the  Great,  where  one  wing  advances  to  engage, 
while  the  otlier  is  kept  back,  and  occupies  the 
attention  of  the  enemy  by  pretending  an  attack. 
Napoleon  preferred  to  mass  heavy  columns 
against  an  enemy's  centre.  The  forms  of  attack 
have  changed  with  the  weapons  used.  In  the 
days  of  the  pike,  heavy  masses  were  the  rule, 
but  the  use  of  the  musket  led  to  an  extended 
battle  front  to  give  effect  to  the  fire.  The  advent 
of  magazine  rifles,  machine  and  rapid-fire  guns, 
breech-loading  field  and  horse  artillery  guns, 
smokeless  powder,  etc.,  has  reduced  the  methods 
of  attack  to  a  practical  science.     See  Tactics. 

Attain'der,  the  legal  consequence  of  a 
sentence  of  death  or  outlawry  pronounced 
against  a  person  for  treason  or  felony,  the  per- 
son being  said  to  be  attainted.  It  resulted 
in  forfeiture  of  estate  and  "corruption  of 
blood,"  rendering  the  party  incapable  of  in- 
heriting property  or  transmitting  it  to  heirs ; 
but  these  rpsu'us  now  no  longer  follow.  For- 
merly persons  were  often  subjected  to  attainder 
by  a  special  bill  or  act  passed  in  Parliament. 
In  the  United  States,  the  Federal  Constitution 
declares  that  "No  bill  of  attainder  shall  be 
passed,  and  no  attainder  of  treason,  in  conse- 
quence of  a  judicial  sentence,  shall  work  cor- 
ruption of  blood  or  forfeiture  except  during 
the  life  of  the  person  attainted." 


ATTAINT  —  ATTERBURY 


Attaint',  a  writ  at  common  law  against  a 
jury  for  a  false  verdict.  It  was  abolished  in 
England  in  1825  except  as  to  jurors  guilty  of 
embracery.     See  Attainder. 

At'tal'ea,  a  genus  of  about  20  species  of 
mostly  tall,  smooth-stemmed  tropical  American 
palms  with  large  pinnate  leaves  sometimes  used 
for  thatch,  mats,  hats,  etc.,  and  with  nut  fruits 
enclosed  in  a  fibrous  husk.  A.  fitnifera,  the 
piassaba  palm  of  the  coast  provinces  of  south- 
ern Brazil,  yields  a  cordage  of  great  strength 
and  durability  in  sea  water.  Its  fruits  (coquil- 
la  nuts)  are  as  large  as  ostrich  eggs  and  are 
used  like  vegetable  ivory  (see  Vegetable 
Ivory).  The  piassaba  palm  of  northern  Brazil 
is  a  different  species.  It  furnishes  a  fibre  which 
is  exported.  A.  excelsa  and  A.  speciosa  furnish 
nuts  which  are  burned  in  rubber-making  to  dry 
and  color  the  rubber  obtained  from  Siphonia 
elastka.  A.  compta,  the  pindova  or  indaja 
palm,  a  handsome  species  with  a  wide-spread- 
ing crown,  yields  edible  fruits  as  large  as  goose 
eggs.  A.  Cohune,  indigenous  to  Honduras,  sup- 
plies a  fruit  from  which  the  oil  is  extracted  for 
soap-making  at  home  and  abroad.  Several  spe- 
cies are  cultivated  in  greenhouses,  but  are  gen- 
erally considered  too  slow  of  growth  from  seed 
to  be  satisfactory. 

At'talus,  the  names  of  three  kings  of  an- 
cient Pergamus,  241-133  B.C.,  the  last  of  whom 
bequeathed  his  kingdom  to  the  Romans.  All 
were  munificent  patrons  of  art  and  literature. 

At'talus,  Flavius  Priscus,  the  emperor  of 
the  East  for  one  year,  409-10.  He  was  pro- 
claimed by  Alaric  and  his  Goths,  but  soon  de- 
posed. Honorius  later  cut  off  his  thumb  and 
forefinger  and  banished  him  to  the  island  of 
Lipari. 

AttSr,  at-tar',  Ferid  eddin,  celebrated  Per- 
sian poet:  b.  near  Nishapur,  11 19;  d.  about 
1229  (?).  Ihe  son  of  a  spicer,  he  followed 
his  father's  trade  (whence  his  surname  of  At- 
tar), but  afterward  became  a  dervish  and  one 
of  the  greatest  mystics  of  Persia.  He  is  said 
to  have  been  killed  by  a  Mongol  soldier  dur- 
ing the  invasion  by  Jenghiz  Khan.  Of  his  ex- 
tant political  works  the  most  famous  are:  <The 
Book  of  Council,'  a  series  of  didactic  poems 
on  ethics;  <The  Parliament  of  Birds'  (1184-7). 
His  principal  work  in  prose  is  'Biographies  of 
the  Saints.' 

At'tar,  or  Otto  of  Roses,  a  perfume  ex- 
tracted from  rose  petals.  It  is  a  volatile  oil,  of 
soft  consistency,  nearly  colorless,  and  deposits 
a  crystallizable  stibstance  partially  soluble  in 
alcohol.  The  best  article,  is  prepared  at  Ghazi- 
poor  in  Hindustan ;  but  is  apt  to  be  much  adul- 
terated with  sandal  wood  and  other  oils.  The 
whole  country,  for  many  miles  around  Ghazi- 
poor,  is  a  garden  of  roses,  and  in  the  spring 
of  the  year  presents  a  most  beautiful  picture 
of  red  and  green.  The  roses  are  used  both  for 
rose  water  and  the  oil  of  roses.  The  latter  is 
obtained  from  the  rose  water  by  setting  it  out 
during  the  night  in  large  open  vessels,  and 
early  in  the  morning  skimming  off  the  essen- 
tial oil,  which  floats  at  the  top.  The  rose 
water  after  the  removal  of  the  oil  is  not  so  high- 
ly valued  as  before.  It  is  estimated  that  200,- 
000  well-grown  roses  are  required  to  produce 
half  an  ounce  of  the  oil;  and  the  value  of  this 
when  it  is  manufactured  is  about  $40,  and  even 


then  it  is  likely  to  be  adulterated.  If  warranted 
genuine,  it  sells  for  about  $50  or  $100  per 
ounce.  Attar  is  also  imported  from  Smyrna 
and  Constantinople;  but  it  rarely,  if  ever,  ar- 
rives in  this  country  pure.  It  is  commonly 
adulterated  with  spermaceti  and  a  volatile  oil, 
which  appears  to  be  derived  from  one  or  more 
species  of  Andropogon,  and  which  is  called  oil  t 
of  ginger-grass,  or  oil  of  geranium.  Pure  attar  3 
of  rose,  carefully  distilled,  is  at  first  colorless,  . 
but  speedily  becomes  yellowish.  It  congeals 
below  80°  ;  melts  at  84°.  At  57°,  1,000  alcohol 
dissolve  7J^  oil.  and  at  72°,  2>2>  oil.  Specific 
gravity  872.  Formula,  C23H23O3.  Many  at- 
tempts have  been  made  to  discover  some  chem- 
ical reaction  whirh  would  reveal  the  falsifi- 
cation of  attar  with  geranium  oil,  but  hitherto 
mostly   in  vain. 

Attempt',  in  criminal  law  an  endeavor  to 
accomplish  a  crime  carried  beyond  mere  prep- 
aration, but  falling  short  of  the  execution  of 
the  ultimate  design  in  any  part  of  it.  5  Cush. 
Mass.  367.  To  constitute  an  attempt,  there 
must  be  an  intent  to  commit  some  act  which 
would  be  indictable,  if  done,  either  from  its 
own  character  or  that  of  its  natural  and  proba- 
ble consequences.  In  some  States  an  attempt  to 
commit  a  crime  is  defined  by  statute.  The 
statute  in  New  York  is  substantially  similar  to 
that  of  other  States.  The  Penal  Code  of  New 
York,  §  34,  provides  that  ''An  act,  done  with 
intent  to  commit  a  crime,  and  tending  but  fail- 
ing to  effect  its  commission,  is  an  attempt  to 
commit  that  crime." 

Attention.     See  Consciousness. 

Atterbom,  at'ter-bom,  Peter  Daniel  Ama- 
deus,  Swedish  poet:  b.  Asbo,  East  Goth- 
land, 19  Jan.  1790;  d.  Upsala,  21  July  1855. 
Having  visited  Germany  and  Italy  in  1817-19, 
he  formed  ties  of  friendship  with  Schelling  and 
Thorwaldsen ;  became  instructor  to  Crown 
Prince  Oscar,  in  1820,  and  professor  at  the 
university  in  Upsala  in  1828.  He  was  unques- 
tionably the  foremost  among  the  lyric  poets  of 
the  romantic  school  in  Sweden.  His  most  cele- 
brated work  is  'The  Isle  of  Blessedness' 
(1823),  a  romantic  drama  in  the  manner  of 
Tieck;  but  he  also  wrote  'The  Flowers,'  a 
cycle  of  lyrics;  'The  Blue  Bird,'  a  play;  and 
'Swedish  Seers  and  Poets,'  a  volume  of  criti- 
cism. 

At'terbury,  Francis,  celebrated  English 
prelate  :  b.  Middleton  Keynes,  England,  6  March 
1662;  d.  Paris,  15  Feb.  1732.  He  distinguished 
himself  at  the  university  as  a  classical  scholar, 
and  gave  proofs  of  an  elegant  taste  for  poet- 
ry. In  1687  he  took  his  degree  of  M.A. ;  is 
thought  to  have  assisted  his  pupil,  Boyle,  in  his 
famous  controversy  with  Bentley  on  the  Epis- 
tles of  Phalaris.  Taking'  orders  in  1691  he  set- 
tled in  London,  where  he  became  chaplain  to 
William  and  Mary,  preacher  of  Bridewell,  and 
lecturer  of  St.  Bride's,  and  soon  became  distin- 
guished by  the  spirit  and  elegance  of  his  pulpit 
compositions,  but  not  without  incurring  opposi- 
tion, on  the  score  of  fheir  tendency  and  doc- 
trine, from  Hoadly  and  others.  Soon  after  the 
accession  of  Queen  Anne  he  was  made  dean  of 
Carlisle,  and  besides  his  dispute  with  Hoadly 
on  the  subject  of  passive  obedience,  he  aided 
in  the  defense  of  the  famous  Sacheverell,  and 
wrote   'A  Representation  of  the  Present  State 


ATTIC  — ATTICA 

of  Religion,^  deemed  too  violent  to  be  presented  ceiling  is  square  with  the  sides,  to  distinguish  ii 

to  the  queen,  although  privately  circulated.     In  from  a  garret. 

1712  he  was  made  dean  of  Christ  Church  and  At'tica,  a  State  of  ancient  Greece,  whose 
m  1713  Bishop  of  Rochester  and  dean  of  West-  capital,  Athens,  was  once  the  first  city  in  the 
minster.  The  death  of  the  queen,  in  1714,  put  ,vorld.  It  is  a  peninsula,  united,  toward  the 
an  end  to  his  hopes  of  further  advancement;  ^orth,  with  Bceotia.  toward  the  west,  in  some 
for  the  new  king  treated  him  with  great  cool-  degree,  with  Megaris,  and  extends  far  into  the 
ness  Aterbury  not  on  y  refused  to  sign  the  .^gean  Sea  at  Cape  Sunium  (now  Cape  Colon- 
loyal  declaration  of  the  bishops  in  the  rebellion  ^a).  The  unfru.tfulness  of  its  soil  protected  it 
of  1715,  but  suspended  a  clergyman  for  lending  ^g^inst  foreign  invaders,  and  the  Athenians 
his  churcn  xor  the  performance  of  divme  ser-  boasted  of  their  ancient  and  unmingled  race, 
vice  to  the  Dutch  troops  brought  over  to  act  The  earliest  inhabitants  of  Attica  lived  in  a 
against  the  rebels.  Not  content  with  a  consti-  savage  manner  until  the  time  of  Cecrops,  who 
tutional  opposition,  he  entered  into  a  corre-  ^ame  1550  B.C.  with  a  colony  from  Sais,  at  the 
spondence  with  the  Pretender  s  party,  was  ap-  ^q,,^].,  of  ^^^  ^iie,  to  Attica,  and  is  acknow- 
prehended  in  August  1772.  and  committed  to  jedged  as  their  first  real  king.  One  of  Cecrops' 
the  lower;  and  in  the  March  foHowing  a  bill  descendants  founded  11  other  citi'^s,  which 
was  brought  into  the  House  of  Commons  for  j^  after-times  made  war  upon  each  other, 
the  infliction  of  pains  and  penalties.  This  mea-  Theseus  compelled  these  cities  to  unite,  and  to 
sure  met  with  considerable  opposition  in  the  giyg  to  Cecropia,  now  called  Athens,  as  the 
House  of  Lords,  and  was  resisted  by  the  bishop  capital  city  of  the  whole  countrv,  the  supreme 
who  maintained  his  innocence  with  his  usual  po^^er  over  the  confederacy.  He  founded  the 
acuteness  and  dexterity.  His  guilt,  however,  great  feast  called  the  panathencea,  watched  over 
has  been  tolerably  well  proved  by  documents  the  administration  of  the  laws,  commanded  the 
since  published.  He  was  deprived  of  his  digni-  ^rmy,  divided  the  whole  people  into  three 
ties,  and  outlawed,  and  went  to  Pans  where  classes  — noblemen,  husbandmen,  and  mechan- 
he  chiefly  occupied  himself  in  study,  and  m  cor-  jcs.  He  embellished  and  enlarged  Athens,  and 
respondence  with  men  of  letters.  But  even  invited  foreigners  to  people  the  country.  Af- 
here.  m  1725,  he  was  actively  engaged  in  fo-  ter  the  death  of  Codrus.  1068  b.c,  the  monarchi- 
menting  discontent  m  the  Highlands  of  Scot-  cal  form  of  government,  which  had  continued 
land.  As  a  composer  of  sermons  he  still  re-  487  years  from  the  time  of  Cecrops,  was  abol- 
tains  a  great  portion  of  his  original  reputation,  jghed.  An  archon,  chosen  for  life,  possessed 
His  letters,  also,  are  extremely  easy  and  ele-  the  regal  power.  After  316  years  the  term  of 
gant;  but,  as  a  critic  and  a  controversialist,  he  office  of  the  archons  was  limited  to  10  years, 
IS  deemed  rather  dexterous  and  popular  than  and  70  years  later  to  i  year,  and  their  number 
accurate   and  profound.  was   increased   to  9.     A   regular   code   of  laws 

At'tic,  pertaining  to  Attica  or  to  Athens,  was  now  needed.  The  archon  Draco  was  corn- 
Elegant;  classical;  poignant;  characterized  by  missioned  to  dra_w  one  up  ;  but  his  severity  dis- 
keen  intellect,  delicate  wit,  sound  judgment  and  gufed  the  minds  of  the  people,  and  594  B.C. 
expressive  brevity ;  as,  the  Attic  Muse.  Attic  Solon  introduced  a  milder  code  and  a  better 
dialect  was  the  most  refined  and  polished  of  all  constitution.  He  provided  that  the  f9rm  of 
the  dialects  of  ancient  Greece;  and  in  it  wrote  government  should  continue  democratic,  and 
Solon,  the  lawgiver ;  Thucydides  and  Xeno-  that  a  senate  of  400  members,  chosen  from  the 
phon,  the  historians;  Aristophanes,  the  comic  People,  should  administer  the  government, 
poet;  Plato  and  Aristotle,  the  philosophers,  and  Pisistratus,  a  man  of  talents  boldness  and  am- 
Demosthenes,  the  orator.  When,  after  the  bjtion,  put  himself  at  the  head  of  the  poorer 
Macedonian  conquest,  Greek  became  the  Ian-  classes,  and  made  himself  master  of  the  su- 
guage  of  literature  and  diplomacy  in  most  parts  preme  power  in  Athens.  His  government  was 
of  the  civilized  world,  the  Attic  came  to  be  that  splenaid  and  beneficent,  but  his  tvvo  sons  could 
dialect  of  the  Greek  tongue  which  was  general-  "ot  maintain  it  Clisthenes,  a  friend  of  the 
1  adooted  people,  exerted  himself  to  prevent  future  abuses 
^  by  some  changes  in  the  laws  of  Solon.     He  di- 

Attic  Order,  in  architecture,  a  low  order,  vided  the  people  into  10  classes,  and  made  the 
commonly  used  over  a  principal  order,  never  senate  consist  of  500  persons.  Attica  was  al- 
with  columns,  but  usually  with  antae  or  small  ready  highly  cultivated;  the  vintage  and  har- 
pilasters.  It  is  employed  to  decorate  the  vest,  like  all  the  labors  of  this  gay  people,  were 
fagade  of  a  stpry  of  little  height,  terminating  celebrated  with  dance  and  song,  with  feasts  and 
the  upper  part  of  a  building;  and  it  doubtless  sacrifices.  Then  came  the  splendid  era  of  the 
derives  its  name  from  its  resemblance  in  pro-  Persian  war,  which  elevated  Athens  to  the 
portional  height  and  concealed  roof  to  some  of  summit  of  fame.  Miltiades  at  Marathon,  and 
the  buildings  of  Greece.  In  all  the  best  ex-  Themistocles  at  Salamis,  conquered  the  Per- 
amples,  and  especially  in  the  remains  of  antiqui-  sians  by  land  and  by  sea.  The  freedom  of 
ty  at  Rome,  the  attic  is  decorated  with  a  Greece  escaped  the  dangers  which  had  threat- 
molded  base  and  cornice ;  often  with  pilasters  ened  it ;  the  rights  of  the  people  were  enlarged ; 
and  figures,  as  in  the  Arch  of  Constantine.  In  the  archons  and  other  magistrates  were  chosen 
modern  architecture,  the  proportions  of  the  from  all  classes  without  distinction.  The  pe 
attic  order  have  never  been  subject  to  fixed  riod  from  the  Persian  war  to  the  time  of  Alex- 
rules,  and  their  good  effect  is  entirely  depend-  ander  (500  B.C.  to  336)  was  most  remarkable 
ent  on  the  taste  and  feeling  of  the  architect,  for  the  development  of  the  Athenian  constitu- 
Attic  base:  The  base  of  a  column  consisting  of  tion.  According  to  Bockh's  'The  Public  Econ- 
an  upper  and  lower  torus,  a  scotia  and  fillets  be-  omy  of  Athens,*  Attica  contained,  together  with 
tween  them.  Attic  story:  A  term  frequently  the  islands  of  Salamis  and  Helena,  a  territory 
applied  to  the  upper  story  of  a  house,  when  the  of  847   square   miles,    with    500,000   inhabitants, 


ATTICA  —  ATTILA 


365,000  of  whom  were  slaves.  Cimon  and 
Pericles  (444  b.c.)  introduced  the  highest  ele- 
gance into  Athens,  but  the  latter  laid  the  foun- 
dation for  the  future  corruption  of  manners, 
and  for  the  gradual  overthrow  of  the  state. 
Under  him  began  the  Peloponnesian  war,  which 
ended  with  the  conquest  of  Athens  by  the  Lace- 
dsemonians.  A  more  dangerous  enemy  rose  in 
the  north  —  Philip  of  Macedon.  Athens,  to- 
gether with  the  other  states  of  Greece,  became 
dependent  on  the  Macedonians.  When  they 
suffered  themselves  to  be  misled  to  support 
Mithridates  against  the  Romans,  they  drew 
upon  themselves  the  vengeance  of  Rome.  Sulla 
captured  the  city,  and  left  it  only  an  appear- 
ance of  liberty,  which  it  retained  until  the  time 
of  Vespasian.  This  emperor  formally  changed 
it  into  a  Roman  province.  After  the  division 
of  the  Roman  empire,  Attica  belonged  to  the 
empire  of  the  East.  396  a.d.,  it  was  conquered 
by  Alaric  the  Goth,  and  the  country  devastated. 
Attica,  along  with  the  ancient  Boeotia,  now 
forms  a  nome  or  province  (Attike  and  Viotia) 
of  the  kingdom.     See  Athens. 

Attica,  Ind.,  city  in  Fountain  County,  on 
the  Wabash  River  and  Wabash  Railroad ;  21 
miles  southwest  of  Lafayette.  It  has  numerous 
manufactories,  churches,  schools,  two  banks,  and 
a  public  library.     Pop.  (1900)  3,005. 

At'ticus,  Titus  Pomponius,  a  noble  Roman, 
the  intimate  friend  of  Cicero :  b.  109  B.C. ;  d. 
32  B.C.  The  Pomponian  family,  from  which  he 
originated,  was  one  of  the  most  distinguished 
of  the  eqiiites,  and  derived  its  origin  from 
Numa  Pompilius.  When  he  attained  maturity, 
the  republic  was  disturbed  by  the  factions  of 
Cinna  and  Sulla.  His  brother,  Sulpicius,  the 
tribune  of  the  people,  being  killed,  he  thought 
himself  not  safe  in  Rome,  for  which  reason  he 
removed,  with  his  fortune,  to  Athens,  where  he 
devoted  himself  to  science.  His  benefits  to  the 
city  were  so  great,  that  he  gained  the  affec- 
tions of  the  people  in  the  highest  degree,  and 
acquired  so  thorough  a  knowledge  of  Greek, 
that  he  could  not  be  distinguished  from  a  na- 
tive Athenian.  When  quiet  was  restored  in 
Rome  he  returned  and  inherited  from  his 
uncle  10,000,000  sesterces  ($500,000).  His 
sister  married  the  brother  of  Cicero.  Cjesar 
treated  him  with  the  greatest  regard,  though  he 
was  known  as  a  friend  of  Pompey.  After  the 
death  of  Caesar,  he  lived  in  friendship  with 
Brutus,   without,  however,   offending  Antony. 

At'ticus  Herod'es,  Tiberius  Claudius,  a 
wealthy  Athenian;  b.  about  104  a.d.;  d.  about 
180.  He  received  a  careful  education  under  the 
most  distinguished  masters  of  the  time,  and 
specially  devoted  himself  to  the  study  of  ora- 
tory, to  excel  in  which  seems  to  have  been  the 
ruling  motive  of  hie  life,  ultimately  attaining 
to  great  celebrity  as  a  speaker  and  as  a  teacher 
of  rhetoric.  Among  his  pupils  were  Marcus 
Aurelius  and  Lucius  Verus.  He  was  highly 
esteemed  by  the  Antonines,  particularly  by 
Aurelius,  and  received  many  marks  of  favor, 
among  others  the  archonship  at  Athens  and 
the  consulate  at  Rome.  Atticus  is  principally 
celebrated,  however,  for  the  vast  sums  he  ex- 
pended on  public  purposes.  He  withdrew  from 
Athens,  and  resided  at  his  villa  near  Marathon, 
where  he  died  about  180  a.d.  None  of  his  writ- 
ings are  extant. 


Attila,  at'ti-la  (in  German,  Etzel),  the  sou 
of  Mundzuk,  a  Hun  of  royal  descent,  who  fol- 
lowed his  uncle,  Roas,  m  434,  and  shared  the 
supreme  authority  with  his  brother,  Bleda. 
These  two  leaders  of  the  barbarians,  who  had 
settled  in  Scythia  and  Hungary,  threatened  the 
Eastern  Empire,  and  twice  compelled  Theo- 
dosius  H.  to  purchase  an  inglorious  peace.  The 
Huns  themselves  esteemed  Attila,  their  bravest 
warrior  and  most  skilful  general.  Their  re- 
gard for  his  person  soon  amounted  to  supersti- 
tious reverence,  and  being  now  sole  master  of 
a  warlike  people,  his  unbounded  ambition  made 
him  the  terror  of  all  nations;  and  he  became, 
as  he  called  himself,  the  scourge  which  God 
had  chosen  to  chastise  the  human  race.  In  a 
short  time  he  extended  his  dominion  over  all 
the  people  of  Germany  and  Scythia,  and  the 
eastern  and  western  emperors  paid  him  tribute. 
The  Vandals,  the  Ostrogoths,  the  Gepidse,  and 
a  part  of  the  Franks  united  under  his  banners. 
Hearing  a  rumor  of  the  riches  and  power  of 
Persia,  he  directed  his  march  thither,  but  was 
defeated  on  the  plains  of  Armenia,  and  drew 
back  to  satisfy  his  desire  of  plunder  in  the  do- 
minions of  the  emperor  of  the  East.  He  easily 
found  a  pretext  for  war,  for  all  states  which 
promised  him  a  rich  booty  were  his  natural 
enemies,  and  all  princes  whom  he  hoped  to 
conquer  had  broken  alliances.  The  Emperor 
Theodosius  collected  an  army  to  oppose  his  pro- 
gress ;  but  in  three  bloody  battles  fortune  de- 
clared herself  for  the  barbarians.  Constantino- 
ple was  indebted  to  the  strength  of  its  walls, 
and  to  the  ignorance  of  the  enemy  in  the  art  of 
besieging,  for  its  preservation.  Thrace,  Mace- 
donia, and  Greece,  all  submitted  to  the  savage 
robber,  who  destroyed  70  flourishing  cities. 
Theodosius  was  at  the  mercy  of  the  victor,  and 
was  obliged  to  purchase  a  peace.  Attila  now 
directed  his  eyes  to  Gaul.  With  an  immense 
army  he  passed  the  Rhine,  the  Moselle,  and  the 
Seine,  came  to  the  Loire,  and  sat  down  under 
the  walls  of  Orleans.  The  inhabitants  of  this 
city,  encouraged  by  their  Bishop,  Agnan 
(Anianus),  repelled  the  first  attack  of  the  bar- 
barians, and  the  united  forces  of  the  Romans, 
under  their  general,  Aetius,  and  of  the  Visi- 
goths, under  their  king,  Theodoric,  compelled 
Attila  to  raise  the  siege.  He  retreated  to 
Champagne,  and  waited  for  the  enemy  in  the 
plains  of  Chalons.  The  two  armies  soon  ap- 
proached each  other.  Attila,  anxious  for  the 
event  of  the  battle,  consulted  the  soothsayers, 
who  assured  \\m\  of  a  defeat.  He  concealed  his 
alarm,  rode  through  the  ranks  of  his  war- 
riors, reminded  them  of  their  deeds,  spoke  of 
his  joy  at  the  prospect  of  a  battle,  and  at  the 
thought  that  their  valor  was  to  be  rewarded. 
Inflamed  by  his  speech,  and  by  the  presence  of 
their  leader,  the  Huns  were  impatient  for  bat- 
tle. At  length  the  fanks  of  the  Romans  and 
Goths  were  broken  through,  and  Attila  was  al- 
ready sure  of  the  victory,  when  the  Gothic 
prince,  Thorismond,  the  son  of  Theodoric, 
poured  down  from  the  neighboring  height  upon 
the  Huns.  Attila,  pressed  on  all  sides,  escaped 
with  difficulty  to  his  camp.  This  was  perhaps 
the  bloodiest  battle  which  has  ever  been  fought 
in  Europe;  for,  according  to  contemporary  his- 
torians, 106,000  dead  bodies  covered  the  field  of 
battle.  Attila  caused  all  his  camp  equipage  and 
treasures  to  be  brought  together  into  a  heap,  in 


ATTITUDE  —  ATTORNEY-GENERAL 


order  to  burn  himself  with  them,  in  case  he 
should  be  reduced  to  extremities.  But  the  enemy- 
were  contented  with  collecting  their  forces 
during  the  night,  and  having  paid  the  last  hon- 
ors to  the  dead  body  of  King  Theodoric  (Die- 
trich), which  they  discovered  with  difficulty, 
they  saluted  his  son,  Thorismond,  king  upon 
the  field  of  battle.  Thus  Attila  escaped,  but  the 
Franks  pursued  him  till  he  had  passed  the 
Rhine.  He  now  demanded  Honoria,  the  sister 
of  Valentinian  III.,  in  marriage,  and  conquered 
and  destroyed  Aquileia,  Padua,  Vicenza,  Vero- 
na, Bergamo,  and  laid  waste  the  plains  of  Lom- 
bardj\  The  inhabitants  fled  to  the  Alps,  to  the 
Apennines,  and  to  the  small  islands  in  the  shal- 
lows (lagoons),  of  the  Adriatic  Sea,  where  they 
built  Venice.  The  emperor  had  no  army  to  op- 
pose him;  the  Roman  people  and  senate  had  re- 
course to  tears  and  supplications.  Pope  Leo  L 
went  with  the  Roman  ambassadors  to  the  ene- 
my's camp  and  succeeded  in  obtaining  a  peace. 
Attila  went  back  to  Hungary.  The  Romans 
looked  upon  their  preservation  as  a  miracle,  and 
the  old  chronicles  relate  that  the  threats  of  St. 
Peter  and  St.  Paul  had  terrified  Attila  —  a 
legend  which  the  art  of  Raphael  and  Alghardi 
has  immortalized.  Not  having  obtained  Honoria 
for  a  wife,  Attila  would  a  second  time  have  de- 
manded her,  sword  in  hand,  if  the  beautiful 
Ildico  had  not  been  added  to  his  numerous 
■wives,  with  whom  he  solemnly  united  himself 
(453)-  On  this  occasion  he  gave  himself  up 
to  all  the  extravagance  of  debauchery ;  but 
on  the  other  day  after  the  marriage,  the  ser- 
vants and  warriors,  impatient  to  salute  their 
master,  thronged  into  the  tent;  they  found 
Ildico  veiled,  sitting  by  the  cold  corpse  of  her 
husband.  During  the  night  he  had  died  of 
a  hemorrhage.  The  news  of  his  death  spread 
sorrow  and  terror  in  the  army.  His  body  was 
enclosed  in  three  coffins  —  the  first  was  of  gold, 
the  second  of  silver,  and  the  third  of  iron.  The 
captives  who  had  made  the  grave  were 
strangled.  The  description  that  Jornandes  has 
left  us  of  this  barbarian  king  reminds  us  of  his 
Kalmuck-Tartar  origin.  He  had  a  large  head, 
a  flat  nose,  broad  shoulders,  and  a  short  and  ill- 
formed  body.  See  Thierry,  *Histoire  d'Attila' 
(1814). 

Attis.     See  Atys. 

At'titude,  an  art  term  signifying  an  artis< 
tic  pose  or  position  assumed  by  living  figures. 
Attitudes  require  a  regular  study,  a  part  of 
which  is  a  Knowledge  of  anatomy.  The  art  of 
exhibiting  attitudes,  at  least  in  modern  times,  is 
of  recent  invention.  At  the  end  of  the  i8th 
century  the  celebrated  Lady  Hamilton  began 
the  practice,  and  imitated,  with  great  talent, 
the  attitudes  of  antique  statues  in  many  large 
towns  of  Europe,  so  that  Sir  William  Hamilton 
could  say  that  he  possessed,  in  his  wife,  a 
whole  collection  of  antiques.  Her  dress  was  a 
simple  tunic,  fastened  with  a  ribbon  tight  un- 
der the  breast,  and  a  shawl.  With  these  she 
imitated  all  the  different  draperies.  On  the  con- 
tinent of  Europe  this  art  was  carried  to  much 
perfection  by  Mrs.  Hendel  Schutz,  who  exhibit- 
ed attitudes,  copied  from  the  Greek,  Egyptian, 
Italian,  and  German  styles  of  art. 

At'tleboro,  Mass.,  a  town  of  Bristol 
County,  30  miles  southwest  of  Boston,  and  12 
miles  from  Providence.  It  has  good  railroad 
connections,  contains  national  banks,  newspaper 

Vol.  2— J 


offices,  several  churches,  and  a  system  of  graded 
schools.  The  town  is  the  seat  of  several  m:por- 
tant  industries,  the  chief  of  which  is  the  man- 
ufacture of  jewelry  and  electro-plate.  There 
are  also  manufactories  of  cotton,  woolen,  and 
knit  goods,  and  of  boots  and  shoes.  Pop. 
(1900)  11,335-  Consult  Daggett,  <A  Sketch  of 
the  Town  of  Attleborough>    (1894). 

Attock,  at-tok',  a  town  and  fort  of  the 
Punjab,  on  the  east  bank  of  the  Indus.  Attock 
stands  below  the  fort,  established  by  the  Em- 
peror Akbar  in  1581,  to  defend  the  passage  of 
the  river.  The  great  railway  bridge  across  the 
Indus  here  was  opened  in  1883.  It  has  five 
arches  130  feet  high,  and  renders  continuous 
the  railway  connection  between  Calcutta  and 
Peshawur  (1,600  miles).  The  situation  of  At- 
tock is  important,  whether  in  a  commercial  or 
in  a  military  view.  It  is  at  the  head  of  the 
steamboat  navigation  of  the  Indus,  being  940 
miles  from  its  mouth.  Taxila,  where  the 
Macedonians  crossed  the  Indus,  has  been 
identified  with  Attock. 

Attorney,  at-tiir'ni  (attoniatus,  in  Latin), 
a  person  appointed  to  do-  something  for  and  in 
the  stead  and  name  of  another.  A  public  at- 
torney or  attorney  at  law  is  a  person  quali- 
fied to  appear  for  another  before  a  court 
of  law  to  prosecute  or  defend  any  action  on 
behalf  of  his  client.  The  term  was  formerly 
applied  especially  to  those  practising  before  the 
supreme  courts  of  common  law  at  Westminster, 
and  corresponded  to  the  term  solicitor  u.sed  in  re- 
gard to  the  courts  of  chancery.  As  an  attorney 
was  almost  invariably  a  solicitor,  the  two  terms 
came  to  be  generally  regarded  as  synonymous. 
By  the  Judicature  Act  of  1873  all  persons  prac- 
tising before  the  supreme  courts  at  Westmins- 
ter are  now  called  solicitors.  Attorneys  or 
solicitors  do  not  plead  or  argue  in  court  on  be- 
half of  their  clients,  this  being  the  part  of  the 
barristers  or  counsel  :  their  special  functions 
may  be  defined  to  be,  to  institute  actions  on  be- 
half of  their  clients  and  take  necessary  steps 
for  defending  them,  to  furnish  counsel  with 
necessary  materials  to  enable  them  to  get  up 
their  pleadings,  to  practice  conveyancing,  to 
prepare  legal  deeds  and  instruments  of  all 
kinds,  and  generally  to  advise  with  and  act  for 
their  clients  in  all  matters  connected  with  law. 
An  attorney,  whether  private  or  public,  may 
have  general  powers  to  act  for  another ;  or  his 
power  may  be  special,  and  limited  to  a  particu- 
lar act  or  acts.  In  Scotland  there  is  no  class 
of  practitioners  of  the  law  who  take  the  name 
of  attorneys.  A  special  attorney  is  appointed 
by  a  deed  called  a  power  or  letter  of  attor- 
ney, and  the  deed  by  which  he  is  appointed 
specifies  the  acts  he  is  authorized  to  perform. 
It  is  a  commission,  to  the  extent  of  which  only 
he  can  bind  his  principal.  As  far  as  the  acts  of 
the  attorney,  in  the  name  of  the  principal,  are 
authorized  by  his  power,  his  acts  are  those  of 
his  principal.  But  if  he  goes  beyond  his  au- 
thority, his  acts  will  bind  himself  only;  and  he 
must  indemnify  any  one  to  whom,  without  au- 
thority, he  represents  himself  as  an  attorney  of 
another,  and  who  contracts  with  him,  or  other- 
wise puts  confidence  in  him,  as  being  such  at- 
torney. 

Attorney-General,  in  English  law,  an  mi- 
portant  officer  under  the  king,  made  by  let- 
ters patent.    His  most  important  duties  are  to 


ATTORNEY  AT  LAW  —  ATWATER 


exhibit  informations  and  prosecute  for  the 
crown  in  matters  criminal,  and  to  file  bills  in 
the  exchequer  in  any  matter  concerning 
the  kings  revenue.  The  attorney-general  of 
the  United  States  is  an  officer  appointed  by  the 
President  He  is  required  by  statute  to  give 
his  advice  and  opinion  upon  questions  of  law 
whenever  required  by  the  president;  to  pass  up- 
on the  validity  of  the  title  to  public  lands  pur- 
chased for  the  erection  of  public  buildings  by 
the  United  States;  when  requested,  to  give  his 
opinion  to  the  head  of  any  executive  depart- 
ment on  any  questions  of  law  arising  in  his 
department;  to  conduct  and  argue  all  cases  in 
which  the  United  States  is  interested,  whenever 
he  deems  it  best  for  the  interests  of  the  United 
States  for  him  to  do  so;  to  exercise  general 
superintendence  and  direction  over  the  attor- 
neys and  marshals  of  all  the  districts  in  the 
United  States  and  the  Territories  as  to  the 
manner  of  discharging  their  respective  duties. 
The  attorney-general  is  also  a  member  of  the 
Cabinet,  and  according  to  the  provisions  of  the 
act  of  Congress  of  19  Jan.  1886,  is  the  fourth  in 
succession,  after  the  Vice-President,  to  the 
office  of  President  in  case  of  a  vacancy  in  that 
office.  In  each  of  the  United  States  there  is  an 
attorney-general,  or  similar  officer,  who  appears 
for  the  people,  as  in  England  he  appears  for 
the  Crown.  Only  a  few  of  the  duties  of  the  at- 
torney-generals in  the  various  States  are  defined 
by  statute,  consequently,  so  far  as  applicable  to 
our  altered  situation,  jurisprudence,  and  system 
of  government,  attorney-generals  of  the  various 
states  are  clothed  with  the  common  law  powers 
of  the  attorney-generals  of  England.  The  at- 
torney-general of  England  had  the  power  (i) 
to  prosecute  all  actions  necessary  for  the  pro- 
tection and  defense  of  the  property  and  reve- 
nues of  the  Crown;  (2)  by  information  to 
bring  certain  classes  of  persons  accused  of 
crimes  and  misdemeanors  to  trial;  (3)  by  ^'■scire 
facias''^  to  revoke  and  annul  grants  made  by 
the  Crown  improperly,  or  when  forfeited  by  the 
grantee  thereof;  (4)  by  information,  to  recover 
money  or  other  chattels  or  damages  for  wrongs 
committed  on  the  land,  or  other  possessions  of 
the  Crown;  (5)  by  writ  of  quo  zvarmnto,  to  de- 
termine the  right  of  him  who  claims  or  usurps 
any  office,  franchise,  or  liberty,  and  to  vacate 
the  charter,  or  annul  the  existence  of  a  corpora- 
tion for  violations  of  its  charter,  or  for  omit- 
ting to  exercise  its  corporate  powers ;  (6)  by 
writ  of  mandamus  to  compel  the  admission  of 
an  officer  duly  chosen  to  his  office,  and  to  com- 
pel his  restoration  when  illegally  ousted;  (7) 
by  information  to  chancery,  to  enforce  trusts, 
and  to  prevent  public  nuisances,  and  the  abuse 
of  trust  powers;  (8)  by  proceedings  in  rem,  to 
recover  property  to  which  the  Crown  may  be 
entitled,  by  forfeiture  for  treason,  and  property 
for  which  there  is  no  other  legal  owner,  such  as 
wrecks,  treasure  trove,  etc. ;  (9)  and  in  certain 
cases,  by  information  in  chancery,  for  the  pro- 
tection of  the  rights  of  lunatics,  and  others  who 
are  under  the  protection  of  the  Crown. 

Attor'ney  at  Law,  an  officer  of  a  court  of 
justice  employed  by  a  party  in  a  cause  to  man- 
age it  for  him.  Appearance  by  attorney  has 
been  allowed  in  England  from  the  time  of  the 
earliest  records  of  the  courts  of  that  country. 
Such  appearances  were  first  allowed  in  France 
by  letters  patent  of  Philip  le  Bel,  1290  a.d.     No 


one  can,  by  consent,  be  the  attorney  of  both 
the  litigating  parties  in  the  same  section  or 
suit.  The  agreement  of  an  attorney  at  law, 
within  the  scope  of  his  employment,  in  general, 
binds  his  client  (i  Salk.  86)  as  to  amend  the 
record,  to  refer  a  cause,  not  to  sue  out  a  writ  of 
error,  to  strike  out  a  non  pros,  to  waive  a  judg- 
ment by  default,  etc.  The  principal  duties  of 
an  attorney  are  to  be  true  to  the  court  and  to 
his  client,  to  attend  to  the  business  of  his 
client  with  prudence,  skill,  and  honesty  (4 
Burr.  2061,  72  Ga.  83)  ;  to  keep  his  client  in- 
formed as  to  the  state  of  his  business,  and  to 
keep  his  secrets  confided  to  him  as  such,  and  an 
attorney  is  privileged  from  disclosing  such  se- 
crets when  called  as  a  witness  (16  N.  Y.  180, 
29  Vt.  701).  An  attorney  is  allowed  consid- 
erable freedom  of  speech,  and  ordinarily,  is  not 
liable  for  the  use  of  false,  defamatory,  or  ma- 
licious language,  provided  it  was  material  to  the 
issues  raised  by  the  pleadings  (Hastings  v. 
Lusk,  22  Wend.  N.  Y.  410).  He  is  liable,  how- 
ever, if  his  language  is  defamatory,  if  it  can  be 
shown  that  it  was  not  relevant  to  the  issues,  and 
was  used  for  the  purpose  of  injuring  the  char- 
acter of  his  adversary  (i  Barn.  &  C.  258). 

Attrac'tion,  in  physics,  any  force  acting 
between  two  bodies,  which  tends  to  bring  them 
nearer  together,  or  to  oppose  their  further 
separation.  All  attractions  can  be  divided  into 
two  classes:  (i)  Those  which  act  at  sensible 
distances,  such  as  gravity  and  magnetism,  and 
(2)  those  which  exert  measureable  effects  only 
when  the  bodies  are  exceedingly  close  together. 
Cohesion  and  molecular  forces  are  examples  of 
the  second  class.  See  Cohesion  ;  Electricity  ; 
Ether;  Gravitation;  Magnetism;  Molecular 
Theory;    Surface   Tension. 

At'tribute,  in  philosophy,  a  quality  or 
property  of  a  substance,  such  as  whiteness  or 
hardness.  A  substance  is  known  to  us  only  as 
a  congeries  of  attributes.  In  the  fine  arts  an 
attribute  is  a  symbol  regularly  accompanying 
and  characterizing  some  personage.  Thus  the 
caduceus,  purse,  winged  Hat,  and  sandals  are 
attributes  of  Mercury,  the  trampled  dragon  an 
attribute  of  St.  George. 

Attrition,  a  disposition  of  the  soul  which  con- 
sists in  sorrow  for  sin  springing  from  a  salutary 
fear  of  its  consequences.  Theologians  of  the 
Catholic  Church  teach  that  such  sorrow  joined  to 
the  absolution  of  the  priest  in  the  Sacrament  of 
Penance  is  sufficient  for  the  remission  of  sin,  al- 
though the  penitent  is  counselled  to  strive  for 
the  more  perfect  sorrow  (contrition),  which  has 
its  motive  the  love  of  God. 

At'water,  Lyman  Hotchkiss,  American 
theologian :  b.  Hampden,  Ct.,  23  Feb.  1813 ;  d. 
Princeton,  N.  J.,  17  Feb.  1883.  He  was  pastor 
of  the  First  Congregational  Church  in  Fairfield 
Ct.,  in  1835-54 ;  in  the  last  named  year  becomin- 
professor  of  mental  and  moral  philosophy  a 
Princeton  College,  and,  in  1869,  professor  ot 
logic,  metaphysics,  political  science,  economics 
and  ethics  there.  He  was  the  author  of  i, 
< Manual   of  Elementary  Logic'    (1867). 

At'water,  Wilber  Olin,  American  chem- 
ist :  b.  Johnsburg,  N.  Y.,  3  May  1844.  He  was 
graduated  at  Wesleyan  University  in  1865 ; 
made  a  special  study  of  chemistry  in  the  Shef- 
field Scientific  School  of  Yale  and  the  univer- 
sities   of    Leipsic    and     Berlin.     He    has    beeti 


ATWILL  — AUBE 


successively  professor  of  chemistry  in  East  Ten- 
nessee University,  Maine  Stale  College,  and 
Wesleyan  University.  He  was  director  of  the 
Connecticut  Agricultural  Experiment  Station, 
1875-7,  and  was  appointed  director  of  the 
Storrs  (Conn.)  Experiment  Station  in  1887. 
He  has  been  connected  for  several  years  v;ith 
the  United  Slates  Department  of  Agriculture; 
has  published  a  large  number  of  papers  on 
chemical  and  allied  subjects;  and  since  1894, 
has  given  much  attention  to  nutrition  investiga- 
tions. 

At'will,  Edward  Robert,  American  bishop: 
b.  Red  Hook,  N.  Y.,  18  Jan.  1840.  He  was 
graduated  from  Columbus  University  in  1862, 
and  General  Theological  Seminary,  1864.  He 
was  rector  of  St.  Paul's  Church,  Burling- 
ton, Vt.,  1867-80;  of  Trinity  Parish,  Toledo,  O., 
1881-90;  and  was  consecrated  first  Protestant 
Episcopal  bishop  of  West  Missouri,  14  Oct. 
1890. 

At'wood,  Charles  B.,  American  archi- 
tect: b.  Millbury,  Mass.,  18  May  1849;  d.  Chi- 
cago, 19  Dec.  1895.  He  studied  at  the  Harvard 
Scientific  School,  and  opened  an  office  in  1872. 
Within  three  years  he  received  prizes  for  de- 
*  signs  for  the  San  Francisco  city  hall,  the 
Connecticut  State  capitol,  the  court  house  in 
Springfield,  Mass.,  and  a  commission  to  build 
the  Holyoke,  Mass.,  city  hall.  Removing  to 
New  York  in  1875,  he  designed  residences  for 
W.  H.  Vanderbilt.  Elliot  F.  Shepard,  and  W.  D. 
Sloane,  and  interior  decorations  for  the  houses 
of  Mrs.  Mark  Hopkins  in  San  Francisco  and 
Gt.  Barrington,  Mass.  In  1884  he  gained  the 
first  prize  for  a  design  for  the  Boston  Public 
Library,  and  later  a  prize  of  $5,000  for  plans 
for  a  new  city  hall  in  New  York  city.  From 
1891-3  he  was  associated  with  D.  H.  Burnham 
in  planning  the  World's  Fair  buildings  in  Chi- 
cago. The  art  building,  peristyle,  service 
building,  and  many  minor  features  were  from 
his  designs.  He  was  a  close  student  of  his 
art,  and  a  marvelous  draughtsman,  using  his 
left  hand  with  sureness  and  rapidity.  D.  H. 
Burnham  said  of  him,  "He  was  of  an  honorable, 
charitable  disposition,  but  like  most  great 
artists,  a  mere  child  in  the  practical  things  of 
Iife.» 

At'wood,  George,  an  eminent  English 
mathematician:  b.  London  1746;  d.  11  July  1807. 
In  1874  he  published  ^Treatise  on  the  Rectili- 
near Motion  and  Rotation  of  Bodies ;  with  a 
Description  of  Original  Experiments  relative  to 
that  Subject^ —  a  work  remarkable  for  its  per- 
spicuity and  the  extensive  information  which 
it  afifords.  About  the  same  time  he  made  pub- 
lic an  'Analysis  of  a  Course  of  Lectures  on  the 
Principles  of  Natural  Philosophj',^  read  at  the 
University  of  Cambridge,  which  is  not  less  val- 
uable than  the  preceding.  He  published  a  'Dis- 
sertation on  the  Construction  and  Properties  of 
Arches^  (1801),  and  several  other  valuable 
treatises  relating  to  mathematics  and  mechanical 
science.  He  invented  a  machine  still  used  in 
physical  lectui '--rooms,  which  affords  great  fa- 
cilities for  verifying  the  laws  of  falling  bodies. 
See  Atwood's  Machine. 

At'wood,  Isaac  Morgan,  American  edu- 
cator :  b.  Pembroke,  N.  Y.,  24  March  1838.  He 
was  ordained  in  the  Universalist  Church  in 
1861 ;     held     several     pastorates ;     edited     The 


Christian  Leader  (1867-73);  became  an  as- 
sociate editor  of  ^the  Universalist  Leader; 
and  was  chosen  president  of  the  Canton  (N.  Y.) 
Theological  Seminary  in  1879.  His  chief  works 
are:  ^Have  We  Outgrown  Christianity  ?> 
(1870)  ;  'Latest  Word  of  Universalism'  (1878)  ; 
'Manual  of  Revelation*  (1888)  ;  'Walks  About 
Zion>    (1881). 

At'wood,  Melville,  Anglo-American  geol- 
ogist: b.  31  Juiv  1812,  Prescott  Hall,  Eng- 
land ;  d.  Berkeley,  Cal.,  25  April  1898.  He  stud- 
ied iithology,  microscopy,  and  geology  early  in 
life,  and  engaged  in  gold  and  diamond  mining 
in  Brazil.  In  1843  he  made  a  discovery  that 
greatly  enhanced  the  value  of  zinc  ore.  After 
coming  to  the  United  States,  in  1852,  he  in- 
vented the  blanket  system  of  amalgamation. 
He  also  established  the  value  of  the  famous 
Comstock  silver  lode,  by  an  assay  of  minerals 
in  that  region. 

At'wood's  Machine,  an  instrument  devised 
by  George  Atwood,  an  English  physicist,  for 
illustrating  the  principles  governing  the  mo- 
tion of  falling  bodies,  and  described  by  him 
in  a  book  published  in  1784.  It  consists  es- 
sentially of  a  light  wheel  or  pulley,  over  which 
a  thin,  flexible  cord  passes.  A  mass  of  mat- 
ter is  attached  to  each  end  of  the  cord,  and 
the  experiment  consists  in  observing  the  velocity 
acquired  by  the  system  at  the  end  of  a  given 
time.  The  mass  to  be  removed  is  evidently 
the  sum  of  the  two  masses  attached  to  the  ends 
of  the  cord  (assuming  that  the  wheel  is  light 
enough  to  be  disregarded)  ;  and  the  force 
tending  to  set  the  system  in  motion  is  the 
difference  of  the  weights  of  the  two  masses. 
By  making  these  masses  nearly  equal,  the  mo- 
tion can  be  made  slow  enough  to  be  conveniently 
studied.  The  intensity  of  gravity  can  be  de- 
termined by  the  aid  of  this  machine,  with  suffi- 
cient accuracy  for  class-room  purposes,  and  it 
is  an  admirable  device  for  illustrating  the  laws 
of  uniformly  accelerated  motion.  For  a  more 
detailed  account  see  Gravity. 

Atys,  a'tis,  or  Attis.  (i)  The  favorite  of 
Cybele,  who,  having  broken  the  vow  of  chastity 
which  he  made  to  the  goddess,  castrated  him- 
self, as  a  punishment  for  his  crime.  (2)  A 
son  of  Croesus,  king  of  Lydia  —  an  affecting 
example  of  filial  love.  He  was  dumb,  but,  see- 
ing a  soldier  in  a  battle  who  had  raised  a  sword 
against  his  father,  he  exerted  himself  so  much 
that  the  bands  of  his  tongue  gave  way,  and  he 
cried  out,  "Soldier,  kill  not  Crcesus!'* 

Aubanel,  o-ba-nel',  The'odore,  French 
poet,  sometimes  called  "The  Petrarch  of 
France*':  b.  1829;  d.  1886.  He  devoted  his  life 
to  the  restoration  of  the  troubadour  literature. 
His  drama,  'Lou  Pan  don  Pecat,*  was  success- 
fully staged  in   1878  at  Montpellier. 

Aube,  6b,  a  French  department,  formed 
out  of  the  south  of  Champagne  and  a  small 
portion  of  Burgundy;  area,  2,351  square  miles. 
The  north  and  northwest  districts  are  very 
bleak,  bare  of  trees,  and  almost  destitute  of 
vegetation  ;  the  southern  districts  are  remarkably 
fertile.  The  forests,  which  are  extensive,  fur- 
nish much  fuel  for  the  supply  of  Paris.  The 
chief  manufactures  are  worsted  and  hosiery. 
Troyes   is  the  capital. 


AUBER—  AUBURN 


Auber,    6-bar',     Daniel     Francois     Esprit, 

celebrated  French  operatic  composer :  b.  Caen, 
29  Jan.  1782;  d.  Paris,  13  May  1871.  From 
natural  inclination  he  devoted  himself  to  the 
study  of  music,  in  which  he  had  the  assistance 
of  Cherubini.  His  first  decided  success  was 
his  opera  *La  Neige,^  produced  in  1824.  By 
this  time  he  had  associated  himself  with  Scribe, 
a  very  skilful  writer  of  libretti;  and  other 
operas  now  followed  in  quick  succession,  for 
which  the  words  were  supplied  by  Scribe,  and 
the  music  by  Auber.  Some  of  these  are  still 
favorites,  for  example,  ^Le  Domino  Noir,^  *Les 
Diamants  de  la  Couronne^  (Crown  Diamonds), 
and  above  all,  *^Fra  Diavolo,'  and  ^La  Muette 
de    Portici^    (usually   known   as    ^Masaniello^). 

Aubigne,  D',  J.  H.  M.  See  D'Aubigne, 
J.  H.  M. 

Aubigne,  o'be-nya',  Theodore  Agrippa  d', 

French  soldier  and  author:  b.  Saint  Maury 
(Saintonge),  8  Feb.  1552;  d.  Geneva,  29  April 
1630.  He  fought  under  Henry  IV.,  king  of 
France,  who  made  him  a  gentlemen  of  his  bed- 
chamber ;  but  when  the  king,  thinking  it  nec- 
essary, favored  the  Roman  Catholics  more  than 
the  Protestants,  Aubigne  expressed  his  displeas- 
ure with  little  reserve,  and  lost  the  favor  of 
Henry.  He  now  retired  to  Geneva,  where  he 
devoted  himself  to  literary  pursuits.  He  wrote 
a  valuable  ^Histoire  Universelle,  from  1550 
to  1601*  (3  vols,  folio),  the  first  volume  of 
which  was  ordered  to  be  burned  by  the  Parlia- 
ment of  Paris.  A  volume  of  sonnets  and  other 
poems,  under  the  title  ^Le  Printemps,^  also 
bears  his  name. 

Aublet,  6-bla',  Albert,  French  painter :  b. 
Paris.  He  studied  historical  painting  under 
Gerome ;  won  a  first-class  medal  in  the  Paris 
Exposition  of  1889,  and  the  decoration  of  the 
Legion  of  Honor  in  i8go.  His  first  great  paint- 
ing was  the  ^The  Wash-room  of  the  Reserves 
in  the  Cherbourg  Barracks,^  exhibited  in  the 
Salon  of  1879,  and  probably  his  most  celebrated 
one  is  the  ^Meeting  of  Henri  IH.  and  the  Due 
de  Guise, ^  shown  in  the  Salon  of  1880. 

Aubrey,  a'bri,  John,  English  antiquary: 
b.  Easton  Pierse,  1626 ;  d.  1697.  He  published 
little,  but  left  large  collections  of  manuscripts, 
which  have  been  used  by  subsequent  writers. 
He  collected  materials  for  the  ^Monasticon 
Anglicanum',  and  afforded  important  assistance 
to  Wood,  the  Oxford  antiquary.  His  ^Mis- 
cellanies^  (1696)  contains  a  great  deal  of  cu- 
rious and  interesting  information,  but  also  dis- 
plays much  credulity  and  superstition.  Another 
work  of  his  was  published  in  1719  under  the  title 
of  the  ^Natural  History  and  Antiquities  of  the 
County  of  Surrey.^  In  1898  appeared  a  work 
by  him  entitled  ^  Brief  Lives  Chiefly  of  Con- 
temporaries,'  edited  by  Andrew  Clark. 

Au'burn,  Cal.,  a  city  and  county-seat  of 
Placer  County,  situated  on  the  Southern  P.  R.R., 
36  miles  east  of  Sacramento.  It  was  first  set- 
tled in  1849  and  was  incorporated  as  a  city  in 
1888.  It  is  the  seat  of  the  Sierra  Normal  Col- 
lege. Gold  and  quartz  is  found  in  the  vicinity 
and  there  are  many  quartz  mills.  The  leading 
industries  are  mining,  fruit-growing,  and  farm- 
ing.    Pop.   (1900)   2,050. 

Au'burn,  Ind.,  city  and  county-seat  of 
De   Kalb  County,  situated  on  branches  of  the 


Lake  Shore  &  M.  S.,  and  the  Baltimore  &  O. 
R.R.'s,  22  miles  north  of  Fort  Wayne.  It  has 
a  thriving  trade  in  grain,  live  stock,  etc.,  and 
its  chief  manufactures  are  furniture,  carriages, 
automobiles,  gas  engines,  windmills,  and  stoves. 
Auburn  was  first  settled  in  1833,  became  a 
borough  in  1836  and  a  city  in  1900.  The  mayor 
and  other  officials  are  elected  biennally.  Pop. 
(1900)    3,396. 

Au'burn,  Me.,  a  city  and  county-seat  of 
Androscoggin  County,  on  the  west  bank  of  the 
Androscoggin  River,  on  the  line  of  the  Maine 
C.  and  Grand  Trunk  R.R.'s,  34  miles  north  of 
Portland.  The  city  is  one  of  the  most  beautiful 
in  the  State.  It  rises  westerly  from  the  river 
in  almost  amphitheatre  form,  culminating  in 
beautiful  heights  known  as  the  Western  Prom- 
enade. These  heights  are  terraced  by  broad, 
handsome  avenues,  upon  which,  overlooking 
the  city,  are  elegant  residences  with  spacious 
and  well-kept  grounds.  The  view  from  the 
summit  of  these  heights  is  one  of  the  most  strik- 
ing in  Maine.  The  beautiful  Androscoggin 
River,  with  its  waterfall  grand  and  picturesque, 
flows  through  the  valley  below,  the  two  thriving 
cities  of  Auburn  and  Lewiston  on  either  bank, 
while  broad  and  fertile  fields  dotted  with  com- 
fortable farm  homes  stretch  to  the  north  and 
east.  Taylor  Pond  and  Lake  Auburn  lie  to 
the  west  and  are  justly  considered  among  the 
most  beautiful  lakes  of  Maine.  The  territory 
of  the  city  covers  an  area  of  65.4  square  miles. 

History. —  Auburn  is  an  old  town  and  has 
an  interesting  history.  Its  territory  is  a  part 
of  a  large  tract  of  land,  originally  known  as 
Bakerstown,  granted  by  the  general  court  of 
Massachusetts  in  1765.  It  was  settled  as  early 
as  1786  and  Auburn  was  incorporated  as  a 
town  in   1842,  and  as  a  city  in   1869. 

Industries. —  Its  largest  single  industry  is 
the  manufacture  of  boots  and  shoes,  and  in  this 
branch  of  manufacture  it  is  one  of  the  fore- 
most cities  in  the  country.  It  has  ten  large 
shoe  factories  employing  3,325  persons.  The 
value  of  their  yearly  product  is  $6,730,000,  and 
the  shoe  shipments  include  every  State  in  the 
LTnion,  also  Canada,  England,  Australia,  South 
America,  China,  and  the  Philippine  Islands.  Its 
other  industries  include  one  cotton  mill  with 
250  employees,  last,  box,  and  carriage  factories, 
machine  shops,  shoe  findings,  dairy  products, 
beef  and  packing  houses,  marble  and  foundry 
products,  lumber,  shuttles,  and  spools. 

Banks. —  There  are  two  national  banks  and 
two  savings  banks  located  here.  The  capital 
stock  of  the  two  national  banks  is  $350,000; 
surplus,  $138,378.  The  deposits  in  the  savings 
banks,  $2,492,595. 

Government. —  The  municipal  government  is 
created  by  charter  of  the  State  Legislature  and 
consists  of  a  Maj^or,  a  Board  of  Aldermen,  and 
a  Board  of  Common  Councilmen,  all  are  elected 
annually  by  the  people  on  the  first  Monday  of 
March.  One  Alderman  and  three  Common 
Councilmen  are  elected  from  each  of  the  five 
wards  into  which  the  city  is  divided,  while 
the  Mayor  is  elected  by  the  votes  of  the  entire 
city.  The  administrative  officers  of  the  city 
are  partly  elected  by  the  Board  of  Aldermen 
and  Common  Council  in  joint  body  known  as 
the  City  Council  and  partly  appointed  by  the 
Mayor  with  the  confirmation  of  the  Board  of 
Aldermen.     The  police,  including  the  chief,  are 


AUBURN— AUBURN   THEOLOGICAL   SEMINARY 


appointed  by  tlie  Mayor,  subject  to  confirmation 
by  the  Board  of  Aldermen.  The  Fire  Depart- 
ment is  under  the  management  of  a  Board  of 
Fire  Commissioners  consisting  of  three  mem- 
bers elected  by  the  City  Council  and  holding 
office  for  a  term  of  three  years.  The  streets, 
sewers,  and  bridges,  and  all  matters  pertain- 
ing to  the  repair  and  maintenance  of  the  same, 
are  under  the  direction  of  a  Board  of  Public 
Works  of  five  members  created  by  special  act 
of  the  State  Legislature,  elected  by  the  City 
Council  and  holding  office  for  a  term  of  five 
years.  The  city  owns  its  waterworks  and  the 
same  is  under  the  management  of  a  board  of 
seven  Water  Commissioners  of  which  the 
Mayor  is  a  member  ex-ofiicio,  also  created  by 
special  act  of  the  Legislature  of  the  State.  They 
are  elected  by  the  City  Council,  each  holding 
office  for  a  term  of  six  years.  The  schools  are 
under  the  control  of  a  Superintending  School 
Committee  of  ten  members,  two  from  each 
ward  in  the  city.  The  members  of  the  com- 
mittee are  elected  annually  by  the  voters  of 
each  ward  and  hold  their  office  for  a  term  of 
two  years.  The  Mayor  is  ex-officio  chairman  of 
the  board.  The  assessed  valuation  of  the  real 
and  personal  property  in  1904  was  $6,610,071  : 
rate  of  taxation  20  mills;  bonded  debt  $533,700; 
floating  debt  $56,820. 

Churches  and  Schools. —  The  city  has  nine 
churches,  one  of  them  organized  as  early  as  1807, 
supported  by  the  following  denominations : 
Baptist,  Free  Baptist,  Universalist,  Episcopal, 
Methodist,  Congregational,  and  Catholic.  The 
city  has  a  school  population  of  about  5,000. 
School  accommodations  are  furnished  absolutely 
free  from  the  kindergarten  to  the  completion 
of  the  high  school  course.  Excellent  buildings, 
commodious,  well  appointed,  and  equipped  with 
modern  improvements  are  distributed  over  the 
city  sufficient  for  the  full  accommodation  of 
all  the  pupils  in  the  primary,  intermediate, 
grammer  and  high  school  grades.  At  the  head 
of  the  public  school  system  stands  the  Edward 
Little  High  School,  a  noted  institution  having 
its  origin  in  the  old  Lewiston  Falls  Academy, 
incorporated  in  1834.  In  addition  to  the  public 
schools  there  is  a  Catholic  Parochial  School  of 
300  scholars,  supported  solely  by  the  Catholic 
portion  of  the  population.  There  is  also  an 
excellent  free  public  library.  The  city,  generally 
speaking,  is  thriving  and  prosperous.  Its  popu- 
lation is  composed  larsrely  of  skilled  workmen 
who  own  their  own  homes  and  are  permanent 
residents.  The  streets  are  wide  and  well  paved, 
regularly  laid  out,  and  in  the  residential  sections 
adorned  with  beautiful  shade  trees.  There  is 
an  excellent  and  extensive  electric  street  rail- 
way, two  large  and  centrally  located  hotels, 
a  beautiful  public  park,  a  handsome  and  com- 
modious set  of  Count}'  buildings  in  which  are 
located  the  Supreme  Court  rooms  and  all  the 
Countj'  offices,  and  the  railroad  facilities  and 
connections  with  all  parts  of  the  country  are  of 
the,  best.  The  city  is  connected  with  the  city 
of  Lewiston  (q.v.),  located  immediately  across 
the  river,  by  four  large  iron  bridges,  and  the 
two  cities  are  so  closely  related  socially  and  in 
a  business  way,  that  they  form  practically  one 
community  and  are  known  as  the  Twin  Cities 
of  Maine.  Pop.  (1842,  at  the  time  of  its  incor^ 
poration  as  a  town),  about  2,000  (1869,  at  the 
time  of  its  incorporation  as  a  city),  6,169;  (1900) 
12,951,  a  gain  of  15  per  cent,  in  the  preceding 


decade,  with  one  exception  the  largest  percent- 
age of  gain  of  any  city  in  the  State. 

D.    J.    McGlLLICUDDY. 

Au'burn,  Neb.,  a  city  and  county-seat  of 
Nemaha  County,  situated  on  the  Missouri  P. 
and  the  Burlington  &  M.  R.  R.R.'s,  65  miles 
south  of  Omaha.  It  was  first  settled  in  1861, 
became  a  borough  in  1804  and  a  city  in  1890. 
There  are  large  fruit  packing  and  canning  plants 
and  a  flour  mill  here.     Pop.  (1900)  2,664. 

Au'burn,  N.  Y.,  city,  county-seat  of  Cayuga 
County ;  on  Owasco  River,  the  outlet  of  Owasco 
Lake,  and  on  the  New  York  Central  and  Lehigh 
Valley  R.R.'s,  26  miles  southwest  of  Syracuse. 
It  was  first  settled  in  1793  by  Colonel  John 
Hardenburgh,  and  was  called  Hardenburgh's 
Corners ;  in  1805  the  name  was  changed  to  Au- 
burn, and  it  was  selected  as  the  county-seat ;  in 
1815  it  was  incorporated  as  a  village,  and  in 
1848  became  a  city.  It  is  the  seat  of  a  session 
of  the  Federal  Court.  Auburn  was  the  home 
of  William  H.  Seward,  of  Gen.  John  S.  Clark 
(Gen.  Clark  still  lives  here),  the  Indian  archae- 
ologist, and  of  Theodore  Cuyler.  It  is  situated 
on  hills  commanding  an  extensive  view  to  the 
northeast ;  the  head  of  Owasco  Lake  is  only  a 
few  miles  from  the  city  limits  to  the  south ;  and 
the  course  of  the  outlet  of  the  lake  is  very 
picturesque  until  reaching  the  manufacturing 
district.  This  outlet  furnishes  excellent  water 
power  for  the  numerous  industries  which  have 
made  Auburn  prosperous.  The  largest  estab- 
lishment is  a  manufactory  of  agricultural  imple- 
ments which  exports  its  goods  to  every  part  of 
the  world ;  other  industries  of  almost  equal  im- 
portance are  tool,  carpet,  and  shoe  factories, 
woolen  mills,  cordage  factories,  and  breweries. 
The  city  has  a  progressive  board  of  trade,  and  six 
banks,  two  of  which  are  national  banks  having 
a  combined  capital  of  $400,000.  Auburn  con- 
tains a  number  of  fine  pul)lic  and  private  build- 
ings, including  a  general  hospital,  costing  $100,- 
000,  a  municipal  hospital  for  contagious  diseases, 
the  court-house,  the  United  States  government 
building,  the  Case  Memorial  Library,  and  the 
Burtis  Auditorium  (erected  1904-5).  There 
are  14  public  grammar  schools,  the  public  high 
school,  and  4  Roman  Catholic  parish  schools. 
Auburn  is  also  the  seat  of  the  Auburn  Theolog- 
ical Seminary  (Presbyterian),  which,  with  its 
four  buildings,  Welch  Memorial,  and  Dodge  Li- 
brary, IMorgan  Hall  and  Williard  Memorial 
Chapels,  forms  another  interesting  feature  of  the 
city.  In  1883  the  400th  anniversary  of  Luther's 
birthday  was  celebrated  at  the  Seminary  by  the 
planting  at  Morgan  Hall  of  a  sprig  of  ivy  from 
Wartburg  Castle,  Luther's  prison  home.  The 
city  government  is  vested  in  a  mayor,  elected 
every  two  years,  and  a  board  of  aldermen  of  10 
members;  the  mayor  has  the  power  of  appoint- 
ing the  heads  of  the  city  departments.  The 
municipality  owns  and  operates  the  waterworks. 
Pop.   (1900)   30,345;   (1905)   3I>423. 

Clinton  S.  Marsh, 
Superintendent  of  Schools,  Board  of  Education. 

Au'burn  Theological  Seminary,  a  Presby- 
terian institution  in  Auburn,  N.  Y. ;  organized 
in  1820.  At  the  close  of  1905  it  had  9  profes- 
sors and  instructors,  56  students,  30,240  volumes 
in  the  library,  grounds  and  buildings  valued  at 
$300,000 ;  aggregate  endowment  funds,  $752,583  \ 
income,  $63,823;  benefactions,  $11,456.  Its  grad- 
uates then  numbered  1.608. 


AUCKLAND  —  AUDETTE 


Auckland,  a  province  of  New  Zealand, 
forming  the  northern  part  of  North  Island,  and 
with  an  area  of  25,746  square  miles.  Auckland, 
a  city  and  capital  of  the  province,  and  formerly- 
capital  of  New  Zealand,  is  situated  on  the 
northeast  coast  of  North  Island.  It  has  two 
excellent  harbors,  one  at  Waitemata  and  one 
at  Manukan  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  isthmus. 
The  former  is  one  of  the  finest  in  New  Zealand. 
There  are  numerous  wharves  and  two  graving 
docks,  one  of  which,  the  Calliope  dock,  opened 
in  1887,  is  one  of  the  largest  in  the  South  Seas. 
Connected  with  the  chief  towns  of  the  island 
by  rail  the  city  has  a  large  and  increasing  trade. 
The  site  is  fine,  and  there  are  numerous  hand- 
some public  buildings,  including  churches,  fine 
schools,  and  the  Auckland  Institute.  Chief 
manufacturing  interests  are  ship-building  yards, 
boiler  works,  glass  works,  shoe  factories,  etc. 
There  is  a  United  States  consulate  here.  Pop. 
(1901)   34.216. 

Auck'land  Islands,  a  group  of  islands  in 
the  Pacific  Ocean  to  the  south  of  New  Zealand. 
The  largest  island  is  about  30  miles  long  by  15 
broad,  and  is  covered  with  dense  vegetation. 
They  belong  to  the  English  government,  almost 
entirely  uninhabited,  and  serve  as  a  station  for 
whaling  ships. 

Auction  and  Auctioneer.  An  auction  is 
a  public  sale  of  property  to  the  highest  bidder. 
It  is  not  material  how  the  sale  is  conducted, 
whether  by  public  outcry  or  other  manner.  The 
essential  part  is  the  selection  of  a  purchaser 
from  a  number  of  bidders.  Catalogues  describ- 
ing the  property  are  usually  printed,  the  terms 
of  the  sale  are  also  usually  stated  in  the  cata- 
logue. Auctions  are  generally  conducted  by 
persons  licensed  for  that  purpose.  Bidders  may 
be  employed  by  the  owner  of  the  property,  if  it 
be  done  bona  fide  and  to  prevent  a  sacrifice  of 
the  property  under  a  given  price,  but  where  the 
bidding  is  fictitious  and  by  combination  with  the 
owner  to  mislead  the  judgment  or  inflame  the 
zeal  of  others  it  would  be  a  fraudulent  and  void 
sale.  Unfair  conduct  on  the  part  of  the  pur- 
chaser will  avoid  the  sale.  Misdescription  of 
property  sold  will  avoid  the  sale  if  it  is  material. 
An  auctioneer  cannot  bid  for  himself;  he  can- 
not deny  his  principal's  title;  he  cannot  sell  at 
private  sale ;  he  has  ordinarily  the  power  to  col- 
lect the  purchase  price  of  goods  3old  from  the 
buyer.  The  auctioneer  must  use  ordinary  care 
and  skill  in  the  discharge  of  hs  duties,  and  like 
other  agents  he  must  obey  the  instructions  he 
receives  from  the  owner  of  property  sent  him 
for  sale.  An  auctioneer,  according  to  the 
weight  of  authority,  who  sells  stolen  property  is 
liable  to  the  owner,  notwithstanding  that  the 
goods  were  sold  by  him,  and  the  proceeds  paid 
over  to  the  thief  without  notice  of  the  felony. 
An  auctioneer  is  also  liable  for  want  of  care  of  the 
goods  while  in  his  possession.  The  auctioneer 
has  a  lien  upon  the  goods  for  the  charges  of  the 
sale,  and  for  his  commission.  He  is  the  agent  of 
the  seller,  and  for  same  purposes,  of  the  buyer. 

Aucuba,  a'ku-ba,  a  genus  containing  three 
species,  of  which  A.  japonica  is  the  best  known. 
They  belong  to  the  natural  order  Cornacece. 
The  species  mentioned  is  a  dioecious  evergreen 
laurel-like  shrub  of  many  varieties,  native  of 
China  and  Japan,  largely  planted  on  lawns  and 
in  shrubberies.     It  withstands  the  dust,   smoke. 


and  gases  of  cities  remarkably  well,  but  is  not 
hardy  in  the  Northern  States.  The  plants  bear 
purple  flowers  in  summer  and  the  female  ones 
are  particularly  beautiful  when  bearing  their 
scarlet  berries  which  ripen  in  early  spring.  It 
is  easily  propagated  by  seed,  or  by  green  wood 
cuttings,  and  succeeds  in  half  shade  where  the 
soil   is  good,   friable,  moist,  but  well-drained. 

Audae'us  (Syrian  Udo),  the  founder  of  a 
religious  sect  called  Audians,  which  held  an- 
thropomorphic views,  and  was  established  under 
the  following  circumstances:  Audius  (b.  at  the 
end  of  3d  century;  d.  370),  was  a  Mesopotamian, 
of  singular  purity  and  severity  of  character. 
He  became  disgusted  with  the  Syrian  clergy, 
and  on  expressing  his  opinion  with  more  firm- 
ness than  discretion,  was  excommunicated ; 
when  a  considerable  number  of  sympathizers 
gathered  around  him  and  constituted  themselves 
into  a  church.  But  this  sect  could  not  long 
withstand  the  persecutions  to  which  it  was  ex- 
posed, and  died  almost  at  the  same  time  as  its 
founder,  who  passed  the  latter  part  of  his  life 
in  exile  in  Scythia,  where  he  converted  many 
pagans  to  Christianity  by  the  force  of  his  teach- 
ings, and  the  moral  beauty  of  his  ascetic  life. 

Aude,  od,  a  maritime  department  in  the 
south  of  France;  area.  2,430  square  miles.  It 
is  mainly  covered  by  hills  belonging  to  the  Py- 
renees or  the  Cevennes,  and  is  traversed  by  a 
valley  drained  by  the  Aude.  The  loftier  dis- 
tricts are  bleak  and  unproductive ;  the  others, 
tolerably  fertile,  yielding  good  crops  of  grain. 
Its  capital  is  Carcassonne.  Pop.  (1901) 
311,386. 

Aude,  a  river  of  France,  which  rises  in  the 
East  Pyrenees,  in  the  Department  of  Pyrenes 
Orientales,  and  after  a  course  of  nearly  130 
miles,  falls  into  the  Mediterranean.  It  receives 
several  affluents,  of  which  the  principal  is  the 
Orbieu. 

Audebert,  6d-bar',  Jean  Baptiste,  French 
naturalist  and  engraver:  b.  Rochefort,  1759;  d. 
1800.  He  went,  at  the  age  of  18,  to  Paris  to 
learn  drawing  and  painting,  and  made  himself  a 
skilful  miniature  painter.  This  occupation 
having  awakened  in  him  a  taste  for  natural  his- 
tory, he  undertook  some  works  which  laid  tht 
foundation  of  his  fame.  The  first  was  'Histoire 
Naturelle  des  Singes,  des  Makis,  et  des  Gale- 
opitheques^  (1800),  in  which  he  shows  himself 
an  able  draughtsman,  engraver,  and  writer. 
Not  satisfied  with  laying  different  colors  on  the 
same  plate,  so  as  to  produce  a  kind  of  painting, 
he  went  farther,  and,  instead  of  water  colors, 
used  the  more  durable  oil  colors.  He  carried 
his  art  to  still  greater  perfection  by  using  gold 
in  his  impressions,  the  color  of  which  he  changed 
in  different  ways,  in  order  to  imitate  the  splen- 
dor of  his  patterns.  Natural  history  was 
greatly  benefited  by  his  work,  the  splendor  of 
which  was  astonishing.  His  ^Histoire  des  Co- 
libris.  des  Oiseaux-Mouches,  des  Jacamars,  et 
des  Promerops'  (1802),  is  esteemed  the  most 
complete  work  that  has  appeared  in  this  depart- 
ment. Fifteen  copies  were  struck  off  with 
golden   letters. 

Audette,  a-det',  Louis  Arthur,  Canadian 
lawyer :  b.  Quebec,  14  Dec.  1856.  He  was  edu- 
cated at  Quebec  Seminary  and  Laval  University ; 
called  to  the  bar  in  1880 ;  was  secretary  to  the 
board  of  arbitrations  appointed  in  1893  to  deter- 


AUDIFFRET-PASQUIER  —  AUDRAN 


mine  disputed  matters  of  account  between  Can- 
ada and  the  provinces  of  Ontario  and  Quebec; 
and  also  became  registrar  of  the  exchequer  court 
of  Canada.  He  published  ^The  Practice  of  the 
Exchequer  Court  of  Canada^    (1895). 

Audiff ret-Pasquier,  o'de-f ra'pas-kya',  Edme 
Armand  Gaston,  Due  d',  French  statesman: 
b.  Paris,  1823.  He  was  president  of  the 
National  Assembly  in  1875  and  was  the  first 
life-senator  appointed  by  that  body.  In  1878  he 
was  chosen  to  the  French  Academy. 

Au'diom'eter,  for  the  measurement  of 
hearing,  an  instrument  devised  by  Prof.  Hughes, 
the  English  inventor  of  the  microphone.  Among 
its  constituent  parts  are  an  induction  coil,  a  mi- 
crophone key  and  a  telephone.  The  audiome- 
ter has  been  materially  modified,  and  is  now 
principally  used  for  obtaining  a  balance  of  in- 
duction from  two  electric  coils  acting  upon  a 
third.  A  scale  is  provided  to  show  the  extent 
of  the  movement.  A  varying  or  interrupted 
current  being  passed  through  the  two  outer 
coils,  the  preponderating  current  will  produce 
the  most  induction  if  the  central  coil  is  equidis- 
tant. It  can  always  be  moved  to  such  a  point 
that  there  will  be  no  inductive  effect,  one  coun- 
teracting the  other.  Thus  its  position  measures 
the  relative  induction.  A  telephone  is  in  cir- 
cuit with  the  intermediate  coil  and  is  used  to 
determine  when  its  position  is  such  that  no 
current  is  induced  in   it. 

Au'diphone,  an  invention  to  assist  the 
hearing  of  partially  deaf  persons  in  whom  the 
auditory  nerve  is  not  entirely  destroyed.  The 
instrument,  made  of  a  thin  sheet  of  ebonite  rub- 
ber or  hard  vulcanite,  is  about  the  size  of  a 
palm  leaf  fan,  with  a  handle  and  strings  at- 
tached to  bend  it  into  a  curving  form,  and  a 
small  clamp  for  fixing  the  string  at  the  handles. 
The  audiphone  is  pressed  by  the  person  using  it 
against  his  upper  front  teeth,  with  the  convex 
side  outward ;  when  so  placed  it  communicates 
the  vibrations  caused  by  musical  sounds  or  ar- 
ticulate speech  to  the  teeth  and  bones  of  the 
skull,  thence  to  the  organs  of  hearing.  For 
different  sounds  it  requires  to  be  focussed  to 
different  degrees  of  convexity.  A  simple  strip 
of  fine  glazed  mill-board  has  been  recommended 
by  some  experimenters  as  cheaper  and  equally 
serviceable;  and  birch  wood  veneer  has  been 
used  with  success  for  the  same  purpose. 

Au'dit,  a  term  denoting  an  examination 
into  accounts  or  dealings  with  money  or  prop- 
erty, along  with  vouchers  or  other  documents 
connected  therewith,  especially  by  proper  offi- 
cers, or  persons  appointed  for  the  purpose. 
Also  the  occasion  of  receiving  the  rents  from 
tenants  on  an  estate. 

Audition.     See  Ear:  He.aring. 

Au'ditor.  An  auditor  is  an  officer  of  the 
government,  whose  duty  it  is  to  examine  the 
accounts  of  officers  who  have  received  and  dis- 
bursed public  moneys  by  lawful  authority.  In 
practice  an  auditor  is  an  officer  of  the  court,  as- 
signed to  state  the  items  of  debit  and  credit 
between  the  parties  in  a  suit  where  accounts 
are  in  question,  and  exhibit  the  balance.  They 
may  be  appointed  either  by  courts  of  law  or 
equity.  They  are  appointed  at  common  law  in 
actions  of  account,  and  in  many  of  the  States 
in    other    actions,    under    statutory    regulations. 


The  auditor's  report  must  state  a  special  ac- 
count, 4  Yeates,  Penn.  514,  giving  items  allowed 
and  disallowed,  5  Vt.  70,  but  it  is  sufficient  if  it 
refer  to  the  account,  and  it  is  their  duty  to  re- 
port exceptions  to  their  decisions  of  questions 
taken  before  them  to  the  court,  and  exceptions 
must  be  taken  before  them,  4  Cranch,  U.  S. 
308;  22  Bart.  N.  Y.  39;  unless  apparent  on  the 
face  of  the  report.  The  report  of  the  auditor  ar 
to  facts  is  final  in  some  of  the  States,  unless 
impeached  for  fraud,  misconduct,  or  very  evi- 
dent error.  When  the  report  is  set  aside  in 
whole  or  in  part,  it  may  be  referred  back  or 
may  be  rectified  by  the  court,  or  accepted  if  the 
party  in  favor  of  whom  the  wrong  decision  is 
made,  remits  the  item. 

Auditory  Canal.        See  E.\r. 

Auditory,  or  Eighth,  Nerve,  the  nerve  of 
hearing,  and  of  the  sense  of  position.  It  has 
its  origin  in  two  distinct  portions  of  the  ear,  in 
reality  being  two  distinct  nerves,  the  cochlear 
and  the  vestibtdar.  both  of  which  are  sensory  in 
their  function.  The  cochlear  nerve  originates 
in  the  cells  of  the  organ  of  Corti  in  the  cochlea 
of  the  ear,  and  is  the  one  that  carries  sound  im- 
pressions mto  the  brain.  The  vestibular  nerve 
has  its  origin  in  the  semicircular  canals  and  is 
the  nerve  that  conveys  the  sense  of  localization 
of  position.  Both  of  these  nerves  soon  join 
and  run  together  in  the  internal  meatus,  where 
they  lie  in  the  same  sheath  for  some  distance 
with  the  seventh  or  facial  nerve.  They  enter 
the  medulla,  the  cochlear  nerves  forming  the 
acoustic  striae  on  the  floor  of  the  fourth  ven- 
tricle, and  end  about  the  superior  olivary  body 
and  the  nucleus  of  the  trapezium.  From  here 
the  fibres  enter  the  fillet  and  end  about  the 
auditory  centre  in  the  brain  in  the  second  tem- 
poral convolution.  Disease  here  causes  auditory 
aphasia.  The  fibres  of  the  vestibular  branch 
end  in  the  nuclei  of  Deiters  and  Bechterew  in  the 
medulla,  and  then  further  fibres  pass  for  the 
most  part  into  the  cerebellum.  Disease  here 
causes  cerebellar  ataxia.  See  Ataxi.\  ;  Apha- 
sia ;  Equilibrium  ;  Hearing. 

Audley,  a  manufacturing  town  in  Stafford- 
shire, England.     Pop.  (1901)  13,700. 

Audouard,  6'dowar',  Olympe,  French 
writer:  b.  1830:  d.  1890.  She  was  married  to 
a  notary  in  [Marseilles,  but  soon  after  divorced. 
She  traveled  in  Egypt,  Turkey,  and  Russia ;  and 
having  conducted  various  journals  in  Paris  since 
i860,  made  a  successful  lecture  tour  through 
the  United  States  in  1868-9.  After  her  return 
she  became  interested  in  spiritism.  She  was  an 
ardent  advocate  of  woman's  rights.  Among  her 
novels  and  books  of  travel  may  be  mentioned : 
^How  Men  Love*  (1861);  <The  IMysteries  of 
the  Seraglio  and  of  the  Turkish  Harems* 
(186^)  ;  'The  Mysteries  of  Egypt  Unveiled* 
(1865)  ;  <War  to  Man*  (1865)  ;  <Across  Amer- 
ica*  (1869-71)  :  'Parisian  Silhouettes*   (1883). 

Audouin,  5'dooan',  Jean  Victor,  French 
naturalist:  b.  Paris,  1797;  d.  1841.  He  was 
professor  of  entomology  in  the  Paris  natural 
history  museum  and  was  the  founder  and  first 
president  of  the  Entomological  Society.  He 
wrote  much  respecting  the  injuries  done  by  in- 
sects to  vine  and  silk  culture. 

Audran,  o-draii'.  Edmond,  French  com- 
poser: b.  Lyons,  1842:  d.  1891.  He  composed 
several    comic   operas    which    were   exceedingly 


AUDRAN  —  AUERBACH 


popular,  among  them  ^La  Mascotte^  (1881)  ; 
<01ivette>;  *La  Grand  MoguP  (i884>  ;  <Miss 
Helyett^   (1890);  ^La  Ponpee.^ 

Audran,  o-draii',  Gerard,  French  engraver: 
b.  Lyons,  1640 ;  d.  Paris,  1703.  After  three 
years  at  Rome,  where  he  acquired  a  high  repu- 
tation by  his  engraving  of  Pope  Clement 
IX.,  was  recalled  to  France  by  Colbert,  and  ap- 
pointed engraver  to  Louis  XIV.  Here  he  en- 
graved the  works  of  Lebrun,  illustrating  the 
battles  of  Alexander,  and  many  paintings  by 
Raphael,  Titian,  Domenichino,  Poussin,  and 
others.  His  nephews,  Benoit  (b.  1661,  d.  1721) 
and  Jean  (b.  1667,  d.  1756),  were  also  en- 
gravers. 

Au'drey,  Saint.       See  Ethelreda,  Saint. 

Audrey,  a'dri,  a  shepherdess  in  Shake- 
speare's comedy  ^As  You  Like  It.^ 

Auds'ley,  George  Ashdown,  Scottish- 
American  architect :  b.  Elgin,  Scotland,  6  Sept. 
1838.  He  established  himself  in  the  United 
States  in  1892,  and  subsequently  became  promi- 
nent both  as  an  architect  and  author.  In  col- 
laboration with  his  brother,  William  J.  A. 
AuDSLEY,  he  was  author  of  several  works  — 
on  illuminating-,  decorating,  Christian  symbol- 
ism, etc.,  and,  individually,  published  ^Keramic 
Art  of  Japan^  ;  *  Ornamental  Art  of  Japan^  ; 
^The  Art  of  Chromolithography'  ;  *^The  Prac- 
tical Decorator,^    etc. 

Audubon,  a'du-bon,  John  James  Laforest, 
American  naturalist :  b.  Mandeville,  La.,  4  May 
1780;  d.  27  Jan.  1851.  From  1827-38  he 
published  a  series  of  1,065  colored  figures 
of  American  birds  in  a  descriptive  work,  'The 
Birds  of  America,^  which  still  holds  its  place 
as  one  of  the  most  attractive  and  beautiful  or- 
nithologies of  the  world.  He  was  a  keen  and 
sympathetic  observer,  rather  than  a  trained  spe- 
cialist either  in  science  or  art.  The  full  details 
of  his  life  may  be  found  in  "^Audubon  and  His 
Journals,^  by  his  granddaughter,  Maria  R.  Au- 
dubon, with  zoological  and  other  notes  by  El- 
liott Coues  (1897),  and  in  an  earlier  biography 
by  Lucy  Audubon,  as  well  as  in  'The  Life  and 
Adventures  of  J.  J.  Audubon,  the  Naturalist,^ 
by  Robert  Buchanan  (1869).  He  was  educated 
in  France,  and  studied  drawing  for  some  time 
under  the  great  artist,  David,  but  in  1798  he 
returned  to  America  and  took  possession  of  a 
farm  owned  by  his  father  on  the  Perkiomen 
River,  near  Philadelphia.  Here,  in  1808,  he 
married  Lucy  Bakewell,  the  daughter  of  an 
English  neighbor;  with  her  he  moved  to  Ken- 
tucky and  subsequently  to  Louisiana,  meeting  in 
both  places  with  financial  misadventures  due  to 
his  inadaptability  to  attend  properly  to  trade, 
which  left  him  so  poor  that  he  was  obliged  to 
paint  portraits  and  teach  dancing  and  fencing. 
From  his  boyhood,  however,  in  all  fortunes,  he 
had  spent  much  time  in  sketching  birds  and 
studying  their  habits,  and  in  1826  he  found 
means  to  take  these  sketches  to  England,  where 
he  elaborated  them  into  the  great  series  which 
made  him  famous  and  relieved  his  pecuniary 
troubles.  In  1830  he  returned  to  America  to 
travel  for  new  material  and,  in  1831,  began  the 
publication  of  his  'Ornithological  Biography,' 
in  five  volumes.  In  1842,  after  12  years 
spent  chiefly  in  explorations,  he  bought  a  home 
on  the  Hudson  River  at  a  spot  considerably 
north  of  New  York  city  at  that  time,  but  now 


within  the  city  limits  and  known  as  Audubon 
Park;  here  his  two  sons,  Victor  Gifford  and 
John  Woodhouse  Audubon,  also  lived  with  their 
families.  In  1843  the  naturalist  took  another 
long  journey,  going  to  the  Missouri  River  re- 
gion. After  1844  he  devoted  himself  with  Dr. 
John  Bachman  (q.v.)  and  his  sons,  to  a  new 
publication,  ^The  Quadrupeds  of  America.* 
After  1S47  his  health  began  to  fail.  He  was 
buried  in  Trinity  Cemeterj'-,  New  York. 

Au'dubon  Societies  are  organizations  of 
bird-lovers  who  work  to  educate  public  opinion 
to  a  proper  appreciation  and  protection  of  bird- 
life.  They  have  now  (1903)  been  organized  in 
30  States  and  have  60,000  members.  Thus  the 
efforts  of  a  few  lovers  of  birds  have  developed 
into  a  widespread  movement  of  national  im- 
portance. Hundreds  of  thousands  of  circulars^ 
explaining  the  economic,  educational,  and  es- 
thetic value  of  birds,  were  distributed.  Meet- 
ings were  held ;  classes  for  bird-study  formed. 
Whenever  public  opinion  in  a  State  seemed  ripe, 
a  bill  was  introduced  in  the  legislature  and 
many  a  law-maker  was  surprised  to  discover 
an  active  interest  in  birds  that  he  had  never  sus- 
pected. Even  the  department  of  Agriculture 
at  Washington  began  to  inform  him  of  their 
economic  value.  The  bird  law  of  the  American 
Ornithologists"  Union,  which  forbids  the  killing 
at  any  time  of  non-gamebirds,  has  been  adopted 
in  all  the  New  England  States,  in  New  York,. 
New  Jersey,  Delaware,  Florida,  Ohio,  Kentucky, 
Indiana,  Illinois,  Wisconsin,  Arkansas,  and  Wy- 
oming. It  is  probable  that  within  10  years 
birds  will  be  protected  by  law  practically 
throughout  the  Union.  But  even  then  the  labors 
of  the  Audubon  Societies  will  by  no  means  end. 
The  laws  must  be  enforced  and  the  public  con- 
science kept  alive  until  sentiment  enforces  them. 

Auenbrugger  von  Auenbrug,  ow'en-brug'- 
er  fon  ow'en-briig,  Leopold,  Austrian  physi- 
cian: b.  Gratz,  1722;  d.  Vienna,  1809.  As 
early  as  1754  he  had  discovered  the  method  of 
studying  internal  diseases  (percussion)  which 
made  him  famous ;  but  not  until  after  seven  years 
of  experiments  and  verification  did  he  publish 
his  treatise,  entitled  'Inventum  Novum  ex  Per- 
cussione  Thoracis  Humani  Interni  Pectoris 
Morbos    Detegendi'     (1761). 

Auer,  OAv'er,  Adelheid  von,  pseudonym  ot 
Charlotte  von  Cosel,  German  novelist :  b, 
Berlin,  6  Jan.  1818.  She  is  the  author  of  many 
stories  of  real  life,  among  them,  'Footprints  iri 
Sand^  (1868);  'A  Sister  of  Charity>  (1870); 
'In  the  World's  Labyrinth^  (1878);  'Castles 
in  the  Air>    (1882). 

Au'er,  Alois,  Ritter  von  Welsbach,  Aus  • 
trian  printer:  b.  Wels,  1813;  d.  1869.  He  was 
trained  as  a  compositor  and  in  his  leisure  mo- 
ments acquired  several  languages,  _  becoming  A 
professor  of  Italian  in  the  Gymnasium  of  Linz. 
From  1841  to  1868  he  was  at  the  head  of  the  im- 
perial printing  office  at  Vienna.  He  made  many 
typographical  discoveries  and  published  'Die 
Sprachenhalle  oder  das  Vaterunser  in  60S 
Sprachen'  (1844)  ;  and  'Das  Vaterunser  in  206 
Sprachen'    (1847). 

Auerbach,  OAv'er-baH,  Berthold,  German 
novelist :  b.  Nordstetten,  Wiirtemberg,  28  Feb. 
1812;  d.  Cannes,  France,  8  Feb.  1882.  He  be- 
gan to  write  while  a  student  in  Heidelberg,  and 
under  the  pseudonym  "Theobald  Chauber''  pro- 


AUERBACH  —  AUGIER 


duced  a  ^Biography  of  Frederick  the  Great^ 
(1834-6).  A  series  of  novels  from  the  history 
of  Judaism,  under  the  collective  title  ^The 
Ghetto/  of  which  ^Spinoza*  (1837)  and  *Poet 
and  Merchant^  (1839)  were  printed  in  separate 
editions,  was  followed  by  a  translation  of 
Spinoza,  with  a  critical  biographv  (1841). 
< Black  Forest  Village  Stories^  (1843),  was  re- 
ceived with  universal  favor,  translated  into  near- 
ly all  European  languages,  and  established  his 
fame.  To  this  class  of  tales  belong  also  <^The 
Professor's  Lady^  (1847);  'Little  Barefoot' 
(1856);  'Joseph  in  the  Snow^  (i860);  'Edel- 
weiss' (1861);  'After  Thirty  Years'  (1876). 
His  first  effort  in  the  field  of  the  novel,  'New 
Life'  (1851),  met  with  little  favor;  but  'On  the 
Heights'  (1865)  constituted  the  crowning  suc- 
cess of  his  literary  career.  It  was  followed  by 
'The  Villa  on  the  Rhine'  (1868);  'Waldfried, 
a  Family  History'  (1874)  ;  and  'The  Head  For- 
ester'   (1879). 

Au'erbach,  Henry:  b.  1482,  at  a  place 
of  the  same  name  in  Bavaria,  the  builder  of  the 
Auerbach  court  and  cellar  at  Leipsic,  mentioned 
in  Goethe's  'Faust.'  The  building  was  erected 
in  1530,  and  tradition  reports  that  five  years 
after  Dr.  Faust  was  seen  riding  out  of  it  on  a 
barrel  of  wine.  This  tale  Goethe  has  made  use 
of  in  his  famous  poem. 

Au'erbach's  Keller.    See  Auerbach,  Hexry. 

Auerlite,  a  rare  North  Carolina  mineral, 
remarkably  rich  in  thoria,  named  after  Dr.  Carl 
Auer  von  Welsbach,  the  inventor  of  the  Wels- 
bach  incandescent  gas  mantel.  It  was  origi- 
nallv  described  as  a  hydrous  silico-phosphate  of 
thoritim,  Tha.(Si02.  iP205)  +2H0O.  It  oc- 
curs in  yellowish,  zircon-like  crystals  of  resinous 
lustre  and  having  a  hardness  of  2.5  to  3  and  a 
specific  gravity  of  4.1  to  4.7. 

Auerstadt,  ow'er-stet,  a  village  in  Saxony, 
famous  for  the  great  battle  which  took  place 
there  14  Oct.  1806,  between  the  French  under 
Davoust,  and  the  Prussian  army  under  Duke 
Charles  of  Brunswick,  which  ended  in  a  great 
victory  for  the  former.  The  Prussians,  who  num- 
bered 48,000,  left  nearly  half  of  their  men  dead 
or  wounded  on  the  ground,  while  the  French 
(30,000)  escaped  with  a  loss  of  only  7,000. 
Napoleon  made  Davoust  Duke  of  Auerstadt. 

Augean  (a'je-an)  Co'dex  (Codex  Augien- 
sis),  a  noted  Greek  and  Latin  MS.  of  the 
Epistles  of  St.  Paul,  supposed  to  have  been  writ- 
ten in  the  9th  century,  and  so  called  from  Aiigia 
Major,  the  name  of  a  monastery  at  Rheinau. 
After  passing  through  several  hands  it  came,  in 
1718.  to  Dr.  Bentley,  who  purchased  it  for  250 
Dutch  florins,  and  is  now  in  the  library  of  Trinity 
College,  Cambridge.  This  MS.  is  written  in 
uncial  letters,  and  without  accents;  not  coutinua 
serie,  as  is  common  with  the  more  ancient 
copies,  but  with  intervals  between  the  words, 
and  a  dot  at  the  end  of  each.  The  Greek  text 
is  written  in  capitals,  the  Latin  in  Anglo-Saxon 
letters ;  hence  it  is  tolerably  clear  that  it  must 
have  been  written  in  the  west  of  Europe,  where 
that  formation  of  the  Latin  letters,  usually  called 
Anglo-Saxon,  was  in  general  use  between  the 
7th  and  i2th  centuries. 

Au'geas,  in  Greek  legend,  a  king  of  Elis, 
famed  for  his  stable,  which  contained  3,000  oxen 
and  had  not  been  cleaned  for  30  years.  Her- 
cules was  desired  to  clear  the  filth  away  in  one 


day,  and  Augeas  promised  if  he  performed  it 
to  give  him  a  tenth  part  of  the  cattle.  This 
task  Hercules  is  said  to  have  executed  by  turn- 
ing the  River  Alpheus,  or  as  some  say.  the 
Peneus  through  the  stable,  which  immediately 
carried  away  the  dung  and  filth.  Augeas  re- 
fused to  perform  his  engagement.  Upon  this 
a  war  ensued  and  Hercules  conquered  Elis  and 
put  Augeas  to  death. 

Au'ger-shell,  a  common  designation  of  the 
spiral  gastropod  mollusks  of  the  Tereboidce  fam- 
ily. The  shells  are  slender  and  tapering,  some- 
times ending  in  a  sharp  point,  and  are  usually 
decorated  with  brown,  orange,  and  red  spots 
or  patches.  More  than  200  species  are  known, 
all  inhabitants  of  tropical  waters,  where  they 
occur  from  the  shallow  waters  of  the  shore  to 
very  great  depths. 

Augereau,  ozh-r5',  Pierre  Frangois 
Charles,  Duke  of  Castiglione,  a  marshal  of 
France:  b.  Paris,  1757;  d.  12  June  1816.  He 
distinguished  himself  in  1794  as  general  of  bri- 
gade in  the  army  of  the  Pyrenees,  and  in  1796 
as  general  of  division  in  the  army  of  Italy.  He 
made  himself  master,  16  April,  of  the  intrenched 
camp  of  the  Piedmontese  at  Ceva,  after%vard 
of  that  at  Casale;  threw  himself  on  the  Bridge 
of  Lodi,  and  carried  it  with  the  enemy's  in- 
trenchments.  i  August  he  came  to  the  assistance 
of  Massena;  maintained  during  a  whole  day  a 
most  obstinate  struggle  against  a  superior  num- 
ber of  troops  and  took  the  village  of  Castiglione, 
from  which  he  derived  his  ducal  title.  In  the 
battle  of  Arcole,  when  the  French  columns 
wavered,  Augereau  seized  a  standard,  rushed 
upon  the  ^nemy,  and  gained  the  victory.  The 
directory  bestowed  this  standard  on  him  29 
Jan.  1797.  In  1799  he  was  chosen  a  member 
of  the  Council  of  Five  Hundred,  and  therefore 
resigned  his  command.  He  then  obtained  from 
the  consul  Bonaparte  the  command  of  the  army 
in  Holland.  Being  superseded  in  October  1801, 
he  remained  without  employment  till  1803.  when 
he  was  appointed  to  lead  the  army  collected  at 
Bayonne  against  Portugal.  When  this  enter- 
prise failed,  he  went  back  to  Paris,  and  19  May 
1804,  was  named  m.arshal  of  the  empire,  and 
grand  oflficer  of  the  Legion  of  Honor.  In  July 
of  this  year  the  king  of  Spain  sent  him  the 
order  of  Charles  III.  He  contributed  to  the 
successes  which  gave  birth  to  the  peace  of 
Pressburg,  and  in  March  1806,  had  possession 
of  Wetzlar  and  the  country  around,  until,  in 
the  autumn  of  this  year,  a  new  war  called  him 
to  Prussia.  Early  in  181 1  Napoleon  gave  him 
the  command  of  a  corps  in  the  army  of  Spain. 
After  the  entrance  of  the  allies  into  France, 
he  made  submission  to  Louis  XVIIL.  who  made 
him  a  peer.  Napoleon,  on  his  landing  in  1815, 
declared  him  a  traitor.  Augereau,  however,  ex- 
pressed himself  in  his  favor,  but  took  no  active 
part  in  the  new  order  of  things.  After  the  re- 
turn of  the  king  he  took  his  place  again  in  the 
chamber    of  peers. 

Augier,  6-zhya',  Guillaume  Victor  Emile, 
(ozh-ya'),  French  dramatic  poet:  b.  Valence, 
20  Sept.  1820;  d.  25  Oct.  1889.  'La  Cigue.'  his 
first  piece,  in  two  acts,  after  being  rejected  at 
the  Theatre  Frangaise  in  1844,  was  accepted  by 
the  managers  of  the  Odeon  Theatre,  and  there 
brought  out.  It  had  a  run  of  three  months,  and 
established  the  popularity  of  the  author.     The 


AUGITE  —  AUGUST 


latter  subsequently  produced  other  light  pieces. 
These,  however,  were  thrown  in  the  shade  by 
•Gabrielle,^  a  five-act  comedy,  which  has  been 
pronounced  by  competent  critics  to  be  Augier's 
most  finished  and  best  constructed  work, 
whether  as  regarding  lot,  poetry  or  the  delinea- 
tion of  character.  At  the  solicitation  of  Mile. 
Rachel,  Augier  wrote  <  Diane.  >  In  1868  his 
*Fils  de  Giboyer'  was  successful.  The  style 
of  Augier  is  at  once  classic  and  easy,  dignified 
and  j'et  pictorial.  He  may  be  said  to  have 
founded  a  new  school  in  French  dramatic  liter- 
ature, and  his  works,  partly  by  their  originality, 
and  partly  by  intrinsic  merit  of  a  kind  pos- 
sessed in  common  with  other  dramatic  produc- 
tions,   have   acquired   very   great   popularity. 

Aug'ite.       See  Pyroxene. 

Augsburg,  owgz'burg,  a  city  of  Bavaria; 
situated  on  a  plain,  35  miles  northwest  of 
Munich.  It  was  founded  by  the  Emperor  Au- 
gustus, 12  B.C.  The  streets  are  narrow  but  pic- 
turesque, the  buildings  retaining  many  mediaeval 
characteristics.  Among  the  most  notable  are 
the  cathedral,  arsenal,  town  hall  and  Abbey  of 
St.  Ulrich.  Napoleon  III.  received  his  early 
education  in  a  gymnasium  of  this  city.  It  is  a 
centre  of  the  book  trade.  Augsburg  has  been 
prominent  since  the  Middle  Ages  for  its  com- 
mercial and  financial  operations  and  was  long 
the  home  of  merchant  princes  such  as  the  Fug- 
gers.  It  was  the  scene  of  the  Augsburg  Diet. 
It  was  a  free  cit}'  till  1806,  when  Napoleon  ceded 
it  to  Bavaria.      Pop.    (1900)   88,700. 

Augs'burg  Confession,  a  document  adopt- 
ed by  the  Protestants  in  1530  as  a  declaration  of 
faith.  Charles  V.,  on  his  accession  to  the 
throne  of  Germany  (1520),  found  his  new  do- 
minion the  theatre  of  religious  dissensions.  The 
insurrection  in  Castile,  and  the  war  with  France 
and  Italy,  called  Charles  into  Spain,  diverting 
his  attention  from  the  Lutheran  schism.  The 
Diet  of  Spires  (1529)  had  issued  a  decree  for 
the  purpose  of  conciliating  the  Lutherans  to  the 
proposed  Roman  Catholic  reform,  and  uniting 
them  against  the  Sacramentarians  and  Anabap- 
tists. At  this  juncture,  Charles  returned,  and 
the  German  princes  and  estates  were  summoned 
to  convene  in  diet  at  Augsburg  in  June.  The 
summons  was  conciliatory,  and  called  for  aid 
against  the  Turks,  making  no  reference  to  the 
religious  difficulties  of  the  kingdom,  further 
than  to  promise  at  no  distant  time  a  speedy  ad- 
justment of  them.  On  the  25th  of  the  month,  a 
confession,  prepared  by  Melanchthon,  and  ap- 
proved by  Luther,  was  presented  and  read  by 
Dr.  Christian  Bayer  in  the  diet.  This  confession 
is  said  to  have  been  prepared  on  the  basis  of  the 
Swabach  and  Torgau  articles,  although  these 
had  been  drawn  up  (1528-9)  in  the  attempt  to 
unite  with  the  Zwinglians,  and  the  object  of  the 
present  confession  was  to  become  reconciled  to 
the  Roman  Catholic  reform  party.  A  copy  of 
the  confession,  in  German  and  English,  was  de- 
livered to  Charles.  Two  days  after  the  reading 
of  the  confession,  it  was  delivered  to  the  Roman 
Catholic  theologians  for  a  reply.  The  reply  was 
read  in  the  diet  on  3  August  following,  and 
called  forth  from  Melanchthon  a  defense  (Apo- 
logia Confessionis),  which  was  afterward  en- 
larged and  published  in  Latin,  and  then  in  Ger- 
man. The  object  of  the  Augsburg  Confession 
was  not  attained,  and  the  edict  of  the  emperor 


(22  September)  gave  the  Lutherans  until  the 
following  April  to  bring  themselves  into  con- 
formity with  the  requirements  of  the  Church, 
and  required  their  co-operation  with  the  throne 
against  the  Zwinglians  and  Anabaptists.  The 
Augsburg  confession  and  ]\Ielanchtlion's  defense 
were  generally  circulated  in  western  Europe,  and 
became  a  sort  of  rallying  point  among  the  re- 
formers. 

Augs'burg,  League  of,  a  league  concluded 
at  Augsburg,  9  July  1686,  for  the  maintenance 
of  the  treaties  of  Miinster  and  Nimeguen,  and 
the  truce  of  Ratisbon,  and  to  resist  the  encroach- 
ments of  France.  The  contracting  parties  were 
the  Emperor  Leopold  I.,  the  kings  of  Spain 
and  Sweden,  the  electors  of  Saxony  and  Ba- 
varia, and  the  circles  of  Suabia,  Franconia,  up- 
per Saxony  and  Bavaria. 

Augs'burg  Seminary,  an  educational  in- 
stitution in  Minneapolis.  Minn.,  under  the  aus- 
pices of  the  Lutheran  Church.  It  was  organized 
in  1869  and  reported  in  1902:  Professors,  10; 
students,  170 ;  grounds  and  buildings  valued  at 
$50,000;  income,  $12,250;  graduates,  374. 

Au'gur,  Christopher  Colon,  American  mil- 
itary officer:  b.  New  York,  10  July  1821 ;  d- 
Washington  city,  16  Jan.  1898.  He  was  grad- 
uated at  the  United  States  Military  Academy  in 
1843;  became  major  of  the  I3tli  United  States 
Infantry  in  1861  ;  colonel  of  the  12th  Infantry  m 
1866;  brigadier-general,  L^nited  States  army, 
4  March  1869;  major-general  in  the  volunteer 
service  in  1862 ;  mustered  out  of  that  service  in 
1866;  and  was  retired  in  the  regular  army,  16 
July  1885.  He  commanded  a  division  in  the  bat- 
tle of  Cedar  Mountain,  being  severely  wounded. 

Au'gur,  Hezekiah,  American  sculptor:  b. 
New  Haven,  Conn.,  21  Feb.  1791 ;  d.  10  Jan.  1858. 
^Jephthah  and  His  Daughter,^  in  the  Trumbull 
gallery  at  Yale,  is  the  most  important  of  his 
works.  In  addition  to  his  skill  as  a  sculptor,  he 
possessed  much  mechanical  genius,  inventing 
among  other  machines  one  for  carving  wood. 

Au'gurs,  a  celebrated  college  of  diviners 
in  ancient  Rome,  who  predicted  future  events 
and  determined  the  will  of  the  gods  from  the 
occurrence  of  certain  signs,  connected  with 
thunder  and  lightning;  the  flight  and  cries  of 
birds ;  the  feeding  of  the  sacred  chickens ;  the 
action  of  certain  quadrupeds  or  serpents ;  ac- 
cidents, such  as  spilling  the  salt,  etc.  The  an- 
swers of  the  augurs  and  the  signs  were  called 
auguries ;  bird-predictions  were  auspices.  Noth- 
ing was  undertaken  without  the  advice  of  the 
augurs,  and  by  the  w-ords  alio  die  ('^meet  on  an- 
other day"),  they  could  dissolve  the  assembly 
of  the  people  and  annul  decrees  passed  at  the 
meeting. 

August,  ow'gust,  the  name  of  many  princes 
of  the  German  principalities:  (i)  August  Wil- 
HELM,  prince  of  Prussia,  brother  of  Frederick 
the  Great,  and  general  in  the  Prussian  army:  b. 
Berlin,  9  Aug.  1722:  d.  12  June  1758.  He  took 
an  active  part  in  the  Silesian  campaign,  and  dis- 
tinguished himself  at  the  battle  of  Hohenfried- 
berg  (in  June  1745),  but  owing  to  the  fatal 
retreat  of  Zittau,  in  1756,  he  incurred  the  dis- 
pleasure of  his  brother,  and  withdrew  from  the 
army.  This  conflict  between  the  two  brothers 
led  to  a  correspondence,  which  was  published  in 
1769.  (2)  August  Emil  Leopold,  duke  of  Saxe- 
Gotha  and  Altenlaurg,   successor  to  the  throne, 


AUGUST  —  AUGUSTA 


20  April  1804.  He  was  twice  married,  and  the 
first  marriage  left  him  issue,  one  daughter,  who 
became  the  reigning  duchess  of  Saxe-Coburg, 
and  died  in  1822.  By  the  second  marriage  he 
had  no  children,  and  on  his  death  he  was  suc- 
ceeded on  the  throne  by  his  brother,  Frederick 
IV.,  with  whose  decease,  11  Feb.  1825,  the  line 
of  Saxe-Gotha  became  extinct.  Duke  August 
Emil  Leopold  was  a  favorite  of  Napoleon,  and 
his  duchy  enjoyed  perfect  immunity  from  the 
burdens  of  French  invasions  and  French  wars. 
He  was  a  man  of  taste  and  considerable  literary 
talent.  (3)  August  Friedrich  Wilhelm  Hein- 
R]CH,  prince  of  Prussia:  b.  19  Sept.  1790 ;  d.  19 
July  1843,  in  Bromberg;  the  son  of  Prince  Au- 
gust Ferdinand,  the  brother  of  Frederick  the 
Great,  who  died  in  1813.  He  was  considered  one 
of  the  richest  men  in  Prussia,  and  left  various 
children  by  morganatic  marriages.  He  took  an 
active  part  in  the  campaign  against  Napoleon  in 
1806,  by  whom  he  was  taken  prisoner,  and  de- 
tained in  Paris  until  after  the  peace  of  Tilsit. 
On  his  return  to  Prussia  in  1813.  he  resumed 
his  duties  in  the  Prussian  army,  fought  at  Dres- 
den, Ulm,  and  Leipsic,  distinguished  himself 
during  the  campaign  of  1814,  on  various  occa- 
sions, and  bore  throughout  his  life  the  character 
of  a  gallant  soldier  and  an  upright  man.  (4) 
August  P.\ul  Friedrich,  grand  duke  of  Olden- 
burg: b.  1783;  d.  27  Feb.  1853;  mounted  the 
throne  21  May  1829,  under  the  title  of  grand 
duke,  which  had  been  conferred  upon  his  fam- 
ily by  the  Congress  of  Vienna ;  but  of  which  his 
father  had  never  availed  himself.  When  Olden- 
burg was  invaded  by  the  French,  in  181 1,  he  ac- 
companied his  father  to  Russia,  where  his 
younger  brother  (b.  1784,  d.  1812)  was  married 
to  the  Grand  Duchess  Catharine.  He  distin- 
guished himself  in  the  Russian  war,  and  in  1813 
was  appointed  governor  of  Revel.  His  reign, 
after  his  return  to  Oldenburg,  was  marked  by 
political  and  material  progress.  In  1830  he  con- 
cluded a  treaty  with  Prussia  for  the  annexation 
of  Birkenfeld  to  the  Prussian-Hessian  Zollver- 
ein,  and  a  reciprocal  treaty  of  navigation.  In 
1836  he  prevailed  upon  Hanover  and  Bruns- 
wick to  make  satisfactory  arrangements  for  the 
regulation  of  excise  duties.  In  183 1  he  laid  the 
foundation  for  a  constitution  of  Oldenburg, 
which  was  ratified  in  1848,  and  which,  although 
modified  in  1852,  still  secures  much  civil  and  re- 
ligious freedom  to  the  people.  In  1817  he 
married  the  Princess  Adelaide  of  Anhalt-Bern- 
burg,  who  died  in  1820,  leaving  him  two  daugh- 
ters, Frederica  and  Amalie;  the  latter,  in  1830, 
married  King  Otho  of  Greece.  In  1825  he  mar- 
ried the  sister  of  his  first  wife,  Ida,  who  died  in 
1828,  having  borne  him  a  son.  In  1831  he  mar- 
ried for  the  third  time,  Cecilia,  youngest  daugh- 
ter of  the  former  king  of  Sweden,  Gustavus 
Adolphus  IV.,  who  died  in  1844,  leaving  a  son. 
He  was  succeeded  by  his  first  son.  Nicholais 
Frederick    Peter,  grand  duke  of  Oldenburg. 

Au'gust,  the  eighth  month  of  our  year, 
named  by  the  Roman  Emperor  Augustus  after 
himself,  being  associated  with  several  of  his  vic- 
tories and  other  fortunate  events.  Before  this 
it  was  called  Sextilis  or  the  sixth  month  Ccount- 
ing  from  March).  July  had  been  named  for 
Julius  Caesar,  and  the  Senate,  to  gratify  Augus- 
tus, decreed  that  August  should  have  equal 
length,  taking  a  day  from  February. 


Augus'ta,  a  title  first  given  to  his  wife 
Livia,  after  the  death  of  Augustus,  according  to 
the  will  of  the  emperor.  It  was  afterward  con- 
ferred by  Claudius  on  Agrippina  (51  a.d.),  and 
by  Nero  on  his  wife,  Poppaea,  as  well  as  her 
daughter  (64  .ji.d.).  Eventually  it  became  a 
common  title  of  the  mother,  wife,  sister,  or 
daughter  of  an  emperor. 

Augusta,  ow'gus-ta,  Marie  Luise  Katha- 
rina,  a  queen  of  Prussia,  and  empress  of 
Germany:  b.  181 1  ;  d.  1890.  She  was  the  daugh- 
ter of  Charles  Frederick,  grand  duke  of  Saxe- 
Weimar,  and  was  educated  at  the  Weimar  court. 
In  1829  she  married  William,  then  crown  prince 
of   Prussia,  afterward  emperor  of   Germany. 

Augus'ta  Victoria,  duchess  of  Schleswig- 
Holstein-Sonderburg-Augustenburg:  b.  22  Oct. 
1858.  She  is  the  daughter  of  the  late  Duke 
Friedrich;  married  Prince  Friedrich  Wilhelm, 
afterward  Wilhelm  II.,  27  Feb.  1881,  and  became 
empress  of  Germany  and  queen  of  Prussia 
on  the  accession  of  her  husband  to  the  thrones 
in  June  1888.  In  1900  she  had  borne  the  em- 
peror seven  children,  the  crown  prince,  Fried- 
rich Wilhelm,  being  born  6  May  1882. 

Augus'ta,  Ga.,  the  third  city  of  the  State 
in  population  and  wealth.  It  is  the  capital  of 
Richmond  County,  and  at  the  head  of  navigation 
on  the  Savannah  River,  231  miles  by  water  above 
its  mouth.  It  is  132  miles  by  rail  from  Savan- 
nah, 171  miles  east  of  Atlanta,  and  137  miles 
northwest  of  Charleston.  It  lies  about  150  feet 
above  sea  level,  has  an  even  temperature  and 
dry,  invigorating  atmosphere  very  different  from 
most  riverside  cities,  being  indeed  a  well-known 
health  resort  for  pulmonary  invalids,  particularly 
its  suburb  Summerville.  on  the  Sand  Hills  400 
feet  above  it.  It  is  laid  out  in  broad  rectangu- 
lar streets,  many  of  them  beautifully  shaded, 
and  with  a  good  electric  car  service;  and  has 
several  parks,  of  which  the  chief  is  May  Park 
of  about  II  acres.  The  city  hall  is  in  a  park 
containing  a  granite  monument  to  the  Georgia 
signers  of  the  Declaration  of  Independence; 
while  on  Broad  Street,  the  principal  thorough- 
fare of  the  city,  is  a  noble  monument  to  the 
Confederate  dead.  The  cemetery  and  fair 
grounds  are  also  suburban  attractions. 

Manufactures. —  The  power  is  chiefly  derived 
from  a  dam  across  the  river  seven  miles  above 
the  city  (enlarged  from  a  smaller  one  in  187s, 
at  a  cost  of  about  $1,000,000),  150  feet  wide 
at  top,  106  at  bottom,  and  11  feet  deep;  turning 
a  part  of  the  river  into  a  canal  affording  14,000 
horse-power,  sold  to  industries  at  $5.50  per 
horse-power  per  annum,  with  a  working  day 
of  16  hours.  Augusta  is  one  of  the  chief  seats 
of  cotton  manufacture  in  the  South.  Eli  Whit- 
ney's cotton  gin  was  invented  on  a  farm  on  the 
outskirts,  and  the  first  working  gin  was  set  up 
in  the  city.  In  1902  there  were  13  cotton  mills 
with  offices  in  the  city,  having  a  capital  of  nearly 
$6,000,000,  operating  329,740  spindles,  and  19,360 
looms,  and  employing  some  8.000  hands.  Dur- 
ing 1899,  of  about  $8,000,000  new  capital  invested 
in  Georgia  cotton  manufacturing,  fully  a  third 
was  in  Augusta.  There  are  also  four  large  cot- 
ton-seed oil  mills,  and  a  bleachery.  Of  other 
manufactures,  the  chief  are  of  lumber  and  wood 
products,  bricks  and  tile  drain  pipe  from  the 
fine  clays  in  the  vicinity,  flour,  and  iron  goods. 
In  1900  there  were  388  manufacturing  establish- 
ments,   with    $9,016,619    capital    and    7,042    em- 


AUGUSTA 


ployees;  paying  $2,093,915  for  wages  and 
$6,244,286  for  materials ;  and  having  a  total  out- 
put valued  at  $10,069,750.  The  increase  within 
the  past  three  years,  however,  has  been  very 
large ;  and  it  is  proposed  to  utilize  the  river 
still  more  for  electric  power,  the  present  manu- 
factories practically  exhausting  the  direct  water 
power.  The  river  at  Augusta  is  about  five  feet 
deep  the  year  round,  and  fair-sized  passenger 
and  freight  steamers  make  semi-weekly  trips  to 
Savannah.  Augusta  is  the  largest  inland  cotton 
market  in  the  South ;  and  it  has  also  a  large 
shipping  trade  in  lumber,  fruit  and  vegetables. 
Its  annual  trade  exceeds  $80,000,000,  its  cotton 
receipts  amounting  to  200,000  bales.  The  water 
supply  is  derived  from  the  Savannah  River  and 
is  unlimited.  The  city  abounds  in  educational 
and  charitable  institutions.  Most  notable 
among  the  former  is  the  Georgia  INIedical  Col- 
lege, a  branch  of  the  State  University  at 
Athens;  there  are  also  Richmond  Academy, 
which  has  recently  been  put  under  the  care  of 
the  State  University;  Saint  Mary's  and  Sacred 
Heart  (Roman  Catholic)  academies,  Paine's 
Institute  for  Colored  Students,  and  high  schools 
for  white  and  colored  youth.  There  is  also  a 
public  library  of  10,000  volumes.  There  is  an 
orphan  asylum,  two  public  hospitals  (white  and 
colored),  a  juvenile  reformatory,  and  the  Louise 
King  Home.  A  United  States  arsenal,  a 
Masonic  temple,  an  Odd  Fellows'  hall,  a  Cham- 
ber of  Commerce,  and  a  cotton  exchange  are 
also  among  the  notabilities.  The  city  has  three 
daily  and  several  weekly  newspapers.  The 
assessed  property  valuation  exceeds  $20,000,000, 
and  the  bonded  debt  in  1900  was  $1,752,300. 
There  are  two  national  and  several  state  banks. 
Augusta  is  on  the  line  of  many  railroads, 
among  them  the  Central  of  Georgia,  the 
Charleston  &  West  Carolina,  the  South  Carolina 
&  Georgia,  the  Southern,  etc.  Its  original  char- 
ter was  obtained  in  1798,  and  revised  1882;  the 
mayor  is  elected  for  three  years,  and  a  city 
council,  consisting  of  15  members,  is  also  elected 
for  three  years,  one  third  being  elected  each 
year.  The  board  of  education  is  elected  by  the 
people.  All  other  offices  are  appointive  by  the 
council,  save  that  the  mayor  appoints  the  super- 
intendent of  canal  and  waterworks,  and  of 
streets  and  drains. 

Population. —  In  1800,  2,215;  (1840)  6,403; 
(1852)  10,217;  (i860)  12,493;  (1870)  15,389; 
(1880)  21,891;  (1890)  33,300;  (1900)  39-441- 
It  suffers  on  the  census  returns,  however,  from 
having  suburbs.  North  Augusta,  across  the 
river  in  South  Carolina ;  Summerville,  and 
others  not  counted  in ;  and  claims  about  60,000 
at  present. 

History. — Augusta  was  founded  in  1736  by 
Gen.  James  Edward  Oglethorpe  (q.v.),  the 
founder  of  Georgia,  and  named  after  the  Prin- 
cess Augusta  of  Saxony,  who  married  Freder- 
ick, Prince  of  Wales,  in  that  year,  and  became 
the  mother  of  George  III.  All  through  its 
early  period  it  was  the  chief  trading  station  in 
Georgia,  and  a  very  important  military  post ; 
especially  notable  as  the  seat  of  conferences 
and  treaties  with  the  southern  Indians,  who 
under  the  treaties  of  1763  and  1773  ceded  large 
tracts  of  land  to  the  whites ;  the  latter,  how- 
ever, had  to  occupy  much  of  it  at  the  same  risk 
of  Indian  warfare  as  before.  In  1778  it  was 
made  the  State  capital,  and  remained  such  till 


1798.  The  building  of  the  Georgia  railroad  in 
the  middle  of  the  19th  century  was  a  heavy 
blow  to  its  prosperity  for  a  time,  carrying  trade 
over  new  routes ;  but  its  natural  advantages 
enabled  it  to  recover  itself. 

Thos.  W.  Loyless, 
Editor  '•The  Augusta  Chronicle.'* 

Augusta,  ]\Iaine,  city  county-seat  of  Ken- 
nebec County  and  capital  of  the  State ;  on  the 
Kennebec  River,  40  miles  above  its  mouth,  at 
the  head  of  tidal  navigation,  and  on  the  IMaine 
Central  R.R.,  63  miles  northeast  of  Portland. 
It  is  situated  on  both  sides  of  the  Kennebec, 
mainly  on  the  right  or  west  bank,  and  some  por- 
tion of  it,  including  much  of  the  residential  sec- 
tion, occupies  an  elevation  considerably  above 
the  river,  along  which  the  principal  business 
part  of  the  city  extends.  The  Augusta,  Win- 
throp  and  Gardiner  electric  railway  connects 
the  city  with  neighboring  places,  and  its  water 
communications  afford  excellent  facilities  for 
travel  and  trade. 

Public  Buildings  and  Institutions. —  The 
State  Capitol  is  a  handsome  granite  building, 
for  which  the  stone  was  quarried  from  the  sur- 
rounding hills.  It  stands  on  high  ground  over- 
looking a  wide  extent  of  pleasant  country. 
Among  other  noteworthy  buildings  are  those  of 
the  Maine  Insane  Hospital,  the  City  Hospital, 
the  public  library,  the  county  buildings,  and  the 
United  States  arsenal.  The  churches  include 
those  of  the  Congregationalists,  Episcopalians, 
Free  Baptists,  Colonist  Baptists,  Christians, 
Universalists,  Unitarians,  Methodists,  Roman 
Catholics,  and  the  People's  Church.  The  public 
schools  include  all  grades  from  the  primary  to 
the  high  school.  In  the  capitol  are  the  State 
library,  a  notable  collection  of  portraits  of 
American  statesmen,  and,  in  the  rotunda,  an 
impressive  array  of  the  Civil  War  battle  flags 
of  iNIaine  soldiers.  In  the  principal  park  is  a 
soldiers  and  sailors'  monument. 

Industries. —  Augusta,  by  reason  of  its  rail- 
road and  river  facilities,  is  the  trade  centre  of 
a  large  region,  and  the  water-power  furnished 
by  the  Kennebec,  across  which,  just  above  the 
city,  extends  a  dam  nearly  1,000  feet  in  length, 
affords  abundant  means  for  manufacturing. 
The  cotton  factories  here  employ  about  1,100 
persons;  shoe  manufacture,  300;  pulp  mill,  250; 
lumber  mill,  100 ;  sash  and  blind  factory,  75 ; 
and  besides  various  smaller  establishments  the 
city  has  publishing  houses  in  which  some  400 
persons  are  employed. 

Banks,  etc. —  There  are  two  national  banks 
in  the  city,  with  a  combined  capital  of  $350,000, 
a  trust  company  having  a  capital  of  $100,000, 
and  two  savings  banks.  The  deposits  of  these 
institutions  aggregate  $11,000,000. 

Municipal  Government. —  The  city  is  gov- 
erned by  a  mayor  and  a  city  council,  a  body 
consisting  of  boards  of  aldermen  and  common 
council,  elected  by  the  people. 

History. — Augusta  was  first  permanently  set- 
tled in  1754  by  colonists  from  Massachusetts : 
was  incorporated  under  the  name  of  Hallowell 
in  1771 ;  and  upon  the  setting  off  of  Hallowell 
in  1797  became  a  separate  town.  In  1831  it  be- 
came the  capital  of  the  State,  and  has  been  the 
scene  of  many  important  political  events.  _  It 
received  a  city  charter  in  1849.  Its  population 
in  1900  was  11.683;  in  1903  it  was  estimated  at 
12,031.     The   employees  of  the  cotton   factories 


AUGUSTA  —  AUGUSTINE 


are  mostly  French  Canadians,  the  other  inhabi- 
tants chiefly  natives.     Consult:  North,  'History 
of  Augusta>   (1870).     Fred'k  W.  Plaisted, 
Editor  ^Tlie  New  Age."* 

Augus'ta,  the  name  of  many  ancient  Euro- 
pean towns,  as  Augusta  Trevirorum,  now 
Treves;  Augusta  Taurinorum,  now  Turin;  Au- 
gusta Vindelicorum,  now  Augsburg,  etc. 

Augus'ta,  a  city  of  Sicily.    See  Agosta. 

Augus'ta  Histo'ria,  a  series  of  Roman 
biographies  of  the  emperors  from  the  accession 
of  Hadrian  to  the  death  of  Carinus,  the  predeces- 
sor of  Diocletian,  a  period  covering  167  years. 
The  writers  included  in  this  collection  are  six  in 
number,  namely,  ^Elius  Spartianus,  Julius  Capi- 
tolinus,  ^lius  Lampridius,  Vulcatius  Gallicanus, 
Trebellius   Pollio,  and  Flavins  Vopiscus. 

Augus'tan  Age,  the  Latin  literary  epoch 
of  the  reign  of  the  emperor  Augustus  Caesar. 
During  this  period  Horace,  Ovid,  Virgil,  Ti- 
"bullus,  and  other  writers  flourished ;  also  great 
patrons  of  literature  like  Maecenas.  The  poets 
of  the  Augustan  .A.ge  are  noted  for  their  pure 
Latinity.  The  name  is  applied  in  England 
to  the  reign  of  Queen  Anne  (1702-14).  By  far 
the  foremost  name  is  that  of  Sir  Isaac  Newton, 
and  of  commanders,  John  Churchill  (Duke  of 
]\Iarlborough).  The  poets  were  Congreve, 
Garth,  Gay,  Parnell,  Philips,  Pope,  Prior,  Rowe, 
and  Swift.  The  other  authors  were  Addison, 
Barnes,  George  Bull,  Anthony  Collins,  Jeremy 
Collier,  Roger  Cotes,  Defoe,  Dodwell,  Flam- 
steed,  George  Hickes,  Dr.  John  Jeffery,  John 
Norris,  Ray,  South,  Steele,  etc.  Wren,  Archi- 
bald Pitcairn,  and  Sir  Cloudesley  Shovel  also 
lived  in  this  reign. 

Au'gusta'na  Col'lege,  a  co-educational  in- 
stitution in  Rock  Island,  111.,  organized  in  i860 
under  the  auspices  of  the  Lutheran  Church ;  re- 
ported in  1902:  Professors,  31;  students,  250; 
volumes  in  the  library,  18,000;  ground  and  build- 
ings valued  at  $166,000;  productive  funds, 
$225,000;  income,  $32,119;  graduates,  881. 

Au'gustine,  Saint  (Aurelics  Augustinus), 
one  of  the  most  renowned  fathers  of  the  Chris- 
tian Church:  b.  Tagaste,  in  Numidia,  13  Nov. 
354;  d.  Hippo,  28  Aug.  430.  His  father,  Patri- 
cius,  was  a  pagan,  his  mother,  Monica,  a  Chris- 
tian. He  has  related  his  own  early  life  in  the 
work  to  which  he  gave  the  title  of  'Confessions.^ 
His  mother  instructed  him  in  Christianity,  but 
for  many  years  this  faith  had  little  influence 
on  his  life.  He  was  long  devoted  to  pleasure, 
and  when  quite  young  became  father  of  a  son  by 
a  woman  with  whom  he  was  not  connected  by 
marriage.  He  was  intended  for  the  profession 
of  rhetorician,  and  was  sent  to  Carthage  to  study 
with  this  object  in  view.  Cicero's  work,  *Hor- 
tensius,^  which  has  not  come  down  to  our  times, 
first  led  him  to  speculative  studies,  and  he  now 
became  a  member  of  the  sect  of  the  Manichasans. 
He  was  one  of  their  disciples  for  nine  years ; 
but  after  having  obtained  a  full  knowledge  of 
their  doctrine,  he  found  it  unsatisfactory  and  left 
them.  In  383  he  left  Africa  for  Rome,  and  after 
a  short  stay  there  proceeded  to  Milan,  where  he 
was  invited  as  a  teacher  of  rhetoric.  St.  Am- 
brose was  bishop  of  this  city,  and  his  eloquent 
discourses,  combined  with  the  study  of  the 
Scriptures,  converted  Augustine  to  the  orthodox 
faith,  and  wrought  an  entire  change  in  his  life 


and  character.  His  conversion  appears  to  have 
taken  place  in  386.  He  now  retired  into  solitude, 
and  prepared  himself  for  baptism,  which  he  re- 
ceived in  the  33d  year  of  his  life,  together  with 
his  son  Adeodatus,  from  the  hands  of  Ambrose, 
his  mother  being  then  with  him.  Returning  to 
Africa,  he  sold  his  estate,  and  gave  the  proceeds 
to  the  poor,  retaining  only  enough  to  support 
him  in  a  moderate  manner.  For  three  years  he 
lived  a  retired  life,  devoting  himself  to  reli- 
gious duties,  and  to  the  composition  of  several 
treatises.  Chancing  on  one  occasion  to  be  pres- 
ent in  the  church  at  Hippo,  the  bishop,  who 
was  a  very  old  man,  signified  a  desire  to  conse- 
crate a  priest  to  assist  and  succeed  him.  At  the 
desire  of  the  people  Augustine  entered  upon  the 
holy  office,  preached  with  extraordinary  success, 
and  in  a  few  years  became  Bishop  of  Hippo. 
The  remainder  of  his  life  was  occupied  with  his 
ecclesiastical  labors,  and  with  various  controver- 
sies in  which  he  warmly  engaged,  such  as  those 
with  the  Donatists,  the  Manichaeans,  and  more 
especially  the  Pelagians,  concerning  the  doctrines 
of  free-will,  grace,  and  predestination.  Augus- 
tine maintained  the  necessity  of  divine  grace  in 
determining  man's  moral  acts  to  salvation,  and  he 
supported  the  doctrine  of  predestination,  includ- 
ing election  and  reprobation,  but  always  allowing 
for  free-will  and  for  the  merit  of  the  individual. 
His  authority  has  alwaj^s  been  very  influential 
in  the  Roman  Catholic  Church,  and  his  view 
upon  any  doctrinal  matter  has  at  all  times  car- 
ried great  weight  and  is  constantly  eited  in 
controverted  questions.  He  died  at  Hippo,  while 
the  town  was  besieged  by  the  Vandals.  There 
have  been  more  learned  fathers  of  the  Church, 
but  none  have  ever  more  powerfully  touched  the 
human  heart,  and  warmed  it  toward  religion. 
Painters  have,  therefore,  given  him  for  a  symbol 
a  flaming  heart.  His  writings  (which  are  in 
Latin)  are  very  numerous.  The  most  celebrated 
are  his  'Confessions^  (belonging  to  the  year 
397),  his  'De  Civitate  Dei^  (On  the  City  of 
God),  a  work  on  the  Christian  Church,  his  treat- 
ise on  the  Trinity,  'Christian  Doctrine^  ;  'Na- 
ture and  Grace^  ;  'Grace  and  Free-WilP  ;  'Im- 
mortality of  the  Soul,^  and  his  'Letters.'  His 
works  have  been  published  at  Paris  in  22  vol- 
umes, and  an  English  translation  in  15  volumes 
has  appeared  at  Edinburgh,  edited  by  Dr.  Marcus 
Dods  See  Neander,  'Church  History'  ;  Mil- 
man,  'Latin  Christianity'  ;  Farrar,  'Lives  of  the 
Fathers,'  etc.  Two  monastic  bodies,  the  Au- 
gustiitian  Canons,  or  Black  Canons,  and  the 
Aitgustinian  Hermits  (q.v.),  claimed  to  derive 
their  origin  from  St.  Augustine.  Life  by 
Hatzfeld. 

Au'gustine,  or  Austin,  Saint,  the  first  arch- 
bishop of  Canterbury:  d.  26  May  604.  While 
prior  of  the  Benedictine  monastery  of  Saint 
Andrew  at  Rome  he  was  selected  by  Pope 
Gregory  L,  together  with  39  other  monks,  to 
convert  the  Anglo-Saxons  to  Christianity,  and  ■ 
establish  the  authority  of  the  Roman  See  in 
Britain.  In  the  spring  of  597  the  missionaries 
landed  on  the  Island  of  Thanet  and  were  kindly 
received  by  Ethelbert,  king  of  Kent,  whose  wife 
Bertha  was  already  a  Christian.  The  conver- 
sion of  the  king  speedily  followed,  contributing 
greatly  to  the  success  of  Augustine's  Vv'ork. 
large  numbers  of  persons  were  converted  and 
baptized,  and  it  was  soon  manifest  that  a  new 
influence   for  good  had  come  into  the  lives  of 


AUGUSTINIANISM 


the  Anglo-Saxons.  In  acknowledgment  of  his 
success,  the  Pope  directed  Augustine  in  597  to 
go  to  Aries,  where  he  was  consecrated  arch- 
bishop of  Canterbury  and  metropolitan  of  Eng- 
land. On  his  return  he  at  once  informed  the 
Pope  of  his  success,  sending  a  presbyter  and  a 
monk  to  Rome  for  that  purpose  and  also  to 
obtain  instructions  concerning  other  questions 
with  regard  to  the  propagating  of  the  faith. 
The  answer  of  Gregory  to  the  archbishop's  in- 
quiries are  fine  examples  of  tact,  good  sense  and 
judgment  in  dealing  with  the  problems  confront- 
ing the  early  missionaries,  and  instead  of  de- 
stroying the  heathen  temples  they  were  con- 
verted into  Christian  churches.  Saint  Augustine 
was  a  zealous  missionary  of  the  Church  and 
labored  with  untiring  energy  to  extend  the  au- 
thority of  the  Church  and  to  convert  the  ancient 
Britons,  whom  the  English  had  driven  into  the 
mountains  of  Wales.  In  this,  however,  he  was 
only  partially  successful,  some  of  the  British 
bishops  refusing  to  acknowledge  his  authority 
and  to  unite  with  the  English  Church.  Augus- 
tine died  in  Canterbury,  and  eight  years  after- 
ward his  body  was  removed  to  the  Ca- 
thedral of  Canterbury.  Consult:  Bede,  <His- 
toria  Ecclesiastica  Gentis  Anglorum'  ;  Mason, 
<The  Mission  of  Saint  Augustine  to  England^ 
(1897). 

Augustinianism,  the  system  of  philosophy 
and  theology  taught  by  Saint  Augustine.  In 
order  to  reach  a  just  estimate  of  the  teachings 
of  Augustine,  we  must  remember  that  we  are 
not  dealing  with  a  philosopher  simply,  or  with 
a  theologian  simply,  but  with  one  whose  nature 
combined  in  a  marked  degree,  the  philosophical 
and  theological  strains  together.  He  was  both 
philosopher  and  theologian.  These  elements  are 
so  mixed  in  him  at  times  as  to  reciprocally  rein- 
force one  another,  but  again  so  disparate  as  to 
cause  irreconcilable  inconsistencies  and  bold 
contradictions.  There  is  a  most  excellent  analy- 
sis of  this  exceedingly  complex  nature  by  Teufifel 
in  his  *  History  of  Roman  Literature,^  re- 
markable alike  for  its  comprehensiveness  and 
brevity.  "Augustine  combined  in  his  character 
qualities  seemingly  opposite :  an  abundant  imag- 
ination, and  penetrating  intellectual  vigor,  a  pas- 
sionate want  of  regard  and  affectionate  tender- 
ness, a  tender  heart  and  zealotism,  a  blind  belief 
in  superior  authority  and  originality  of  thought, 
zeal  for  unity  of  the  Church  and  individual  piety, 
romanticism  and  scholasticism,  mysticism  and 
sophistry,  poetical  talent  and  philosophical  gen- 
ius, rhetorical  pathos  and  grammatical  pedantry, 
—  himself  a  psychological  mystery.'^  With  this 
portrait  of  his  personality  before  us,  let  us 
examine  his  teachings.  For  him,  the  source  of 
all  truth  is  to  be  found  in  the  interpretation 
of  the  inner  experience.  His  philosophy  is  pri- 
marily anthropocentric.  In  consciousness  lies 
the  assurance  of  the  reality  of  one's  own  being. 
This  is  the  earnest  and  the  warrant  of  all 
reality.  Without  this  central  and  elemental 
knowledge  all  other  knowledge  would  be  vague, 
and  illusory.  This  assurance  is  given  even  in 
the  very  act  of  questioning  it ;  for,  as  Augustine 
insists,  the  simple  fact  that  I  am  conscious  of 
doubting  even  the  doubting  of  my  own  reality, 
is  in  itself  an  indication  that  I  the  doubter  am. 
Man  cannot  escape  himself.  Such  an  analysis 
of  the  implications  of  self-consciousness  forms 
a  striking  anticipation  of  Descartes'  famous 
Cogito  ergo  sum. 


With  the  reality  of  human  personality  firmly 
established  upon  a  basis  which  even  the  most 
searching  skepticism  is  unable  to  shake,  but  on 
the  contrary  the  rather  confirms,  Augustine  pro- 
ceeds through  a  profound  analysis  of  the  human 
reason  to  disclose  abundant  intimations  of  a 
divine  reason,  and  therefore  of  a  divine  being. 
For  in  his  subtle  examination  of  the  processes 
of  reason,  he  points  out  that  these  processes 
are  ever  working  toward  one  and  the  same  end, — 
the  constructing  of  a  body  of  knowledge  con- 
sisting of  truths  universally  valid,  that  is,  truths 
which  hold  not  merely  for  the  individual  but 
which  necessarily  hold  for  all  individuals,  under 
all  circumstances  and  at  all  times.  They  become 
moreover,  the  norm  or  standard  for  all  our 
thinking  and  their  sway  embraces  the  complete 
range  of  all  human  activity.  These  truths  are 
so  universal,  so  complete,  so  commanding  as  to 
indicate  a  oneness  of  origin  which  can  be  noth- 
ing less  than  that  of  an  eternal  mind.  More- 
over, the  eternal  mind  must  be  an  eternal  per- 
sonality. The  universal  truths,  therefore,  which 
lie  at  the  basis  of  all  thought,  of  all  being,  of  all 
desire,  and  all  activity  are  according  to  Angus-" 
tine  ideas  in  God.  In  regarding  the  Absolute 
as  not  merely  the  sum  total  and  unification  of  all 
truth,  the  unum,  verum  boniim,  but  also  a  living 
personality,  the  divine  Logos,  we  recognize  the 
marks  of  the  religious  teacher,  and  in  this  re- 
spect Augustinianism  is  to  be  regarded  as  a  sig- 
nificant advance  beyond  the  doctrines  "of  Neo- 
Platonism.  From  this  exposition,  it  should  not 
be  inferred,  however,  that  in  the  Augustinian 
psychology,  the  primary,  or  the  sole  basis  of  our 
conscious  life  is  knowledge.  On  the  contrary  it 
is  quite  evident  throughout  the  works  of  Augus- 
tine that  he  exalts  the  will  above  knowledge. 
He  finds  in  consciousness  three  elements, 
memoria,  intellcctus,  voluntas.  Of  these  memoria 
is  equivalent  to  a  reproducible  idea  {Vorstcl- 
lung),  an  idea  which,  moreover,  carries  with  it 
the  warrant  of  the  reality  which  underlies  it  as 
its  ground;  intcllectus  is  the  judgment;  and 
voluntas  of  course,  the  will.  The  three  form  a 
psychological  trinity  corresponding  to  the  trinity 
which  is  manifested  in  the  unity  of  the  divine 
nature.  Both  in  God  and  man,  the  will  is 
supreme.  Omnes  nihil  aliud  quain  voluntates 
sunt. 

Certain  difficulties  emerge  at  this  point  in  the 
exposition  of  the  Augustinian  system  owing  to 
the  shifting  of  the  point  of  view.  The  philoso- 
pher gives  way  to  the  theologian.  Augustine's 
philosophy  is  essentially  anthropocentric ;  his 
theology,  theocentric.  And  in  discussing  the 
relations  which  obtain  between  God  and  man 
Augustine  naturally  subordinates  the  human  to 
the  divine,  so  much  so  indeed  that  the  Augus- 
tinian system  is  severely  criticised  because,  as 
it  is  alleged,  it  leads  logically  to  a  pantheism 
which  wipes  out  the  individuality  and  respon- 
sibility of  man.  For  Augustine  insists  that  to 
appreciate  divine  truth  and  the  will  of  God  for 
man  there  is  need  of  an  inner  spiritual  illum- 
ination, and  that  such  an  illumination  comes  only 
to  the  soul  in  which  faith  resides,  and  that  faith 
is  the  gift  of  divine  grace.  Faith,  therefore, 
must  precede  knowledge,  that  is,  knowledge  of 
things  divine  and  knowledge  of  things  as  they 
are.  Insight  may  be  regarded  as  the  fruitage, 
but  faith  is  the  root  of  knowledge.  There  is  a 
grave  difficulty  at  this  point  in  reconciling  such 
a   doctrine   with    Augustine's   fundamental   posi- 


AUGUSTINIANS 


tion  which  puts  supreme  emphasis  upon  the 
dignity  and  worth  of  man's  inner  nature,  and 
the  trustworthiness  of  that  inner  guiding  light. 
It  can  only  be  said  by  way  of  explanation  that 
in  the  one  the  theologian,  and  in  the  other,  the 
philosopher,   speaks. 

Moreover,  in  this  view  of  the  human  con- 
sciousness the  primacy  of  the  will  is  in  a  large 
measure  denied  by  the  insistence  that  man  is 
wholly  dependent  upon  divine  grace  in  order  to 
exercise  his  will  aright.  He  alone  is  free,  says 
Augustine,  whose  will  has  been  touched  by  the 
divine  will,  and  whose  desires  and  activities  are 
found  wholly  in  accord  with  the  will  of  God. 
The  natural  man  is  not  free  unless  emancipated 
by  divine  grace  ;  for  Adam,  the  representative  of 
humanity,  the  federal  head  of  the  race,  abused 
his  natural  freedom  of  will  and  in  his  fall  has 
left  as  an  inheritance  to  the  race  the  tendency 
to  sin.  And  the  most  significant  consequence 
of  sin  is  the  bondage  of  the  will,  which  divine 
grace  alone  can  overcome.  Augustine,  therefore, 
seems  to  solve  the  problem  of  free  will  and 
predestination  by  denying  to  man  a  real  freedom. 
He  indulges  in  many  subtle  distinctions  as  to 
the  various  kinds  of  grace.  There  is,  for  in- 
stance, the  prevenient  grace,  also  the  supporting 
grace,  active  grace,  and  grace  bestowing  the  gift 
of  perseverance  which  seals  all  previous  effects. 
No  distinction,  however,  is  drawn  which  relieves 
the  system  from  the  criticism  already  mentioned 
of  minimizing  the  autonomy  of  the  human  will. 

This  position  of  Augustine  naturally  raises 
the  question  as  to  how  the  evil  in  the  world  can 
be  reconciled  with  the  idea  of  divine  power  and 
divine  goodness.  For  if  God  alone  is  free.  He 
alone  is  responsible ;  and  man  should  not  be 
held  accountable  for  that  which  he  unaided  is 
unable  to  prevent.  Such  a  criticism  Augustine 
meets  by  the  statement  that  the  evil  in  the  world 
is  after  all  not  a  real  evil ;  it  is  not  a  causa 
efHciens,  but  merely  a  causa  deiicicns,  in  fact  only 
an  incausale.  Such  an  explanation,  however,  is 
not  satisfactory  and  does  not  squarely  meet  the 
difficulty  of  the  problem  which  the  common  ex- 
perience of  humanity  all  too  unhappily  empha- 
sizes. 

Augustine's  type  of  mind  is  essentially  that 
of  a  great  systematizer  of  doctrine.  He  could 
rest  content  with  no  form  of  knowledge  unless 
it  could  be  reduced  to  a  scJicma  in  which  part 
fitted  to  part  in  an  exact  and  inflexible  manner. 
Augustine's  system  has  been  criticised  for  this 
very  reason  that  its  lines  are  hard  and  fast, 
yielding  at  no  point  the  full  rigor  of  its  inexor- 
able doctrines.  But  while  in  a  certain  sense 
such  a  criticism  is  justified,  there  was,  in  addi- 
tion to  this  pronounced  synoptical  tendency  of 
thought,  an  equally  profound  strain  of  sentiment 
and  feeling.  Augustine  was  essentially  human, 
and  wont  to  be  moved  by  the  passions  and  aspi- 
rations common  to  man.  Within  the  very  body 
of  this  system  of  doctrine,  and  its  closely  con- 
catenated dogmas,  it  is  possible  to  discover  a 
deep  underlying  current  of  mysticism,  which  may 
be  traced  no  doubt  to  its  source  in  Neo-Platon- 
ism, —  a  mysticism  manifesting  itself  in  that 
compulsion  of  the  soul,  to  long  for  communion 
with  God,  and  to  behold  Him  face  to  face.  It 
is  this  intensely  human  strain,  this  mystical  ele- 
ment, which  relieves  the  Augustinian  system  as  a 
system  from  its  more  severe  and  sombre  features. 
The  great  system  builder  after  all  subordinates 
the  system  to  that  which  is  the  ground  of  the 


system.  Not  in  the  processes  of  reason,  but  m  a 
direct  and  immediate  consciousness  of  God,  does 
he  find  the  ultimate  certitude.  Nothing  can 
more  beautifully  or  more  adequately  express 
this  mystical  strain  in  Augustine's  nature  than 
those  words  which  embody  both  a  philosophy 
and  a  creed:  «Thou  hast  made  me  for  thyself 
and  my  heart  is  restless  until  it  finds  rest  in 
thee.'* 

Bibliography.— Uenn,  <  Problems  of  the  Age 
With  Studies  in  Saint  Augustine  on  Kindred 
Topics'  (1903);  McCabe,  <Saint  Augustine  and 
His  Age'  (1903);  SchafT,  <Saint  Augustine, 
Library  of  the  Nicene  and  Post-Nicene  Fathers,' 
Vol.  I.,  pp.  1-25;  Donier,  'Augustinus'  (Berlin 
1872)  ;  Lingard,  'Antiquities  of  the  Anglo- 
Saxon  Church'    (2d  edition  1902). 

John  Grier  Hibben, 
Professor  of  Philosophy,  Princeton    University. 

Au'gustin'ians,  hermits  of  St.  Augustine 
(calceJ),  brotherhood  of  churchmen,  devoted 
to  the  spread  throughout  Christendom  of  the 
principles  of  the  higher  life,  of  religion  as  well 
as  earthly  science,  and  searchers,  too,  after  peace 
of  the  spirit,  established  in  the  4th  century,  at 
Tagaste  in  Africa,  by  the  famed  St.  Augustine, 
later  Bishop  of  Hippo  and  illustrious  doctor 
of  the  Church.  Up  to  the  13th  century  Augus- 
tinians  were  engaged  mainly  in  the  practices  of 
ascetic  life,  a  course  of  seclusion,  or  retirement, 
from  the  bustle  and  troubles  of  worldly  affairs 
in  trade,  politics,  commerce.  As  hermits,  at 
first  they  lived,  some  alone  in  their  cells  in  out- 
of-the-way  places  in  forest  and  mountain,  others 
in  community-groups  outside  of  towns.  Here 
their  life  was  passed  in  quiet,  in  contemplation, 
study,  prayer,  copying  MSS.,  and  manual  toil,  as 
farm,  and  garden-work,  reclaiming  waste  lands, 
digging  canals  for  irrigation  and  drainage.  Emi- 
nent among  them  in  this  peaceful  era  were  two 
reformers  of  their  brotherhood,  famed  in  hagi- 
ography,  who  by  centralizing  the  energies  of 
their  followers  on  set  lines  of  work,  sought  to 
render  their  societies  more  potent  factors  fo. 
the  common  good,  as  adepts  in  intellectual,  ar- 
tistic, and  more  industrial  spheres.  William 
IX.,  duke  of  Aquitaine,  an  old-time  leader  in  the 
crusades,  now  a  dweller  in  a  monastery  of  the 
Tuscan  hills,  and  John  Bonus,  The  Good,  of 
Mantua,  a  one-time  strolling  player  by  profes- 
sion, now  penitent,  who  by  their  wonderful  pow- 
ers of  nature  and  grace  employed  in  the  ser- 
vice of  their  respective  communities,  reached 
high  rank  in  the  world  of  saintly  heroism  in 
southern  Europe,  in  France,  and  Italy,  then  in 
the  north,  in  Germany  and  England,  wherein 
were  founded  congregations  under  their  rule. 
Spreading  thence  throughout  the  various  quar- 
ters of  Christendom,  especially  in  western  Eu- 
rope, their  followers  settled  in  Spain,  Portugal. 
Belgium,  and  Ireland,  where  they  established 
houses  of  their  brotherhood  in  the  principal 
cities  and  towns  of  the  civilized  world.  In  1256, 
in  pursuance  of  the  designs  of  his  predecessors 
in  the  papal  chair,  Alexander  IV.  moved  to  en- 
sure the  complete  union  of  all  the  different 
congregations  of  Augustinians  in  Europe,  suc- 
ceeded finally  in  merging  their  several  branch 
orders  into  one  body  politic  and  social  under  the 
leadership  of  Lanfranc  Septala,  of  noble  Milan- 
ese birth,  the  first  superior  general  of  the  Augus- 
tinian Hermits,  chosen  thereto  in  the  first  gen- 
eral chapter  of  the  brethren  at  Rome  in  the 
above  year.     Nor  were  the  successors  of  Alex- 


AUGUSTULUS  —  AUGUSTUS 


aiider  slow  in  their  recognition  of  the  powers 
of  this  new  association.  To  them  were  entrust- 
ed several  places  of  honor  in  the  pontifical 
court,  among  them  the  offices  of  apostolic  con- 
fessor, of  librarian,  papal  sacristan,  the  latter 
subsequentl}'  declared  by  Sixtus  IV.  as  of  per- 
petual right  of  the  Augustinians.  Not  long  af- 
ter they  were  entrusted  with  the  collection  of 
papal  revenues  in  many  countries,  and  even 
charged  by  some  of  the  republics  of  Italy  with 
the  handling  of  state  funds. 

In  the  Middle  Ages  as  in  later  days  many 
of  this  brotherhood  won  fame  in  the  higher 
realms  of  life,  by  their  gifts  of  spirit  in  science 
and  art,  as  saints,  writers,  masters  in  theology, 
Scripture-study,  philosophy,  history,  law,  an- 
tiquities, letters  and  poetry.  Celebrated  as 
teachers  in  schools  of  their  order  as  well  as  out- 
side were  such  masters  as  Egidius  Colonna  of 
Rome,  known  as  the  "Fundamental  Doctor* ; 
then  Augustine  of  i\.ncona,  who  won  renown  in 
scholastic  theology ;  John  Capgrave  in  history ; 
Onuphrius  Panvinio  in  antiquities ;  Luis  de  Leon 
in  theology  and  poetry;  John  Laurence  Berti  in 
history ;  John  Baptist  Cotta  in  poetry,  John 
Michael  Cavalieri  in  liturgy,  and  lately  Augus- 
tine Ciasca  in  Oriental  languages.  Eminent  for 
their  supernatural  gifts,  many  of  the  most  sin- 
gular character,  were  Nicholas  of  Tolentine, 
"wonder-worker  of  the  Church,*  so  styled  by 
Pope  Eugene  IV. ;  Clare  of  Montefalco,  the  stig- 
matized, in  whose  heart  were  discovered  the  in- 
signia of  Christ's  passion ;  Rita  of  Cascia,  ec- 
static, known  as  "the  saint  of  the  impossilDle"  ; 
Thomas  of  Villanova,  almsgiver  of  Spain,  and 
John  de  Schagun,  reformer  of  the  clergy  of  that 
country.  They  are  of  prominence  from  the  i6th 
century  especially  in  various  mission  fields  in 
Mahometan  and  heathen  countries ;  in  Asia,  in 
China,  India,  Persia,  Japan,  and  the  Philip- 
pines ;  in  Africa,  in  Zanzibar,  Mozambique,  and 
the  Guineas ;  then  in  America,  both  north  and 
south,  and  Australia.  In  later  times  during  the 
closing  years  of  the  i8th  century,  was  established 
the  first  English-speaking  branch  of  the  Augus- 
tinians in  the  United  States,  where,  in  1796,  a 
house  of  that  brotherhood  was  opened  in  Phila- 
delphia, by  two  members  of  Irish  blood, —  Dr. 
Matthew  Carr  and  John  Rosseter, —  the  latter 
said  to  have  been  formerly  an  officer  under 
Rochambeau.  They  are  the  calced  communities. 
Here  their  aim  chiefly  has  been  mission  work 
among  the  faithful  in  pulpit  and  school.  Ofl^- 
shoots  from  Philadelphia,  now  thriving  in  the 
United  States  as  well  as  in  Cuba  and  the  Phil- 
ippines are  some  20  convents  and  houses  of  the 
order,  as  mission-centres,  with  113  members  in 
residence  or  in  study-houses  in  Europe.  Seven- 
ty-five are  priests,  actively  engaged  in  two  col- 
leges, one  of  them  in  Havana,  i  academy,  10 
parish-schools,  besides  the  congregations  of  29 
parishes.  Furthermore  attached  to  every  cen- 
tral establishment  the  Augustinians  have  charge 
of  various  guilds,  or  societies,  devoted  to  such 
aims  as  religion,  social  improvement,  beneficence 
in  the  promotion  of  good  works  in  the  several 
fields  of  charity,  patriotism,  letters,  and  science. 
Thomas  C  Middleton,  O.  S.  A. 

Augus'tulus,  Romulus,  the  son  of  Orestes, 
a  general  of  the  Roman  emperor  Julius  Nepos. 
Orestes  deposed  the  emperor,  and  placed  his  son 
upon  the  throne,  in  475.  In  the  following  year 
Odoacer,  a  commander  of  the  German  forces  in 


the  Roman  service,  revolted,  put  Orestes  to 
death,  obliged  Augustulus  to  resign,  and  thus 
put  an  end  to  the  Roman  empire  in  the  West. 
The  emperor's  name  was  originally  Romulus 
Augustus,  but  the  Romans  changed  the  latter 
into  the  diminutive  form  Augustulus,  out  of 
contempt  for  his  character. 

Augus'tus,  Gaius  Julius  Caesar  Octavianus, 
originally  called  Gaius  Octavius,  the  celebrated 
Roman  emperor :  b.  2^  Sept.  63  B.C. ;  d.  Nola, 
19  Aug.  14  a.d.  He  was  the  son  of  Gaius  Oc- 
tavius and  Atia,  a  daughter  of  Julia,  the  sister 
of  Julius  Caesar.  The  Octavian  family  originated 
at  Velitrae,  in  the  country  of  the  Volscians. 
The  father  of  Octavius  had  risen  to  the  rank  of 
senator,  and  had  gone  to  Macedonia,  after  being 
chosen  praetor,  where  he  was  a  civil  and 
military  officer.  Octavius  lost  his  father  when 
young,  but  was  carefully  brought  up  by  his 
mother  and  L.  Marcius  Philippus,  the  second 
husband  of  Atia.  His  talents  gained  him  the 
regard  of  his  great-uncle,  Julius  Csesar,  who 
declared  himself  willing  to  adopt  him  as  his 
son,  in  case  he  himself  should  remain  without 
children.  Octavius  was  studying  under  the  re- 
nowned orator  Apollodorus,  when  he  received 
the  news  of  the  tragic  death  of  his  uncle,  and 
of  his  having  adopted  him  as  his  son.  Not- 
withstanding the  anxiety  of  his  friends,  he  went 
to  Italy,  and  on  landing  at  Brundusium,  depu- 
ties from  the  veterans  collected  there  came  to 
him.  Conducted  in  triumph  to  the  city,  and 
saluted  as  the  heir  and  avenger  of  Csesar,  he 
made  his  adoption  publicly  known,  and  took  the 
name  of  his  uncle,  adding  to  it  that  of  Octa- 
vianus. He  then  advanced  to  Rome,  where 
there  were  now  two  parties,  that  of  the  republi- 
cans, who  had  killed  Csesar,  and  that  of  Antony 
and  Lepidus,  who,  under  the  pretense  of  aveng- 
ing him,  strove  to  establish  their  own  authority. 
Octavianus  addressed  himself  first  to  Cicero, 
at  Cumae,  being  desirous  to  gain  over  this  great 
orator,  and  from  thence  he  went  to  Rome,  where 
the  greater  part  of  the  magistrates,  soldiers,  and 
citizens  came  to  meet  him,  Antony  alone  pay- 
ing no  attention  to  his  return.  After  Octavianus 
had  caused  his  adoption  to  be  confirmed  in 
the  most  solemn  manner,  he  went  to  Antony, 
and  demanded  of  him  the  inheritance  left  him, 
in  order  to  pay  the  legacies  mentioned  in  his 
uncle's  will.  Antony  at  first  haughtily  refused 
to  acknowledge  his  claims,  but  changed  his 
attitude  when  he  found  the  influence  of  Oc- 
tavianus continually  increasing,  and  his  own 
proportionably  diminishing.  There  could  be  no 
real  union,  however,  between  two  equally  am- 
bitious rivals.  In  their  hearts  they  cherished 
reciprocal  hatred  and  jealousy;  and  their  en- 
mity was  so  little  a  secret  that  Octavianus 
was  accused  of  having  wished  to  get  Antony 
murdered.  He  afterward,  when  Antony,  to- 
gether with  Lepidus,  entered  Italy  at  the  head  of 
a  powerful  army,  united  with  him.  and  a  trium- 
virate was  formed  by  the  three  generals,  who 
defeated  the  republican  army  under  Brutus  and 
Cassius,  at  Philippi  in  Macedonia  (42  B.C.). 
After  his  return  to  Rome  he  satisfied  the  de- 
mands of  his  soldiers  by  dividing  among  them 
confiscated  lands.  This  division  caused  great 
disturbances.  In  the  midst  of  the  stormy  scenes 
which  convulsed  Italy,  he  was  obliged  to  con- 
tend with  Fulvia,  whose  daughter,  Clodia,  he  had 
rejected,  and  with  Lucius,  the  brother-in-law  oj 


AUGUSTUS 


Ant*ny.  After  several  battles,  Lucius  threw 
himself  into  the  city  of  Perusia,  where  he  was 
soon  after  obliged  to  surrender.  The  city  was 
given  up  to  be  plundered,  and  300  senators  were 
condemned  to  death.  After  the  return  of  An- 
tony, an  end  was  put  to  the  proscriptions.  Oc- 
tavianus  allowed  such  of  the  proscribed  persons 
as  had  escaped  death  by  flight,  and  whom  he  no 
longer  feared,  to  return.  There  were  still  some 
disturbances  in  Gaul,  and  the  naval  war  with 
Sextus  Pompeius  continued  for  several  years. 
By  a  skilful  course  of  conduct  he  brought  about 
the  defeat  of  Pompeius  and  reduced  Lepidus 
to  a  nullity,  thus  leaving  Antony  alone  as  his 
rival.  The  empire  was  now  divided  between 
him  and  Antony ;  but  while  the  former,  in  the 
East,  gave  himself  up  to  a  life  of  luxury,  the 
j'oung  Octavianus  pursued  his  plan  of  making 
himself  sole  master  of  the  world.  He  especial- 
ly strove  to  obtain  the  love  of  the  people. 
He  displayed  mildness  and  magnanimity,  with- 
out the  appearance  of  striving  after  the  highest 
power,  and  declared  himself  ready  to  lay  down 
his  power  when  Antony  should  return  from  the 
war  against  the  Parthians.  He  appeared  rather 
to  permit  than  to  wish  himself  to  be  appointed 
perpetual  tribune  —  an  office  which  gave  him 
supreme  power.  The  more  he  advanced  in  the 
affections  of  the  people,  the  more  openly  did  he 
declare  himself  against  Antony. 

By  making  public  a  will,  wherein  his  rival  ap- 
pointed his  sons  by  Cleopatra  his  heirs,  he 
stirred  up  the  ill-will  of  the  Romans  against 
him.  Availing  himself  of  this  feeling,  Octavian- 
us declared  war  against  the  queen  of  Egypt,  and 
led  a  considerable  force,  both  by  sea  and  land, 
to  the  Ambracian  Gulf.  Here  his  admiral  Vip- 
sanius  Agrippa  gained  the  naval  victory  of  Ac- 
tium  (q.v.),  which  made  Octavianus  master  of 
the  world,  31  B.C.  He  pursued  his  rival  to 
Egypt,  and  ended  the  war,  after  rejecting  the 
proposal  of  Antony  to  decide  their  dit¥erences  by 
a  personal  combat.  Cleopatra  and  Antony  hav- 
ing killed  themselves,  Octavianus  caused  them 
to  be  buried  with  imposing  ceremonies.  A  son 
of  Antony  and  Fulvia  was  sacrificed  to  ensure 
his  safety,  and  Csesarion,  a  son  of  Caesar  and 
Cleopatra,  shared  the  same  fate.  All  the  other 
relations  of  Antony  remained  uninjured,  and 
Octavianus,  on  the  whole,  used  his  power  with 
moderation.  He  spent  two  years  in  the  East, 
in  order  to  arrange  the  affairs  of  Egypt,  Greece, 
Syria,  Asia  Minor,  and  the  islands.  On  his  re- 
turn to  Rome  he  celebrated  a  triumph  for  three 
days  in  succession,  and  (29  B.C.)  closed  the 
temple  of  Janus —  for  the  third  time  since  the 
foundation  of  Rome.  Freed  from  his  rivals  and 
enemies,  and  master  of  the  world,  he  is  said 
to  have  been  undecided  as  to  how  he  should 
exercise  his  power,  or  whether  he  should  even 
retain  it.  He  first  set  about  correcting  the  abuses 
v.'hich  had  prevailed  during  the  civil  war,  estab- 
lished a  general  peace,  ejected  unworthy  mem- 
bers from  the  Senate,  restored  ruined  temples, 
and  built  new  ones. 

At  the  end  of  his  seventh  consulship,  he  en- 
tered the  Senate  house,  and  declared  his  resolu- 
tion to  lay  down  his  power.  The  Senate,  aston- 
ished at  his  moderation,  besought  him  to  retain 
it.  He  yielded  to  their  pressing  entreaties,  and 
continued  to  govern  through  them.  He  now  ob- 
tained the  surname  of  Augustus,  which  marked 
the  dignity  of  his  person  and  rank,  and  united, 
by  degrees,  in  himself,  the  offices  of  imperator, 

Vol.  2—4 


or  commander-in-chief  by  sea  and  land,  with 
power  to  make  war  and  peace ;  of  proconsul  over 
all  the  provinces ;  of  perpetual  tribune  of  the 
people,  which  rendered  his  person  inviolable,  and 
gave  him  the  power  of  interrupting  public  pro- 
ceedings;  and,  in  fine,  of  censor,  and  pontifex 
maximus,  or  controller  of  all  religious  matters. 
The  laws  themselves  were  subject  to  him,  and 
the  observance  of  them  depended  upon  his  will. 
It  was  the  spirit  of  his  policy  to  retain  old  names 
and  forms,  but  he  steadfastly  refused  to  as- 
sume the  title  of  dictator,  which  latterly  had 
become  especially  odious.  He  conducted  many 
wars  in  Africa,  Asia,  and  particularly  in  Gaul 
and  Spain,  where  he  triumphed  over  the  Can- 
tabrians  after  a  severe  struggle.  His  arms  sub- 
jected Aquitania,  Pannonia,  Dalmatia,  and  II- 
lyria,  and  held  the  Dacians,  Numidians,  and 
Ethiopians  in  check.  He  concluded  a  treaty  with 
the  Parthians,  by  which  they  gave  up  Armenia, 
and  restored  the  eagles  taken  from  Crassus  and 
Antony.  At  the  foot  of  the  Alps  he  erected 
monuments  of  his  triumphs  over  the  mountain- 
eers, the  proud  remains  of  which  are  yet  to  be 
seen  at  Susa  and  Aosta.  After  he  had  estab- 
lished peace  throughout  the  empire,  he  again 
closed  the  temple  of  Janus.  But  this  peace  was 
interrupted,  9  a.d.,  by  the  defeat  of  Varus,  who 
lost  three  legions  in  an  engagement  with  the  Ger- 
mans, under  Arminius,  and  killed  himself  in 
despair.  The  information  of  this  misfortune 
greatly  agitated  Augustus.  He  let  his  beard  and 
hair  grow,  and  often  cried  out  in  the  deepest 
grief,  "O  Varus,  restore  me  my  legions  I" 
Meanwhile  the  Germans  were  held  in  check  by 
Tiberius.  During  the  peace,  i\ugustus  had  is- 
sued many  useful  decrees,  and  abolished  abuses 
in  the  government.  He  gave  a  new  form  to  the 
Senate,  employed  himself  in  improving  the  man- 
ners of  the  people,  particularly  by  promoting 
marriage,  enacted  laws  for  the  suppression  of 
luxury,  introduced  discipline  into  the  armies, 
and  order  into  the  games  of  the  circus.  He 
adorned  Rome  in  such  a  manner  that  it  was 
truly  said,  "He  found  it  of  brick,  and  left  it  of 
marble.'*  He  made  journeys,  as  Velleius  says, 
everywhere,  to  increase  the  blessings  of  peace; 
he  went  to  Sicily  and  Greece,  Asia  Minor,  Sy- 
ria, Gaul,  etc. ;  in  several  places  he  founded  cit- 
ies and  colonies.  The  people  erected  altars  to 
him,  and,  by  a  decree  of  the  Senate,  the  month 
Sextilis  was  called  August.  The  debauchery  of 
his  daughter  Julia  gave  him  great  pain,  and  iie 
showed  himself  more  severe  against  those  who 
destroyed  the  honor  of  his  family,  than  against 
those  who  threatened  his  life.  History  says 
that,  in  his  old  age,  he  was  ruled  by  his  wife 
Livia,  the  only  person,  perhaps,  whom  he  truly 
loved.  He  had  no  sons,  and  lost  by  death  his 
sister's  son,  Marcellus.  and  his  daughter's  sons, 
Gains  and  Lucius,  whom  he  had  appointed  his 
successors.  Also,  Drusus,  his  son-in-law.  whom 
he  loved,  died  early :  and  Tiberius,  the  brother 
of  the  latter,  whom  he  hated,  on  account  of 
his  bad  qualities,  alone  survived. 

These  numerous  calamities,  together  with 
his  continually  increasing  infirmities,  gave  him 
a  strong  desire  of  respose.  He  undertook  a 
journey  to  Campania,  from  whose  purer  air  he 
hoped  for  relief:  but  disea.se  fixed  upon  him.  and 
he  died,  in  the  79th  3'ear  of  his  age,  and  45th  of 
his  reign.  When  he  felt  his  death  approaching 
he  is  said  to  have  called  for  a  mirror,  arranged 
hi'     hair,    and    demanded    of    the    by-standers. 


AUGUSTUS  — AUK 


''Have  I  played  my  part  well?^'  and,  an  answer 
being  returned  in  the  affirmative,  *Then,'*  added 
he,  using  the  form  of  the  players,  ^^farewell,  and 
applaud'^  (valcfe,  et  plaudite).  If  this  last  pas- 
sage in  the  life  of  Augustus  is  true,  it  iS  certain- 
ly indicative  of  his  character,  his  policy,  and  even 
of  his  fortune.  He  conquered  Brutus  by  means 
of  Antony,  and  Antony  by  means  of  Agrippa. 
He  several  times  changed  his  party,  but  never 
his  purposes,  and  knew  how  to  cause  power  to 
be  offered,  and  pressed  upon  him,  while  it  was, 
in  fact,  the  object  of  all  his  exertions.  It  cannot 
be  denied  that  he  used  his  power  with  wisdom, 
and  became  the  benefactor  of  his  country,  which 
he  had  previously  plunged  into  the  horrors  of 
civil  war.  His  taste  and  active  mind  led  him 
to  favor  and  protect  the  learned ;  and  he  even 
exercised  the  art  of  the  poet  himself;  so  that 
he  was  not  unworthy  of  giving  his  name  to  an 
age  distinguished  for  intellectual  creations.  His 
death  plunged  the  empire  into  the  greatest  grief. 
He  was  numbered  among  the  gods,  and  temples 
and  altars  were  erected  to  him.  See  Gardthau- 
sen,  ^Augustus  und  seine  Zeit^  (1891)  ;  Schuck- 
burg,   ^Augustus*    (1903). 

Augus'tus  I.,  elector  of  Saxony:  b.  1526; 
d.  1586.  During  a  peaceful  reign,  he  greatly 
beautified  Dresden,  his  capital,  and  built  the 
palace  of  Augustenburg. 

Augus'tus  II.,  Frederick,  elector  of  Sax- 
ony and  king  of  Poland,  second  son  of  John 
George  III.,  elector  of  Saxony :  b.  Dresden, 
1670;  d.  I  Feb.  1733.  He  was  noted  for  his  ac- 
tivity. In  1695  he  became  elector  and  in  1696 
was  candidate  for  the  vacant  Polish  throne. 
The  French  ambassador  and  the  nobles  sup- 
ported the  Prince  of  Conti,  but  Augustus  by  ac- 
ceptance of  the  Roman  Catholic  faith,  by  bri- 
bery and  intimidation  secured  the  election,  27 
June  1697.  Early  in  his  reign,  a  treaty 
was  made  between  Denmark,  Poland,  and 
Russia  against  Charles  XII.  of  Sweden, 
for  the  conquest  of  Livonia.  But  Charles, 
after  having  defeated  the  Danes  and 
the  Russians,  turned  toward  Poland.  Thus 
began  the  celebrated  Northern  war,  which 
lasted  20  years.  Charles  gained  a  complete  vic- 
tory, 20  July  1702,  and  on  i  May  1703,  the 
Saxon  army  was  defeated  again  at  Pultusk. 
The  diet  assembled  at  Warsaw  declared  Augus- 
tus, 14  Feb.  1704,  incapable  of  wearing  the 
crown  of  Poland,  and  Stanislaus  Lesczinsky, 
waywode  of  Posen,  was  chosen  king,  12  July 
1704.  Charles,  victorious  on  every  side,  ad- 
vanced into  Saxony,  and  Augustus  found  him- 
self obliged  to  negotiate  a  secret  peace,  at  Al- 
transtadt,  24  Sept.   1706. 

He  now  devoted  himself  to  the  domestic  af- 
fairs of  Saxony.  His  love  of  splendor  involved 
him  in  many  expenses,  by  which  the  finances  of 
his  kingdom  were  disordered.  In  1709,  after  the 
defeat  of  Charles  at  Pultawa,  the  Poles  recalled 
Augustus,  who  united  himself  anew  with  Peter 
the  Great.  A  confederation  was  now  formed 
in  Poland  against  the  Saxon  troops,  by  the  party 
of  Stanislaus,  in  the  belief  that  Augustus  was 
aiming  at  absolute  power.  The  Saxons  were 
attacked  and  obliged  to  surrender.  At  length, 
through  the  mediation  of  Peter,  an  arrangement 
was  concluded  at  Warsaw,  1717,  between  Au- 
gustus and  the  Polish  leaders.  The  Saxon 
troops  were  removed  from  the  kingdom,  and 
Augustus    agreed    not    to    maintain    more    than 


17,000  soldiers  in  Poland,  who  were  to  be  undei 
the  Polish  authorities.  The  last  years  of  his 
reign  were  characterized  by  boundless  luxury 
and  corruption  of  manners.  He  was  not  dis- 
liked by  his  subjects,  and  filled  with  dignity  his 
station  among  the  European  powers.  In  his  char- 
acter generous  ideas  were  united  with  despotic 
feelings,  a  taste  for  pleasure  with  the  cares  of 
ambition,  and  the  restlessness  of  a  warlike  spirit 
with  the  effeminacy  of  a  luxurious  life.  By  hi* 
mistresses  he  had  many  children.  The  Countess 
of  Konigsmark  bore  him  the  celebrated  Mauri« 
of  Saxony. 

Augus'tus  III.,  Frederick,  elector  of  Sax- 
ony and  king  of  Poland,  son  of  Augustus  II- : 
b.  Dresden,  1696;  d.  there  5  Oct.  1763.  He  suc- 
ceeded his  father  as  elector  in  1733.  A  part  of 
the  Polish  nobility  chose  Augustus  king;  and  in 
1736  he  was  first  generally  recognized  as  sitch 
by  the  congress  assembled  at  Warsaw  to  con- 
clude a  peace.  Although  without  the  great  and 
amiable  qualities  of  his  father,  in  other  respects 
he  closely  followed  his  example,  distinguishing 
himself  by  the  splendor  of  his  feasts  and  the 
extravagance  of  his  court.  His  system  of  poli- 
tics consisted  in  entire  dependence  upon  Russia. 
He  preferred  Dresden  to  Warsaw,  and  through 
his  long  absence  from  Poland  the  government 
sank  into  entire  inactivity.  When  Frederick  at- 
tacked Saxony  itself  in  1745,  Augustus  deserted 
his  capital,  and  preserved  his  pictures  and  porce- 
lain, but  lost  the  archives  of  the  state,  which 
fell  into  the  hands  of  the  victors.  By  the  peace 
of  Dresden,  25  Dec.  1745,  he  was  reinstated  in 
the  possession  of  Saxony,  in  the  next  year.  In 
1756  he  saw  himself  involved  anew  in  a  war 
against  Prussia,  and  fled  to  Konigstein,  and  af- 
terward to  Poland.  His  authority  in  this  coun- 
try had  always  been  inconsiderable,  and  after 
the  loss  of  Saxony,  became  still  more  insignifi- 
cant. The  accession  of  Catherine  to  the  Rus- 
sian throne  was  a  source  of  disquietude,  for  she 
sought  to  deprive  the  Saxon  princes,  who  were 
allies  of  France,  of  the  Polish  thrones.  The 
Peace  of  Hubertsberg  was  hardly  concluded 
when  Augustus  returned  from  Warsaw  to  Dres- 
den, where  he  died.  His  son,  Frederick  Chris- 
tian, succeeded  him  as  elector  of  Saxony,  and 
Stanislaus   Poniatowsky  as  king  of  Poland. 

Auk,  ak,  a  diving  sea-fowl  of  the  family 
Alcidw  found  in  the  northern  regions,  the  term 
covering  guillemots,  murres,  lomvias,  puffins, 
and  others.  They  are  thick-set  birds,  seldom 
more  than  a  foot  long,  which  move  about  with 
difficulty  on  land,  from  the  fact  that  their  legs 
are  set  very  far  back,  giving  them  an  erect, 
penguin-like  attitude.  In  color  they  are  dark 
brown,  black,  or  lead-color  above,  and  white  be- 
neath, except  in  the  breeding  season,  when 
bright  colors  and  ornamental  plumes  tempora- 
rily appear  on  the  males  of  some  species.  The 
wing-feathers  are  so  short  as  to  be  of  little  ser- 
vice for  flight,  and  the  wings  are  more  used  as 
aids  in  swimming  under  water,  w^here  they  pur- 
sue fishes  with  great  speed.  The  bill  is  much 
compressed,  but  in  the  breeding  season,  among 
the  puffins,  which  show  the  most  marked  com- 
pression of  bill  at  other  times,  the  bills  increase 
in  size  and  develop  ornamental  appendages  which 
disappear  as  the  moulting  season  comes  on. 
The  most  important  North  Atlantic  auks  are  the 
now-extinct  great  auk  (plautus  impcnnis)  which 
was  as  large  as  a  goose  and  within  historic 
times   abounded  as    far   south  as   the   Hebride* 


AULD  LANG  SYNE  — AUMONT 


(see  Garefowi)  ;  the  little  auk  (Allc  alle),  not 
larger  than  a  robin  and  very  abundant,  ?r>rne- 
times  in  winter  coming  as  far  south  as  New 
York  and  the  Great  Lakes  (see  Dovekie)  ;  and 
the  razor-billed  auk  {Alca  tarda),  which  has 
a  bill  of  remarkable  length  and  sharpness,  and 
which  breeds  even  as  far  south  as  the  Maine 
coast.  (See  Murrelet;  Puffin;  Razor-Bill.) 
The  auk  lays  only  a  single  large  egg,  which, 
as  no  nest  is  prepared,  the  parents  care  for 
by  holding  upon  the  top  of  their  webbed 
feet  and  between  their  thighs.  These  eggs  are 
a  staple  food  for  the  natives  of  the  arctic  re- 
gions, as  are  the  birds,  also.  They  are  taken  in 
summer  and  preserved  for  winter  use,  as  in  the 
autumn  the  auks  migrate  from  the  frozen  coasts 
and  spend  the  winter  in  the  open  spaces  of  the 
sea.  Consult  American  and  British  ornitholo- 
gies; and  Selous,   ^Bird  Watching^    (1901). 

Auld  Lang  Syne,  aid  lang  sin,  a  song  at- 
tributed to  Burns,  who  added  a  couple  of  stan- 
zas to  a  poem  known  to  have  existed  in  1600 
and  set  to  an  old  Lowland  air  by  George  Thomp- 
son. 

Auld  Licht  Idylls,  aid  Hcht  i'dills,  a  work 
by  James  ^I.  Barrie.  It  is  a  series  of  12 
sketches  of  life  in  Glen  Quharity  and  Thrums. 
In  all  of  them  the  same  characters  appear. 

Auld  Rob'in  Gray,  a  famous  Scottish 
ballad  by  Lady  Anne  Barnard,  published  anony- 
mously in  1722,  but  unacknowledged  till  1825. 

Au'lic  (Latin,  aula,  a  court  or  hall),  a  term 
applied  to  a  council  {the  Reichshof rath)  in  the  old 
German  empire.  It  was  one  of  the  two  supreme 
courts  of  the  German  empire,  the  other  being 
the  court  of  the  imperial  chamber  {Reichskain- 
mergcricht).  It  had  not  only  concurrent  juris- 
diction with  the  latter  court,  but  in  many  cases 
exclusive  jurisdiction,  in  all  feudal  processes, 
and  in  criminal  affairs,  over  the  immediate 
feudatories  of  the  emperor  and  in  affairs  which 
concerned  the  imperial  government.  The  title 
is  now  applied  in  Germany  in  a  general  sense  to 
the  chief  council  of  any  department,  political, 
administrative,  judicial,  or  military. 

Aulich,  ow'Hh,  Ludwig, Hungarian  general: 
b.  Presburg,  1792 ;  d.  Arad,  6  Oct.  1849. 
After  the  evacuation  of  Pesth  by  the  imperial 
troops  in  1849,  Aulich  made  his  triumphant  entry 
into  that  capital,  and  was  received  with  enthusi- 
asm by  the  people.  In  his  famous  proclamation 
of  Godollo,  Kossuth  paid  also  an  appropriate 
homage  to  Aulich's  gallantry.  Subsequently, 
when  Gorgey  was  forced  to  renounce  either  the 
army  or  the  ministry  of  war,  he  took  the  lat- 
ter alternative,  and  Aulich  was  appointed  his 
successor.  But  although  he  might  have  used 
his  authority  as  minister  of  war  to  frustrate 
Gorgey's  negotiations  with  the  Russians,  he  actu- 
ally assisted  Gorgey  to  bring  these  negotiations 
to  a  successful  close.  He  was  then  delivered 
over  to  Austria  by  the  Russians,  and,  in  com- 
pany with  12  others,  perished  on  the  gallows. 

Au'lis,  in  ancient  Greece,  a  seaport  in 
Boeotia,  on  the  strait  called  Euripus,  between 
Bceotia  and  Euboea,  noted  chiefly  for  its  temple 
of  Artemis,  and  as  the  scene  of  the  sacrifice  of 
Iphigenia. 

Aullagas,  owl-la'gas,  a  salt  lake  in  Bolivia, 
which  receives  the  surplus  waters  of  Lake  Titi- 
caca   through    the    Rio    Desaguadero.    and    has 


only  one  perceptible,  insignificant  outlet.  The 
disposition  of  its  superfluous  water  is,  there- 
fore, still  a  matter  of  uncertainty. 

Au'lula'ria  (from  Aulula,  a  pot),  a  corned v 
by  Plautus.  Euclion,  an  old  miser,  is  the  prin- 
cipal character. 

Aumale,  d-mal',  Henri  Eugene  Philippe 
Louis  d'Orleans,  Duke  of,  4th  son  of  king 
Louis  Philippe:  b.  Paris,  16  Jan.  1822;  d.  7  May 
1897.  He  entered  the  military  .service  at  the 
age  of  17,  and  distinguished  himself  by  his 
bravery.  At  the  age  of  20,  he  was  promoted  to 
the  rank  of  brigadier-general,  and  was  sent  to 
Algeria,  in  October  1842.  Intrusted  with  the 
command  of  the  district  of  Medeah,  he  at- 
tacked the  smala  of  Abd  el  Kader  with  such 
impetuosity  that  in  less  than  two  hours  the 
emir's  troops  were  entirely  routed.  As  a  re- 
ward, Aumale  was  made  lieutenant-general  and 
commander  of  the  province  of  Constantine.  In 
1847,  the  young  prince,  but  25  years  old,  was  in- 
trusted \vith  the  general  governorship  of  Al- 
geria, which  was  taken  from  the  hands  of  Mar- 
shal Bugeaud.  This  appointment  was  not 
approved  either  by  the  army  or  the  French 
nation,  and  it  was  the  occasion  for  loud  com- 
plaints against  the  ambition  of  the  king,  who 
was  concentrating  the  direction  of  the  whole 
military  service  in  the  hands  of  his  sons.  Af- 
ter the  revolution  of  1848,  he  went  to  England, 
where  he  devoted  his  attention  to  literary  pur- 
suits. His  latest  years  were  passed  in  Sicily. 
He  wrote  ^Les  Institutiones  Militaires  de  la 
France^  (1867)  ;  ^Histoire  des  Princes  Conde' 
(1869). 

Aumale,  a  town  in  France,  35  miles  north- 
east of  Rouen,  which  has  given  titles  to  several 
notables  in  French  history :  Jean  d'Arcourt, 
Eighth  Count  d'Aumale,  fought  at  Agincourt, 
and  defeated  the  English  at  Gravelle  (1423). 
Claude  II.,  Due  d'Aumale,  one  of  the  chief  in- 
stigators of  the  Massacre  of  St.  Bartholomew, 
was  killed  1573.  Charles  de  Lorraine,  Due 
d'Aumale,  was  an  ardent  partisan  of  the  League 
in  the  politico-religious  French  wars  of  the  i6th 
century.     Pop.    (1900)  2,219. 

Aumont,  6-m6n',  the  name  of  one  of  the 
great  historical  families  of  France.  The  first 
Aumont  mentioned  in  history  is  Je.\n  III.,  Sire 
d'Aumont,  who,  in  1328,  took  part  in  the  bat- 
tle of  Cassel,  and  served  under  Philip  de  Valois, 
on  many  other  important  occasions.  A  more 
distinguished  member  of  the  family  was  Jean" 
d'Aumoxt  :  b.  1522;  d.  1595.  He  was  on  the 
battlefield  almost  from  his  cradle  to  his  grave, 
and  served  under  si.x  kings :  Francis  I.,  Henry 
II.,  Francis  II.,  Charles  IX.,  Henry  III.,  and 
Henry  IV.  Antoine  d'Aumont:  b.  1601 ;  d. 
1669;  served  with  distinction  under  Louis  XIV., 
and  in  1662  was  appointed  governor  of  Paris. 
Louis  M.\rie  Victor  d'Aumont  and  de  Roche- 
baron:  b.  1632;  d.  1704;  took  an  active  part  in 
the  war  in  Flanders  under  Louis  XIV.,  was 
governor  of  Boulogne  and  the  Boulonnois,  and 
member  of  the  academy  of  inscriptions  and 
belles-lettres.  Jacques,  duc  d'Aumont:  b. 
1732;  d.  1799;  was  the  commandant  of  the 
national  guard,  on  5  Oct.  1789,  when  Louis 
XVI.  was  forcibly  taken  away  from  Versailles. 
Louis  Marie  Celeste  de  Vienne.  duc  dAu- 
mont:  b.  1762;  d.  183 1 ;  served  in  Germany, 
Spain,  and  Sweden,  until  the  restoration,  when 
he  was  appointed  lieutenant-general.     He  made 


AUNGERVILLE  — AURELIUS  ANTONINUS 


himself  very  useful  to  the  cause  of  royalty 
in  suppressing  the  troubles  in  Normandy,  and 
in  1815  was  created  peer  of  France,  and  raised 
to  the  office  of  first  chamberlain.  He  was  one  of 
the  most  prominent  men  at  the  courts  of  Louis 
XVIII.  and  Charles  X.,  but  he  exchanged  poli- 
tics for  theatres,  and  became  the  chief  director 
of  the  comic  opera. 

Aungerville,  an'ger-vil,  Richard,  known 
as  Richard  de  Bury  (from  his  birthplace,  Bury 
St.  Edmunds),  an  English  statesman,  bibli- 
ographer, and  correspondent  of  Petrarch :  b. 
1281 ;  d.  1345.  He  entered  the  order  of  Bene- 
dictine monks,  and  became  tutor  to  the  Prince 
of  Wales,  afterward  Edward  HI.  Promoted  to 
several  offices  of  dignity,  he  ultimately  became 
Bishop  of  Durham,  and  Lord  Chancellor  of 
England.  He  made  the  acquaintance  of  many 
of  the  eminent  men  of  the  day,  and  was  a  dili- 
gent collector  of  books.  He  was  the  author  of 
*Philobiblon,^  'Epistolse  Familiarium,^  includ- 
ing letters  to  Petrarch,  etc. 

Aura.     See  Epilepsy. 

Au'ramine.    See  Coal  Tar  Colors. 

Aurangabad,  ow-run'ga-bad',  a  town  in 
India;  175  miles  from  Bombay,  and  on  the 
Kaum  River,  a  small  tributary  of  the  Godavery. 
It  is  surrounded  by  walls  with  semicircular 
towers  at  the  different  angles,  and  contains  a 
ruined  palace  of  Aurengzebe  and  a  mausoleum 
erected  to  the  memory  of  his  favorite  wife.  A 
mile  to  the  west  of  the  town  are  cantonments 
for  cavalry,  infantry,  and  artillery.  Auranga- 
bad was  founded  early  in  the  17th  century,  and 
rose  to  be  a  considerable  trading  centre,  but 
its  commercial  importance  decreased  when 
Hyderabad  became  the  capital  of  the  Nizam. 
In  late  years  the  trade  has  revived  considerably, 
and  embraces  wheat,  cotton,  and  manufactured 
goods.      Pop.    (1891)    33,887. 

Auran'tia.    See  Coal  Tar  Colors. 

Au'rates.    See  Auric  Acid. 

Aurbacher,    owr'ba-ner,    Ludwig,    German 

author:  b.  1784;  d.  1847;  well  remembered  by 
his  *^Volksbiichlein*  (1827-9)  ;  a  collection  of 
popular  tales,  ranking  among  the  best  produc- 
tions of  this  kind  in  German  literature. 

Aure'lia.  See  Jellyfish. 

Aure'lian,     Lucius     Domitius    Aurelianus, 

one  of  the  later  emperors  of  Rome :  b.  about 
212 ;  d.  275.  He  was  the  son  of  a  peasant  of 
Illyricum,  and  rose  to  the  highest  rank  in  the 
army,  and  even  to  the  consulate ;  which  good 
fortune  was  increased  by  a  wealthy  marriage. 
Claudius  IL,  on  his  death-bed,  in  270,  recom- 
mended Aurelian  to  the  choice  of  the  troops  of 
Illyricum,  who  readily  acceded  to  his  wishes. 
He  delivered  Italy  from  the  barbarians,  re- 
duced Tetricus,  who  had  been  unwillingly  made 
to  assume  the  purple  in  Gaul,  and  conquered 
the  famous  Zenobia,  queen  of  Palmyra.  Aur- 
elian followed  up  his  victories  by  the  reforma- 
tion of  abuses,  and  the  restoration  throughout 
the  empire  of  order  and  regularity,  but  tar- 
nished his  good  intentions  by  the  general  se- 
verity of  his  measures,  and  the  sacrifice  of  the 
senatorian  order  to  his  slightest  suspicions.  He 
had  planned  a  great  expedition  against  Persia, 
and  was  waiting  in  Thrace  for  an  opportunity 
to  cross  the  straits,  when  he  lost  his  life  by 
assassination,    the    result    of    a    conspiracy    ex- 


cited by  a  secretary  whom  he  intended  to  call 
to  account  for  peculation.  Aurelian  was  a  wise, 
able,  and  active  prince,  and  well  deserved  the 
title  given  him  by  the  Senate  of  "Restorer  of 
the  Roman  Empire.^' 

Aure'lian,  a  historical  novel  by  William 
Ware,  an  American  author  born  in  1797.  It 
was  first  published  in  1838  under  the  title  *^  Pro- 
bus,^  and  was  a  sequel  to  'Letters  of  Lucius 
M.  Piso,'  published  the  year  before;  and  like 
that  novel,  written  in  the  form  of  letters.  The 
full  title  is  *  Aurelian;  or.  Rome  in  the  Third 
Century.  In  Letters  of  Lucius  M.  Piso,  from 
Rome,  to  Fausta,  the  daughter  of  Gracchus  at 
Palmyra.'  The  novel  presents  a  singularly 
faithful  picture  of  the  Rome  of  the  second  half 
of  the  3d  century. 

Aure'lian  Wall,  a  wall  around  Rome, 
huilt  mostly  by  the  emperor  Aurelian,  but 
completed  in  the  reign  of  Probus.  It  was 
almost  12  miles  long,  and  54  feet  high,  enclosing 
an  area  of  5,000  square  iniles,  and  marking  the 
boundaries  of  Rome  in  the  time  of  Aurelian. 
The  wall  was  built  in  great  haste  as  a  defense 
against  the  barbarians,  and  includes  the  re- 
m-ains  of  house-  and  garden-walls.  It  was  fairly 
well  preserved  until  recently,  but  is  now  rapid- 
ly falling  to  decay. 

Aure'lius  Antoninus,  Marcus,  often  called 
simply  Marcus  Aurelius,  a  distinguished  Ro- 
man, and  according  to  Canon  Farrar,  "the  no- 
blest of  pagan  emperors'' :  b.  Rome,  29  April  121 
a.d.  ;  d.  Vindobona, —  the  modern  Vienna  —  17 
March  180  a.d.  He  was  descended  from  an  il- 
lustrious line  which  tradition  declared  extended 
to  the  good  Numa,  the  second  king  of  Rome.  In 
the  descendant  Marcus  were  certainly  to  be 
found,  with  a  great  increment  of  many  centuries 
of  noble  life,  all  the  virtues  of  his  illustrious  an- 
cestor. Doubtless  the  cruel  persecutions  of  the 
infamous  emperors  who  preceded  Hadrian  ac- 
count for  the  fact  that  the  ancestors  of  Aurelius 
left  the  imperial  city  and  found  safety  in  His- 
pania  Bsetica,  where  in  a  town  called  Succubo, 
—  not  far  from  the  present  city  of  Cordova  — 
the  emperor's  great-grandfather,  Annius  Verus, 
was  born.  From  Spain  also  came  the  family 
of  the  emperor  Hadrian,  who  was  an  intimate 
friend  of  Annius  Verus.  The  death  of  the 
father  of  Marcus  Aurelius  when  the  lad  was  of 
tender  years  led  to  his  adoption  by  his  grand- 
father and  subsequently  by  Antoninus  Pius.  By 
Antoninus  he  was  subsequently  named  as  joint 
heir  to  the  imperial  dignity  with  Commodus,  the 
son  of  iElius  Csesar,  who  had  previously  been 
adopted  by  Hadrian.  From  his  earliest  youth 
Marcus  was  distinguished  for  his  sincerity  and 
truthfulness.  '^Hadrian's  bad  and  sinful  habits 
left  him,"  says  Niebuhr,  ''when  he  gazed  on  the 
sweetness  of  that  innocent  child.  Punning  on 
the  boy's  paternal  name  of  Verus,  he  called  him 
Verissimus,  'the  most  true.'  ''  Among  the 
many  statues  of  Marcus  extant  is  one  represent- 
ing him  at  the  tender  age  of  eight  years  offer- 
ing sacrifice.  He  was  even  then  a  priest  of 
Mars.  .It  was  the  hand  of  Marcus  alone  that 
threw  the  crown  so  carefully  and  skilfully  that 
it  invariably  alighted  upon  the  head  of  the  statue 
of  the  god.  The  entire  ritual  he  knew  by 
heart.  The  great  emperor  Antoninus  Pius 
lived  in  the  most  simple  and  unostentatious 
manner ;  3'et  even  this  did  not  satisfy  the  ex- 
acting,   lofty    spirit    of    Marcus.      At    12    years 


AURELIUS  ANTONINUS 


of  age  he  began  to  practise  all  the  austerities 
of  Stoicism  and  became  a  veritable  ascetic.  He 
ate  most  sparingly ;  slept  little,  and  when  he  did 
so  it  was  upon  a  bed  of  boards.  Only  the  re- 
peated entreaties  of  his  mother  induced  him  to 
spread  a  few  skins  upon  his  couch.  His  health 
was  seriously  affected  for  a  time;  and  it  was, 
perhaps,  to  this  extreme  privation  that  his 
subsequent  feebleness  was  largely  due.  His 
education  was  of  the  highest  order  of  excel- 
lence. His  tutors,  like  Nero's,  w'ere  the  most 
distinguished  teachers  of  the  age ;  but  unlike 
Nero,  the  lad  was  in  every  way  worthy  of  his 
instructors.  His  letters  to  his  dearly  beloved 
teacher,  Fronto.  are  still  extant,  and  in  a  very 
striking  and  charming  way  they  illustrate  the 
extreme  simplicity  of  life  in  the  imperial  house- 
hold in  the  villa  of  Antoninus  Pius  at  Lorium 
by  the  sea.  They  also  indicate  the  lad's  deep 
devotion  to  his  studies  and  the  sincerity  of  his 
love  for  his  relatives  and  friends.  When  his 
predecessor  and  adoptive  father  Antoninus  felt 
the  approach  of  death,  he  gave  to  the  tribune 
who  asked  him  for  the  watchword  for  the  night 
the  reply  "Equanimity,*  directed  that  the  golden 
statue  of  'Fortune'  that  always  stood  in  the 
emperor's  chamber  be  transferred  to  that  of 
Marcus  Aurelius,  and  then  turned  his  face  and 
passed  away  as  peacefully  as  if  he  had  fallen 
asleep.  The  watchword  of  the  father  became 
the  life-word  of  the  son,  who  pronounced  upon 
that  tather  ill  the  'Meditations,'  one  of  the 
noblest  eulogies  ever  written.  It  would  be  im- 
possible here  to  detail  even  briefly  all  the  mani- 
fold public  services  rendered  by  Marcus  Aure- 
lius to  the  empire  during  his  reign  of  20  years. 
Among  his  good  works  were  these :  the  es- 
tablishment, upon  eternal  foundation,  of  the 
noble  fabric  of  the  civil  law  —  the  prototype 
and  basis  of  Justinian's  task;  the  founding  of 
schools  for  the  education  of  poor  children ;  the 
endowment  of  hospitals  and  homes  for  orphans 
of  both  sexes ;  the  creation  of  trust  companies 
to  receive  and  distribute  legacies  and  endow- 
ments; the  just  government  of  the  provinces; 
the  complete  reform  of  the  system  of  collecting 
taxes ;  the  abolition  of  the  cruelty  of  the  crimi- 
nal laws  and  the  mitigation  of  sentences  un- 
necessarily severe ;  the  regulation  of  gladiatorial 
exhibitions ;  the  diminution  of  the  absolute  pow- 
er possessed  by  fathers  over  their  children  and 
of  masters  over  their  slaves ;  the  admission  of 
women  to  equal  rights  to  succession  to  prop- 
erty from  their  children ;  the  rigid  suppression 
of  spies  and  informers ;  and  the  adoption  of  the 
principle  that  merit,  as  distinguished  from  rank 
or  political  friendship,  alone  justified  promo- 
tion in  the  public  service.  But  the  greatest 
reform  was  the  reform  in  the  imperial  dignity 
itself,  as  exemplified  in  the  life  and  character  of 
the  emperor.  It  is  this  fact  which  gives  to  the 
^Meditations'  their  distinctive  value.  The  in- 
finite charm,  the  tenderness,  and  sweetness  of 
their  moral  teachings,  and  their  broad  .humanity, 
are  chiefly  noteworthy  because  the  emperor  him- 
self practised  in  his  daily  life  the  principles  of 
which  he  speaks,  and  because  tenderness  and 
sweetness,  patience  and  pity,  suffused  his  daily 
conduct  and  permeated  his  actions.  The  horri- 
ble cruelties  of  the  reigns  of  Nero  and  Domi- 
tian  seemed  only  awful  dreams  under  the  be- 
nignant rule  of  Marcus  Aurelius.  It  is  not 
surprising  that  the  deification  of  a  deceased 
empeJor,   usually  regarded  by   senate   and  peo- 


ple as  a  hollow  mockery,  became  a  veritable 
fact  upon  the  death  of  Marcus  Aurelius.  He 
was  not  regarded  in  any  sense  as  mortal.  All 
men  said  he  had  but  returned  to  his  heavenly 
place  arnong  the  immortal  gods.  As  his  body 
passed,  in  the  pomp  of  an  imperial  funeral,  to 
its  last  resting-place,  the  tomb  of  Hadrian.— 
the  modern  Castle  of  St.  Angelo  at  Rome, 
—  thousands  invoked  the  divine  blessing  of 
Antoninus.  His  memory  was  sacredly  cher- 
ished. His  portrait  was  preserved  as  an  in- 
spiration in  innumerable  homes.  His  statue 
w^as  almost  universally  given  an  honored  place 
among  the  household  gods.  And  all  this  con- 
tinued during  successive  generations  of  men. 
Marcus  Aurelius  has  been  censured  for  two 
acts:  the  first,  the  massacre  of  the  Christians 
which  took  place  during  his  reign  ;  the  second, 
the  selection  of  his  son,  Commodus,  as  his  suc- 
cessor. In  extenuation  of  his  persecution  of 
the  followers  of  Christianity,  it  has  been  alleged 
in  his  behalf  that  he  was  deceived  by  evil  coun- 
cillors, who  misrepresented  the  conduct  of  the 
Christians  to  him.  This  excuse  impinges  upon 
his  wisdom  as  a  ruler  and  his  admittedly  wide 
knowledge  of  the  conditions  of  the  empire.  It  is 
further  urged  that  when  we  take  into  considera- 
tion the  environment  of  the  emperor,  no  just 
cause  for  condemnation  of  his  course  remains. 
He  imbibed  a  bitter  prejudice  against  the  new 
religion  from  his  beloved  friend  and  instructor, 
Fronto.  In  the  writings  of  Epictetus,  whom  he 
greatly  revered,  he  found  severe  condemnation 
of  the  Christians  as  fanatics.  With  such  a  pro- 
found natural  bias,  it  is  urged,  it  is  no  wonder 
that  he  was  led  to  regard  the  new  creed  with 
aversion.  But  the  reason  of  his  course  is  to  be 
found  rather  in  his  deep-rooted  attachment  to 
the  heathen  beliefs  of  his  ancestors  and  of  the 
empire.  It  was  rather  his  fear  that  the  ancient 
cult,  bound  up  as  it  seemed  in  the  character  of 
Roman  rule,  was  seriously  menaced  by  the  prog- 
ress of  Christianity,  which  actuated  him  to  the 
severe  and  bloody  measures  he  took  to  root  out 
a  dangerous  rival.  Regarding  Christianity  as  a 
«pernicious  sect,»  a  «secret  conspiracy"  against 
the  empire,  an  «immoral  superstition,))  whose 
poison  was  eating  into  the  social  life,  and  him- 
self as  the  conservator  of  the  empire  and  its 
traditions,  some  extenuation  might  be  conceded 
to  such  fierce  zeal  in  persecuting  the  Christians 
in  almost  any  other  emperor  that  Marcus  .Aure- 
lius. For  there  is  a  glaring  inconsistency  in  his 
character  in  the  adoption  of  so  cruel  and  mon- 
strous a  course  by  one  who  appears  otherwise  so 
admirable.  In  this  signal  instance  he  is  as  bloody 
and  heartless  as  a  Domitian,  a  Nero  or  a  Calig- 
ula; in  all  other  things  merciful,  in  this  pitiless; 
in  his  general  administration,  just  and  humane; 
in  this,  singularly  unjust  and  even  vindictive. 
Whatsoever  may  be  urged  in  his  defense,  this 
relentless  persecution  of  the  Christians  is  a 
dark  blot  on  his  fame.  Whatever  extenuating 
circumstances  may  seem  to  condone  it,  his  policy 
in  this  instance  was  utterly  inconsistent  with 
his  general  character. 

His  first  edict  against  the  Christians  was  pub- 
lished in  177.  Multitudes  perished  in  the  fierce 
persecutions  which  followed.  Notable  amongst 
the  victims  were  St.  Polycarp  in  Smyrna  and 
St.  Caecilia  at  Rome.  The  manner  in  which 
they  were  tortured  before  being  relieved  from 
sufferings  by  death  was  more  befitting  a  savage 
chief  than  a  civilized  ruler. 


AURELIUS  —  AURORA 


Of  the  appointment  of  Commodus  as  his 
successor,  it  may  be  said  that  the  paternal 
heart  hoped  against  hope  for  filial  excellence. 
Marcus  Aurelius  believed,  as  clearly  appears 
from  many  passages  in  the  ^Meditations,^  that 
men  did  not  do  evil  willingly,  but  through  ig- 
norance ;  and  that  when  the  exceeding  beauty 
of  goodness  had  been  fully  disclosed  to  them, 
the  depravity  of  evil  conduct  would  appear  no 
less  clearly.  The  emperor  who,  \vhen  the  head 
of  his  rebellious  general  was  brought  to  him, 
grieved  because  that  general  had  not  lived  to  be 
forgiven ;  the  ruler  who  burned  unread  all 
treasonable  correspondence,  would  not,  nay, 
could  not  believe  in  the  existence  of  such  an 
inhuman  monster  as  Commodus  proved  himself 
to  be.  The  appointment  of  Commodus  was  a 
calamity  of  the  most  terrific  character;  but  it 
testifies  in  trumpet  tones  to  the  nobility  of  the 
emperor's  heart,  the  sincerity  of  his  own  belief 
in  the  triumph  of  right  and  justice.  See  Farrar, 
<  Seekers  after  God>  (1868)  ;  Renan,  <Marc 
Aurele*    (1881)  ;  Pater,  <Marius  the  Epicurean.^ 

Aure'lius  Victor,  Sextus,  Roman  histo- 
rian of  the  4th  century  whose  'History  of  the 
Csesars*  is  a  collection  of  biographical  ."sketches 
of  the  emperors  from  Augustus  to  Constantine. 

Aurengzebe,  a'reng-zeb'.  See  Aurungzebe. 

Au'reo'la,  or  Aureole,  in  paintings,  an  il- 
lumination surrounding  a  holy  person,  as 
Christ,  a  saint,  or  a  martyr,  intended  to  repre- 
sent a  luminous  cloud  or  haze  emanating  from 
him.  It  is  generally  of  an  oval  shape,  but  may 
be  nearly  or  quite  circular,  and  differs  from 
the  nimbus  surrounding  the  heads  of  sacred 
personages  in  being  an  emanation  of  light  from 
the  whole  body. 

Aure'osin.   See  Coal  Tar  Colors. 

Aureus,  a're-us,  or  Aureus  Nummus,  the 

earliest  gold  coin  of  Rome,  coined  207  B.C.,  in 
the  second  Punic  war.  It  weighed  2  denarii, 
and  I  quinarius,  and  was  worth  25  denarii,  or 
idb  sesterces.  In  later  times  it  was  called 
sotidus,  but  had  diminished  in  value. 

Auric  Acid.  Trioxid  of  gold,  AusOs,  does 
not  combine  with  acids  to  form  salts,  but  a 
hydrated  form  of  the  oxid,  AU2O3.H2O,  is 
known,  which  unites  with  bases  to  form  salts. 
From  this  acid-like  property,  the  hydrated  oxid 
has  been  called  <<auric  acid.^^  Compounds  of 
auric  acid  with  bases  are  called  "aurates.® 
Aurate  of  potassium,  Au2O3.K2O.3H2O,  is  a 
crystalline  substance,  readily  dissolving  in  wa- 
ter with  the  formation  of  an  alkaline  solution. 
When  digested  with  ammonium  sulphate,  it 
yields  an  aurate  of  ammonia  of  undetermined 
composition,  called  ''fulminating  gold.»  This 
substance,  yellowish-brown  in  color  when  in  the 
solid  form,  decomposes  explosively  upon  per- 
cussion, or  when  heated  to  212°  F. 

Aurichal'cite  (-kal'-),  a  native  basic  car- 
bonate of  copper  and  zinc,  usually  occurring  in 
beautiful  bright  blue  or  green,  pearly  incrusta- 
tions, composed  of  ill-defined  monoclinic  (?) 
crystals  or  scales.  Its  hardness  is  2,  and  its 
specific  gravity  about  3.6.  It  has  been  found  in 
Greece,  Italy,  England  and  various  other  Euro- 
pean countries,  and  in  fine  specimens  at  Morenci 
in  Arizona,  Magdalena  in  New  iMexico,  in  Col- 
orado,  Montana,  Utah   and  elsewhere. 

Auricle.      See  Ear. 


Auricles  of  the  Heart.  See  He.\rt;  Cir- 
culation. 

Auric'ula,  a  hardy  perennial  herb.  Primula 
auricula,  of  the  natural  order  Primulacecc,  found 
in  the  mountainous  parts  of  central  Europe. 
The  wild  plant  has  an  umbel  of  small  yellow 
flowers  on  a  short  stalk,  which  rises  from  a  set 
of  radial  leaves.  By  selection  a  very  large  num- 
ber of  varieties  have  been  produced.  These 
have  long  stalks  and  very  diversely  colored, 
fragrant  large  flowers,  for  which  the  plant  is 
widely  cultivated  in  Europe.  Since  the  climate 
of  the  United  States  is  hot  and  dry,  the  plant  is 
almost  confined  to  greenhouses.  It  is  propa- 
gated by  means  of  seeds  and  offsets,  and  suc- 
ceeds best  on  rich,  light,  loamy  soil. 

Auric'ular  Confes'sion.  See  Confession  ; 
Penance  ;  Sacraments. 

Au'rifa'ber,  the  Latinized  name  of  Johann 
GoLDScHMiDT,  One  of  Luther's  friends:  b.  1519; 
d.  Erfurt,  1579.  He  became  pastor  at  Erfurt  in 
1566.  He  collected  the  unpublished  manuscripts 
of  Luther,  and  edited  the  'Epistolas^  and  the 
'  Table-Talk.  > 

Auri'ga,  in  astronomy,  the  Wagoner,  a  con- 
stellation of  the  northern  hemisphere,  contain- 
ing as  its  chief  luminary  Capella,  a  star  of  the 
first  magnitude. 

Aurillac,  6're-yak',  a  town  of  France,  272 
miles  south  of  Paris.  It  is  noted  for  its  an- 
cient buildings,  among  which  are  the  Church 
of  Notre  Dame,  constructed  in  the  13th  cen- 
tury, and  the  castle  of  St.  Stephen.  It  has  man- 
ufactures of  jewelry,  copper,  kettles,  paper, 
woolen  stuffs,  and  carpets.     Pop.   (1896)  13,531. 

Au'rin,  Au'rine,  a  trade  name  for  impure 
rosolic  acid. 

Au'ringer,  Obadiah  Cyrus,  American  poet: 
b.  Glens  Falls,  N.  Y.,  4  June  1849.  He 
served  for  some  years  in  the  United  States  na\'y. 
In  1875  he  became  a  farmer  in  his  native  place. 
Among  his  works  are:  'Voices  of  a  Shell,-* 
'Scythe  and  Sword'  (1887)  ;  'Episode  of  Jane 
McCrea>  ;  and  'The  Book  of  the  Hills.' 

Aurochs,  a'roks,  the  European  bison  {Bos 
honasus,  or  Bison  eiiropceus)  called  by  the 
Germans  "wisent*'  and  in  the  Slavonic  lan- 
guages "zubr''  tor  "suber.*'  This  great  bison 
stands  six  feet  or  more  in  height  at  the  shoul- 
der, and  closely  resembles  the  American  bison 
or  "buffalo*  (q.v.)  ;  it  is  believed,  indeed,  that 
the  American  animal  descended  from  the  an- 
cestral race  of  aurochs.  When  the  Romans 
spread  northward  into  Europe  they  found  these 
and  other  oxen  in  the  forests  wherever  they 
went,  and  even  down  to  the  days  of  Charle- 
magne they  were  spread  over  Germany  and 
were  beasts  of  chase.  They  have  steadily  di- 
minished, however,  until  now  they  exist  only 
as  a  single  herd  in  the  royal  forest-preserves  of 
Bielovege,  in  Lithuania,  which  in  1899  num- 
bered 700,  while  a  few  hundred  roam  in  the 
Caucasian    Mountains.     See    Bison. 

Aurora,  111.,  city,  Kane  County;  on  Fox 
River,  and  on  the  Chicago,  B.  &  Q.,  the  Chicago 
&  N.  W.,  the  Elgin,  J.  &  E.,  and  the  Illinois,  I. 
&  i\I.  R.R.'s.  It  was  founded  in  1834  by  Joseph 
and  Samuel  McCarty;  was  organized  as  a  vil- 
lage in  1857,  and  was  incorporated  as  a  city  in 
1887.  It  is  an  important  manufacturing  city, 
having  a  variety  of  extensive  establishments ; 
these  include  the  shops  of  the  Chicago,  Burling- 


AURORA  — AURORA  BOREALIS. 


ton  &  Quincy  Railroad,  cotton  mills,  a  wheel- 
scraper  manufactory,  carriage  and  wagon 
fac<;ones,  smelting-works,  and  foundries  and 
machine  shops.  There  are  five  national  banks  with 
a  combined  capital  of  $600,000,  and  a  State 
bank.  There  are  38  churches,  a  good  system  of 
public  schools  including  two  high  schools,  the 
East  Aurora  High  School  and  the  West  Aurora 
High  School,  the  latter  established  in  1870 ;  and 
a  public  library,  a  building  for  which  was  pre- 
sented bj'  Andrew  Carnegie.  It  is  also  the  seat 
of  Aurora  Business  College  and  of  the  Jennings 
Seminary  for  j'oung  women.  The  government 
is  vested  in  a  mayor  and  a  city  council  of  14, 
seven  of  which  are  elected  each  year  for  a  term 
of  two  years ;  the  city  officials  are  elected  by  the 
people.  The  waterworks  and  the  electric  light 
plant  are  owned  and  operated  by  the  city.  Pop. 
(1890)  19,688;  (1900)  24,147;  (1904;  estimated) 
28,000. 

Auro'ra,  Ind.,  town  in  Dearborn  County, 
on  the  Ohio  River;  C,  C,  C.  &  St.  L.,  and  the 
Ohio  and  Miss.  R.R.'s.  It  has  regular  steam- 
boat connection  with  Cincinnati.  There  are  ex- 
tensive car  shops  here,  and  a  large  grain  and 
hay  trade.     Pop.  (1900)  3,645. 

Auro'ra,  Mo.,  a  city  in  Lawrence  County, 
situated  on  the  Kansas  City,  Fort  Scott,  and 
Memphis  R.R.'s.,  about  18  miles  northwest 
of  Pierre  City.  The  chief  industries  are  fruit 
growing,  lead  and  zinc  mining,  and  farming. 
There  are  also  flour  mills,  foundries,  and  ma- 
chine shops.  Aurora  has  two  banks  with  $75,- 
000  capital.     Pop.  (1900)  6,191. 

Auro'ra,  N.  Y,.  a  village  in  Cayuga 
County,  situated  on  Cayuga  Lake ;  25  miles 
northwest  of  Ithaca ;  on  the  Lehigh  Valley 
R.R.  It  is  the  centre  of  an  agricultural  region, 
and  is  a  residental  town  and  excellent  summer 
resort.  It  is  the  seat  of  Wells  College  for 
Women,     Pop.    (1900)    about    1,000. 

Auro'ra  (Greek,  Eos),  in  mythology,  daugh- 
ter of  Hyperion  and  Theia,  and  sister  of  Helios 
and  Selene.  She  is  goddess  of  the  dawn ;  rises 
from  the  ocean,  drawn  by  the  celestial  horses, 
Lampus  and  Phsethon,  and  with  rosy  fingers 
raises  the  veil  of  night,  shedding  light  upon  the 
world. 

Auro'ra,  a  famous  painting  by  Guide  Reni, 
on  the  ceiling  of  the  Casino  Rospigliosi  in  Rome. 

Auro'ra  Bo'rea'lis  (French,  aurore  borcale; 
German,  Nordlicht),  the  northern  light.  An 
illumination  in  the  sky,  seen  oftenest  north  of 
middle  latitudes  in  the  northern  hemisphere, 
and  south  of  them  in  the  southern  hemisphere. 
In  our  hemisphere  it  is  generally  visible  in  the 
north,  and  has,  therefore,  been  called  the  Aurora 
Borealis.  In  the  southern  hemisphere  it  is  called 
the  Aurora  Australis. 

The  frequency  with  which  it  is  seen  varies 
with  the  latitude  of  the  place.  It  is  compara- 
tively rare  within  45°  of  the  equator,  but  be- 
comes more  frequent  toward  the  north  up  to  the 
latitudes  of  about  60°,  where  it  sometimes  be- 
comes almost  a  nightly  occurrence.  Nearer  the 
pole  it  again  becomes  less  frequent.  We  shall 
first  describe  it  as  it  is  commonly  seen  in  our 
own  latitudes.  The  first  noticeable  phenomena 
commonly  occurs  after  the  end  of  twilight,  when 
the  northern  sky  near  the  horizon  will  be  seen 
illuminated  with  a  light  somewhat  like  that  of 
the  dawn.     Careful  examination  will  show,  how- 


ever, that  the  illumination  is  in  the  form  of  a 
broad  arch,  highest  near  the  magnetic  north, 
and  reaching  the  horizon  in  the  northeast 
and  northwest  directions.  Presently  beams  of 
light  are  seen  crossing  this  arch  with  a  quivering 
or  flickering  motion,  and  shooting  toward  the 
zenith.  Each  beam  constantly  varies  in  bright- 
ness and  seemingly  fades  away  to  give  place 
to  another. 

In  more  northern  latitudes,  say  north  of  45" 
or  50°,  these  beams  form  the  most  brilliant 
feature  of  the  aurora.  Sometimes  they  are  ar- 
ranged in  curved,  wavy  lines  like  the  slats  of  a 
window  shade  flying  in  the  wind,  giving  the 
appearance  of  a  scroll  in  the  process  of  being 
unrolled.  In  the  case  of  a  very  brilliant  aurora 
the  beams  may  cover  almost  or  quite  the  entire 
sky.  In  this  case  they  will  be  seen  to  converge 
toward  a  point  commonly  not  far  from  the 
zenith.  The  appearance  presented  by  the  beams 
grows  out  of  the  direction  in  which  they  are 
seen  and  to  the  laws  of  perspective.  Long-re- 
peated observations  show  that  the  rays  are 
really  parallel  to  the  direction  of  the  dipping 
needle,  or  to  the  lines  of  the  earth's  magnetic 
force.  In  the  latitudes  which  we  have  men- 
tioned, the  dip  is  commonly  more  than  60°,  in- 
creasing to  90°  at  the  magnetic  pole ;  hence 
when  a  great  number  of  beams,  all  parallel  to 
each  other,  are  viewed  from  a  point  on  the 
earth's  surface  under  the  region  in  which  they 
are  found,  they  all  seem  to  converge  according 
to  the  laws  of  perspective,  toward  that  part  of 
the  sky  to  which  the  upper  (south)  pole  of  a 
dipping  needle  is  directed.  If  the  parallelism 
to  the  magnetic  lines  is  exact,  the  direction 
of  this  point  should  be  the  same  as  that  of 
the  compass  needle  itself.  It  is  still  an  open 
question  where  the  parallelism  is  exact.  Many 
observations  seem  to  show  a  deviation  of  10° 
or  more,  but  the  determination  of  the  exact 
centre  of  convergence  is  difficult  unless  the  rays 
are  so  numerous  as  to  cover  a  large  part  of  the 
sky,  and  it  is  not  certain  that  the  deviation  may 
not  be  due  to  errors  of  estimation. 

The  Nature  of  the  Auroral  Light. — As  a  gen- 
eral, perhaps  universal,  rule,  the  rays  or  beams 
which  we  have  described  have  a  slightly  yellow- 
ish tinge.  When  their  light  is  analyzed  with 
the  spectroscope,  several  lines,  sometimes  as 
many  as  12,  are  found  in  the  spectrum.  Of 
these  the  brightest  and  most  constant  is  in  the 
yellowish  green  part  of  the  spectrum,  having 
a  wave  length  of  557.  This  line  is  characteristic 
of  the  aurora,  but  has  not  been  identified  with 
that  emitted  by  any  known  substance. 

The  light  of  an  aurora  does  not  proceed 
wholly  from  the  beams.  Very  irregular  sheets 
of  light,  having  the  appearance  of  thin  lumi- 
nous clouds,  are  often  seen.  These  are  of 
various  colors,  red  being  especially  frequent. 
The  appearance  is  then  that  of  a  red  cloud 
illuminated  by  the  rays  of  the  sun  sometime 
after  the  latter  has  _  set.  The  light  can,  how- 
ever be  easily  distinguished  from  that  of  a 
cloud  by  its  diffused  character  and  the  ab- 
sence of  any  definite  outline.  The  height 
of  the  region  in  which  the  auroras  are 
formed  has  never  been  definitely  determined. 
The  most  important  question  is,  whether  the 
height  is,  in  any  case,  above  the  upper  lim.it 
of  the  atmosphere.  This  question  is  all  the 
more  difficult  in  that  this  limit  is  in  itself  an 
uncertain    quantity.     Observations    of    shooting 


AURORA  LEIGH  — AUSABLE  CHASM 


stars  show  that  these  objects  become  visible  at  a 
height  of  about  lOO  miles  above  the  earth's 
surface.  The  limit  of  the  atmosphere  must 
therefore  be  as  high  as  this,  and  may  be  much 
higher.  The  difficulty  of  making  observations 
upon  the  same  auroral  beams,  at  one  moment, 
at  different  points  of  the  region  from  which 
they  are  visible,  is  such  that  no  exact  deter- 
mination of  the  height  of  a  beam  has  ever 
been  made.  There  is  some  reason  to  believe 
that  the  height  may  range  from  lOO  to  150  miles, 
but  there  is  no  reason  to  believe  that  a  beam 
is  ever  seen  above  the  possible  limit  of  the 
atmosphere. 

The  lower  limit  of  the  aurora  is  undeter- 
mined. Observers  have  sometimes  been  sup- 
posed to  see  a  beam  between  their  own  position 
and  a  mountain  or  other  terrestrial  object,  but 
this  was  probably  one  of  those  optical  illusions 
from  which  even  the  best  observers  can  scarcely 
free  themselves.  It  is  also  very  frequently  be- 
lieved in  countries  where  auroras  are  numerous 
that  the  phenomenon  is  accompanied  by  a  crack- 
ling sound,  somewhat  resembling  the  rustling 
of  silk  or  straw.  As  these  sounds  have  been 
more  difficult  to  hear,  the  more  accurate  and 
well-trained  the  ear  of  the  observer,  the  pre- 
sumption is  that  they  are  entirely  illusory.  It 
is  a  well-known  psychological  fact  that  when 
a  phenomenon  is  seen  which  is  commonly  asso- 
ciated with  sound,  many  people  fancy  that  the 
latter  is  heard  even  in  cases  where  it  is  mani- 
festly impossible.  A  familiar  instance  of  this 
sort  is  the  rocket-like  sound  which  many  per- 
sons fancy  to  accompany  the  passage  of  a  bril- 
liant meteor  through  the  air.  Apart  from  the 
fact  that  such  a  sound  could  not  possibly  have 
come  from  the  meteor,  we  have  the  fact  that 
only  untrained  observers  ever  hear  these  sounds. 

Caitse  of  the  Aurora. —  Science  has  not  been 
able  to  as  yet  determine  with  certainty  and  pre- 
cision the  cause  of  this  very  common  phenom- 
enon. When  the  luminous  effect  produced  by 
the  passage  of  electricity  through  the  highly 
rarefied  air  of  a  vacuum  tube  was  first  observed, 
its  resemblance  to  the  aurora  led  to  the  view 
that  the  latter  was  produced  by  electric  currents 
in  the  upper  regions  of  the  atmosphere.  Al- 
though it  is  not  impossible  that  such  currents 
may  be  associated  with  the  aurora,  they  do  not 
adequately  explain  its  light,  and  are  apparently 
inadequate  to  explain  its  rays.  Yet  there  is  no 
doubt  that  the  aurora  is  associated  in  some  way 
with  the  magnetism  of  the  earth.  The  coinci- 
dence of  the  rays  of  the  aurora  with  the  direc- 
tion of  the  magnetic  needle  is  one  proof  of  this 
relation ;  another  proof  is  found  in  the  rela- 
tion of  the  aurora  to  magnetic  storms.  The 
general  rule  is,  that  a  very  brilliant  aurora  is 
associated  with  such  a  storm,  disturbing  the 
magnetic  needle  not  only  at  the  point  where  the 
aurora  is  visible,  but  perhaps  over  the  whole 
earth.  Earth  currents  so  strong  that  from  time 
to  time  a  line  of  telegraph  may  be  run  by  them 
are  also  occasional  accompaniments  of  a  bril- 
liant aurora,  but  although  the  intimate  connec- 
tion of  the  two  phenomena  is  so  well  established, 
the  exact  relationship  is  yet  to  be  worked  out. 
In  recent  years  Arrhenius  has  propounded  a 
theory,  based  on  the  very  probable  fact  that  the 
sun  emits  a  flood  of  corpuscles  of  a  nature  sim- 
ilar to  that  of  the  mysterious  rays  known  as  X- 
rays,  cathode  rays,  electrons,  etc.,  the  investiga- 


tion of  which  has  occupied  so  large  a  place  in 
recent  physics.  His  theory  is,  that  these  cor- 
puscles on  approaching  the  earth  are  acted  on  in 
the  direction  of  the  lines  of  its  magnetic  force 
round  which  they  describe  helices.  While  noth- 
ing as  yet  has  been  found  to  disprove  this  the- 
ory, it  is  one  which  still  needs  much  proving. 
What  can  be  said  with  reasonable  probability  is 
that  the  aurora  is  caused  by  irregular  emana- 
tions of  corpuscles  from  the  sun,  which  are 
stopped  in  the  upper  regions  of  our  atmosphere. 
Periodicity  of  the  Aurora. —  Records  of  au- 
roras extending  back  two  centuries  or  more 
show  that  they  have  been  much  more  numerous 
at  some  period  than  at  others.  Sometimes  it 
has  been  supposed  that  they  have  been  more 
numerous  at  intervals  of  2>3  or  some  fixed 
number  of  years,  but  this  has  not  yet  been 
proved,  nor  has  any  law  been  determined  by 
which  we  can  definitely  say  at  what  times  they 
appear  in  the  greatest  number.  But  several 
periods  are  observed  which  show  that  the  ap- 
pearance of  the  aurora  is  in  some  way  con- 
nected with  the  sun.  The  first  instance  of  this 
is  the  fact  that  they  are  more  numerous  when 
the  spots  of  the  sun  are  more  numerous.  As 
there  is  an  ii-year  period  in  the  spots  on 
the  sun,  so  there  is  a  corresponding  period  in 
the  aurora.  There  is  also  a  semi-annual  period 
in  the  frequency  of  the  aurora,  the  greatest 
number  being  observed  in  March  and  Septem- 
ber and  the  smallest  in  June  and  December. 
Arrhenius  has  connected  this  with  the  fact 
that  in  March  and  September  the  earth  is 
over  the  region  of  the  sun's  surface  in  which 
spots  are  more  numerous.  Statistics  also  show 
that  there  are  more  auroras  in  the  northern 
hemisphere  when  the  moon  is  south  of  the 
equator  than  when  she  is  north.  This,  however, 
is  not  proved  to  be  a  general  law.  There  is 
also  an  observed  period  of  25.93  days  in  the 
frequency  of  the  aurora.  This  is  so  near 
the  time  of  the  sun's  rotation  that  it  may  be 
connected  with  the  latter.  Consult :  Angot, 
*The  Aurora,^  International  Scientific  Series. 
Simon  Newcomb,  LL.D. 

Auro'ra  Leigh,  le,  a  blank  verse  novel  by 
Mrs.  Browning,  published  1857.  The  book  dis- 
cusses various  theories  for  the  regeneration  o£ 
society,  and  is  filled  with  passages  of  great 
beauty,  and  ethical  utterances  of  a  lofty  nature. 

Aurungzebe,  a'riing-zeb',  the  last  impor- 
tant emperor  of  Hindustan,  of  the  Mogul  dynas- 
ty: b.  22  Oct.  1618;  d.  Ahmednuggur,  21  Feb. 
1707.  He  was  the  son  of  Shah  Jehan,  and  prop- 
erly named  Mohammed,  but  received  from  his 
grandfather  that  of  Aurungzebe  (Ornament  of 
the  Throne),  by  which  he  is  known  to  history. 
Aurungzebe,  in  1658,  was  crowned  sole  monarch 
of  the  great  Mogul  empire. 

Ausable  (6-sa'b'l)  Chasm,  a  picturesque 
and  popular  American  summer  resort,  in  New 
York  State ;  12  miles  from  Plattsburg,  and  i 
mile  from  Keeseville.  It  is  an  isolated  forma- 
tion, wholly  independent  of,  and  disconnected 
from,  any  other  similar  panorama.  At  the  be- 
ginning of  the  chasm,  the  river  is  hemmed  into 
a  channel  not  more  than  10  feet  wide  by  walls 
of  rock  from  100  to  200  feet  high.  Lower  down 
the  walls  gradually  spread  apart  till  in  some 
places  there  is  a  distance  between  them  of  50 
feet,  and  then  extend  with  sharp  turns  and  oc- 
casional    enlargements     for     nearly     2     miles. 


AUSCULTATION  —  AUSTEN 


Lateral  fissures,  narrow,  and  deep,  project  from 
the  main  ravine  at  nearly  right  angles,  and 
through  one  of  these  a  staircase  of  over  200 
feet  reaches  to  the  abyss.  The  walls  are  formed 
of  laminae  of  sandstone,  laid  in  precise  and  regu- 
lar order,  and  their  crevices  are  filled  with  a 
thick  growth  of  hardy  pines  and  cedars.  The 
trip  through  the  chasm  may  be  made  in  a  small 
boat  or  on  foot.  For  the  accommodation  of 
tourists,  stone  walks  with  substantial  iron  rail- 
ings and  firm  bridges  have  been  constructed. 

Auscultation,  a  method  of  examining  the 
body  by  means  of  the  sounds  given  to  the  ear. 
The  naked  ear  may  be  used,  or  instruments,  such 
as  the  stethoscope  (q.v.),  or  the  phoneidoscope 
be  employed.  The  natural  sounds  may  be  alone 
investigated,  as  in  listening  to  the  breathing 
sounds,  or  the  heart  sounds,  or  the  organ,  or 
that  portion  contiguous  or  remote  from  the 
organs,  may  be  tapped,  or  percussed,  to  deter- 
mine variations  in  the  resonance.  All  of  the 
parts  of  the  body  may  be  investigated  by  these 
means.  Auscultation  is  probably,  next  to  in- 
spection, the  oldest  mode  of  investigation.  Hip- 
pocrates II.  used  it  extensively,  but  it  was  not 
until  Lsennec,  in  1816,  gave  his  demonstrations 
that  the  method  came  to  be  recognized  as  one 
of  the  most  important  in  the  diagnosis  of  dis- 
eased conditions.  Consult  Butler,  'Diagnostics 
of  Internal  Medicine^  (1901)  ;  Sahli,  'Unter- 
suchungsmethoden.>     See  Percussion. 

Auso'nia,  a  poetical  synonym  for  Italy; 
so  used  by  Virgil  and  other  Roman  poets. 

Auso'nius  Decimus  Magnus,  the  most  dis- 
tinguished Roman  poet  of  the  4th  century  a.d.  : 
b.  Burdigala  (Bordeaux)  about  310;  d.  about 
392.  He  studied  under  several  distinguished 
masters,  and  became  at  last  professor  of  rhetoric 
in  his  native  city,  whence  his  fame  extended 
through  the  whole  empire.  Valentinian  intrust- 
ed to  him  the  education  of  his  son,  Gratian, 
and  appointed,  him  afterward  quaestor  and  prae- 
torian prefect.  After  Gratian  had  ascended  the 
throne  he  showed  himself  not  less  grateful  to 
his  preceptor.  About  the  year  379  he  appointed 
him  consul  in  Gaul.  After  the  death  of 
Gratian,  Ausonius  lived  upon  an  estate  at  Bor- 
deaux, devoted  to  literary  pursuits.  As  Valen- 
tinian was  of  the  Christian  religion,  it  is  prob- 
able that  Ausonius  was  so,  too ;  and  many  of  his 
writings  confirm  this  conjecture.  Critics  are 
not  unanimous  on  the  subject  of  his  poetical 
merits.  He  is  undeniably  learned  and  ingenious, 
but  his  style  and  versification  have  the  blem- 
ishes of  the  age,  and  his  Latin  is  impure.  His 
epigrams,  idyls,  eclogues,  letters  in  verse,  etc., 
are  extant.  The  best  edition  is  that  of  -Peiper^ 
(1886). 

Aus'pices,  among  the  Romans,  omens,  es- 
pecially those  drawn  from  the  flight  or  other 
movements  of  birds,  supposed  to  be  indications 
of  the  will  of  heaven,  and  to  reveal  futurity. 
At  first  only  the  augurs  took  the  auspices,  but 
after  a  time  civil  officers,  discharging  impor- 
tant functions  had  the  right  of  doing  so.  Two 
kinds  of  auspices,  however,  arose  —  a  greater 
and  a  lesser ;  the  former  reserved  to  dictators, 
consuls,  censors,  praetors,  or  the  commander-in- 
chief  in  war ;  the  latter  permitted  to  less  exalted 
functionaries.  The  glory  of  a  successful  enter- 
prise was  universally  assigned  to  the  person 
who  took  the  auspices,  and  not  to  the  leader  of 


the  enterprise  itself;  hence,  the  phrase  arose, 
to  carry  on  a  war  "under  the  auspices''  of  the 
emperor  or  some  other  high  authority.  See 
Augurs. 

Aussig,  ow'sig,  a  town  in  Bohemia,  near 
the  junction  of  the  Bila  with  the  Elbe;  42  miles 
north-northwest  of  Prague.  It  has  large  manu- 
factures of  woolens,  chemicals,  etc.  Pop.  (1901) 
38,407. 

Austen,  Jane,  English  novelist:  b.  Steven- 
ton,  Hampshire,  16  Dec.  1775;  d.  Winchester  18 
July  1817.  Miss  Austen  was  the  daughter  of  the 
Rev.  George  Austen,  rector  of  Steventon  and 
Deane,  and  Cassandra  Leigh  Austen,  daughter 
of  the  Rev.  Thomas  Leigh  and  niece  of  Theo- 
philus  Leigh,  for  many  years  master  of  Balliol 
College,  Oxford.  Jane  was  the  youngest  of 
seven  children,  of  whom  others  besides  herself, 
particularly  Admiral  Francis  William  Austen, 
became  distinguished.  Until  1801  she  lived  at 
Steventon.  Her  life  here  was  quiet,  domestic, 
and  moderately  studious.  Much  of  her  spare 
time  she  spent  in  writing,  chiefly  for  her  own 
amusement.  In  1801  the  family  removed  to 
Bath,  whence  Miss  Austen  made  visits  to  Lyme, 
Southampton,  and  other  places  in  the  south  of 
England.  Her  father  died  in  1805,  and  in  1809 
she  settled  at  Chawton,  in  Hampshire,  where 
she  remained  until  within  two  months  of  her 
death.  In  May  1817,  after  some  months  of  ail- 
ing health,  she  went  to  Winchester  for  treat- 
ment, and  there  died  in  the  following  July. 

]\Iiss  Austen  began  writing  stories  at  an  early 
age,  and  before  16  is  said  to  have  composed 
good-humored  nonsense.  The  first  of  her  ex- 
tant novels,  'Pride  and  Prejudice, >  was  written 
between  October  1796  and  August  1797.  Be- 
fore that  she  had  written  'Eleanor  and 
Marianne,'  which,  in  1797-98,  she  altered  into 
the  present  'Sense  and  Sensibility.'  Her  third 
novel,  'Northanger  Abbey,'  belongs  to  1798. 
The  first  of  these  novels  to  be  published  was 
'Sense  and  Sensibility,'  in  181 1.  Two  years 
later  'Pride  and  Prejudice,'  which  had  been  re- 
fused by  a  publisher  in  her  father's  lifetime, 
made  its  appearance.  'Northanger  Abbey'  had 
an  even  longer  period  of  darkness ;  in  1803  it 
had  been  sold  to  a  publisher  for  £10,  but  the 
publisher,  after  keeping  it  ten  years  or  more, 
sold  it  back  to  the  family,  by  whom  it  was  issued 
in  1818,  the  year  after  the  author's  death.  In 
1804,  Miss  Austen  began  'The  Watsons,'  but 
never  finished  it,  and  until  1811  apparently  did 
comparatively  little  writing.  Between  that  year 
and  1816,  however,  she  wrote  'Mansfield  Park,' 
'Emma,'  and  'Persuasion,'  published  respec- 
tively in  1814,  1816,  and  1818.  There  is  also  an 
unfinished  story,  'Lady  Susan.' 

The  novels  were  not  especially  popular  in  the 
author's  lifetime,  though  Scott  and  Macaulay  (a 
little  later)  paid  sincere  and  high  tribute  to 
their  excellence.  To-day  they  are  regarded  as 
among  the  best  novels  in  the  language  and  are 
probably  as  widely  read  as  those  of  any  first- 
rate  woman  novelist  in  English.  The  reason  for 
their  high  place  appears  to  He  in  Miss  Austen's 
skill  as  a  story-teller  and  a  drawer  of  character. 
The  people  she  deals  with  are  chiefly  from  the 
higher  middle  classes  in  the  English  country, 
and  she  rarely  goes  above  or  below  them.  In  a 
time,  that  of' the  Napoleonic  wars,  when  there 
was  every  temptation  to  write  battle  stories  and 
heroics,   iMiss  Austen  kept  her  eye  on.  the  life 


AUSTEN  — AUSTIN 


that  she  knew,  and  had  nothing  to  do  with  spec- 
tacular means  of  arousing  interest.  The  aspect 
of  the  few  warriors  and  seamen  who  come  into 
her  pages  is  domestic  rather  than  martial.  Nor 
is  there  any  very  serious  adventure  of  any  sort; 
the  worst  that  happens  is  an  elopement,  or  when 
a  heroine  slips  down  stairs  and  is  stunned.  Her 
people  are  quite  unintellectual  and  in  no  wise 
grand  or  heroic.  On  the  whole,  her  material  is 
less  startling  than  that  of  any  English  novelist, 
but  the  picture  which  she  gives  is  unsurpassed 
in  the  perfection  of  truth,  humor,  and  vivacity. 
As  a  story-teller,  she  has,  in  point  of  technical 
construction,  no  superior.  Her  plots  are  not 
elaborate  and  there  is  no  conspicuous  wealth  of 
invention ;  in  all  her  six  novels  the  plot  turns 
on  an  elopement  or  a  hidden  engagement ;  but, 
granting  this,  the  construction  of  "^  Pride  and 
Prejudice,^  "^Emma,^  and  ^Mansfield  Park'  is 
not  to  be  bettered.  They  are  models  of  their 
class  of  story  telling.  As  an  artist  in  character 
drawing,  ]\Iiss  Austen  has  contributed  to  the 
gallery  of  familiar  persons  such  figures  as  Miss 
Bates,'  Mr.  Woodhouse,  Mrs.  Bennet,  "Sirs.  Nor- 
ris,  and  a  number  of  others,  all  of  whom  are 
brilliant,  though  occasionally  exaggerated, 
creations.  All  her  important  characters  are 
strongly  individual,  and  are  so  firmly  drawn 
that  there  is  no  tendency  to  confuse  them  as 
types  or  as  persons. 

< Pride  and  Prejudice'  is  usually  regarded  as 
the  best  of  the  novels  in  point  of  liveliness  of 
style,  neatness  of  structure,  and  vigor  of  sub- 
stance. This  position  would  be  disputed  by  ad- 
mirers of  the  more  intricate  ^Emma'  and  the 
more  intricate  and  gloomy  ^Mansfield  Park,' 
both  of  which  probably  surpass  ^  Pride  and 
Prejudice'  in  maturity  and  variety  of  character- 
ization. <Xorthanger  Abbey'  is  less  ambitious 
than  either  of  the  preceding;  it  is  a  very  vi- 
vacious burlesque,  with  a  charming  moral.  The 
other  two  novels,  ^ Sense  and  Sensibility'  and 
'Persuasion,'  are  usually  thought  to  be  inferior. 

Bibliography. —  Excellent  editions  of  the 
novels  of  Jane  Austen  are  easily  to  be  had.  The 
principal  life  is  the  Rev.  J.  E.  Austen  Leigh's 
'Memoir  of  Jane  Austen.'  There  is  also  a  life 
by  Goldwin  Smith  in  the  'Great  Writers' 
series  (1890).  The  place  of  Jane  Austen  in 
literature  is  treated  in  such  literary  his- 
tories as  Mrs.  Oliphant's  ^Literary  History  of 
the  19th  Century,'  and  W.  L.  Cross's  'The  De- 
velopment of  the  English  Novel.'  W.  D. 
Howells,  in  'The  Heroines  of  English  Novels' 
(1901)  and  'Criticism  and  Fiction'  (1891) 
pays  very  high  tribute  to  Miss  Austen  as  an 
artist  and  as  a  creator  of  character. 

W.  T.  Brewster, 
Professor  of  English  in  Columbia  University. 

Aus'ten,  Peter  Townsend,  American  chem- 
ist: b.  Clifton,  S.  I.,  N.  Y.,  10  Sept.  1852,  and 
educated  at  Columbia  University,  School  of 
Mines,  and  in  Germany  and  Switzerland.  In 
1876,  he  was  appointed  instructor  of  chemistry 
at  Dartmouth  ;  in  1877,  professor  of  chemistry  at 
Rutger's.  From  1887  to  1893  he  was  engaged  in 
industrial  work,  and  1893-8  was  professor  of 
chemistry  at  Brooklyn  Polytechnic  Institute.  He 
has  invented  several  useful  manufacturing  proc- 
esses ;  has  written  a  number  of  valuable  papers, 
and  translated  Pinner's  'Repetitorium  der  Or- 
ganischen  Chemic'  under  the  title  'An  Intro- 
duction to  the  Study  of  Organic  Chemistry.' 


Austerlitz,  ows'ter-lets,  Moravia,  a  town  on 
the  Littawa,  13  miles  southeast  of  Briinn.  In 
the  vicinity,  on  2  Dec.  1805,  was  fought  the 
famous  battle  between  the  French  army  of 
80.000  men,  commanded  by  Napoleon,  and  the 
combined  Russian  and  Austrian  armies,  num- 
bering 84,000,  under  their  respective  emperors ; 
in  which  the  former  achieved  a  signal  victory. 
According  to  Alison,  the  allies  lost  30,000  in 
killed,  wounded,  and  prisoners,  and  the  French, 
12,000.  The  battle  was  followed  by  an  armis- 
tice, the  terms  of  which  were  dictated  by 
Napoleon ;  and  immediately  after,  on  26  Decem- 
ber, by  the  Treaty  of  Presburg,  which  dis- 
astrously affected  Austria.  The  battle  of 
Austerlitz  is  sometimes  called  "The  Battle  of 
the  Three  Emperors." 

Aus'terlitz,  The  Sun  of,  a  term  given  to 
any  favorable  omen,  in  allusion  to  the  brilliant 
appearance  of  the  sun  just  before  the  battle  of 
Austerlitz,  and  which  Napoleon  accepted  as  a 
token  of  coming  victory. 

Aus'tin,  Saint.     See  Augustine,  Saint. 

Aus'tin,  Alfred,  English  poet,  critic,  and 
journalist:  b.  Headingly,  near  Leeds,  30  May 
1835.  He  graduated  from  the  University  of 
London  in  1853,  was  called  to  the  bar  in  1857, 
and  was  editor  of  the  'National  Review,' 
(1883-93).  In  1896  he  was  appointed  poet 
laureate  of  England.  He  is  the  author  of  po- 
litical books,  novels,  and  many  volumes  of 
verse.  The  latter  include  'The  Season:  a 
Satire'  (1862)  ;  'The  Human  Tragedy'  (1862); 
'The  Golden  Age:  a  Satire'  (1871)  ;  'The 
Tower  of  Babel,'  a  drama  (1874)  ;  'Savona- 
rola,' a  tragedy  (1881)  ;  'Veronica's  Garden,' 
in  prose  and  verse  (1895).  'The  Garden  That 
I  Love,'  'In  Lamia's  Winter  Quarters,' 
'Haunts  of  Ancient  Peace'  (1902),  and  'A  Les- 
son in  Harmony'  (1904),  are  delightful  vol- 
umes of  mingled  prose  and  verse.  Opinion  is 
much  divided  as  to  his  merits  as  a  poet,  par- 
ticularly in  such  works  as  'Fortunatus,  the 
Pessimist'  (1891).  In  December  1899,  he  pub- 
lished a  war  poem,  'To  Arms!'  and,  in  May 
1900,  one  on  the  relief  of  Mafeking. 

Aus'tin,  George  Lowell,  American  physi- 
cian and  writer :  b.  Massachusetts,  1849 ;  _d. 
1893.  Among  his  numerous  works  are  'Perils 
of  American  Women'  ;  'Water- Analysis' 
(1882);  'Under  the  Tide';  'Life  of  Franz 
Schulbert'  ;  'Popular  History  of  Massachu- 
setts';  'Life  of  Wendell  Phillips'    (1888). 

Aus'tin,  Henry,  American  lawyer  and  le- 
gal writer:  b.  Boston,  Mass.,  21  Dec.  1858.  He 
has  been  a  commissioner  of  insolvency  for  six 
years  and  is  an  associate  justice  of  the  munic- 
ipal court  of  Boston  (West  Roxbury  district). 
He  is  the  author  of  'American  Farm  and  Game 
Laws' ;  'American  Fish  and  Game  Laws'  ; 
'Liquor  Law  in  New  England.' 

Aus'tin,  Jane  (Goodwin),  American  nov- 
elist: b.  Worcester,  Mass.,  25  Feb.  1831 ;  d. 
Boston,  30  March  1894.  Her  works  include 
'Fairy  Dreams'  (i860);  '^loonfolk'  (1874); 
'Mrs.  Beauchamp  Brown'  (1880);  'A  Name- 
less Nobleman'  (1881)  ;  'The  Desmond  Hun- 
dred' (1882);  'Nantucket  Scraps'  (1882); 
'Standish  of  Standish'  (1889);  'Betty  Alden' 
(1891)  ;  and  'David  Alden's  Daughter  and 
Other   Stories   (1892). 


From  the  Hollyer  photograph  after  Linnel 

JANE  AUSTEN 


AUSTIN 


Aus'tin,  John,  English  writer  on  juris- 
prudence :  b.  Creeling  Mill,  Suffolk,  3  March 
1790;  d.  Weybridge,  i  Dec.  1859.  From  1826 
to  1835  he  filled  the  chair  of  jurisprudence  at 
London  University.  He  served  on  several  royal 
commissions,  one  of  which  took  him  to  Malta ; 
lived  for  some  years  on  the  Continent,  and  final- 
ly settled  at  Weybridge  in  Surrey.  His  fame 
rests  on  his  great  works,  "The  Province  of  Ju- 
risprudence Determined,*  published  in  1832; 
and  his  *  Lectures  on  Jurisprudence,'  published 
by  his  widow  between  1861  and  1863.  His 
wife,  Sarah,  one  of  the  Taylors  of  Norwich : 
b.  1793;  d.  Weybridge,  8  Aug.  1867;  produced 
translations  of  German  works,  and  other  books 
bearing  on  Germany  or  its  literature;  also  ^Con- 
siderations on   National  Education,'    etc. 

Aus'tin,  Jonathan  Loring,  secretary  and 
treasurer  of  Massachusetts :  b.  Boston,  2  Jan. 
1748;  d.  10  May  1826.  He  remained  two  years 
in  Paris  as  Dr.  Franklin's  secretary.  He  also 
spent  two  years  in  England  as  agent  of  Dr. 
Franklin.  On  his  return  in  May  1779,  he  was 
liberally  rewarded  by  Congress.  In  1780,  in  his 
passage  to  Spain  as  agent  of  the  State,  he  was 
taken  and  carried  to  England.  He  afterward 
held  the  offices  of  state  secretary  and  treasurer 
in  Massachusetts,  and  died  universally  respect- 
ed. His  son,  James  Trecothic :  b.  Boston,  7 
Jan.  1784,  studied  law,  rose  in  the  profession, 
and  was  attorney-general  of  the  State  from 
1832  to  1843. 

Aus'tin,  Moses,  an  American  who  obtained 
the  first  grant  from  the  Mexican  government 
for  the  formation  of  an  American  colony  in 
Texas:  b.  Durham,  Ct. ;  d.  January  1821.  He 
forwarded  to  the  commandant-general  at  Mon- 
terey, an  application  for  permission  to  colonize 
300  families  in^some  part  of  Texas.  The  ap- 
plication was  successful,  and  the  enterprise  pros- 
ecuted by  his  son,  Stephen  F.  Austin  (q.v.). 

Aus'tin,  Oscar  Phelps,  American  statis- 
tician, chief  of  the  bureau  of  statistics,  treasury 
department :  b.  Illinois.  At  the  age  of  12  he 
removed  v/ith  his  parents  to  Nebraska,  where 
he  remained  until  manhood.  He  then  engaged 
in  journalism  until  his  appointment  as  chief  of 
the  bureau  of  statistics,  9  May  1898.  He  has 
since  lived  in  Washington,  serving  as  Washing- 
ton correspondent  for  newspapers  in  New  York, 
Chicago,  and  other  cities.  He  is  the  author 
of  *^Uncle  Sam's  Secrets'  ;  ^Uncle  Sam's  Sol- 
diers' ;  and  other  publications  for  the  in- 
struction of  youth  in  national  and  international 
affairs;  also  of  official  monographs  ^Com- 
mercial China  in  1900'  ;  ^Commercial  Japan'  ; 
*  Commercial  Africa'  ;  *  Russia  and  the  Trans- 
Siberian  Railway'  ;  ^American  Commerce'  ; 
'Commercial  Alaska'  ;  'Submarine  and  Land 
Telegraphs  of  the  World'  ;  'Colonies  of  the 
World  and  Their  Government'  ;  'Colonial  Ad- 
ministration' ;  etc.  He  is  associate  editor  of 
the   'National  Geographic  Magazine.' 

Aus'tin,  Stephen  Fuller,  American  pioneer: 
b.  1792;  d.  27  Dec.  1836.  He  was  a  son 
of  Moses  Austin  (q.v.),  followed  up  the 
grant  previously  issued  to  his  father.  By  it 
he  was  clothed  with  almost  absolute  power 
over  the  colonists,  and  only  obliged  to  report 
to  the  captain-general.  He  founded  what  is 
now  the  city  of  Austin,  the  capital  of  Texas. 
The  colony  prospered,  and,  being  accompanied 


by  a  considerable  number  of  similar  associa- 
tions, promoted  an  influx  of  Americans  to  such 
an  extent  that  they  met  i  March  1833,  without 
the  concurrence  of  the  Mexican  population,  in 
a  convention  to  form  a  constitution  for  the  as 
yet  Mexican  state  of  Texas.  Austin  was  one 
of  the  delegates  chosen  to  carry  the  result  of 
their  deliberations  to  the  central  government  at 
Mexico,  and  obtain  its  ratification.  The  delays 
and  frequent  revolutions  at  Mexico  leading  him 
to  despair  of  ever  bringing  his  commission  to  a 
close,  he  addressed  a  letter,  2  Oct.  1833,  to  the 
municipality  of  Bexar,  and  through  them  to  the 
people  of  Texas,  recommending  a  union  of  all 
the  municipalities  to  provide  against  the  conse- 
quences of  a  probable  refusal  of  their  applica- 
tions by  organizing  a  state  under  the  Ada  con- 
stitutiva  of  7  May  1824.  This  letter  was 
considered  treasonable,  and  Austin  was  arrested 
and  held  as  a  hostage  for  the  good  behavior  of 
Texas.  There  he  was  detained  until  September 
1835.  He  was  appointed  a  commissioner  to 
the  United  States  in  November  1835.  This  was 
before  the  Texan  declaration  of  independence ; 
and  it  was  not  till  after  his  arrival  at  New  Or- 
leans, and  the  information  of  the  union  of  Santa 
Anna  with  the  federal  party  for  the  invasion 
of  Texas,  that  he  was  brought  to  the  point  of 
recommending  such  a  measure.  He  acted  with 
prudence  and  patience,  and  was  successful  in 
preparing  for  the  independence  and  annexation 
of  the  new  republic.  He  is  looked  upon  as  one 
of  the  most  eminent  and  honorable  of  the  found- 
ers of  Texan  prosperity. 

Aus'tin,  William,  American  author:  b. 
1778;  d.  1841 ;  remembered  for  his  striking  and 
original  tale.  'Peter  Rugg,  the  Missing  Man,' 
in  effect  a  New  England  variant  of  the  Wan- 
dering Jew  legend. 

Aus'tin,  Minn.,  a  city  and  county-seat  of 
Mower  County,  situated  on  Red  Cedar  River, 
and  on  the  Chicago  G.  W.,  and  the  Chicago,  M. 
&  St.  P.  R.R.'s.  It  is  the  centre  of  a  fertile 
agricultural  region,  and  has  a  large  export 
trade,  as  well  as  a  variety  of  manufacturing  es- 
tablishments, including  a  meat-packing  factory, 
flour  mills,  cement  works,  railroad  shops,  brick 
works,  creamery,  etc.  It  is  the  seat  of  the 
Southern  Minnesota  Normal  College,  and  has 
several  fine  public  buildings,  among  them  a  Car- 
negie library.  Austin  was  first  settled  in  1852. 
Pop.   (1900)   5,474. 

Aus'tin,  Tex.,  the  capital  and  county-seat 
of  Travis  County,  on  the  Colorado  River.  It  is 
81  miles  north-northeast  of  San  Antonio  by 
the  International  &  G.  N.  R.R.,  186  miles  west 
by  north  of  Houston,  and  230  miles  northwest 
of  Galveston,  by  the  same,  and  the  Houston  & 
T.  C.  R.R. :  and  on  the  Austin  &  N.  W.  R.R.  It 
is  beautifully  situated  about  40  feet  above  the 
river,  which  here  flows  through  attractive  scen- 
ery, is  navigable  for  river  steamers  in  the  win- 
ter, and  is  spanned  by  two  bridges.  An  immense 
dam,  1,275  feet  long  by  67  feet  above  bed  rock, 
the  twelfth  longest  in  the  world,  was  completed 
in  1892,  for  water  supply  and  power ;  but  was 
carried  away  by  a  flood  7  April  T900.  During 
its  existence  it  created  a  large  and  handsome 
sheet  of  water  called  Lake  AIcDonald,  a  fa- 
vorite resort  for  fishing,  hunting,  and  health- 
seeking  parties,  and  famous  for  having  two  in- 
ternational regattas  on  it,  Stansbnry  of  Australia 
winning  the  championship  of  the  world.     There 


AUSTRALASIA 


are  manufactories  of  lumber  and  iron  goods, 
flour  and  leather;  and  oil  refineries.  There  is 
a  very  large  export  trade  in  agricultural  pro- 
duce and  live  stock,  hides  and  wool,  cotton  and 
grain ;  it  is  also  the  wholesale  supply  centre 
for  a  great  district  in  provisions,  dry  goods, 
drugs,  agricultural  implements,  ranching  sup- 
plies, etc.  The  city  is  well  built  with  wide 
and  well-shaded  streets.  The  most  prominent 
building  is  the  capitol,  one  of  the  largest  of  such 
structures  in  the  United  States,  built  of  granite 
at  a  cost  of  $3,500,000.  There  are  also  the  main 
building  of  the  State  University,  which  accom- 
modates the  law  and  literary  departments ;  State 
asylums  for  the  insane,  blind,  and  deaf-mutes, 
and  for  colored  patients  of  these  classes ;  the 
State  Confederate  Home ;  St.  Edward's  Col- 
lege; the  Tillotson  Institute  for  Colored  Pupils; 
seminaries  and  academies,  besides  the  public 
school  system.  The  State  land  office  and  the 
county  court-house  are  prominent  buildings. 
The  government  is  administered  under  the  re- 
vised charter  of  1901,  is  by  mayor,  biennially 
elected;  a  city  council,  chosen  half  by  wards 
and  half  .at  large ;  and  officials  elected  partly  by 
the  council  and  partly  by  popular  vote.  The 
city  owns  its  own  waterworks  and  electric  plant. 
The  settlement  was  first  called  Waterloo,  but  in 
1837,  after  the  Texan  revolution,  incorporated 
and  re-named  after  Stephen  F.  Austin  (q.v.), 
the  county  being  likewise  named  from  William 


B.  Travis  (q.v.),  killed  at  the  Alamo.  It  was 
made  the  capital  in  1839,  and  remained  such 
after  the  admission  of  Texas  as  a  State.  The 
first  free  school  in  the  State  was  established 
here  in  1871.     Pop.   (1900)  22,258. 

Australasia,  as'tral-a'shia,  a  geographical 
term  of  loose  application,  but  usually  regarded  as 
comprehending  the  continental  island  of  Aus- 
tralia and  an  unascertained  number  of  other 
islands,  some  of  them  very  little  known,  lying 
between  Ion.  110°  and  180°  E.,  and  stretching 
from  Papua  or  New  Guinea,  the  farthest  north- 
ern island  of  the  division,  to  lat.  50°  S.  Be- 
sides the  great  island  of  Australia,  it  thus  in- 
cludes Tasmania,  New  Zealand,  the  Loyalty 
Islands  (New  Caledonia,  etc.),  Norfolk  Island, 
New  Hebrides,  Solomon  Islands,  New  Ireland 
(Neu-Mecklenburg),  New  Britain  (Neu-Pom- 
mern).  Admiralty  Islands,  and  New  Guinea,  be- 
sides numerous  other  islands  and  island  groups. 
The  island  of  Timor  and  those  lying  west  of 
it,  though  coming  within  the  general  boundary 
above  indicated,  belong  to  the  Eastern  or  In- 
dian Archipelago,  called  also  Malasia.  Austral- 
asia is  estimated  to  have  an  area  of  3,740,000 
English  square  miles,  and  a  population  of 
6,400,000.  It  forms  one  of  three  portions  into 
which  some  geographers  have  divided  Oceania, 
the  other  two  being  Malasia  and  Polynesia. 
Consult  A.  R.  Wallace,  (Australasia.) 


HISTORY 


AUSTRALIA: 
AND    MODERN    DEVELOPMENT. 


I.  Australia  —  Areas  and  Divisions.  Aus- 
tralia, the  largest  island  in  the  world,  is  of  con- 
tinental dimensions,  with  an  area  of  approxi- 
mately 2,946,691  square  miles.  The  smaller 
island,  Tasmania,  which  is  now  included  in  the 
general  term  ^'Australia,"  as  well  as  in  the  fed- 
eral Commonwealth,  and  has  an  expanse  of 
26,215  square  miles,  is  150  miles  south  of  Aus- 
tralia. The  total  area  of  the  federated  states  is 
thus  2,962,906  square  miles.  This  does  not  in- 
clude British  New  Guinea,  a  territory  of  about 
90,540  square  miles,  which  is  practically  under 
the  direction  of  the  Commonwealth.  The  area 
of  the  respective  states  is  —  Western  Australia, 
975,876  square  miles;  South  Australia  (includ- 
ing the  Northern  Territory,  which  is  for  all 
practical  purposes  part  of  the  state),  903,690 
square  miles  ;  Queensland,  668,497  square  miles ; 
New  South  Wales,  309,175  square  miles;  Vic- 
toria, 87,884  square  miles ;  Tasmania,  26,215 
square  miles.  With  the  exception  of  a  small 
space  in  the  northwest  part  of  the  Continent  the 
whole  of  the  land  has  been  more  or  less  ex- 
plored and  mapped  and  a  fairly  accurate  idea 
may  be  formed  of  its  physical  features,  though 
new  facts  are  naturally  frequently  disclosed  with 
the  gradual  advance  of  settlement  over  a 
sparsely  populated  country.  (Pop.  31  Dec.  1905 
—  males,  2,135,728;  females,  1,921,033;  total. 
4,056,761,  exclusive  of  aborigines).  The  coast- 
line of  Australia  is  somewhat  less  than  8,000 
miles.  Its  widest  part  from  east  to  west  is 
2,400  miles,  and  its  deepest  from  north  to  south 
nearly  2,000  miles.  The  configuration  of  the 
island  in  places  is  so  irregular  that  the  political 
terminology  of  some  of  the  states  is  misleading. 
Victoria,  for  example,  is  more  southerly  than 
South  Australia. 

Geology. —  The  east  coast  of  Australia  is 
mostly  rugged  and  rocky,  and  fringed  with 
many  islets.  Part  of  the  south  coast  is  low  and 
sandy,  but  on  other  portions  are  bold  cliffs  ris- 
ing several  hundred  feet  sheer  from  the  sea. 
The  north  and  west  coasts  are  generally  de- 
pressed and  scenically  uninteresting,  with 
monotonous  sandhills.  The  interior,  so  far  as 
explored,  is  largely  composed  of  rocky  tracts 
and  sandy  plains  with  little  or  no  surface  water, 
though  thousands  of  artesian  bores  have  re- 
vealed the  presence  of  underground  currents, 
which  fertilize  the  soil,  and  transform  deserts 
into  highly  productive  areas.  The  whole  con- 
tinent is  an  irregular  plain  with  high  ridges  in 
the  east,  and  a  marked  depression  in  the  centre, 
in  some  parts  beneath  sea-level.  The  base  of 
the  table-land  is  granite,  which  appears  on  the 
surface  on  the  southern  and  western  sides.  Si- 
lurian rocks  are  prominent  in  South  Australia, 
where  unmistakable  marks  of  glacial  action 
have  recently  been  discovered.  In  the  south- 
east and  east  the  rocks  are  volcanic,  Silurian, 
carbonaceous,  and  carboniferous ;  the  coal  de- 
posits on  the  eastern  and  parts  of  the  western 
coasts  are  extensive,  and  brown  coal  has  been 
found  in  South  Australia,  but  at  too  great  depths 


to  be  profitably  worked,  at  a  long  distance  from 
the  seaboard. 

Minerals,  etc.—  West  of  the  Dividing  Range 
are  extensive  plains  largely  used  for  pastoral 
and  for  agricultural  purposes.  The  compara- 
tively dry  and  scrub,  or  saltbush-covered  lands 
in  the  mterior  are  in  many  cases  richly  mineral- 
ized, and  succeeding  years  show  that  they  de- 
serve less  and  less  their  old  designation  of  "des- 
ert." On  one  of  such  "deserts"  is  situated  the 
famous  Broken  Hill  Silver  mine  in  New  South 
Wales,  and  on  others  the  celebrated  Coolgardie 
and  Kalgoorlie  gold  mines  in  Western  Australia 
In  various  parts  of  Australia  and  Tasmania  are 
found,  often  in  payable  quantities  (besides  the 
royal  metals  and  coal),  tin,  as  well  as  nearly  all 
the  minor  minerals  and  precious  stones;  while 
on  the  northeastern,  northwestern,  and  north- 
ern coasts  are  probably  the  most  extensive  and 
productive  pearl-shelling  waters  known.  It  has 
been  shown,  too,  that  the  monotonous  and  ex- 
tensive mallee  country  everywhere  yields  profit- 
able returns  when  farmed  under  mixed  cultiva- 
tion and  grazing  systems;  while  some  varieties 
of  the  mallee  itself  contain  water-yielding  roots 
long  used  by  the  aborigines  and  capable  of  sus- 
taining the  life  of  lost  travelers. 

Mountains. —  There  is  no  active  volcano  in 
the  Commonwealth  but  some  craters  show  signs 
of  only  recent  extinction  and  of  intermittent 
previous  eruptions.  A  mountain  range  varying 
from  100  to  200  miles  in  width  outlines  the 
eastern  and  southern  border  of  the  continent ; 
and,  broadly  speaking,  all  the  rivers  of  Southern 
Australia  take  their  rise  in  this  Great  Dividing 
Range.  The  Australian  Alps,  in  the  southeast 
part  of  the  Dividing  Range,  contain  the  highest 
mountain  summits  in  Australia  —  Kosciusko 
(N.S.W.),  7,308  feet;  Mount  Bogong  (Vic), 
6,508.  These  are  the  most  elevated  points  on 
the  Continent.  In  Queensland  peaks  in  the  Be- 
lenden  Ker  range  rise  to  5,400  feet,  and  in  other 
parts  of  the  state  are  several  eminences  of  about 
4,000  feet.  In  South  Australia  the  loftiest  range 
is  the  Flinders  —  Mounts  Remarkable  and 
Brown,  3,100  feet  each;  and  the  principal  eleva- 
tion in  the  Gawler  range  in  the  northwestern  in- 
terior is  about  2,000  feet.  In  western  Australia 
Mount  William  (3,000  feet)  in  the  Darling 
Range,  and  Ellen's  Peak  (3,420  feet),  are  the 
loftiest.  Tasmania  is  very  mountainous  — 
highest  peaks.  Cradle  Mountain  5,069  feet,  and 
Ben  Lomond  5,010  feet. 

Rivers  and  Lakes. —  The  Australian  "Father 
of  Waters"  is  the  river  Murray,  which  with  its 
chief  tributary,  the  Darling,  flows  2,400  miles 
before  reaching  the  Southern  Ocean  on  the 
South  Australian  coast,  and  with  its  Queensland 
extensions  has  in  favorable  seasons  a  length  of 
about  3,000  miles  navigable  by  small  steamers. 
It  is  probable  that  under  agreement  between  the 
riparian  states  (South  Australia,  Victoria,  and 
New  South  Wales),  the  river  will  be  locked  to 
improve  navigation,  and  also  to  provide  water 
for   irrigation      In   the    Northern    Territory   of 


AUSTRALIA  —  GEOGRAPHY 


South  Australia,  as  well  as  elsewhere,  some  of 
the  rivers  are  of  Jarge  volume,  and  are  navigable 
for  comparatively  short  distances.  On  the  east 
coast  are  the  Hunter,  Clarence,  Brisbane,  Fitz- 
roy,  and  Burdekin ;  on  the  west  the  Swan, 
Murchison,  Gascoyne,  Ashburton,  and  De  Grey; 
on  the  north  the  Fitzroy,  Victoria,  Flinders,  and 
Mitchell.  A  considerable  river  of  the  interior  is 
Cooper's  Creek,  or  the  Barcoo,  which  falls  into 
Lake  Eyre,  one  of  a  group  of  lakes  on  the  south 
side  of  the  continent  having  no  outlet,  and,  ac- 
cordingly, salt.  The  principal  of  these  are  lakes 
Eyre,  Torrens,  and  Gairdner,  all  of  which  vary 
in  size  and  saltiness  according  to  the  season. 
Another  large  salt  lake  of  little  depth,  Lake 
Amadeus,  lies  a  little  west  of  the  centre  of  Aus- 
tralia. Various  others  of  less  magnitude  are 
scattered  over  the  interior. 

Rainfall. —  Speaking  generally,  wherever  the 
land  is  elevated  the  rainfall  is  good.  It  varies 
from  about  70  inches  annually  in  the  tropical 
zone  to  three  or  four  inches  or  even  less,  in  the 
arid  interior  regions,  and  in  the  southern  part 
to  about  40  inches.  The  fall  diminishes  in  close 
relation  to  the  decline  in  the  elevation  of  the 
land,  allowing  for  coastal  influence  in  the  south, 
and  tropical  or  sub-tropical  conditions  in  the 
north. 

Climate. —  The  climate  of  Australia  is  gener- 
ally temperate,  and  in  summer  hot  and  dry, 
especially  in  the  southern  and  central  parts,  but 
very  healthy.  In  the  tropical  portions  heavy 
rains  fall  and  in  most  of  the  coast  districts  there 
is  a  sufficiency  of  moisture,  but  in  portions  of  the 
interior  the  heat  and  drought  are  sometimes  ex- 
treme. The  air  is,  however,  so  exhilarating  that 
even  120°  Fahr.  of  shade  heat  in  Australia  is  less 
oppressive  than  90°  in  London,  Paris,  or 
New  York,  and  cases  of  sunstroke  are  rare. 
This  dry-hot  atmosphere  is  especially  recom- 
mended by  medical  men  as  an  essential  for 
sanitoria  for  sufferers  from  lung  disease,  and 
among  the  artesian  waters  in  some  of  the  arid 
country  are  highly  mineralized  springs  with 
valuable  medicinal  properties.  The  dangers  of 
drought,  too,  are  being  largely  reduced  by  the 
rapid  extension  of  the  artesian  boring  area.  At 
Melbourne  (Vic.)  the  mean  temperature  is  about 
57°;  Sydney  (N.S.VV.).  about  63;  Adelaide 
(S.A.),  61;  Perth  (W.A.),  64;  Brisbane  (Q.), 
68;  and  Port  Darwin  (N.T.),  82  (tropical); 
Hobart  (Tas.),  55.  In  the  mountainous  and 
more  temperate  parts  of  Australia  snow  falls  in 
winter  (June,  July,  and  August),  and  long  re- 
mains unmelted  on  portions  of  the  Great  Divid- 
ing Range,  as  well  as  in  Tasmania.  Practi- 
cally, however,  at  no  time  of  the  year  is  it  possi- 
ble to  skate  on  ice  in  any  division  of  the  Com- 
monwealth. Australia  is  essentially  a  warm 
country  throughout,  but  the  winters  are  keen 
and  bracing. 

Fauna  (extinct). —  The  distinguishing  fea- 
tures of  the  extinct  fauna  (of  which  most  inter- 
esting discoveries  have  been  made)  are  specially 
worthy  of  note.  In  the  mammalian  class  the 
great  majority  are  marsupials,  though  the  dingo 
and  the  whale  (non-marsupial)  are  also  found 
in  a  fossil  state.  Fossil  remains  of  birds,  reptiles 
(such  as  crocodile,  monitor),  turtles,  and  fishes, 
have  also  been  unearthed  some  in  the  banks 
of  the  rivers  in  the  interior.  This  indicates  that 
the  ancient  vertebrate  fauna  of  Australia  was 
very  similar  to  what  it  is  now.     The  preponder- 


ant t3'pe  of  mammal  was  marsupial.  In  most 
respects,  however,  the  species  and  even  the 
genera  were  different,  and  many  (such  as  dipro- 
todon,  nototherium,  and  the  giant  kangaroo) 
were  much  larger  animals  and  of  a  more  gener- 
alized type  than  exist  at  present.  One  living 
tj'pe  (a  wombat)  is  precisely  of  the  same 
specie  as  is  found  in  a  fossil  condition.  Re- 
garding the  probable  cause  of  the  destruction 
of  the  extinct  animals,  it  is  impossible  to  give  a 
general  statement  applicable  to  such  a  wide- 
stretching  country  as  Australia,  any  more  than 
such  a  statement  could  be  applied  to  other  coun- 
tries where  there  has  been  a  wholesale  disap- 
pearance of  once  numerous  groups.  Changes  of 
climate  or  physical  conditions  rendering  the 
country  or  district  unsuitable  for  their  main- 
tenance ;  over-specialization  in  structure  causing 
the  types  to  be  incapable  of  adapting  themselves 
to  changed  conditions  ;  not  impossibly  the  ravages 
of  infectious  or  parasitic  diseases — all  these  have 
had  their  effect.  As  a  probable  explanation  in 
the  special  case  of  the  Lake  Callabonna  fossils 
(a  remarkable  discovery  in  South  Australia)  the 
following  occurs  in  ^The  Physical  Features  of 
Lake  Callabonna  and  the  Account  of  the  Dis- 
covery^ by  Prof.  Stirling  (Director  of  the  South 
Australian  Museum),  which  was  published  in 
the  ^Memoirs  of  the  Royal  Society*  :  <*The 
facts  that  the  bones  of  individuals  are  often  un- 
broken, close  together  and  frequently  in  their 
proper  relative  positions — the  attitude  of  many 
of  the  bodies  and  the  character  of  the  matrix 
in  which  they  are  imbedded — negative  any 
theory  that  they  have  been  carried  thither  by 
floods.  The  likelihood,  rather,  is  that  they  met 
their  death  by  being  entombed  in  the  effort  to 
reach  food  and  water.  .  .  The  accumulation 
of  so  many  bodies  in  one  locality  points  to  the 
fact  of  their  assemblage  around  one  of  the  last 
remaining  oases  in  the  region  of  desiccation 
which  succeeded  an  antecedent  condition  of 
plenteous  rains  and  abundant  waters."  An 
identical  explanation  has  been  suggested  by 
Daintree  in  his  ^  Notes  on  the  Geology  of  the 
Colony  of  Queensland.*  Among  the  extinct 
fauna  the  most  remarkable  of  the  mammals  is 
th.i  Diprotodon  australis;  size  10  to  11  feet  in 
length,  five  and  one-half  to  six  feet  in  height. 
Of  the  birds,  the  most  noteworthy  is  Genyornis 
nezi'toni,  a  large  bird  with  bones  as  big  and  mas- 
sive as  the  elephant-footed  moa  of  New  Zealand, 
and  the  Aepyornis  of  Madagascar.  It  stood 
about  six  and  one-half  feet  high,  but  is  remark- 
able mostly  for  its  massiveness.  The  deposit  of 
this  treasure  trove  of  natural  history  at  Calla- 
bonna is  large  and  valuable,  but  (so  far  as  the 
ground  has  been  explored)  it  does  not  equal 
the  immense  deposits  in  certain  places  of  fossil 
mammals  and  reptiles  in  the  United  States  of 
America.  Still,  only  one  area  of  limited  extent 
in  Lake  Callabonna  has  been  exploited  Owing 
to  the  superior  resources  of  the  United  States, 
and  the  greater  generosity  displayed  tnere  in 
this  direction,  much  more  systematic  starch  has 
been  undertaken  both  in  that  country  and  in 
South  America  than  in  Australia  ;  but  the  pos- 
sibilities are  cherished  of  further  revelations  of 
the  highest  importance  in  this  branch  of  research 
in  the  Commonwealth. 

Fauna  (existing) . — To  the  northwest  of  Aus- 
tralia between  the  Dutch- Javanese  islands  of 
Lombok  and  Bali  runs  the  Lombok  Strait,  which 


AUSTRALIA  —  GEOGRAPHY 


curiously  marks  a  dividing  line  between  the 
fauna  and  the  flora  of  Asia  and  those  of  Austra- 
lia. The  channel  is  narrow,  if  very  deep,  and 
the  Asiastic  birds  might  easily  fly  across  it  in 
one  direction,  and  the  Australian  in  another.  So 
might  a  natural  growth  of  plants  be  encouraged 
by  the  agency  of  wind  and  feathered  carriers  of 
seed;  but  none  of  these  things  has  happened  to- 
any  extent ;  the  individuality  of  the  relative 
fauna  and  flora  has  been  strongly  preserved. 
A  number  of  the  birds  in  Australia,  however, 
migrate  from  one  part  of  the  Commonwealth  to 
others  with  the  changes  of  the  seasons,  and  some 
pass  to  and  from  the  continent  of  Asia — e.g.,  the 
sandpiper  or  sharp-tailed  stint,  that  each  season 
comes  from  Siberia,  a  distance  of  10,000  miles. 
As  already  indicated,  the  existing  fauna  does 
not  differ  widely  (except  in  proportions)  from 
the  extinct ;  and  the  forms  observed  in  some 
instances  are  exceedingly  interesting,  if  not 
bizarre.  The  "Bunyip"  of  the  aborigines' 
legends  (a  monster  that  lurked  in  certain  rivers 
and  creeks  and  swamps)  has"  never  yet  been 
proved  to  be  other  than  fabulous.  Much  specu- 
lation and  some  mystery,  however,  surround  the 
occasionally  recurring  visitations  of  plagues  of 
rats  in  the  far-northerly  country,  and  of  mice  in 
the  more  southerly  or  agricultural  areas.  At 
periods  of  several  years  the  rodents  suddenly 
appear  in  vast  numbers,  and  as  suddenly  disap- 
pear after  doing,  in  some  cases,  much  damage. 
The  locust  or  grass-hopper  plague,  which  at  one 
time  was  much  feared,  is  now  almost  unknown. 
In  a  generalization,  Australia  may  claim  to  be 
free  from  all  animals  that  attack  man,  except 
in  exceedingly  rare  instances  when  a  large  kan- 
garoo may  be  brought  to  bay,  and  in  frenzy  of 
fear  strive  to  defend  itself  almost  invariably 
vainly.  Introduced  animals,  such  as  the  rabbit 
and  the  fox,  the  sparrow,  the  starling,  and  other 
old-world  birds,  as  well  as  the  snail,  multiply 
literally  by  millions,  and  become  a  scourge  to 
pastoralists,  farmers,  and  gardeners.  The  im- 
ported dog  running  wild  has  sometimes  been 
confused  with  the  aboriginal  dingo  (canis  dingo) 
(q.v.)  or  "warrigal*  (native  name),  a  predatory 
animal,  the  wolf  of  Australia,  that  has  caused 
heavy  losses  among  sheep  and  lambs,  which  he 
destroys  in  mere  wantonness.  The  dingo  never 
barks,  but  howls  dismally  in  the  bush  at  night. 
Kangaroos  once  abounded  virtually  all  over 
Australia,  and  varied  in  size  from  the  "old  man*' 
of  six  feet  to  the  most  minute  specrmens,  in- 
cluding wallabies  and  kangaroo  rats.  The  most 
interesting  example  is  the  tree  kangaroo,  dis- 
covered in  Queensland  about  100  years  after  and 
not  far  from  the  spot  (Endeavour  River),  where 
the  first  kangaroo  (Macropus  major)  was  found 
by  Captain  Cook,  the  great  navigator,  in  1770. 
In  particularly  the  southern  and  western  parts 
of  Australia  is  seen  a  small  "native  bear,"  that 
inhabits  trees,  and,  in  Tasmania,  the  "Tasman- 
ian  devil,"  {sarcophihis  iirsinus)  fierce  and  (like 
the  dingo)  untamable,  and  the  "Tasmanian 
tiger"  {Tliylacinus  cynoccphalus)  are  the  prin- 
cipal examples  of  fauna.  The  numbers  of  these 
latter,  like  those  of  the  kangaroos  and  the  opos- 
sum, have  been  largely  reduced  through  indis- 
criminate slaughter  with  the  advance  of  settle- 
ment ;  but  recent  legislation  for  the  protection 
of  the  kangaroo  (the  skin  of  which  is  valuable 
for  export)  has  stayed  the  race  toward  destruc- 
tion.   The  wombat   {Phascolomys)   is  a  curious, 


burrowing,  land  animal,  resembling  in  some  re- 
spects the  platypus  and  kindred  creatures ;  but 
the  most  extraordinary  is  the  platypus  itself 
(ornithorhynchus  anatinus) ,  an  amphibious  ani- 
mal that  forms  a  connecting  link  between  the 
mammals,  birds,  and  reptiles.  Of  the  birds  the 
emu  {Dromaius  novae  hollandia)  is  from  five 
to  SIX  feet  high,  and  ranks  next  to  the  African 
ostrich,  which  it  resembles  in  its  habits;  its 
numbers,  as  with  the  kangaroo,  have  been 
greatly  reduced  as  settlement  has  progressed. 
The  cassowary  (Casuarius  australis)  is  small, 
and  not  nearly  so  widely  diffused  as  the  emu; 
and  the  native  companion  or  Australian  Crane 
iGrus  australasiamis)  is  still  slightly  smaller 
than  the  cassowary,  and  an  exceedingly  graceful 
bird  of  somewhat  eccentric  habit.  The  black 
swan  (Cygnus  atraius)  is  scarcely  so  large  as 
the  white  swan  of  the  northern  hemisphere,  but 
is  a  beautiful  bird.  Strange  in  its  habits  is  the 
satin  bower  bird  ( Ptilonoriiynchus  Iwloscriceus) 
that  forms  for  itself  a  playground  or  bower  in 
which  it  sports  with  a  miscellaneous  collection 
of  bright  objects.  Altogether  about  750  species 
of  birds  have  been  found,  mostly  in  Northeast 
Australia  (which  has  been  chiefly  explored),  but 
some  of  them  are  gradually  becoming  extinct. 
The  old  idea  that  Australian  birds  are  songless 
is  only  relatively  true.  The  flute-like  note  of  the 
magpie  or  shrike  is  one  of  the  most  mellifluously 
melodious  sounds  in  nature,  and  has  been  de- 
clared to  surpass  that  of  the  nightingale.  The 
reptiles  are  numerous.  The  largest  of  the 
snakes  is  the  carpet  snake  (Morclia  varicgata), 
non-venomous,  with  an  average  length  of  about 
seven  or  eight  feet,  but  with  authenticated  speci- 
mens up  to  15  feet  and  even  more ;  its  habits 
are  generally  similar  to  the  python's.  Of  the 
five  principal  poisonous  reptiles  the  most  deadly 
is  the  death  adder  (about  three  feet).  Not 
more  than  12  or  15  fatal  cases  of  snakebite  occur 
annually  throughout  Australia,  but  this  com- 
parative immunity  is  due  partly  to  the  prompt 
application  of  effective  remedies.  The  white  ant 
is  common  in  the  northern  part  of  the  Common- 
wealth, and  is  very  destructive  to  wooden  build- 
ings in  the  early  stages  of  settlement;  its  nests 
of  mud  and  clay,  generally  with  angles  pointing 
north  and  south,  range  from  20  feet  in  height 
downward.  The  seas  abound  in  numerous  varie- 
ties of  fish.  In  the  period  of  pioneer  settlement 
the  Australian  whaling  grounds  were  very  pro- 
ductive, and  still  are  occasionally  exploited  with 
profit.  Sharks  are  exceedingly  numerous.  The 
largest,  the  white  pointer  or  white  shark,  (Car- 
charodon  rondcletii)  to  the  length  of  16  feet  and 
over  has  been  caught,  and  attended  by  the  pilot 
fish  (Xaucratcs  ductar)  it  preys  upon  man  as 
well  as  upon  denizens  of  the  deep.  Deaths 
through  sharks  are  rarer  even  than  those  from 
snakebite,  but  this  is  to  a  large  extent  due  to 
the  precautions  taken  in  bathing  in  the  seas. 
The  crocodiles  or  alligators,  as  they  are  popu- 
larly called  {Crocodilus  Porcatus  and  Phyllas 
johnsonii — a  small  variety),  are  plentiful  in  the 
tropical  and  sub-tropical  zone  on  the  northeast, 
northwest,  and  north  coasts,  they  vary  from 
about  20  feet  (an  unusual  length)  to  (^^'G.  or  six 
feet.  In  common  with  the  shark  the  larger  alli- 
gator sometimes  attacks  human  beings,  but  the 
aborigines  evidently  stand  in  little  fear  of  it. 
In  the  warmer  waters  is  found  the  dugong 
{Halicora   australis),    from    whose    habits    and 


AUSTRALIA  — THE  ABORIGINES 


structure  doubtless  originated  the  fables  con- 
cerning the  mermaid.  Seals  are  still  seen  on  the 
remote  parts  of  the  coast  and  the  southern 
islands.  The  most  noteworthy  is  the  sea  bear 
yOtaria  cincrca)  from  about  seven  feet  in 
length,  that  are  more  prized  for  their  oil  than 
for  their  skins.  In  the  northern  waters  turtles, 
the  edible  green  (Chclone  My  das),  and  the 
shell-yielding  hawkbill  {Chclone  imbricata) 
varieties  are  very  numerous,  and  attain  to  a 
large  size.  The  trepang  or  beche-de-mer  is 
found,  with  the  mother-of-pearl  oyster — large 
(Meleagrina  margaritfera)  and  small  (Mclca- 
grina  radiata).  The  former  frequently  yield 
fine  pearls,  some  single  specimens  of  which  have 
been  sold  for  thousands,  and  many  for  hundreds 
of  pounds.  The  edible  rock  oyster  is  widely  rep- 
resented, and  the  mangrove  tree-climbing  fish 
iper'wphtJwlmus)  abounds,  particularly  in  the 
northern  waters. 

Flora. —  In  a  concise  description  the  Austra- 
lian flora  may  be  said  to  possess  peculiarities 
which  distinguish  it  unmistakably.  ^lany  of  its 
most  striking  features  bear  a  natural  relation 
to  the  general  dryness  and  greatly  differing  con- 
ditions of  the  climate,  owing  to  the  vast  area  of 
the  Commonwealth.  The  trees  and  bushes  have 
mostly  a  scanty  foliage,  with  little  surface  for 
evaporation,  or  thick  leathery  leaves  well  fitted 
to  retain  moisture.  Nearly  all  are  evergreen, 
but  the  effect  upon  the  landscape  is  rather 
monotonous.  The  most  extensively  spread 
types  of  vegetation  are  the  various  kinds  of 
gumtree  (Eucalyptus),  the  shea-oak  (Casua- 
rina),  the  acacia  or  wattle,  the  grass  tree  (Xan- 
thorrhcra,  many  varieties  of  the  Proica- 
cece,  a  few  baobab  trees,  and  very  many  ferns 
and  tree-ferns.  Of  the  gumtree  there  are  more 
than  150  species,  nearly  all  valuable  for  timber, 
and  for  their  essential  oils,  which  possess  im- 
portant medicinal  properties.  The  wattle  or 
acacia  includes  about  300  species,  some  of  which 
also  yield  good  timber  or  bark  for  tanning. 
The  most  beautiful,  the  most  fragrant,  and  the 
most  useful  in  these  latter  respects  is  the  golden 
wattle  (Acacia  dealbata).  Palms  (of  which 
there  are  at  least  24  species,  all,  except  the  cocoa- 
palm,  peculiar  to  Australia)  are  mostly  confined 
to  the  northern  and  eastern  coasts.  The  mallee 
scrub  is  formed  by  a  dwarf  eucalyptus,  and  the 
mulga  scrub  by  a  thorny  acacia.  A  plant  which 
covers  large  areas  in  the  arid  regions  is  the 
spinifex  or  porcupine  grass  (coarse  and  spiny), 
which  renders  traveling  difficult,  and  is  uneat- 
able by  any  animal.  Other  expansive  tracts  are 
occupied  by  useful  herbs  and  fodder  bushes. 
Foremost  among  those  stands  the  salt-bush 
(Atriplex  miimmularia,  order  Chcnopodiacecc), 
an  exceedingly  hardy  plant,  upon  which  the 
sheep  and  other  animals  thrive,  and  which  has 
strong  drought-resisting  powers.  Beautiful  flow- 
ering plants,  especially  in  Western  Australia,  are 
almost  innumerable.  Australia  also  possesses 
many  turf-forming  grasses,  particularly  the  kan- 
garoo grass  (Anthisth-ia  ausfralis),  which  sur- 
vives in  even  a  protracted  rainless  period.  The 
nr.tive  fruits,  including  the  native  cherry  (Exo- 
carpus  cuprcssiformis),  the  nut  of  which  grows 
partially  outside  of  the  fruit  proper,  are  few  and 
of  little  practical  worth,  and  the  plants  yielding 
roots  used  as  food  are  not  of  much  economic 
value ;  but  exotic  fruits  and  vegetables  grow 
everywhere  in  unstinted  abundance,  and  some  of 


the  cherished  garden  blooms  of  the  older  coun- 
tries flourish  so  riotously  as  to  become  a  pest  in 
Australia.  The  vine  and  the  olive  thrive  better 
than  in  the  country  of  their  origin,  and  enor- 
m  us  quantities  of  wine  and  oil  are  produced 
and  exported.  The  cereals  of  Europe  and  maize 
are  extensively  cultivated,  and  large  tracts  of 
.country,  particularly  in  Queensland,  are  under 
the  sugar  cane,  the  pineapple,  the  cocoanut  and 
other  tropical  exotics. 

Bibliography  —  Geography. — A  g  a  s  s  i  z  ,  <  A 
Visit  to  the  Great  Barrier  Reef  of  Australia 
.  .  .  1896^  (Cambridge,  ]Mass.,  1898)  ;  Bar- 
ton, ^Australian  Physiography'  (Brisbane, 
1S95)  ■>  Bonwick,  'Climate  and  Health  in  Aus- 
tralia>  (London,  1886)  ;  Kent,  <The  Great  Bar- 
rier Reef  of  Australia'  (London,  1893)  ;  Ran- 
ken,  'The  Federal  Geography  of  British  Aus- 
tralasia' (Sydney,  1891),  and  'The  Dominion  of 
Australia'  (London,  1874);  Reclus,  'The  Earth 
and  Its  Inhabitants,  Oceanica'  (New  York, 
1890)  ;  Taylor,  'Geography  of  New  South 
Wales'  (Sydney,  1898;;  Thomson,  'The  Phy- 
sical Geography  of  Australia'  in  'Smithsonian 
Report'  of  1896,  (Washington,  D.  C,  1898)  ; 
Trollope,  'Australia  and  New  Zealand'  (Leip- 
zig, 1873)  ;  Wall,  'Physical  Geography  of  Aus- 
tralia'   (^Melbourne,  1883;. 

Geology. — Clarke,  'Sedimentary  Formations 
of  New  South  Wales'  (Sydney,  1878)  ;  Cur- 
ran,  'Geology  of  Sydney  and  the  Blue  ]\Ioun- 
tains'  ;  Darwin,  'Geological  Observations' 
(London,  187G)  ;  Etheridge  and  Jack,  'Geology 
and  Palaeontology  of  Queensland'  (Brisbane, 
1892)  ;  Johnston,  'Geology  of  Tasmania'  (Ho- 
bart,  1888)  ;  McCoy,  'Palaeontology  of  Victoria' 
(^Melbourne,  1874J  ;  Tate  'A  Century  of  Geo- 
logical Progress  in  Australia'   (Adelaide,  1893). 

Flora  and  Fauna. — Aflalo,  'Natural  History 
of  Australia'  (London,  1896)  ;  Bentham  and 
Mueller,  'Flora  Australiensis'  (London,  1863- 
78)  ;  Brown,  'Miscellaneous  Botanical  Works' 
(London,  1866-7)  i  Cook,  'Handbook  of  Aus- 
tralian Fungi'  (London,  1892)  ;  Fitzgerald, 
'Australian  Orchids'  (Sydney,  1870-90)  ; 
Flower  and  Lydekker,  'Mammals,  Living  and 
Extinct'  (London,  1891)  ;  Gould,  'The  Mam- 
mals of  Australia'  (London,  1863),  and  'The 
Birds  of  Australia'  (7  vols.,  London,  1848)  ; 
Guilfoyle,  'Australian  Botany'  (Alelbourne, 
1884)  ;  Heilprin,  'The  Geographical  and  Geo- 
logical Distribution  of  Animals'  (London,  1887)  ; 
Kent,  'The  Naturalist  in  Australia'  (London, 
1897)  ;  Krefft,  'The  Snakes  of  Australia'  (Syd- 
ney, 1869)  ;  Maiden,  'Useful  Native  Plants  of 
Australia'  (Sydney,  1889)  ;  Ogilvy,  'Catalogue 
of  Australian  J\Iammals'  (Sydney,  1892)  ; 
Schomburgh,  'Flora  of  South  Australia' 
(Adelaide,  1875)  ;  Tenison- Woods,  'The  Fish 
and  Fisheries  of  New  South  Whales'  (Sydney, 
1883)  ;  Turner,  'Australian  Grasses'  (Sydney, 
1S95)  ;  Wallace,  'The  Geographical  Distribution 
of  Animals'    (London,  1876). 

William  John  Sowdex, 
Editor  of  South  Australian  '•Register.'' 

z.  Australia — The  Aborigines.  The  abo- 
rigines of  Australia  are  fast  dying  out  —  slain 
by  civilization  through  interference  with  the 
game  that  they  formerly  hunted  and  lived  on, 
added  to  the  influence  of  the  white  man's  dis- 
eases and  vices.  It  has  always  been  impossible 
to  number  the  aborigines  with  any  certainty  on 


AUSTRALIA  — THE  ABORIGINES 


account  of  the  immense  territory  over  which 
they  were  scattered,  and  of  the  nomadic  habits 
of  the  people  —  habits  which  quite  unfitted  them 
for  any  sustained  industrial  work ;  but,  accord- 
ing to  the  most  trustworthy  estimates  which 
can  be  obtained,  only  about  150,000  of  the 
blacks  (including  half-castes)  now  remain  upon 
a  territory  of  nearly  3,000,000  square  miles.  Cer- 
tainly this  is  nearly  four  times  the  number  of 
Maories  who  are  left  in  New  Zealand,  but  the 
territorial  and  other  conditions  are  so  essen- 
tially different  in  the  two  countries  that  com- 
parisons are  practically  valueless.  It  is  assumed 
that  the  representatives  of  the  Australian  abo- 
rigines are  distributed  in  these  proportions  in 
the  respective  states :  Western  Australia,  70,- 
000;  South  Australia  (including  the  Northern 
Territory),  50,000;  Queensland,  25,000;  New 
South  Wales,  6,828,  and  a  few  hundreds  divided 
between  Victoria  and  Tasmania.  In  Tasmania 
the  last  pure  bred  aborigine  died  in  1877;  but 
157  half-castes  remain.  Even  on  the  Australian 
continent  the  sight  of  a  full-blooded  black  near 
to  a  centre  of  settlement  is  very  rare  ;  and  prob- 
ably during  the  next  20  years  the  few  survivors 
of  the  original  owners  of  the  soil  will  be  found 
in  only  the  remote  districts.  Already  there  is  a 
striking  disparity  between  the  number  of  the 
natives  as  shown  relatively  in  the  estimates  and 
the  actual  ofificial  records.  The  latest  census 
gave  these  figures  (which  included  half-castes 
as  well  as  full-bloods  in  the  cases  of  New  South 
Wales  and  Western  Australia)  :  New  South 
Wales,  4,287 ;  Queensland,  6,670 ;  South  Austra- 
lia, 3,888;  Tasmania  (half-castes  only),  157; 
Victoria,  652;  Western  Australia  (settled  dis- 
tricts only),  5,261;  total,  20,915. 

Treatment  of  the  Aborigines. — Although  the 
racial  antipathies  and  collisions  due  to  the 
seizure  by  superior  races  of  the  lands  of  in- 
ferior peoples  have  been  at  least  as  marked  in 
Australia  as  elsewhere,  and  although  the  treat- 
ment of  the  aborigines  by  many  of  the  pioneer 
settlers  did  not  err  on  the  side  of  scrupulous 
humaneness,  the  governments,  as  such,  have 
done  a  good  deal  to  mitigate  the  sufferings  of 
the  unfortunate  people,  the  dealing  with  whom 
was  more  difficult  than  it  would  have  been  if  the 
vast  majority  of  them  had  not  in  hopeless  in- 
dolence always  manifested  an  unconquerable 
repugnance  to  systematic  labor  or  anything  like 
sustained  industry.  The  policy  shown  towards 
them  might  well  have  reflected  —  and  in  some 
cases  it  has  done  so  —  the  fact  that  the  conquest 
of  the  natives  in  Australia  has  been  exceedingly 
easy  owing  to  their  utterly  disorganized  condi- 
tion and  their  almost  complete  helplessness. 
These  defects  were  in  contrast  to  the  valor,  the 
country-love,  and  the  mental  alertness  of  the 
colored  inhabitants  whom  the  early  white  set- 
tlers found  in  New  Zealand.  As  a  rule  the  Aus- 
tralian aborigine  —  while  in  good  districts  phy- 
sically stalwart  and  strong  —  was  not  of  a  fero- 
cious or  blood-thirstily  aggressive  nature ;  and 
in  most  cases  when  numbers  of  them  have  at- 
tacked a  few  isolated  European  settlers  or 
travelers,  the  cause  has  been  either  a  lack  of 
firmness  or  judicious  care  on  the  part  of  the 
persons  molested,  or  else  revenge  for  w-rongs  in- 
flicted upon  the  natives  by  other  white  men, 
mostly  in  the  shape  of  interference  with  the 
black  women,  or  by  way  of  reprisals  for  the 
killing  of  cattle,   the   intrusion   of  which   upon 

Vol   2  — s 


their  former  hunting  grounds  the  blacks  natur- 
ally connected  with  the  gradual  disappearance 
of  the  indigenous  game. 

All  the  state  governments  have  enacted,  and 
so  far  as  possible  enforced,  laws  for  the  protec- 
tion of  the  blacks  —  laws  in  some  instances  pro- 
viding for  them  special  reserves  within  which 
the  Europeans  must  not  kill  game  or  depasture 
stock ;  prohibiting  the  supply  of  intoxicating 
liquor  or  opium  to  the  aborigines,  and  defending 
them  against  anything  like  enslavement  or 
other  ill-usage.  During  many  years  past  at 
least  a  yearly  — and  in  bad  seasons  a  more  fre- 
quent—  distribution  of  flour,  tobacco,  blankets, 
and  other  useful  articles  has  been  made  by  the 
governments  among  the  natives;  and  the  state- 
aided  efforts  have  been  liberally  supplemented 
by  the  benefactions  of  private  persons  and  phil- 
anthropic institutions,  especially  in  relation  to 
education,  spiritual  and  otherwise  by  mission- 
aries who  have  established  aboriginal  stations. 
In  the  latest  year  for  which  statistics  are  avail- 
able the  purely  governmental  expenditure 
amounted  annually  (with  allowances  for  en- 
dowed lands)  to  i20,ooo  in  New  South  Wales, 
£9,000  in  Queensland,  £5,000  in  South  Australia, 
£5,000  in  Victoria,  and  £12,000  in  Western  Aus- 
tralia. 

Origin  and  Characteristics. — The  origin  of 
the  aboriginal  tribes  of  Australia  has  been  a 
theme  of  much  controversy;  and  the  space  avail- 
able here  is  not  adequate  for  even  an  enumera- 
tion of  the  many  theories  —  including  one  com- 
prehending an  invasion  by  representatives  of  the 
Lost  Tribes  of  Israel  —  advanced  b}'  various 
differing  authorities.  This  seems  to  be  a  prob- 
lem insoluble.  In  such  circumstances  sufficient 
must  be  the  statement  that  there  is  a  fair  con- 
sensus of  opinion  to  the  effect  that  the  native 
black  races,  as  they  were  found  by  the  European 
pioneers,  had  apparently  been  substantially  af- 
fected (especially  in  the  northern  areas,  which 
were  for  many  centuries  visited  periodically  by 
IMalay  proahs  in  search  of  pearl  shell,  trepang, 
and  other  products)  by  strains  of  blood  intro- 
duced from  beyond  the  island  continent.  A 
judicious  balance  of  the  evidence  adduced  by 
the  most  trustworthy  ethnographers  tends  to  the 
conclusion  that  the  two  points  whence  Australia 
benefited  or  otherwise  by  migration  of  fauna 
and  flora,  as  well  as  ethnologically,  were  the 
group  culminating  in  New  Guinea  on  the  one 
hand,  and  on  the  other  in  the  chain  of  islands 
and  peninsulas  touching  Australia  on  the  North- 
west. Certain  plants  and  animals  came  from 
Asia  to  Australia,  and  it  is  held  to  be  extremely 
probable  that  the  ancestors  of  the  Australian 
native  tribes  (who  differ  somewhat  from  those 
of  Tasmania)  crossed  over  to  Australia  from 
those  two  points.  The  native  population  is  de- 
clared to  be  an  admixture  of  at  least  two 
distinct  elements.  The  skin  of  the  one  was  a 
true  yellow,  and  that  of  the  other  was  a 
velvety  black.  The  hair  varies  from  straight  to 
woolly,  and  the  face  and  skull  also  have  material 
dissimilarities.  The  nose  assumes  various 
grades,  from  the  flat  negro  to  the  arched  Jew- 
ish, and  these  contrasted  types  are  believed  to 
be  due  to  the  immigration  of  Malays  and 
Papuans  as  indicated. 

One  reason  why  the  black  had  no  means  of 
sea  navigation  was  that  "the  negroid  blood  in 
his  veins  fetters  the  Australian  so  firmly  to  the 


AUSTRALIA  — DISCOVERY  AND  EARLY  HISTORY 


soil;*  and  another  was  that  unkindly  nature 
made  the  pressure  of  food  requirements  so 
heavy  that  tlie  black  was  forced  to  be  a  wander- 
er, and  had  little  time  for  anything  else  than  the 
sustainincf  of  bare  life.  As,  however,  this  judg- 
ment reflects  disparagingly  upon  the  natural 
resources  of  the  land,  it  is  important  to  add 
that  on  their  advent  Australia's  "Pilgrim  Fa- 
thers'* surprised  the  black  inhabitants  in  a  state 
of  the  most  primitive  savagery.  There  was  not 
anywhere  the  remotest  sign  of  any  cultivation 
of  the  soil,  or  of  the  slightest  attempt  at  tillage, 
or  the  thrift  or  providence  which  stores  food  for 
emergencies.  Neither  had  the  natives  made — 
though  they  possessed  roughly  hewn  bark  or 
log  canoes — any  effort  to  clothe  themselves,  or — 
apart  from  miserable  hovels  constructed  of 
rank  grass  or  reeds,  or  boughs  or  bark  of  trees — 
to  provide  shelter  from  the  cold  of  winter  or  the 
heat  of  summer.  They  had  no  written  lan- 
guage, unless  one  may  include  in  that  character- 
ization such  crudeh^  artistic  representations  as 
were  inscribed  on  rocks  or  in  caverns.  Some 
of  these,  like  the  message  sticks  sent  from  one 
part  of  the  country  to  another,  are  ideagraphic — 
or  picture-writing  —  but  none  was  at  any  rate 
unmistakably  idealistic.  Though  most  of  the 
tribes  paid  deference  to  their  "medicine  men*' 
or  sages  —  mostly  the  older  members  of  the 
tribal  camps,  who  were  always  well  treated  by 
the  younger  blacks  —  they  possessed  practically 
no  conception  of  abstractions.  In  this  respect 
they  were,  while  less  provident  than  the  ants, 
essentially  untutored  children  of  Nature  —  al- 
most as  much  so  as  the  dogs  and  the  lower  ani- 
mals. They  were  endowed  with  instinct  rather 
than  with  intuition.  No  bloodhound  ever  dis- 
played keener  sight  or  scent  than  the  Australian 
blacktrackers,  whose  power  in  following  a  trail 
seems  almost  miraculous. 

On  the  other  hand,  a  close  study  of  the  abo- 
rigines reveals  curious  anomalies.  Speaking 
generally  the  natives  rise  and  fall  in  mental 
and  physical  superiority  in  exact  harmony  with 
the  fertility  or  otherwise  of  the  territory  over 
which  they  roamed.  Some  of  them  had  scarcely 
reached  the  low  stage  of  intelligence  associated 
with  the  stone  age,  others  rapidly  acquired 
education  under  European  teachers,  and  in  the 
wilds  had  constructed  the  boomerang  which, 
with  its  marvellous  power  of  returning  to  the 
thrower,  has  long  puzzled  even  the  most  pro- 
found scientific  experimenters.  Among  the 
highest-class  natives,  too,  the  character  of  their 
spears  and  other  weapons  indicated  the  posses- 
sion of  no  little  constructive  skill,  as  well  as 
undoubted  patience  and  perseverance  on  the  part 
of  the  makers.  Where  an  aboriginal  population 
is  divided  into  hundreds,  and  probably  thou- 
sands, of  tribes,  all  mutually  independent  and 
mutually  hostile,  and  distinguished  usually  by 
arbitrarily  marked  rings  of  exclusiveness,  and 
each  tribe  speaking  a  dialect  of  its  own,  it  is 
impossible  to  write  with  exactitude  concerning 
their  customs.  One  must  not,  therefore,  attempt 
to  explain  why  the  tribal  boundaries  should  in 
some  cases  be  defined  by  geometrical  devices ; 
why  in  tribal  territories  here  and  there  circum- 
cision should  be  practiced,  and  on  adjoining 
areas  not  observed ;  why  some  natives  should 
exchange  salutes  similar  to  Masonic  signs,  and 
others  be  unaware  of  the  meaning  of  this 
interchange,   but  be   familiar   with   a   somewhat 


intricate  code  of  smoke  signals ;  why  some 
should  be  cannibals  and  others  should  not  be; 
why  the  superstitious  ceremonies  should  vary 
so  widely;  and  yet  why  the  main  idea  of  the 
native  "corroboree"  or  dance  should  be  appar- 
ently almost  everywhere  the  same  or  closely- 
similar. 

What  seems  to  be  certain  is  that  the  wild 
aborigines  have  no  religion  properly  so  called — 
no  impelling  attraction  towards  or  trust  in  a 
God  of  Love,  but  a  wholesome  fear  of  "Mool- 
darbie*  or  the  devil,  whom  all  tribes  sedulously 
seek  to  propitiate  —  some  even  by  periodical 
human  sacrifices,  and  the  dread  of  whom  as  a 
spirit  walking  in  the  darkness  keeps  them 
shrinking  in  their  camps  until  the  break  of  day. 
Very  extensively  diffused  also  is  the  belief  that 
nobody  can  die  a  natural  death,  but  must  be 
the  victim  of  a  maleficent  influence  or  the  evil 
eye.  Equally  widespread  is  the  aspiration 
among  the  aborigines  that  after  death  they 
may  "jump  up  a  white  fellow**  —  a  notion  said, 
perhaps  fancifully,  to  have  originated  in  the 
general  custom  of  smoking  the  corpses  of  the 
dead,  with  the  result  that  the  peeling  outer 
cuticle  revealed  the  white  dermis  or  true  skin. 
Some  tribes  are  prudishly  modest  in  their  rela- 
tions with  their  women  others  are  as  flagrantly 
immoral.  The  language  of  some  seems  to  be 
little  better  than  mere  gibberish,  while  concern- 
ing that  of  others  one  of  the  Jesuit  mission- 
aries has  written  that  in  its  construction  it  is 
most  ingenious,  and  curious  in  its  form,  indi- 
cating high  intelligence  and  suggestive  of  the 
Hebrew.  IMany  of  the  natives  are  musical,  but 
their  musical  instruments  are  of  the  crudest 
character,  made  chiefly  of  hollowed  wood,  or 
grasses,  or  bamboos.  At  the  age  of  puberty 
youths  of  both  sexes  are  formally  initiated  by 
peculiar,  jealously  preserved,  and  often  inde- 
scribable ceremonies,  into  the  respective  secrets 
of  manhood  and  womanhood,  but  even  the  old 
men  and  women  of  the  tribes  who  perform  these 
rites  —  which  include  the  knocking  out  of  some 
of  the  young  men's  teeth  and  certain  genital 
mutilations  —  seem  to  have  no  clear  and  coher- 
ent idea  of  their  import. 

Bibliography. — Curr,  ^The  Australian  Race: 
Its  Origin,  Languages,  Customs,  etc.*  (4  vols., 
IMelbourne,  1886-7)  ;  Dawson,  ^Australian 
Aborigines*  (Melbourne,  1881)  ;  Lumholtz, 
^Among  Cannibals*  (London,  1890)  ;  ^Matthew, 
^Eaglehawk  and  Crow*  (London,  1889)  ;  Roth, 
'Queensland  Aborigines*  (Brisbane,  1897)  ; 
Smith,  'Aborigines  of  Victoria*  (London, 
1878)  ;  Spencer  and  Gillen,  'Native  Tribes  of 
Central  Australia*  (London,  1899)  ;  Wallace. 
'Australasia*   (1893). 

William  John  Sowden, 
Editor  of  South  Australian   ^Register.'* 

3.  Australia — Discovery  and  Early  His- 
tory. The  discovery  and  the  early  history  of 
Australia  have  been  the  themes  of  much  discus- 
sion, but  one  conclusion  admitted  by  all  dis- 
putants is  that  the  really  pioneer  navigation 
which  resulted  in  the  finding  of  the  great  island 
continent  of  the  Southern  Seas  was  not  con- 
ducted by  the  British  who  now  occupy  the  ter- 
ritory that  was  originally  called  Terra  In- 
cognita, and  then  New  Holland.  British  enter- 
prise, however,  built  a  structure  of  colonization 
upon  the  site  disclosed  by  the  investigations  of 
the  people  of  other  nations ;  and  nearly  all  the 


AUSTRALIA  — DISCOVERY  AND  EARLY  HISTORY 


definite  surveying  of  the  Australasian  seas  has 
been  done  by  the  sailors  of  Britain. 

The  later  days  of  the  time  in  which  Australia 
was  still  unknown  were  the  days  when  the 
Portuguese,  the  Spaniards,  and  the  Dutch 
roamed  the  oceans  as  intrepid  searchers  for 
new  sensations  rather  than  in  the  hope  of  ter- 
ritorial aggrandisement.  Though  anything  like 
the  exact  year  in  which  Australia  was  first 
sighted  is  doubtful,  records  show  that  between 
1531  and  1542  the  Portuguese  declared  the 
existence  of  a  land  which  they  styled  "Great 
Java,*'  and  which  corresponded  with  the  north- 
ern parts  of  what  is  now  the  Australian  Com- 
monwealth. The  most  authentic  available  data 
indicate  that  the  first  European  who  saw  the 
land  was  a  Portuguese  named  Manoel  Godhino 
de  Eredia,  who  sighted  it  in  1601.  By  common 
consent,  however,  it  has  been  conceded,  as  a 
starting  point  for  Australian  history,  that  Luis 
Vaez  de  Torres,  who  had  been  second  in  com- 
mand of  the  De  Quiros  (Spanish)  expedition, 
saw  and  sailed  close  to  the  Australian  coastline 
in  1606;  and  that  he  was  navigating  in  the 
neighborhood  of  New  Guinea  to  the  east  of 
Cape  York  Peninsula  at  about  the  same  time 
when  a  Dutch  mariner  was  similarly  engaged  to 
the  west  of  the  Peninsula.  Yet  centuries 
elapsed  before  any  attempt  was  made  to  settle 
the  newly  found  continent,  though  meanwhile 
it  was  more  than  once  passed  and  even  circum- 
navigated. After  1619,  when  the  Dutch  expedi- 
tion under  de  Houtmann  anchored  oflf  the 
Abrolhos  Reef  on  Xorthwest  Australia,  that 
part  of  the  continent  was  repeatedly  visited 
during  the  former  half  of  the  17th  century,  and 
well  verified  history  shows  that  in  1656  a  Dutch 
ship  was  wrecked  in  the  vicinity  of  the  Abrolhos 
Group — fragments  of  the  cargo  are  even  now 
washed  up  occasionall}'  by  the  sea  or  foiuid  in 
the  guano  deposits.  Towards  the  end  of  1642 
Abel  Jansen  Tasman.  a  Dutch  navigator,  dis- 
covered and  landed  on  Tasmania,  and  named  it 
Van  Diemen's  Land  (a  title  which  it  continued 
to  bear  until  1854).  In  1688,  William  Dam- 
pier,  a  freebooter,  was  the  first  Englishman  to 
set  foot  on  Australia — at  King  Sound  on  the 
northwest  coast.  This  same  Dampier  on  a  sub- 
sequent vo\'age  took  Alexander  Selkirk  (De- 
foe's "Robinson  Crusoe)  off  the  island  of  Juan 
Fernandez,  on  which  the  man  had  disembarked 
some  time  before.  Still,  curiously  enough,  Aus- 
tralia was  not  annexed  on  behalf  of  any  nation 
until  the  last  third  of  the  iSth  century.  In  1768 
Lieut.  James  Cook  set  out  from  England  in  a 
crazy  ship,  the  Endeavour,  in  charge  of  an  ex- 
pedition appointed  to  observe  at  Tahiti  the 
transit  of  Venus.  Steering  thence  westward,  he 
made  an  examination  of  New  Zealand,  came  on 
19  April  1770,  upon  the  east  coast  of  Australia, 
and  anchored  in  Botany  Bay.  Later  he  pro- 
ceeded northerly  along  the  coast ;  and,  after  the 
Endeavour  had  in  June  struck  upon  a  coral  reef 
and  well-nigh  foundered  near  to  the  present 
Queensland  port  of  Cairns,  he  continued  his 
journey  until  on  21  August  1770,  he  hoisted  the 
colors  of  England  on  the  north  Australian 
peninsula  of  Cape  York,  and  thus  formally  took 
possession  of  the  whole  eastern  part  of  Aus- 
tralia. 

But  settlers  did  not  follow  closely  upon  the 
heels  of  the  navigators,  and  18  years  had  passed 
before,  on  18  Jan.   1788,  a  British  convict  expe- 


dition with  1,030  persons,  of  whom  750  were 
under  penal  servitude  and  banishment,  reached 
Botany  Bay.  On  26  Jan.  (now  celebrated  as 
Australian  Foundation  Day)  the  expedition 
landed,  displayed  its  national  colors  with  due 
pomp  and  circumstance,  and  so  inaugurated 
European  settlement  in  the  "Great  Land  of  the 
Southern  Cross,*'  which  was,  however,  even 
thus  late  imperfectly  known  even  in  outline,  and 
was  comprehended  under  the  general  title  of 
New  South  Wales,  now  applied  to  one  of  the 
territorially  smallest  states  of  Australia.  With 
the  occupation  of  the  country  further  explora- 
tion by  land  and  by  sea  proceeded  apace.  In 
1798  Dr.  Bass  and  Captain  Flinders  (who  after- 
wards achieved  immortal  renown  as  a  great 
navigator  in  association  with  Sir  John  Franklin, 
the  Arctic  hero)  demonstrated  by  sailing  round 
Tasmania  that  that  country  was  veritably  an 
island,  and  not  a  portion  of  the  Australian  Con- 
tinent, as  had  been  supposed.  In  1802,  having 
been  provided  by  the  British  Admiralty  with  a 
scarcely  seaworthy  vessel,  the  Investigator, 
Captain  Flinders  surveyed  the  larger  part  of 
the  southern  coast  of  Australia,  from  west  to 
east,  and  forestalled  a  French  expedition  which 
had  been  sent  out  under  Captain  Baudin  in  the 
ship  Le  Geographe,  for  purposes  similar  to 
those  Flinders  had  in  view. 

The  course  of  further  marine  exploration 
need  not  be  further  pursued ;  for  the  initial 
work  had  been  accomplished.  In  1S03  the  first 
colonization  settlement  was  begun  in  Van  Die- 
men's  Land  (Tasmania).  In  1804  an  unsuc- 
cessful attempt  was  made  by  Colonel  David 
Collins,  first  governor  of  Tasmania,  to  found 
another  convict  colony  in  the  now  prosperous 
state  of  Victoria,  which,  however,  from  that 
time  remained  for  30  years  with  only  one  white 
man  in  it — a  deserted  convict  named  William 
Buckley,  who  dwelt  among  the  aborigines  until 
the  year  1834,  when  real  occupation  was  started, 
10  years  subsequently  to  the  founding  of 
Queensland,  five  years  after  that  of  Western 
Australia,  and  two  years  before  that  of  South 
Australia. 

During  all  the  intervening  time  the  explora- 
tion of  the  interior  of  the  continent,  mainly 
f'-om  Sydney,  had  been  steadily  progressing. 
First  the  disclosing  of  a  means  of  passing  be- 
yond the  Blue  Mountains  in  1813  showed  (by 
Blaxland)  a  way  out  of  what  had  been  re- 
garded as  an  impasse  preventing  acce<^s  from 
the  coastal  fringe  to  the  expansive  interior  ter- 
ritories which  represented  the  Mystery  Land 
of  the  early  colonists.  In  1824  Hume  discov- 
ered the  Upper  Murray,  the  head  of  the  great 
Australian  ]\Iississippi.  Following  the  course  of 
that  river  in  1828,  Captain  Charles  Sturt  added 
to  the  geographies  of  the  period  the  name  of  its 
tributary,  the  Darling;  and  in  1830  he  made, 
with  almost  sensational  intrepedity,  a  journey 
down  the  Murray  to  its  junction  with  the  sea 
not  far  from  Adelaide  (the  present  capital  of 
South  Australia).  In  many  directions  other  ex- 
plorers were  contemporaneously  (and  subse- 
quently) causing  the  wilderness  of  the  Terra 
Incognita  of  the  Portuguese  to  yield  up  its 
secrets  but  only  two  of  the  dauntless  explorers 
v;ho  have  laid  mankind  under  obligation  to 
them  for  all  generations  need  be  particularly 
mentioned  here.  One  of  these  was  Ludwig 
Leichhardt,   who   started  out   from  the  east   in 


AUSTRALIA  — POLITICAL  HISTORY 


1848,  and  (with  all  the  members  of  his  party) 
apparently  disappeared  mysteriously  and  abso- 
lutely from  the  face  of  the  earth ;  for  no  sign 
or  trace  of  the  expedition  has  ever  since  been 
seen  or  heard  of.  The  other  was  John  McDouall 
Stuart,  who,  after  having  been  repeatedly  baf- 
fled, succeeded  at  last  in  crossing  the  continent 
from  south  to  north,  and  on  24  July  1862,  laved 
his  hands  in  the  waters  of  the  Indian  Ocean, 
and  hoisted  the  British  flag  on  the  northern 
shores  of  Australia.  And  now  in  this  year  of 
1906  practically  all  the  blank  spaces  in  the 
Commonwealth  may  have  been  filled  in  by  the 
cartographer,  and  Australia  has  no  further 
laurels  of  fame  to  offer  as  worthy  guerdons  to 
brave;  and  daring  explorers  by  land  or  by  sea. 

Bibliography. — Calvert,  < Discovery  of  Aus- 
tralia >  (London,  1893),  and  'Exploration  of 
Australia^  (London,  1895)  ;  Collingridge,  <The 
Discovery  of  Australia >  (Sydney,  1895)  ; 
Favenc,  ^History  of  Australia  Exploration  from 
i788-i888>  (London,  1892);  Finney,  'History 
of  the  Australian  Colonies >  (Sydney,  1901)  ; 
Giles,  'Australia  Twice  Traversed^  (London, 
1889)  ;  Gre3%  'Two  Expeditions  of  Discovery  in 
Northwestern  and  Western  Australia^  (Lon- 
don, 1841),  and  'Early  Voyages  to  Terra  Aus- 
tralia,>  Hakluyt  Society,  (London,  1859)  ; 
Grimm,  'Discovery  and  Exploration  of  Austra- 
lia) (Melbourne,  1888);  Howlitt,  'History  of 
Discovery  in  Australia,  Tasmania,  and  New 
Zealand  from  the  Earliest  Times'  (London, 
1865)  ;  Parkers,  'Fifty  Years  in  the  Making  of 
Australian  History*  (London,  1892)  ;  Rusden, 
^History  of  Australia*  (Melbourne,  1897)  ;  G. 
F.  Scott,  'The  Romance  of  Australian  Explor- 
ing*   (London,  1899). 

William  John  Sowden, 

Editor  of  the  South  Australian  ^Register.'' 

4.  Australia  —  Political  History.  Begin- 
nings of  Colonial  Sclf-Govermncnt. —  It  was  a 
maxim  of  the  common  law  that,  if  an  unin- 
habited country  were  discovered  and  peopled  by 
British  subjects,  they  were  supposed  to  possess 
themselve  of  it  for  the  benefit  of  their  sovereign, 
and  that  such  of  the  laws  of  England  as  were 
applicable  and  necessary  to  their  situation  and 
the  conditions  of  an  infant  colony  were  imme- 
diately in  force;  that  wherever  an  Englishman 
went  he  carried  with  him  as  much  of  English 
law  and  liberty  as  the  nature  of  his  circum- 
stances required.  It  was  recognized  that  Eng- 
lishmen carried  their  political  birthright  with 
them  over  the  broad  surface  of  the  earth ;  that 
the  charters  of  freedom  for  which  their  ances- 
tors fought  were  not  left  behind,  but  accom- 
panied them  to  their  new  homes  beyond  the 
seas. 

The  Colonial  Legislatures  of  Newfoundland 
and  Jamaica  were  established  not  by  British 
statutes,  but  by  Royal  Commissions  under  the 
Great  Seal  accompanied  by  Royal  instructions. 
Local  self-government  in  Australia  did  not, 
however,  originate  in  the  exercise  of  the  pre- 
rogatives of  the  Crown,  as  it  did  in  the  case  of 
some  of  the  early  North  American  and  West 
Indian  colonies.  From  the  very  first  it  was 
founded  upon,  as  it  was  subsequently  developed 
and  built  up,  by  statutory  authority. 

NEW    SOUTH    WALES    THE   FIRST   ORIGINAL    COLONY. 

Foundation.— In  1784  the  British  Parliament 
passed  the  statute  of  24  Geo.  III.,  c.  56,  intituled 


"An  Act  for  the  effectual  transportation  of 
felons  and  other  offenders,  and  to  authorize  the 
removal  of  prisoners  in  certain  cases,  and  for 
other  purposes  therein  mentioned.*'  This  law 
empowered  the  King,  with  the  advice  of  the 
Privy  Council,  to  appoint  places  to  which  felons 
might  be  transferred.  By  an  order  in  Council 
bearing  date  6  Dec.  1786,  His  Majesty's  "terri- 
tory of  New  South  Wales,  situated  on  the  east 
part  of  New  Holland,**  was  appointed  a  place 
for  the  reception  of  persons  within  the  meaning 
of  the  Act. 

By  letters-patent  and  commission  dated  2 
April  1787,  Captain  Arthur  Phillip  was  ap- 
pointed Governor  of  the  territory.  The  limits 
of  his  authority  extended  from  Cape  York  on 
the  north  to  the  southern  extremity  of  the  coast 
of  the  continent  and  inland  and  westward  as  far 
as  the  135th  meridian,  which  w'as  afterward 
extended  to  the  129th  meridian  east  longtitude. 
The  Governor  was  empowered  to  make  orders 
for  the  good  government  of  the  settlement. 

By  the  Act  27  Geo.  HI.,  c.  2,  the  King  was 
authorized  to  establish  a  Court  of  Criminal  Jur- 
isdiction on  the  eastern  coast  of  New  South 
Wales.  Such  was  the  legal  authority  under 
which,  on  26  Jan.  1788,  a  penal  settle- 
ment was  established  at  Sydney  Cove.  It  was 
not  at  first  intended  to  be  a  colony,  or  planta- 
tion, for  the  purposes  of  trade  and  cultivation, 
within  the  ordinary  meaning  of  those  terms. 

Tlie  First  Constitutional  Charter. — The  tem- 
porary Act  4  Geo.  IV.,  c.  96.  (1823),  which  be- 
came law  during  the  governorship  of  Sir 
Thomas  Brisbane,  was  the  first  legislation 
passed  by  the  Imperial  Parliament  conferring 
anything  like  the  rudiments  of  local  self-gov- 
ernment on  the  New  South  Wales  community. 
A  council  of  five  persons  was  appointed  having 
limited  legislative  powers.  On  17  May  1824,  a 
Charter  of  Justice,  creating  a  Supreme  Court 
was  promulgated. 

Tlie  Second.  Constitutional  Charter. —  The 
Act  9  Geo.  IV.,  c.  83  (25  July  1828),  passed 
during  the  governorship  of  Lieutenant-General 
Sir  Ralph  Darling,  was  the  second  Constitu- 
tional Charter  of  Australia.  Courts  of  Criminal 
and  Civil  Jurisdiction,  coupled  with  trial  by 
jury,  were  organized.  The  laws  and  statutes  in 
force  within  the  realm  of  England,  so  far  as 
applicable,  were  applied  to  the  administration 
of  justice  in  New  South  Wales  and  Van  Die- 
men's  Land.  The  Crown  was  authorized  to 
constitute  in  New  South  Wales  and  Van  Die- 
men's  Land  respectively,  an  Advisory  Council 
to  consist  of  such  persons  resident  in  the  said 
colonies  respectively,  not  exceeding  15.  and  not 
less  than  10,  as  the  King  might  be  pleased  to 
nominate. 

The  Tliird  Constitutional  Charter. — The 
third  charter  regulating  the  government  of  New 
South  Wales  was  the  Act  5  and  6  Vic,  c.  76 
(30  July  1842),  passed  during  the  governorship 
of  Sir  George  Gipps.  This  Act  established  for 
the  first  time  in  Australia  a  legislature,  partly, 
but  not  wholly,  representative  in  its  character. 
It  enacted  that,  there  should  be  within  the 
colony  of  New  South  Wales  a  Legislative 
Council  consisting  of  36  members,  12  of  whom 
were  to  be  appointed  by  the  Crown,  and  24 
were  to  be  elected  by  the  inhabitants  of  the 
colony    having    certain    property    qualifications. 


AUSTRALIA  — POLITICAL  HISTORY 


The  Governor,  with  the  advice  of  the  Council, 
was  authorized  to  make  laws  for  the  peace, 
welfare  and  good  government  of  the  colony, 
provided  that  such  laws  were  not  repugnant  to 
the  laws  of  England ;  nor  were  they  to  interfere 
with  the  sale  or  occupation  of  the  waste  lands 
of  the  Crown.  Bills  imposing  duties  of  customs 
had  to  be  reserved  for  the  Queen's  assent.  This 
Act  did  not  grant  to  New  South  Wales  the 
system  known  as  "Responsible  Government.* 
The  Governor  presided  over  and  managed  all 
the  public  departments.  It  contained,  however, 
the  feeble  germs  whence  has  since  sprung  the 
splendid  fabric  of  parliamentary  institutions  in 
Australia.  It  was  the  first  concession  made  by 
enlightened  British  statesmen  to  the  growing 
wealth  and  importance  of  the  Australian 
colonies. 

The  new  Council  was  opened  by  Sir  George 
Gipps  on  I  Aug.  1843. 

The  Fourth  Constitutional  Charter. — The 
next  important  charter  granted  to  Australia  was 
13  and  14  Vic,  c.  59  (5  Aug.  1850,  intituled  "An 
Act  for  the  better  government  of  Her  Alajesty's 
Australian  Colonies,"  and  commonly  known  as 
the  Australian  Colonies  Government  Act.  The 
bill,  of  which  this  Act  was  the  outcome,  was 
first  introduced  into  the  House  of  Commons  in 
June  1849.  The  two  main  objects  of  the  Act 
were  the  separation  of  the  Port  Phillip  District 
from  New  South  Wales,  and  the  establishment 
in  all  the  colonies  of  an  improved  system  of 
Provincial  Government.  The  Legislative  Coun- 
cil, erected  in  New  South  Wales  by  the  Act  of 
1842,  was  not  materially  disturbed.  Its  powers 
were  in  some  respects  increased,  and  the  fran- 
chise on  which  its  representative  members  were 
elected  was  liberalized. 

The  Xezu  Constitution. — A  new  election  of 
members  of  the  Legislative  Council  of  New 
South  Wales  on  the  liberalized  franchise  then 
took  place.  The  new  Council  complained  that 
the  Act  13  and  14  Vic,  c.  59,  did  not  place  the 
control  of  revenue  taxation,  and  the  waste  lands 
o-  the  Crown  in  the  Colonial  Legislature,  and  a 
full  measure  of  local  self-government  in  a  Con- 
stitution similar  in  outline  to  that  of  Canada 
was  applied  for. 

In  1852  gold  was  discovered  in  New  South 
Wales  and  Victoria,  which  caused  a  great  influx 
of  immigrants  into  these  colonics.  In  a  despatch 
addressed  to  Governor  Fitzroy,  dated  15  Dec. 
1852,  Sir  John  Packington,  Secretary  of  State 
for  the  Colonies,  stated  that  Her  Majesty's  gov- 
ernment had  been  greatly  influenced  by  con- 
siderations arising  from  the  extraordinary  dis- 
coveries of  gold  in  the  Australian  colonies, 
which  had  imparted  new  and  unforeseen  features 
to  their  political  and  social  positions.  It  was 
the  wish,  therefore,  of  Her  Majesty's  Govern- 
ment that  there  should  be  established  in  each 
colony,  a  new  Legislature  consisting  of  a  Legis- 
lative Council  nominated  by  the  Crown,  and  an 
elective  House  chosen  by  qualified  inhabitants. 
To  such  Legislatures  it  was  proposed  to  give 
general  powers  including  that  of  dealing  with 
the  waste  lands  of  the  Crown. 

Upon  the  receipt  of  this  despatch  the  Legis- 
lative Council  of  New  South  Wales,  under  the 
authority  conferred  by  13  and  14  Vic,  c  59,  s. 
32,  appointed  a  select  committee  to  draw  up  a 
constitution  establishing  a  bicameral  Legisla- 
ture, having  increased  powers  and  functions.    A 


constitution  was  accordingly  drawn  up.  It  pro- 
vided that,  in  place  of  the  Legislative  Council 
then  existing  there  should  be  a  Legislative 
Council  and  a  Legislative  Assembly,  and  that 
Her  Majesty  should  have  power  by  and  with 
the  advice  and  consent  of  the  said  Council  and 
Assembly  to  make  laws  for  the  "peace,  welfare, 
and  good  government  of  the  said  colony  in  all 
cases  whatsoever."  The  members  of  the  Coun- 
cil were  to  be  nominated  by  the  Governor  with 
the  advice  of  the  Executive  Council.  The  first 
nominees  were  to  hold  their  seats  for  five  years 
only.  The  members  of  the  Assembly  were  to  be 
chosen  by  male  electors  having  certain  residen- 
tial and  property  qualifications.  An  Assembly 
once  constituted  was  to  continue  for  five  years 
unless  dissolved  by  the  Governor.  The  new 
Legislature  was  endowed  with  full  power  to 
deal  with  the  waste  lands  of  the  Crown  and  to 
impose  duties  of  customs. 

On  21  Dec.  1853,  the  new  Constitution  was 
adopted  and  transmitted  to  the  Secretary  of 
State  for  the  Colonies.  In  an  amended  shape  it 
was  made  a  schedule  to  a  bill  introduced  into 
the  Imperial  Parliament,  intituled  "A  Bill  to  en- 
able irier  ]\Iajesty  to  assent  to  a  bill  as  amended 
by  the  Legislature  of  New  South  Wales  to  con- 
fer a  Constitution  on  New  South  Wales."  The 
bill  was  passed  by  Parliament  and  received  the 
Royal  assent  on  16  July  1855.  Its  number  is 
18  and  19  Vic,  c.  54.  The  Act  conferring  a 
Constitution  on  Victoria  was  assented  to  on  the 
same  day.  The  Constitutions  were  then  trans- 
mitted to  the  respective  Colonies,  accompanied 
by  explanatory  despatches  from  the  Secretary 
of  State,  Lord  John  Russell,  in  which  the  Gov- 
ernors were  instructed  as  to  the  introduction  of 
responsible  government. 

Responsible  Government. — That  great  change 
in  the  colonial  system  of  administration  known 
as  "  The  Introduction  of  Responsible  Govern- 
ment" —  that  is  of  Ministers  appointed  by  and 
responsible  to  the  Governor,  but  constitution- 
ally and  practically  responsible  to  Parliament  — 
is  said  by  some  authorities  to  have  been  effected 
solely  by  despatches  from  the  Secretary  of  State 
to  Colonial  Governors.  These  despatches  de- 
scribed the  circumstances  in  which  the  Crown, 
through  the  Governor  for  the  time  being,  would 
exercise  its  right  of  displacing  one  set  of  public 
servants  and  of  appointing  others  in  their  places 
—  that  no  change  would  be  made  so  long  as 
those  public  servants,  being  Ministers  in  charge 
of  Departments,  possessed  the  confidence  of  the 
local  Legislature.  In  the  body  of  the  Constitu- 
tion Act  of  New  South  Wales  (and  this  remark 
applies  equally  to  that  of  Victoria)  the  words 
"responsible  ministers"  do  not  occur.  Were  it 
not  for  a  marginal  note  to  one  of  the  sections, 
not  even  a  hint  would  have  been  given  on  its 
face  of  the  important  change  it  was  intended  to 
effect. 

Other  constitutional  jurists,  however,  afiirm 
that  section  37  of  the  Constitution  Act  of  New 
South  Wales,  and  the  corresponding  section  of 
that  of  Victoria,  contains  provisions  which  as- 
sume if  they  do  not  originate  some  plan  of  min- 
isterial and  responsible  government.  Both  those 
sections  declared  that  appointments  of  all  public 
offices  shall  be  vested  in  the  Governor  with  the 
advice  of  the  Executive  Council,  "except  tlie 
appointment  of  officers  liable  to  retire  from 
office   on  political  grounds   which  appointments 


AUSTRALIA  — POLITICAL  HISTORY 


shall  be  vested  in  the  Governor  alone. '^  The 
Constitution  Acts  of  South  Australia,  Queens- 
land and  Western  Australia,  contain  substan- 
tially similar  sections.  But  section  i8  of  the 
Constitution  Act  of  Victoria  and  section  32  of 
the  Act  of  South  Australia  went  much  further 
in  the  direction  of  expressly  recognizing  and 
introducing  responsible  government.  Those 
sections  enacted  that  a  certain  number  of  offi- 
cers of  the  Governments  in  those  colonies  for 
the  time  being  should  be  members  of  the  Legis- 
lature created  by  the  new  Constitutions.  On 
22  May  1856,  the  first  Parliament  of  New  South 
Wales  under  the  new  Constitution  was  opened 
by  Sir  William  T.  Denison.  The  first  Respon- 
sible Ministry  had  Mr.  Alexander  Donaldson 
as  Colonial   Secretary  and  Premier. 

Aduiinistration  and  Lc,^islation. —  With  the 
establishment  of  responsible  Government  in 
New  South  Wales  the  initial  pulsations  of  po- 
litical life  in  Australia  may  fairly  be  said  to 
date  their  beginnings.  The  Governor  of  the 
colonv  was  the  representative  of  the  Crown, 
but  he  was  no  longer  his  own  Prime  Minister. 
In  1859  a  new  Parliament  was  elected  under 
the  provisions  of  an  Act  to  Amend  the  Consti- 
tution, introduced  and  passed  by  the  advice  of 
the  Cowper  Administration,  providing  for  in- 
creased electoral  representation,  vote  by  ballot 
and  manhood  suffrage  which  in  later  years  was 
developed  into  *one  man  one  vote,^^  and  finally 
into  "one  adult  one  vote.'* 

In  i860  the  Robertson  Ministry  introduced 
two  Land  Bills,  one  providing  for  the  alienation 
and  the  other  for  the  pastoral  occupation  of 
Crown  lands.  The  main  principles  of  these 
bills  were  free  selection  —  before  survey,  which 
constituted  the  battle  cry  of  the  land  reformers. 
In  1861  the  bills  were  again  introduced  into  the 
Assembly,  Mr.  Robertson  resigned  his  seat  in 
the  Assembly  and  was  appointed  a  member  of 
the  Council  in  order  to  pilot  the  bills  through 
that  Chamber.  Both  bills  were  again  passed 
by  the  Assembly  and  sent  to  the  Council.  In 
order  to  counteract  and  overcome  the  opposi- 
tion in  the  Council  it  was  decided  to  swamp  that 
Chamber  by  the  appointment  of  21  members.  A 
parliamentary  crisis  was  thus  brought  about.  A 
majority  of  the  old  members  withdrew  from  the 
Chamber,  thus  leaving  it  without  a  quorum  and 
the  fresh  nominees  could  not  be  sworn  in.  The 
term  of  office  of  the  first  members  of  the  Coun- 
cil was  limited  to  five  years  which  was  then 
about  to  expire.  The  Council  was  reconstituted 
by  the  appointment  of  27  life  members  on  24 
June  1861  ;  Wentworth  being  appointed  the  first 
President.  In  1862  the  Crown  Land  Alienation 
Bill  and  the  Crown  Land  Occupation  Bill  were 
passed  by  both  Houses.  A  Chinese  Immigra- 
tion Restriction  Bill  embodying  the  main  pro- 
visions of  Victorian  legislation,  was  also  passed. 

In  1863  Messrs.  Dalley  and  Parkes  returned 
to  the  Colony  from  England  where  they  had 
been  sent  on  a  mission  to  promote  emigration 
to  New  South  Wales.  From  this  time  on  Mr. 
Parkes  became  a  prominent  figure  in  the  polit- 
ical world  of  New  South  Wales.  He  was 
closely  identified  with  the  cause  of  free  trade. 
In  1868  Mr.  Parkes  resigned,  and  temporarily 
withdrew  from  public  life.  The  most  notable 
public  events  of  this  period  were  the  withdrawal 
of  the  British  troops  from  New  South  Wales 
and    Victoria,   and   the   successful    transmission 


of  the  first  through  cable  message  from  Aus- 
tralia to  England. 

In  1872  the  Martin-Robertson  Ministry  was 
defeated.  Mr.  Parkes  having  returned  to  the 
House  was  entrusted  with  the  task  of  forming 
a  ministry.  He  retained  the  premiership  until 
1875  when  his  government  was  defeated  on  the 
motion  by  Mr.  Robertson.  The  Robertson  Min- 
istry remained  in  office  imtil  17  Dec.  1877,  when 
Mr.  Parkes  formed  another  ministry  which  had 
but  a  short  reign.  A  political  duel  went  on  be- 
tween Mr.  Parkes  and  Mr.  Robertson  for  a 
considerable  time,  but  was  at  last  terminated 
by  a  coalition  of  the  two  leaders  who  in  De- 
cember 1878,  formed  a  Ministry  which  lasted 
until  Jan.  1883.  In  1881  a  Chinese  Immigration 
Restriction  Act  was  passed  imposing  severe 
penalties  on  Chinese  entering  the  Colony,  with- 
out payment  of  a  poll  tax  of  iio.  An  Act  was 
passed  legalizing  trade  unions.  The  Federal 
Council  of  Australia  was  created  on  28  Nov. 
1883.  A  rich  silver  field  was  discovered  at 
Broken  Hill   (1883). 

The  Land  Bill  of  1882  was  the  rock  on  which 
the  Parkes-Robertson  Ministry  was  wrecked. 
A  general  election  resulted  in  Mr.  (afterwards 
Sir)  Alexander  Stuart  coming  to  power  which 
he  held  until  October,  1885.  In  1888  another 
Chinese  Restriction  Act  was  passed.  The  Poll 
Tax  was  raised  to  £100  per  head.  Chinese  were 
not  permitted  to  engage  in  mining  and  they 
were  not  qualified  to  be  naturalized.  A  tonnage 
limitation  was  imposed  on  vessels  bringing 
Chinese  to  New  South  Wales ;  they  were  not 
allowed  to  bring  more  than  one  Chinese  pas- 
senger to  every  300  tons. 

In  February  1890,  a  Federal  Conference, 
presided  over  by  Sir  Henry  Parkes,  was  held 
in  Melbourne,  at  which  it  was  resolved  that  a 
National  Australian  Convention  should  be  held 
to  draft  a  Constitution  for  the  federation  of  the 
Australian  colonies.  In  March  1891,  the  Con- 
vention was  held  in  Sydney  and  a  draft  Con- 
stitution was  adopted.  In  October  1891,  the 
last  Parkes  Ministry  was  defeated,  being  suc- 
ceeded by  that  of  Sir  George  Dibbs.  In  1893  an 
Electoral  Bill  was  passed  embodying  the  prin- 
ciple of  "one  man  one  vote.*' 

In  August  1894,  the  Dibbs'  Ministry,  which 
had  introduced  protection  in  a  modified  form, 
gave  way  to  a  free  trade  Ministry  formed  by 
George  H.  Reid.  A  new  tariff  on  free  trade 
lines,  a  land  tax,  an  income  tax,  and  homestead 
bills  were  passed  under  his  leadership.  Early 
in  1895  Mr.  Reid  attended  a  conference  of 
Premiers  at  Hobart  at  which  the  draft  of  an 
Enabling  Bill  to  be  introduced  into  the  Legis- 
lature of  each  colony,  providing  for  the  election 
directly  by  the  people  of  each  colony  of  10  rep- 
resentatives to  attend  a  Federal  Convention 
to  frame  a  Constitution  for  the  federation  of 
the  colonies,  to  be  afterward  submitted  to  a 
referendum  of  the  people  of  each  colony,  was 
adopted.  Subsequently  the  Parliament  of  New 
South  Wales,  as  well  as  the  Parliaments  of  the 
other  colonies  passed  identical  bills  for  the 
aforesaid  purpose.  It  was  under  the  authority 
of  this  legislation  that  the  Commonwealth  Con- 
stitution was  afterward  framed  and  adopted. 
In  1897  an  Immigration  Restriction  Act,  based 
on  the  Natal  Act,  imposing  an  education  test  in 
order    to    exclude    colored    aliens,    was    passed. 


AUSTRALIA  — POLITICAL  HISTORY 


Legislation  on  similar  lines  was  adopted  in  sev- 
-eral  other  colonies. 

On  13  Sept.  1899,  the  Reid  ]\Iinistry  was  de- 
feated and  Sir  William  Lyne  formed  a  Govern- 
ment which  succeeded  in  passing  the  Early 
Closing  Act,  the  Navigation  Act.  the  Old  Age 
Pension  Act,  and  the  Women's  Franchise  Act. 
In  March  1901,  Sir  William  Lyne  retired  in 
order  to  take  office  as  a  Commonwealth  Min- 
ister. The  Ministry  formed  by  Mr.  (after- 
wards Sir)  John  See  succeeded  it.  One  of  the 
most  important  measures  passed  through  its 
instrumentality  was  the  Industrial  Arbitration 
Act  (1901)  ;  under  which  the  principle  of  com- 
pulsory arbitration  and  settlement  of  industrial 
disputes  was  established.  A  short-lived  Wad- 
dell  ^linistry  was  followed  bv  one  formed  by 
Mr.  Joseph  Hector  Carruthers,  and  it  is  still 
in  office    (September  1906). 

VICTORIA    AN    OFF-SHOOT    OF    NEW     SOUTH     WALES. 

Separation. —  By  Act  13  and  14  Vic,  c.  59, 
(5  Aug.  1850),  the  district  of  Port  Phillip, 
bounded  on  the  north  and  northeast  by  a  straight 
line  drawn  from  Cape  Howe  to  the  nearest 
source  of  the  river  ^lurray,  and  thence  by  the 
course  of  that  river  to  the  eastern  boundar}'  of 
the  colony  of  South  Australia,  was  separated 
from  the  colony  of  New  South  Wales,  ceased 
to  return  members  to  the  Legislative  Council  of 
such  colony,  and  was  erected  into  and  thence- 
forth formed  l  separate  colony,  *to  be  known 
and  designated  as  the  colony  of  Victoria.*'  A 
Legislative  Council  was  created  in  and  for 
the  new  colonj'  having  powers  and  functions 
similar  to  those  of  the  newly-organized  Council 
of  New  South  Wales.  On  i  July  1851,  writs 
for  the  election  of  20  elective  members  for  the 
Legislative  Council  of  Victoria  were  issued ;  10 
were  nominated  by  the  Crown.  Mr.  La  Trobe 
was  appointed  Lieutenant-Governor.  In  this 
manner  the  Colony  of  Victoria  was  called  into 
existence  and  received  the  first  impulse  of  an 
autonomous  political  life.  The  new  Council 
was  convened  for  the  despatch  of  business  in 
November  1851,  at  about  the  time  when  gold 
was  being  discovered  in  fabulous  quantities  in 
the  famous  goldfields  of  Ballarat  and  Bendigo. 
The  official  members  were :  Mr.  W.  Lonsdale, 
Colonial  Secretary;  Mr.  (afterwards  Sir)  W.  F. 
Stawell,  Attorney-General;  Mr.  (afterwards 
Sir)  Redmond  B;.rry,  Solicitor-General;  C.  H. 
Ebden.  Auditor-General ;  and  R.  W.  Pohlman, 
Chairman  of  the  Court  of  Requests.  J.  F. 
Palmer  was  elected  Speaker. 

The  A'ew  Constitution. —  A  new  Constitution 
drawn  on  the  same  lines,  and  passed  in  the 
same  manner  as  that  of  New  South  Wales,  was 
assented  to  by  Her  Majesty  on  16  July  1855. 
The  only  substantial  difference  between  the  two 
bicameral  Legislatures  was  that  whilst  the 
Legislative  Council  of  New  South  Wales  was 
composed  of  members  nominated  by  the  Crown 
the  members  of  the  Legislative  Council  of  Vic- 
toria were  elected  by  residential  inhabitants 
having  high  property  qualifications. 

Responsible  Government. —  The  Premier  of 
the  first  Responsible  Government  was  W.  C. 
Haines.  The  first  election  for  the  Legislative 
Assembly  took  place  in  the  spring  of  1856.  The 
first  Ministry  resigned  on  the  passing  of  an  un- 
favorable resolution  upon  the  subject  of  the 
Estimates,   in    ISIarch    1859.     Sir   John   O'Shan- 


assy,  the  mover  of  the  resolution,  then  became 
Premier. 

Administration  and  Legislation. —  Among 
the  problems  which  soon  engaged  the  attention 
of  the  newly-created  Parliament  of  Victoria 
were  those  of  Constitutional  Reform,  Manhood 
Suffrage,  Land  and  Mining  Legislation,  Agri- 
culture, Protection,  and  Free  Trade.  Inter- 
Colonial  Relations,  Public  Works,  Railways, 
Telegraphs,  Water  Supply,  Immigration,  Chi- 
nese Immigration  Restriction,  Naval  and  Mili- 
tary Defence,  and  Education. 

Arnong  the  first  Administrations  which  held 
office  in  Victoria  were  those  of  which  William 
Clark  Haines  was  Premier  in  1855-57;  1857-58; 
r\Ir.  (afterwards  Sir)  John  O'Shannassy,  Pre- 
mier, 1857;  1858-59;  1S61-63;  Wm.  Nicholson, 
Premier,  1859-60;  Richard  Heales,  Premier, 
1860-61. 

In  the  early  days  of  the  goldfields  great  dis- 
content existed  because  of  the  heavy  license  fee 
of  30  shillings  per  month  which  every  digger  was 
required  to  pay.  In  Noven-ffier  1854,  the  tyr- 
annical policy  of  the  Government  culminated 
in  an  open  insurrection  which  broke  out  at 
Ballarat.  A  flag  of  revolt,  having  the  emblem 
of  the  Southern  Cross,  was  hoisted  over  a  bar- 
ricade known  as  the  "Eureka  Stockade.*'  By 
command  of  Governor  Sir  Charles  Hotham  a 
force  of  British  troops  were  sent  to  Ballarat  to 
storm  the  stockade.  Many  lives  were  lost. 
After  this  tragic  period, —  the  first  and  only 
bloodshed  in  Australia  in  the  name  and  for  the 
cause  of  political  freedom, —  the  grievances  of 
the  diggers  were  redressed. 

In  1855  the  Legislative  Council  of  the  newly- 
created  Colony  of  Victoria  led  the  way  in  the 
passage  of  a  number  of  laws  intended  to  restrict 
Chinese  immigration,  which  commenced  in  1854, 
when  the  fame  of  the  gold  diggings  of  Victoria 
began  to  attract  thousands  of  Chinamen  to  that 
Colony.  The  Victorian  Council  passed  a  bill, 
which  w^as  assented  to  by  the  Governor,  "to 
make  provision  for  certain  immigrants.**  The 
substance  of  the  law  was  that  no  ship  should 
bring  to  a  Victorian  port  more  passengers,  be- 
ing Chinese  immigrants,  than  in  the  proportion 
of  one  person  to  every  10  tons  of  the  tonnage 
of  such  ship,  under  a  penalty  of  iio  for  each 
passenger  in  excess  of  such  proportion.  On  the 
arrival  of  a  ship  in  any  port  of  Victoria  with 
Chinese  immigrants  on  board,  the  master  was 
required  to  pay  to  the  Collector  of  Customs  a 
tax  of  iio  for  every  such  immigrant.  The 
money  so  collected  was  to  be  invested  by  the 
Government  to  form  a  fund  for  the  relief,  sup- 
port and  maintenance  of  such  immigrants.  Pro- 
vision was  made  for  the  registration  of  such 
immigrants,  on  their  arrival  in  any  district  or 
place  to  which  they  proceeded.  This  and  other 
Immigration  Acts  were  consolidated  in   1865. 

Another  notable  measure  passed  by  the  first 
Legislative  Council  of  Victoria  was  a  bill  adopt- 
ing "vote  by  ballot;'*  this  was  the  first  measure 
in  the  history  of  Parliamentary  Government  in 
which  this  method  was  made  legal. 

The  first  important  bill  was  introduced  by 
James  Service  as  Commissioner  of  Crown 
Lands  and  Surveys  in  the  Nicholson  Govern- 
ment, on  30  Nov.  1859.  The  chief  feature  in 
this  bill  was  that  of  free  selection  for  settle- 
ment and  agriculture  over  all  the  waste  land  of 
the   Colony,  subject  to  certain  conditions  with 


AUSTRALIA  — POLITICAL  HISTORY 


respect  to  lands  not  yet  surveyed.  The  bill  was 
passed  by  the  Assembly  but  was  rejected  by 
the  Council. 

The  period  from  1863  to  1866  was  memor- 
able in  the  history  of  Victoria.  It  began  in  a 
conflict  between  the  parties  representing  Pro- 
tection and  Free  Trade.  It  then  developed  into 
a  struggle  between  the  two  Houses  for  financial 
supremacy,  and  in  its  third  and  last  stage  it 
became  a  contest  between  the  Legislative  As- 
semblv  and  the  Crown.  The  first  McCulIoch 
Ministry  took  ofiice  in  June,  1863 ;  it  remained 
in  power  until  6  May  1868.  One  of  its  first 
proposals  was  a  bill  imposing  numerous  cus- 
toms duties  of  a  protective  character.  It  was 
passed  by  the  Lower  House  and  rejected  by  the 
Council.  It  was  then  reintroduced  tacked  on  to 
the  Appropriation  Bill.  The  Council  again  re- 
jected it,  and  a  deadlock  ensued.  The  Govern- 
ment in  the  meantime  collected  duties  on  the 
authority  of  the  Assembly  alone.  Funds  not 
having  been  voted  for  payment  of  the  Public 
Service  the  Government  borrowed  money  to 
the  amount  of  £40,000  from  the  London  Char- 
tered Bank  which  then  sued  the  Government 
for  money  lent.  The  Government  confessed 
judgment.  The  Supreme  Court  pronounced  the 
collection  of  customs  duties  on  the  resolution 
of  the  Assembly  to  be  illegal.  It  also  held  that 
confessed  judgments  against  the  Crown  were 
illegal.  A  tariff,  separated  from  the  Appropri- 
ation Bill,  was  again  passed  by  the  Assembly 
and  again  thrown  out  by  the  Council.  The 
Ministry  resigned.  Mr.  Fellows  formed  a  Gov- 
ernment which,  however,  could  not  carry  on. 
Mr.  McCulloch  returned  to  office  and  the  Tariff 
Bill  was  again  passed  by  the  Assembly,  and 
again  sent  up  to  the  Council.  The  preamble  of 
the  bill  asserting  the  exclusive  right  of  the 
Assembly  to  grant  mone}'  and  taxes,  was  eventu- 
ally withdrawn,  and  the  bill  was  passed. 

The  second  McCulloch  ^Ministry  was  de- 
feated on  20  Sept.  1869.  It  was  followed  by  an 
Administration  formed  by  John  Alexander 
McPherson  which  remained  in  office  for  six 
months.  It  was  displaced  on  9  April  1870,  by 
Sir  James  McCulloch,  who,  on  19  June  1871, 
was  dvjfeated  on  his  Property  Tax  Proposals. 
Charles  Gavan  Duffy  then  formed  a  Ministry 
which  successfully  proposed  and  carried  a  Pro- 
tectionist Tariff.  The  Duffy  ^linistry  was  de- 
feated on  10  June  1872.  The  Governor  refused 
a  dissolution  and  James  Goodall  Francis  be- 
came Premier.  The  first  Mining  on  Private 
Property  Bill,  was  carried  in  the  Assembly  by 
43  votes  to  3,  but  was  rejected  by  the  Upper 
House.  A  bill  to  regulate  mines,  in  order  to 
prevent  mining  accidents,  and  to  protect  miners, 
was  passed. 

In  1875  the  Kerferd  Government  introduced 
a  bill  imposing  certain  duties  on  wines  and 
spirits.  The  tariff  proposals  were  carried  by 
a  majority  of  one.  This  the  Government  ac- 
cepted as  an  adverse  vote  and  applied  for  a 
dissolution,  which  the  Governor  refused.  On 
7  Aug.  1875,  Graham  Berry  formed  his  first 
Ministrjf,  but  he  was  defeated  on  20  Oct.  1875. 
Sir  James  McCuUoch's  fourth  and  last  Govern- 
ment then  came  into  power.  Its  accession 
marked  the  beginning  of  a  stormy  and  momen- 
tous political  period.  The  Berry  party  raised 
a  *'stonewall"  of  obstruction,  and  the  AlcCulloch 
party  retaliated  by  passing  standing  orders  to 


restrict  and  limit  debate,  which  became  known 
as  the  "Ironhand"  and  the  «Gag.»  The  McCul- 
loch Alinistry  became  very  unpopular  through- 
out the  country.  At  a  general  election  held  on 
II  ]\Iay  1877,  an  immense  majority  was  returned 
against  the  Government.  ]Mr.  Berry  then 
formed  his  second  Ministry.  The  principal 
planks  in  its  program  were,  a  Land  Tax  to 
"burst  up  the  large  estates,"  and  payment  of 
members.  A  Land  Tax  Bill  was  introduced 
and  passed.  Provision  for  the  payment  of 
members,  to  the  amount  of  £300  per  year,  was 
made  in  the  Appropriation  Bill.  In  that  form 
it  was  sent  to  the  Council  where  it  was  rejected 
on  the  ground  that  it  was  a  "tack.*^  Then  en- 
sued the  historic  deadlock  of  1877-78.  No 
money  having  been  voted  to  pay  the  public 
servants  the  Government  on  8  Jan.  1878,  or- 
dered the  dismissal  of  all  heads  of  departments. 
County  Court  Judges,  Police  ^Magistrates,  and 
other  public  officers.  This  proceeding  caused  a 
great  sensation,  and  by  the  opponents  of  the 
Ministry  it  was  denounced  as  "revolutionary.* 
Shortly  afterwards  a  compromise  was  arrived 
at ;  payment  of  members  was  passed  in  a  sepa- 
rate bill  and  the  Appropriation  Bill  without  the 
obnoxious  "tack"  was  carried.  The  Berry 
party  then  devoted  their  attention  to  the  ques- 
tion of  Constitutional  reform.  A  bill  was 
passed  through  the  Assembly  providing  for  the 
adoption  of  a  method  of  referendum  to  settle 
disputes  between  the  two  Houses.  It  was  re- 
jected by  the  Council.  A  deputation,  or  em- 
bassy, consisting  of  the  Premier  and  Professor 
Pearson,  was  sent  to  England  to  interview  the 
Secretary  of  State  for  the  Colonies,  who  was 
asked  to  settle  the  Constitutional  difficulty  ia 
Victoria.  Sir  Michael  Hicks-Beach  gave  a  very 
guarded  reply  stating  that  the  Imperial  Parlia- 
ment would  never  alter  the  Constitution  of  the 
Colony  at  the  instance  of  one  House  only. 

In  1879  the  Parliament  of  Victoria  again  re- 
sorted to  legislation  in  order  to  arrest  the  in- 
flux of  Chinese.  Vessels  were  not  allowed  to- 
introduce  into  any  Victorian  port  more  than  one 
Chinaman  per  100  tons  of  tonnage,  and  a  poll 
tax  of  iio  was  imposed  on  each  immigrant  oa 
his  landing.  In  April,  1888,  a  Chinaman,  Chun 
Toy,  arrived  in  the  port  of  Melbourne  on  board 
the  British  ship  Afghan.  The  Collector  of  Cus- 
toms considered  that  the  Afghan  had  brought  a 
larger  number  of  Chinese  than  was  allowed  b}'' 
law ;  he  refused  to  allow  any  of  them  to  land,  or 
to  accept  the  poll  tax  of  iio  each.  Chun  Toy 
brought  an  action  against  the  Collector  in  the 
Supreme  Court  of  Victoria,  which  decided  that 
the  action  of  the  Government  in  preventing  the 
landing  of  the  Chinese  prepared  to  pay  the  pre- 
scribed poll  tax  was  illegal.  The  Victorian 
Government  appealed  from  this  decision  to  the 
Privy  Council  which  reversed  the  judgment  of 
the  Victorian  Court,  and  held  (i)  that  the  Col- 
lector of  Customs  was  under  no  legal  obliga- 
tion to  accept  payment,  whether  tendered  by 
the  master  on  behalf  of  any  such  immigrant,  or 
tendered  b\'  or  for  any  individual  immigrant; 
(2)  that,  apart  from  the  Act,  an  alien  has  not  a 
legal  right,  enforceable  by  action,  to  enter  Brit- 
ish territory. 

After  an  appeal  to  the  Constituencies  in 
March,  1880,  Berry  resigned,  and  James  Service 
then  formed  a  Alinistry.  He  introduced  a  meas- 
ure  to   amend   the   Constitution,   which   upon  a 


AUSTRALIA  — POLITICAL  HISTORY 


division  was  lost  by  two  votes.  Parliament  was 
dissolved  and  a  general  election  was  held  in 
June,  1880,  which  resulted  in  the  Berry  party 
being  returned  to  office  with  a  substantial  ma- 
jority. The  nrmcipal  work  done  by  the  third 
Berry  Ministry  was  the  carrying  of  a  bill  to 
amend  the  Constitution  of  the  Legislative  Coun- 
cil by  reducing  the  qualification  of  electors  and 
of  members.  A  bill  was  also  passed  making 
permanent  provision  for  payment  of  members. 
In  July  1881,  the  third  Berry  Ministry  was  suc- 
ceeded by  one  formed  by  Sir  Bryan  O'Lougthlin, 
The  O'Loughlin  Ministry'  lost  office  in  March, 
1883.  when  a  Coalition  ^linistry  under  Service 
and  Berry  was  formed.  Under  this  Govern- 
ment, Acts  were  passed  for  the  abolition  of  po- 
litical control  of  the  Government  railwaj's,  by 
placing  them  under  the  management  of  three 
independent  commissioners,  and  for  the  aboli- 
tion of  patronage  in  the  public  service.  During 
his  premiership.  Service  took  great  interest  in 
the  question  of  Australian  Federation,  and 
through  his  instrumentalit}'  a  convention  was 
held  in  Sydney  at  which  a  scheme  for  the  es- 
tablishment of  a  Federal  Council  was  adopted. 

The  Service-Berry  Alinistry  was  followed  in 
Februarj^,  1886,  by  the  Gillies-Deakin  combina- 
tion. In  1888  another  Chinese  Immigration 
Restriction  Act  was  passed  providing  that  no 
vessel  should  enter  any  Victorian  port  having 
on  board  more  than  one  Chinaman  for  every 
500  tons  of  the  tonnage  of  such  vessel.  Any 
Chinese  who  should  enter  Victoria  by  land, 
without  first  obtaining  a  permit  in  writing, 
from  some  person  to  be  appointed  by  the  Gov- 
ernor in  Council,  was  declared  guilty  of  an 
offence  against  the  Act,  and  made  liable  on  con- 
viction to  a  penalty  of  not  less  than  £5  nor  more 
than  £20  and  also  upon  the  warrant  of  the 
Commissioner  of  Trade  and  Customs,  to  be  re- 
moved or  deported  to  the  colony  from  whence 
he  came. 

On  5  Nov.  1890,  the  Gillies-Deakin  Ministry 
was  succeeded  by  a  Ministrj'  formed  by  James 
^lunro,  who  in  his  turn  gave  place  in  February, 
1892,  to  one  formed  by  William  Shiels.  The 
career  of  the  Shiels  ^linistry,  the  Patterson 
]^Iinistry,  and  the  early  part  of  that  of  the 
Turner  ^linistry,  which  came  into  office  on 
27  Sept.  1S94,  were  comparatively  uneventful. 
In  February.  1895,  Sir  George  Turner  was  as- 
sociated with  Reid  and  other  Premiers  in  a 
conference  held  at  Hobart  at  which  a  Federal 
Enabling  Bill  was  drafted.  The  first  Turner 
Ministry  was  defeated  in  December,  1899. 
Allen  McLean's  Ministry  held  office  for  a  little 
over  II  months;  during  which  time  several  con- 
tingents were  sent  from  Victoria  to  assibt  the 
British  army  in  South  Africa.  On  15  Nov.  1900, 
Sir  George  Turner  again  became  Premier  in 
lime  to  make  arrangements  for  the  establish- 
ment of  the  Commonwealth.  An  Old  Age  Pen- 
sion Act  was  passed,  also  bills  protecting  the 
rights  and  interests  of  Victorian  public  serv- 
ants. In  the  beginning  of  1901  Sir  George  Tur- 
ner resigned  the  Premiership  and  accepted  office 
as  Treasurer  in  the  first  Federal  Cabinet.  Sir 
Alexander  Peacock  became  head  of  the  new 
Government.  On  3  June  1902,  the  Peacock 
Ministry  was  displaced  on  a  no-conlidence  mo- 
tion by  W.  H.  Irvine.  During  the  career  of 
the  Irvine  Ministry  a  railway  strike  occurred  in 
Victoria  which  resulted  in  an  Act  being  passed 
for  the  separate  representation  in  Parliament  of 


railway  and  other  public  servants.  On  the  re- 
tirement of  Irvine  through  ill-health  he  was 
succeeded  by  Thomas  Bent  as  Premier,  who 
still  holds  office  (September  1906). 

T.A.3M.A.NI.\   AN   OFF-SHOOT   OF   NEW    SOUTH    WALES. 

Separation.— By  the  Act  4  Geo.  IV.,  c.  96 
(19  July  1823).  the  Crown  was  empowered  to 
separate  Van  Diemen's  Land  from  Xew  South 
Wales,  and  erect  it  into  a  separate  colony  which 
then  received  a  Lieutenant-Governor,  an'Execu- 
tive  Council  and  a  sm-M  Legislative  Council, 
consisting  of  seven  members.  Bv  Act  13  and 
14  Vic,  c.  59,  s.  7,  it  was  provided  that  the 
Legislature  already  existing  in  Van  Diemen  s 
Land  might  establish  within  the  colo.iy  a  Legis- 
lative Council  to  consist  of  not  more  than  24 
members,  of  whom  one-third  should  be  nomi- 
nated by  Her  Majesty  and  the  remainder  elected 
by  Qualified  inhabitants  of  the  colony.  Under 
the  aiithority  of  this  law  a  new  Legislative 
Council  was  called  into  existence  having  pow- 
ers and  functions  similar  to  the  Legislative 
Council  of  Xew  South  Wales. 

The  Xezi.'  Constitution. —  During  the  Gov- 
ernorship of  Sir  William  Denison  the  new 
Legislative  Council  of  Van  Diemen's  Land 
under  the  powers  conferred  by  13  and  14  Vic, 
c.  59,  s.  2>-<  drafted  a  Constitution  for  the  es- 
tablishment of  a  bicameral  Legislature  in  Van 
Diemen's  Land  composed  of  a  Legislative  Coun- 
cil of  15  members  elected  by  the  qualified  in- 
habitants, and  a  House  of  Assembly  of  30 
members  elected  on  a  more  popular  franchise 
than  that  of  the  Council.  The  bill  so  drawn  was 
passed  by  the  Legislative  Council  and  reserved 
by  the  Lieutenant-Governor  for  the  Royal  as- 
sent. It  became  law  on  24  Oct.  1856;  the  first 
Parliament  being  opened  on  2  Dec.  1856.  Sir 
Henry  E.  F.  Young  was  appointed  the  first 
Governor-in-Chief  of  the  colony  under  the  new 
system  of  Responsible  Government.  The  first 
Premier  was  William  T.  N.  Champ.  In  the 
year  1853,  upon  tlic  cessation  of  transportation, 
the  name  of  the  island  was  changed  from  that 
of  Van  Diemen's  Land  to  Tasmania. 

Administration  and  Legislation. —  L'pon  the 
cessation  of  transportation  and  the  grant  of 
Responsible  Government  to  Tasmania  a  new 
life  and  destiny  was  imparted  to  the  struggling 
community.  Between  1855  and  1872  there  was 
substantial  improvement  and  progress  in  the 
position  ;.nd  prospects  of  the  island,  marked 
by  the  development  of  the  interior,  the  con- 
struction of  roads  and  tramways,  the  initiation 
of  railway  and  telegraphic  communication,  the 
expansion  of  the  agricultural  and  pastoral  in- 
dustries, the  division  of  the  colony  into  muni- 
cinalities,  the  laying  of  a  sub-marine  cable  be- 
tween Tasmania  and  the  mainland,  the  discovery 
of  tin  at  Mount  BischoflF  and  other  places,  gold 
in  the  quartz  reefs  at  Brandy  Creek,  and  sub- 
sequently of  silver  and  lead  at  Zeehan.  and  gold 
and  copper  at  Mount  Lyell.  The  west  coast  be- 
came famous  by  the  opening  up  of  some  of  the 
richest  silver  lead  mines  in  the  world ;  coal 
seams  were  opened  at  Hastings,  Langlock,  and 
Ivanhoe. 

In  February  1894,  whilst  the  Dobson  Min- 
istry was  in  office  the  necessity  of  financial  re- 
form became  a  burning  question.  Financial 
proposals  were  submitted  by  the  Government. 
A  bill  to  authorize  a  graduated  Land  Tax  was 
submitted  to  the  Assembly  and  rejected;  conse- 


AUSTRALIA  — POLITICAL  HISTORY 


quently  Dobson  and  his  colleagues  resigned  in 
Anril  1894,  and  Sir  Edward  Braddon  formed  a 
Ministry.  An  Income  Tax  was  passed,  to- 
gether with  a  Land  Tax  iinposing  one  penny 
per  £  on  the  capital  value  of  all  land  in  the 
colony.  This  general  tax  was  adopted  as  a  sort 
of  a  compromise  instead  of  the  proposed  tax 
on  the  unimproved  capital  value  of  the  land 
which  was  at  first  submitted  and  rejected. 

In  February  1895,  ^  conference  of  Premiers 
was  held  at  Hobart  at  which  the  draft  of  a 
Federal  Enabling  Bill  was  adopted.  At  a  gen- 
eral election  held  in  1897,  a  system  of  voting 
based  upon  Hare's  preferential  method  was  used 
for  the  first  time.  During  the  year  a  Federal 
Referendum  was  held  at  which  a  large  majority 
of  votes  was  given  in  favor  of  the  Federal  Con- 
stitution. In  1899  the  Braddon  ]\Iinistry  was 
defeated  and  it  was  succeeded  by  one  formed 
bj-  Sir  Neil  Elliot  Lewis  on  12  Oct.  1899,  who 
retained  office  until  8  April  1903.  On  9  April 
1903,  William  Bispham  Propsting  became  Pre- 
mier, and  on  12  July  1904  he  was  succeeded  by 
John  William  Evans,  who  still  holds  office 
(September    1906). 

QUEENSLAND      AN      OFF-SHOOT      OF      NEW      SOUTH 
WALES. 

Separation. —  On  6  June  1850,  letters-patent 
were  issued  erecting  the  Moreton  Bay  district 
into  a  separate  colony,  under  the  name  of 
Queensland,  and  appointing  Sir  George  Fergu- 
son Bowen  to  be  Captain-General  and  Governor- 
in-Chief  thereof.  The  boundary  of  the  new 
colony  was  defined  as  a  line  commencing  on  the 
sea  coast  at  Point  Danger,  in  latitude  about  28° 
8'  south,  running  westward  along  the  Mac- 
pherson  and  Dividing  Ranges  and  the  Duma- 
resq  River,  to  the  Mclntyre  River,  thence  by 
the  29th  parallel  of  S.  latitude  to  the  141st 
meridian  of  E.  longitude;  on  the  west  the  141st 
meridian  of  E.  longitude  from  the  29th  to  the 
26th  parallel,  and  thence  the  138th  meridian 
north  to  the  Gulf  of  Carpentaria,  together  with 
all  the  adjacent  islands,  their  members  and  ap- 
purtenances in  the  Pacific  Ocean.  The  Gover- 
nor was  authorized  to  appoint  an  Executive 
Council  to  advise  and  assist  him  in  the  govern- 
ment of  Queensland.  The  Constitution  of 
Queensland  was  embodied  in  an  Order  in  Coun- 
cil bearing  the  same  date  as  the  letters-patent. 

The  A'czv  Constitution. —  The  Order  in  Coun- 
cil provided  that  there  should  be  within  the 
Colony  of  Queensland  a  Legislative  Council  and 
a  Legislative  Assembly,  with  the  advice  and 
consent  of  which  Her  Majesty  should  have 
power  to  make  laws  for  the  peace,  welfare,  and 
good  government  of  the  colony  in  all  cases  what- 
soever. In  its  main  outlines  the  Constitution  of 
Queensland  was  almost  a  replica  of  that  of 
Is^ew  South  Wales.  The  first  Parliament  under 
the  New  Constitution  was  convened  for  the 
despatch  of  business  on  29  May  1859. 

Administration  and  Legislation. —  Public 
events  in  Queensland  became  clustered  around 
and  associated  with  the  following  prominent 
men  who  held  office  as  Premier  between  1859 
and  1899:  Robert  G.  Herbert,  Arthur  Mac- 
Alister,  Robert  Mackenzie,  Charles  Lilley, 
Arthur  Palmer,  George  Thorn,  John  Douglas, 
Thomas  Mclllwraith.  Samuel  Griffith,  Boyd  D. 
Morehead,  Hugh  Muir  Nelson,  Thomas  J. 
Byrnes,  and  James  R.  Dickson. 


From  the  date  of  separation  Queensland 
began  to  advance  with  rapid  strides,  and  it  soon 
occupied  a  prominent  position  in  the  Australian 
group.  Between  1861  and  1871,  under  a  policy 
of  assisted  immigration  the  population  largely 
increased  and  the  resources  of  the  country  were 
developed  in  the  direction  of  pastoral  and  agri- 
cultural pursuits,  gold  and  silver  mining,  sugar 
and  cotton  growing.  Cotton  growing  was  stim- 
ulated by  bounties.  The  pastoral  industry  was 
promoted ;  railway  construction  was  com- 
menced ;  state  aid  to  religion  was  withdrawn 
and  a  system  of  primary  and  secondary  educa- 
tion was  initiated.  Queensland  was  found  to  be 
particularl}'  suitable  for  sugar  growmg  and  a 
demand  for  cheap  labor  quickly  sprang  up. 
In  course  of  time  shiploads  of  South  Sea 
Islanders  were  introduced  by  the  sugar  planters 
and  it  was  soon  found  necessary  for  the  Legis- 
lature to  interfere. 

A  financial  crisis  occurred  in  1865,  which 
in  1866  resulted  in  a  change  of  Ministry.  The 
first  MacAlister  Ministry  had  a  short  term  of 
office.  Herbert  was  again  called  to  the  helm 
of  affairs  but  in  a  few  months  he  was  again 
displaced.  The  second  MacAlister  Ministry 
lasted  for  12  months  and  eight  days.  It  secured 
the  passing  of  an  important  measure  dealing 
with  the  cultivation  and  occupation  of  Crown 
lands.  It  was  followed  by  the  MacKenzie  Min- 
istry and  the  Lilley  Ministry.  The  MacKenzie 
Ministry  of  1867  introduced  and  passed  a  Crown 
Land  Act  which  gave  greater  facilities  for  set- 
tlement. The  Lilley  ^Ministry  of  1868  passed 
Acts  relating  to  the  Civil  Service,  Court  proced- 
ure, and  electoral  laws.  The  Lilley  Ministry 
was  followed  by  the  Palmer  Ministry  which 
lasted  from  3  Jan.  1870  to  8  June  1874.  In 
1875  during  the  reign  of  the  third  MacAlister 
Administration  a  State  Education  Act  was 
passed  which  embodied  the  principles  of  free, 
secular,  and  compulsory  education.  A  complete 
measure  of  local  government  was  passed  in  187S, 
under  the  rule  of  the  Douglas  Administration. 
In  the  same  year  the  first  act  to  restrict  Chinese 
immigration  into  Queensland  became  law. 

In  1879,  Mr.  (afterward  Sir)  Thomas  Mc- 
lllwraith formed  his  first  Government.  On 
4  April  1883,  he  made  a  dramatic  and  sensa- 
tional attempt  to  annex  New  Guinea,  directing 
H.  M.  Chester,  at  Thursday  Island  to  cross 
Torres  Straits  and  on  behalf  of  Her  Majesty's 
Government  in  Queensland  to  hoist  the  British 
flag  and  proclaim  the  annexation  to  that  colony 
of  that  part  of  the  island  not  claimed  by  the 
Dutch.  This  act  was  repudiated  by  Lord 
Derby,  who,  however,  on  10  Oct.  1884  declared 
a  British  Protectorate  over  the  southern  part  of 
the   island;    Germany   seized   the   remainder. 

In  November,  1S83,  Mclllwraith  was  de- 
feated and  Mr.  (afterward  Sir)  Samuel  Grif- 
fith succeeded  him.  During  his  term  of  office 
a  convention  of  Australian  representatives  was 
held  in  Sydney,  at  which  a  scheme  for  the  es- 
tablishment of  a  Federal  Council  of  Australasia, 
drafted  by  Griffith,  was  adopted  and  it  after- 
ward became  law  by  Imperial  legislation.  A 
Crown  Lands  Act  was  passed  by  the  Griffith 
Administration  in  1884.  It  encouraged  Crown 
Tenants  to  improve  their  holdings,  facilitated 
bona  fide  settlement  and  discouraged  the  specula- 
tive acquisition  of  land.  The  first  Griffith  Min- 
istry   was    succeeded    (13    June    1888)    by    the 


AUSTRALIA  — POLITICAL  HISTORY 


second  Mcllhvraith  Government,  which  had  only 
a  brief  tenure  of  office,  being  on  20  Xov.  1888, 
supplanted  by  the  Morchead  Ministry  which 
lasted  until  the  7  Aug.  i8go.  The  second  Grif- 
fith ^Ministry  was  then  formed.  In  April  1891, 
Griffith  took  an  active  part  in  a  Federal  con- 
vention held  in  Sydney  at  which  a  draft  Con- 
stitution for  the  union  of  the  Australian  Colonies 
was  adopted. 

The  Kanaka  labor  question  became  important 
about  this  time  and  the  Griffith  Ministry  advised 
the  reintroduction  of  Polynesian  laborers.  On 
14  April  1892,  the  Pacific  Laborers"  Extension 
Bill  was  passed,  notwithstanding  strong  objec- 
tions urged  against  the  introduction  of  colored 
races  into  Queensland.  On  11  Jan.  1893,  Grif- 
fith was  appointed  Chief  Justice.  Mr.  (after- 
ward Sir)  Huijh  Muir  Nelson  occupied  the 
post  of  Acting  Chief  Secretary  pending  the  ar- 
rival from  England  of  Sir  Thomas  Mclllwraith 
who,  on  27  March,  became  Premier  of  his  third 
nnd  last  Administration.  In  October  follow- 
ing he  resigned  the  Premiership  in  which  he  was 
succeeded  by  Sir  Hugh  Muir  Nelson.  In  1S94 
the  great  strike  of  shearers  occurred  in  Queens- 
land, leading  to  a  reign  of  lawlessness  which 
resulted  in  the  passage  of  the  Peace  Preserva- 
tion Act.  In  1896  a  Meat  and  Dairy  Produce 
Act  was  passed  which  gave  a  stimulus  to  the 
primary  industries.  Increased  facilities  for  land 
settlement  were  offered. 

On  13  April  189S,  Sir  Hugh  Nelson  resigned 
the  Premiership  and  was  appointed  President 
of  the  Legislative  Council.  The  task  of  form- 
ing a  new  Government  was  entrusted  to  T.  J. 
Byrnes  who  gave  promise  of  a  brilliant  political 
career  v.-hich  was  cut  short  by  his  death,  at  the 
early  age  of  36,  after  five  months  of  office.  Mr. 
(afterwards  Sir)  James  R.  Dickson  then  be- 
came Premier.  He  was  an  ardent  Federalist 
and  exercised  the  whole  of  his  influence  in 
favor  of  Queensland  joining  the  Commonwealth 
which  was  then  on  the  eve  of  being  established. 
He  represented  Queensland  at  a  conference  of 
Premiers  at  which  the  constitution,  as  adopted 
by  the  Convention,  was  slightly  modified.  In 
Sept.  1899  the  constitution  was  submitted  to  the 
people  of  Queensland  by  a  referendum  and 
was  approved  by  a  large  majority.  In  Decem- 
ber 1899,  a  Labor  Ministry  was  formed  by 
Anderson  Dawson;  it  lasted  six  days  and  R. 
Philp,  a  former  colleague  of  Dickson,  then 
formed  a  ^linistry.  Philp  held  office  until  17 
Sept.  1903.  The  Labor  Party,  having  in  the 
meantime  increased  in  members  and  influence, 
became  sufficiently  strong  to  take  a  share  in 
the  Executive  Government  of  the  country,  and 
accordingly  Arthur  Morgan  vacated  the  Speak- 
er's chair  and  formed  a  Liberal  Labor  Govern- 
ment in  which  the  Liberals  and  Laborites  were 
equally  represented.  In  January  1906,  Morgan 
resigned  the  Premiership  and  became  Vice- 
president  of  the  Executive  Council,  William 
Kidston,  leader  of  the  Labor  Party  becoming 
Premier. 

WESTERN        AUSTR.\LI.\       THE       SECOND       ORIGINAL 
COLONY. 

Foundation. —  The  first  Imperial  Act  applica- 
ble to  Western  Australia  was  10  Geo.  IV., 
c.  22.  (1829).  It  was  intituled  ".An  Act  to 
Provide  Until  the  31st  Day  of  December  1834, 
For  the   Government   of   His    Majesty's   Settle- 


ments in  Western  Australia  on  the  Western 
Coast  of  New  Holland.''  It  will  be  noticed 
that  the  name  "Australia"  first  suggested  for 
the  continent  in  1814  by  Matthew  Flinders,  is 
here  used  and  for  the  first  time  mentioned  bv 
an  Imperial  Act.  By  that  Act  the  King,  with 
the  advice  of  the  Privy  Council,  was  empow- 
ered to  authorize  any  three  or  more  persons 
resident  within  the  settlements,  to  make,  ordain, 
and  constitute  laws,  institutions,  and  ordinances 
for  the  peace,  order,  and  good  government  of 
His  Majesty's  subjects  and  others  within  the 
settlement. 

A  Representative  Legislature. —  Under  the 
Act  13  and  14,  Vic,  c.  59  (5  Aug.  1850),  Western 
Australia  was  granted  a  Legislative  Council, 
consisting  of  26  members,  nine  of  whom  were 
nominated  by  the  Crown  and  17  were  elected  by 
qualified  inhabitants.  Three  years  afterward 
an  agitation  was  commenced  in  favor  of  Re- 
sponsible Government  as  it  existed  in  the  east- 
ern colonies.  In  1874,  a  draft  of  a  Constitu- 
tional Bill  was  sent  to  the  Secretary  of  State, 
who.  however,  decided  that  the  colony  was  not 
yet  ripe  for  the  change. 

The  Nezu  Constitution. —  The  movement  was 
not  successful  until  July,  1890,  when  a  new 
Constitution  was  passed  by  the  Imperial  Parlia- 
ment, being  embodied  in  the  Act  53  and  54  Vic, 
c  26.  It  created  a  bicameral  Legislature  con- 
sisting of  a  nominee  Council  and  an  elective 
Assembly  to  make  laws  in  and  for  Western 
Australia,  and  along  with  it  Responsible  Gov- 
ernment was  introduced.  The  first  Premier  was 
Sir  John  Forrest. 

Administration  and  Legislation. —  The  dis- 
covery of  goldfields,  and  a  rapid  influx  of  popu- 
lation were  factors  which  largely  contributed 
toward  the  success  of  the  constitutional  move- 
ment. The  new  Parliament  was  called  upon  to 
pass  legislation  relating  to  gold  mining,  land 
settlement,  railway  construction,  and  water  sup- 
ply. Under  the  old  regime  a  railway  243  miles 
long  had  been  constructed  on  the  land  grant 
system  between  Beverly  and  Albany.  Under 
the  terms  of  the  contract,  payment  was  made 
at  the  rate  of  12,000  acres  for  every  mile  of 
completed  road.  The  lands  selected  in  payment 
were  situated  within  a  belt  of  40  miles  on  each 
side  of  the  line;  half  the  frontage  to  the  rail- 
way was  reserved  to  the  Government.  In  1896 
the  Government  acquired  this  private  land-grant 
railway,  the  purchase  price  being  £1,100,000. 
The  Perth  Water  Works  constructed  by  the 
Perth  Water  Supply  Company,  was  taken  over 
by  the  Government  at  a  cost  of  £220,000.  Among 
the  lines  of  railways  which  greatly  assisted  in 
the  development  of  the  interior  were  the  lines 
to  Kalgoorlie,  Menzies,  and  Kanowna,  penetrat- 
ing into  the  heart  of  the  eastern  gold-fields.  A 
gigantic  scheme  of  water  supply  for  the  convey- 
ance of  water  through  pipes  by  pumping  from 
station  to  station,  from  the  Mundaring  Reser- 
voir to  Coolgardie  and  Kalgoorlie,  a  distance 
of  330  miles  at  a  cost  of  £2,500,000,  was  in- 
augurated, and  afterward  successfully  com- 
pleted. 

In  1897-99  the  question  of  federation  came 
into  prominence.  The  attitude  of  the  Forrest 
Government  toward  the  new  Constitution  was 
not  favorable  whilst  on  the  gold-fields  there  v.-as 
a  strong  movement  in  favor  of  the  bill  backed 
up  by  threats  of  separation.    This  led  to  a  <:hange 


AUSTRALIA  — POLITICAL  HISTORY 


of  attitude  on  the  part  of  the  Government,  and 
at  the  test  referendum  that  followed  a  majority 
of  electors  voted  in  favor  of  Federal  union. 

In  1899  an  Electoral  Bill  was  passed  which 
conferred  the  political  franchise  on  adult 
woman ;  it  was  exercised  for  the  first  time  on 
the  occasion  of  the  Federal  referendum. 

Sir  John  Forrest  retired  from  state  politics 
in  February,  1901,  and  G.  Throssell  succeeded 
him  as  Premier.  The  Throssell  Ministry  w'as 
defeated  at  a  general  election  held  the  same 
year.  George  Leake  then  formed  a  Ministry 
which  was  short-lived,  as  also  was  another 
formed  by  Alfred  Edwards  Morgans.  On  23 
Dec.  1901  Leake  formed  his  second  Ministry 
and  held  office  until  his  death  on  24  June  1902. 
He  was  succeeded  in  the  Premiership  by  Walter 
H.  James  on  i  July  1902.  The  only  notable 
piece  of  legislation  passed  in  this  period  of 
short-lived  Ministries,  were  the  Arbitration 
and  Conciliation  Act,  and  the  Workmen's  Com- 
pensation Act.  On  10  Aug.  1904  James  was  de- 
feated and  a  Labor  IMinistry  was  formed  by 
Henry  Daglish.  It  remained  in  office  until 
25  Aug.  1905  when  it  was  displaced  —  partly  by 
dissension  within  the  ranks  of  the  Labor  Party, 
and  ostensibly  on  the  question  of  purchasing  and 
resuming  possession  of  the  ^Midland  Railway. 
On  25  Aug.  1905  Cornthwaite  Hector  Rason 
became  Premier  of  a  Liberal  Administration, 
pledged  to  oppose  the  extreme  policy  of  the 
Labor  Party.  He  secured  a  dissolution  and 
went  to  the  country  from  which  he  returned 
with  a  strong  working  majorit3^  He  resigned 
in  May  1906,  to  accept  the  position  of  agent- 
general  in  London  and  Newton  James  Moore 
became  Premier  and  is  still  in  oftice  (September 
1906). 

SOUTH    AUSTRALIA    THE    THIRD    ORIGINAL    COLONY. 

Foundation. —  This  province  was  originally 
carved  out  of  that  part  of  the  colony  of  New 
South  Wales  lying  between  the  meridians  132° 
and  141°  E.  longitude,  bounded  on  the  north 
by  the  26°  parallel  of  S.  latitude  and  on  the 
south  by  the  Southern  Ocean.  This  region  was 
never  occupied,  or  settled,  by  the  New  South 
Wales  Government.  On  15  Aug.  1834,  the  Act 
4  and  5  Wm.  IV.,  c.  95,  intituled  "An  Act  to 
empower  His  jNIajesty  to  erect  South  Aus- 
tralia into  a  British  Possession  or  Province, 
and  to  provide  for  the  Colonization  Thereof" 
was  passed.  It  did  not  purport  to  separate  the 
territory  from  New  South  Wales  ;  it  seemed  to 
contemplate  the  whole  of  that  part  of  the  con- 
tinent as  not  being  subject  to  any  prior  statutory 
authority.  It  empowered  the  King  to  appoint  a 
Governor  and  Colonization  Commissioners,  who 
were  to  have  the  control  of  the  Crown  lands, 
with  power  to  survey  and  sell  the  same,  and  to 
employ  a  portion  of  the  money  so  derived  in 
conducting  the  immigration  of  laborers  from 
Great  Britain.  In  the  exercise  of  these  powers 
the  Province  was  erected;  a  Governor,  a  Judge, 
seven  commissioners,  and  other  officials  were  ap- 
pointed. The  Governor,  with  the  concurrence 
of  the  Chief  Justice,  the  Colonial  Secretary, 
and  Advocate-General,  or  two  of  them,  was 
authorized  to  make  laws  and  impose  taxes. 
Captain  (afterward  Sir)  John  K.  Hindmarsh 
was  appointed  the  first  Governor. 

On  28  Dec.  1836,  Governor  Hindmarsh  ar- 
rived at  Glenelg  and  proclaimed  the  establish- 


ment of  the  Government.  He  was  succeeded' 
on  12  Oct.  1838,  by  Governor  Gawler,  during 
whose  term  of  office  the  settlement  became  in- 
volved in  debt  to  the  extent  of  £281,842.  Gaw- 
ler was  recalled  (May  1841),  and  a  radical 
change  was  made  in  the  government  of  the 
colony ;  the  office  of  Colonization  Commission 
in  London  was  abolished ;  South  Australia  was 
made  a  Crown  colony,  and  the  government  was 
vested  in  the  Secretary  of  States  for  the 
Colonies.  Captain  (afterward  Sir)  George 
Grey  was  appointed  Governor,  and  almost  abso- 
lute power  was  entrusted  to  him. 

In  1842  the  Act  5  and  6  Vic,  c.  61,  intituled 
"An  Act  to  provide  for  the  better  government 
of  South  Australia^'  was  passed.  Under  it  a 
nominated  Legislative  Council,  consisting  of  the 
Governor  and  seven  other  persons  resident  in 
the  colony,  was  created,  having  power  to  make 
laws  for  its  government.  On  25  Oct.  1845.  Cap- 
tain Grey  was  transferred  to  New  Zealand,  and 
Lieutenant-Colonel  Robe  acted  as  Governor  for 
a  short  time.  His  successor  was  Sir  Henry  Fox 
Young,  to  whom  the  colony  was  indebted  for 
an  extensiv^e  main  road  system,  and  the  institu- 
tion of  local  government  in  the  shape  of  Dis- 
trict Councils. 

A  Representative  Council. —  Under  the  Act 
13  and  14  Vic,  c.  59.  (5  Aug.  1850)  the  Legislative 
Council  then  established  in  South  Australia  was 
authorized  to  establish  another  Legislative 
Council  consisting  of  not  more  than  24  mem- 
bers, one  third  of  whom  were  to  be  appointed 
by  the  Crown  and  the  remainder  were  to  be 
elected  by  the  qualified  inhabitants.  This  new 
Council  was  authorized  to  make  laws  for  the 
peace,  order,  and  good  government  of  the 
province  and  to  impose  rates  and  taxes.  On 
21  July  1851,  this  Council  consisting  of  24  mem- 
bers was  duly  constituted. 

The  A'czv  Constitution. —  In  1853  the  Legis- 
lative Council  of  South  Australia,  in  pursuance 
of  powers  conferred  by  section  32  of  the  Act 
13  and  14  Vic,  c  59,  passed  a  bill  to  establish 
a  bicameral  Legislature  for  South  Australia, 
consisting  of  a  Legislative  Council  and  a  House 
of  Assembly.  This  bill  was  reserved  for  the 
Queen's  assent  but  it  was  disallowed.  Subse- 
quently a  second  bill  to  create  a  bicameral  Leg- 
islature was  introduced  in  the  Council  and 
passed.  It  provided  for  the  creation  of  two 
elective  Houses  to  take  the  place  of  the  Council 
created  by  the  Act  13  and  14  Vic,  c  59.  This 
bill  eventually  received  the  Royal  assent,  and  is 
sometimes  called  the  "Constitution  Act"  of 
South  Australia.  It  contained  provisions  and 
machinery  somewhat  similar  to  the  Constitu- 
tion Act  of  Victoria.  The  suffrage  for  the 
Assembly  was  manhood  coupled  with  regis- 
tration and  residence.  Both  Houses  were 
chosen  by  ballot  which  was  adopted  on  the  mo- 
tion of  Francis  S.  Dutton,  afterwards  Premier. 

Responsible  Government. —  The  election  of 
members  of  the  two  new  Houses  took  place  in 
■March  1857.  The  first  session  of  the  new 
Parliament  commenced  on  22  April  1857,  during 
the  Governorship  of  Sir  Richard  Graves  Mc- 
Donnell.    The  first   Premier  was  B.  T.   Finnis. 

Administration  and  Legislation. — Among  the 
public  men  of  South  Australia,  who,  in  the  early 
history  of  the   Colony  under   Responsible   Gov-  . 
ernment.  took  an  active  and  prominent  part  in 
the  great  business  of  administration  and  legis- 


AUSTRALIA  — POLITICAL  HISTORY 


lation  were  the  following  who  held  office  as 
Premiers  from  1856  to  1870;  Lieutenant- 
Colonel  Boj-l  Travers  Finniss,  John  Baker, 
Robert  Richards  Torrens,  Richard  Davies  Han- 
son, Thomas  Reynolds,  George  Marsden  Water- 
house,  Francis  Stokes  Button.  Henry  Ayers, 
John  Hart,  Arthur  Blyth,  and  Henry  Bull 
Templar  Strangways. 

Mr.  (afterward'  Sir)  R.  R.  Torrens  took 
office  in  1857.  His  name  has  become  famous 
by  association  with  an  act  simplifying  the 
transfer,  conveyance,  and  registration  of  land. 
Torrens  was  the  originator  of  the  plan ;  it  was 
based  on  practical  knowledge  obtained  by  him 
as  Collector  of  Customs,  but  he  was  assisted  by 
the  leeal  knowledge  of  Doctor  Hubbe.  The 
Torrens'  Land  Act  system  was  afterward 
adopted  by  all  the  other  Australian  colonies.  In 
1861  a  strip  of  territory  lying  between  latitude 
129°  and  132°  E.  longitude  and  south  of  the  26° 
S.  latitude  known  as  «Xo  ]\Ian's  Land*>  was 
added  to  South  Australia. 

Sir  Dominic  Daly  succeeded  Sir  Richard  G. 
JilacDonnell  on  4  March  1862.  In  ^larch  1863 
an  intercolonial  conference  was  held  in  Mel- 
bourne at  which  the  majority  of  the  Australian 
colonies  were  represented.  This  conference 
was  originated  in  a  suggestion  made  by  Sir 
Dominic  Dah'.  It  was  resolved  that  it  was 
desirable  to  settle  the  basis  for  a  uniform  tariff 
for  the  Australian  colonies.  No  practical  results 
followed  the  conference,  but  it  foreshadowed 
the  necessity  of  some  form  of  Federal  Union. 
In  the  same  year  the  Northern  Territory  was 
added  to  South  Australia  by  letters-patent. 

In  1868-69,  a  Ministry,  of  which  Henry  B. 
Templar  Strangways  was  Premier,  held  office. 
Its  career  was  distinguished  by  the  passing  of 
a  Land  Act  which  was  intended  to  promote 
settlement  and  prevent  the  monopolization  of 
the  large  tracts  of  land  by  land  sharks  and 
dummies.  Sale  of  land  by  auction  was  limited. 
Land  was  sold  to  bona  fide  selectors  on  credit, 
the  payments  being  allowed  to  extend  over  a 
period  of  four  }'ears,  and  no  selector  was  al- 
lowed to  take  up  more  than  640  acres. 

The  great  overland  telegraph  line  from  Port 
Augusta  to  Port  Darwin,  the  construction  of 
which  was  prosecuted  during  the  Premiership 
of  Strangways,  John  Hart,  and  Sir  Arthur 
Blyth,  was  completed  on  2  Aug.  1872.  In 
1875—76  a  strong  administration  formed  by  Mr. 
(afterward  Sir)  James  Penn  Boucaut,  was  in 
power ;  it  introduced  a  policy  of  internal  de- 
velopment, public  works  and  railways.  It  was 
proposed  that  a  loan  of  £3,000.000  should  be 
raised,  coupled  with  increased  taxation,  stamp 
tax,  and  probate  duties.  This  scheme  was 
passed  by  the  Assembly  and  rejected  by  the 
Council.  ]Mr.  (afterward  Sir)  John  Colton 
formed  a  Ministry  which  adopted  Boucaut's 
policy  and  carried  his  scheme  of  public  works 
and  railways  without  the  increased  taxation. 
In  1877  Boucaut's  second  ^Ministry  was  in  office, 
and  during  that  year  the  overland  telegraph 
line  between  Adelaide  and  Perth  was  com- 
pleted. 

The  second  Boucaut  Ministry  was  succeeded 
by  Administrations  of  which  the  following  were 
Premiers  from  1878  to  1905 :  William  Mor- 
gan, John  Cox  Bray,  John  Colton,  John  W. 
Downer,  Thomas  Playford,  John  Alexander 
Cockburn,    Frederick    William    Holder,    C.    C. 


Kingston,  Vaibeu  Louis  Solomon,  and  J.  G. 
Jenkins. 

In  1S86  the  jubilee  of  South  Australia  was 
celebrated.  C.  C.  Kingston  came  into  power 
in  1893.  A  Crown  Lands  Consolidation  Act 
was  passed  by  his  Ministry  which  restricted  the 
sale  of  Crown  lands  by  auction,  introducing  a 
system  of  leasing  country  lands,  coupled  with 
the  right  of  purchase  and  provided  perpetual 
leases  for  agricultural  purposes.  Small  blocks 
not  exceeding  the  unimproved  value  of  iioo, 
were  thrown  open  for  lease  on  the  application 
of  working  men.  Personal  residence  on  a 
block  was  necessar.v,  either  by  the  lessee  or  by 
his  wife  or  children.  The  rent  of  each  lease 
was  notified  in  the  'Gazette'.  These  lots  were 
not  subject  to  a  revaluation,  but  were  liable  to 
land  tax.  In  1894  a  bill  was  passed  conferring 
the  franchise  on  women.  In  order  to  give  en- 
couragement and  to  grant  assistance  to  the 
farmers  an  Advance  to  Farmers'  Act  was  passed 
in  1896,  under  which  a  State  Bank  has  been 
established  in  South  Australia  with  power  to 
grant  loans  to  farmers  at  a  low  rate  of  inter- 
est with  extended  time  for  repayment  of  the 
principal. 

On  25  April  1896,  a  general  election  was 
held  in  South  Australia  at  which  women  exer- 
cised their  right  to  vote  ;  about  66  per  cent  of  the 
women  whose  names  were  enrolled  recorded 
their  vote.  On  22  Jan.  1897,  Sir  Samuel  J. 
Way,  Chief  Justice  of  South  Australia,  was 
appointed  a  member  of  the  Judicial  Committee 
of  the  Privy  Council.  On  22  March  the  Federal 
Convention  held  its  first  session  at  Adelaide, 
at  which  the  first  preliminary  draft  was  pre- 
pared. Mr.  Kingston  being  defeated  i  Dec. 
1899,  resigned,  and  V.  L.  Solomon  formed  a 
Ministry  which  was  defeated  on  7  December. 
F.  W.  Holder  then  became  Premier.  An  Early 
Closing  Act,  and  a  Workmen's  Compensation 
Act  were  passed.  The  gunboat  Protector,  be- 
longing to  South  Australia,  was  despatched  to 
the  Chinese  Sea  to  assist  in  a  naval  demonstra- 
tion against  the  Boxers.  In  May  1901,  Holder 
resigned  in  order  to  accept  office  in  the  Federal 
Parliament.  He  was  succeeded  in  the  Premier- 
ship by  J.  G.  Jenkins,  who  held  office  in  the 
Playford,  Kingston,  and  Holder  Cabinets.  He 
undertook  the  difficult  task  of  carrying  consti- 
tutional amendments  rendered  necessary  by 
the  adoption  of  the  Federal  Constitution  trans- 
ferring certain  powers,  functions,  and  depart- 
ments from  the  State  to  the  Federal  Govern- 
ment. He  succeeded  in  carrying  a  measure  re- 
ducing the  number  of  responsible  ministers,  re- 
ducing the  number  of  members  of  the  Assem- 
bly from  54  to  42,  and  reducing  the  number  of 
the  Council  from  24  to  18.  He  resigned  on 
I  March  1905,  and  accepted  the  appointment 
of  Agent-General  for  South  Australia  in  Lon- 
don. A  Ministry  of  which  Richard  Butler  was 
Premier  then  took  office.  A  general  election 
took  place  in  May  at  which  Butler's  party  was 
defeated  and  on  20  July  he  resigned,  and  was 
succeeded  as  Premier  by  Thomas  Price  who 
still  holds  office   (September  1906). 

Bibliography  —  Australia.  General. —  Chap- 
man, *  Parliamentary  Government  for  Aus- 
tralian Colonies'  (1854);  Martin,  ^\ustralian 
Essays,  Political,  Etc.>  (1857);  Lahillier. 
'Constitution  of  Australian  Colonies'  (1870)  ; 
Ranken,      'Dominion     of     Australia'      (1874); 


AUSTRALIA  — THE  COMMONWEALTH  GOVERNMENT 


Clarke,  <Historv  of  Australia  and  Tasmania' 
(1877);  Blair,  '<History  of  Australia'  (1878); 
Douglas,  <An  Australian  Nation,  (1880);  Blair, 
'Cyclopaedia  of  Australia >  (1881)  ;  Allen,  'His- 
tory of  Australia'  (1882)  ;  Rusden,  < History  of 
Australia'  (1883);  Sutherland,  'History  of 
Australia'  (1883)  ;  Forbes,  'Present  and  Future 
of  Australian  Colonies'  (1883);  Service,  'Fed- 
eration of  Australia'  (1884)1  Carnarvon, 
'Annexation  and  Federation  in  Australia' 
(1884)  ;  Parkes,  Australia  and  the  Imperial 
Connections'  (1884)  ;  Parkes,  'The  Australian 
Empire'  (1884)  ;  Hodgson,  'Our  Australian 
Colonies'  (1885);  Froude,  'Oceana'  (1886); 
Garran,  'Picturesque  Atlas  of  Australia' 
(1886)  ;  INIartin,  'Australia  and  the  Empire' 
(1889);  Hopkins,  'Australia;  Progress,  Peo- 
ple, and  Politics'  (1889);  Duffy,  'Road  to 
Federation'  (1890)  ;  Dilke,  'Problems  of  Greater 
Britain'  (1890)  ;  Reid,  'Commonwealth  of 
Australia'  (1891)  ;  Willoughby,  'Australian 
Federation'  (1891)  ;  Clarke,  'Australia  and 
the  Imperial  Connection'  (1891)  ;  Braddon, 
'Australia;  Its  progress  and  Resources'  (1892)  ; 
Tregerthen,  'Australian  Commonwealth' 

(1893);  Baker,  'The  Executive  in  a  Federa- 
tion' (1897)  ;  Way,  'Observations  on  Draft 
Commonwealth  Bill'  (1900)  ;  Butterworth, 
'Annotated  Constitution  of  the  Commonwealth' 
(1901)  ;  Finney.  'History  of  Australian  Colon- 
ies' (1901)  ;  Cockburn,  'Australian  Federa- 
tion' (1901)  ;  Jose,  'Australia  and  New  Zea- 
land' (1901)  ;  Quick  and  Garran,  'Constitu- 
tion of  the  Australian  Commonwealth'  (1901)  ; 
Barton,  'Troubles  of  Australian  Federation' 
(1901)  ;  Rowland,  'Australian  Federation, 
History,  Character  and  Possibilities'  (1901)  ; 
Posnett,  'Federal  Constitution  of  Australia' 
(1901)  ;  Cockburn,  'Australia's  First  Federal 
Parliament'  (1901)  ;  Hogan,  'First  Steps  of 
the  New  Common v/ealth'  (1901)  ;  Clark, 
'Studies  in  Australian  Constitutional  Law' 
(1901)  ;  ]\Ioore,  'Constitution  of  Common- 
wealth of  Australia'  (1902);  Cockburn,  'Sphere 
of  State  Activity  in  Australia""  (1902)  ;  Teece, 
'Comparison  between  the  Federal  Constitution 
of  Canada  and  Australia'  (1902);  Reeves, 
'State  Experiments  in  Australia  and  New  Zea- 
land' (1902)  ;  Kirwnn,  'Three  Years  of  Aus- 
tralian Federation'    (1904-). 

Neiv  South  Wales. —  Martin,  'History  of  New 
South  Wales'  (1836)  ;  Burton,  'Constitution 
of  Government  of  New  South  Wales'  (1840); 
Brain,  'History  of  New  South  Wales'  (1846); 
Martin,  'History  of  New  South  Wales'  (1853)  ; 
Lang,  'Historical  Account  of  New  South  Wales' 
(1875);  Garran,  'New  South  Wales'  (1884); 
Oliver,  'Constitution  of  New  South  Wales' 
(1884);  Morris  and  Byron,  'Progress  of  New 
South  Wales'  (1886):  Gane,  'New  South 
Wales  and  Victoria'  (1885)  ;  Buchanan,  'Hun- 
dred    Year's     Progress,     New     South     Wales' 

(1888)  ;    Barton,  'History  of  New  South  Wales' 

(1889)  and  (1894);  Coghlan,  'Wealth  and 
Progress  of  New  South  Wales'  (1893); 
Hutchinson,  'New  South  Wales'  (1896); 
Britton  and  Bladen,  'Historical  Records,  New 
South  Wales'  (1898);  Bcanvick,  'New  South 
Wales'    (1900). 

Queensland. —  Boyd,  'Queensland'  (1882); 
Coote,  'History  of  Queensland'  (1882); 
Blakeney,  'Form  of  Government  in  Queensland' 
(1883)  ;     Trail,    'Historical    Sketch   of  Queens- 


land'   (1886);    Weeden,  'Queensland;  Past  and 
Present'   (1897);    Dicken,  'Queensland'   (1900). 

South  Australia. —  Martin,  'History  of  Sou«h 
Australia'  (1836)  and  (1853):  Angas.  'South 
Australia  Illustrated'  (1847);  Duncan,  'Colony 
of  South -Australia'  (1850);  Forster,  'South 
Australia;  Progress  and  Prosperity'  (i860); 
Harcus,  'South  Australia  ;  History  and  Progress' 
(  1S76)  ;  Stow,  'South  Australia;  History,  etc' 
(1883);  Finniss,  'Constitutional  History  of 
South  Australia'  (1886)  ;  Gill,  'Bibliography 
of  South  Australia'  (1886);  Hodder,  'History 
of  South  Australia'  (1893)  ;  Blackmore.  'Law 
of   Constitution   of   South   Australia'    (1894). 

Tasmania. —  Parker,  'Van  Dieman's  Land^ 
(1834);  Martin,  'History  of  Van  Dieman's 
Land'  (18^0)  and  (1853);  Bonwick,  'Tas- 
mania' (1888);  Braddon,  'History  of  Tas- 
mania' (1S91);  Walker,  'Early  History  of 
Tasmania'  (189S);  Mill,  'Tasmania'  (1899); 
Levy,  'Tasmania'    (1900). 

Victoria. —  Martin,  'Victoria,  Its  History  and 
Conditions'  (1853)  ;  Duff3%  'Land  Law  of 
Victoria'  (1862)  ;  Wcstgarth,  'History  of  Vic- 
toria' (1864);  Duffy,  'Political  History  of 
Victoria*  (1876);  FitzGibbon,  'Party  Govern- 
ment in  Victoria'  (1878)  ;  Hodden,  'Constitu- 
tional Difficulties  in  Victoria'  (1879);  Walch, 
'Victoria'  (1880)  ;  Carlisle,  'Constitution  of 
Victoria'  (1884);  MacFie,  'Victoria,  Its  His- 
tory and  Prospects'  (1888)  ;  Jenks,  'The  Gov- 
ernment of  Victoria'  (1891)  ;  Dyer,  'Victoria 
and  Its  Resources'  (1893)  ;  Dow,  'An  Aus- 
tralian Colony'  (1898)  ;  Clarke,  'Victoria  and 
Her  Resources'    (1899). 

West  Australia. —  Martin,  'History  of  West 
Australia'  (1836);  Knight,  'History  and  Pro- 
gress of  West  Australia'  (1870)  ;  Broome, 
'Western  Australia  (1885);  Bonwick,  'Western 
Australia'  (1888);  Hart,  'Western  Australia' 
(1893);  Calvert,  'Western  Australia;  History 
arid  Progress'  (1894)  ;  Robinson,  'Western 
Australia;  Present  and  Future'  (1896);  Rob- 
inson,  'Western  Australia'    (1900). 

Sir  John  Quick, 

Member  of  Commonzvcalth  House  of  Rcp~ 
resentatives ;  Joint  Author  of  ^Constitution 
of  Australian   Coininonivcalth''. 

5.  Australia  —  The  Commonwealth  —  Its 
Constitution,  Government,  and  Administra- 
tive Departments.  Tlie  Beginning  of  the  Fed- 
eral M  ovcmcnt  Tozvards  Political  Union. — ■ 
Under  the  Acts  of  63  and  64  Vic,  c  12,  (1900) 
known  as  the  "Commonwealth  of  Australia 
Constitution  Act,"  the  people  of  New  South 
Wales,  Victoria,  South  Australia,  Queensland, 
Tasmania,  and  Western  Australia  were  vmited 
in  a  Federal  Commonwealth  under  the  name  of 
The  Commonwealth  of  Australia ;  and  the  old 
colonies  under  the  name  of  states,  were  de- 
clared to  be  parts  of  the-  Commonwealth.  This 
great  act  marked  the  completion  and  consum- 
mation of  a  movement  in  favor  of  Australian 
federation,  which  extended  over  a  period  of 
nearly  60  years. 

In  1847,  Earl  Grey,  Secretary  of  State  for 
the  Colonies,  proposed  to  create  a  separate  Leg- 
islature in  and  for  Australia  in  which  all  the 
colonies  then  in  existence  should  be  represented, 
and  which  should  have  power  to  make  laws 
in  matters  of  common  concern.  In  1849,  the 
Privy  Council  proposed  that  there  should  be  a 
General    Assembly   having   power   to   deal   with 


AUSTRALIA  — THE  COMMONWEALTH  GOVERNMENT 


customs  duties,  postal  matters,  and  to  create  a 
Supreme  Court  of  Appeal.  In  1853,  a  Commit- 
tee of  the  Legislative  Council  of  New  South 
Wales  recommended  the  establishment  of  a 
General  Assembly.  All  these  proposals,  how- 
ever, were  regarded  as  premature.  The  fol- 
lowing is  a  sumraarj'  of  other  unsuccessful  ef- 
forts in  the  same  direction:  (1857)  a  select 
committee  of  the  Victorian  Legislative  As- 
sembly agreed  that  "the  time  for  union  had 
come;"  in  the  same  year  a  select  committee  of 
the  New  South  Wales  Parliament  passed  a 
similar  resolution;  (i860),  a  select  committee 
of  the  Victorian  Assembly  recommended  nego- 
tiation; (1862),  the  Colonial  Secretary  of 
South  Australia  commenced  correspondence 
with  other  colonies  urging  that  a  uniform  tariff 
was  indispensable;  (1863),  Tariff  conference  in 
Melbourne;  (1865),  Inter-Colonial  conference 
at  Sydney  resulting  in  agreement  by  which  the 
Murray  border  was  made  free  of  fiscal  re- 
striction; (1867),  Inter-Colonial  conference  in 
Melbourne  in  reference  to  ocean  postal  service 
to  Australia,  at  which  Sir  Henry  Parkes  said 
"the  time  has  arrived  when  the  colonies  should 
be  united;*'  (1880),  Inter-Colonial  conference 
in  Melbourne,  at  which  a  resolution  was  passed 
that  "a  Federal  Council  was  needed  to  deal 
with  the  question  of  inter-colonial  interest;" 
(1883),  Inter-Colonial  conference  at  Sydney,  at 
which  the  necessity  of  a  Federal  Council  was 
affirmed,  and  at  which  a  Draft  Bill  was 
adopted  which  afterwards  became  law.  (This 
Council,  however,  was  not  a  success  as  only 
three  of  the  colonies  joined  it;)  (1890),  Federal 
conference  in  Melbourne  convened  by  Sir 
Henry  Parkes  at  which  resolutions  were  passed 
affirming  the  necessity  for  an  early  convention 
of  the  representatives  of  all  the  colonies  to  pre- 
pare a  scheme  for  a  Federal  Constitution. 

Coiizriition  of  1891. — On  22  March  1891,  the 
first  Federal  convention  was  held  in  Sydney  at 
which  all  the  Australasian  colonies,  including 
New  Zealand,  were  represented  by  seven  dele- 
gates chosen  by  the  Parliament  of  each  colony. 
A  constitution  was  draftd  and  adopted  by  the 
convention,  but  no  practical  action  was  taken 
to  give  it  effect.  In  January,  1895,  a  conference 
of  Premiers  was  held  at  Hobart,  at  which  all 
the  Australasian  colonies  were  represented.  It 
was  resolved  that  "a  convention,  consisting  of 
10  representatives  from  each  colony,  directly 
chosen  by  the  electors,  be  charged  with  the 
duty  to  frame  a  constitution ;  that  the  constitu- 
tion so  framed  be  submitted  to  the  electors  for 
acceptance  or  rejection  by  direct  vote."  Five 
of  the  six  colonies,  viz. :  New  South  Wales, 
Victoria.  South  Australia,  Tasmania,  and  West- 
ern Australia  elected  10  representatives. 
Queensland  did  not  take  part  in  the  convention 
which  met  in  Adelaide  in  March  1897.  C.  C. 
Kingston,  then  Premier  of  South  Australia,  was 
elected  president  of  the  convention,  which 
afterwards  sat  in  Sydney  and  Melbourne.  A 
constitution  was  drafted,  subsequently  submit- 
ted to  the  people  of  the  various  colonies,  and 
ratified,  Queensland  coming  in  at  the  last 
moment.  The  constitution  so  drafted  and  rati- 
fied by  the  people  of  Australia  was  afterwards 
embodied  in  an  Imperial  Act,  came  into  force 
and  the  Commonwealth  was  proclaimed. 

The  Federal  Constitution. — The  Federal 
constitution  came  into  force  and  the  Australian 


colonies  were  united  on  i  Jan.  1901.  By  this 
constitutional  instrument  a  new  Parliament  was 
called  into  existence,  as  well  as  a  new  execu- 
tive, and  a  new  judiciary.  The  union  of  people 
and  states,  so  organized  and  constituted,  in 
many  respects  resemble  that  of  the  United 
States  of  America.  The  new  form  of  govern- 
ment has  been  created  for  special  and  limited 
purposes  to  deal  with  matters  of  common  Aus- 
tralian mterests.  The  power  and  authority  of 
the  Federal  Parliament,  and  Federal  Govern- 
ment, are  limited  and  restricted  to  such  powers 
and  authorities  as  have  been  expressly  taken 
from  the  states,  or  such  new  powers  as  are 
specified  and  particularized  in  the  instrument. 
The  Governments  and  Parliaments  of  the  states 
have  the  same  legislative  and  executive  scope  as 
before  — save  as  to  matters  delegated  to  the 
Federal  authority.  In  this  respect  the  Austral- 
ian Constitution  differs  from  that  of  Canada, 
which  limits  and  defines  the  powers  of  the  prov- 
inces, and  confers  upon  the  Dominion  Parlia- 
ment all  the  residue  of  sovereign  power. 

Executive  Department  of  the  Common- 
li'ealth. — The  executive  power  of  the  Common- 
wealth is  vested  in  the  King,  and  exercised  by 
the  Governor-General  as  the  King's  represen- 
tative. It  includes  the  maintenance  of  the  con- 
stitution and  the  excution  of  the  laws  of  the 
Commonwealth.  There  is  an  Executive  (Coun- 
cil to  advise  the  Governor-General  in  regard  to 
the  government  of  the  Commonwealth.  The 
Governor-General  can  appoint  ministers  to  pre- 
side over  the  several  departments.  No  minister 
can  hold  office  longer  than  three  months,  unless 
he  be  a  member  of  the  Senate  or  of  the  House 
of  Representatives.  There  can  be  no  more  than 
seven  ministers  in  office  at  the  same  time.  The 
sum  of  ii2,ooo  per  annum  is  appropriated  to  be 
divided  among  ministers  by  themselves. 

Immediately  upon  the  establishment  of  the 
Commonweahh  the  departments  of  customs  and 
excise  in  all  states  were  by  operation  of  law 
taken  from  the  states  and  transferred  to  the 
Commonwealth.  By  proclamation  later  on,  the 
departments  of  post  offices,  telegraphs,  and 
telephones,  naval  and  military  defence  were 
taken  from  the  states  and  vested  in  the  Com- 
monwealth. Four  new  Federal  departments 
were  also  created  by  proclamation,  viz.,  the 
Department  of  External  Affairs,  the  Depart- 
ment of  Home  Affairs,  the  Department  of  the 
Treasury,  and  the  Department  of  the  Attorney- 
General. 

Legislative  Department  of  the  Common- 
zi-ealth. —  The  legislative  power  of  the  Com- 
monwealth is  vested  in  a  Federal  Parlia- 
ment consisting  of  the  King,  or  Queen,  of  the 
United  Kingdom,  the  Senate  and  the  House  of 
Representatives.  The  Senate  consists  of  rep- 
resentatives from  each  of  the  six  states  directly 
chosen  by  the  people  of  each  state  voting  as  one 
electorate ;  each  state  is  entitled  to  six  senators. 
Senators  are  chosen  for  six  years,  one-half  re- 
tiring every  three  years.  The  House  of  Rep- 
resentatives is  composed  of  members  directly 
chosen  by  the  electors  of  the  Commonwealth; 
the  total  number  of  such  members  must  be  as 
nearly  as  practicable  twice  the  number  of  the 
senators.  The  Senate  is  called  the  State 
House,  the  House  of  Representatives  is  called 
the  National  Chamber,  in  which  the  people  of 
each  state  are  represented  according  to  popula- 


AUSTRALIA  — THE  COMMONWEALTH  GOVERNMENT 


tion,  save  and  except  that  no  state  to  have  less 
than  five  members.  In  the  first  Parliament  New 
South  Wales  sent  26  members  to  the  House  of 
Representatives,  Victoria  sent  23,  Queensland 
sent  nine,  South  Australia  sent  seven,  Western 
Australia  and  Tasmania  sent  five  each.  The 
House  of  Representatives  continues  to  exist  for 
a  period  of  three  years  from  the  first  meeting, 
unless  sooner  dissolved  by  the  Governor-Gen- 
eral. In  case  of  a  deadlock  between  the  two 
Houses  extending  over  a  certain  time  the 
Governor-General  may  under  certain  conditions 
and  circumstances  dissolve  both  Houses  and 
send  them  to  the  people ;  after  such  a  double 
dissolution  a  joint  sitting  of  both  Houses  of  the 
newly  elected  members  must  be  held  at  which 
thev  deliberate  and  vote  upon  the  proposed  law 
in  dispute. 

The  Federal  Parliament  can  make  laws  re- 
specting trade  and  commerce,  taxation,  bounties, 
borrowing,  postal,  and  telegraphic  matters, 
naval  and  military  defence,  light  houses,  fish- 
eries, census,  currenc}^  inter-state  insurance, 
weights  and  measures,  negotiable  instruments, 
bankruptcy,  copyrights,  patents,  naturalization, 
foreign  co-operations,  marriage  and  divorce, 
old  age  pensions,  service  and  execution  of 
process,  immigration,  influx  of  criminals,  ex- 
ternal affairs,  relations  of  the  Commonwealth 
with  the  islands  of  the  Pacific,  acquisition  of 
property  for  Federal  purposes,  control  of  rail- 
ways for  naval  and  military  transport,  acquisi- 
tion of  state  railways  with  the  consent  of  such 
state,  construction  of  railways  through  a  state 
with  the  consent  of  such  state,  conciliation  and 
arbitration  for  the  settlement  of  inter-state  in- 
dustrial dispues,  seat  of  government  of  the 
Commonwealth,  and  departments  of  the  public 
service. 

Judicial  Department  of  the  Common- 
ivealth. —  The  judicial  power  of  the  Com- 
monwealth is  vested  in  a  High  Court  consist- 
ing of  a  Chief  Justice,  and  not  less  than  two 
other  justices.  The  High  Court  has  appellate 
and  original  jurisdiction.  It  has  jurisdiction 
to  hear  appeals  from  all  other  Federal  courts, 
or  courts  exercising  Federal  jurisdiction,  and 
from  the  Supreme  Courts  of  states  in  the  exer- 
cise of  jurisdiction  conferred  by  state  laws. 
The  High  Court  must  be  regarded  as  a  Federal 
Court  of  Appeal,  and  a  National  Court  of  Ap- 
peal, and  as  such  it  holds  a  wider  jurisdic- 
tional area  than  its  great  exampler,  the  Su- 
preme Court  of  the  United  States  of  America, 
which  cannot  entertain  appeals  from  state 
courts  in  cases  not  involving  Federal  issues. 
The  Act  confers  a  new  right  of  appeal  from 
the  Supreme  Courts  of  States  in  state  law 
cases,  but  it  does  not  abolish  the  existing  right 
of  appeal  in  those  cases  to  the  Privy  Council. 
The  latter  right  still  remains.  The  High 
Court,  though  a  general  Court  of  Appeal  for 
Australia  is  not  the  sole  or  exclusive,  but  a 
concurrent  Court  of  Appeal  in  state  law  cases. 
Parties  to  cases  decided  by  the  Supreme  Courts 
of  state  on  matters  of  state  law  here,  there- 
fore, an  alternative  right  of  appeal,  either  to 
the  Privy  Council  direct  or  to  the  High  Court. 

The  judgments  of  the  High  Court  are  de- 
clared by  the  constitution  to  be  final  and  con- 
clusive. This  negatives  the  right  of  litigants 
in  the  High  Court  to  appeal  to  the  Privy  Coun- 
cil as  a  matter  of  right.     The  appeal  as  a  mat- 


ter of  right  has  been  taken  away,  but  the  con- 
stitution has  left  unimpaired  any  right  the 
King  may  be  pleased  to  exercise  by  virtue  of 
his  prerogative  to  grant  special  leave  of  appeal 
from  the  High  Court  to  His  ]M^ljesty  in 
Council.  To  this  reservation  of  the  prerogative 
to  grant  leave  there  is,  however,  a  most  im- 
portant exception.  No  appeal  can  be  permitted 
to  the  King  in  Council  from  a  decision  of  the 
High  Court  upon  any  question  as  to  the  limits 
inter  sc  of  the  constitutional  powers  of  the 
Commonwealth  and  those  of  any  state,  or 
states,  or  as  to  the  limits  inter  sc  of  the  consti- 
tutional powers  of  any  two  or  more  states 
unless  the  High  Court  shall  certify  that  ques- 
tion is  one  which  ought  to  be  determined  by 
His  Majesty  in  Council. 

The  High  Court  has  original  jurisdiction  to 
decide  all  matters  arising  under  anj^  treaty,  all 
matters  affecting  Consuls,  all  matters  in  which 
the  Commonwealth  is  a  party,  all  matters  be- 
tween states  or  between  residents  of  different 
states  in  any  matters  arising  under  the  consti- 
tution or  involving  its  interpretation. 

The  several  courts  of  the  states  have  been 
vested  with  Federal  jurisdiction  to  deal  with 
matters  arising  under  the  constitution,  or  in- 
volving its  interpretation,  and  in  matters  of 
any  laws  made  by  the  Federal  jurisdiction. 

Finance  and  Trade. — During  the  first  10 
years  after  the  establishment  of  the  Common- 
wealth, the  Federal  Government  has  only  a 
limited  use  of  the  revenue  derived  from  cus- 
toms and  excise  duties.  It  can  only  use  for 
Federal  purposes  one  fourth  of  the  total  of  the 
net  sum  so  collected.  The  remaining  three- 
fourths  must  be  paid  to  the  several  states  ac- 
cording to  the  following  method  of  distribu- 
tion, viz.,  each  state  is  credited  with  the  whole 
of  the  revenue  collected  in  it  and  each  state  is 
debited:  (A.)  with  departmental  expenditure 
actually  incurred  in  such  state;  and  (B.)  with  a 
proportion  on  a  population  basis  of  the  other 
expenditure  of  the  Commonwealth.  The  Com- 
monwealth pays  to  each  state  monthly  the  bal- 
ance in  favor  of  each  state.  Upon  the  imposition 
of  uniform  customs  duties  in  October,  1901, 
trade,  commerce,  and  intercourse  between  the 
states,  whether  by  land  or  by  sea  became  abso- 
lutely free. 

Relations  of  States  to  the  Commonwealth 
and  the  Crown. — The  relations  of  the  Austral- 
ian states  to  the  Commonwealth  and  to  the 
Crown  were  authoritively  expounded  by  the 
Secretary  of  State,  IMr.  Chamberlain,  in  the 
despatch  dated  15  April,  1903,  directed  to  the 
Lieutenant-Governor  of  South  Australia  in  re- 
ference to  the  case  of  the  Dutch  ship  "Vondel.*' 
The  owners  of  this  ship  complained  to  the 
British  Government  that  the  state  government 
of  South  Australia  had  declined  to  arrest  the 
crew  of  the  ship  while  she  was  in  South 
Australian  waters.  The  Secretary  of  States 
brought  the  complaint  under  the  notice  of  the 
Governor-General  of  Australia.  The  Federal 
government  forwarded  the  papers  to  the  state 
government  desiring  them  to  furnish  a  report 
on  the  case.  The  state  government  refused  to 
report  to  the  Federal  government  on  the 
ground  that  the  latter  had  no  jurisdiction  in 
the  matter.  The  constitutional  issues  raised  by 
the  action  of  the  South  Australian  government 
were  dealt  with  at  length  in  Mr.  Chamberlain's 


AUSTRALIA  — THE    STATE    GOVERNMENTS 


■despatch:  "So  far  as  other  communities  in 
the  Empire  or  foreign  nations  are  concerned, 
the  people  of  AustraHa  form  one  poHtical  com- 
munity for  which  the  government  of  the  Com- 
monweahh  alone  can  speak,  and  for  everything 
affecting  external  states  or  communities  which 
takes  place  within  its  boundaries,  that  govern- 
ment is  responsible.  The  distribution  of 
powers  between  Federal  and  state  authorities  is 
a  matter  or  purely  internal  concern  of  which  no 
external  country  or  community  can  take 
cognizance.  It  is  to  the  Commonwealth  and  to 
the  Commonwealth  alone  that,  through  the  Im- 
perial government,  they  must  look  for  remedy 
■or  relief  for  any  action  affecting  them  done 
within  the  bounds  of  the  Commonwealth, 
whether  it  is  the  act  of  a  private  individual,  of 
a  state  official,  or  of  a  state  government.  The 
Commonwealth  is,  through  His  ^lajesty's  gov- 
ernment, just  as  responsible  for  any  action  of 
South  Australia  affecting  an  external  com- 
munity as  the  United  States  of  America  are 
for  the  action  of  Louisiana  or  any  other  state 
of  the  Union.  The  Crown  undoubtedly  remains 
part  of  the  constitution  of  the  state  of  South 
Australia,  awd  in  matters  affecting  it  in  that 
capacity,  the  proper  channel  of  communication 
is  between  the  Secretary  of  State  and  the  State 
Governor.  But  in  matters  affecting  the  Crown 
in  its  capacity  as  the  central  authority  of  the 
Empire,  the  Secretary  of  State  can,  since  the 
people  of  Australia  have  become  one  p®litical 
community,  look  only  to  the  Governor-General 
as  the  representative  of  the  Crown  in  that 
community.  The  view  of  your  ministers  would, 
if  adopted,  reduce  the  Commonwealth  to  the 
position  of  a  Federal  League,  not  a  Federation, 
and  appears  to  me  to  be  entirely  opposed  not 
only  to  the  spirit  but  to  the  letter  of  the  Act.'* 

Administration  and  Legislation. — The  first 
Federal  government  was  formed  by  Mr.  (after- 
ward Sir)  Edmund  Barton.  The  principal 
measure  passed  by  the  first  Parliament 
were  as  follows :  A  L^niform  Tariff  Act,  an 
act  to  restrict  immigration  by  the  imposi- 
tion of  an  educational  test  for  the  purpose  of 
excluding  colored  races  and  to  exclude  laborers 
coming  to  Australia  under  contract  of  service ; 
an  act  to  abolish  Kanaka  labor  in  connection 
with  sugar  growing,  and  to  encourage  the  use 
of  white  labor  by  granting  a  bonus  of  £2  per  ton 
on  sugar  so  produced :  an  act  establishing  a 
imiform  suffrage  for  both  the  Senate  and  the 
House  of  Representatives ;  a  naval  agreement 
with  the  admirality  under  which  the  Common- 
wealth undertook  to  pay  £200,000  per  year  for 
10  years  towards  the  maintenance  of  a  navel 
force  on  the  Australian  station ;  an  act  to 
organize  the  High  Court,  of  which  Sir  Samuel 
Griffith  was  appointed  Chief  Justice,  Sir  Ed- 
mund   Barton,    and    R.    E.    O'Connor,   Justices. 

An  administration  formed  by  Alfred  Deakin 
came  into  office  on  24  Sept.  1903.  The  first  Par- 
liament was  dissolved  on  23  November,  and  the 
second  Parliament  was  convened  for  business 
on  2  March  1904.  The  Deakin  ministry  was  de- 
feated on  26  April  by  an  amendment  to  the 
Conciliation  and  Arbitration  Bill  proposed  by 
the  Labor  Party  extending  it  to  state  railway 
servants.  J.  C.  Watson  then  formed  a  Labor 
ministry.  On  17  August  an  adverse  amend- 
ment to  the  Conciliation  and  Arbitration  Bill, 
limiting  the  principle  of  preference  to  unionists 
\'oI  2  —  6 


was  carried  against  the  Labor  ministry  and 
they  resigned.  G.  H.  Reid,  leader  of  the  Free 
Trade  Party,  next  formed  a  government  in 
combination  with  a  number  of  Protectionists, 
including  Sir  George  Turner  and  A.  McLean. 
They  successfully  wound  up  the  business  of 
the  session.  Parliament  reassembled  on  26 
Juh%  1905,  when  the  Reid  ministry  was  de- 
feated. Deakin  formed  his  second  ministry 
which  received  the  support  of  the  Labor  party. 
Among  the  measures  passed  this  session  were  a 
Commerce  Act;  Sugar  Bonus  Extension  Act, 
and  a  Trade  ^Larks  Act  — the  latter  containing 
clauses  legalizing  the  «Union  Label."  Acts 
were  also  passed  modifying  the  educational  test 
and  the  contract  labor  clauses  of  the  Immigra- 
tion Act. 

Bibliography  —  See       article       Australi.il  — 
Political  History.  Sir  John  Quick, 

Member  of  Commonzvealth  House  of  Repre- 
sentatives; Joint  Author  of  ^Constitution 
of  Australian  Commonwealth? 

6.  Australia  — The  States,  Their  Consti- 
tutions     and      Governmental      Departments. 

Colonies  Transformed  Into  States. — Under  the 
Constitution  of  the  Commonwealth  Act,  the 
colonies  of  New  South  Wales,  Victoria,  Tas- 
mania, Queensland,  Western  Australia,  and 
South  Australia,  have  been  converted  into 
states  of  the  Federal  Union,  and  certain  legisla- 
tive, executive,  and  judicial  powers  formerly 
vested  in  colonial  authorities  have  been  trans-  ^ 
ferred  to  the   Commonwealth. 

Executive  Departments  of  States. —  In  each 
state  there  is  a  Governor  representing  the  King, 
and  he  is  the  head  of  the  executive  as  well  as 
a  branch  of  the  legislature.  In  the  administra- 
tion of  public  affairs  the  Governor  is  assisted 
and  advised  by  responsible  ministers  who  pre- 
side over  the  public  departments  and  generally 
have  seats  in  the  Legislature. 

In  New  South  Wales  the  Governor  receives 
a  salary  of  £5,000.  There  are  six  responsible 
ministers,  among  whom  the  public  departments 
are  distributed  as  follows,  viz.:  (i)  Premier 
and  Treasurer;  (2)  Colonial  Secretary;  (3) 
Attorney-General,  and  Minister  of  Justice ;  (4) 
Lands;  (5)  Instruction,  Labor,  and  Industry; 
(6)  Mines  and  Agriculture.  The  sum  of  iio,- 
400  is  appropriated  for  payment  of  ministers 
in  such  proportions  as  may  be  arranged  among 
themselves. 

The  Governor  of  Victoria  receives  a  salary 
of  £5,000;  the  various  public  departments  are 
presided  over  and  distributed  among  ministers 
as  follows,  viz.:  (i)  Premier,  Treasurer  and 
Minister  of  Railways  ;  (2)  Chief  Secretary  and 
Minister  of  Labor;  (3)  Attorney-General  and 
Minister  of  Justice;  (4)  Lands;  (5)  Public 
Instructions;  (6)  Works;  (7)  Mines  and 
Forests ;  (8)  Water  Supply  and  Irrigation. 
Two  ministers  must  sit  in  the  council.  The  ag- 
gregate amount  of  salary  payable  among  min- 
isters is  £8.400  per  year.  A  minister  being  a 
member  of  one  House  may  attend  the  other 
House  by  its  permission,  and  speak  upon  and 
explain  bills  relating  to  his  department. 

In  Queensland  the  Governor's  salary  is 
£5,000.  There  are  seven  salaried  ministers 
among  whom  the  offices  are  distributed  as  fol- 
lows, viz:  (i)  Premier,  Chief  Secretary  and 
Secretary    for    Railways;     (2)   Treasurer;     (3) 


AUSTRALIA  — THE    STATE  GOVERNMENTS 


Home  Secretan^ ;  (4)  Secretary  for  Agriculture 
and  Public  Works;  (5)  Attorney-General, 
Secretary  of  Mines;  (6)  Secretary  of  Lands; 
(7)  Public  Instruction.  The  aggregate  amount 
of  salary  payable  among  ministers  is  i7,300  per 
year. 

The  Governor  of  Tasmania  receives  a  salary 
of  £2,750.  Ministerial  offices  are  distributed  as 
follows,  viz.:  (i)  Premier  and  Chief  Secre- 
tary; (2)  Attorney-General;  (3)  Treasurer 
and  Lands ;  (4)  Mines  and  Works.  The  ag- 
gregate amount  of  salary  payable  among  min- 
isters is  £3,000  per  year. 

In  South  Australia  the  Governor's  salary  is 
£4,000.  There  were  formerly  six  responsible 
ministers,  but  by  the  Constitutional  Amendment 
Act  of  South  Australia,  (1901),  the  number 
was  reduced  to  four,  and  the  aggregate  salary 
divisable  amongst  them  is  £4,000  per  year.  The 
offices  at  present  are  distributed  amongst  them 
as  follows,  viz.:  (i)  Premier,  Education  and 
Works;  (2)  Treasurer  and  Attorney-General; 
(3)  Chief  Secretary;  (4)  Lands,  Mines  and 
Agriculture. 

The  Governor  of  Western  Australia  receives 
a  salary  of  £4,000.  There  are  five  ministers 
holding  offices  as  follows,  viz.:  (i)  Premier 
and  Treasurer;  (2)  Education;  (3)  Colonial 
Secretary;  (4)  Railways  and  Labor;  (5) 
INIines  and  Justices.  The  aggregate  amount  of 
salary  payable  amongst  ministers  is  £7,200  per 
year. 

Leglslatiz'c  Departments  of  States. — The 
State  Parliaments  have  no  longer  any  control 
over  customs,  excise,  post  offices,  telegraphs, 
telephones,  navy,  and  militar\'  defences. 

The  Parliament  of  New  South  Wales,  like 
that  of  every  Australian  state,  consists  of  a 
Legislative  Council  and  a  Legislative  Assembh'. 
The  council  is  still  a  nominated  body  as  it  was 
at  the  beginning  of  responsible  government, 
being  composed  of  about  65  life  members. 
There  were  before  Federation  125  members  of 
the  Assembly;  in  1901  that  number  was  reduced 
to  90  as  one  of  the  results  of  the  transfer  of 
certain  powers  and  functions  to  the  Common- 
wealth government.  Plural  voting  was  abol- 
ished in  1893.  Manhood  suffrage,  established 
in  1858,  was  in  1903  superseded  by  adult  suf- 
frage ;  that  is  to  say,  *one  adult  person  one 
vote.''  Since  1899,  each  member  of  the  As- 
sembly receives  the  sum  of  £300  per  year  in 
reimbursement  of  his  expenses  together  with 
a  free  railway  pass.  Members  of  the  council 
receive  free  railway  passes  but  no  payment. 
The  Assembl}'  is  a  triennial  chamber,  but  it 
may  be  at  any  time  dissolved  by  the  Governor. 
Elections  are  conducted  by  ballot:  this  being 
the  method  of  election  of  members  in  all  the 
Australian  states. 

By  the  Constitutional  Amendment  Act, 
(1903),  the  Legislative  Council  of  Victoria 
consists  of  35  members,  one  of  whom  is  directly 
elected  by,  and  represents,  the  public  and  rail- 
way servants ;  the  others  are  elected  by  quali- 
fied voters  of  whom  there  are  three  classes, 
viz. :  ( I )  owners  of  freehold  land  of  the 
annual  value  of  £10;  (2)  rate-paying  occupiers 
of  land  of  the  annual  value  of  £15;  (3)  uni- 
versity and  professional  men.  The  property 
qualifications  of  a  member  of  the  council  were 
formerly  ownership  of  freehold  land  of  the 
annual  value  of  £100;  that  has  been  reduced  to 


£50.  The  tenure  of  a  seat  in  the  council  is  six 
years;  one-half  the  members  retiring  every 
three  years.  In  the  event  of  a  deadlock  be- 
tween the  two  Houses  on  matters  of  ordinary 
legislation,  (constitutional  alterations  being  ex- 
cepted), the  Governor  may,  subject  to  certain 
conditions,  dissolve  both  Houses.  The  council 
has  power  by  message  to  the  Assembly  to  sug- 
gest amendments  in  the  Appropriation  Bill. 
Manhood  suffrage  coupled  with  <'no  plural  vot- 
ing" is  the  franchise  for  the  Assembl}^  in  addi- 
tion to  which,  however,  every  owner  of  free- 
hold land  of  the  capital  value  of  £100,  and  of 
the  annual  value  of  £5  is  entitled  to  be  regis- 
tered for,  and  to  record  his  vote  in  every 
electorial  district  in  which  such  land  is  situated ; 
the  act  abolishing  plural  voting  prohibiting  him, 
however,  from  voting  more  than  once  on  the 
same  day.  There  are  68  members  of  the  As- 
sembly. Public  and  railway  officers  are  unable 
to  vote  in  and  for  ordinary  electorates ;  instead 
of  which  they  are  allowed  to  choose  three 
special  members  to  represent  them  in  the  As- 
sembly. ^Members  of  this  House  receive  £300  per 
year,  and  a  free  railway  pass.  Legislative  coun- 
cillors receive  free  railwa}^  passes  but  no  pay- 
ment. The  Assembly  is  a  triennial  chamber, 
but  it  may  be  dissolved  by  the  Governor  at  any 
time.  Every  elector  is  qualified  to  be  chosen 
as  a  member. 

In  Tasmania  the  Legislative  Council  con- 
sists of  18  members  elected  by  resident  inhabi- 
tants possessed  either  of  freehold  land  of  the 
annual  value  of  £20,  leasehold  of  the  annual 
value  of  £40,  or  having  university  or  profes- 
sional qualification  ( Constitutional  Amend- 
ment Act.  1901).  The  Assembly  consists  of  35 
members  elected  by  adult  suffrage  coupled  with 
residential  qualification.  Members  of  both 
chambers  receive  an  honorarium  of  £100  each, 
subject  to  their  attending  a  certain  number  of 
days  per  session.  An  act  to  confer  the  fran- 
chise on  women  was  passed  in  1904. 

In  Queensland  the  Legislative  Council,  like 
that  of  New  South  Wales,  is  a  nominated  body 
consisting  of  ^7  members ;  they  are  appointed 
by  the  Governor  in  council,  and  subject  to  cer- 
tain attendance  each  session  they  hold  their 
seats  for  life ;  they  receive  no  payment,  but  are 
entitled  to  free  railway  passes.  The  Assembly 
consists  of  72  members  elected  practically  by 
manhood  suffrage ;  but  owners  of  freehold  land 
of  the  value  of  £100,  and  household  occupiers  of 
the  annual  value  of  £10  are  entitled  to  vote  in 
every  electorial  district  in  which  they  have  that 
property  qualification.  The  Assembly  exists  for 
three  years  unless  previously  dissolved,  and  its 
members  receive  a  remuneration  of  £300  per 
year,  and  free  railway  passes,  and  allowances 
for  traveling  expenses.  Every  elector  is  quali- 
ved  to  be  chosen  a  member. 

In  Western  Australia  the  Legislative  Coun- 
cil consists  of  30  members  elected  by  adult 
persons  having  as  a  qualification,  either  freehold 
lands  of  the  capital  value  of  £100,  or  leasehold 
of  the  annual  value  of  £25,  or  being  Crown 
lessees  or  licensees  of  land  of  the  annual  value 
of  £10.  The  tenure  of  seats  is  six  years :  one- 
third  retiring  every  two  years,  (Constitution 
Act,  1890).  The  Assembly  consists  of  50  mem- 
bers elected  by  adult  persons  being  residents 
of  an  electorate,  but  persons  having  freehold 
land  of  the  capital  value  of  £50,  or  leasehold 


AUSTRALIA  — MUNICIPAL  AND  LOCAL  GOVERNMENT 


]and  of  ilie  annual  value  of  iio,  are  entitled  to 
vote  in  any  district  in  which  they  hold  the 
property  qualification.  The  Assembly,  like 
other  popular  chambers  of  Australia,  is  a  trien- 
nial House.  A  bill  conferring  the  franchise  on 
women  was  passed  in  the  year  1899. 

Under  the  provisions  of  the  Constitutional 
Amendment  Act  (igoi).  tlic  number  of  mem- 
bers of  the  Legislative  Council  of  South  Aus- 
tralia was  reduced  from  24  to  18.  Under  earlier 
acts  the  members  are  elected  by  adults  of  both 
sexes,  having  as  a  property  qualification  either 
a  freehold  estate  of  the  capital  value  of  £50,  or 
a  leasehold  of  the  annual  value  of  £20  with 
three  years  to  run,  or  being  the  occupier  of  a 
dwelling  house  of  the  annual  value  of  $25. 
^Members  of  the  council  hold  their  seats  for  six 
years,  one-half  retiring  every  three  j^ears ;  un- 
less the  chamber  is  sooner  dissolved  by  the 
Governor :  which  can  be  done  in  cases  of  dis- 
putes, or  deadlocks  between  the  two  chambers 
extending  over  a  certain  time.  By  the  Consti- 
tutional Amendment  Act  of  (1901)  the  number 
of  members  of  the  Assembly  was  reduced  from 
54  to  42.  The  Assembly  is  a  triennial  chamber, 
unless  previously  dissolved.  In  the  event  of  a 
deadlock  between  the  two  Houses  in  reference 
to  a  proposed  law  it  is  within  the  power  of  the 
Governor  to  dissolve  them  both,  subject  to  the 
following  limitations,  viz. :  ( i )  It  must  have 
been  passed  by  the  Assembly  and  rejected  by 
the  council  in  one  session;  (2)  it  must  have 
been,  after  a  general  election,  passed  a  second 
time  by  an  absolute  majority  of  the  whole 
number  of  members  of  the  Assembly  and  a 
second  time  rejected  by  the  council.  Members 
of  both  Houses  are  entitled  to  receive  £200  per 
annum  each  and  free  passes  over  government 
railways. 

Judicial  Dcf^artmcnts  of  States. — The  Su- 
preme Court  of  Xew  South  Wales  is  consti- 
tuted under  Act  4,  Geo.  IV..  c.  96,  and  9,  Geo. 
IV..  c.  83.  It  consists  of  a  Chief  Justice  and  six 
other  justices.  It  has  unlimited  civil  and 
criminal  jurisdiction.  Circuit  districts  and  cir- 
cuit courts  are  established  to  try  civil  actions 
and  determine  crimes  and  misdemeanors.  The 
Supreme  Court  has  appellate  jurisdiction  to 
hear  appeals  from  all  inferior  courts.  There 
are  seven  district  courts  having  jurisdiction  in 
personal  actions  not  exceeding  £200  and  a  lim- 
ited criminal  jurisdiction.  Courts  of  Petty  Ses- 
sions having  summary  jurisdiction  to  deal  with 
minor  offences  and  a  limited  civil  jurisdiction 
presided  over  by  a  Stipendary  ^Magistrate,  or 
by  two  or  more  justices,  exist  in  all  cities, 
towns  and  centers  of  population. 

There  is  a  Supreme  Court  in  and  for  Vic- 
toria, constituted  under  the  authority  of  the 
constitution.  It  consists  of  a  Chief  Justice  and 
four  justices.  It  is  unlimited  in  civil  jurisdic- 
tion a?  well  as  jurisdiction  to  try  crimes  and 
misdemeanors ;  as  a  full  court  it  has  appellate 
jurisdiction  from  all  inferior  tribunals.  Courts 
of  General  Sessions  of  the  Peace  having  juris- 
diction to  inquire  into  a  limited  class  of  indict- 
able offences  and  to  hear  appeals  from  Courts 
of  Petty  Sessions,  exist  in  certain  proclaimed 
districts.  Wardens  Courts  and  Courts  of 
Klines  exist  for  hearing  mining  disputes. 
County  Courts  having  authority  to  decide  all 
personal  actions  up  to  the  amount  of  £500. 
Courts  of  Petty  Sesssons  having  summary  jur- 


isdiction   in    minor   criminal   matters    and   civil 
jurisdiction  up  to  the  amount  of  £50. 

The  Supreme  Court  of  Tasmania  consists 
of  a  Chief  Justice  and  two  puisne  judges;  it 
has  both  original  and  appellate  jurisdiction  in 
common  law,  equity,  ecclesiastical,  and  crim- 
inal matters.  Local  courts  can  deal  with  civil 
matters,  some  up  to  £100,  and  others  up  to 
£50.  Justices  in  Petty  Sessions  can  make  con- 
victions and  orders  in  minor  or  criminal  mat- 
ters. 

The  Supreme  Court  of  Queensland  may  be 
composed  of  not  less  than  four,  and  not  more 
than  five  judges.  It  has  the  same  jurisdiction 
as  the  Superior  Courts  of  Common  Law,  and 
the  High  Court  of  Chancery,  in  England;  it 
also  possesses  ecclesiastical  and  criminal  juris- 
diction. An  appeal  lies  to  the  full  court  from 
all  inferior  courts.  District  courts  are  vested 
with  a  limited  civil  and  criminal  jurisdiction. 
Courts  of  Petty  Sessions  and  Small  Debt 
Courts  exercise  a  limited  authority  in  specified 
civil  and  criminal  matters.  Wardens  Courts 
are  constituted  to  deal  with  mming  disputes. 

The  Supreme  Court  of  Western  Australia 
was  established  by  Royal  Charter  in  1861,  and 
the  rnain  provisions  relating  to  its  constitution 
and  jurisdiction  are  contained  in  the  Supreme 
Court  Act,  (1880.)  It  has  jurisdiction  in  com- 
mon law,  equity,  ecclesiastical  and  criminal 
matters.  Local  courts  similar  to  those  in  some 
of  the  other  Australian  states  can  decide  small 
debt  cases.  Justices  in  Courts  of  Petty  Session 
can  summarily  convict,  imprison,  or  fine  per- 
sons guilty  of  minor  offences.  Warden  Courts 
have  authority  to  deal   with  mining  cases. 

The  Supreme  Court  of  South  Australia  is 
composed  of  a  Chief  Justice  and  two  other 
puisne  judges.  Its  jurisdiction  extends  to  all 
matters  of  law  and  equity.  It  has  also  juris- 
diction in  crimes  and  misdemeanors.  It  is  the 
court  of  appeal  from  the  decisions  of  all  inferior 
courts.  South  Australian  local  courts  are  to 
some  extent  analogous  to  the  district  courts 
and  county  courts  of  other  states.  Some  of 
these  courts  have  jurisdiction  in  civil  matters 
up  to  the  amount  of  £490;  other  local  courts 
are  limited  to  actions  where  the  debt  or  damage 
claimed  is  no  more  than  £20. 

Bibliography.  See  article  Austr.\li.\  — 
Political  History.  Sir  John  Quick, 

Member  of  Commonzvealth  House  of  Represen- 
tatives;  Joint  Author  of  '^Constitution  of 
Australian   Commonwealth.^ 

7.  Australia  —  Municipal  and  Local  Gov- 
ernment. I)itroductory  and  General. —  The  or- 
ganization of  municipal  government  in  Australia 
is  modeled  largely  on  the  English  system  and 
is  composed  of  mayors,  aldermen  and  coun- 
cilors in  the  chief  cities  and  larger  towns,  with 
district  or  shire  councils,  local  or  divisional 
boards  (the  nomenclature  varies  in  the  different 
States)  presided  over  by  elected  chairmen  or 
presidents  in  the  small  towns  or  villages,  and 
outlying  districts  where  settlement  is  sparse. 
All  of  these  are  creations  of  statute  deriving 
their  authoritj',  power,  and  duties  from  the  Par- 
liaments of  the  various  States.  No  salaries  are 
paid  to  the  mayors  who  in  the  capital  and  mo«t 
of  the  larger  towns  are  voted  an  annual  allow- 
ance by  the  councils  for  entertaining  and  keep- 
ing up  the  traditional  dignities  of  the  office.     In 


AUSTRALIA  — MUNICIPAL  AND  LOCAL  GOVERNMENT 


Melbourne  the  vote  is  i  1,500,  in  Sydney  and 
Adelaide  ii.ooo.  The  mayor  has  no  direct 
power  of  veto  over  the  council's  actions.  He 
represents  the  city  as  a  whole  and  presides  over 
the  council  and  undertakes  only  those  duties 
which  devolve  naturally  on  the  leading  officer 
of  a  city.  The  paid  officials  are  non-partisan 
appointed  by  the  councils  and  form  a  permanent 
stafif  holding  their  positions  during  good  be- 
havior; the  head  of  which  (as  in  England)  in 
the  cities  is  the  town  clerk.  The  terms  munici- 
pal and  local  government  are  interchangeable 
as  applying  to  (a)  the  cities  and  the  larger 
towns  of  the  Commonwealth,  of  which  the  cap- 
itals are  types,  and  (b)  to  the  smaller  towns 
and  outlying  districts  which  are  simply  micro- 
cosms like  unto  the  larger  bodies  but  with 
functions  of  a  more  prosaic  and  limited  char- 
acter conditioned  mostly  by  population.  In  fact 
it  may  be  taken  as  axiomatic  that  when  the  gov- 
ernment of  the  cities  is  understood  everything 
of  importance  to  the  student  is  known  about 
municipal  and  local  government  in  the  Com- 
monwealth of  the  newest  of  the  nations. 

Nominations  for  municipal  offices  usually  re- 
quire the  signatures  of  proposer,  seconder,  and 
candidate.  In  Melbourne  10  ratepayers'  signa- 
tures are  required  together  with  a  deposit  of 
iio.  Secret  voting,  or  voting  by  ballot  as  it  is 
styled,  is  the  universal  system,  which  had  its 
origin  many  j^ears  ago  in  Australia  and  has 
since   found  world-wude  acceptance. 

Generally  speaking  adult  owners  and  occu- 
piers of  real  estate  assessed  for  taxation  who 
have  paid  their  rates,  whether  residents  or  non- 
residents, are  entitled  to  vote  in  the  cities  of 
Australia.  Aliens  are  barred  in  some  cities  and 
women  are  not  yet  universally  welcomed  to  the 
council   chambers   although  they  may  vote. 

The  councils  of  the  capital  cities  are  single 
chambers,  aldermen  and  councilors  sitting  to- 
gether, presided  over  by  the  Mayor.  Except  in 
the  Federal  Government,  and  in  the  State  Par- 
liaments where  it  is  universal,  the  bicameral 
system  of  government  as  it  exists  in  some  Amer- 
ican cities  is  unknown  in  Australia. 

The  Origin  of  Local  Government. —  The  be- 
ginning of  municipal  government  in  Australia 
dates  back  to  1839  when  the  first  municipal  law 
(based  on  the  English  Statute  of  1835)  was 
passed  in  the  State  of  South  Australia  and  put 
into  operation  in  1840  in  the  city  of  Adelaide 
whose  virgin  soil  w^as  surveyed  in  1836.  The 
parent  city  of  Sydney,  the  capital  of  New  South 
Wales,  established  in  1788,  was  incorporated  in 
1842.  Melbourne,  the  chief  city  of  the  State  of 
Victoria  originated  as  a  small  settlement  in 
1835  ^"d  was  incorporated  in  1842  by  the  legis- 
lature of  New  South  Wales  of  which  State  it 
then  formed  an  integral  portion.  The  other 
capital  cities  are:  Brisbane  (Queensland), 
founded  1826,  incorporated  1859;  Perth  (West 
Australia),  founded  1829,  incorporated  1871  ; 
Hobart  (Tasmania),  founded  1804,  incorporated 
1857. 

Local  Government  in  Xezu  South  Wales. — 
The  city  council  of  Sydney  is  composed  of  24 
aldermen,  one  of  whom  is  elected  by  the  council 
annually  to  be  Lord  Mayor.  Two  aldermen  for 
each  of  the  12  wards  are  elected  by  ballot  by 
the  ratepayers  every  two  years.  Plural  voting 
obtains,  based  on  assessment  values  up  to  four 
votes.      Owners,     leaseholders,     occupiers     and 


lodgers  are  entitled  to  vote.  Accounts  are  aud- 
ited bv  State  Government  inspectors.  Assess- 
ments are  based  on  rental  values  of  improved 
property. 

The  condition  of  local  government  in  this 
State  is  admittedly  unsatisfactory.  In  the  metro- 
politan area  the  agitation  for  a  "Greater  Syd- 
ney* is  still  proceeding  by  which  its  advocates 
hope  that  the  city  council  will  absorb  the  small 
surrounding  suburban  local  governing  bodies, 
of  whom  there  are  no  less  than  41  each  with  its 
own  separate  mayor,  council,  officered  staff,  and 
administration. 

The  number  of  municipalities  in  New  South 
Wales  is  only  192,  covering  an  area  of  1,810,912 
acres  with  an  annual  value  for  assessment  pur- 
poses of  £8,351,420  and  a  very  large  area  still 
remains  under  the  control  of  the  State  Govern- 
ment which  is  now  considering  proposals  to 
extend  the  system  of  local  government  bj-  the 
creation  of  shire  councils  and  new  municipalities 
allowing  such  bodies  to  levy  their  rates  on  the 
unimproved  capital  value  of  the  land  instead  of 
on  the  annual  value  of  improved  property. 

Besides  the  municipalities  there  are  boards 
and  trusts  composed  of  members  appointed  by 
the  State  Government  and  members  appointed 
by  various  municipal  bodies,  which  are  estab- 
lished for  the  benefit  of  districts  covering  areas 
of  two  or  more  ordinary  municipalities  and  are 
empowered  to  construct  and  supervise  water 
works,  drainage  works  and  similar  undertak- 
ings with  power  to  raise  money  by  the  sale  of 
debenture  stock  and  levy  rates  on  the  assessed 
value  of  benefited  properties.  In  New  South 
Wales  there  are  the  Metropolitan  Board  of 
Water  Supply  and  Sewerage,  various  Harbor 
Trusts,  Country  Water  Trusts,  and  the  Metro- 
politan Fire  Brigades  Board,  on  which  latter 
representatives  of  the  fire  insurance  companies 
sit  who  contribute  to  the  upkeep  of  the  brigades. 

Local  Government  in  Victoria. —  The  city 
council  of  Melbourne  consists  of  28  members 
(seven  aldermen  and  21  councilors)  presided 
over  by  the  Lord  Mayor  who  is  elected  annually 
by  the  council.  Three  councilors  are  elected 
for  each  of  the  seven  wards  of  the  city,  one 
being  chosen  annually  by  plural  voting  for  a 
period  of  three  years.  The  aldermen  are  ap- 
pointed by  the  council  and  hold  office  for  four 
years.  Residence  within  seven  miles  of  the  city 
and  minimum  rating  of  iio  qualifies  for  a  vote 
which  slides  upward  to  three  votes  on  a  £150 
assessment. 

This  State  has  had  a  comprehensive  system 
of  local  government  in  force  for  many  years 
which  divides  it  into  cities,  towns,  boroughs, 
and  shires ;  the  councilors  are  elected  by  the 
ratepayers,  and  the  mayors  of  cities,  towns,  and 
boroughs,  and  presidents  of  shires  by  the  coun- 
cilors. The  total  area  under  local  control 
being  87,302  square  miles,  only  582  square 
miles    remaining    outside    of    local    government. 

Melbourne  and  22  suburban  municipalities 
constitute  the  metropolitan  area,  and  thoughtful 
students  of  local  government  look  forward  to 
the  time  when  all  or  most  of  these  will  be 
amalgamated  with  the  city.  A  Royal  Commis- 
sion has  taken  most  exhaustive  evidence  pro 
and  con  during  the  past  three  years  but  so  far 
has  not  submitted  its  report. 

Other  governing  bodies  outside,  yet  dove- 
tailing in   with  the   municipal   councils   and  the 


AUSTRALIA  — MUNICIPAL  AND  LOCAL  GOVERNMENT 


State  Government  in  Victoria,  are  the  Metro- 
politan Fire  Brigades  Board,  the  Melbourne 
Harbor  Trust,  the  Tramway  Trust  consisting  of 
representatives  of  the  ]\Ierbourne  City  Council 
and  1 1  other  suburban  municipalities,  the  Metro- 
politan Board  of  Works  controlling  water  sup- 
plies, sewerage  and  drainage  and  various  other 
Water  Works,  Irrigation,  and  Water  Supply 
Trusts  under  quasi-local  and  quasi-State  Gov- 
ernment control. 

Local  Government  in  South  Australia. —  The 
council  of  the  city  of  Adelaide  consists  of  the 
mayor,  six  aldermen,  and  12  councilors.  All 
of  them  including  the  ma3or  are  elected  by  the 
ratepayers.  The  mayor  and  aldermen  hold  office 
for  one  and  three  years  respectively;  the  coun- 
cilors (two  for  each  of  the  six  wards)  hold 
office  for  two  years.  At  each  annual  election 
the  mayor,  two  aldermen  and  six  councilors 
are  balloted  for.  Plural  voting  obtains  for 
mayor  and  aldermen,  the  system  allowing  a 
citizen  one  vote  in  each  ward  where  he  has 
property  assessed.  The  State  is  divided  for 
local  government  purposes  into  municipal  and 
district  councils.  Aldermen  may  be  elected 
to  surburban  councils  in  addition  to  councilors 
after  a  poll  of  the  ratepayers  has  been  taken 
approving  such  a  proposition,  followed  by  a 
proclamation  by  the  State  Governor,  and  it  is 
worthy  of  note  that  the  chairmen  of  the  dis- 
trict councils  are  elected  not  by  the  ratepayers 
but  by  the  members  of  the  councils.  The  an- 
nual assessed  value  of  property  in  municipalities 
is  £2,661,238.  There  are  no  boards  or  trusts 
(other  than  the  Fire  Brigades  Board)  of  any  im- 
portance, but  very  extensive  powers  are  vested 
in  corporate  bodies  w-ho  may  raise  loans  for 
the  construction  and  working  of  tramwaj's, 
ferries,  jetties,  water-works,  gasworks,  electric- 
light  works,  baths  and  washhouses,  abattoirs, 
markets ;  and  make  and  provide  pleasure 
grounds,  libraries,  museums,  hospitals,  and 
asylums. 

Local  Government  in  Queensland. —  The 
city  council  of  Brisbane  comprises  14  members 
who  are  styled  aldermen,  one  of  whom  is  elected 
annually  to  be  mayor.  The  capital  value  of  land 
is  assessed  here  and  not  the  rental  value.  The 
owner  or  occupier  has  from  one  to  three  votes 
according  to  valuation.  If,  however,  the  prop- 
erty is  valued  at  less  than  £120,  only  the  occu- 
pier has  a  vote. 

A  general  system  of  local  government  was 
started  in  1878  and  revised  in  1902.  Local 
areas  are  divided  into  cities,  towns,  and  shires. 
Members  of  councils  are  styled  aldermen  in 
cities  and  towns  and  councilors  in  the  shires. 
Aldermen  and  councilors  are  elected  by  rate- 
payers in  each  area,  but  all  mayors  of  cities 
and  towns  and  chairmen  of  shires  are  chosen 
by  the  members  of  the  councils.  The  total  area 
controlled  by  local  bodies  is  668,252  square  miles, 
leaving   only   245    square   miles    unincorporated. 

In  Queensland  the  water  supply  construction 
work  is  undertaken  by  the  State  Government 
and  when  complete  is  handed  over  to  the  local 
authorities  with  attendant  liabilities,  \yhich  be- 
come a  debt  due  from  the  local  authority  to  the 
State  Government  which  must  be  repaid  in  in- 
stalments. There  are  a  few  bridge  boards  and 
harbor  boards  in  various  districts. 

Local  Government  in  West  Australia  and 
Tasmania. —  The  city  of   Perth  —  the  capital  of 


West  Australia  — is  governed  by  a  mayor  and 
15  councilors,  all  of  whom  are  elected  Dy  the 
ratepayers.  For  ward  elections  there  are  two 
classes  of  voters  and  for  general  municipal 
elections  four.  The  local  governing  bodies  in 
West  Australia  are  termed  Municipalities, 
Water  Boards,  Road  Boards,  and  Health 
Boards;  the  latter  may  be  established  within 
or  without  municipal  boundaries.  Members  of 
boards  are  elected  by  ratepayers  and  the  chair- 
men by  the  members. 

In  Hobart  — the  capital  city  of  the  island 
State  of  Tasmania  —  the  council  consists  of 
nine  aldermen,  one  of  whom  is  elected  by  the 
members  to  be  mayor.  The  aldermen  are 
elected  by  plural  voting  with  a  minimum  quali- 
fication of  £8  annual  value,  the  scale  being  from 
one  to  seven  votes  according  to  assessed  value 
of  property. 

Tasmania  has  its  outlying  districts  governed 
by  Town  Boards  and  Road  Trusts.  The  rate- 
payers in  these  districts  elect  their  representa- 
tives who  are  termed  "councilors"  and  these 
councilors  elect  their  chairman  who  is  stvled 
«Warden.» 

Pozvcrs  and  Duties  of  the  City  Councils.-^ 
The  functions  of  the  city  councils  are  leg+sla- 
tive  as  well  as  administrative.  They  are  em- 
powered under  statutes  granted  by  the  State 
Parliaments  to  make  by-laws  for  the  suppres- 
sion of  nuisances  for  all  matters  of  minutise 
relating  to  good  rule  and  government,  and  af- 
fecting the  comfort,  convenience,  and  welfare 
of  their  inhabitants.  They  may  levy  rates  to 
cover  the  cost  of  general  administration  and 
raise  loans  (under  certain  restrictions)  when 
necessary  for  public  works.  Properties  ex- 
empted from  payment  of  rates  are  Federal  and 
State  Government  buildings  (including  State 
schools),  charitable  and  benevolent  institutions, 
churches,  chapels,  and  buildings  used  exclusively 
for  public  worship,  and  buildings  privately 
owned  which  are  used  exclusively  as  schools. 
They  are  charged  with  the  control  of  traffic,  the 
testing  of  weights  and  measures,  the  construc- 
tion and  maintenance  of  roads,  bridges,  and  foot- 
ways, the  care  and  management  of  parks  and 
recreation  grounds,  public  baths,  street  lighting 
sheep  and  cattle  markets,  meat,  produce,  and 
fish  markets,  abattoirs,  the  collection  and  dis- 
posal of  garbage,  trade  refuse,  and  they  may 
and  do  hold  large  properties  in  real  estate. 
They  supervise  the  erection  and  construction 
of  buildings  and  in  some  cities  have  jurisdic- 
tion over  theatres,  music  halls,  and  places  of 
public  entertainment  as  to  fire-proof  materials 
and  means  of  exit.  They  regulate  sky  signs  and 
scaffolding  and  in  most  cities  license  cars,  cabs, 
and  conveyances  plying  for  hire. 

Public  Health  and  Sanitary  Functions. —  The 
city  councils  are  constituted  as  Boards  of  Health 
and  are  responsible  in  their  areas  for  the  proper 
administration  of  the  various  public  health  acts 
to  the  State  Boards  of  Health  or  Government 
Commissioners  as  the  case  may  be.  They  in- 
spect and  license  private  hospitals  and  maternity 
homes  and  employ  medical  officers  of  health  and 
staffs  of  inspectors  (male  and  female)  whose 
duties  are  to  look  after  the  adulteration  of  food 
and  to  have  the  oversight  of  food  supplies  (par- 
ticularly meat,  milk,  and  bread),  inspection  of 
common  lodging  houses,  dairies,  milkshops  and 
dairy    cattle ;    noxious    trades    and    businesses, 


AUSTRALIA  — MUNICIPAL  AND  LOCAL  GOVERNMENT 


abatement  of  common  nuisances  and  smoke  nui- 
sances ;  to  prevent  spitting  in  the  streets  and  in 
public  vehicles ;  to  inspect  restaurants,  fishshops, 
butcher  shops  and  all  premises  where  food  is 
prepared  or  consumed ;  to  prevent  overcrowding 
of  premises ;  and  to  attend  to  matters  of  isola- 
tion, disinfection,  and  hospital  accommodation 
for  infectious  diseases  and  fevers. 

Notification  of  disease  is  generally  compul- 
sory under  penalty.  Medical  practitioners, 
heads  of  families,  and  relatives  are  all  liable  for 
neglect.  In  compulsory  notification  of  pulmon- 
ary tuberculosis  (consumption)  the  State  of 
South  Australia  has  led  the  way,  and  the  diffi- 
culties and  dangers  feared  by  some  medical  men 
have  been  found  to  be  mythical  and  non-existent. 

Budget  Items  and  Flotation  of  Loans. —  The 
chief  sources  of  municipal  revenue  are  income 
from  rates,  rents  from  real  estate,  market  dues, 
fines,  penalties,  and  license  fees. 

The  rates  levied  in  the  city  of  Adelaide  may 
be  taken  as  typical  of  Australia  and  are  as  fol- 
lows :  General  purposes,  rate,  one  shilling  in 
the  pound ;  street  lighting,  rate,  three  pence ; 
parks  and  gardens,  rate,  one  halfpenny ;  rate  for 
sinking  funds  (loans),  one  halfpenny,  rate  for 
police  purposes,  two  pence;  and  a  sanitary  rate 
of  three  pence.  To  which  must  be  added  a 
water  and  sewerage  rate  of  one  shilling  and  six- 
pence in  the  pound  (levied  by  the  State  Govern- 
ment), making  a  total  of  three  shillings  and 
three  pence  to  be  paid  by  the  citizens,  which  in 
comparison  with  the  rates  charged  in  London 
and  most  of  the  large  populous  cities  of  Great 
Britain  is  an  exceedingly  light  impost. 

The  expenditure  budgets  of  the  cities  con- 
tain as  principal  items  :  road  and  footway  main- 
tenance, upkeep  of  parks  and  gardens,  baths, 
markets  and  kindred  establishments,  salaries  and 
wages.  Da\^  labor  invariably  obtains  except  on 
new  construction  work.  The  wage  of  the  ordin- 
ary unskilled  mimicipal  laborer  is  on  an  average 
seven  shillings  per  day  —  in  some  cities  slightly 
higher. 

Loans  are  mostly  raised  by  the  sale  of  deben- 
ture stock,  redeemable  at  due  dates,  although  in 
some  instances  the  State  Government  advances 
monej'  and  becomes  the  creditor  of  the  local 
authority.  In  Sydney  and  Melbourne,  bills  are 
passed  by  the  State  Parliaments  authorizing  those 
cities  to  float  loans  for  street  construction  work, 
establishment  of  electric  light,  erection  of  mar- 
kets, etc.  In  Victoria,  outside  the  capital,  the 
limit  of  indebtedness  for  municipalities  is  fixed 
at  10  times  the  amount  of  annual  income;  the 
establishment  of  a  sinking  fund  is  obligatory 
with  an  annual  appropriation  of  not  less  than 
two  per  cent  of  the  amount  of  the  debt.  A  law 
similar  in  many  respects  exists  in  West  Aus- 
tralia. A  referendum  of  any  proposed  loan  may 
be  demanded  in  Victoria  and  the  consent  of  the 
State  Governor  is  required  in  West  Australia. 
In  New  South  Wales  municipalities  may  bor- 
row on  debentures,  with  the  sanction  of  the 
State  Governor,  an}'  sum  not  exceeding  the 
total  estimated  amount  of  revenue  for  an  en- 
suing five  years. 

In  South  Australia  the  consent  of  the  rate- 
payers is  required  preparatory  to  floating  any 
loan,  the  maximum  indebtedness  of  a  municipal- 
ity is  fixed,  sinking  funds  are  compulsory,  and 
where  the  loan  is  to  be  applied  to  works  of  a 
non-revenue  producing  character,  a  rate  must 
be  struck  to  provide  sinking  fund  and  interest. 


Population. 

Annual  Value. 

511.030 

£5,669.670 

501,460 

4.489,181 

168,066 

1,201,996 

124.463 

1,167.135 

46,400 

378,266 

34.917 

i75.'94 

Statistics  of  the  Metropolitan  Cities. —  In  any 
survey  of  the  progress  of  modern  civilization 
the  concentration  of  population  in  cities  is  the 
most  startling  fact.  It  is  a  world-wide  move- 
ment and  is  nowhere  more  strikingly  exemplified 
than  in  the  cities  of  Australia.  The  progress 
of  the  chief  cities  has  been  remarkable  and  has 
no  parallel  among  the  cities  of  the  old  world. 
Even  in  the  LTnited  States  the  rise  of  the  great 
cities  has  been  accompanied  by  a  corresponding 
increase  in  the  rural  population,  but  in  Australia 
(perhaps  for  the  first  time  in  history)  is  pre- 
sented the  spectacle  of  magnificent  cities  grow- 
ing with  marvelous  rapidity  and  embracing 
within  their  limits  one  third  or  more  of  the 
population  of  the  States  of  which  they  are  the 
seat  of  government. 

The  population  and  annual  assessment  value 
for  rating  purposes  of  the  metropolitan  areas 
are   illustrated   in  the   following  table : 


Sydney  .  . 
!^'ieIbourne 
Adelaide  . 
Brisbane  . 
Perth  .  .  . 
Hobart  .  . 


City  Functions  Controlled  by  the  States. — 
The  police,  although  supervising  traffic  and  ad- 
ministering city  by-laws  and  regulations  are 
controlled  and  paid  by  the  State  governments 
with  the  one  exception  of  South  Australia  where 
the  city  and  all  other  municipal  corporations  are 
compelled  to  contribute  a  moiety  of  the  cost  in 
each  district.  Education  is  invariably  State  con- 
trolled although  private  schools  exist.  The  care 
of  the  poor  is  attended  to  by  the  States  side  by 
side  with  religious  and  philanthropic  institu- 
tions. Prisons,  asylums,  and  hospitals  are  under 
the  charge  of  the  central  governments,  although 
the  local  authorities  are  compelled  to  pay  for 
the  accommodation  in  some  States  of  indigent 
cases  of  infectious  disease.  The  cities  generally 
take  no  share  in  the  management  of  public  libra- 
ries, museums,  technical  schools,  and  art  gal- 
leries which  exist  in  every  capital.  Telegraphs 
and  telephones  are  entirely  controlled  by  the  Fed- 
eral Government.  Tramways  (street  railways) 
are  in  the  hands  of  the  State  Government  in 
New  South  Wales  and  in  the  other  capitals  are 
owned  and  operated  b}'  private  companies,  under 
charters  granted  by  the  State  Parliament.  Pro- 
vision is,  however,  made  in  some  States,  notably 
in  Melbourne  and  Perth,  for  the  metropolitan 
municipalities  eventually  taking  them  over. 
Gasworks  and  supplies  are  mostly  owned  and 
operated  by  private  companies.  Electric  light- 
ing is  owned  and  operated  municipally  in  Mel- 
bourne and  Sydney.  In  Adelaide  the  private 
company's  existing  rights  expire  in  1908.  Fire 
brigades  are  managed  by  boards,  with  municipal 
representation  upon  them.  Water  and  sewerage 
are  managed  either  by  State  Government  de- 
partments or  quasi-government  boards. 

The  Municipal  Outlook  for  the  Future. — 
The  municipal  limits  of  the  capital  cities  of 
Australia  by  no  means  correspond  to  their 
social,  industrial,  and  economic  boundaries ;  as 
municipal  centres  they  are  the  <<pulses'>  which 
contain  only  a  fraction  of  the  population  of  the 
metropolitan  areas  and  are  only  just  now  wak- 
ing up  to  the  necessity  of  bringing  into  being 
comprehensive  Greater   Sydneys,   Greater  Bris- 


AUSTRALIA  —  EDUCATION 


banes,  Greater  Melbourncs,  and  Greater  Ade- 
laides. The  same  sociological  forces  are  at 
work  in  Australia  as  in  America,  Great  Britain, 
and  the  continent  of  Europe,  where  enlargement 
of  areas  and  greater  cities  have  been  dominant 
planks  in  municipal  platforms  for  years.  We 
may  therefore  expect  similar  results  to  follow 
in  Australia  as  have  been  achieved  elsewhere 
in  the  course  of  the  next  decade. 

Some  small  effort  in  this  direction  has  al- 
ready been  accomplished,  notably  in  Brisbane 
and  Melbourne,  by  the  recent  absorption  of  one 
or  two  adjacent  suburbs,  but  the  movement  gen- 
erally can  hardly  be  said  to  have  yet  passed 
much  beyond  the  embryonic  stage. 

In  the  metropolitan  areas  of  Sydney,  Mel- 
bourne, and  Adelaide  there  are  respectively  41, 
22,  and  19  municipal  governing  bodies  with  be- 
wildering codes  of  by-laws  and  methods  of  ad- 
ministration, and  it  has  been  well  said  that  on 
the  score  of  economy  alone  the  arrangement  is 
an  absurdity  which  tolerates  within  a  lo-mile 
radius  of  the  centres  such  an  enormous  num- 
ber of  local  governing  bodies  —  each  separate, 
distinct,  and  independent  of  the  other  —  to  man- 
age the  affairs  of  from  160,000  to  half  a  million 
of  people  with,  of  course,  as  many  staffs  of 
municipal  officers,  all  working  in  isolation,  and 
often  unable  to  agree  about  matters  of  vital 
concern  to  all.  Experience  has  shown  that  occa- 
sional conferences  are  at  best  but  an  inadequate 
substitute  for  a  permanent  body  with  a  fair 
representation  of  all  interests  and  smoothly 
working  machinery.  Whether  reform  takes  the 
shape  of  federation  or  unification,  whether  it 
comes  with  a  rush  or  gradually,  as  the  dwellers 
outside  the  city  bounds  awaken  to  the  advan- 
tages of  co-operative  effort  —  come  it  must,  in 
order  to  permit  the  carrying  out  of  works  at 
present  impracticable,  such  as  the  control  and 
working  of  tramways,  gas  and  electric  light  con- 
cerns and  kindred  undertakings.  With  the 
example  of  the  London  County  Council  before 
us  it  is  obvious  that  it  pays  to  concentrate  as 
much  as  possible  the  municipal  work  of  cities 
in  one  central  body.  Lord  Rosebcrry  has  said 
that  "the  larger  the  sense  of  municipal  responsi- 
bility which  prevails  the  more  it  reacts  on  the 
community  itself.  And  men  outside  the  munici- 
pality, or  who  have  hitherto  held  aloof  from 
municipal  government  when  they  see  the  higher 
aims  of  which  the  municipality  is  capable,  when 
they  see  the  wider  work  that  lies  before  it, 
when  they  see  the  incomparable  practical  pur- 
poses to  which  the  municipality  may  lend  its 
great  power,  are  not  inclined  any  longer  to  hold 
aloof. ^'  The  broad  policy  of  the  London  County 
Council  is  proof  of  this  where  the  finest  intel- 
lects in  England  take  their  share  of  the  work  in 
common  with  those  who  are  attracted  to  the 
Council  of  the  Nation  at  Westminster. 

Notwithstanding  its  shortcomings  the  de- 
velopment of  municipal  government  in  Austra- 
lia exhibits  an  upward  and  progressive  tendency. 
The  cities  have  always  been  free  from  that  gross 
corruption  which  has  been  such  a  marked  feature 
and  has  wrought  such  pernicious  results  in  some 
other  countries.  ^Municipal  government  in  Aus- 
tralia stands  for  probity  and  purity  and  as  a 
recent  Australian  writer  in  'The  Annals'  of 
the  American  Academy  has  put  it :  "We  are 
imdoubtedly  further  advanced  to-day  than  we 
were  20  years  ago,  and  we  may  reasonably  hope 
that  the  silent  evolution  which  is  working  out 


Its  eternal  purposes  in  the  social,  as  truly  as  in 
the  physical  world,  will  equip  us  for  the  achieve- 
ment of  higher  things  in  the  future. » 

T.   G.   El.LKRY, 

Tozi-n  Clerk  of  Adelaide,  South  Australia. 

8.  Australia  —  Education.  Formed,  like 
the  United  States,  by  the  union  of  previously 
autonomous  communities,  the  Commonwealth 
of  Australia  has  followed  the  example  of  the 
United  States  in  the  distribution  of  powers  be- 
tween the  Federal  and  State  authority.  That 
is  to  say  none  but  enumerated  powers  have 
been  conferred  upon  the  Commonwealth,  and 
all  unenumerated  powers  remain  in  the  hands 
of  the  originating  states.  Thus  education,  not 
being  among  the  enumerated  powers,  is  re- 
tained, as  in  the  case  of  America,  by  the  individ- 
ual States.  Every  man,  and  in  recent  years, 
every  woman,  possesses,  after  registration,  a 
parliamentary  franchise,  and  it  is  customary  to 
subject  knotty  public  questions  to  a  direct  refer- 
endum of  the  people  of  a  State.  Such  a  degree 
of  democracy  could  exist  only  in  a  highly  en- 
lightened community.  Elementary  education, 
therefore,  being  essential  for  the  exercise  of 
the  duties  of  citizenship  which  are  imposed 
upon  all,  is  compulsory,  and  the  corollary  fol- 
lows that  it  is  in  almost  every  case  free ;  other- 
wise the  school  fees  would  amount  to  a  poll 
tax  on  children,  which  in  a  country  crying  out 
for  population  is  the  most  undesirable  of  im- 
posts. Being  for  the  benefit  of  all  and  not  of 
any  sect,  state  education  is  secular;  and  this 
not  from  any  disregard  for  religion,  but  be- 
cause experience  has  proved  that  when  the 
state  concerns  itself,  with  dogma  strife  rather 
than  religious  amity  is  produced.  Education 
was  in  the  early  days  of  each  colony  left  to 
private  enterprise.  Before  long,  however,  it 
was  recognized,  consciously  by  some  and  in- 
stinctively by  the  majority,  that  a  function  so 
essential  to  the  general  welfare  must  be  re- 
garded as  a  duty  of  the  state.  So  it  came  to 
pass  that  education  was  one  of  the  first  matters 
of  public  concern  to  be  included  in  the  ever 
widening  of  the  sphere  of  state  activity  which  is 
the  most  characteristic  movement  of  the  present 
age.  Primary  education  is  accordingly  through- 
out Australia  undertaken  by  the  several  gov- 
ernments. 

There  is  a  general  resemblance  in  the  condi- 
tions which  those  who  settle  in  new  countries 
are  called  upon  to  face.  The  problems  of  edu- 
cation in  Australia  are  very  similar  to  those  in 
America.  The  circulars  of  information  issued 
by  the  bureau  in  Washington  have  been  of  the 
greatest  assistance  to  the  educational  depart- 
ments in  Australia,  and  several  useful  reforms 
have  derived  their  inspiration  from  this  source. 
The  laws  relating  to  education  in  the  Austral- 
ian states,  as  might  naturally  be  expected  in 
adjacent  communities  springing  from  the  same 
stock,  bear  a  strong  family  likeness ;  but  as 
considerable  intervals  intervened  between  the 
dates  of  colonization,  and  as  the  science  of 
education  was  steadily  progressive,  the  system 
adopted  by  each  state  was  colored  with  the 
views  which  obtained  at  the  date  of  its  founda- 
tion. The  older  colonies  had,  therefore,  a 
more  difficult  task  in  bringing  the  laws  into 
conformity  with  improved  methods  than  those 
which  at  a  later  period  were  established  on 
ground  unencumbered.    All  have,  however,  now 


AUSTRALIA  —  EDUCATION 


come  into  a  fairly  uniform  line.  The  sequence 
of  evolution  has  been  the  same,  although  the 
successive  steps  taken  were  independent  and 
not  simultaneous.  In  the  beginning  of  each 
colony  the  first  schools  were  established  by  the 
churches,  aided  by  government  grants.  Soon, 
however,  state  non-sectarian  schools  were  es- 
tablished and  the  subsidies  to  private  schools 
ceased.  The  state  schools  were  in  the  first  in- 
stance placed  under  the  control  of  a  Board  of 
Education  appointed  by  the  government ;  but 
the  basic  British  idea  of  responsibility  to  Par- 
liament asserted  itself,  and  a  cabinet  minister 
was  vested  with  the  powers  previously  exer- 
cised by  the  board.  The  Minister  of  Education 
or  of  Public  Instruction,  as  he  is  sometimes 
termed,  appoints  and  dismisses  teachers  and 
officers,  arranges  the  curriculum  and  controls 
the  whole  department.  Regulations  framed  by 
him  and  approved  by  the  Governor  in  Council 
acquire  the  force  of  law  after  they  have  been 
laid  before  Parliament.  This  centralized  ad- 
ministration is  mitigated,  and  to  some  extent, 
assimilated  to  local  conditions,  through  the 
agency  of  district  inspectors  and  local  boards  of 
advice.  The  funds  necessary  for  education  are 
derived  from  the  general  revenue.  From  time 
to  time  attempts  liave  been  made  to  place  a 
portion,  at  least  of  the  burden  upon  the  local 
rates,  but  it  is  felt  that  the  cost  of  a  system 
designed  for  the  benefit  of  the  public  at  large 
should  be  met  from  a  source  to  which,  either 
directly  or  through  the  customs,  all  contribute. 
In  New  South  Wales  and  Tasmania  fees  are 
still  levied,  but  in  the  former  these  amount  to 
only  a  fraction  of  the  whole  expenditure,  and 
are  about  to  be  abolished;  and  in  the  latter 
there  are  free  schools  in  the  large  towns.  The 
net  yearly  cost  to  the  State  of  primary  instruc- 
tion per  scholar  in  average  attendance,  exclud- 
ing the  cost  of  school  premises,  varies  from 
£3.9.1  to  £4.17.3.  The  average  of  all  six  States 
being  £4.4.9. 

The  statutory  school  age  is  in  New  South 
Wales  and  Western  Australia  from  6  to  14 
years;  in  Victoria  from  6  to  13;  in  Queensland 
from  6  to  12;  in  South  Australia  and  Tasmania 
from  7  to  13.  Pupils  under  the  maximum  age 
are  exempted  from  further  attendance  if  on 
examination  they  pass  a  prescribed  standard. 
Attendance  is  required  in  New  South  Wales  on 
70  days,  and  in  Queensland  on  60  days  in  each 
half  year;  in  South  Australia  on  35  days  in 
each  quarter,  and  in  central  districts  on  8  out 
of  10  school  sessions  in  each  week ;  in  Victoria 
on  75  per  cent  of  the  days  in  each  quarter ;  in 
Western  Australia  and  in  Tasmania  on  every 
day  on  which  the  school  is  open.  As  a  rule, 
children  under  the  age  of  nine,  living  within  a 
radius  of  two  miles  by  road  from  a  state  school, 
and  those  between  nine  and  the  maxin^um  age 
living  within  a  radius  of  three  miles,  come 
under  the  laws  relating  to  compulsory  attend- 
ance. Truant  officers  and  in  some  cases  the 
police  are  employed  to  enforce  the  law.  Prose- 
cution and  punishment  of  the  parents  of 
defaulting  childrcu  is  when  necessary  resorted 
to   without  hesitation. 

State  schools  in  Australia  come  under  the 
category  of  Public,  Provisional,  Half-time,  and 
Special.  In  most  of  the  States  a  public  school 
may  be  established  if  an  average  attendance  of 
20  can  be  maintained.     The  buildings  are  pro- 


vided by  the  department.  In  Queensland  an 
average  attendance  of  30  is  required,  and  the 
locality  has  to  contribute  one-fifth  of  the  cost 
of  erection  and  maintenance  of  the  building. 
Where  the  average  attendance  is  under  20,  but 
over  12,  the  school  is  termed  provisional.  In 
sparsely  populated  districts  half-time  and  spe- 
cial schools  or  itinerant  teachers  are  provided. 
The  policy  of  concentration  of  attendance  has 
been  largely  carried  out,  children  are  carried 
free  to  and  from  school  over  the  state  rail- 
ways in  New  South  Wales  and  in  Tasmania. 
In  Victoria  they  are  carried  at  reduced  rates. 
It  is  not  unusual  to  see  a  passenger  train  stop 
at  cross  roads  to  pick  up  a  group  of  children 
on  their  way  to  or  from  school.  In  many 
cases  it  is  found  to  be  more  economical  to  make 
an  allowance  to  parents  for  the,  conveyance  of 
children  to  a  school  than  to  bring  a  school  to 
the  children.  JNIoreover,  better  schools  can  be 
provided  and  higher  standards  maintained 
imder  the  "conveyance*  system  which  there  is 
a  disposition  to  extend.  The  schools  will  then 
still  better  serve  the  purpose  of  central  or 
consolidated  schools.  The  average  attendance 
of  pupils  at  the  state  schools  is  at  the  rate  of 
about  62  per  school,  30  per  teacher,  and  11. 51 
per  cent  of  the  population ;  the  average  enrol- 
ment being  15.59  per  cent. 

Normal  schools  are  provided  for  the  training 
of  teachers,  and  are  usually  recruited  from 
those  who  have  served  for  four  years  as  pupil 
teachers.  In  South  Australia  a  six-year  course 
has  been  arranged  for  the  training  of  teachers ; 
two  years  are  spent  in  study  combined  with  a 
certain  amount  of  practical  work;  two  years  in 
teaching  in  the  schools,  and  the  final  two  years 
at  the  University.  During  the  term  of  training 
the  students  receive  a  maintenance  allowance 
of  from  £30  to  £80.  The  schools  are  classified 
according  to  the  number  of  the  children  in 
average  attendance,  and  progressive  grades  of 
certificates  are  awarded  to  teachers  which  qual- 
ify them  for  appointments  in  the  public  schools. 
Uncertificated  teachers  are  frequently  employed 
in  the  provisional  schools.  In  all  the  states 
with  the  exception  of  New  South  Wales,  there 
is  a  preponderance  of  female  teachers.  The 
salaries  of  male  head  teachers  range  upwards 
to  £450,  and  of  female  head  teachers  to  £360. 
Male  assistants  receive  from  £60  to  £262,  and 
female  assistants  from  £50  to  £216.  The 
salaries  of  provisional  teachers  run  from  £66  to 
£140.  Payment  by  results  has  proved  unsatis- 
factory in  operation  and  has  been  practically 
abandoned.  The  system  of  inspection  is  less 
mechanical  than  formerly  and  several  of  the 
States  exempt  schools  of  recognized  excellence 
from  detailed  examination,  leaving  the  promo- 
tion of  the  scholars  in  the  hands  of  the  head 
teacher.  Boards  of  Advice  .visit,  inspect  and 
report  upon  the  schools  in  their  district,  are 
authorized  to  expend  small  svmis  on  the  school 
buildings,  arrange  for  the  use  of  the  buildings 
out  of  school  hours,  and  take  part  in  the  ad- 
ministration of  the  compulsory  clauses  of  the 
Education  Acts.  The  Boards  of  Advice  are 
honorary.  In  some  cases  they  are  nominated 
by  the  Executive,  in  others  they  are  wholly  or 
partly  elective.  In  Queensland  there  is  usually 
a  committee  for  each  school.  In  no  case,  how- 
ever, has  the  theoretically  desirable  association 
of  the  official  with  a  public  body  on  each  plane 


AUSTRALIA  —  EDUCATION 


been  achieved ;  viz.,  a  school  committee  acting 
with  the  teacher,  correlated  with  a  Board  of 
Advice  co-operating  with  the  District  Inspector, 
and  a  Central  Council  stimulating,  assisting, 
a.id,  if  need  be,  acting  as  a  check  upon  the 
Minister.  Education  falls  short  of  its  object  if 
the  Department  does  not  carry  parents  and  the 
locality  along  with  it.  The  schools,  when  the 
pubh'c  sympathi/^es  with  their  work,  exercise 
a  vitalizing  and  elevating  influence  on  the  whole 
neighborhood.  There  is  no  caste  system  in 
Australia.  The  state  schools  are  intended  to 
meet  the  requirements  of  rich  and  poor  alike; 
it  is  not  uncommon  to  see  the  child  of  a  cabinet 
minister,  or  of  a  wealthy  citizen  imbibing  the 
elements  of  knowledge  by  the  side  of  the  child 
of  an  artisan  or  laborer. 

The  education  in  the  state  schools  is  prac- 
tical and  is  now  designed  as  a  preparation  for 
the  actual  requirements  of  modern  life  rather 
than  for  the  conditions  that  obtained  in  the 
Middle  Ages.  The  pupil  is  led  by  carefully 
graded  steps  from  the  known  to  the  unknown ; 
from  the  particular  to  the  general;  from  the 
concrete  to  the  abstract;  "from  the  microcosm 
of  the  school  to  the  macrocosm  of  the  Universe.^' 

The  tendency  is  to  subordinate  theory  to 
practice.  Language  is  taught  before  grammar ; 
religious  conduct  precedes  dogma.  Kindergar- 
ten methods,  local  geography,  nature  study, 
drawing,  clay  modelling,  and  manual  training 
are  taking  the  place  of  purely  literary  studies. 
History  as  now  taught  in  Australia  is  less  con- 
cerned than  formerly  with  the  character  of 
medinsval  kings,  it  is  studied  more  with  the 
view  of  inculcating  patriotism,  civic  duties  and 
responsibilities.  Since  the  contingents  from 
Australia  bore  arms  with  comrades  from  the 
mother  country  and  the  cementing  power  of 
kindred  blood  shed  in  common  cause  has  been 
realized,  the  Union  Jack  is  saluted  in  the 
schools  of  the  Commonwealth  as  is  the  Star 
Spangled  Banner  in  those  of  the  United  States. 
Arbor  Day  was  instituted  in  the  schnnls  of 
South  Australia  in  1887,  and  the  celebration 
has  become  general  throughout  the  States. 
On  this  day  the  ordinary  school  work  is  sus- 
pended. The  children  assemble  in  the  morn- 
ing, and,  in  the  presence  of  the  Mayor,  or 
Chairman  of  the  Board  of  Advice  and  other 
visitors,  plant  trees  with  some  ceremony.  After 
a  few  speeches  and  some  words  as  to  the  care 
of  trees  and  their  usefulness,  the  school  is  dis- 
missed and  the  rest  of  the  day  is  enjoyed  as  a 
holiday.  All  new  country  schools  in  South 
Australia  are  surrounded  by  a  reserve  of  sev- 
eral acres.  Some  of  the  schools  adopt  practical 
agriculture  as  a  form  of  manual  training,  and 
in  all  the  States,  teachers  are  encouraged  to 
make,  with  the  aid  of  the  children,  gardens 
around  their  schools. 

In  some  of  the  States  there  are  Manual 
Training  Centres  at  which  pupils  drawn  from 
the  surrounding  schools  receive  instruction 
from  special  teachers.  In  South  Australia  the 
ordinary  teachers  are  encouraged  to  qualify 
themselves  in  this  branch  of  education.  The 
greatest  latitude  is  given  as  to  the  form  of  the 
instruction;  for  that  subject  is  taught  best  in 
which  the  teacher  feels  the  deepest  interest. 
Chip  carving,  joinery,  brush  making,  book 
binding,  and  wire  work  are  among  the  subjects 
taken   up    in    the    various    schools.        Domestic 


economy  and  cookery  are  taught  to  girls  in 
most  of  the  States.  Calisthenic  class  exercises 
to  a  musical  accompaniment  are  commonly 
adopted  as  an  attractive  form  of  physical  train- 
ing. The  pupils  are  taught  by  drill  to  move  in 
masses  and  the  order  is  occasionally  given  for 
fire  parade.  The  Cadet  Corps  are  under  mili- 
tary supervision.  Rifles  are  supplied  to  the 
boys,  but  they  have  to  provide  themselves  with 
an  inexpensive  uniform.  Swimming  is  taught 
in  some  of  the  schools.  The  teaching  of  sing- 
ing by  the  tonic  solfa  method  is  a  prominent 
feature.^  The  principles  of  morality  are  sedu- 
lously instilled,  and  good  manners  cultivated. 
Special  attention  is  given  to  temperance  lessons 
in  almost  all  the  States. 

The  average  minimum  time  devoted  to  secu- 
lar instruction  is  four  and  one-half  hours  each 
day.  This  stipulated  condition  being  fulfilled 
certain  facilties  are  provided  for  imparting 
religious  instruction.  In  New  South  Wales 
and  Western  Australia  the  word  "secular'*  is 
held  to  include  religious  teaching  of  a  general 
as  distinguished  from  that  of  a  dogmatic  char- 
acter; and  the  teachers  in  the  performance  of 
the  ordinary  day's  duty  give  Scripture  lessons 
based  on  those  issued  by  tlie  Commissioners  for 
National  Education  in  Ireland.  In  South  Aus- 
tralia, if  the  parents  at  any  school  so  desire, 
teachers  may  be  required  to  read  without  note 
or  comment  a  portion  of  Scripture  for  a  quar- 
ter of  an  hour  before  the  ordinary  work  be- 
gins. In  Victoria  and  Queensland  no  teacher 
is  allowed  to  give  other  than  secular  instruction 
in  a  school  building.  In  Victoria.  Queensland, 
and  South  Australia  the  buildings  may  be  used 
for  any  approved  purpose  out  of  school  hours. 
The  regulation  in  Victoria  states  that  half  an 
hour  may  be  set  apart  in  one  or  two  school 
days  in  each  week  for  religious  instruction  by 
persons  other  than  State  school  teachers.  Such 
classes  must,  however,  be  held  either  from  g.15 
to  9.45  A.  M..  or  from  3.30  to  4  p.  ^r.  No  sub- 
stituted secular  instruction  is  to  be  given  to 
the  children  who  do  not  attend  these  classes. 
In  New  South  Wales  and  Tasmania  one  hour  a 
day  may  be  set  apart  for  the  use  of  visiting 
clergymen  or  teachers  of  religion.  The  time, 
if  not  itsed  for  this  purpose,  is  devoted  to  ordi- 
nary instruction.  In  Western  Australia  half 
an  hour  at  any  time  in  each  day  is  available  for 
special  teachers  of  religion,  subject  to  as  little 
interference  as  possible  with  the  ordinary  work 
of  the  school.  In  none  of  the  States  is  a  child 
required  to  attend  any  religious  lessons  without 
the  parents'  consent.  In  South  Australia  the 
desire  to  arrive  at  a  settlement  of  the  vexed 
question  of  religious  teaching  in  State  schools 
led  to  the  following  resolution  being  carried  in 
the  House  of  Assembly  16  Dec.  1895:  "That 
in  the  opinion  of  this  House  a  poll  of  electors 
should  be  taken  on  the  following  questions : 
Do  you  favor  (i)  The  continuance  of  the  pres- 
ent system  of  education  in  State  schools?  (2) 
The  introduction  of  Scriptural  instruction  in 
State  schools  during  school  hours?  (3,)  The 
payment  of  a  capitation  grant  to  denomina- 
tional  schools   for  secular  results?" 

The  poll  was  taken  at  the  general  election 
in  April  1896,  and  resulted  in  the  following 
answers:  Question  No.  i:  Yes,  51,681;  no, 
17,819.  Question  No.  2:  Yes,  ig,j8o:  no. 
34,834.  Question  No.  3:  Yes,  13.349".  it^> 
42,007.        Informal,    12,830.        The    referendum. 


AUSTRALIA  —  RELIGION 


thus  initiated  has  since  been  adopted  for  the 
sokition  of  various  questions  in  Australia. 

Secular  education  does  not  satisfy  the  re- 
quirements of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church, 
which,  therefore,  in  populous  centres,  maintains 
separate  schools.  In  some  of  the  States  pri- 
vate schools  are  oflficiall}'  inspected.  There  are 
but  few  evening  schools ;  little  public  require- 
ment in  this  direction  has  so  far  been  manifest. 
But  continuation  schools  have  been  fairly  suc- 
cessful in  Western  Australia. 

Although  as  has  been  seen  above  Primary 
education  is  chiefly  a  State  function,  this  is  not 
the  case  with  secondary  education.  With  few 
exceptions  the  secondary  and  high  schools  for 
both  sexes  are  private  or  denominational  es- 
tablishments. The  higher  classes,  however,  in 
the  State  schools  include  subjects  usually  re- 
garded as  secondary.  Provision  is  made  by 
means  of  exhibitions,  scholarships,  etc.,  to  enable 
bright  and  successful  pupils  from  the  State 
schools  to  continue  their  ascent,  free  of  charge, 
up  the  educational  ladder,  through  the  high 
schools  and  at  the  universities.  In  New  South 
Wales  children  who  reach  the  highest  class  in 
the  public  schools  may  receive  advanced  in- 
struction including  Latin  and  French  for  3d.  a 
week,  and  the  Department  maintains  four  high 
schools,  two  for  girls  and  two  for  boys.  The 
Sydney  Grammar  school  receives  an  annual 
grant  from  the  State,  as  does  also  the  high 
school  in  Perth.  Queensland  liberally  subsi- 
dizes secondary  schools.  In  South  Australia 
there  is  an  Advanced  school  for  girls  which, 
althoitgh  a  State  institution,  is  largely  supported 
by  fees.  There  is  also  in  Adelaide  a  secondary 
State  school  for  boys  which  is  preparatory  for 
the  School  of  !\Iincs  and  Industries,  and  the 
Agricultural  College.  The  distinctive  feature 
of  this  school  is  that  only  half  of  each  day  is 
spent  in  the  class  rooms,  during  the  other  half 
the  pupils  receive  practical  instruction  in  the 
garden,  the  laboratory,  and  the  workshop.  In 
Victoria  extra  and  advanced  subjects  are  taught 
in  many  of  the  public  schools  for  a  small  fee. 
The  Chambers  of  Commerce,  the  Bankers'  In- 
stitute, and  the  Incorporated  Institute  of  Ac- 
countants hold  periodic  examinations  in  com- 
mercial and  allied  subjects  which  have  a  stimu- 
lating effect  on  this  branch  of  education.  There 
are  private  schools  in  each  of  the  capitals  which 
provide  a  commercial  curriculum.  Technical 
education,  being  a  special  need  in  a  new  coun- 
try whose  resources  are  only  partially  devol- 
oped,  is  largely  undertaken  by  the  State.  In 
the  cities  and  in  many  of  the  towns,  schools  of 
design,  schools  of  mines  and  industries,  tech- 
nological museums,  and  workingmcn's  colleges 
abound.  There  are  also  numerous  agricultural 
colleges.  In  several  of  the  States  technical 
schools  have  been  built  and  equipped  by  private 
munificence. 

In  the  capitals  are  art  galleries  containing 
many  works  bj-  famous  modern  artists  and 
sculptors.  In  connection  with  these  are  fine 
art  schools  where  instruction  in  painting,  sculp- 
ture, art  needlework,  and  allied  subjects  reaches 
a  high  standard.  These  are  as  a  rule  controlled 
by  Boards,  in  some  cases  partly  appointed  by 
the  Government  and  partly  elected.  The  Uni- 
versity of  Sydney  was  established  in  1852, 
and  that  of  ^Melbourne  in  1855.  South  Australia 
followed  Ml  1874  the  example  thus  set  and 
Tasmania  founded  a  university  in  1890.     These 


universities  are  supported  by  grants  from  the 
public  chest,  by  public  and  private  endowments, 
and  by  fees.  The  Australian  universities  do 
not  confer  degrees  in  divinity;  otherwise  they 
resemble  and  are  in  no  way  inferior  to  those 
of  the  old  world.  The  universities  in  Adelaide 
and  Melbourne  grant  degrees  in  music,  and 
each  has  a  fully  equipped  conservatorium  of 
music.  In  all  the  imiversities  women  are  ad- 
mitted to  degrees  and  to  the  full  privileges  of 
graduates.  The  universities  of  Sydney,  Mel- 
bourne, and  Adelaide  grant  degrees  in  medicine 
to   both   sexes. 

John  Alexander  Cockburn, 
Formerly  Minister  of  Education  in  South  Aus- 
tralia. 

9.  Australia  —  Religion.  .  There  is  no  es- 
tablished Church  in  Australia.  All  religions  are 
now  on  an  equal  footing  so  far  as  the  Govern- 
ments are  concerned ;  grants  in  aid  were  for- 
merly given  to  the  leading  religious  bodies,  but  one 
by  one  the  States  relinquished  the  practice.  South 
Australia  led  the  way  in  this  abolition  in  185 1,  a 
few  years  after  the  foundation  of  the  Colony. 
Queensland,  in  i860,  shorth'  after  the  assembling 
of  its  first  parliament,  limited  future  payments  to 
the  clergy  actually  in  receipt  of  grants ;  New 
South  Wales  followed  suit  in.  1862  and  Victoria 
in  1875.  Western  Australia  voted  periodical 
subsidies  until  1895.  when  future  annual  pay- 
ments were  commuted  by  the  distribution  of  two 
grants  of  £17,715  each  in  that  and  the  following 
year  among  the  Anglican,  Roman  Catholics, 
Wesleyans,  and  Presbyterians,  which  are  the 
only  denominations  that  have  received  state  aid 
in  recognition  of  their  religious  work.  The 
members  of  these  four  churches  constitute  the 
great  bulk  of  the  population  and  their  relative 
numerical  strength  has  remained  almost  con- 
stant for  the  last  30  years.  The  Commonwealth 
is  debarred  from  legislating  in  respect  to  reli- 
gion. Clause  116  of  the  Constitution  Act  pro- 
vides that :  "The  Commonwealth  shall  not  make 
any  law  for  establishing  any  religion,  or  for  im- 
posing an}'  religious  observance,  or  for  prohib- 
iting the  free  exercise  of  any  religion,  and  no 
religious  test  shall  be  required  as  a  qualifica- 
tion for  any  office  or  public  trust  under  the 
Commonwealth''.  In  the  convention  which 
framed  the  Federal  instrument  after  long  and 
earnest  debate  the  words  "humbly  relying  on 
the  blessing  of  Almighty  God*'  were  inserted  in 
the  Preamble  to  the  Act  in  recognition  of  the 
deeply  religious  sentiment  of  the  people.  At  the 
census  of  1901  the  numbers  of  adherents  of  the 
various  denominations  in  each  State  of  the  Aus- 
tralian  Commonwealth  were   given  as   follows : 

Church    of    England i>497.S70 

Roman  Catholic 855,799 

Presbyterian 426,105 

Metho^.st 504,139 

Baptist 9J,670 

Congregational 73.561 

Lutheran 75,021 

Salvation   Army 31,100 

Unitarian 2.629 

Other    Christian 66,968 

Jew,     Hehrew 15,239 

Mahometan 3,206 

Buddhist,     Confucian 16,405 

Hindoo.     Bralimin 846 

Other    Non-Christian 18,894 

Freethinker,    Agnostic,    etc 10,402 

Indefinite 479 

Others 80,673 

Total 3.771.715 


AUSTRALIA  — INDUSTRIES    AND    COMMERCE 


Australia  was  originally  included  for  ecclesi- 
astical purposes  in  the  province  of  Canterbury 
and  up  to  the  year  1836  was  attached  as  an 
Archdeaconry  to  the  diocese  of  Calcutta.  For 
15  years  after  the  foundation  of  New  South 
Wales  the  only  denomination  recognized  by  the 
Government  or  possessing  a  Minister  was  the 
Church  of  England.  There  is  now  a  general 
Synod  of  this  church  which  meets  every  five 
years  under  the  presidency  of  the  Archbishop  of 
Sydney,  who  has  the  title  of  Primate  of  Aus- 
tralia, although  each  State  preserves  its  auton- 
omy in  church  affairs.  ^Melbourne  and  Brisbane 
also  have  Archbishops.  There  are  six  dioceses 
in  New  South  Wales  ;  five  in  Victoria ;  four  in 
Queensland,  together  with  that  of  New  Guinea ; 
and  two  in  Western  Australia.  There  is  also 
the  diocese  of  Adelaide  in  South  Australia  and 
of  Tasmania.  The  Roman  Catholic  Church 
occupies,  so  far  as  numbers  are  concerned, 
the  second  place  in  each  of  the  States,  with  the 
exception  of  South  Australia,  where  the  Metho- 
dists are  numerically  stronger.  Its  organization 
in  Australia  as  elsewhere  is  superb.  At  the 
head  of  the  Church  stands  the  Cardinal  Arch- 
bishop of  Sydney.  There  are  Archbishops  in 
Melbourne,  Brisbane,  Adelaide,  and  Hobart ; 
and  14  Bishops  in  the  six  States.  Until  1834 
Australia,  so  far  as  the  Roman  Catholic  Church 
is  concerned,  was  under  the  Bishop  of  Mauritius. 
Sydney  was  in  that  year  constituted  a  see ;  eight 
years  later  the  prelate  was  invested  with  the 
title  of  '^Archbishop  of  Sydney  and  Vicar  Apos- 
tolic of  New  Holland.**  In  1885  the  Archbishop 
of  Sydney  was  created  a  Cardinal  and 
placed  at  the  head  of  the  Roman  Catholic 
Church  throughout  Australasia.  In  1876  Mel- 
bourne, was  made  an  Archdiocese  as  were  also 
Adelaide  and  Brisbane  in  1887,  and  Hobart  a 
year  later.  The  Cathedrals  of  Saint  Mary  in 
Sydney  and  Saint  Patrick  in  Melbourne  are 
especially  magnificent  structures.  The  Roman 
Catholic  Church  takes  a  prominent  part  in 
furthering  social  "and  industrial  legislation  and 
in  temperance  work.  The  Wesleyan  Methodist 
Church  was  established  in  New  South  Wales 
in  1812.  at  a  class  meeting  attended  by  12 
persons.  Up  to  1855  this  Church  was  re- 
garded as  a  Mission,  but  in  that  year  it  was 
constituted  an  affiliated  Conference.  In  1873 
the  Australasian  Wesleyan  Church  was  raised 
to  the  rank  of  an  independent  conference.  On 
I  Jan.  1902,  the  Wesleyan  Methodist,  the  Primi- 
tive Methodist,  and  the  United  Methodist  Free 
Churches  of  Australia  and  New  Zealand  were 
united  under  the  name  of  the  Methodist  Church 
of  Australasia.  Tn  South  Australia  this  Church 
includes  25  per  cent  of  the  whole  population  and 
throughout  Australia  its  members  form  a  com- 
pact, enlightened,  and  progressive  body,  which 
has  exercised  a  preponderating  influence  in  pro- 
moting temperance  legislation  and  measures 
tending  toward  a  high  plane  of  morality.  The 
Presbyterians  erected  in  1810  one  of  the  first 
places  of  worship  in  New  South  Wales.  The 
Presbyterian  Churches  in  all  the  States  arc 
united  under  the  title  of  the  Presbyterian 
Church  of  Australia  in  a  General  Assembly 
which  meets  every  year  in  the  capital  cities  in 
rotation.  The  Church  in  each  State,  however, 
acts  independently  in  local  administration  and  is 
autonomous    so    far    as    property    is    concerned. 


There  is  a  Union  of  the  Congregational 
Churches  in  each  State  federalized  in  the  Con- 
gregational Union  of  Australasia.  Thus  per- 
vading the  Churches  and  leading  to  interstate 
Unions,  is  witnessed  the  same  .synthetic  spirit 
\vhich  was  materialized  in  Australian  Federa- 
tion. By  this  means  strength  is  acquired  with- 
out the  sacrifice  of  local  liberty,  for  a  Federal 
union  combines   firmness  with  'flexibilitJ^ 

The  youngest  and  one  of  the  most  active 
religious  bodies  in  Australia  is  the  Salvation 
Army.  It  started  in  South  Australia  in  1880 
and  two  years  later  officers  were  sent  from 
Adelaide  to  organize  forces  in  Victoria.  New 
South  Wales,  and  Tasmania,  and  in  1886  to 
Queensland;  operations  in  Western  Australia 
were  commenced  in  1891.  At  first  the  officers 
of  the  Army  met  with  mucla  ridicule  and  some 
ill-treatment  but  the  earnest  and  effective  man- 
ner in  which  they  grappled  with  the  problems  of 
social  reform  soon  reconciled  the  public  to  their 
methods.  Persecution  gave  way  to  popularity, 
and  the  work  of  the  Army  is  now  applauded  by 
all  classes.  The  Prison  Gate  Brigade  reclaims 
many  criminals,  and  does  such  good  service  in 
diminishing  crime  that  several  of  the  State  Gov- 
ernments give  a  grant  in  aid  of  its  operations. 
The  headquarters  of  the  Army  are  in  Melbourne 
and  the  officer  commanding  in  Australia  has  the 
rank  of  a  Commissioner.  There  are  Colonels 
or  Brigadiers   in  each   State. 

The  several  churches  in  Australia  are  ani- 
mated by  those  friendly  and  tolerant  sentiments 
which  are  the  natural  offspring  of  freedom.  An 
interchange  of  pulpits  is  not  infrequent.  On 
Empire  day  in  1906  a  special  service  was  ar- 
ranged at  Saint  Paul's  Cathedral,  Melbourne, 
in  which  the  president  of  the  Methodist  Con- 
ference and  the  minister  of  the  principal  Pres- 
byterian Church  took  part. 

John  Alexander  Cockburn, 
Foniicrly  Minister  of  Education  i)i  South  Aus- 
tralia. 

ID.  Australia  —  Industries  and  Commerce. 

Manufactorics.^Vor  many  years  Australia 
relied  chiefly  on  its  raw  products  for  its  wealth, 
but  recently  steady  progress  has  been  made  with 
its  manufacturing  industries,  and  at  the  present 
time  152,260  men  and  50,638  women  find  em- 
ployment in  what  are  ordinarily  termed  fac- 
tories, as  well  as  a  large  number  of  others  in 
smaller  establishments. 

The  most  rapid  increase  in  the  manufactur- 
ing industry  has  taken  place  during  tlic  past  10 
years — in  fact  between  1894  and  1904  the  hands 
employed  increased  from  133,631  to  202.898,  an 
increase  of  69,267,  as  compared  with  an  increase 
of  only  28,366  during  the  previous  10  years,  the 
growth  of  the  factory  employees  being  propor- 
tionately far  greater  than  that  of  the  population. 
As  regards  the  manufacturing  industry  gen- 
erally, the  population  of  the  continent  is  at 
present  hardly  sufficient  to  maintain  a  large 
manufacturing  population,  while  its  distance 
from  other  market  places  is  at  some  disad- 
vantage as  regards  the  export  of  manufactured 
products.  The  total  horse-power  of  machin- 
ery used  in  the  factories  amounts  to  160,000,  the 
increased  use  of  electricity  in  recent  years  be- 
ing accountable  for  a  rapid  addition  in  such 
power. 


AUSTRALIA  — INDUSTRIES   AND    COMMERCE 


The  following  table  shows  the  number  of 
establisiiments  and  the  hands  employed  in  each 
state  of  the  Commonwealth  in  factories  and 
works  employing  four  hands  and  over : 


Hands 
Class  of  Industry.  employed. 

Leatherware,    not   elsewhere    included 566 

Minor  wares,   not  elsewhere  included 1,884 

Total    -'02,898 


New  South 
Wales. 

Victoria. 

Queensland. 

South_ 
Australia. 

West 

Australia. 

Tasmania. 

3,632 
68,036 

4,2oS 
76,287 

1,909 

1.339 
18,644 

607                           431 

It  will  be  seen  from  the  above  table  that  Vic- 
toria, which  was  the  first  state  to  displaj-  activity 
in  the  manufacturing  industry,  emplo3-s  the 
greatest  number  of  persons,  and  of  these  25,429 
are  employed  in  establishments  employing  from 
four  to  20  hands,  25,042  in  establishments  em- 
ploying from  21  to  100  hands,  and  25,816  in 
factories  employing  over  100  hands. 

The  capital  invested  in  Victorian  factories 
amounts  to  a  little  over  £20,000,000  sterling,  in- 
cluding the  value  of  the  land,  buildings,  ma- 
chinery, plant  and  sundries.  The  capital  in- 
vested in  New  South  Wales  factories  amounts 
to  £21,000.000.  The  capital  invested  in  the 
manufacturing  industries  in  Queensland  amounts 
to  £9,000,000.  According  to  the  census  of  1901, 
the  capital  invested  in  the  manufacturing  indus- 
tries of  the  Commonwealth  aggregates  £65,000,- 
000,  of  which  £20.000,000  is  represented  by  land 
and  buildings,  £21,000,000  by  machinery  and 
plant,   and  £24,000,000  by  stock,  material,  etc. 

New  South  Wales  comes  next  to  Victoria  in 
the  employment  given  in  the  manufacturing  in- 
dustries, and  its  total  of  68,036  is  made  up  of 
53,457  males  and  14,579  females.  Establish- 
ments employing  from  four  to  20  hands  employ 
19.879;  from  21  to  100  hands,  24,797  persons, 
and  over  100  hands,  23,360  hands. 

In  Queensland  the  two  principal  manufac- 
turing industries  are  sugar  refining  and  meat 
preserving,  and  of  the  total  number  of  people 
employed,  about  12  per  cent  find  employment  in 
these  two  industries. 

The  total  output  of  all  factories  in  Australia, 
exclusive  of  those  engaged  in  the  production  of 
butter,  cheese  and  bacon,  figures  of  which  are 
included  in  the  pastoral  industry,  amounts  to 
£71,000,000,  of  which  £43,000,000  represents  the 
value  of  material  and  fuel  used,  and  £28,000,- 
000  the  value  added  in  the  process  of  treatment. 
Of  the  latter  sum  £13,500,000  accrues  to  the  pro- 
prietors to  pay  rent,  depreciation,  insurance,  etc., 
and  profits  of  the  business,  and  £14,500,000  rep- 
resents wages  paid  to  the  employees. 

The  following  table  gives  the  class  of  in- 
dustries which  give  employment  to  people  in 
the  Commonwealth :  Hands 

Class    of    Industry.  employed. 

Treating  raw   material    the   product    of   pastoral 

pursuits    7>'^2'' 

Oils  and  fats,  animal,  vegetable,  etc i,709 

Processes  in  stone,  clay,  glass,  etc 7>904 

Working   in   wood 15,709 

Metal   works,      machinery,   etc 37>3i7 

Connected  with    food  and  drink,   etc 32,754 

Clothing  and  textile  fabrics  and  materials 56,599 

Books,   paper,  printing    and  engraving 18,019 

Musical   instruments    282 

Arms    and    explosives 302 

Vehicles  and  fittings,  saddlery  and  harness,  etc.         7,959 

Ship   and  boat  building,   etc 1,826 

Furniture,   bedding    and  upholstery 5,396 

Drugs,    chemicals     and    by-products 2,110 

Surgical   and   other  scientific  instruments 134 

Jewelry,    time]iieces    and   plated   ware 1.286 

Heat,   light    and  power 4,020 


Tanning,  fell-mongering  and  wool  scouring 
afford  the  largest  amount  of  employment  among 
the  industries  in  class  i,  and  this  can  be  readily 
understood,  seeing  that  the  pastoral  industry 
is  still  the  greatest  in  the  Commonwealth. 

In  class  2  the  manufacture  of  soap  and 
candles  is  increasing  rapidly. 

In  class  3  the  manufacture  of  bricks  and 
tiles  is  the  most  important,  about  65  per  cent 
of  those  engaged  in  this  class  being  employed  in 
that  industry. 

In  class  4  it  can  be  readily  understood  that 
with  the  immense  forests  of  valuable  timber,, 
the  saw  mill  is  the  most  important  of  wood- 
working establishments,  and  about  70  per  cent 
of  those  employed  in  that  section  are  in  saw 
mills. 

Class  5  included  a  great  number  of  persons 
employed  in  the  engineering  works  of  the  re- 
spective state  government  railwaj''  and  tramway 
workshops.  Also  workers  in  smelting  establish- 
ments for  the  extraction  of  ore,  though  these 
employed  in  quartz  batteries  are  not  classified 
as  factory  hands  in  Australia.  There  are  sev- 
eral important  establishments  for  the  manu- 
facture of  agricultural  implements,  and  at  Gaw- 
ler,  in  South  Australia,  and  in  Melbourne,  the 
capital  of  Victoria,  important  agricultural  im- 
plement works  have  been  founded.  To  an 
Australian  firm  is  due  the  credit  of  inventing- 
that  great  labor-saving  appliance,  the  "  Com- 
plete Harvester." 

In  industries  connected  with  food  and  drink 
butter,  cheese,  meat  preserving,  sugar  mills,  and 
breweries  employ  a  great  number  of  hands,  while 
fiour  mills,  derated  water  factories,  biscuits  and 
other  articles  required  for  local  consumption 
also  employ  a  great  number  of  persons. 

Factories  connected  with  clothing  and  tex- 
tile fabrics  offer  more  employment  than  any 
other  section,  and  here  the  females  employed 
largely  outnumber  the  males.  Victoria  shows 
the  greatest  development  in  this  industry,  and 
during  the  last  few  joars  the  manufacture  of 
wool  has  made  considerable  progress  in  the 
various  states. 

Perhaps  a  more  interesting  comparison  will 
be  found  in  arranging  the  industries  into  three 
natural  classes:  (i)  Those  which  come  into 
competition  with  imported  goods;  (2)  those 
dependent  upon  the  natural  resources  of  the 
Commonwealth,  and  (3)  those  treating  perish- 
able products  for  domestic  consumption.  We 
find  that  the  first  section  employs  88.866  people, 
the  second   102,206,  and  the  third   11,826. 

Speaking  of  wages  generally,  Australia  pays 
its  employees  high  wages  compared  to  other 
countries,  while  the  genial  climate  and  general 
healthy  conditions  of  life  makes  living  cheap 
compared   to  other  countries  of  the   world. 

During   the   last   few   j'ears   a   system  of  in- 


AUSTRALIA  — INDUSTRIES   AND   COMMERCE 


•dustrial  legislation  has  come  into  force  in 
most  of  the  states,  which  brings  about  better 
conditions  of  work,  cleanliness,  air  space,  sani- 
tation, etc.  Australian  factories,  as  a  rule,  are 
well  built  and  room\-.  The  day's  work  is  gen- 
erally limited  to  eight  hours,  with  extra  pay- 
ment for  overtime  in  cases  of  need.  Wages 
boards  have  also  been  appointed  for  many  of 
the  principal  industries,  and  to  prevent  strikes 
and  lock-outs,  courts  of  conciliation  and  arbi- 
tration have  been  established. 

Taking  the  chief  manufacturing  state  of  Vic- 
toria as  a  basis,  the  latest  records  show  that  in 
industries  controlled  by  wages  boards,  the  aver- 
age earnings  of  male  workers,  21  years  old  and 
upwards,  is  £2  4s.  3d.  per  week,  and  of  females, 
19s.  pd.  per  week.  The  average  wage  in  indus- 
tries not  so  regulated,  being  £2  is.  iid.  and  17s. 
5d..  respectively. 

Pastoral  Industry. — The  pastoral  industry 
plays  the  most  important  part  in  the  resources 
and  wealth  of  Australia.  At  the  close  of  1904 
Australia  had  65,822.918  sheep.  7,868,520  cattle, 
1.595.256  horses,  and  1.062,253  pigs.  The  1905-06 
figures  are  not  at  present  available  for  all  the 
states,  but  judging  from  those  available  it  may 
"be  safely  estimated  that  the  sheep  show  an  in- 
crease of  about  14  per  cent  on  the  figures  given 
and  now  number  75,000,000 ;  cattle  show  an  in- 
crease of  8  per  cent,  now  numbering  8.500,000, 
and  horses  an  increase  of  5  per  cent,  numbering 
1,675.000.  In  swine,  the  figures  are  probably 
about  the  same. 

Nothing  is  more  marvelous  than  the  prog- 
ress of  the  pastoral  industry.  In  the  year  1800 
there  were  only  6,124  sheep,  1,044  head  of  cat- 
tle, 203  horses,  and  4,017  pigs  in  the  whole  of 
Australia,  but  it  is  since  1850  that  the  greatest 
progress  has  been  made,  and  from  that  date  the 
value  of  the  wool  alone  which  has  been  ex- 
ported has  amounted  to  £650,000,000  sterling. 

The  first  sheep  imported  were  from  the  Cape 
of  Good  Hope,  and  in  1823  and  1825  further  lots 
of  Spanish  sheep  were  introduced.  In  some 
respects  the  climate  of  Australia  changed  and 
improved  the  character  of  the  Spanish  fleece. 
1  he  wool  became  softer  and  more  elastic  and 
increased  considerably  in  length.  The  average 
■weight  of  a  fleece  has  increased  remarkably,  and 
while  in  1861  the  average  weight  of  a  Xevv 
South  Wales  fleece  was  only  3.28  pound  per 
sheep,  the  present  avcra.ge  weight  is  7.3  pound. 

In  recent  years  there  has  ueen  a  tendency 
to  divide  the  sheep  into  smaller  flocks.  In  New 
South  Wales  for  instance  there  are  17.361  sheep 
owners  as  compared  with  14,033  ten  years  pre- 
vious, while  the  average  size  of  a  flock  is  now 
1,650  as  against  4.050  at  a  former  period.  Of 
the  total  number  of  the  sheep  in  Australia  about 
95  per  cent  are  merinos.  On  the  coastal  districts, 
however,  where  merino  sheep  do  not  do  so  well, 
the  rearing  of  cross-bred  and  long  wool  sheep  is 
increasing  and  these  are  specially  valuable  for 
the  meat  they  produce.  It  is  intercstin.g  to  note 
that  at  the  present  time  Australia  carries  one- 
fifth  of  the  total  sheep  in  the  world. 

The  export  of  wool  brings  an  immense 
amount  of  money  to  the  Commonwealth  and  the 
1904  return  for  each  state  was  as  follows : 

New  South  Wales £9,328,270 

Victoria 3-376-" '  5 

Queensland 2,280,909 


South   Australia £1,306,238 

West   Australia 419,395 

Tasmania 401,512 

Total £17,112,339 

Cattle.— Ovi'm^  to  the  more  profitable  char- 
acter of  sheep  farming,  cattle  breeding  in  the 
Australian  states  is,  with  the  exception  of 
Queensland,  second  to  that  of  sheep.  The  fol- 
lowing table  shows  the  number  of  cattle  in  the 
various  states  at  the  end  of  1904 : 

New  South  Wales 2,167,129 

Victoria ii694i976 

Queensland 2,722,340 

South    Australia 520,379 

West   Australia s6ii49o 

Tasmania 202,206 

Total 7,868,520 

For  the  year  ending  1905  the  cattle  in  the 
states  for  which  there  are  returns  had  increased 
by  eight  per  cent  and  as  the  season  generally  in 
Australia  w-as  a  favorable  one  it  is  safe  to  as- 
sume that  in  all  the  states  an  increase  occurred 
on  the  returns  of  the  previous  year  and  the  pre- 
sent numbers  are  not  less  than  8.500,000. 

No  form  of  production  in  Australia  has  made 
such  rapid  strides  of  late  years  as  dairying  and 
included  in  the  above  figures  for  cattle  are  the 
following  numbers  of  dairy  cows  and  heifers : 

New  South  Wales 591.936 

\'ictoria 632,493 

Queensland 160,000 

South   Australia 88,826 

West    .\ustralia 27,721 

Tasmania 50.230 

Total 1,551,206 

Horses. — Considerable  attention  has  been 
paid  to  the  breeding  of  horses  and  at  an  early 
period  the  stock  of  colonial-bred  horses  was 
improved  by  the  importation  of  Arabian  and 
other  breeds.  The  following  table  shows  the 
number  of  horses  in  the  different  colonies : 

New  South  Wales 482,663 

\'ictoria 37->397 

Queensland 413,165 

South  .Australia    200,241 

West   Australia 90.225 

Tasmania 36.565 

Total 1,595.^56 

There  is  a  considerable  demand  in  India  for 
Australian  horses  and  as  a  rule  between  6,000 
and  7,coo  are  exported  annually  to  India,  valued 
at  from  £80,000  to  £85,000. 

Angora  Goats. — Considerable  attention  has 
been  given  during  the  last  few  years  especially 
in  Queensland  and  New  South  Wales,  to  the 
production  of  mohair  and  considerable  numbers 
of  pure  bred  angoras  have  been  imported  from 
the  United  States.  The  goat  thrives  admirabh^ 
in  the  warm  dry  climate  of  Australia  and  it 
seems  likely  that  in  the  near  future,  tlie  export 
of  mohair  will  show  considerable  incrca.se.  At 
the  present  time  there  are  about  65,000  goats 
depastured  in  Australia. 

Catncls. — In  some  of  the  states  cainels  are 
employed  for  the  carriage  of  wool  and  other 
produce.  In  West  .Australia  camels  number 
2,150  in  New  South  Wales  850,  and  in  the  Com- 
monwealth as  a  whole  the  number  is  not  less 
than  4,200. 


AUSTRALIA  — INDUSTRIES   AND    COMMERCE 


Pastoral  Returns. — The  annual  return  from 
the  pastoral  pursuits  in  1904  was  about  £36,000,- 
000,  to  which  total  sheep  contributed  about  £26,- 
000,000;  cattle  £7,000,000;  horses  £3,000,000. 
The  greater  part  of  the  sheep  industry  is,  of 
course,  the  return  from  wool  and  skins  which 
amounts  to  £20,250,000.  The  value  of  wool  con- 
sumed  locall}'  is   not  more  than  £250,000. 

Frozen  Meats. — A  rapid  increase  in  live  stock 
in  Australia  in  favorable  seasons  makes  the 
question  of  disposing  of  the  surplus  material  of 
serious  consequence.  In  1882  the  first  shipment 
of  frozen  mutton  from  Australia  to  Great  Brit- 
ain was  tried.  In  1905  £441,018  worth  of  frozen 
beef,  £1,081,151  worth  of  frozen  mutton  and 
£338,823  worth  of  hares  and  rabbits  were  ex- 
ported from  Australia  <■  ve*-  sea. 

Queensland  exports  large  quantities  of 
chilled  and  frozen  beef,  the  total  amounting  to 
about  £1,000,000  worth  annually.  Much  of  this 
is  sent  to  the  other  states  and  is  not  included  in 
the  oversea  exports.  New  South  Wales  exports 
chiefly  frozen  mutton,  which  varies  in  value 
from  about  £200,000  to  £500,000  annually.  Vic- 
toria also  exports  large  quantities  of  frozen  mut- 
ton and  beef,  while  South  Australian  lambs 
are  highly  prized  in  the  British  markets.  The 
export  of  canned  meat  was  valued  at  £264,000. 

Dairy  Farming. — The  introduction  of  the 
factories  system  at  convenient  centres  in  Au- 
stralia has  caused  rapid  extension  in  this  indus- 
try. Immense  quantities  of  butter  are  now  ex- 
ported to  Great  Britain,  in  1905  the  export 
amounting  to  £2,307,835  sterling  or  11  per  cent 
of  the  total  imports  into  Great  Britain.  The  total 
value  of  the  dairying  industry  of  Australia  is 
shown   in   the  following  table : 

Total  Value  of  Dairy  and  Swine  Produce. 

New  South   Wales £2,426,000 

Victoria    2,912,000 

Queensland    646,000 

South    Australia 568,000 

West     Australia 240,000 

Tasmania 338,000 

Total     £7,130,000 

Forestry. — Australia  is  chiefly  famous  for  its 
hardwood  timbers,  the  export  of  which  is  now 
a  considerable  industry.  In  1904  the  total  ex- 
ports from  Australia  amounted  to  £839,518  of 
which  West  Australia  exported  £584,422.  The 
present  annual  value  of  the  timber  industry  of 
the  Commonwealth,  that  is  of  the  rough  timber 
as  it  leaves  the  forest  saw  mills,  is  about  £2,- 
250,000  sterling.  In  West  Australia  alone  the 
forests  of  marketable  timbers  are  estimated  to 
cover  about  21,000,000  acres.  The  Governments 
of  all  the  States  have  a  number  of  reserves 
where  the  young  timber  is  conserved  so  that 
the  source  of  supply  can  be  maintained. 

Jarrah  is  the  chief  timber  exported,  its  prin- 
cipal use  being  for  wood-blocks,  piles,  railway 
sleepers,  etc.  The  wattle  tree  grows  well  in 
most  parts  of  Australia,  from  the  bark  of  which 
large  quantities  of  tanning  material  are  pro- 
duced. There  are  various  species  of  eucalyptus 
from  which  is  distilled  the  famous  eucalyptus 
oil  which  has  a  considerable  vahie  for  medicinal 
purposes.  Some  of  the  fine  grained  woods  are 
also  very  beautiful  and  rraich  used  for  decora- 
tive purposes.  The  karri  is  probably  the  finest 
tree  of  the  Australian  forests  and  sometimes 
run  to  over  30  feet  in  circumference  at  three 
feet  from  the  ground  and  up  to  150  feet  from 


the  ground  to  the  first  branch.  Other  prime 
timbers  are  ironbark,  tallow  wood,  jarrah,  spot- 
ted gum,  grey  box,  mahogany,  blackbutt,  etc. 
Besides  hard  woods  there  are  beautiful  cabinet 
woods,  viz. :  cedar,  rosewood,  redbean,  silky 
oak,  blackwood,  etc. 

Agriculture. — Judging  by  the  experience  of 
the  past  30  years,  Australia  appears  to  be  on 
the  threshold  of  vast  agricultural  developments. 
Up  to  187 1  only  2,345,922  acres  were  under  crop 
in  the  Commonwealth  but  in  1904  this  had  in- 
creased to  9,365.022  acres.  Of  the  cultivated 
land  90  per  cent  lies  within  the  borders  of  New 
South  Wales,  Victoria  and  South  Australia. 
The  following  table  shows  the  area  cultivated 
in  the   various   States : 

State.  Acres. 

New  South  Wales 2,674,896' 

Victoria    3.3-21.785 

Queensland    539,216 

South  Australia   2,275,506 

West  Australia 3.27.391 

Tasmania    226, 22& 

Total    9,365,022 

As  in  most  new  countries  where  the  pioneer 
farmer  needs  a  quick  return  from  his  land, 
wheat  is  the  principal  crop  and  nearly  67  per 
cent  of  the  cultivated  land  is  sown  to  wheat. 
The  area  under  wheat  for  grain  in  the  various 
states  in   1904  was  as  follows  : 

State.  Acres. 

New  South  Wales i, 775. 955 

Victoria    2,277,537 

Queensland    1 50,958 

South  Australia. 1,840,157 

West     Australia .         182,080 

Tasmania    43,091 

Total 6,269,77s 

In  1905  the  yield  of  wheat  for  the  Common- 
wealth amounted  to  68,000,000  bushels,  but  the 
figures  showing  areas  imder  crop  in  1905  for 
the  various  states  are  not  at  present  available. 
The  other  crops  of  most  importance  are  hay, 
oats  and  maize,  1/6  of  the  cultivated  area  being 
under  hay,  5.2  under  oats  and  3.5  under  maize. 

The  Commonwealth  requires  about  30,000,000 
Inishels  of  wheat  annually  for  home  consump- 
tion and  seed  and  a  production  of  65,000,000 
leaves  about  35,000,000  bushels  annually  for  ex- 
port. 

The  average  yield  of  wheat  in  Australia  may 
be  taken  at  about  10  bushels  per  acre.  This 
appears  low  judging  by  the  standard  of  many 
other  countries,  but  a  bare  statement  of  averages 
is  misleading,  as  in  Australia  the  cost  of  pro- 
duction is  relatively  very  low.  In  ordinary  dis- 
tricts the  expenses  of  ploughing  seed  and  sow- 
ing and  harvesting  the  wheat  amounts  to  only 
about  i2/-per  acre,  so  that  a  yield  of  10  bushels 
at  3/-  a  bushel  means  a  return  of  about  18/ 
an  acre  out  of  which  to  pay  the  other  expenses. 

In  South  Australia  the  conditions  of  cultiva- 
tion are  even  more  favorable  than  the  above 
indicates,  and  with  a  smaller  yield,  wheat  grow- 
ing is  bound  to  be  very  profitable.  The  present 
comparatively  low  yields  are  largely  due  to  the 
fact  that  immense  areas  are  put  under  crop  by 
individual  farmers.  In  consequence,  the  culti- 
vation and  harvesting  methods  are  not  carried 
out  so  thoroughly  as  in  older  countries  of  the 
world.  With  smaller  areas  and  better  farming, 
far  higher  averages  will,  it  is  believed,  be  ob- 


AUSTRALIA  — INDUSTRIES    AND    COMMERCE 


trained  in  the  future.  The  following  tables  show  and  Tasmania  and  attracted  a  rush  of  popula- 
the  average  area  and  yield  of  some  of  the  other  tion.  A  little  later  gold  was  found  in  Queens- 
principal  crops :  land  and  the  last  of  the  states  in  which  extensive 

Area  under  other  Principal  Crops. 


State. 

Maize. 

Oats. 

Other  grain 
crops. 

Hay. 

Potatoes. 

Sugar  cane. 

Vines. 

Other 
crops. 

New  South  W.iles 

Acres. 

193,614 
11,394 
119,171 

Acres. 
40,471 
344,019 

643 
50,630 
13,864 
43,690 

Acres. 
23,120 

59.879 
17,746 
30,982 
4,377 
24.077 

Acres. 

435,704 
452,459 

48,740 
269,626 
105,247 

55,545 

Acres. 

23,855 
46,912 
J2,754 
8,3'5 
1,906 
25,948 

Acres. 
21,525 

Acres. 

8,840 
28,016 

2,194 
23,210 

3,413 

Acres. 
151,812 
101,569 
66,693 
52.586 
16,418 
33.728 

120,317 

West  Australia 

86 
149 

Tasmania 

Total 

324,414 

493.317 

160,181 

1.367,321 

119,690 

141,842 

65,673 

422,806 

Agricultural  Production. 


State. 

Maize. 

Oats. 

Other  grain             ,1 
crops.                   «=»>'• 

Potatoes. 

Sugar  cane. 

Wir.e. 

New  South  Wales 

Bushels. 

4-951,132 

623,736 

2,542,766 

Bushels. 

652,646 

6,158,929 

15,137 

555.696 

226,318 

1,178,819 

Bushels. 
334.205 
1,105,822 
347.738 
440,536 
50,396 
502,818 

Tons. 
366,293 
514,316 
80,662 
294,252 
113.794 
73.457 

Tons. 

48,754 
92,872 

33,257 

19,521 

5.614 

110,547 

Tons. 
199,640 

Gallons. 

928,160 

1,832,386 

60,433 

2,625,430 

185,070 

Queensland         

1,326,989 

West  Australia 

896 

Total 

8,118,530 

8,787.545 

2,781,515 

1,442,774 

310,565 

1,526,629 

5.631.479 

Large  areas  are  also  under  orchards  in  the 
various  states  of  the  Commonwealth,  the  total 
being  about  155,000  acres.  Victoria  heads  the 
list  with  51,000;  New  South  Wales  50,000  and 
S^uth  Australia  20,000.  The  export  of  apples, 
oranges  and  dried  fruits  to  Great  Britain  has 
been  commenced  and  promises  to  develop  into 
an  important  industry. 

All  tlic  Governments  give  considerable  atten- 
tion to  agricultural  education  and  have  estab- 
lished agricultural  colleges  and  experimental 
farms  where  practical  and  scientific  agriculture 
is  taught. 

In  most  of  the  States  also  arrangements  are 
made  by  the  Government  to  advance  money  to 
assist  farmers  at  low  rates  of  interest. 

Irrigation. —  The  necessity  for  providing 
water  for  stock  and  irrigation  in  the  dry  parts 
of  Australia  induced  the  respective  Governments 
to  spend  a  good  deal  of  money  on  water  con- 
servation and  artesian  boring.  Cretaceous  beds 
extend  over  large  areas  of  New  South  Wales, 
West  Australia  and  South  Australia.  By  sink- 
ing artesian  bores  supplies  of  water  are  brought 
to  the  surface  from  underground  sources  which 
exists  in  the  tertiary  drifts  and  the  cretaceous 
beds. 

In  New  South  Wales  one  of  these  wells  has 
a  daily  flow  of  1.750,000  gallons,  the  depth  of 
the  bore  being  2,029  feet.  Over  50  artesian  bores 
have  been  successfully  sunk  in  South  Australia, 
the  greatest  daily  flow  amounting  to  1.200,000 
gallons.  These  bores  give  excellent  water  for 
stock  purposes  and  are  also  used  in  many  cases 
for  irrigating  crops. 

Mineral  Resources. — Most  metals  of  eco- 
nomic value  are  found  in  Australia.  Gold  is 
found  in  all  the  states  and  in  1823  the  first  dis- 
covery of  the  precious  metal  was  made.  In 
185 1  and  1852  important  discoveries  were  made 
ia  New  South  Wales,  Victoria,  South  Australia 


deposits  were  foimd  was  Western  Australia. 
So  important  did  these  deposits  prove  that  in 
1905  the  otitput  of  Western  Australia  was  more 
than  equal  to  all  the  other  Australian  states 
together. 

The  following  table  shows  the  gold  won  in 
each  State  up  to  the  end  of  1905  and  the  return 
for  the  individual  year  of  1905 : 

Total  Yield,  1905. 

£  Ounces. 

New   South  Wales 53,235,286  274,267 

Mctoria    272,801,158  732,603 

Queensland    61.618,291  578,364 

Soutli    Australia 2,778,392  20,447 

West   .Australia 62.686,475        1, 955, 304 

Tasmania    6,026,845  74,3 16 

Total. 459,146,447       3,635.301 

Sikrr. — .\ustralia  is  rich  in  silver  and  it  is 
found  in  all  the  states  either  alone  or  in  the 
form  of  sulphides,  chloride,  bromide,  iodide, 
chloro-bromide  of  silver  and  antimonial  and 
arsenical  ores  and  argentiferous  lead  ores.  In 
the  latter  the  largest  deposits  of  metal  are 
found. 

Prior  to  1882  the  output  of  silver  in  Australia 
was  small,  but  with  the  opening  up  of  the  Bar- 
rier Mines  at  Broken  Hill,  close  to  the  boundary 
cf  New  South  Wales  and  South  Australia,  rapid 
advances  took  place.  The  following  table  shows 
the  output  of  silver  and  silver  lead  in  the  re- 
spective state  up  to  the  close  of  1904: 

Silver  and 
State.  silver-lead. 

New  South  Wales £37,348,699 

Victoria    198.793 

Queensland    995-583 

South   .\ustralia    141.848 

West  Australia 85.887 

Tasmania   3. 436,546 

Total   £42.207.356 

Of  the  above  about  £29.000,000  worth  is  the 
product   of   the   Broken    Hill   mines. 

Copper. — The  following  table  shows  the  pro- 


AUSTRALIA  — INDUSTRIES    AND    COMMERCE 


duction  of  copper  in  Australia  up  to  the  end  of 
1904  with  the  output  for  1904: 

State.                                           Total.  1904. 

Xew  .South  Wales £7,017,166  £406,001 

\ictoria   206,895  

Queensland    2,981,910  257,896 

South   Australia   24,1 16,098  432,063 

West  Australia 461,447  25,180 

Tasmania   5,602,184  507,066 

Total   £40,385,700      £1,628,206 

It  will  be  seen  that  South  Australia  has  pro- 
duced the  greatest  quantity  of  copper,  but  of  late 
ye-ars  Tasmania  has  had  the  largest  output. 

Tin  is  also  found  in  payable  quantities  in 
many  parts  of  Australia,  the  production  to  igo6 
amounting  to  £21,549,000.  Iron  is  distributed 
throughout  the  Commonwealth  and  at  Lithgow, 
in  Xew  South  Wales,  where  iron  and  coal  de- 
posits lie  alongside  each  other,  a  commencement 
has  been  made  to  smelt  the  ore.  Tasmania  has 
enormous  deposits  situated  near  the  Blyth  river. 
Other  minerals  widely  diffused  throughout  Au- 
tralia  are  antimony,  bismuth,  manganese,  plati- 
num, tellurium,  lead,  wolfram  and  a  number  of 
earth  colors.  The  annual  production  of  such 
other  minerals  amounts  to  about  i8oo,ooo. 

Coal. — Coal  was  first  discovered  in  New 
South  Wales  in  1797.  Since  that  time  it  has 
1-een  proved  that  nature  has  bountifully  supplied 
Australia  with  mineral  fuel.  Black  coal  forms 
one  of  the  principal  mineral  resources  of  New 
South  Wales  and  it  is  estimated  that  the  known 
areas  of  coal  fields  of  this  class  contain  over 
85,000  million  tons.  The  following  table  shows 
the  value  of  the  total  output  of  coal  in  the 
respective  States  and  also  the  output  for  1904: 

Output 
State.  Total   output,     in   1904. 

New  South  Wales £46,016,054      £1,994,952 

Victoria    1,331.877  70,208 

Queensland    3, 3-5. 609  166,536 

South   Australia    

West  Australia 373,598  67,174 

Tasmania  524,859  29,878 

Total  £51,571,997      £2,328,748 

Brown  coal  or  lignite  occurs  principally  in 
Victoria  but  it  is  much  inferior  to  the  black 
coal.  Good  coal  has  been  found  in  Western 
Australia,  while  in  Queensland  the  extent  of 
the  coal  fields  is  practically  vmlimited  —  over 
24,000  square  miles  of  coal  measures  having  al- 
ready been  explored.  Tasmania  also  has  im- 
portant carboniferous   formations. 

^farble  of  high  quality  is  found  in  many 
parts  of  Australia,  while  the  finest  opal  known 
is  obtained  in  the  Upper  Cretaceous  formation 
near  Wilcannia,  New  South  Wales.  The  out- 
nut  of  opals  from  this  district  amounts  to  about 
£125,000.  Other  gemstones,  including  emeralds, 
sapphires,  rubies,  etc.,  are  found  in  various  parts, 
while  diamonds  are  found  in  New  South 
Wales,  Victoria,  Queensland  and  South  Au- 
stralia, though  only  in  the  first  named  are  the 
diamond   drifts   worked   commercially. 

Commerce. — The  external  trade  of  Australia 
is  increasing  rapidly  as  the  following  table 
shows : 

Year.  Imports.  Exports.       Total  trade. 

1861    £17,562,960      £17,399,656      £34,962.616 

'881   29,031, i'3i  27,528,583  56,559-714 

1901    42,433,811  49.696,172  92,129,983 

^905 38,407,579  56,750,347  95,157.926 

If  the  interstate  trade  be  included  the  figures 
will  be  greatly  increased.     Taking,  for  instance, 


the  returns  for  1905  and  including  the  interstate 
figures  the  trade  of  each  state  was  as  follows : 

Imports.  1905- 

New  South  Wales £29,433,078 

\'ictoria     22,317,195 

Queensland    6,504,919 

South  Australia   8.431.594 

Western   Australia 6,481,309 

Tasmania    2,652,777 

Total    £75,820,872 

The  following  figures  show  the  distinction 
between  oversea  and  Australian  goods : 

Goods  Interstate 

Imported.  Trade. 

New    South    Wales £14,573,819  £14,859,259 

Victoria    1-^,937,932  9,379  -'C'3 

Queensland    3,164,487  3,340,432 

South  Australia   3,224,589  5,207,005 

West    Australia    3,768,830  2,712,479 

Tasmania     737,922  1,914,855 

Totals     £38,407,579        £37,413,293 

The  total  exports  for  the  same  year  were  as 
follows : 

Exports.  1905 

New  South  Wales £36,645.451 

\'ictoria    22,706,658 

Queensland    1 1,862,367 

South  Australia   9,455,991 

West    Australia    9,789.354 

Tasmania     3,703,819 

Total     94,163,640 

These  are  distinguished  as   follows : 

Oversea  Interstate 

Direct.  Trade. 

New    South    Wales £24,484,740  £12,160,711 

Victoria    14,028,641  8,678,017 

Queensland    3,384,856  8,477,511 

South    Australia    5,402,638  4-053,353 

West    .\ustralia    8,977,297  812,057 

Tasmania    47^,175  3,23i-644 

Totals    £56,750,347        £37,413,-93 

The  external  trade  of  the  Commonwealth 
amounts  to  £23.  lo.od  per  head  of  population, 
which  is  nearly  four  times  that  of  the  United 
States  and  considerably  greater  than  that  of  the 
United  Kingdom. 

Of  the  total  trade  49  per  cent  in  1905  was 
with  Great  Britain,  23  per  cent  with  other  parts 
of  the  British  Empire  and  30  per  cent  with  for- 
eign countries.  The  trade  of  Australia  shows  a 
considerable  diversion  in  recent  years  from  Brit- 
ain to  foreign  countries.  In  fact  one-third  of 
imported  goods  are  now  of  non-British  origin 
as  compared  to  one-fourth  10  years  ago,  and 
of  the  exports  over  one-fourth  are  sent  to  non- 
British  countries  compared  with  one-tenth  in 
1885.  The  chief  cause  of  this  is  the  establish- 
ment of  direct  and  rapid  communication  between 
Germany,  France,  Belgium,  Japan  and  the  Uni- 
ted States  with  Australia. 

In  the  exports  the  same  tendency  is  notice- 
able, in  20  years  the  percentage  to  Great  Britain 
having  fallen  from  74.91  per  cent  to  46.11,  while 
exports  to  foreign  countries  have  increased  from 
9.26  per  cent  to  25.89  per  cent. 

The  following  are  some  of  the  chief  articles 
of  export  during  .  1905  : 

Butter £2,447,133 

Copper,  ingots,   and  matte 2,103,694 

Coal 910, 518 

Wheat   4,140,676 

Flour     1, 211, 351 

Lead,   pig,   and   matte 772,079 

Leather   418.681 

Beef    441,018 

Mutton    and   lamb 1,081,151 


AUSTRALIA  —  GOVERNMENT  UNDERTAKINGS 


Rabbits  and  hares £338,823 

Silver,    bar,    ingot,   etc 818,341 

Silver  lead 757,460 

Hides    176,030 

Rabbits  and  hares  (skins) 231,627 

Sheep   skins 1,396,849 

Tallow    774,646 

Timber    1,036,183 

Tin,    ingots    71 4,074 

Wine,   fermented   106,789 

Wool,   greasy,    washed   and   scoured 19,822,216 

Gold    10,965,612 

5/n>/';;;g.— In  1904-5  the  total  number  of 
vessels,  in  the  interstate,  coastal  and  oversea 
trade,  exclusive  of  river  traders,  entering  and 
•clearing  Commonwealth  ports  was  17,691,  of 
29,150,962  tons.  This  shows  an  increase  of  813 
vessels  and  4,450,847  tons  on  the  figures  of  the 
previous  year. 

The  number  of  vessels  and  tonnage  of  same 
•entering  Au'^tralian  waters  from  foreign  parts 
and  those  clearing  for  same  is  shown  in  the 
following  table  : 

1903. 
Description  of  Vessel.         Vessels.         Tons.         Crew. 
Entered: 

Steam     1,038     2,639,708      75.845 

Sailing 938     1,085,378       16,744 

Total    1,976     3,725,086      92,589 

Cleared: 

Steam 1,050     2,629,677      76,285 

Sailing 1,062      1,089,654       17,067 

Total 2,112     3,719.331      93.352 

Timothy  Augustine  Coghlan, 
Agent-General  for  New  South  Wales. 

II.  Australia  —  Government  Undertak- 
ings. The  manifold  activities  of  the  State  — 
which  is  the  striking  feature  of  Australian  polity 
—  originated  from  the  obvious  inability  of  a 
sparse  population  to  develop  an  enormous  ter- 
ritory by  individual  effort.  Australia  is  nearly 
as  large  as  the  United  States,  if  we  exclude  the 
northern  part  of  Alaska,  and  even  now  it  only 
contains  4,000.000  people.  Roads,  railways  and 
means  of  communication  in  this  vast  territory 
were  necessarily  the  care  of  the  State  in  a  coun- 
try where  neither  individuals  nor  townships 
possessed  sufficient  capital  or  labor  to  under- 
take these  works.  Consequently  posts,  tele- 
graphs, and  railways  in  every  State  of  the  Com- 
monwealth are  under  government  control.  The 
posts  and  telegraphs  are  since  190c  under  the 
Federal  Government  but  the  railways  continue 
to  belong  to  the  several  States.  The  impulse 
given  to  State  energies  by  the  necessity  for 
means  of  locomotion  and  intercourse  soon  led 
to  the  provision  by  the  same  authority  of  facil- 
ities for  shipping  produce.  The  control  of  har- 
bors and  rivers  thus  passed  naturally  to  the 
State  Governments  and  the  State  of  New  South 
Wales  in  1902  compulsorily  purchased  all  the  sea 
frontages  of  the  business  portion  of  Sydney 
Harbor  in  order  to  exercise  a  more  effective 
control  of  the  wharves  and  prevent  the  charges 
being  raised  to  shippers  by  any  combination 
of  private  owners.  The  States  have  in  many 
instances  delegated  the  management  of  State 
property  to  boards.  But  the  wisdom  of  vigorous 
and  ever-watchful  State  activity  is  the  accepted 
creed  of  the  Australian  democracy,  which  dreads 
nothing  more  than  the  industrial  anarchy  of 
imregvilated  individualism. 

Raihvays. —  Railways  have  always  been  re- 
garded in  Australia  as  a  means  of  opening  up 
Vol   2  —  7 


new  country.  Naturally,  therefore,  they  run 
through  sparsely  settled  areas.  Nevertheless, 
and  in  spite  of  the  fact  that  new  lines  are  being 
continuously  added,  the  13,500  miles  of  railway 
in  the  Commonwealth  give  a  net  return  of  3.38 
per  cent.  In  all  the  States  — and  in  New  South 
Wales  the  tramways  also  —  they  are  under  gov- 
ernment control.  In  Western'  Australia  there 
are  also  277  miles  of  private  lines;  in  New 
South  Wales,  81 '4  miles;  in  Tasmania,  160 
miles ;  in  South  Australia.  20  miles,  and  in 
Queensland,  102  miles.  Until  1897  Western 
Atistralia  favored  the  construction  of  lines  of 
private  enterprise  on  the  L'and  Grant  system; 
but  the  results  as  compared  with  governmental 
control  were  found  to  be  so  unsatisfactory,  that, 
following  the  example  of  New  Zealand  which 
had  had  the  same  experience,  the  State  acquired 
the  Great  Southern  Railway  (243  miles)  by 
compulsory  purchase.  In  order  to  minimize  the 
dangers  and  political  interference  the  manage- 
ment and  maintenance  of  the  railways  in  all  the 
States  is  under  the  control  of  commissioners 
who  are  appointed  for  terms  of  not  less  than 
seven  years  and  are  independent  of  Parliament. 
In  New  South  Wales  and  Victoria  proposals  for 
new  lines  are  submitted  to  committees  com- 
posed of  members  of  both  Houses  of  Parliament 
whose  duty  after  taking  evidence  is  to  advise 
Parliament  as  to  the  expediency  of  their  con- 
struction. 

The  following  table  shows  the  amount  ex- 
pended on  construction  and  equipment  up  to 
30  June  1905  : 

State.  f 

New    .South    Wales 43,062,550 

\'ictoria 41.279,045 

Queensland 21,610,980 

South   Australia 13,587,406 

West     Australia 9,808,458 

Tasmania 3,920,508 

Commonwealth 133,268,947 

The  greater  part  of  the  public  debt  of  Aus- 
tralia has  been  expended  on  railway  construc- 
tion. 

In  1850  the  first  railway  was  commenced  but 
it  was  not  until  1855  that  the  line  was  opened. 
It  ran  for  14  miles  from  Sydney  to  Paramatta. 
At  the  end  of  1871  just  over  i.ooo  miles  of  rail- 
way lines  had  been  built.  After  that  the  work 
of  construction  was  carried  on  rapidly  and  the 
following  table  shows  the  total  number  of  miles 
open  for  traffic  in  the  various  States  at  the  end 
of  June   1905 : 

State.  Miles. 

New    South    Wales 3.-80  3-4 

Victoria 3,394 

Queensland 3,692   1-2 

South   Australia    i,745   3-4 

West  Australia i  ,605 

Tasmania 462   1-2 

Commonwealth 13,580    1-2 


The  following  tables  show  the  net  profit  after 
paying  working  expenses,  and  the  percentage  of 
profit  to  capital  invested  : 

jj  Net  Percentage 

•*"'^"  profit.  in  capital. 

New    South    Wales £1,491,869      £3/9/3 

Victoria 1,462,643  3/10/9  l-:» 

Queensland 598,695  2/15/5 

-South     .\ustralia 536,53°  3/19/ 

West     Australia 354,126         3/12/2 

Tasmania 71,926  1/16/7 

Commonwealth £4,515,789      £3/  7/9 


AUSTRALIA  —  GOVERNMENT  UNDERTAKINGS 


The  freight  charges  are  low,  as  the  main 
object  of  railway  construction  has  been  to  open 
up  and  develop  the  country  Railway  construc- 
tion in  Australia  has  not  proceeded  with  uni- 
formity of  gauge.  In  New  South  Wales  a  gauge 
of  4  ft.  81/2  in.  has  been  adopted.  In  Victoria 
5  ft.  3  in.,  in  South  Australia  partly  5  ft.  3  in. 
and  partly  3  ft.  6  in.,  while  in  the  other  States 
3  ft.  6  in.  in  gauge  is  universal. 

Speaking  generally  the  agricuUural  districts 
are  excellently  served  with  railways.  The  total 
number  of  passengers  carried  annually  amounts 
to  about  115,000,000,  the  receipts  from  coaching 
traffic  being  about  41  per  cent  of  the  whole  and 
those  from  goods  traffic  59  per  cent. 

Other  Public  Works. —  The  early  settlement 
of  Australia,  unlike  that  of  America,  was  cen- 
tralized in  the  capital  cities  of  each  State ;  con- 
sequently municipal  institutions  and  local  gov- 
ernment are  as  yet  imperfectly  developed.  Thus 
many  of  the  functions  of  municipalities  are  per- 
formed by  the  Central  Government  although 
there  is  a  growing  tendency  to  transfer  these  to 
local  bodies  as  the  country  population  gathers 
round  townships.  At  present  the  State  Govern- 
ments maintain  all  main  roads  and  bridges. 
They  also  construct  the  harbor  works  and  pro- 
A'ide  dredgers  for  their  maintenance.  In  Mel- 
bourne and  Sydney  this  work  has  been  delegated 
to  Boards.  Punts  and  ferries  on  rivers  are  also 
under  the  control  of  the  State  Governments ; 
which  is  also  charged  with  the  con- 
struction of  all  school  buildings,  prisons,  and 
hospitals.  Water  conservation  is  another  very 
important  function  of  the  State  Governments, 
and  large  sums  have  been  spent  in  sinking  for 
water  and  maintaining  artesian  wells  along  the 
stock  routes  of  the  dry  interior. 

Activities  of  Federal  Government. —  The 
Federal  Government  of  the  Commonwealth  has 
not  yet  assumed  all  the  powers  which  by  the 
Constitution  are  permitted  to  it.  At  present  it 
only  controls  public  works  in  so  far  as  these  are 
connected  with  the  postal,  telephonic,  and  tele- 
graphic services,  with  military  and  naval  de- 
fence, and  with  the  customs  houses.  It  will 
soon  also  take  over  from  the  States  the  light- 
ing of  the  coasts,  the  quarantine  grounds,  and 
the  observatories. 

The  Commonwealth  Parliament  has  recently 
passed  an  act  providing  for  the  compulsory  ref- 
erence of  industrial  disputes  extending  beyond 
the  limits  of  one  State  to  a  judicial  tribunal ; 
but  it  is  questionable  whether  this  act  is  not 
unconstitutional,  and  in  its  present  form  it  is  not 
likely  to  be  effective.  The  Commonwealth  has 
also,  in  the  exercise  of  its  powers  to  "make  laws 
with  respect  to  trade  and  commerce,''  passed  a 
stringent  law  against  fraudulent  marks  on  goods 
whether  these  are  imported  or  made  in  Aus- 
tralia, and  also  to  provide  for  the  marking  with 
a  government  stamp  on  all  goods  intended  for 
export.  The  same  measure  permits  goods  which 
are  made  under  trade  union  conditions  to  be 
marked  with  a  special  union  label.  The  Parlia- 
ment has  now  before  it  a  measure  to  prevent 
trusts  and  combines  within  the  Commonwealth 
and  to  prohibit  the  importation  of  "dumped" 
goods  (i.e.  goods  sold  for  export  at  below  cost). 

In  military  matters  the  Parliament,  imder  the 
influence  of  the  Labor  party,  have  adopted  the 
principle  that  if  a  country  is  worth  living  in  it 


is  worth  defending;  and  that  therefore  it  is  the 
duty  of  every  citizen  in  a  democracy'  to  be  able 
to  bear  arms.  The  Defence  Acts  empower  the 
calling  out  of  every  citizen  under  the  age  of  40, 
and  provision  is  made  for  universal  instruction 
in  military  matters  by  the  formation  of  cadet 
corps  in  all  the  State  schools.  A  movement  is 
now  on  foot  for  providing  for  the  coastal  de- 
fences of  Australia  by  means  of  locally  owned  ■ 
warships.  The  Federal  Government  administers 
as  a  dependency  the  British  portion  of  New 
Guinea  which  is  now  known  as  Papua.  It  is 
also  proposed  that  the  Federal  Government  shall 
provide  old  age  pensions. 

The  Federal  Government  has  control  of  im- 
migration but  its  activities  in  that  direction  are 
at  present  hampered  by  the  jealousies  of  the 
States  which  own  the  available  land  and  are 
willing  to  co-operate  with  the  Commonwealth. 
The  law  as  to  the  immigration  of  undesirables 
is  practically  the  same  as  that  of  the  United 
States,  and  Canada;  but  its  administration  is 
less  strict.  No  white  person  has  ever  been  ex- 
cluded under  its  provisions. 

State  Actiz'ities. —  All  the  States,  except  Tas- 
mania and  Western  Australia,  have  from  time 
to  time  attempted  to  deal  with  the  problem  of 
the  unemployed  by  means  of  labor  settlements. 
None  of  these,  however,  have  been  permanently 
successful  and  they  have  not  been  adopted  on 
any  large  scale. 

Co-operative  and  village  settlements  have, 
however,  been  more  successful  in  Victoria  and 
South  Australia.  Areas  of  land  are  set  apart 
in  both  these  States  for  village  communities. 
The  government  makes  advances  for  improve- 
ments and  on  the  performance  of  the  required 
conditions  the  occupier  may  obtain  a  perpetual 
lease  on  the  freehold  of  his  block.  Up  to 
30  June  1904,  a  total  of  1,891  settlers,  making 
with  their  families  a  community  of  8.556  souls, 
were  residing  in  these  settlements  in  Victoria 
on  an  area  of  57,588  acres  on  which  improve- 
ments had  been  effected  to  the  value  of  £254.955. 
In  South  Australia  at  the  same  date,  the  num- 
ber of  settlers  was  84,  to  whom  ii02,ii6  had 
been  advanced,  while  the  improvements  effected 
were  valued  at  £41.869.  The  unoccupied  lands 
in  every  State  belong  to  the  State  and  not  to 
the   Commonwealth. 

Agricultural  Activities. —  Every  State  has 
tried  by  legislation  to  improve  and  develop  its 
agricultural  resources.  Until  the  establishment 
of  the  Commonwealth  the  States  gave  bonuses 
on  the  export  of  butter,  cheese,  and  fruit,  but 
these  have  now  ceased.  There  are,  however,  in 
New  South  Wales,  Victoria,  and  South  Aus- 
tralia depots  under  State  management  for  the 
storage  and  freezing  of  perishable  products. 
Exports  of  poultry,  butter  and  cheese  are 
graded  and  marked  by  government  brands,  and 
South  Australia  for  some  years  maintained  in 
London  a  depot  for  the  sale  of  her  wines.  ]\Iost 
of  the  States  have  appointed  boards  which  are 
empowered  to  lend  money  to  farmers  to  effect 
improvements.  Every  State  maintains  agri- 
cultural colleges  or  lecturers,  and  in  some  there 
are  experimental  farms.  New  South  Wales 
maintains  State  nurseries  for  fruit  and  forest 
trees. 

Charities. — The  administration  of  charity  is 
an  important  function  of  the  States  in  a  country 


AUSTRALIA  —  FINANCE 


which  has  no  poor  law ;  hospitals,  asylums  for  the 
insane,  asylums  for  the  aged,  orphanages,  and 
industrial  schools  are  all  established  and  main- 
tained by  the  State  governments.  A  system  of 
boarding  out  of  State  children  is  also  in  opera- 
tion in  New  South  Wales,  Victoria,  and  South 
Australia.  Old  age  pensions  of  10/  a  week  are 
given  in  New  South  Wales  to  all  above  the 
age  of  65  who  have  not  an  income  of  Izd  a 
year. 

Iitdusfriiil  Aciiz'ifies. — In  New  South  Wales 
and  Victoria  the  States  have  adopted  the  view 
that  an  industrial  dispute  between  capital  and 
labor  is  as  much  a  concern  of  the  State  as  a 
quarrel  in  the  street  between  two  citizens.  Each 
State  deals  with  the  matter  in  a  different  way. 
In  New  South  Wales  a  tribunal  has  been 
established  to  which  all  industrial  disputes  must 
be  referred.  A  workman  striking  or  a  master 
locking  out  before  making  such  a  reference  is 
guilty  of  a  misdemeanor.  The  court  has  power 
to  enforce  its  awards  by  fine  or  imprisonment : 
it  can  direct  a  minimum  wage  and  may  order 
that  preference  be  given  to  unionists  in  any  in- 
dustry. It  has  power  to  declare  an  order  made 
in  any  case  to  be  the  "common  rule*  of  the  in- 
dustry in  question  within  a  given  area.  It  is 
claimed  for  this  act,  which  has  been  in  force 
since  1902,  that  it  has  given  a  new  security  to 
capital  by  preventing  strikes  and  that  it  has 
abolished  "sweating."  In  Victoria,  Wages 
Boards  have  been  established  for  every  industry, 
consisting  of  an  equal  number  of  representatives 
of  workmen  and  employers  with  an  umpire.  All 
questions  relating  to  the  trade  may  be  referred. 
The  decisions  of  the  board  may  be  enforced  by 
action  in  the  courts  as  upon  the  award  of  an 
arbitrator. 

The  Factory  Acts  of  Great  Britain  have  been 
partially  adopted  by  all  the  States,  but  in  none  is 
there  the  same  strictness  of  supervision  nor  the 
same  restraint  upon  the  manufacturer  as  in  Eng- 
land. The  government  of  New  South  Wales 
makes  the  clothes  of  the  railway  employees  and 
police  in  a  State  factory.  Most  of  the  States 
have  State  workshops  for  manufacturing  rolling 
stock  and  railway  engines.  The  State  of  New 
South  Wales  also  owns  a  dry  dock  and  a  ship 
repairing  plant. 

All  the  States  publish  Year  Books  giving  full 
details  of  the  progress  of  the  State,  and  the 
working  of  all  government  departments.  These 
can  be  obtained  gratis  on  application  to  the 
Agent-General  of  the  State  in  London. 

BERNn.\RD   RlXGR^sSE   WiSE, 

Formerly  Attorney-General,  .Vrtc  South  Wales. 

12.  Australia  —  Finance.  In  matters  of 
finance,  as  well  as  in  many  other  things,  Aus- 
tralia presents  a  most  interesting  field  for  study. 
Sprung  from  a  splendid  body  of  pioneers,  who 
had  been  brave  and  enterprising  enough  to  quit 
the  old  home-land,  with  all  its  tender  associa- 
tions, and  well  ascertained  conditions  of  life, 
and  to  cross  the  ocean,  in  a  voj^age  lasting,  in 
those  days,  three  or  four  months,  in  order  to  the 
beginning  of  a  new  life  under  unaccustomed  con- 
ditions, in  a  new  and  undeveloped  land,  the 
colonists  have  wrought  wonders.  Untrammeled 
by  any  vmdue  preference  for  the  old  ways  and 
with  ample  scope  for  bold,  not  to  say  audacious, 
experimenting,  the  spirit  of  enterprise,  inherited 
from  their  fathers  strong  in  them,  the  second 


generation  of  the  settlers,  who  are  the  Austral- 
ians of  to-day,  have  striven  to  put  into  practice, 
and  by  no  means  without  success,  some  theories 
which  have  elsewhere  remained  merely  theories. 
In  their  systems  of  land  settlement,  their  State 
ownership  of  such  undertakings  are  railways, 
tramways,  water-works,  etc.,  and  in  schemes  of 
ta.xation,  to  say  nothing  of  other  matters  of 
iinance,  they  have  sometimes  discarded  precedent 
and  have  no  reason  to  be  ashamed  of  the  re- 
sults which  they  have  to  show  for  their  enter- 
prise and  fearlessness.  Complicated  as  are,  in 
some  respects,  Australian  questions,  through  the 
existence,  at  one  and  the  same  time,  of  a  dual 
citizenship,  every  person  owing  allegiance  to  his 
own  individual  State  and  also  to  the  broader 
Commonwealth  government,  a  very  little  care 
will  enable  a  complete  view  to  be  taken  of 
Australian  finance,  including  both  those  figures 
relating  to  the  Commonwealth,  or  National,  and 
to  the  State,  or  Provincial  Governments.  The 
4,000,000  people  of  tlie  Commonwealth  occu- 
pying the  great  island  continent  of  Australia 
and  the  adjacent  small  one  of  Tasmania,  with 
an  area,  in  all,  of  as  nearly  as  possible  3,000,- 
000  square  miles,  having,  for  national  pur- 
noses,  united  imder  the  Commonwealth  Consti- 
tution Act,  are  still,  in  respect  of  all  but  certain 
specified  matters,  citizens  of  one  or  other  of  the 
six  States  of  New  South  Wales,  Victoria, 
Queensland,  South  Australia,  Western  Australia, 
and  Tasmania.  So  far  as  their  finances  are  con- 
cerned it  is  necessary  to  remember  that  to  the 
Commonwealth  are  assigned  very  large  powers 
of  taxation,  which,  however,  are,  so  far,  only 
exercised  in  respect  of  customs  and  excise,  the 
whole  revenue  from  which  is  collected  bv  the 
Commonwealth,  the  balance,  after  meeting  its 
own  necessities,  being  handed  over  to  the 
States,  in  proportion  to  the  amount  of  the  duties 
derived  in  each  State.  The  Commonwealth  con- 
trols all  posts,  telegraphs,  and  telephones,  as 
well  as  all  military  and  naval  defences,  and 
also  several  other  important  departments  of 
State,  but  the  finances  and  statistics  are  unaf- 
fected by  these  matters,  as  in  the  case  of  all  of 
them,  where  there  is  Commonwealth  control 
State  control  ceases.  In  taxation,  however,  if 
it  were  attempted  to  show  the  total  for  Australia 
by  adding  to  the  total  for  the  Commonwealth 
those  for  the  States,  the  result  would  be  wrong; 
just  as  would  be  any  attempt  to  get  the  total 
revenue  or  expenditure  for  Australia  by  adding 
Commonwealth  totals  to  those  for  all  the  States, 
because  of  the  portion  of  the  customs  and  excise 
revenue  which,  being  first  collected  by  the 
Commonwealth,  is  afterward  paid  over  to  the 
States  and  so  would  appear  twice  in  the  totals. 
In  this  statement  care  will  be  taken  to  show 
all  the  figures  once,  without  any  duplication 
whatever.  The  figures  given  will,  unless  other- 
wise stated,  be  from  the  unchallengeable  author- 
ity of  the  latest  volume  published  by  the  govern- 
ment statistician  of  New  South  Wales,  }klr. 
Coghlan,  now  Agent-General  for  that  State  in 
"London.  We  shall,  however,  begin  with  the 
totals  of  revenue  and  expenditure  of  the  Com- 
monwealth for  the  financial  year  ending  30  June 
1905,  as  given  to  Parliament  by  the  treasurer 
of  the  Commonwealth,  the  Rt.  Hon.  Sir  John 
Forrest,   in  his   budget   speech   in   August    1005. 


AUSTRALIA  —  FINANCE 


The    figures    show    the    sum    collected    in    each 
State : 


State 

Customs 

and 
Excise 

Posts  and 
Telegraph 

Other 
Revenue 

Totals 

N.  S.Wales. 
Victoria  .... 
Queensland. 
S   Australia. 
W.  Australia 
Tasmania. . . 

£3.033,617 
2,488,842 
1,095,476 

678,880 
1,029.515 

3^0,651 

£980,141 
682, 565 
331,096 
266,691 

»57. 489 
112,923 

£6,  q68 
7,800 
3,288 
7,838 
1,938 
2,047 

£4,020,  727 
3,179,207 
1,429,860 

953,409 
1,288,942 

445,621 

Totals 

£8,656,981 

£2, 630, 905 

£29, 880 

£11,317,766 

Beside  the  totals  given  the  Commonwealth 
collected  in  Western  Australia,  and  paid  over  to 
that  State,  temporary  duties  amounting  to 
ii42,549.     The  expenditure  was  : 

Customs    and    excise    department £256,060 

Military    and    naval    defences 706,279 

Posts,    telegraphs    and    telephones 2,560,756 

Other  expenditures 461,497 

Total £3,984'592 

The  customs  and  excise  revenue  for  the  year 
ending  30  June  1905,  was  collected  under  the 
following  heads  : 

CUSTOMS. 

Stimulants £2,050,648 

Narcotics 922,248 

Sugar 192,391 

Agricultural    products    and   groceries 684,746 

Apparel    and    textiles 1,348,848 

Metals  and  machinery 454,325 

Oils,   paint   and  varnish 121,466 

Earthenware,  etc 138,122 

Drugs  and   chemicals 56,646 

Wood,    wicker     and    cane 202,719 

Jewelry   and    fancy   goods 166,906 

Leather    and    rubber 154.588 

Paper    and  stationery 106,488 

Vehicles 80,813 

Musical    instruments 47,062 

Miscellaneous 122,025 

Total  customs £6,850,041 

EXCISE. 

Stimulants £753,529 

Tobacco 516,761 

Sugar 503,627 

Miscellaneous 33,023 

Total  excise £1 ,806,940 

Total   customs  and   e.xcise £8,656.981 

The  amount  per  head  in  each  State  was  as 
follows:     New  South  Wales,  41/7  1-2;  Victoria, 
Queensland,    42/. ;    South    Australia, 
West      Australia,      85/. ;      Tasmania, 
Total,  £235  1-2.    The  free  list  in  the 
tarifif    covers    10,000.000    sterling    value    of    im- 
ports out  of  a  total  of  £36.244,000  per  annum. 
The   Commonwealth,   it  will  be  noticed,   has 


41/1  1-2; 

36/51-4; 
36/8  1-4. 


main  in  the  hands  of  the  several  States.  It  is 
to  a  large  extent  a  tax-gatherer  for  the  States, 
the  constitution  requiring  it,  for  the  first  10 
years  at  least,  to  return  to  the  States,  or  to  pay 
on  their  behalf  as  interest  or  principal  on  State 
loans,  not  less  than  three-fourths  of  the  total 
income  from  customs  and  excise.  This  provi- 
sion was  adopted  in  order  to  avoid  dislocation 
of  the  State  finances  through  the  transfer  of  this 
revenue  from  the  States  to  the  Commonwealth, 
and  also  to  restrain  the  Commonwealth  Parlia- 
ment from  mopping  up  all  the  revenue  from 
customs  and  excise  by  launching  out  on  new  and 
costly  enterprises,  which  might  leave  the  States 
in  an  awkward  financial  position.  The  Common- 
wealth Parliament  as  it  is  has  set  its  face 
sternly  against  borrowing,  even  for  public  works, 
pays  for  all  that  are  necessary  out  of  sur- 
plus revenue.  It  is  proposed  in  influential  cir- 
cles to  federalize  the  State  loans  to  such  an  ex- 
tent as  would  finally  absorb  the  revenue  now 
returned  year  by  year  to  the  States,  so  as  to 
remove  the  present  interdependence  of  Com- 
monwealth and  State  finance.  The  expenditure 
of  the  Commonwealth  is  narrowed  down  to  a 
very  few  items.  We  have  the  cost  of  the  de- 
partments transferred  from  the  States  to  the 
Commonwealth  and  now  controlled  by  it,  such 
as  the  customs  and  excise,  posts,  telegraphs,  and 
telephones,  military  and  naval  defenses,  etc.  To 
these  are  added  the  cost  of  the  Commonwealth 
machinery  of  government,  including  the  de- 
partments of  the  Governor-General,  the  Minis- 
ters of  State,  and  the  Legislature,  together  with 
the  Judiciary.  The  outlay  on  public  works  and 
buildings  was  for  the  year  under  review  £333.- 
725,  and  the  total  expenditure  was  therefore  £4,- 
318,435.  The  balance  of  revenue  over  expendi- 
ture was  returned  to  the  States  as  follows  :  New 
South  Wales,  £2,529,069;  Victoria,  £2.071,378; 
Queensland,  £752,532;  South  Australia,  £555.692; 
Western  Australia,  £885,349,  and  Tasmania, 
£259,099.  Total,  £6,999,119;  beside  £142,549  col- 
lected for  Western  Australia  and  paid  to  that 
State.  This  was  in  excess  of  the  minimimi  laid 
down  by  the  constitution.  The  payments  to  the 
States  must  tend  to  diminish  as  the  Common- 
wealth extends  its  functions,  but,  in  many  cases, 
the  new  departments  will  be  taken  over  from  the 
States,  which  will  in  that  way  obtain  relief.  The 
expenditure  quoted  includes  the  imperial  naval 
subsidy  and  £20,000  for  British  New  Guinea. 

The  revenue  and  expenditure  of  the  several 
States  forming  the  Commonwealth  will  be  seen 
by  the  following  tables  compiled  from  the  bud- 
get speeches  delivered  by  the  State  treasurers 
shortly  after  the  close  of  the  financial  year  end- 
ing 30  June  1905 : 


State. 

Returned  by 
Commonwealth 

Taxation 

Land  Sales 
and  Rents 

Public  Works 

Miscellaneous 

Totals 

New  South  Wales 

£2,529,069 
2,017,378 

752, ■;32 

555,692 

1,027,898 

259,999 

£1,114,408 
713,227 

454,574 
439,048 

221,735 
216,953 

£1. 7^7, 902 
388.170 
623,416 
182,247 
315,613 
82,811 

£5-055,353 
3,6og, 120 
1,409,414 
1-382,749 
1,797,433 
220. 632 

£880, I 86 
781,762 

355,462 

165,988 

252.661 

3-199 

£11,336,918 
7,509,657 

3-595-398 

2,725-724 

3,615.340 

852.694 

Totals 

£7,141,668 

%,  159,945 

£3-350,159       1     £13,544,701 

£2,439,258 

£29,635,731 

no    revenue    from   any   other   form   of   taxation  The  expenditure  was  as  follows: 

beside   customs   and   excise,   neither   has   it  any  New   South   Wales £11,195.075 

territorial  revenue,  having  no  control  over  the  Ou^"n^and  ......'..........'■..'.  ■■■■■'■  3!58i!403 

huge  areas  of  unalienated  lands,  which  still  re-  South  Australia 2,693,495 


AUSTRALIA  —  FINANCE 


Western  Australia 
Tasmania 


£3,745,224 
842,469 


The   grand    total    was    therefore    £29,040,339, 
leaving  a  surplus  of  £595,392. 

It  will  be  seen  that  nearly  one  half  of  the 
total  revenue  of  the  States  is  derived  from 
^'public  works.*  This  represents  the  earnings  of 
the  railways,  tramways,  harbor  works,  and 
water-works,  together  with  other  lesser  under- 
takings, the  construction  of  which  has  been  the 
main  factor  in  building  up  what  at  first  sight  ap- 
pears to  be  the  huge  debt  of  Australia.  It  may, 
however,  be  noted  that  the  public  works  not  only 
aid  very  greatly  in  the  development  of  the  vast 
areas  of  the  unoccupied  Crown  lands  in  Aus- 
tralia, but  they  also  produce  a  large  annual 
revenue,  which  maj''  well  be  set  off  against  the 
annual  interest  charge,  as  the  value  of  these 
permanent  assets  are  set  off  against  the  debts 
themselves.  The  works  include  between  13  and 
14  thousand  miles  of  railways,  which  cost  just 
over  £132,930,764,  up  to  the  end  of  1904,  the 
latest  year  for  which  the  details  are  obtainable, 
and  for  that  year  they  earned,  over  and  above 
working  expenses  and  upkeep,  the  sum  of  £4,- 
065,631  toward  interest  on  the  loans  raised  to 
pay  for  them.  As  the  country  through  which 
they  pass  develops  their  earnings  must  increase. 
The  item  land  sales  and  rents  is  much  lower 
than  in  past  years  as  the  present  policy  of  all 
the  States  is  to  encourage  settlement,  by  leasing 
land  on  very  long  leases,  with  or  without  right 
of  purchase,  so  as  to  assist  people  with  little 
capital,  rather  than  to  sell  land  for  cash.  In 
many  cases  the  purchase  money  is  spread  over  as 
much  as  20  years,  all  pajniients  going  off  the 
purchase  money,  so  as  to  aid  would-be  cultiva- 
tors, who  art  short  of  funds,  to  make  a  start. 
The  provision  of  such  conveniences  as  roads, 
bridges  and  schoolhouses,  absorb  practically  all 
the  proceeds  from  the  land  for  several  years 
after  it  is  first  leased,  so  that  the  States  are  by 
no  means  living  on  their  capital.  The  lands 
which  once  returned  no  revenue  at  all  are,  by 
these  means,  being  gradually  developed  and 
made  to  produce  loading  for  the  railways  and 
business  for  the  harbors  as  well  as  assets  and 
income  taxable  by  the  treasurers.  The  taxation 
differs  in  the  several  States,  though  most  of 
them  now  levy  on  the  estates  of  deceased  per- 
sons in  proportion  to  the  size  of  the  bequests 
left  and  to  the  degree  of  relationship  between 
the  testator  and  the  legatee,  the  larger  bequest 
and  the  more  distant  relative  paying  the  higher 
rate.  There  are  also,  in  most  States,  taxes  on 
income  and  on  ^'unimproved  land  values,"  that  is 
to  say  on  the  capital  value  of  land  less  the  value 
of  improvements  thereon.  The  direct  taxation 
including  all  these  came  for  the  whole  Com- 
monwealth, in  the  latest  year  for  which  figures 
are  available,  to  14  shillings  and  4  pence  per 
head.  The  extremes  in  different  States  were 
South  Australia  highest  at  18  shillings  and  ' 
penny  per  head,  and  Victoria  lowest  at  12  shill- 
ings and  4  pence.  The  principle  of  progression 
in  taxation  is  recognized  in  some  States,  not 
only  in  succession  duties,  but  in  income  and  also 
in  land  values  taxation.  The  usual  distinction 
is  observed  between  income  derived  from  per- 
sonal exertion,  and  therefore  depenuent  upon  the 
life  and  health  of  the  earner,  and  that  derived 
from  investments  or  property,  which  is  inde- 
pendent of  personal  effort.     The  rate  of  tax  is 


higher  on  the  income  from  property  than  upon 
the  produce  of  personal  exertion.  There  is,  too, 
the  further  graduation  according  to  the  amount 
of  the  income.  In  Victoria,  for  example,  the 
rate  is  on  incomes  derived  from  personal  exer- 
tion 3d.  in  the  £  up  to  £300,  on  every  £  in  excess 
of  £300  up  to  £800  4d..  over  £800  to  £1,300  5d., 
over  £1,300  to  £1,800  6d.,  and  over  £1,800  /d.  in 
the  £.  Double  these  rates  is  charged  on  income 
from  property.  The  land  values  taxation  levied 
in  certain  States  is  on  the  value  of  the  land 
after  deducting  the  value  of  improvements 
thereon.  It  is,  therefore,  much  heavier  on  city 
and  suburban  than  on  country  land,  area  for 
area.  Taking  South  Australia  the  rate  is  one 
halfpenny  in  the  £  capital  value  up  to  £5,000 
value,  and  one  penny  in  the  £  if  the  value  be 
over  £5,000,  and  there  is  also  an  extra  tax  of 
20  per  cent,  on  the  first  tax  if  the  owner  of  the 
land  be  not  resident  in  the  State.  The  miscel- 
laneous receipts  gall  for  no  special  remark.  The 
total  revenue  looks  very  large,  but  it  needs  to  be 
remembered  that  altogether  apart  from  the 
postal  and  telegraphic  receipts,  which  appear  not 
in  the  State,  but  in  the  Commonwealth  accounts, 
as  do  also  all  figures  relating  to  military  and 
naval  defences,  nearly  one  half  of  the  total  is 
for  services  rendered  to  the  people  by  means  of 
public  works,  and  altogether  outside  the  ordi- 
nary functions  of  government,  as  commonly  un- 
derstood. On  this  account  it  cannot  be  said 
that  Australians  are  burdened  by  the  contribu- 
tions they  make  to  revenue,  even  though  they 
pay  in  all,  to  Commonwealth  and  States,  £7,  8 
per  head  per  annum.  The  further  taxation 
levied  by  local  governing  bodies  for  purely  local 
expenditure,  such  as  road  maintenance  and  sani- 
tation, is  not  large.  The  figures  for  Western 
Australia  are  abnormal  on  account  of  the  rapid 
development  of  the  gold-fields  and  the  resulting 
preponderance  of  highly  paid  adult  males  in  the 
population,  consuming  highly  dutiable  goods. 
'Ihe  expenditure  of  the  States  would  be  absurdly 
high  were  it  not  for  the  fact  that  it  includes,  to 
the  extent  of  50  six  per  cent  of  the  whole,  pro- 
vision for  the  working  of  the  railways  and  the 
payment  of  interest  and  repayments  of  debt. 
These  charges  are  not  in  any  true  sense  "costs 
of  government."  They  must  be  considered  in  re- 
lation to  special  income  appearing  on  the  other 
side  of  the  account.  That  seven  per  cent  of 
the  expenditure  is  for  education  is  indicative  of 
the  general  trend  of  affairs  in  Australia,  and  of 
the  high  ideals  cherished.  Of  course  it  needs 
to  be  remembered  that  at  the  present  stage  set- 
tlement is  sparsely  spread  over  a  huge  terri- 
tor}%  and  that  the  costs  of  administration  would 
be  "lightly  increased,  if  at  all,  if  there  were  three 
or  four  times  the  number  of  people  on  the 
land  that  there  are  to-day,  while  the  revenue 
would  be  largely  multiplied.  It  is  area  rather 
than  population  which,  under  certain  circum- 
stances, determines  expenditure,  and  these  cir- 
cumstances exist  in  many  parts  of  Australia  to- 
day. The  Australian  of  the  present  is  fully  de- 
termined not  to  allow  extravagance  in  public 
expenditure,  and  no  blunder  in  public  life  is 
more  speedily  punished  by  the  electors.  The  ex- 
penditure of  the  States  of  course  includes  all  the 
cost  of  the  legislative  machinery,  with  the  salary 
of  the  State  governors,  and  the  members  of  the 
State  parliaments,  and  also  all  the  charges  con- 
nected with  the  administration  of  all  the  depart- 
ments, such  as  police,  public  health,  and  educa- 


AUSTRALIA  —  FINANCE 


tion,  together  with  the  oversight  of  an  elaborate 
system  of  local  government  in  each  State,  which 
in  its  turn  deals  with  a  wide  area  of  purely  local 
concerns.  Australia  indeed  possesses  all  the 
concomitants  of  a  highly  organized  political 
and  social  organism,  and  believes  that  it  gets  a. 
full  return  for  its  public  expenditure.  The  ex- 
ceedingly close  approximation  of  expenditure  to 
revenue  results  from  a  disposition,  whenever 
any  considerable  surplus  appears  in  the  accounts 
for  any  year,  to  devise  further  public  conven- 
iences which  may  be  provided  for  the  future, 
and  so  the  surplus  is  absorbed.  There  is  no 
general  desire  to  show  large  surpluses  nor  is 
there  much  efifort  to  reduce  taxation,  which  is 
not  felt  to  be  burdensome,  but  rather  to  add 
to  the  facilities  afforded  for  trade,  and  for  the 
occupation  and  development  of  the  country  and 
of  its  industries.  These  ends  are  being  achieved, 
and  the  cost  of  them  is  not  grudged  by  those 
who  have  to  find  the  money,  and  who  reap  the 
gain. 

The  debts  of  Australia  have  all  been  in- 
curred by  the  States,  and  the  Commonwealth 
has^  as  yet,  carefully  avoided  any  line  of  policy 
which  would  involve  it  in  any  necessity  for  em- 
barking on  a  borrowing  policy,  on  its  own  ac- 
count. Indeed,  as  has  already  been  suggested, 
the  Commonwealth  Parliament  has  determined 
to  construct  all  such  public  works  as  post 
offices,  fortifications,  etc.,  out  of  revenue.  It  has 
taken  over  from  the  States  all  the  customs 
houses,  post  offices,  military  and  naval  defences, 
stores,  etc.,  which  were  the  property  of  the 
States,  prior  to  the  establishment  of  the  Com- 
monwealth, and  will  ultimately  have  to  recoup 
the  States  for  them,  either  by  taking  over  State 
debts  to  an  amount  equivalent  to  their  value,  or 
in  some  other  way,  which  must  almost  of  neces- 
sity involve  the  Commonwealth  in  a  debt,  and 
it  is  probable  that  the  final  settlement  between 
the  Commonwealth  and  the  States,  as  to  the 
annual  surplus  now  paid  over  to  the  States  out 
of  the  proceeds  of  the  customs  and  excise  duties, 
may  result  in  the  assumption  by  the  Common- 
wealth of  the  responsibility  for  a  certain  por- 
tion of  their  public  debt.  There  are  further 
schemes  in  contemplation  for  the  transfer  of 
State  obligations  on  certain  terms  to  the  Com- 
monwealth, beside  which  there  are  proposals 
under  consideration,  in  Commonwealth  circles, 
for  the  construction  of  trunk  lines  of  railway 
across  the  continent  of  Australia,  east  and  west, 
as  well  as  north  and  south,  and  also  for  naval 
defence  which,  when  carried  out,  will  require 
the  raising  of  Commonwealth  loans.  For  the 
present,  however,  we  have  only  the  debts  of  the 
States  to  treat  of.  Mr.  Coghlan's  < Statistical 
Account  of  Australia  and  New  Zealand,'  pub- 
lished early  in  1905,  gives  the  debts  of  all  the 
States  of  the  Commonwealth  as  follows: 


State 

Debt 

Per  head 

Annual 
interest 

New  South  Wales. . . 

^80,033,581 
51, 819,962 
41,781,287 
28,  593,  645 
16,090,288 
9,  318,  400 

£55       7  2 
42     19  4 
79     II   5 
77       9  I 
67     12   I 
51     i3  4 

£2,841,368 
1,885,983 

I 1 547 -47° 

South  Australia 

Western   Australia.. 

1,069,  325 
547,160 
341,627 

Total  debt 

£227,637, 163 

£57       8  8 

£8,232,933 

These  figures  practically  represent  the  posi- 
tion as  it  is  to-day.  All  the  States  have  some 
provision  of  the  nature  of  a  sinking  fund  for  the 
ultimate  extinction  of  the  debts  and  in  several 
cases  stock  is  from  time  to  time  purchased  and 
canceled  out  of  funds  set  apart  for  purposes  of 
redemption.  None  of  these  funds  have,  how- 
ever, as  yet,  assumed  proportions  sufficiently 
large  to  modify  materially  the  facts  as  to  the 
total  debts  just  quoted.  The  debt  of  Australia 
in  no  case  represents  the  cost  of  war.  The  whole 
of  it  has  been  incurred  with  a  view  to  the 
development  of  the  vast  resources  of  the  con- 
tinent and  for  practically  the  whole  of  it  there 
are  very  valuable  permanent  assets.  Of  the 
total  debt  of  ^227,637,163,  £136,600,855  was  spent 
on  railways  and  tramways;  £29,245,167  on  water 
supplies  and  sewerage;  £17.373,507  on  harbors, 
rivers,  and  navigation;  and  £17,188,178  for  pub- 
lic works  and  buildings,  beside  other  sums  for 
telegraphs,  telephones,  defence,  and  other  items. 
The  net  revenue  produced  by  these  works  aggre- 
gated, in  the  year  under  review,  over  and  above 
working  expenses  and  maintenance,  2.30  per 
cent,  on  their  cost.  It  should  be  also  remarked 
that  the  year  for  which  the  figures  are  given 
was  not  a  normal  year,  the  effects  of  the  prev- 
ious year's  drought  liaving  by  no  means  passed 
away.  The  revenue  from  this  source  could  be 
increased  to  an  amount  sufficient  to  meet  in  full 
the  interest  charge,  if  it  were  desired  to  do  so. 
but  the  charges  for  railage  and  harbor  dues  and 
water  supplies,  etc.,  are  all  kept  down  with  a 
view  to  the  encouragement  of  settlement  and  of 
production,  it  being  recognized  that  the  direct 
return  received  from  the  enterprises  is  by  no 
means  the  sum  of  their  earnings,  as  they  produce 
through  the  resulting  prosperity  of  the  people,  a 
very  large  indirect  return  through  the  customs 
house,  and  in  many  other  ways.  It  is  the 
general  prosperity  rather  than  the  direct 
revenue  which  is  the  primary  objective  for  the 
time  being.  Meantime  the  works  are  permanent 
assets  of  constantly  increasing  value,  and 
revenue  earning  power.  As  has  often  been 
pointed  out,  Australia  could,  by  the  sale  of  her 
railways,  harbor  works  and  water  services,  im- 
mensely reduce  her  public  indebtedness,  for  the 
undertakings  would  sell  readily  for  what  they 
cost,  but  she  would  be  poorer,  rather  than 
richer,  by  the  transaction  at  once,  to  say  nothing 
of  the  folly  of  such  a  policy  from  the  point  of 
view  of  the  future.  There  is,  further,  one  great 
asset  of  Australia  which  cannot  be  overlooked 
in  any  consideration  of  her  financial  position, 
and  that  is  her  imalienated  land.  In  four  out  of 
the  six  States  the  areas  are  very  large  and,  al- 
though the  values  vary  very  widely  according  to 
climate  and  other  conditions,  they  call  for  tabu- 
lation, and  the  following  statement  shows  the 
area  of  each  State,  and  the  unalienated  land  in 
each,  etc. : 

It  is  necessary  to  bear  in  mind  that  the 
public  indebtedness  of  the  Australian  States  was 
not  contracted  against  any  specific  security,  but 
against  the  public  credit  of  each  generally,  so 
that  there  is  behind  it,  not  only  the  public 
estate  in  the  shape  of  land  and  works  of  every 
kind,  but  also  the  whole  taxing  power  of  the  re- 
spective governments.     In  view  of  this  it  must 


AUSTRALIA—  THE  LABOR  PARTY 


be  manifest   that  the    securities   are   absolutely    The  volume  of  business  done  in  the  Common- 
«gilt   edged.»     The    following   table    shows   the     wealth  by  the  various   life  assurance  offices   is 


State 

Area  in  Acres 

Area  alienated 

or  in  process  of 

alienation 

Area  leased 

Area  neither 

alienated   nor 

leased 

New  South  Wales 

198,848.000 
56,245,760 
427,838,080 
578,361,600 
624.588,800 
16,778,000 

48,851,524 
24,526,255 
16,991. 127 

14, 14Q,  171 
10.S48.057 
5,040,415 

127,901.840 
9,516,372 
277.569,396 
189, 531  955 
135.678,028 
I. 581. 937 

Victoria 

22,094.636 

22,  203,433 

South  Australia 

13^.277,557 

Western  Australia 

374.680,474 

478.362,715 

19  155-650 

Total  Commonwealth 

6/So                  1                         £ 

,          ,240 

"".'""047 

741,779,528 

1.040,774,165 

figures  given  by  Air.  Coghlan  as  to  the  values  of 
the  alienated  land  and  the  improvements 
thereon,  and  also  the  value  of  the  private  prop- 
erty in  Australia : 


very  large  as  the  figures  quoted  below  will 
show,  and  there  are  also  a  number  of  friendly 
benefit  societies,  whose  roll  of  membership  is 
indicative  of  the  widespread  practice  of  habits 


St.\te 

Land  without 
improvements 

Land  and 
improvements 

Total  value  of 
property 

Per 
head 

New  South  Wales 

£136,417,000 
126,078,0^0 
41,400,000 
.'5.  957,00^ 
21,832,000 
21,832,000 

£264, 492,000 
234.057,000 
72, 040, 000 
59, 176,000 
19, 272,000 
34.907,000 

£368,778.000 
310,074,000 
no,  454,000 
86,  320,000 
49,0^5,000 
48,288,000 

£258 
256 

Victoria 

234 

2l6 

269 

Tasmania 

Total  Commonwealth 

^373.679,000 

£683,944,000 

£981,979,000 

£249 

Of  course,  the  figures  in  the  last  two  columns 
are  subject  to  adjustment  on  account  of  absentee 
ownership,  persons  in  one  State  often  owning 
properties  in  other  States.  Mr.  Coghlan  also 
furnishes  elaborate  calculations  to  show  the 
amount  of  the  private  incomes  of  the  people,  ex- 
cepting interest  paid  by  Australian  governments, 
that  is  to  say  money  paid  by  themselves  to 
themselves,  and  his  result  is  a  total  of  private 
annual  incomes  of  £179,563,000  or  £45  per  in- 
"habitant  of  Australia,  including  men,  women, 
and  children. 

The  extent  of  the  financial  operations  con- 
ducted within  the  Commonwealth  will  appear 
from  the  sworn  returns  of  the  banks  doing  busi- 
ness there  for  the  year  1904.  The  totals  were : 
Notes  in  circulation  not  bearing  interest,  £3,- 
133,268;  bills  in  circulation  not  bearing  interest, 
£521,267;  deposits  not  bearing  interest,  £34,968,- 
383;  deposits  bearing  interest,  £56.579,719; 
balances  due  to  other  banks,  £290,439;  total 
liabilities,  £95,493,076.  The  assets  are  shown  as 
follow-s :  Coin,  £17,910,771;  bullion,  £1.447.698; 
landed  property,  £5,245.311;  debts  due  to  banks 
from  other  banks,  including  notes  and  bills  dis- 
counted. £87,052,471 ;  balances  due  from  other 
banks,  including  notes  and  bills  of  other  banks, 
£2,126,809;  total  assets,  £113.783,060.  Beside  the 
joint  stock  banks,  whose  returns  have  just  been 
quoted,  there  are  numerous  investment  com- 
panies carrying  on  business  in  the  Common- 
wealth such  as  savings  banks,  land,  building,  and 
investment,  trading  and  commercial  companies, 
complete  returns  of  whose  business  are  not 
available.  For  the  savings  banks,  which  are 
under  government  supervision,  the  following 
figures  will  be  suggestive :  Number  of  deposi- 
tors, 1,072,853,  or  27  per  cent  of  the  whole  pop- 
ulation. Amount  on  deposit  at  the  close  of  the 
year,  £34.180,055  or  £8  13s.  8d.  per  head  of  the 
■whole  population,  and  £31  17s.  2d.  per  depositor. 


of  thrift  and  self-help.  Industrial  life  assur- 
ance is  also  widely  availed  of  by  persons  who  ( 
are  not  able  to  afford  large  premiums  for  life 
assurance  of  other  types.  The  receipts  and  ex-  * 
penditure  of  the  17  life  assurance  institutions 
for  the  year  were:  Receipts,  £5,186,062;  expendi- 
ture, £3,483,532.  The  average  amount  of  life 
assurance  per  head  of  the  population  was  £25. 
There  are  300.453  members  of  friendly  societies, 
and  their  funds  amount  to  £3,190.322.  It  will 
thus  appear  that  as  regards  the  public  wealth, 
the  private  wealth,  and  the  annual  product  of 
labor  and  capital  in  Australia  there  are  abundant 
evidences  of  soundness  and  of  progress,  and 
that  Australia  may  fearlessly  challenge  compari- 
son with  any  other  part  of  the  world.  At  the 
same  time  the  magnitude  of  her  undeveloped 
resources  points  unerringly  to  a  future  which 
shall   outshine   both   the   past  and  the  present. 

Sir  F.  W.  Holder, 
Speaker    House    of   Representatives,    Coiiniion- 
Zi'ealth  Parliament,  1901-1907 

13.     Australia  —  The    Labor    Party.     The 

Australian  Labor  Party  has  its  genesis  in  the 
great  maritime  strike  of  1890.  It  is  true  that 
spasmodic  attempts  had  been  made  during 
earlier  years  to  procure  direct  Parliamentary 
representation  for  working-class  interests,  and 
in  two  or  three  isolated  instances  men  had  been 
returned  to  one  or  other  of  the  Colonial  Parlia- 
ments. Nothing,  however,  in  the  nature  of  an 
extended  or  sustained  effort  had  been  attempted 
prior  to  the  great  strike.  For  some  years  before 
1890  the  trades  unions  generally  had  been  gain- 
ing in  strength  and  influence,  and  had  won 
many  concessions  from  the  employers  in  regard 
to  wages  and  w-orking  conditions ;  but  the  sea- 
faring classes  had  not  participated  in  these  ad- 
vantages   in    anything    like    equal    degree.      A 


AUSTRALIA  — THE  LABOR  PARTY 


crisis  was  reached  when  the  marine  officers, 
who  had  been  for  years  overworked  and  under- 
paid, decided  to  form  a  union  and  affiliate  with 
the  other  labor  orgnizations.  The  shipowners 
demanded,  as  a  prehminary  to  the  discussion 
of  grievances,  that  the  officers  should  dissociate 
themselves  from  the  labor  unions :  but,  fearing 
this  would  leave  them  at  the  mercy  of  the  em- 
ployers, the  officers  refused  to  acquiesce,  and  a 
strike  was  precipitated.  In  sympathy  with  the 
officers,  the  seamen  and  longshoremen  around 
the  coast  ceased  work,  and  as  the  employers 
continued  obdurate  the  trouble  extended  until 
the  strike  included  many  unions  wholly  imcon- 
nected  with  shipping.  ^'Freedom  of  Contract^'— 
an  equivalent  of  the  American  *open  shop* — 
became  the  war-cry  of  the  employers,  and  prac- 
tically the  whole  community  took  sides  with  one 
party  or  the  other.  After  a  struggle  lasting 
some  three  months,  during  which  trade  was 
paralyzed,  much  bad  blood  created,  and  both 
sides  financially  injured,  the  men  acknowledged 
defeat.  Apart  from  the  cost  to  the  combatants 
themselves,  the  public  had  suffered  severely,  and 
when  the  smoke  of  battle  had  cleared  away  there 
was  a  general  desire  expressed  to  find  some  way 
of  avoiding  similar  conflicts  in  the  future.  A 
Royal  Commission  was  appointed  by  the  gov- 
ernment of  New  South  Wales,  and  served  some 
good  purpose  in  ascertaining  clearly  the  griev- 
ances of  the  men ;  but  it  achieved  little  of  a 
practical  nature  beyond  suggesting  the  creation 
of  an  Arbitration  Court  to  which  disputes  could 
be  voluntarily  referred.  The  press,  while  mostly 
taking  the  employers'  view  upon  the  points  at 
issue,  concurred  in  advising  the  unions  to  rely 
upon  legislation  to  remedy  their  legitimate 
grievances,  and  this  advice  was  taken  seriously 
by  the  men  when  they  emerged  from  the  con- 
flict— defeated,  but  grimly  determined  to  re- 
trieve their  lost  influence. 

While  the  effects  of  the  strike  had  been 
felt  all  through  Australia,  the  battle  had  raged 
most  fiercely  along  the  eastern  seaboard,  where 
population  is  greatest,  and  therefore  the  colonies 
mostly  affected  were  those  of  Xew  South 
Wales,  Victoria,  Queensland,  and  South  Aus- 
tralia. It  was  in  these  colonies,  then,  where 
the  cry  arose  for  a  more  equitable  distribution 
of  political  power  and  a  greater  consideration 
of  labor  interests.  This  demand  was  accentuated 
by  the  political  conditions  existing  at  the  time. 
From  the  granting  of  self-government  the  Par- 
liaments of  the  various  colonies  had  included 
many  men  who  fought  strenuously  for  the  peo- 
ple's interests,  and  who  deserve  the  whole- 
hearted gratitude  of  the  reformers  of  to-day. 
but  in  spite  of  their  efforts  matters  political 
were  so  backward  in  1890  that  there  was  an 
urgent  need  of  a  fresh  impulse.  While  manhood 
suffrage  had  been  nominally  secured,  plural 
voting  obtained  in  all  the  colonies  except  South 
Australia ;  factory  legislation  was  either  non- 
existent or  so  inefficient  as  to  be  practically  use- 
less ;  except  in  Victoria,  nothing  had  been  done 
to  protect  those  working  in  dangerous  occupa- 
tions, such  as  mining ;  the  question  of  employ- 
ers' liability  was  in  a  very  unsatisfactory  state ; 
hours  of  employment  were  unregulated,  and 
sweating  was  rampant ;  and  many  other  social 
questions  were  carefully  avoided.  In  addition, 
and  perhaps  most  important,  there  was  no 
method  by  which  public  opinion  could  find  ex- 


pression in  an  authoritative  manner  with  regard 
to  the  merits  of  labor  disputes.  Briefly,  the 
complaint  of  the  unionists  and  their  sympathizers 
was  that  working-class  interests  had  been  neg- 
lected, as  should  perhaps  have  been  expected 
from  Parliaments  made  up  for  the  most  part  of 
the  wealthier  classes  or  their  representatives. 

With  a  view  to  altering  this  state  of  affairs 
for  the  better,  the  unions  decided  upon  political 
organization ;  but,  recognizing  that  no  purely 
class  effort  could  be  permanently  successful, 
they  called  upon  radicals  generally  to  assist 
them  in  the  work  of  reform.  On  this  wider 
basis  leagues  connected  with,  but  independent 
of  the  unions  were  formed,  and  programmes 
embracing  the  legislation  immediately  desired 
were  speedily  adopted.  Necessarily  these  dif- 
fered with  the  circumstances  existing  in  the 
various  colonies,  but  in  the  main  they  were 
markedly  similar.  In  all,  the  central  idea  was 
to  form  a  new  party,  working  independently  of 
those  already  existing,  and  prepared,  until 
strong  enough  to  take  office,  to  accept  'install- 
ments from  either  of  the  older  parties.  Taking 
the  platform  adopted  in  New  South  Wales  as 
typical,  the  aims  of  the  new  part}-  were  stated 
as  being:  "(i)  To  secure  for  the  wealth-pro- 
ducers of  this  colony  such  legislation  as  will 
advance  their  interests,  b}^  the  return  to  Parlia- 
ment of  candidates  pledged  to  uphold  the  plat- 
form of  this  league :  (2)  to  secure  the  due 
enrollment  of  all  members  of  the  league  who 
may  be  entitled  to  a  vote  in  any  electorate:  (3) 
to  bring  all  electors  who  are  in  favor  of  demo- 
cratic and  progressive  legislation  under  one 
common  banner,  and  to  organize  thoroughly 
such  voters  with  a  view  to  concerted  and  effec- 
tive action  at  all  Parliamentary  elections  in  the 
future.'* 

The  platform  adopted  ran  as  follows : 

1.  Electoral    reform  —  to    provide    for   the    abolition    of 

plural  voting;  the  abolition  of  money  deposits 
in  Parliamentary  elections;  the  extension  of  the 
franchise  to  seamen,  shearers,  and  general  lab- 
orers by  the  registration  of  votes:  the  extension 
of  the  franchise  to  policemen  and  soldiers;  the 
abolition  of  the  six  months'  residence  clause  as 
a  qualification  for  the  exercise  of  the  franchise; 
the  establishment  of  single  member  electorates 
and  equal  electoral  districts  on  an  adult  pop'ula- 
tion  basis;  the  holding  of  all  Parliamentary  elec- 
tions on  one  day  —  that  a  pviblic  holiday;  and 
that  all  public  houses  shall  be  closed  during  the 
hours  of  polling. 

2.  Free,  compulsory,   and  technical   education  —  higher 

as  well   as  elementary  —  to  be  extended  to  all. 

3.  Eight  hours  to   be  the  legal  maximum   working  day 

in   all   occupations. 

4.  A  Workshops  and   Factories  Act  to  provide   for   the 

prohibition  of  the  sweating  system;  the  super- 
vision of  land,  boilers,  and  machinery;  and  the 
appointment  of  representative  working  men  as 
inspectors. 

5.  An  amendment  of  the  Mining  Act  —  to  provide  for 

all  applications  for  mineral  leases  being  sum- 
marily dealt  with  by  the  local  wardens;  the 
strict  enforcement  of  labor  conditions  on  such 
leases;  the  abolition  of  the  leasing  system  on  all 
new  gold  fields;  the  right  to  mine  on  private 
property;  the  greater  protection  of  persons  en- 
gaged in  the  mining  industry;  and  that  all  in- 
spectors shall   hold  certificates  of  competency. 

6.  The    extension    to    seamen    of    the    benefits    of    the 

Employers'   Liability   Act. 

7.  The   repeal   of   the   Masters   and   Servants  Act   and 

the  Agreements    \'alidating   Act. 

8.  The     amendment     of    the    Master    and  Apprentices 

Act  and  the  Trades  Union  Act. 

9.  The    establishment    of    a    Department    of    Labor;    a 

National   Bank;   and   a   national  system  of  water 
conservation  and  irrigation. 
10.  Election  of  magistrates. 


AUSTRALIA  — THE  LABOR  PARTY 


11.  Local    government    and    decentralization;    the   exten- 

sion of  principle  of  the  (lovcrnment  acting  as  an 
employer,  through  the  medium  of  local  self-gov- 
erning bodies;  and  the  abolition  of  our  present 
unjust  method  of  raising  municijial  revenue  by 
the  taxation  of  improvements  effected  by  labor. 

12.  The    federation    of     the     Australian    colonies    on    a 

national  as  opposed  to  an  imperial  basis;  the 
abolition  of  the  present  Defence  Force,  and  the 
establishment  of  our  military  system  upon  a 
purely   voluntary   basis. 

13.  The  recognition  in  our  legislative  enactments  of  the 

natural  and  inalienable  rights  of  the  whole  com- 
munity to  the  land — upon  which  all  must  live 
and  from  which  by  labor  all  wealth  is  produced 
—  by  the  taxation  of  that  value  which  accrues 
to  land  from  the  presence  and  needs  of  the  com- 
munity, irrespective  of  improvements  effected  by 
human  exertion;  and  the  absolute  and  indefeasi- 
ble right  of  property  on  the  part  of  all  Crown 
tenants  in  improvements  effected  on  their  hold- 
ings. 

14.  The   execution   of   all    Government   contracts   in    the 

colony. 

15.  The  stamping  of  all  Chinese-made  furniture. 

16.  -Any  measure  which   will   secure   to   the  wage-earner 

a  fair  and  equitable  return   for  his  or  her   labor. 

On  these  lines  the  Labor  Party  entered  the 
political  arena  in  the  four  eastern  colonies.  The 
first  skirmish  occurred  in  South  Australia,  when 
the  new  party  succeeded  in  returning  three 
workingmen  to  the  Legislative  Council  (the 
Second  Chamber)  in  spite  of  a  restricted  fran- 
chise. This  happened  early  in  i8gi.  and  in  the 
middle  of  that  year  the  first  real  trial  of 
strength  for  control  of  the  popular  chamber 
took  place.  This  was  in  New  South  Wales, 
where,  notwithstanding  the  existence  of  plural 
voting,  the  Laborites  captured  some  36  seats  out 
of  141.  In  i8g2,  Victoria  followed  the  example 
of  the  older  colony  by  returning  a  small  con- 
tingent of  labor  members,  and  in  1893,  both 
Queensland  and  South  Australia  elected  parties 
of  greater  proportionate  strength  on  the  labor 
ticket. 

With  the  first  labor  successes  the  wildest 
views  were  expressed  by  critics  on  both  side — 
the  Conservatives  prophesying  utter  ruin  for  the 
community,  and  many  Labor  supporters  ex- 
pecting tliat  the  millenium  would  arrive  in  short 
order.  Xeedlcss  to  say,  both  proved  wrong. 
In  the  first  place  it  was  soon  found  that  a  pro- 
portion of  those  returned  as  Laborites  were  so 
only  in  name,  and  had  no  conception  of  the 
sentiment  responsible  for  the  movement.  These 
quickly  dropped  out  or  were  pushed  aside.  Then, 
as  might  have  been  expected  in  a  party  hur- 
riedly organized,  there  arose  internal  dissen- 
sions of  such  a  character  as  to  seriously 
threaten,  in  one  or  two  of  the  colonies,  the 
future  of  the  movement.  As  matters  settled 
down,  however,  the  need  for  cohesion  was  em- 
phasized, and  with  the  recognition  of  that  fact 
better  work  resulted.  Looked  at  broadly,  the 
first  Labor  contingents  did  excellent  v.'ork, 
which  served  to  encourage  the  party's  supporters 
to  renewed  efforts,  and  as  a  result  the  parties 
in  the  various  colonies  have  been  increasingly 
strengthened  at  each  successive  election.  This 
steady  growth  has  not  been  confined  to  those 
colonies  where  political  organization  was  first 
entered  upon,  but  has  extended  also  to  West 
Australia  and  Tasmania.  At  the  present  time 
(  1906)  Labor  Premiers  are  at  the  head  of 
coalition  governments  in  Queensland  and  South 
Australia,  while  in  New  South  Wales.  Victoria, 
and  West  Australia,  the  Labor  parties  constitute 
the  direct  opposition,  with  the  reversion  of 
office.  At  the  recent  Tasmanian  elections  the 
party  secured  a  material  increase  of  strength. 


The  Labor  party  has  not,  during  its  15  years 
of  existence,  succeeded  in  gaining  a  majority  in 
any  of  the  Australian  Parliaments;  but  its  in- 
fluence is  not  to  be  gauged  solely  by  its  numeri- 
cal strength.  In  most  of  the  colonies  its  appear- 
ance galvanized  the  older  parties  into  some 
appreciation  of  the  need  for  social  legislation. 
Old-time  politicians  suddenly  manifested  a 
tender  regard  for  the  interests'  of  the  working- 
classes,  and  vied  with  each  other  in  propounding 
schemes  for  the  amelioration  of  their  condition. 
The  democratization  of  those  outside  its  ranks 
is  among  the  most  noticeable  gains  of  the  Labor 
party,  and  has  resulted  in  many  useful  reforms 
being  brought  about. 

In  New  South  Wales  there  has  thus  been 
secured  during  the  party's  existence  a  liberal 
Electoral  Act.  abolishing  plural  voting;  an  act 
to  allow  mining  on  private  property :  land  and 
income  taxes,  adjusting  taxation  more  equitably; 
a  Coal  Klines  Regulation  Act ;  a  Workshops  and 
Factories  Act ;  an  Amending  Land  Act  to  permit 
of  perpetual  leasing  in  lieu  of  outright  sale ;  an 
act  to  restrict  the  admission  of  colored  immi- 
grants ;  an  important  Navigation  Act :  an  Early 
Closing  Act,  applying  to  shops ;  an  Old-Age 
Pensions  Act :  an  act  to  nationalize  the  private 
wharves  of  Sydney;  the  Miners'  Accident  Re- 
lief Act,  designed  for  the  relief  ?nd  maintenance 
of  injured  miners  and  their  dependents;  the 
much-discussed  Industrial  Arbitration  Act.  pro- 
hibiting strikes  and  insisting  upon  the  reference 
of  disputes  to  the  decision  of  a  judicial  body, 
and  the  Women's  Franchise  Act. 

In  South  Australia  education  has  been  made 
free ;  the  State  has  established  a  successful  Pro- 
duce Export  Department ;  the  nucleus  of  a  State 
Bank  has  been  formed,  providing  cheap  loans 
to  settlers  ;  workmen  have  been  assisted  to  take 
up  land ;  adult  suffrage  has  been  passed ;  factory 
legislation  and  early  closing  of  shops  secured; 
wages  have  been  protected  against  liens ;  private 
estates  have  been  resumed  and  cut  up  for  settle- 
ment,  and  other  practical   measures   made   law. 

In  Victoria  the  party's  influence  has  secured, 
among  other  things,  improved  factory  legisla- 
tion, providing  for  boards  to  fix  minimum 
wages ;  compulsory  early  closing  of  shops ;  abol- 
ition of  plural  voting;  resumption  of  land  for 
closer  settlement,  and  cheap  money  for  farmers 
on  the  credit  fonder  system ;  minimum  wage  on 
government  contracts ;  State  supervision  of 
dairies ;  prohibition  of  secret  trade  commis- 
sions;  pure  food  laws;  exemption  of  tools  of 
trade  and  furniture  to  the  value  of  £20  from 
distraint  for  rent. 

In  Queensland  legislation  has  been  passed 
providing  for  the  early  closing  of  shops  ;  adult 
suffrage  and  equal  voting  power ;  workers'  com- 
pensation ;  State  supervision  of  exports ;  cheap 
advances  to  settlers,  and  the  readjustment  of 
taxation  in  favor  of  the  poorer  classes. 

In  West  Australia,  although  the  party  is  only 
a  few  years  in  existence,  the  record  includes 
adult  suffrage,  with  electorates  approaching 
equality ;  factory  laws  and  early  closing  of 
shops ;  compulsory  arbitration  in  industrial  dis- 
putes ;  prohibition  of  secret  commissions  in 
trade,  and  minimum  wages  on  government  con- 
tracts. 

With  the  inauguration  of  Federation  in  1901 
a  new  phase  was  entered  upon,  as  a  number  of 
the  most  important  governmental  functions  were 


AUSTRALIA  — THE  LABOR  PARTY 


transferred  from  State  to  Federal  control ;  and 
the  Labor  political  organizations  throughout 
Australia  agreed  to  a  common  platform  upon 
which  to  contest  the  first  Commonwealth  elec- 
tions.   It  ran  as  follows  : 

1.  Electoral  Law,  providing  for  one  adult  one  vote. 

2.  Total    exclusion    of    colored    and    other    undesirable 

races. 

3.  Old-Age  Pensions. 

4.  The    Constitution    to    be    amended    to    provide    for: 

(a)  The  Initiative  and  Referendum  for  the  alter- 
ation of  the  Constitution;  (b)  the  substitution  of 
the  National  Referendum  for  the  double  disso- 
lution in  the  settlement  of  deadlocks  between  the 
*      two  Houses. 

At  the  first  Federal  elections,  held  in  IQOI, 
the  Labor  party  returned  8  members  out  of  36 
in  the  Senate  and  16  out  of  75  in  the  House  of 
Representatives.  Three  years  later,  at  the  elec- 
tions of  1903,  the  numbers  were  increased  to  14 
in  the  Senate  and  22  in  the  House  of  Representa- 
tives. Since  then  the  number  in  the  latter  House 
has  been  increased  to  25.  Though  in  a  minor- 
ity in  both  Federal  Houses,  the  party  has  exer- 
cised a  considerable  influence  on  Commonwealth 
legislation.  In  the  first  Parliarnent  it  found  a 
fairly  progressive  government  in  office,  with  a 
programme  including  several  planks  of  the  La- 
bor platform,  and  some  of  these  found  expres- 
sion in  legislation.  Naturally  much  time  was 
occupied  in  passing  necessary  machinery  meas- 
ures, and  the  tarifif  discussion  alone  took  up 
nearly  18  months.  But  time  was  found  to  pass 
adult  suffrage  and  a  liberal  electoral  law.  The 
restriction,  amounting  practically  to  exclusion, 
of  colored  immigration  was  secured,  and  provis- 
ion made  for  the  cessation  of  the  traffic  in 
Kanaka  labor.  In  the  Public  Service  Act  a 
clause  was  inserted  providing  for  a  minimum 
v.'age  of  £110  yearly  for  adults  of  three  years' 
service.  When  the  Tariff  was  being  considered, 
the  Labor  party,  though  assuming  no  party  atti- 
tude on  Protection  or  Free  Trade,  led  the  way 
in  abolishing  or  reducing  revenue  taxes  through 
the  Customs,  and  later  it  headed  a  successful 
resistance  to  the  proposal  to  enter  upon  a  bor- 
rowing policy. 

At  the  second  general  election  the  Labor 
party  increased  its  strength  at  the  expense  of 
both  the  Protectionists  and  Free  Traders,  with 
the  result  that  when  the  Parliament  met  it  con- 
tained three  parties  nearly  equal  in  numbers. 
The  Protectionist  Government  resigned  through 
suffering  defeat  on  an  important  phase  of  the 
Industrial  Arbitration  Bill,  and  a  Labor  Govern- 
ment took  office.  After  a  few  months  it  was 
also  defeated  on  one  of  the  principles 
of  the  same  measure,  and  was  succeeded 
by  a  Coalition  Ministry  representing  Free 
Traders  and  Protectionists.  This  govern- 
ment passed  the  Arbitration  Bill  through  its 
remaining  stages,  but  on  again  meeting  Parlia- 
ment was  in  turn  defeated  by  a  combination  of 
Protectionists  with  the  Labor  partj^  Since  then 
measures  have  been  passed  to  prohibit  false  trade 
descriptions ;  to  render  illegal  the  acceptance  of 
secret  trade  commisssions ;  to  allow  of  the  pro- 
tection of  union  trade-marks  in  common  with 
those  of  the  trading  community;  and  dealing 
with  other  matters  of  importance. 

In  touching  thus  sketchily  upon  the  work  of 
the  various  Parliaments  of  Australia  since  the 
Labor  party  has  arisen,  the  writer  attempts  to  do 
no  more  than  indicate  the  trend  of  legislation 


as  affecting  the  working  classes  and  bearing 
upon  social  problems  generally.  In  both  the 
State  and  Federal  Parliaments,  during  the  time 
covered,  many  other  important  laws  have  been 
passed,  and  in  regard  to  these  the  Laborites  have 
borne  their  share  of  the  work  involved.  It  is, 
however,  to  the  Labor  party  that  credit  is  mainly 
due  for  the  quickening  of  the  public  conscience 
which  has  resulted  in  so  many  ameliorative 
measures  being  passed  in  a  comparatively  short 
period. 

The  Labor  party  has  been  accused  of  con- 
cerning itself  only  with  the  interests  of  the 
vi-orking  classes ;  but  gradually  it  is  being  recog- 
nized that  the  term  *Labor*  includes  brain  as 
well  as  hand  workers,  and  all  sympathizers  are 
welcomed  as  members  of  the  political  organiza- 
tions. The  Labor  parties  in  Parliament  include 
a  fair  sprinkling  of  professional  and  business 
men.  who  in  any  narrow  interpretation  would 
be  excluded.  There  is  no  doubt  that  much  of 
the  success  so  far  achieved  is  due  to  the  recog- 
nition of  the  fact  that  the  interests  of  all  pro- 
ducers are  identical  and  that  justice  must  be 
extended  to  all  equally. 

Much  has  been  said  about  the  socialism  of 
the  Australian  Labor  Party,  and  it  is  alluded  to 
by  some  as  a  recent  development.  That  is  not 
so,  as  there  has  been  no  change,  except  perhaps 
in  form,  in  the  aims  and  programme  as  first  put 
forward.  Leaving  aside  the  fact  that  nearly 
every  plank  of  the  original  platform  was  broadty 
socialistic  in  its  interference  with  individualism, 
distinct  aspirations  toward  collectivism  were 
voiced  in  the  first  declarations  of  the  party.  In 
Queensland  this  took  the  m.ost  pronounced  form, 
where  as  early  as  1890  the  council  of  the  Aus- 
tralian Labor  Federation,  having  decided  upon 
political  action,  put  forward  as  its  aim  **The 
nationalization  of  all  sources  of  wealth  and  all 
means  of  producing  and  exchanging  wealth.^* 
This  was  a  declaration  for  complete  socialism, 
but  the  organizations  in  the  other  colonies  re- 
fused to  go  that  distance.  The  New  South 
Wales  League  in  1890  adopted  a  proposal  for 
"the  extension  of  the  principle  of  the  Govern- 
ment acting  as  an  employer,  through  the  me- 
dium of  local  self-governing  bodies,"  and  thus 
committed  itself  to  socialistic  ideals.  In  some 
of  the  other  colonies  declarations  of  principle 
v\ere  considered  imnecessary,  and  the  platforms 
contained  no  direct  mention  of  socialism,  though 
many  of  the  detailed  proposals  were  of  a  social- 
istic character.  Later  on,  the  Queensland  or- 
ganization dropped  for  a  time  any  direct  refer- 
ence to  socialism,  but  continued  its  propaganda 
on  collective  lines.  In  1897  New  South  Wales 
adopted  as  a  plank  of  its  platform  "the  national- 
ization of  the  means  of  production,  distribution, 
and  exchange,'^  and  that  remained  on  the  pro- 
gramme until  1905,  when  it  was  struck  out.  At 
the  same  conference  a  statement  of  the  local 
party's  objective  was  agreed  to,  which  has  since 
been  adopted  by  an  Australian  conference  as  the 
objective  of  the  Federal  Labor  party,  and  may 
be  here  quoted:  «(i)  The  cultivation  of  an  Aus- 
tralian sentiment,  based  upon  the  maintenance 
of  racial  purity  and  the  development  in  Australia 
of  an  enlightened  and  self-reliant  community. 
(2)  The  securing  of  the  full  results  of  their 
industry  to  all  producers  by  the  collective  own- 
ership of  monopolies  and  the  extension  of  the 
industrial  and  economic  functions  of  the  State 
and  ^Municipality.*^ 


AUSTRALIA  — SOCIAL  CONDITIONS 


The  dropping  of  the  "whole  hog**  phmk  in 
favor  of  this  statement  of  aims  was  looked  upon 
as  a  retrograde  step  by  the  more  ardent  social- 
ists in  the  movement ;  but  it  appears  to  have  been 
dictated  by  common  sense.  The  platform  is 
theoretically  a  programme  for  realization  when 
the  party  gets  a  majority,  and  it  is  clearly  im- 
practicable to  attempt  to  carry  out  any  complete 
scheme  of  socialism  to-day.  Recognizing  this, 
the  party  declares  its  belief  in  socialistic  princi- 
ples, and  adjusts  its  programme  so  that  every 
step  taken  will  be  in  consonance  with  that  ideal. 
This  is  shown  in  the  platform  for  the  next  Fed- 
eral elections,  due  at  the  end  of  1906,  which  is 
as  follows : 

1.  Maintenance  of  a  white  Australia. 

2.  Nationalization   of   monopolies. 

3.  Old-age   pensions. 

4.  Tariff  referendum. 

5.  Progressive   tax   on    unimproved    land   values. 

6.  Restriction   of   public   borrowing. 

7.  Navigation   laws   (provision   for   manning,  etc.) 

8.  Citizen   defence   force. 

9.  .\rbitration  act  amendment   (ensuring  effectiveness). 

10.  Commonwealth    of    deposit    and    issue    and    life    and 

fire    insuiance    department. 

11.  Uniform    industrial    legislation;    amendm.ent    of   con- 

stitution  to    provide   for   same. 

12.  Civil  equality  of  men  and  women. 

This  platform  insists  that  monopolies  shall 
be  nationalized,  as  constituting  a  public  danger, 
and  the  Labor  party  expresses  its  disbelief  in  the 
efficacy  of  measures  designed  to  merely  regulate 
modern  trusts.  Under  its  objective  the  party 
will  embrace  every  opportunity  of  extending  the 
functions  of  collective  authority  where  it  is 
shown  to  be  practicable  and  of  value  to  the  com- 
munity. From  this  statement  of  the  position 
it  will  be  seen  that  the  Labor  party  is  undoubt- 
edly socialistic,  but  it  does  not  propose  to  plunge 
Australia  suddenly  into  any  experiment  of  a 
wholesale  character.  The  people  have  control 
in  respect  of  each  successive  step,  and  may  be 
relied  upon  to  call  a  halt  if  at  any  stage  failure 
is  experienced. 

On  the  whole,  the  Labor  party  throughout 
Australia  has  given  a  much-needed  impetus  to 
social  legislation ;  and,  in  reply  to  those  who 
urge  that  its  objects  and  methods  are  opposed  to 
the  welfare  of  the  community,  it  points  to  the 
fact  that  since  its  appearance  in  Australian  poli- 
tics wealth  has  found  a  wider  distribution;  hours 
have  been  shortened  and  wages  raised  in  many 
occupations  ;  sweating  has  been  minimized  ;  and 
that,  though  much  remains  to  be  done,  the  peo- 
ple enjoy  greater  prosperity  than  before  the 
advent  of  the  new  political  force. 

J.  C.  W.\TSON, 

Premier  of  Australia  1904. 

14.  Australia  —  Social  Conditions.  The 
social  conditions  of  a  country  may  be  considered 
from  different  points  of  view.  They  might  be 
considered  from  the  general  welfare  of  the  peo- 
ple, or  from  what  is  known  as  social  distinction 
in  society.  This  last  aspect  of  the  question  could 
be  disposed  of  in  a  few  words  so  far  as  Aus- 
tralia is  concerned.  The  people  mostly  belong 
to  the  great  class  of  honest  industry  in  one  for;n 
or  another.  The  large  majority  arc,  if  necessity 
requires,  willing  to  undertake  almost  any  kind 
of  work,  while  those  who  are  wealthy,  with  but 
few  exceptions,  prefer  useful  or  philanthropic 
.employment  to  a  life  of  idle  dissipation. 

The  common  weal  of  the  people  is  indicated 
by  the  fact  that  in  no  country  is  there  less  real 


poverty  than  in  Australia,  or  better  and  more 
systematic  organization  for  dealing  with  those 
few  persons  who  arc  in  need  of  temporary 
assistance.  No  one  is  ever  knowingly  allowed 
to  suffer  for  want  of  food.  The  State  does  not 
consider  it  to  be  its  duty  to  find  employment 
for  those  who  may  be  out  of  work,  but  in  the 
interest  of  humanity  it  always  provides  food 
for  those  in  want  of  it. 

It  has  been  said  that  the  happiest  people  are 
those  who  can  live  upon  the  products  of  their 
own  country.  Australia  offers  greater  possibil- 
ities for  such  happiness  than  almost  any  other 
land.  Cattle  and  sheep,  pigs,  and  poultry,  all 
kinds  of  grain,  vegetables  of  every  variety,  and 
nearly  all  known  fruits  are  easily  produced  by 
properly  applied  industry. 

Primary  Productions. —  Sir  George  Syden- 
ham Clarke,  G.  C.  M.  G.,  who  was  Governor  of 
Victoria  for  some  years,  recently  said:  «It  may 
be  taken  as  certain  that  where  the  averages  from 
primary  production  stand  high  the  country  is 
a  good  one.»  This  dictum  has  such  a  direct 
bearing  upon  the  condition  of  the  people  that 
the  comparisons  become  important.  According 
to  population  the  primary  production  in  Aus- 
tralia is  about  40  per  cent  greater  than  in 
Canada,  57  per  cent  greater  than  in  the  United 
States,  twice  as  great  as  in  Franco,  three  times 
as  great  as  in  England,  and  over  four  times  as 
great  as  in   Russia. 

The  productive  nature  of  the  soil  and  cli- 
mate has  a  great  deal  to  do  with  the  fact  that 
a  greater  nurnber  of  people  in  Australia,  in 
proportion  to  its  population,  enjoy  more  of  the 
comforts  and  pleasures  of  life  than  is  the  case 
in  many  other  parts  of  the  world.  The  people 
as  a  whole  are  better  housed,  fed,  and  clothed 
than  the  residents  of  most  other  countries. 
Cheap  houses  and  discomforts  arc  to  be  found 
in  Australia  as  elsewhere,  but  even  in  the  cities 
there  is  a  lack  of  the  poor  shanties  and  tene- 
ments which  are  so  noticeable  in  many  large 
cities  in   Europe,  Asia,   and  America. 

Educational  Advantages. —  No  one  question 
has  a  more  important  or  direct  bearing  upon  the 
social  conditions  of  the  people  than  that  of  edu- 
cation. No  country  has  better  facilities,  and 
but  few  as  good,  and  with  the  exception  of  some 
parts  of  America,  Australia  affords  as  good  an 
opportunity  for  secondary  and  advanced  educa- 
tion at  a  moderate  cost  as  any  other  country. 

Generally  speaking,  the  system  of  public  edu- 
cation is  free,  compu!sorj%  and  secular,  the 
whole  expense  being  met  out  of  the  general 
revenue.  The  greatest  care  is  taken  to  provide 
schools  in  every  part  of  the  country  as  well  as 
in  the  thickly  populated  cities,  and  in  some  of  the 
thinly  settled  districts,  schools  of  from  10  to  15 
children  are  established.  Fortunately,  Australia's 
educational  advancement  has  not  been  delayed 
by  sectarian  interference.  There  it  is  generally 
considered  that  a  country's  advancement  rests 
on  the  education  of  its  people,  and  that  as  na- 
tional education  is  a  national  gain,  the  nation's 
treasury  should  meet  the  bill.  Efforts  have  been 
made  from  time  to  time  by  zealous  propounders 
of  sectarian  beliefs,  to  incorporate  religious  in- 
struction with  the  Education  Acts  of  the  differ- 
ent States,  but  the  majority  of  the  people  are 
t-tronqly  opposed  to  any  form  of  State  aid  to 
religion.  They  feel  that  in  the  bitter  strife  for 
sectarian  supremacy  the  efficiency  of  the  schools 


AUSTRALIA  — SOCIAL  CONDITIONS 


would  become  impaired  and  the  practical  educa- 
tion of  the  children  neglected.  A  large  major- 
ity of  parents  take  advantage  of  the  public 
schools  for  their  children,  but  for  those  who 
object,  either  from  class  prejudice  or  religious 
scruples,  good  private  schools  are  available. 

The  technical  schools,  colleges  and  universi- 
ties afford  ample  facilities  for  higher  educa- 
tion. The  Australian  imiversities  stand  high  in 
the  educational  world.  Bj^  bequests,  endow- 
ments, and  grants  of  land  they  have  been  enabled 
to  provide  splendid  buildings  and  appliances, 
and  to  procure  able  and  learned  professors.  The 
degrees  conferred  are  recognized  and  respected 
in  other  lands.  No  one  need  leave  Australia 
to  become  well  versed  in  music,  medicine,  litera- 
ture, law,  or  science.  The  technical  schools 
have  been  especially  valuable  from  a  mining 
point  of  view,  and  many  of  those  who  have 
received  their  instruction  there  are  now  holding 
important  positions  on  mining  fields  in  Aus- 
tralia and  other  countries.  Nearly  1,300  public 
libraries  with  2,000,000  volumes  of  valuable  lit- 
erature are  a  great  help  to  those  who  have 
passed  on  beyond  school  life.  In  all  the  princi- 
pal cities  there  are  public  museums  and  art  gal- 
leries, which  are  largely  patronized,  and  have  an 
elevating  and  refining  influence.  See  Austr.\lia 
—  Education  ;  Education  —  National  Systems 

OF. 

Religious  Insiruction. —  The  secular  and  non- 
sectarian  nature  of  the  public  schools  does  not 
imply  that  the  religious  instruction  of  the  people 
is  neglected.  Churches  of  every  known  denomi- 
nation are  well  supported.  Sunday  schools. 
Christian  endeavor  societies,  and  young  men's 
and  young  women's  Christian  Associations  are 
well  attended,  and  all  doing  good  work,  while 
the  Salvation  Army  has  its  branches  stretching 
over  every  part  of  the  land,  and  is  to  be  com- 
mended for  its  tireless  endeavors  to  reclaim  the 
drunkard,  lift  up  the  oppressed,  and  to  bring 
back  to  the  paths  of  virtue  and  truth  those  who 
have  strayed  or  fallen  by  the  wayside.  Tem- 
perance organizations  of  various  kinds  have 
many  members,  and  are  a  powerful  factor  in 
preserving  the  better,  simpler,  and  purer  life  of 
the  community.     See  Australia  —  Religion. 

Government  Institutions. —  The  Governments 
of  the  different  States  look  after  the  poor,  the 
sick,  and  the  afflicted.  They  have  destitute 
homes  where  the  aged  are  properly  housed,  fed, 
and  cared  for.  They  have  hospitals  for  the 
sick,  where  those  who  cannot  afford  to  pay  are 
nursed,  and  attended  equally  with  those  who 
can.  Asylums  for  the  insane,  sanatoriums  for 
the  consumptive,  while  homes  for  incurables, 
and  schools  for  the  blind,  deaf  and  dumb  are 
either  supported  or  subsidized  by  the  Govern- 
ments. Genuine  workingmen,  if  unable  to  ob- 
tain employment,  are  allowed  to  do  certain  work 
to  pay  for  the  food  which  is  provided  for  them 
and  their  families.  Such  relief  is  of  a  tempor- 
ary character  until  more  permanent  employment 
is  secured. 

Benefit  societies  and  insurance  companies 
have  been  established  in  every  State,  and  num- 
ber their  members  by  many  thousands.  These 
have  a  marked  effect  in  encouraging  provident 
habits,  and,  with  the  temperance  societies,  are 
valuable  aids  in  teaching  frugality  and  modera- 
tion, which  are  notable  characteristics  in  the 
Australians. 


Some  of  the  States  have  adopted  a  system  of 
Old-age  pensions,  and  a  Royal  Commission  has 
recently  reported  favorably  on  a  scheme  for  the 
whole  Commonwealth. 

Out-door  Life. —  For  those  who  are  fond  of 
an  out-door  life  Australia. is  an  ideal  country. 
The  climate  is  such  that  one  can  practically 
spend  the  whole  year  in  the  open  air.  The  ad- 
vantages of  fresh  air  have  been  wisely  con- 
sidered by  those  who  had  to  do  with  laying  out 
cities  and  towns,  as  well  as  those  connected 
with  the  government  of  the  country.  Wide 
streets,  squares,  and  parks  are  to  be  found  in 
and  adjacent  to  all  the  cities,  while  large  tracts 
of  land  have  been  reserved  as  national  parks 
within  a  few  miles  of  the  centres  of  population. 

This  affords  every  opportunity  for  out-door 
sport  of  all  kinds.  Rowing,  football,  cricket, 
lacrosse,  golf,  baseball,  and  almost  all  other 
outside  games  have  numerous  patrons.  In  fact, 
games  and  sport  are  carried  on  so  extensively 
that  tourists  have  criticized  Australians  for  in- 
dulging so  much  in  them.  Numerous  holidays, 
reasonable  hours  for  work,  and  long,  fine  days 
offer  every  inducement.  Australians  are  de- 
cidedly a  sport-loving  people.  The  Melbourne 
Cup  is  one  of  the  world's  greatest  racing  events^ 
and  the  Flcmington  grounds  with  their  com- 
modious stands  and  extensive  lawns  are  unsur- 
passed in  any  part  of  the  world.  The  roads 
are  so  well  made  that  motoring  and  cycling 
are  greatly  indulged  in.  Many  residents  own' 
motors,  and  during  the  last  few  years  money 
has  become  so  plentiful  that  vehicles  for 
pleasure  have  been  purchased  in  large  numbers. 
Wealth  of  the  People. —  It  is  not  generally 
known  that  the  Australians  are  the  richest 
people  in  the  world,  except  the  residents  of 
England,  and  a  good  many  of  these  draw  their 
incomes  from  Australian  investments.  During 
the  present  year  (1906)  Australia  will  export 
produce  of  a  greater  value  than  ever  before. 
The  distribution  of  wealth  is  more  general  than 
in  most  other  parts  of  the  world.  Over  30  per 
cent  of  the  adult  population  are  possessors  of 
property,  while  in  England  only  about  12  per 
cent  of  the  adult  population  enjoy  that  privi- 
lege. There  are  1,100,000  depositors  in  the  sav- 
ings bank,  being  27  per  cent  of  the  entire  popu- 
lation, and  they  have  to  their  credit  $175,000,000, 
an  average  of  about  $160. 

Laii's  and  Socialism. —  Taking  an  active  and 
responsible  part  in  the  management  of  national 
affairs  has  a  moderating  effect  upon  most 
politicians,  and  to  a  large  degree  they  have 
recognized  the  responsibility  of  office  and  en- 
deavored  to   safeguard  the  country's  interest. 

The  voice  of  the  people  can  be  made  fully 
known  through  the  ballot-box.  The  judgment 
of  the  public  may  not  always  be  considered  the 
wisest  for  the  country's  advancement,  but  when 
the  error  is  discovered  the  same  power  that 
caused  it  can  apply  the  remedy.  The  Australiari 
Commonwealth  franchise  is  the  broadest  and 
most  liberal  possible.  Everyone  over  the  age 
of  21  (except  criminals  and  lunatics)  has  the 
right  to  vote.  In  some  of  the  State  elections  as 
well,  women  have  the  privilege.  There  were 
many  strongly  opposed  to  woman's  franchise. 
AH  the  arguments  about  taking  her  from  her 
home,  destroying  her  womanly  instincts,  caus- 
ing her  to  neglect  her  proper  duties,  etc.,  were 
indulged  in.     After  the  law  was  passed,   how- 


ABORICzIXAL   AUSTRALIAN   AND  AUSTRALASIAN  ART. 


i-S.  Clubs  from  the  Marquesas.  Islands. 
2,  9.  Carving  from  Hervey  Islands. 

3.  Shell  Ornament  from  the  Solomon  Islands 
4,  7,  14.  Carved  work  from  New  Guinei. 
5,  II,  13.  Obsidian  Lances. 


6.  Australian  Carving. 

8.  Steering  Oar,  from  New  Zealand. 
10.  New  Zealand  Pipe. 
12.  Australian  Carved  Ornament. 
16    Carved  Shield  from  New  Guinea. 


AUSTRALIA  — SOCIAL  CONDITIONS 


ever,  those  who  previously  opposed  it,  quickly 
realized  (especially  if  they  were  parliamentary 
candidates)  that  woman  was  highly  intelligent 
and  that  it  was  her  duty  in  the  interest  of  the 
country  to  vote. 

Australia's  socialism  has  grown  with  her 
people.  It  has  not  meant  the  destruction  of 
private  property.  The  State  railways,  harbors, 
water-works,  telegraphs,  telephones,  wharves,  ex- 
porting departments,  public  schools,  and  other 
tmdertakings,  have  naturally  followed  one  after 
the  other,  and  have  not  been  a  hardship  to  the 
capitalists,  but  have  rather  been  the  means  of 
allowing  them  to  invest  their  money  in  other 
undertakings  and  thereby  assist  in  opening  up 
the  pastoral,  agricultural,  and  mining  industries. 

Many  of  Australia's  laws  have  been  passed 
on  the  belief  that  the  Government  could  under- 
take certain  things  for  the  assistance  of  the 
people  at  less  expense  than  this  assistance  could 
be  carried  out  privately.  National  credit,  as  a 
rule,  is  much  better  than  individual  credit. 
IMoney  can  be  borrowed  by  the  State  and  lent 
to  producers  on  better  terms  than  it  can  be  bor- 
rowed by  private  people  for  that  purpose.  Under 
certain  laws  the  well-to-do  pastoralists,  as  well 
as  the  poorer  producer,  can  be  assisted.  It  is 
necessary  to  understand  Australian  life  to 
realize  the  need  for  assistance  to  pastoralists. 
The  Governments  own  most  of  the  lands ;  hun- 
dreds of  miles  of  which  are  let  on  lease  to 
pastoralists.  Wire  netting  has  been  found  to 
be  the  most  effective  means  of  protect- 
ing the  sheep  from  wild  dogs,  and  of 
keeping  the  rabbits  down.  For  the  lessee  on 
his  own  account  to  undertake  to  fence  his  lease- 
hold would  mean  an  expense  v.'hich  would  be  a 
heavy  burden  upon  him,  and  prevent  the  use  of 
his  capital  for  other  improvements ;  so  by  com- 
bining with  adjoining  lessees  they  form  a  ver- 
min trust,  and  apply  to  the  Government  for 
miles  of  wire  netting;  this  is  supplied  upon  the 
joint  security  of  the  lessees  and  they  repay 
the  Government,  with  interest,  in  instalments 
extending  over  a  number  of  year.s.  Large  sums 
have  been  lent  in  this  way.  and,  but  little  if  any 
loss  has  occurred,  and  it  has  been  the  means  of 
stocking  much  land  that  would  otherwise  have 
remained  idle.  The  Governments  also  assist  the 
farmers  by  loans  from  State  Banks  at  low  in- 
terest, a  long  term  of  years  being  allowed  for 
repayments.  Blockers,  who  only  have  a  few 
acres,  are  also  assisted,  and  under  certain  con- 
ditions they  borrow  from  the  Government  to 
help  build  their  houses  and  carry  out  other  im- 
provements. All  these  loans  are  on.ly  granted 
on  business  principles,  after  the  officers  of  the 
Land  Departments  have  made  full  inquiries  as 
to  necessary  security.  The  Governments  also 
largely  assist  in  exporting  produce  and  finding 
outside  markets.  This  business  is  conducted  on 
commercial  lines,  certain  charges  being  made  for 
the  storage,  freezing,  and  work  done.  If  the 
producer  is  in  need  of  ready  money  before  his 
goods  are  disposed  of  an  advance  is  made  by 
the  Government.  All  this  may  be  considered 
Socialistic ;  however,  upon  a  moment's  reflection 
it  will  be  seen  that  it  is  only  an  assistance  to 
further  stimulate  individual  enterprise  and  ef- 
fort. It  has  carried  many  a  struggling  producer 
over  early  years  of  hardship,  and  probably  saved 
his  property  for  his  family   when  under  other 


circumstances  it  might  have  gone  into  the  hands 
of  the  mortgagee. 

Charges,  Rates,  Taxes. —  Railway  charges 
are,  if  anything,  less  than  on  the  roads  owned 
and  worked  by  private  companies  in  other 
countries.  The  conveniences  for  traveling  are 
good.  The  Government  control  of  water-works 
and  sewage  systems  for  the  large  cities  has 
proved  economical  and  satisfactory.  The  land- 
tax  i.s  not  heavy  enough  to  be  burdensome. 
Municipal  and  local  rates  are  low  in  comparison 
with  Englan(l.  The  total  rates  in  the  Australian 
cities,  including  water  rates,  on  property  worth 
$500  per  annum,  would  be  from  $50  to  $100, 
v.diile  in  and  around  London  it  would  be  from 
$150  to   $300. 

Employer  and  Employee— Tht  relations  be- 
tween the  employer  and  the  employee  are 
generally  harmonious;  occasionally  disputes 
may  arise  but  they  are  nearly  always  settled 
without  those  long  strikes  which  result  in  heavy 
loss  to  both  resisting  forces  and  engender  so 
much  bitterness  of  feeling.  The  employers  as  a 
rule  pay  good  wages,  the  hours  worked  are 
short,  and  the  employees  are  provided  with 
favorable  sanitary  and  safety  conditions.  Being 
thus  satisfied  that  their  treatment  is  just,  they  in 
their  turn  do  their  best  to  give  full  value  in  their 
work  for  the  wages  they  receive. 

Literature,  Art,  and  Song. —  According  to 
Mr.  Coghlan,  who  is  a  statistical  authority,  Aus- 
tralia has  as  large  a  number  of  first-class  news- 
papers, considering  its  population,  as  any  other 
country  in  the  world,  while  in  the  matter  of 
letter-writing  the  only  two  countries  that  sur- 
pass it  are  the  United  States  and  England. 

That  Australians  have  a  taste  for  literature 
cannot  be  denied ;  what  they  read  may  not  al- 
ways be  of  the  highest  standard,  and  what  they 
write  may  sometimes  lack  artistic  finish,  but 
one  must  recollect  that  theirs  is  comparatively  a 
new  country.  Its  real  growth  has  taken  place 
during  the  last  50  years.  Other  countries  have 
not  risen  rapidly  to  literary  fame.  The  first 
settlements  of  America  were  made  two  centur- 
ies before  the  world  had  the  benefit  of  Irving, 
Longfellow,  Emerson,  or  Lowell.  England's 
men  of  letters  were  not  numerous  or  renowned 
until  man}'  generations  had  passed  away. 

While  in  literature  Australia  may  not  up 
to  the  present  have  produced  writers  of  marked 
distinction,  yet  there  are  those  of  more  or  less 
note  whose  productions  are  of  no  small  merit, 
and  who  have  thrown  the  bright  sunshine  and 
free  life  into  their  work.  The  same  ma\'  be 
said  of  art.  While  no  one  person  stands  out  as  a 
producer  of  highly  valuable  pictures  there  are 
several  who  have  the  true  artist's  spirit,  and 
have  made  creditable  displays  at  the  Royal 
Academy  in  London  and  the  Salons  of  Paris. 
But  when  one  considers  musical  artists,  Austra- 
lia has  no  need  to  feel  ashamed.  With  the 
climatic  conditions  it  naturally  follows  that 
those  who  are  musically  inclined  have  suc- 
ceeded ;  and  to-day,  in  proportion  to  her  popu- 
lation, y\ustralia  is  stated  to  have  more 
prominent  musical  talent  of  world-wide  repu- 
tation than  any  other  English-speaking  country. 

Taking  the  residents  of  Australia  as  a  whole 
they  are  a  happy,  prosperous,  and  contented 
people.  They  have  of  course  the  political  and 
theological  differences  which  are  common  to  all 


AUSTRALIA  — SOCIAL  CONDITIONS 


nations.  The  leaders  of  public  thought  en- 
deavor to  convince  by  reason,  not  by  force. 
Occasional  dissatisfaction  is  expressed.  It  is 
questionable,  all  things  considered,  whether  any 
country  in  the  world  is  more  congenial  as  a 
place  of  residence  for  the  following  reasons : 
The  death-rate  is  lower,  the  primary  production 
is  greater,  the  wages  are  higher,  the  standard  of 
living  is  better,  the  houses  are  more  substantial, 
and  surrounded  with  more  land,  the  hours  of  labor 
are  shorter,  telegraphic  communication  is 
cheaper,  the  weather  is  brighter,  the  laws  more 


liberal,  the  wealth  more  evenly  distributed,  and 
class  distinctions  fewer  than  in  almost  any  other 
country. 

Besides  all  this,  Australia,  in  the  matter  of 
language,  is  more  English  than  England  or 
America.  One  can  hear  more  foreign  languages 
spoken  in  New  York  or  London  in  a  day  than 
could  be  heard  in  Australia  in  a  year. 

John  G.  Jenkins, 
Agcnt-Gcncral  for  South  Australia,  and  Pre- 
mier 1901-1905. 


AUSTRALIA 


Austra'lia,  South,  one  of  the  original 
states  in  the  Commonweahh  of  Australia.  It 
occupies  the  middle  of  Australia,  and  at  first, 
as  the  colony  of  South  Australia,  extended  be- 
tween Ion.  132°  and  141°  E.,  and  from  the  South- 
ern Ocean  to  lat.  26°  N.,  having  then  an  area 
of  about  300,000  square  miles.  In  1861  a  dis- 
trict lying  to  the  west  of  the  colony  was  added 
to  it,  so  tliat  its  western  boundary  was  shifted 
to  the  nieridian  of  129°.  In  1863  it  received 
in  addition  the  country  between  its  northern 
boundary  and  the  opposite  coast  (this  portion 
being  now  known  as  the  Northern  Territory), 
so  that  South  Australia  now  possesses  a  terri- 
tory extending  across  Australia,  and  occupying 
an  area  estimated  at  903,690  square  miles.  It  is 
bounded  on  the  east  by  Victoria,  New  South 
Wales,  and  Queensland;  on  the  west  by  West- 
ern Australia.  Its  greatest  length  from  north 
to  south  is  1,850  miles,  and  its  width  650  miles. 
The  south  coast,  for  the  first  120  miles  east  of 
where  it  begins  at  Port  Eucla,  is  backed  by 
steep  limestone  ranges  from  400  to  600  feet  in 
height,  but  as  a  whole  the  coast  is  low  and 
desolate-looking.  In  a  straight  line  from  Port 
Eucla  on  the  west  to  Cape  Northumberland,  near 
the  boundary  01  Victoria,  the  distance  is  850 
miles,  but  the  coast-line  between  these  points  ex- 
tends to  nearly  twice  that  distance,  owing  to  the 
indentations  of  Spencer  Gulf  and  the  Gulf  of  St. 
Vincent.  Opposite  the  latter  is  Kangaroo  Is- 
land, the  largest  island  on  the  Australian  coast, 
excepting  Tasmania.  The  coast  of  the  Northern 
Territory  is  thickly  strewn  with  islands,  three  of 
which  are  of  large  size.  There  are  also  some 
excellent  ports,  one  of  these,  Port  Darwin,  where 
the  overland  telegraph  and  the  cable  from  Ba- 
tavia  r.nd  the  East  meet,  being  among  the  finest 
harbors  in  Australia.  On  the  eastern  side  of  the 
Gulf  of  St.  Vincent  lie  the  most  populous  por- 
tions of  the  state,  and  here  is  situated  Adelaide, 
the  state  capital. 

The  interior  formation  of  South  Australia 
widely  differs  from  that  of  the  more  eastern 
states.  The  mountains  here  run  from  the  sea 
to  the  interior,  ending  somewhat  abruptly  among 
the  lakes.  The  principal  chain,  the  Mount 
Lofty  range,  begins  at  Cape  Jervis,  and  follows 
the  shore  of  the  Gulf  of  St.  Vincent  past  Ade- 
laide, meeting  at  the  head  of  the  gulf,  the  ridges 
forming  the  backbone  of  Yorke  Peninsula.  The 
range  still  running  north  is  called  Flinders 
range,  and  ends  in  a  wide  mass  of  mountain 
3,000  feet  high,  separating  the  lakes  Torrens. 
Eyre,  Frome,  and  Blanche.  All  these  so-called 
lakes  are  huge  expanses  of  salt  water,  swamp, 
and  mud.  On  the  west  of  Spencer  Gulf  is 
Eyre  Peninsula,  through  the  heart  of  which  runs 
the  Gavvler  range,  attaining  an  elevation  of  2,000 
feet,  and  ending  on  the  shores  of  another  series 
of  lakes  of  the  same  character  as  Lake  Torrens. 
The  principal  summits  of  the  Mount  Lofty 
range  are  Razor-back,  in  latitude  s^°  20',  and 
immediately  north  of  it  Mount  Bryan,  close  to 
which  is  the  celebrated  Burra-Burra  copper 
mine.  The  highest  peaks  of  the  Flinders  range 
are  Mount  Remarkable,  3,179  feet,  Brown  3,174 
feet,  and  Arden  3,000  feet.  None  of  the  peaks 
in  the  Gawler  range  attain  more  than  a  mod- 
erate elevation.  On  the  left  bank  of  the  Mur- 
ray, and  near  its  mouth,  a  range  of  moderately 
elevated  heights  proceed  south-southeast,  skirt- 
ing the  coast  to  its  extremity  near  Cape  North- 
umberland.    Throughout  these  ranges  the  exist- 


ence of  volcanic  agency  at  a  former  period  is 
everywhere  apparent.  The  Warburton  range 
and  the  Stuart  ranges  lie  beyond  and  to  the 
north  and  west  of  the  lakes;  further  north  on 
the  Tropic  of  Capricorn,  are  the  MacDonnell 
ranges,  rising  to  a  height  of  4.000  feet,  from 
which  the  extreme  western  affluents  of  the  Lake 
Eyre  River  system  take  their  rise.  The  other 
portions  of  the  territory  to  the  north  and  west 
are  almost  level,  and  consist  of  either  waterless 
plains  or  plains  of  sandstone  boulders,  with  des- 
ert grass  and  spinifex. 

Among  the  mountains  east  of  Gulf  of  St. 
Vincent,  primitive  limestone,  often  in  the  form 
of  a  beautiful  white  marble,  is  very  abundant. 
There  are  indications  of  a  large  variety  of  min- 
erals throughout  the  state,  but  copper  is  the  only 
one  that  has  been  met  with  in  large  quantities, 
the  total  production  to  the  end  of  1899  being 
valued  at  £23,000.000.  Gold  has  been  found  in 
various  places,  but  the  quantity  won  has  been 
small.  In  the  Northern  Territory  gold  has  also- 
been  ^ound  over  a  considerable  tract  of  country, 
and  good  progress  has  been  made  in  mining, 
while  other  minerals  are  known  to  exist.  Al- 
most the  only  stream  within  the  state  proper, 
which  deserves  the  name  of  river,  is  the  Mur- 
ray, which  enters  the  colony  on  the  east  in  lat- 
itude 34°.  and  flows  first  circuitously  west  and 
then  south,  into  the  extensive  lagoon  called  Lake 
Alexandrina,  communicating  with  the  sea  by  a 
narrow  opening.  During  the  rainy  season  it  is 
navigable  by  steamers  through  its  whole  course 
within  the  state,  and  for  1,500  miles  in  New 
South  Wales.  In  the  Northern  Territory  the 
Roper  River  is  a  fine  large  stream,  navigable 
for  sea-going  vessels  for  100  miles  from  its 
mouth  in  the  Gulf  of  Carpentaria ;  the  \'ictoria 
is  also  navigable.  The  climate  of  South  Aus- 
tralia proper  greatly  resembles  that  of  Sicily  and 
Naples.  During  nine  months  of  the  year  it  is 
agreeable,  the  disagreeable  portion  of  the  year 
being  the  three  summer  months  of  December, 
January,  and  Februar}^  when  the  natural  heat  of 
the  season  is  greatly  increased  by  hot  winds^ 
from  the  interior.  What  is  called  winter  would 
be  considered  in  England  merelj^  a  wet  autumn. 
There  are  no  epidemic  diseases.  Scrofulous  and 
tubercular  diseases  are  rare,  but  diseases  of  the 
eyes  are  common  in  summer,  being  either  occa- 
sioned by  the  impalpable  dust  floating  in  the 
atmosphere,  or  by  exposure  to  the  night  air  after 
the  glare  of  the  sun. 

South  Australia  produces  nearly  all  the  fruits 
and  vegetables  that  are  cultivated  in  Europe, 
as  well  as  others,  but  in  temperate  regions  is 
chiefly  distinguished  as  a  wheat  and  grape- 
growing  country.  Besides  supplying  its  own 
wants,  it  sends  large  quantities  of  wheat  to  the 
neighboring  states  and  to  Europe,  where  *'Ade- 
laide'^  wheat  is  held  in  high  estimation.  The 
area  under  wheat  is  about  1.750,000  acres.  The 
quantity  produced  varies  greatly  with  the  sea- 
son, but  the  average  production  is  six  bushels 
per  acre.  The  area  under  vineyards  is  gradually 
extending,  and  now  approaches  20.000  acres. 
Brandy  is  produced  as  well  as  wine.  Hop- 
growing  is  attracting  some  attention,  and  the 
olive  is  also  cultivated.  The  value  of  the  ex- 
ports of  the  state  is  £7.100,000,  and  of  the  im- 
ports £7,300,000,  total  £14.400.000.  The  chief 
exports  are  wool,  wheat,  flour,  copper,  and  cop- 
per ore,  skins,  etc.  The  value  of  the  wool  ex- 
ported   'T    generally    about    £1,000,000,    and    of 


AUSTRALIA  — AUSTRALIAN  BALLOT 


wheat  and  flour  from  £800,000  to  £1,500,000,  ac- 
cording to  the  season.  The  trade  of  a  large  part 
of  New  South  Wales  passes  through  South  Aus- 
tralia. The  revenue  and  expenditures  are  each 
about  £2r/OO.ooo.  The  length  of  raihvaj'S  is 
1,800  miles.  There  is  a  complete  system  of  tele- 
graphs, besides  the  great  line  from  Adelaide 
across  the  continent  to  Port  Darwin,  a  distance 
of  2.000  miles.  The  public  debt  of  the  state  is 
£24,309.035,  and  has  been  mostlj^  incurred  for 
reproductive  public  works.  See  Australia  ; 
Australian"  Federatiox. 

Austra'lia,   Western,   one    of   the    original 
states  in  the  Commonwealth  of  Australia.     It  in- 
cludes that    portion   of   Australia   west    of   Ion. 
129°    E.,  and  is  bounded,  east  by   South   Aus- 
tralia, and  northwest,  and  south  by  the  Indian 
Ocean.     It  lies  between  the  parallels  of   13°  30' 
and  35°  8'  S. ;  greatest  length,  1,450  miles  north 
to    south ;    greatest    breadth,    850    miles :    area, 
975,920   square   miles.     The  coast-line   measures 
about  3,000  miles,   and,   except  on   the   south  is 
indented   bj'  numerous  bays,   creeks,   and  estua- 
ries.    The  coast  is  fringed  by  many  islands,  but 
none   of    any    importance.     The   principal    inlets 
are     Cambridge    Gulf,     Admiralty    Gulf,    York 
Sound,     Collier     Bay.     King     Sound,     Roebuck 
Bay,    Exmouth    Gulf,     Shark    Bay,     Geographe 
Bay,    and    King    George    Sound,    the    last    the 
most     important     as     having     Albany     on     its 
shore,   the   port   of  call    for   the   European  mail 
steamers.     The    chief    rivers    are    the    Ord    and 
Fitzroy  on  the  north,  De  Grey,  Ashburton,  For- 
tescue,  Gascoign,  Murchison,  Greenough.  Swan, 
and  Blackwood  on  the  west.     The  Swan  River  is 
important,  as    Perth,   the  capital,   is  situated  on 
its  banks.     Some  of  the  rivers  within  the  tropics 
are  large  and  navigable,  but   few  of  the  others 
run  all  the  year,  and  fewer  still   are  navigable 
■even   for  boats  to  any  great  distance.     The  in- 
terior was  till  recent  years  not  well  known,  but 
at  present  there  is  little  territory  which  has  not 
been  explored.     The  country  is  chiefly  an  alter- 
nation  of   ridges    and    hollows,    sandy,    without 
grass,    and    clothed    with    bushes    and    scrubby 
timber,  without  the  trace  of  a  water-course.    The 
really   settled  and  occupied  portion  of  the  state 
forms   only  a   mere   fraction  of  its   whole  area. 
The  population  is  mostly  collected  in  the  south- 
west   corner,    where   the   first    settlements    were 
Tnade,  and  around  the  recently  discovered  gold 
reefs.     Scattered    settlements   stud   the    coast    at 
various  points.     On  the  west  coast  are  extensive 
banks  covered  with  the  pearl  oyster,  which  give 
employment  to  a  fleet  of  boats.     The  Kimberley 
di.strict  in  the  north  is  a  region  of  great  promise ; 
it    comprises    20.000,000    acres    of    well-watered 
land  intersected  by  the  Fitzroy  River  and  other 
large  streams,  and  is  said  to  be  admirably  adapt- 
ed for  pastoral  purposes,  besides  having  a  large 
area  suitable  for  the  cultivation  of  sugar,  coffee, 
and  rice.     The  greater  part  of  the  seaboard,  ex- 
cept along  the  Australian  bight,  is  separated  from 
the  interior  by  a  low  range  of  hills  running  par- 
allel to  it,  and  covered  with  forests.     The  fertile 
land  exists   in  patches,  and   some  of  it  is   of  a 
very    rich    character.     The    principal    crops    are 
wheat,  barley,  hay,  and  potatoes ;  the  vine  is  also 
successfully    cultivated,    and    excellent    wine    is 
made  in  the  colony.     The  area  under  cultivation 
comprises   about   140,000  acres,   of  which  wheat 
occupies    42,000    acres,    hay    84,000    acres,    vines 
2,750   acres.     The  live  stock   in   1899  numbered 


2.210,000  sheep,  245,000  cattle,  62,000  horses,  be- 
sides a  large  number  of  camels,  pigs,  goats,  and 
poultry.  An  available  area  of  1,000  square 
miles  is  covered  with  jarrah  forests.  The  jar- 
rah  is  a  species  of  eucalyptus  (E.  marginata)  ; 
its  timber  is  in  great  request  for  railway  sleepers, 
for  building  purposes,  and  especially  for  marine 
constructions,  having  the  valuable  property  of 
resisting  the  attacks  of  the  white  ant  on  land 
and  the  ship  worm  at  sea.  Considerable  areas 
in  the  southwest  are  covered  with  karri  (E. 
diversicolor).  There  are  also  numerous  for- 
ests of  sandalwood  trees,  the  timber  of  which  is 
exported  in  large  quantities,  chiefly  to  China  for 
incense  purposes.  Flowers  and  fruits  from  all 
quarters  of  the  globe  grow  luxuriantly.  Among 
the  fruits  successfully  cultivated  are  apples, 
pears,  oranges,  peaches,  plums,  apricots,  figs,  al- 
monds, bananas,  olives,  etc.  English  vegetables 
may  be  profitably  cultivated  at  almost  all  sea- 
sons. Bees  thrive  and  produce  abundant  stores 
of  honey. 

The  mineral  resources  of  the  state  are  not 
yet  fully  known.  Gold  has  been  discovered  in 
large  quantities,  and  Western  Australia  is  now 
the  chief  gold-producing  state  of  Australia,  the 
Coolgardie  gold  fields  being  among  the  most  pro- 
ductive. In  1899  the  gold  exported  had  the 
value  of  £6,246,731.  Lead  and  copper  exist 
abundantly,  and  several  mines  are  in  operation. 
Iron  ore  might  be  raised  in  almost  inexhaust- 
ible quantities,  and  tin  also  exists.  The  gold 
discoveries  have  formed  an  epoch  in  the  history 
of  the  state,  and  trade  and  population  have  re- 
cently increased  very  rapidly.  The  imports, 
which  in  1887  were  valued  at  £830,000,  amounted 
in  1899  to  £4,474,000,  the  exports  in  the  latter 
year  being  £6,985,000.  Besides  gold  the  exports 
include  wool,  jarrah  and  karri  timber,  sandal- 
wood, pearls,  pearl  shells,  tin  ore,  skins,  etc. 
The  revenue  has  grown  enormously.  In  1881  it 
was  £206,205;  in  1891.  £497,670;  and  in  1898, 
£2,754,747.  The  public  debt  is  £9.203,738,  equal 
to  £53  i6s.  8d.  per  inhabitant.  There  are  about 
1,400  miles  of  railway  open.  The  principal 
towns  are  Perth,  the  capital,  and  Fremantle, 
which  is  the  chief  port.  The  first  part  of  the 
state  settled  was  the  southwest  corner,  long 
known  as  the  Swan  River  Settlement,  estab- 
lished in  1829.  From  1850  to  1868  it  was  a 
place  for  the  transportation  of  convicts.  In  1890 
the  state  received  a  system  of  responsible  gov- 
ernment similar  to  that  prevailing  in  the  other 
colonies  of  Australia. 

Austra'lian  Alps,  a  range  of  mountains  in 
the  southeast  of  Australia,  extending  over  a 
length  of  about  400  miles.  The  highest  peaks 
are  in  New  South  Wales,  and  the  highest,  ac- 
cording to  Lendenfeld,  is  Mount  Townshend 
(7.353  feet),  belonging  to  a  group  which  he 
calls  the  Kosciusko  group.  The  peaks  next  in 
height  belong  to  the  Bogong  group  in  Victoria, 
and  the  west  of  the  Mitta  Mitta.  the  highest  of 
which  is  Mount  Bogong  (6,508  feet).  They  do 
not  reach  the  snow  line,  though  snow  lies  in 
the  higher  valleys  all  the  summer.  Geological- 
ly, the  Australian  Alps  are  composed  mainly  of 
very  ancient  metamorphic  rocks,  which  have 
been  worn  down  in  the  course  of  ages  to  table- 
lands, and  which  slope  down  rather  steeply  on 
all  sides.  Volcanic  rocks  cover  the  table-land 
to  the  south  of  Mount  Bogong. 

Austra'lian  Bal'lot.     See  Ballot. 


AUSTRALIAN    FEDERATION —  AUSTRIA 


Australian  Federation,  the  political  union 
of  the  five  Australian  colonies,  together  with 
Tasmania.  The  first  convention  looking  to  this 
end  was  held  at  Hobart  in  January  1886.  The 
colonies  represented  were  Victoria,  Queensland, 
Tasmania,  Western  Australia,  and  Fiji.  An- 
other conference  took  place  in  1891,  at  Sydney, 
New  South  Wales,  attended  by  delegates  from 
each  of  the  colonies.  A  plan  of  federal  gov- 
ernment was  proposed,  resembling  in  many  of 
its  features  that  of  the  United  States.  A  draft 
bill  to  constitute  the  Commonwealth  of  Austra- 
lia was  adopted  by  the  convention,  and  it  was 
agreed  to  submit  it  to  the  approval  of  the  in- 
dividual legislatures  of  the  several  colonies. 
This  bill  met  with  success  in  the  lower  branch 
of  but  one  colonial  legislature  —  that  of  Vic- 
toria. In  January  1895  there  was  a  conference 
of  premiers  of  five  colonies  at  Hobart,  and  the 
Legislative  Assembly  of  New  South  Wales 
passed  a  federal  enabling  act  in  November  of 
that  year,  and  notice  of  motion  was  given  in 
other  legislatures  to  bring  in  a  similar  bill. 
The  first  practical  step  was  taken  in  1898.  A 
convention  of  representatives  of  New  South 
Wales,  Victoria,  Tasmania,  South  Australia, 
and  Western  Australia,  succeeded  in  drafting  a 
constitution,  which  was  submitted  to  the  popu- 
lar vote  of  each  of  those  colonies  in  June.  The 
constitution  provided  for  a  governor-general,  ap- 
pointed by  the  Crown ;  a  federal  parliament, 
composed  of  the  Crown,  represented  by  the  gov- 
ernor-general, a  Senate,  and  a  House  of  Repre- 
sentatives. The  powers  of  the  parliament  were 
set  forth  in  39  articles,  and  covered  trade  with 
other  countries,  taxation,  coinage,  weights  and 
measures,  foreign  corporations,  pensions,  arbi- 
tration, etc.  Free  trade  between  the  states  was 
recognized.  By  the  terms  of  the  plebiscite,  an 
affirmative  vote  of  substantially  one  third  of  the 
electors  of  New  South  Wales,  and  of  one  fifth 
of  the  electors  of  each  of  the  other  colonies,  was 
required  to  adopt  this  constitution.  But  the  elec- 
tion returns  in  June  were  fatal  to  the  scheme. 
While  the  majorities  in  the  four  lesser  colonies 
were  overwhelmingly  in  favor  of  the  constitu- 
tion, the  requisite  affirmative  vote  in  New  South 
Wales  was  not  obtained. 

On  2  Feb.  1899,  a  unanimous  agreement  was 
reached  by  the  colonial  premiers  in  conference 
at  Melbourne,  regarding  the  unsettled  questions 
referred  to  them  by  the  colonial  legislatures, 
thus  insuring  the  success  of  the  federation  pro- 
ject. In  1900,  a  bill  making  federation  effective 
was  introduced  into  Parliament,  at  London,  and 
passed,  the  only  amendment  offered  having  re- 
ference to  the  royal  prerogative.  Later  in  that 
year  the  Earl  of  Hopetoun  was  appointed  by  the 
queen  first  governor-general.  He  resigned  in 
May  1902. 

Austrasia,  as-tra'shia  (the  East  Kingdom), 
the  name  given,  under  the  Merovingians,  to  the 
Eastern  possessions  of  the  Franks,  embracing 
Lorraine,  Belgium,  and  the  right  bank  of  the 
Rliine.  These  districts,  thickly  inhabited  by 
Franks,  w^ere  of  great  importance  at  the  time  of 
the  rise  of  the  Frankish  power. 

Aus'tria  (from  the  German  Oestreich  or 
Oesterreich,  eastern  empire),  or  Austria- 
HcjNGARY,  the  collective  designation  of  several 
states  of  central  Europe,  consisting  of  two  semi- 
iudependent  countries,  each  with  its  own  par- 
liament and  government,  but  with  one  common 
Vol.  2—8. 


sovereign,  army,  and  system  of  diplomacy,  and 
also  with  a  common  parliament. 

History  of  the  Country  till  the  Year  982. — 
After  the  Romans  had  vanquished  the  Noricans, 
SS  A.D.,  and  gained  possession  of  the  Danube, 
the  country  north  of  the  Danube,  extending 
to  the  borders  of  Bohemia  and  Moravia  be- 
longed to  the  kingdom  of  the  Marcomanni  and 
Quadi ;  a  part  of  lower  Austria  and  Styria,  with 
Vienna  (Vindobona),  a  municipal  city  of  the 
Roman  empire,  belonged  to  upper  Pannonia ; 
the  rest  of  the  country,  with  Carinthia  and  a 
part  of  Carniola,  formed  a  portion  of  Noricum. 
Gorz  belonged  to  the  Roman  province  of  Illy- 
ricum,  and  Tyrol  to  Rhaetia.  These  lim-ts  be- 
came confused  by  the  irruptions  of  the  barba- 
rians. The  Boii,  Vandals,  Heruli,  Rugii,  Goths. 
Huns,  Lombards,  and  Avars,  in  the  course  of  the 
5th  and  6th  centuries,  successively  occiipied 
the  country.  But  after  the  year  568,  when  the 
Lombards  had  established  their  power  in  upper 
Italy,  the  River  Ens  formed  the  boundary  line 
between  the  German  tribe  of  Bajuvarii,  the  pro- 
prietors of  the  territory  above  the  Ens,  and  the 
Avars,  who  had  removed  from  the  east  to  the 
banks  of  that  stream.  In  611  the  Wendi,  a 
Slavonic  tribe,  appeared  on  the  Murr,  Drave, 
and  Save.  In  788  the  duchy  of  Bavaria  was 
dissolved,  and  the  Avars  passed  over  the  Ens 
and  invaded  the  counties  of  the  Franks  in  the 
Bavarian  territory.  In  791  Charlemagne  forced 
them  to  retire  to  the  Raab,  and  united  the  ter- 
ritory extending  from  the  Ens  to  the  junction  Oi" 
the  Raab  with  the  Danube  (the  territory  below 
the  Ens)  with  Germany,  under  the  name  of 
Avaria,  or  the  Eastern  Mark  (Marchia  Orien- 
talis),  or  Austria;  and  in  the  loth  century  (in 
a  document  of  Otho  III.  996)  it  was  called 
Ostirrichi,  equivalent  to  the  modern  Oester- 
reich. Many  colonists,  particularly  from  Ba- 
varia, were  sent  by  Charlemagne  into  the  new 
province,  and  a  margrave  was  appointed  to  ad- 
minister the  government.  The  archbishop  of 
Salzburg  was  at  the  head  of  ecclesiastical  af- 
fairs. After  its  separation  from  Verdun,  in 
843,  Avaria  formed  the  east  boundary  of  the 
German  empire.  On  the  invasion  of  Germany 
by  the  Hungarians,  in  900,  Avaria  fell  into  their 
hands,  and  was  held  by  them  till  955,  when  the 
Emneror  Otho  I.,  in  consequence  of  the  victory 
of  Augsburg,  reunited  a  great  part  of  this  prov- 
ince to  the  empire.  By  the  power  and  address 
of  its  margraves  the  whole  country  was  joined 
again  with  Germany,  and  in  1043,  under  the 
Emperor  Henry  III.  and  the  Margrave  Albert 
I.  (the  Victorious),  its  limits  were  extended  to 
the  Leitha. 

Austria  under  the  House  of  Bamberg  till 
1282. —  From  982  to  11 56  the  margraviate  of 
Austria  was  hereditary  in  the  family  of  the 
counts  of  Badenburg  (Bamberg)  ;  the  succes- 
sion, however,  was  not  regulated  by  primogeni- 
ture, but  by  the  will  of  the  emperor.  In  ancient 
documents  mention  is  made  of  the  estates  of 
Austria  in  the  year  1096.  After  Henry  the 
Proud  (Duke  of  Bavaria  and  Saxony)  was  put 
under  the  ban  of  the  empire,  Leopold  V..  mar- 
grave of  Austria,  received  the  duchy  of  Bavaria 
in  1 138  from  the  Emperor  Conrad.  But  when 
the  Margrave  Henry,  son  of  Leopold,  under  the 
title  of  Ja-so-mir-Gott  (Yes-so-me-God),  had 
again  ceded  it,  in  1156,  to  Henry  the  Lion,  the 
boundaries  of  Austria  were  extended  so  as  to 
include   the   territory   above   the    Ens,    and   tht 


AUSTRIA 


whole  was  oreatea  a  duchy  with  certain  privi- 
jeges.  Under  this  Duke  the  court  resided  at 
Vienna.  Duke  Leopold  VI.,  the  son  of  Henry, 
received  the  duchy  of  Styria  in  1192  as  a  fief 
from  the  Emperor  Henry  VI.,  it  having  been 
added  to  the  empire  by  Otho  I.,  in  955,  by  his 
victory  over  the  Hungarians.  It  was  this  prince 
who  imprisoned  Richard  Coeur  de  Lion,  king  of 
England.  Duke  Leopold  VII.,  the  youngest 
son  of  the  former,  erected  a  palace  within  the 
city  of  Vienna,  which  w^as  long  occupied  by  the 
Austrian  monarchs,  under  the  name  of  the  old 
castle.  Leopold  VII.,  called  the  Glorious,  es- 
tablished the  hospital  of  the  Holy  Cross,  made 
Vienna,  which  had  adopted  a  municipal  consti- 
tution in  1 198,  a  staple  town,  and  granted  30,000 
marks  of  silver  for  the  promotion  of  trade  and 
commerce.  In  1229  he  purchased  a  part  of 
Carniola  from  the  ecclesiastical  principality  of 
Freisingen  for  1,650  marks,  and  left  the  country 
in  a  flourishing  condition  to  the  youngest  of  his 
three  sons,  Frederick  II.,  surnamed  the  War- 
rior. In  1236  this  prince  was  put  under  the  ban 
of  the  empire,  on  account  of  his  joining  the 
alliance  of  the  cities  of  Lombardy  against  the 
Emperor  Frederick  II. ;  and  Otho,  Duke  of  Ba- 
varia, seized  upon  his  territory  above  the  Ens 
as  far  as  Lintz.  The  rest  of  the  country  was 
granted,  as  a  fief  by  the  emperor,  to  a  mar- 
grave,  and  Vienna  became  an  imperial  city. 

During  the  emperor's  campaign  in  Italy  Duke 
Frederick  recovered  the  principal  part  of  his 
lands,  and  his  rights  were  confirmed  by  the 
emperor  at  Verona,  1245.  The  rights  of  Vienna 
as  an  imperial  city  were  abolished,  and  Frederick 
was  to  be  called  king,  as  sovereign  of  Austria 
and  Styria ;  but  all  his  expectations  of  empire 
were  disappointed  by  his  death  in  the  battle  of 
the  Leitha  against  Bela  IV.,  king  of  Hungary, 
15  July  1246,  in  the  35th  year  of  his  age.  Thus 
the  male  line  of  the  house  of  Bamberg  became 
extinct.  The  period  from  1246  to  1282  is  styled 
the  Austrian  interregnum.  The  Emperor  Fred- 
erick II.  declared  Austria  and  Styria  a  vacant 
fief,  the  hereditary  property  of  the  German 
emperors,  and  sent  a  governor  to  Vienna,  the 
privileges  of  which,  as  an  imperial  city,  were 
once  more  renewed.  But  the  female  relations  of 
the  deceased  Duke  Frederick,  his  sister  Mar- 
garet (widow  of  the  Emperor  Henry  VI),  and 
his  niece  Gertrude,  by  the  persuasion  of  Pope 
Innocent  IV.,  in  1248,  laid  claim  to  the  inher- 
itance of  their  brother.  The  Margrave  Her- 
mann, with  the  aid  of  the  Pope  and  a  strong 
party,  made  himself  master  of  Vienna,  and  of 
several  Austrian  cities.  In  Styria  he  was  op- 
posed by  the  governor  Meinhard,  count  of  Gorz. 
But  Hermann  died  in  1250,  and  his  son  Fred- 
erick, who  was  afterward  beheaded  in  1268,  at 
Naples,  with  Conradin  of  Suabia,  was  then  only 
a  year  old.  The  whole  country  was  distracted 
by  various  parties,  and  the  Emperor  Conrad 
IV.  was  prevented,  by  disputes  with  his  neigh- 
bors, from  turning  his  attention  to  Austria.  In 
1251  the  states  of  Austria  and  Styria  deter- 
mined to  appoint  one  of  the  sons  of  the  second 
sister  of  Frederick  the  Warrior,  Constantia 
(widow  of  the  Margrave  Henry  the  Illustrious) 
to  the  office  of  Duke.  Their  deputies  were  01 
the  way  to  IMisnia  when  they  were  persuaded 
by  King  Wenceslaus,  on  their  entrance  int"" 
Prague,  to  declare  his  son  Ottocar  Duke  of 
Austria  and   Styria,  who  made  every  effort  to 


support  his  appointment  by  arms,  money,  and 
especially  by  his  marriage  with  the  em.press 
widow  Margaret.  Ottocar  wrested  Styria  from 
Bela,  king  of  Hungary,  by  his  victory  of  July 
1260,  in  the  Marchfield;  and  in  1262  forced  the 
Emperor  Richard  to  invest  him  with  both  duch- 
ies. Soon  after,  by  the  will  of  his  uncle  Ulrich, 
the  last  Duke  of  Carinthia  and  Friuli  (who 
died  1296),  Ottocar  became  master  of  Carinthia, 
a  part  of  Carniola  connected  with  it,  the  king- 
dom of  Istria,  and  a  part  of  Friuli.  But  his 
arrogance  soon  caused  his  fall.  In  1272  he  re- 
fused to  acknowledge  Count  Rudolph  of  Haps- 
burg  emperor,  and  was  obliged  to  defend  himseh 
against  Rudolph.  After  an  unsuccessful  war 
he  was  forced  to  cede  all  his  Austrian  pos- 
sessions in  November  1276.  In  1277  he  at- 
tempted to  recover  these  territories,  but,  in  the 
battle  of  the  Marchfield,  26  Aug.  1278,  he  was 
slain,  and  his  son  Wenceslaus  was  obliged  to 
renounce  all  claim  to  them,  in  order  to  preserve 
his  hereditary  estates.  The  Emperor  Rudolph 
remained  three  years  in  Vienna,  and  then  ap- 
pointed his  eldest  son  governor.  But  having 
succeeded  in  gaining  the  consent  of  the  electors 
of  Saxony  and  Brandenburg,  of  the  three  ec- 
clesiastical electors,  and  of  the  count-palatine  of 
the  Rhine,  he  granted  the  duchies  of  Austria 
and  Styria,  with  the  province  of  Carinthia,  to 
his  two  sons,  Albert  and  Rodolph,  27  Dec.  1280. 

Austria  under  the  House  of  Hapsburg. — 
I.  From  1282  to  1526.  Albert  and  Rodolph 
transferred  Carinthia  to  Meinhard,  count  of 
Tyrol,  father-in-law  to  Albert.  In  1283  they 
concluded  a  treaty,  by  which  Albert  was  made 
sole  possessor  of  Austria,  Styria,  and  Carniola. 
Vienna,  having  again  renounced  its  privileges 
as  an  imperial  city,  was  made  the  residence 
of  the  court,  and  the  successors  of  Rodolph, 
from  this  time,  assumed  Austria  as  the  family 
title.  The  introduction  of  the  Hapsburg  dy- 
nasty was  the  foundation  of  the  future  great- 
ness of  Austria.  The  despotic  Albert  was 
assailed  by  Hungary  and  Bavaria  and  in  1298  he 
won  the  Roman  crown  in  an  engagement  with 
Adolphus  of  Nassau.  After  this  he  undertook 
the  conquest  of  Switzerland  ;  but  was  assassin- 
ated I  May  1308,  at  Rheinfelden,  by  his  nephew, 
John  of  Suabia,  from  whom  he  had  basely  with- 
held his  hereditary  estates.  The  inheritance  of 
John  now  fell  to  the  five  sons  of  the  murdered 
Albert  —  Frederick,  surnamed  the  Fair,  Leo- 
pold, Henry,  Albert,  and  Otho.  They  were 
forced  to  purchase  of  the  Emperor  Henry  VII. 
the  investiture  of  their  paternal  estates  (consist- 
ing, in  1308,  of  26,572  square  miles)  for  20,000 
marks  of  silver.  Under  their  father,  in  1301, 
the  margraviate  of  Suabia  was  added  to  the 
territories  of  Austria,  and  the  contest  with 
Bavaria  ended  in  Austria  obtaining  Neuberg. 
On  the  contrary,  the  attempt  of  Duke  Leopold, 
in  1315,  to  recover  the  forest  towns  of  Switzer- 
land, which  had  been  lost  under  Albert,  was 
frustrated  by  the  valor  of  the  troops  of  the 
Swiss  confederacy  in  the  battle  of  Morgarten. 
In  1314  his  brother  Frederick,  chosen  emperor 
of  Germany  by  the  electors,  was  conquered  by 
his  rival,  the  Emperor  Louis  (of  Bavaria),  in 
1322,  at  Miihldorf,  and  was  his  prisoner  for 
two  3'ears  and  a  half  in  the  castle  of  Trausnitz. 
Tiie  dispute  with  the  house  of  Luxemberg,  in 
Bohemia,  and  with  Pope  John  XXII.,  induced 
the   emperor,    in    1325,   to   liberate   his    captive. 


AUSTRIA 


Upon  this  the  laiier  renounced  all  share  in  the 
government,  and  pledged  himself  to  surrender 
all  the  imperial  domains  which  were  still  in 
the  possession  of  Austria.  But  Leopold  con- 
sidered the  agreement  derogatory  ro  his  dignity 
and  continued  the  war  against  Louis,  i^red- 
erick,  therefore,  again  surrendered  himself  a 
prisoner  in  ]\Iunich.  Moved  by  his  faithful 
adherence  to  his  word,  Louis  concluded  a 
friendly  compact  with  Frederick,  and  made  prep- 
arations for  their  common  government,  7  Sept. 
1325.  These  preparations,  however,  were  never 
carried  into  execution ;  for  the  agreement  had 
been  concluded  without  the  consent  of  the  elec- 
tors. Leopold  died  in  1326,  and  Henry  of  Aus- 
tria in  1327;  Frederick  also  died  without  chil- 
dren, 13  Jan.  1330,  after  which  his  brothers,  Al- 
bert IL  and  Otho,  came  to  a  reconciliation  with 
the  Emperor  Louis.  After  the  death  of  their 
unr'e.  Henry,  margrave  of  Tyrol,  and  Duke  of 
Carinthia  (the  father  of  Margaret  Maultasch), 
they  persuaded  the  emperor  to  grant  them  the 
investiture  of  Tyrol  and  Carinthia,  in  May 
1335 ;  they  ceded  Tyrol,  however,  to  John,  king 
of  Bohemia,  by  the  treaty  of  9  Oct.  1356,  in 
behalf  of  his  son  John  Henry,  or  rather  of  his 
wife,  Margaret  Maultasch.  In  1344,  after  the 
death  of  Otho  and  his  sons,  Albert  H.,  called  the 
Wise,  united  all  his  Austrian  territories,  which, 
by  his  marriage  with  the  daughter  of  the  last 
count  of  Pfirt,  had  been  augmented  by  the  es- 
tates of  her  father  in  1324,  and  by  the  Kyburg  es- 
tates in  Burgundy  in  1326.  Of  the  four  sons 
of  Albert  H.  (Rodolph,  Albert,  Leopold,  and 
Frederick),  Rodolph  H.  (IV.)  completed  the 
church  of  St.  Stephen's,  and  died  in  IMilan  in 
,  T365,  without  children,  a  short  time  after  his 
youngest  brother,  Frederick.  In  1379  the  two 
surviving  brothers  divided  the  kingdom,  so  that 
Albert  III.  (with  the  Queue)  became  master 
of  Austria,  and  gave  the  other  territories  to  his 
brother,  Leopold  III.  the  Pious.  Leopold  had 
made  repeated  attempts  to  gain  the  Hapsburg 
possessions  in  Switzerland.  He  was  killed  9 
July  1386,  on  the  field  of  Sempach,  where  he 
lost  the  battle,  in  consequence  of  the  valor  of 
Winkelried,  and  Albert  administered  the  gov- 
ernment of  the  estates  of  his  brother's  minor 
sons.  Margaret  Maultasch  ceded  Tyrol  to  him 
on  the  death  of  Meinhard,  her  only  son,  who 
was  married  to  the  sister  of  Albert.  She  re- 
tained nothing  but  a  few  castles  and  6,000  marks 
of  gold.  Her  claims  to  Bavaria  also  she  re- 
nounced in  consideration  of  receiving  Scharding 
and  three  Tyrolese  cities,  Kitzbiihel,  Ballenberg, 
and  Kutfstein,  and  116,000  florins  of  gold.  In 
1365  Leopold  HI.  had  bought  the  claims  of  the 
count  of  Feldkirch  for  36.000  florins;  for  55,000 
florins  Austria  received  Brisgau  from  the  count 
of  Fiirstenberg,  with  the  cities  of  Neuberg,  Old 
Brisach,  Kentzingen,  and  Billingen.  The  re- 
mainder of  Carniola  and  the  Windisch  Mark, 
after  the  death  of  the  last  count  of  Gorz,  were 
purchased,  together  with  the  county  of  Pludentz, 
from  the  count  of  Werdenberg,  and  the  pos- 
sessions of  the  count  of  Hogenberg,  7or  66,000 
florins;  and  the  city  of  Trieste  was  acquired 
in  1380  by  aiding  in  the  war  between  Hungary 
and  Venice.  Moreover,  the  two  governments  of 
upper  and  lower  Suabia  were  pledged  for  40,000 
florins  by  the  king  of  Rome,  Wenceslaus,  to 
Duke  Leopold.  The  Austrian  and  Styrian  lines, 
founded   by  Albert   III.   and  Leopold   HI.,    his 


brother,  continued  for  78  years.  In  1395,  when 
Albert  HI.  died,  his  only  son,  Albert  IV.,  was 
in  Palestine.  On  his  return  he  determined  to 
take  vengeance  on  Procopius,  margrave  of  Mo- 
ravia, for  his  hostile  conduct ;  but  he  was 
poisoned  in  1404  at  Znaym.  His  young  son  and 
successor,  Albert  V.,  was  declared  of  age  in 
1410;  and  being  the  son-in-law  of  the  Emperor 
Sigismund,  he  united  the  crowns  of  Hungarv 
and  Bohemia  in  1437,  and  connected  them 
with  that  of  Germany  in  1438.  But  in  the  fol- 
lowing year  the  young  prince  died.  His 
posthumous  son,  Ladislaus,  was  the  last  of  the 
Austrian  line  of  Albert,  and  its  possessions  de- 
volved on  the  Styrian  line,   1457. 

From  this  time  the  house  of  Austria  has 
furnished  an  unbroken  succession  of  German 
emperors.  Hungary  and  Bohemia  were  lost 
for  a  time  by  the  death  of  Albert  V.,  and,  after 
the  unhappy  contests  with  the  Swiss,  under 
Frederick  HI ,  the  remains  of  the  Hapsburg 
estates  in  Switzerland.  But  several  territories 
were  gained ;  and,  to  increase  the  rising  splen- 
dor of  the  family,  the  emperor  conferred  upon 
the  country  the  rank  of  an  archduchy.  The 
dispute  which  broke  out  between  Frederick  and 
his  brothers  Albert  and  Sigismund,  relating  to 
the  divisions  of  their  paternal  inheritance,  end- 
ed with  the  death  of  Albert  in  December  1464. 
In  the  course  of  the  troubles  which  resulted 
from  this  quarrel  the  emperor  was  besieged  in 
the  citadel  of  Vienna  by  the  citizens,  who  fa- 
vored the  cause  of  the  murdered  prince.  Sigis- 
mund now  succeeded  to  his  portion  of  the  es- 
tate of  Ladislaus  and  Frederick  became  sole 
ruler  of  all  Austria  His  son  Maximilian,  by 
his  marriage  with  Mary,  the  surviving  daughter 
of  Charles  the  Bold,  united  the  Netherlands  tc 
the  Austrian  dominions.  But  it  cost  Maximilian 
much  anxiety  and  toil  to  maintain  his  power 
in  this  new  province,  which  he  administered  as 
the  guardian  of  his  son  Philip.  After  the  death 
of  his  father,  19  Aug.  1493,  he  was  made  em- 
peror of  Germany,  and  transferred  to  his  son 
Philip  the  government  of  the  Netherlands. 
Maximilian  I.  added  to  his  paternal  inheritance 
all  Tyrol,  and  several  other  territories,  partic- 
ularly some  belonging  to  Bavaria.  He  also  ac- 
quired for  his  family  new  claims  to  Hungary 
and  Bohemia.  During  his  reign  Vienna  becamf 
the  great  metropolis  of  the  arts  and  sciences  in 
the  German  empire.  The  marriage  of  his  son 
Philip  to  Joanna  of  Spain  raised  the  "house  oi 
Hapsburg  to  the  throne  of  Spain  and  the  In- 
dies. But  Philip  died  in  1506,  13  years  before 
his  father,  and  the  death  of  Maximilian,  which 
happened  12  Jan.  1519,  was  followed  by  the 
union  of  Spain  and  Austria ;  his  grandson  (the 
eldest  son  of  Philip),  Charles  I.,  king  of  Spain 
(see  Charles  V.),  was  elected  emperor  of  Ger- 
many. In  the  treaty  of  Worms,  28  April  1521, 
and  of  Ghent,  7  May  1540,  he  ceded  to  his 
brother  Ferdinand  all  his  hereditary  estates  in 
Germany,  and  retained  for  himself  the  kingdom 
of  the  Netherlands.  The  house  of  Austria  was 
now  the  proprietor  of  a  tract  of  country  in 
Europe  comprising  360,230  square  miles.  The 
Emperor  Charles  V.  immediately  increased  the 
number  of  provinces  in  the  Netherlands  to  17, 
and  confirmed  their  union  with  the  German 
states,  which  had  been  concluded  by  his  grand- 
father, under  the  title  of  the  circle  of  Burgundy. 
In  1526  Austria  was  recognized  as  a  European 
monarchy. 


AUSTRIA 


II.  From  1526  to  1740.  Ferdinand  I.,  by 
his  marriage  with  Anna,  the  sister  of  Louis  II., 
king  of  Hungary,  who  was  killed  in  1526  in  the 
battle  of  Mohacs,  acquired  the  kingdoms  of 
Hungary  and  Bohemia,  with  Moravia,  Silesia, 
and  Lusatia,  the  appendages  of  Bohemia.  Bo- 
hemia rejoiced  to  hail  Ferdinand  its  king.  Not- 
withstanding the  divided  opinions  of  the  nobles, 
and  the  rising  fortune  of  his  adversary,  John 
von  Zapolya  (see  Hungary),  he  was  raised 
to  the  throne  of  Hungary,  26  Nov.  1526,  by  the 
Hungarian  Diet,  and  was  crowned  5  Nov.  1527. 
But  Zapolya  resorted  for  assistance  to  the  Sul- 
tan, Soliman  II.,  who  appeared  in  1529  at  the 
gates  of  Vienna.  The  capital  was  rescued  from 
ruin  solely  by  the  count  of  Salm,  general  of 
the  Austrian  army,  and  the  imperial  forces  com- 
pelled Soliman  to  retreat.  In  1535  a  treaty  was 
made  by  which  John  von  Zapolya  was  allowed  to 
retain  the  royal  title  and  half  of  Hungary,  and 
his  posterity  were  to  be  entitled  to  nothing  but 
Transylvania.  But  after  the  death  of  John 
new  disputes  arose,  in  which  Soliman  was  again 
involved,  and  Ferdinand  maintained  the  pos- 
session of  lower  Hungary  only  by  paying  the 
war-like  Sultan  the  sum  of  30,000  ducats  an- 
nually. This  took  place  in  1562.  Ferdinand 
was  equally  unsuccessful  in  the  duchy  of 
Wiirtemberg.  This  province  had  been  taken 
from  the  restless  Duke  Ulrich  by  the  Suabian 
confederacy,  and  sold  to  the  Emperor  Charles 
V. ;  and  when  his  estates  were  divided  it  fell  to 
Ferdinand.  Philip,  landgrave  of  Hesse,  the 
friend  of  Duke  Ulrich,  took  advantage  of  the 
opportunity  offered  him  by  the  embarrassment 
of  Ferdinand  in  the  Hungarian  war.  With  the 
aid  of  France  he  conquered  Wiirtemberg;  but 
France  ceded  it  again  to  Ulrich  in  the  treaty  of 
Caden,  in  Bohemia,  concluded  29  June  1534,  on 
condition  that  the  province  should  still  be  a  fief 
of  Austria,  and  after  the  extinction  of  the  male 
line  of  the  Duke  that  it  should  revert  to  that 
country.  Ferdinand  received  also  the  imperial 
crown  in  1556,  when  his  brother  Charles  laid 
by  the  sceptre  for  a  cowl.  He  died  25  July 
1564,  with  the  fame  of  an  able  prince,  leaving 
3  sons  and  10  daughters.  According  to  the 
directions  given  m  his  will,  the  three  brothers 
divided  the  patrimony,  so  that  Maximilian  II., 
the  eldest  son,  who  succeeded  his  father  as 
emperor,  obtained  Austria,  Hungary,  and  Bo- 
hemia ;  Ferdinand,  the  second  son,  received  Ty- 
rol and  Hither  Austria ;  and  Charles,  the  third, 
became  master  of  Styria,  Carinthia,  Carniola, 
and  Gorz.  But  in  1595,  after  the  death  of  the 
Archduke  Ferdinand,  the  husband  of  Philip- 
pine Welser,  the  fair  maid  of  Augsburg,  his  sons 
Andrew  (cardinal  and  bishop  of  Constance  and 
Brixen,  and  governor  of  the  Netherlands  for 
Spain)  and  Charles  (margrave  of  Burgau)  were 
declared  incompetent  to  succeed  their  father, 
and  his  possession  reverted  to  his  relations.  In 
Hungary  the  Emperor  Maximilian  met  with 
far  better  fortune  than  his  father  had  done. 
The  death  of  Soliman  at  Szigeth  in  1566  was 
followed  by  a  peace,  and  in  1572  Maximilian 
crowned  his  eldest  son,  Rodolph,  king  of  Hun- 
gary; he  was  afterward  crowned  king  of  Bo- 
hemia, and  was  elected  king  of  Rome.  In  his 
attempts  to  add  the  Polish  crown  to  his  Aus- 
trian dominions  he  was  equally  unsuccessful 
with  his  fourth  son,  Maximilian,  who  engaged 
in    a    similar    enterprise    after    the    decease    of 


Stephen  Bathori  in  1587.  Maximilian  died  12 
Oct.  1576,  and  Rodolph  the  eldest  of  his  five 
sons,  succeeded  to  the  imperial  throne.  The 
most  remarkable  events  by  which  his  reign  is 
distinguished  are  the  war  against  Turkey  and 
Transylvania,  the  persecutions  of  the  Protes- 
tants, who  were  all  driven  from  his  dominions, 
and  the  circumstances  which  obliged  him  to 
cede  Hungary  in  1608,  and  Bohemia  and  his 
hereditary  estates  in  Austria  in  161 1,  to  his 
brother  Matthias.  From  this  time  we  may  date 
the  successful  exertions  of  the  Austrian  sov- 
ereigns to  put  down  the  restless  spirit  of  the 
nation,  and  to  keep  the  people  in  a  state  of  ab- 
ject submission.  Matthias,  who  succeeded 
Maximilian  on  the  imperial  throne,  concluded  a 
peace  for  20  years  with  the  Turks ;  but  he  was 
disturbed  by  the  Bohemians,  who  took  up  arms 
m  defense  of  their  religious  rights.  Matthias 
died  20  March  1619,  before  the  negotiations  for 
a  compromise  were  completed.  The  Bohemi- 
ans refused  to  acknowledge  his  successor, 
Ferdinand  II.,  and  chose  Frederick  V.,  the 
head  of  the  Protestant  League,  and  elector  of 
the  palatinate,  for  their  king.  After  the  battle 
of  Prague,  1620,  Bohemia  submitted  to  the  au- 
thority of  Ferdinand.  He  immediately  applied 
himself  to  eradicate  Protestantism  out  of  Bohe- 
mia proper  and  Moravia.  At  the  same  time  he 
deprived  Bohemia  of  the  right  of  choosing  her 
king,  and  of  her  other  privileges.  He  erected  a 
Catholic  court  of  reform,  and  thus  led  to  the 
emigration  of  thousands  of  the  inhabitants.  This 
large  exodus  of  inhabitants  did  much  to  retard 
the  growth  of  Bohemia.  In  fact  the  religious 
wars  waged  upon  Bohemian  soil  for  so  long  a 
time,  dating  back  to  the  first  outbreaks  of  the_ 
Hussites,  with  the  subsequent  agitations  and  con- 
flicts consequent  upon  the  Reformation,  long 
and  seriously  hampered  that  state's  general  de- 
velopment up  to  modern  times.  The  Austrian 
states  also  favoring,  in  general,  the  Protestant 
religion,  were  compelled  by  Ferdinand  to  swear 
allegiance  to  him,  and  Lutheranism  was  strict- 
ly forbidden  in  all  the  Austrian  dominions.  The 
province  of  Hungary,  which  revolted  under 
Bethlem  Gabor,  prince  of  Transylvania,  was, 
after  a  long  struggle,  subdued.  This  religious 
war  dispeopled,  impoverished,  and  paralyzed 
the  energies  of  the  most  fertile  provinces  of  the 
house  of  Austria.  During  the  reign  of  Ferdi- 
nand III.,  the  successor  of  Ferdinand  II. 
(1637-57),  Austria  was  continually  the  thea- 
tre of  war. 

In  the  midst  of  these  troubles  Ferdinand 
ceded  Lusatia  to  Saxony  at  the  peace  of  Prague, 
concluded  in  1635 ;  and  when  the  war  was  end- 
ed he  ceded  Alsace  to  France,  at  the  peace  of 
Westphalia  in  1648.  The  Emperor  Leopold  I., 
son  and  successor  of  Ferdinand  III.,  was  vic- 
torious through  the  talents  of  his  minister  Eu- 
gene, in  two  wars  with  Turkey ;  and  Vienna 
was  delivered  by  John  Sobieski  and  the  Ger- 
mans from  the  attacks  of  Kara  Mustapha  in 
1683.  In  1687  he  changed  Hungary  into  a 
hereditary  kingdom,  and  joined  to  it  the  terri- 
tory of  Transylvania,  which  had  been  governed 
by  distinct  princes.  Moreover,  by  the  peace  of 
Carlovitz,  concluded  in  1699,  he  restored  to 
Hungary  the  country  lying  between  the  Danube 
and  the  Theiss.  It  was  now  the  chief  aim  of 
Leopold  to  secure  to  Charles,  his  second  son, 
the  inheritance  of  the  Spanish  monarchy,  ther. 


AUSTRIA 


in  the  hands  of  Charles  II.,  king  of  Spain,  who 
had  no  children ;  but  his  own  indecision,  and  the 
policy  of  France,  induced  Charles  II.  to  appoint 
the  grandson  of  Louis  XIV.  his  successor.  Thus 
began  the  war  of  the  Spanish  Succession  (see 
Succession  Wars)  in  1701.  Leopold  died  5 
May  1705,  before  it  was  terminated.  Em- 
peror Joseph  I.,  his  successor  and  eldest  son, 
continued  the  war,  but  died  without  children,  17 
April  171 1.  His  brother  Charles,  the  destined 
king  of  Spain,  immediately  hastened  from  Bar- 
celona to  his  hereditary  states,  to  take  upon 
hun  the  administration  of  the  government.  He 
wcs  elected  emperor  24  December  of  the  same 
year ;  but  was  obliged  to  accede  to  the  peace  of 
Utrecht,  concluded  by  his  allies  at  Rastadt  and 
Baden  in  1714.  By  this  treaty  Austria  received 
the  Netherlands,  Milan,  Mantua,  Naples,  and 
Sardinia.  In  1720  Sicily  was  given  to  Austria 
in  exchange  for  Sardinia.  The  duchy  of  Man- 
tua, occupied  by  Joseph  in  1708,  was  now  made 
an  Austrian  fief,  because  it  had  formed  an  alli- 
ance w'ith  France  prejudicial  to  the  interests  of 
Germany.  This  monarchy  now  embraced  191,621 
square  miles.  Its  annual  income  was  between 
13.000,000  and  14,000,000  florins,  and  its  army 
consisted  of  130,000  men ;  but  its  power  was 
weakened  by  new^  wars  with  Spain  and  France. 
In  the  peace  concluded  at  Vienna  1735  and 
1738,  Charles  VI.  was  forced  to  cede  Naples 
and  Sicily  to  Don  Carlos,  the  Infante  of  Spain, 
and  to  the  king  of  Sardinia  a  part  of  Milan,  for 
which  he  received  only  a  part  of  Parma  and 
Piacenza.  In  the  next  year,  by  the  peace  of 
Belgrade,  he  lost  nearly  all  the  fruits  of  Eu- 
gene's victories,  even  the  province  of  Temeswar ; 
for  he  was  obliged  to  transfer  to  the  Porte, 
Belgrade,  Servia,  and  all  the  possessions  of 
Austria  in  Walachia  and  Bosnia.  All  this 
Charles  VI.  willingly  acceded  to,  in  order  to 
secure  rhe  succession  to  his  daughter,  Maria 
Theresa,  by  the  Pragmatic  Sanction.  This  law^ 
of  inheritance  was  passed  1713-19,  and  acknow- 
ledged one  after  another  by  all  the  European 
powers. 

Austria  under  the  House  of  Hapsburg-Lor- 
rainc. —  By  the  death  of  Charles  VI.,  20  Oct. 
1740,  the  male  line  of  the  Austrian  house  of 
Hapsburg  became  extinct;  and  Maria  Theresa 
having  married  Stephen,  Duke  of  Lorraine, 
ascended  the  Austrian  throne.  On  every  side 
her  claims  were  disputed,  and  rival  claims  set 
up.  A  violent  war  began  in  which  she  had  no 
protector  but  England.  Frederick  II.  of  Prus- 
sia subdued  Silesia ;  the  elector  of  Bavaria  was 
crowned  in  Lintz  and  Prague,  and  in  1742 
chosen  emperor  under  the  name  of  Charles  VII. 
Hungarj^  alone  supported  the  queen.  But  in 
the  peace  of  Breslau,  concluded  4  June  1742,  she 
was  obliged  to  cede  to  Prussia,  Silesia,  and  Glatz, 
with  the  exception  of  Teschen,  Jagerndorf,  and 
Troppau.  Frederick  II.,  by  assisting  the  party 
of  Charles  VII.,  soon  renewed  the  war.  But 
Charles  died  20  Jan.  1745,  and  the  husband  of 
Theresa  was  crowned  emperor  of  Germany 
under  the  title  of  Francis  I.  A  second  treaty 
of  peace,  concluded  25  Dec.  1745.  confirmed  to 
Frederick  the  possession  of  Silesia.  By  the 
peace  of  Aix-la-Chapelle,  18  Oct.  1748,  Austria 
was  obliged  to  cede  the  duchies  of  Parma.  Pia- 
cenza, and  Guastalla  to  Philip,  Infante  of  Spain, 
and  several  districts  of  Milan  to  Sardinia.  The 
Austrian  monarchy  was  now  firmly  established; 


and  it  was  the  first  wish  of  Maria  Theresa  to 
recover  Silesia.  With  this  object  in  view  she 
formed  an  alliance  with  France,  Russia,  Saxony, 
and  Sweden.  This  was  the  origin  of  the  Seven 
Years'  war;  but,  by  the  peace  of  Hubertsberg, 
1763,  Prussia  retained  Silesia,  and  Austria  had 
sacrificed  her  blood  and  treasure  in  vain.  The 
first  paper  money  was  now  issued  in  Austria, 
called  state  obligations,  and  the  Emperor  Fran- 
cis erected  a  bank  to  exchange  them.  After 
his  death,  iS  Aug.  1765,  Joseph  II.,  his  eldest 
son,  was  appointed  colleague  with  his  mother 
in  the  government  of  his  hereditary  states,  and 
elected  emperor  of  Germany.  To  prevent  the 
extinction  of  the  male  line  of  her  family  Maria 
Theresa  now  established  two  collateral  lines; 
the  house  of  Tuscany,  in  her  second  son,  Peter 
Leopold ;  and  the  house  of  Este,  in  the  person 
of  the  Archduke  Ferdinand.  For  these  separa- 
tions Maria  Theresa  indemnified  the  country  by 
the  confiscation  of  several  cities,  formerly 
pledged  to  Poland  by  Hungary,  without  paying 
the  sum  for  which  they  stood  pledged ;  by  ob- 
taining Galicia  and  Lodomeria  in  the  first 
profligate  division  of  the  kingdom  of  Poland  in 
1772 ;  and  by  the  capture  of  Bukowina.  which 
was  ceded  by  the  Porte  in  1777.  In  the  peace  of 
Teschen,  13  May  1779,  Austria  received  Inn- 
viertel,  and  the  vacant  county  of  Hohenembs  in 
Suabia,  the  county  of  Falkenstein,  and  the  Sua- 
bian  territories  of  Tettnang  and  Argen ;  and 
thus  at  the  death  of  the  empress,  28  Nov.  1780, 
Austria  contained  234,684  square  miles ;  it  had 
lost  16,366  square  miles,  and  gained  34,301.  The 
population  was  estimated  at  24,000,000 ;  but  the 
public  debt  also  had  increased  to  160,000,000 
florins.  The  administration  of  the  empress  was 
distinguished  by  substantial  improvements  in 
connection  with  government,  agriculture,  trade, 
and  commerce,  the  education  of  the  people,  the 
piromotion  of  the  arts  and  sciences,  and  of  re- 
ligion. The  foreign  relations  of  the  kingdom 
also,  even  those  with  the  Roman  court,  w-ere 
happily  conducted  by  the  talents  of  her  minis- 
ter, Kaunitz. 

Her  successor,  Joseph  II.,  w^as  active  and 
restless ;  impartial,  but  too  often  rash  and  vio- 
lent. While  a  colleague  with  his  mother  in 
the  government  he  diminished  the  expenses  of 
the  state,  and  introduced  a  new  system  in  the 
payment  of  pensions  and  of  officers.  But  after 
the  death  of  his  mother  all  his  activity  and  tal- 
ent as  a  sovereign  was  fully  developed.  As 
severe  to  the  military  as  to  the  civil  officers, 
he  adhered,  however,  to  liberal  principles.  The 
censorship  of  the  press  was  reformed ;  the  Prot- 
estants received  full  toleration,  and  the  rights 
of  citizens ;  the  Jews  were  treated  with  kind- 
ness ;  900  convents  and  religious  establishments 
were  abolished,  and  even  the  visit  of  Pius  VI. 
made  no  alteration  in  Joseph's  system  of  refor- 
ination.  The  system  of  education  he  subjected 
to  revision  and  improvement ;  and  he  tried  to 
foster  manufactures  by  duties  on  foreign  goods. 
But  his  zeal  excited  the  opposition  of  the  ene- 
mies of  improvement.  The  low  countries  re- 
volted, and  his  vexation  probably  led  him  to 
attempt  the  exchange  of  the  Netherlands,  un- 
der the  title  of  the  kingdom  of  Austrasia,  for 
the  palatinate  of  Bavaria  under  an  elector.  But 
the  project  was  frustrated  by  the  constancy  and 
firmness  of  the  next  agnate,  the  Duke  of  Deux- 
Ponts,  and  by  the  German  league  concluded  by 


AUSTRIA 


Frederick  II.  Joseph  was  equally  unsuccessful 
in  the  war  of  1788  against  the  Porte.  His  exer- 
tions in  the  field  destroj'ed  his  health;  and  grief 
at  the  rebellious  disposition  of  his  hereditary 
states  accelerated  his  death,  which  happened 
20  Feb.  1790.  Joseph  II.  was  succeeded  by  his 
eldest  brother,  Leopold  II.  By  his  moderation 
and  firmness  he  quelled  the  turbulent  spirit  of 
the  Netherlands,  and  restored  tranquillity  to 
Hungary.  The  treaty  of  Reichenbach  with 
Prussia,  27  July  1790,  and  the  treaty  of  Sistova, 
4  Aug.  1791,  led  to  a  peace  with  the  Porte. 
The  unhappy  fate  of  his  sister  and  her  husband, 
Louis  XVT.  of  France,  induced  him  to  form  an 
alliance  with  Prussia,  but  he  died  i  March 
1792,  before  the  revolutionary  war  broke  out. 
Soon  after  the  accession  of  his  son,  Francis  II., 
to  the  throne,  and  before  he  was  elected 
German  emperor,  France  declared  war  against 
him  as  king  of  Hungary  and  Bohemia.  In  the 
first  articles  of  peace,  dated  at  Campo  Formio, 
17  Oct  1797,  Austria  lost  Lombardy  and  the 
Netherlands,  and  received,  as  a  compensation, 
the  largest  part  of  the  Venetian  territory ;  two 
years  previous,  in  1795,  in  the  third  division  of 
Poland,  the  Austrian  dominions  had  been  en- 
larged by  the  addition  of  west  Galicia.  In  the 
beginning  of  the  year  1799,  the  Emperor  Francis, 
in  alliance  with  Russia,  renewed  the  war  with 
France.  But  Napoleon  extorted  the  peace  of 
Luneville,  9  Feb.  1801,  and  Francis  acceded  to 
it,  without  the  consent  of  England.  By  the 
conditions  of  the  treaty  he  was  to  cede  the 
county  of  Falkenstein  and  the  Frickthal.  Fer- 
dinand, Grand  Duke  of  Tuscany,  at  the  same 
time  renounced  his  claim  to  this  province  and 
received,  in  return  for  it,  Salzburg  and  Berch- 
tesgaden,  with  a  part  of  the  territory  of  Passau, 
and  was  afterward  made  master  of  the  largest 
part  of  Eichstadt,  and  honored  with  the  title  of 
elector.  Austria  obtained  the  Tyrolese  arch- 
bishoprics, Trent  and  Brixen,  and,  notwith- 
standing its  cessions  of  territory  to  France,  had 
gained,  including  its  acquisitions  in  Poland, 
9.580  square  miles ;  this  made  the  whole  extent 
253,770  square  miles.  The  public  debt  had  also 
increased  to   1,220,000,000  florins. 

The  first  consul  of  France  now  caused  him- 
self to  be  proclaimed  emperor;  and  11  Aug. 
1804,  Francis  declared  himself  hereditary  em- 
peror of  Austria,  and  united  the  Austrian  states 
under  the  name  of  the  empire  of  Austria.  Im- 
mediately after  this  important  act  he  took  arms 
once  more  with  his  allies,  Russia  and  Great 
Britain,  against  the  government  of  France. 
The  war  of  1805  was  terminated  by  the  peace  of 
Presburg,  (26  Dec.  1805).  By  the  conditions 
of  the  treaty  Francis  was  obliged  to  cede  to 
France  the  remaining  provinces  of  Italy ;  to 
the  king  of  Bavaria,  Burgau,  Eichstadt,  a  part 
of  Passau,  all  Tyrol,  Vorarlberg,  Hohenembs, 
Rothenfels,  Tettnang,  Argen,  and  Lindau;  to 
the  king  of  Wiirtemberg  the  five  towns  lying  on 
the  Danube,  the  county  of  Hohenberg,  the  land- 
graviate  of  Nellenburg,  Altdorf,  and  a  part  of 
Brisgau;  and  to  the  Grand  Duke  of  Baden  the 
remainder  of  Brisgau,  Ortenau,  Constance,  and 
the  commandery  of  Meinau.  He  received,  in 
return,  Salzburg  and  Berchtesgaden ;  the  elec- 
tor of  Salzburg  was  compensated  by  the  prov- 
ince of  Wiirzburg;  and  the  dignity  of  grand 
master  of  the  Teutonic  order  was  made  heredi- 
tary in   the  house   of  Austria.     Thus   ended  a 


war  which  cost  the  Austrian  monarchy,  besides 
the  territories  just  enumerated,  90,000,000  flor- 
ins, which  were  carried  away  by  the  French  from 
Vienna,  and  800,000,000  for  the  other  expenses 
of  the  war ;  of  which  Francis  paid  a  large  pro- 
portion from  his  private  purse.  After  the  for- 
mation of  the  Confederation  of  the  Rhine  (12 
July  1806)  Francis  was  forced  to  resign  his  dig- 
nity as  emperor  of  Germany  (6  Aug.  1806), 
which  had  been  in  his  family  more  than  500 
years.  The  old  German,  or  Holy  Roman,  em- 
pire thus  came  to  an  end,  and  Francis  had  now 
only  the  title  of  Francis  I.,  emperor  of  Austria. 
In  1809  he  resolved  on  a  new  war  with  France, 
aided  only  by  Great  Britain,  which  did  nothing 
more  than  furnish  some  pecuniary  assistance  and 
made  a  useless  attack  on  Walcheren.  Austria 
fought  courageously,  but  in  vain.  The  peace  of 
Vienna  (14  Oct.  1809)  cost  the  monarchy  42,- 
380  square  miles  of  territory,  3,500,000  subjects, 
and  more  than  11,000,000  florins  of  revenue. 
The  public  debt  was  also  increased  to  1,200,000,- 
000  florins,  and  all  the  paper  money  in  circula- 
tion was  estimated  at  950,000,000. 

Napoleon,  after  tearing  from  the  Austrian 
monarchy  its  fairest  provinces  —  the  duchy  0/ 
Salzburg,  with  Berchtesgaden,  Innviertel,  west- 
ern Hausruckviertel,  Carniola,  and  Gorz, 
Trieste,  the  circle  of  Villach,  a  large  part  of 
Croatia,  Istria,  a  part  of  the  Grisons,  the  Bo- 
hemian territories  in  Saxony,  all  west  Galicia, 
the  circle  of  Zamoski  in  east  Galicia,  Cracow, 
with  half  the  salt  works  of  Wieliczka,  the  circle 
of  Tarnopol,  and  many  other  territories  which 
were  given  to  Russia  —  formed  a  personal  con- 
nection with  the  ancient  family  of  Hapsburg, 
by  his  marriage  with  Maria  Louisa,  daughter  of 
the  emperor  of  Austria,  and  (14  March  1812) 
concluded  an  alliance  with  the  emperor  Francis 
against  Russia.  But  the  emperor  of  France  was 
repulsed  on  his  invasion  of  this  country ;  Prus- 
sia rose  up  against  him ;  and  after  the  Congress 
of  Prague  had  separated  without  accomplish- 
ing anything,  Francis,  12  Aug.  1813,  declared 
war  against  France,  and  formed  an  alliance,  9 
Sept.  1813,  at  Teplitz,  with  Great  Britain,  Rus- 
sia, Prussia,  and  Sweden,  against  his  son-in-law. 
In  the  battle  of  Leipsic,  the  Austrian  troops 
took  an  honorable  part.  The  firmness  with 
which  the  emperor  signed  the  act  of  proscrip- 
tion against  his  son-in-law,  and  fixed  the  fate 
of  his  daughter  and  her  infant,  excited  general 
respect.  He  signed  the  same  act  against  Na- 
poleon a  second  time,  when  he  returned  from 
Elba.  He  also  opposed  Murat  in  Italy.  Yet 
the  Austrian  cabinet  endeavored  to  provide  for 
young  Napoleon  in  the  settlement  of  the  affairs 
of  France.  By  the  Congress  of  Vienna,  1814-15, 
Austria  gained  the  portion  of  Italy  which  is 
usually  known  as  Lombardy  and  Venetia,  and 
recovered,  together  with  Dalmatia,  the  hereditary 
territories  which  it  had  been  obliged  to  cede. 
The  former  Grand  Duke  of  Wiirzburg,  on  the 
contrary,  ceded  his  territory  to  Bavaria,  and 
again  took  possession  of  Tuscany.  The  final 
act  resulting  from  the  congress  was  signed  in 
1820.  In  1821  liberal  movements  in  Italy  were 
put  down.  The  July  revolution  of  1830,  in 
France,  cause  warlike  preparations  to  be  made ; 
but  after  Great  Britain  had  acknowledged  the 
new  government  Austria  acknowledged  it 
also.  Insurrections  which  took  place  in  Mo- 
dena,  Parma,  and  the  Papal  states,  183 1-2,  were 


AUSTRIA 


suppressed  without  much  difficulty.     In  the  Lon- 
don conference  relative  to  the  affairs  of  Belgium 
Austria  took  an  active  share ;  but  in  proportion 
as  Great  Britain  and  France  became  more  close- 
ly   united,    Austria   entered    into   more   intimate 
relations  with  Russia  and  Prussia.     In  the  Polish 
insurrection  Austria  ultimately  gave  indications 
of  a   strong  leaning  in   favor   of  Russia.     The 
death  of  the  Emperor  Francis  I.,  2  March  1835, 
and  the  accession   of  Ferdinand   I.   made  little 
change  in   the  Austrian   system  of  government. 
Metternich  still  continued  at  the  head  of  affairs 
and  to   foster   the   reactionary  policy.     In    1846 
the    failure  of  the    Polish   insurrection   had   led 
to  the    incorporation   of   Cracow   with  Austria, 
but  discontent  with  the  government  very  widely 
prevailed  in  the  empire.     In  Italy,  the  declara- 
tions of  Pio  Nono  in  favor  of  reform,  and  the 
concessions  into  which  most  of  the  other  gov- 
ernments   of    the    Italian    peninsula    had    been 
hurried,    increased    the    difficulties    of    Austria. 
In  Hungary  the  constitutional  opposition  became 
stronger   and   stronger,   and   latterly,   under   the 
guidance   of   Kossuth   and  other   popular   agita- 
tors, assumed  the  form  of  a  great  constitutional 
movement.     In     1848    the    expulsion    of    Louis 
Philippe    shook   all    Europe  to   its    foundations. 
Metternich    found    it   impossible   any   longer   to 
guide    the    ship    of    state,    and    the    government 
found    itself   compelled    to    grant   a    free   press, 
and  allow  the  citizens  freely  to  arm  themselves. 
The  popular  movement  made  great  progress  in 
Hungary ;   and   in   Italy  a   formidable   insurrec- 
tion   broke   out,   threatening  the  very   existence 
of  the  Austrian  power  in  the  peninsula.     In  the 
very  centre  of  the  empire,  in  Vienna  itself,  the 
insurrection  made  equal  progress,  and  the  royal 
family,    no   longer   in   safety,   removed   to   Inns- 
bruck.    The  Austrian   monarchy  appeared   now 
to  be  hanging  by  a  thread.     The  Hungarian  diet 
declared  itself  permanent,  under  the  presidency 
of   Kossuth.     Various   ministerial   changes  took 
place,    and    at    laot    the    emperor    abdicated    in 
favor    of    his    nephew,    Francis    Joseph.     More 
vigorous  measures  were  now  adopted,  and  Aus- 
tria, strongly  aided  by  the  forces  of  Russia,  suc- 
ceeded in   suppressing  the  Hungarian  insurrec- 
tion.    Haynau,  on  the  occasion,  rendered  himself 
notorious  by  his  severity,  and  Hungary  under- 
went   the    fate    of    a    conquered    country.     The 
year  1855  is  memorable  in  Austrian  history  for 
the   conclusion    of  a    concordat   with  the    Pope 
which  put  the  educational  and  ecclesiastical  af- 
fairs  of  the  empire  entirely  into  the  hands  of 
the   papal    see.     It   established   an   ecclesiastical 
censorship  of  the  press,  and  placed  all  schools, 
€ven   private  schools,   under  the  surveillance  of 
the  bishops ;    it   proclaimed   the   complete   inde- 
pendence of  the  bishops  in  relation  to  the  civil 
government,  so  that  all  decrees  proceeding  from 
Rome  might  be  published  without  obtaining  the 
royal   placet,   and   it   authorized   the   bishops   to 
convoke   the    provincial    councils    and    diocesan 
synods    without    the    consent    of    the    civil    au- 
thority.    In     1859     the     hostile     intentions     of 
France  and  Sardinia  against  the  possessions  of 
Austria  in  Italy  became  so  evident  that  she  de- 
clared   war    by    sending    an    army    across    the 
Ticino,  but  after  disastrous  defeats  at  Magenta 
and  Solferino  slie  was  compelled  to  cede  Milan 
and  the  northwest  portion  of  Lombardy  to  the 
Sardinian  king.     In  1864  she  joined  with  Prus- 
sia and  the  other  German  states  in  the  spolia- 
tion of  Denmark,  but  a  di<5pute  about  the  con- 


quered provinces  of  Schleswig-Holstein  involved 
her  in  a  war  with  her  allies  (1866),  while  at 
the  same  time  Italy  renewed  her  attempts  for 
the  recovery  of  Venice,  Austria  had  accord- 
ingly to  show  front  both  in  the  north  and  in 
the  south.  The  southern  army  under  Archduke 
Albert  fought  successfully,  defeating  the  Ital- 
ians under  Victor  Emanuel  at  Custozza,  24 
June,  and  driving  them  back  across  the  Mincio, 
but  the  fortune  of  the  northern  army  under 
Gen.  Benedek  was  very  different.  On  3 
July  Benedek  was  completely  defeated  by  the 
Prussian  forccsat  Koniggriitz  (Sadowa)  in 
Bohemia,  and  the  road  to  Vienna  lay  open  to 
the  victors.  Francis  Joseph  now  ceded  Venetia 
to  Napoleon  III.,  and  claimed  his  intervention  to 
assist  in  procuring  a  peace,  evidently  wishing 
to  make  a  separate  treaty  with  Italy,  so  as  to 
be  at  liberty  to  employ  the  southern  army 
against  Prussia.  This  design  did  not  succeed, 
however.  Both  Italy  and  Prussia  were  willing 
to  accept  the  mediation  of  Napoleon,  but  Italy 
would  not  hear  of  a  separate  arrangement,  and 
continued  the  war.  On  20  July  Admiral  Teg- 
etthoff  defeated  the  Italian  fleet  near  the  Dal- 
matian island  Lissa;  but,  on  the  other  hand,  the 
Prussians  continued  to  advance  into  Austria, 
and  threatened  Vienna.  Francis  Joseph  accord- 
ingly saw  himself  obliged  to  conclude  a  peace 
with  Prussia  23  August,  and  a  little  later  peace 
was  concluded  with  Italy  also,  3  October.  The 
result  of  the  war  was  the  cession  of  Venetia 
through  France  to  Italy,  and  the  withdrawal  of 
Austria  from  all  interference  in  the  affairs  of 
Germany.     (See  Seven  Weeks'  War.) 

Since  1866  Austria  has  been  occupied  chiefly 
with  the  internal  affairs  of  the  empire.  The 
first  aim  of  the  government  was  to  restore  the 
constitution  of  the  state,  which  had  been  es- 
tablished in  February  1861,  but  which  had 
been  suspended  since  1865  owing  to  the  demand 
of  Hungary  for  self-government.  As  Austrian 
statesmen  were  anxious  for  a  settlement  of  the 
dispute,  the  Hungarian  demands  were  finally 
agreed  to,  and  the  empire  of  Austria  divided 
into  two  parts,  the  one  made  up  of  the  Cisleithan 
or  Slavonic-German  provinces,  the  other  of  the 
Transleithan  provinces,  the  latter  forming  to- 
gether the  kingdom  of  Hungary.  These  two 
divisions  of  the  empire  were  to  be  entirely  inde- 
pendent, except  in  matters  of  diplomacy  and 
military  and  naval  matters  —  to  some  extent 
also  in  matters  of  finance.  This  settlement 
was  consummated  by  the  coronation  of  the  Em- 
peror Francis  Joseph  I.  as  king  of  Hungary, 
which  took  place  at  Pesth-Ofen,  on  8  June 
1867.  During  the  session  of  the  Reichsrath, 
that  is,  the  diet  of  the  Cisleithan  provinces,  held 
in  the  same  year,  the  important  question  of  the 
concordat  of  1855  came  up  for  discussion.  The 
Liberal  majority  in  the  diet  were  desirous  of 
seeing  it  entirely  repealed,  but  as  they  fully 
recognized  the  insuperable  obstacles  in  the  way 
of  this  step,  they  were  content  to  proceed  by 
separate  enactments  intended  to  weaken  the 
power  that  had  been  gained  to  the  papal  see 
by  the  concordat.  With  this  end  in  view  three 
measures  were  brought  forward,  one  for  the  re- 
establishment  of  civil  marriage,  one  for  the 
emancipation  of  the  schools  from  the  domina- 
tion of  the  Church,  and  one  for  the  placing  of 
the  different  creeds  on  a  footing  of  equality. 
Before  25  May  1868,  all  these  measures  had 
passed  through  both  houses  of  the  diet,  and  on 


AUSTRIA 


that  day  they  received  the  imperial  sanction. 
These  laws  were  declared  by  the  Pope  to  be 
''abominable,^'  as  well  as  null  and  void.  Fur- 
ther enactments  having  in  view  the  weakening 
of  the  power  of  the  papal  see  in  the  state  were 
passed  in  1874,  and  were  condemned  by  the 
Pope  in  the  severest  terms.  The  fact  of  the 
Austro-Hungarian  dominions  comprising  so 
many  different  nationalities  with  different  lan- 
guages has  always  given  the  government  much 
trouble,  both  in  the  management  of  internal 
affairs  and  in  regard  to  external  matters.  In 
the  recent  revival  of  the  Eastern  question,  for 
instance,  the  course  of  Austria  was  hampered  by 
the  sympathy  shown  by  the  Mag>'ars  for  the 
Turks,  while  her  Slav,  subjects  were  naturally 
more  favorable  to  Russia.  Previous  to  the  out- 
break of  hostilities  between  Russia  and  Turkey 
she  joined  with  the  other  powers  in  remon- 
strance with  Turkey,  but  as  to  the  actual  strug- 
gle remained  neutral.  At  the  close  of  the  war 
in  the  middle  of  1878  Austria  took  part  in 
the  Congress  of  Berlin,  where  the  settlement 
of  the  Eastern  question  was  arranged,  and  by 
this  congress  it  was  decided  that  the  provinces 
of  Bosnia  and  Herzegovina  should  in  future  be 
administered  by  Austria-Hungary  instead  of 
Turkey.  Since  then  the  external  history  of 
the  monarchy  has  been  uneventful,  but  there 
has  been  considerable  friction  at  home  between 
the  different  nationalities  and  political  parties. 

Area  and  Divisions. —  The  Austrian  empire 
extends  from  about  lat.  42°  to  51°  N.,  and 
from  Ion.  8°  30'  to  26°  30'  E. ;  the  total  area 
in  round  numbers  is  240,000  square  miles.  Its 
greatest  length  from  east  to  west  is  about  860 
miles ;  its  greatest  breadth  about  400  miles.  It 
is  bounded  south  by  Turkey,  the  Adriatic  Sea, 
and  the  kingdom  of  Italy ;  west  by  Switzerland, 
Bavaria,  and  Saxony;  north  by  Prussia  and 
Russian  Poland ;  and  east  by  Russia  and  Ru- 
mania. On  the  shores  of  the  Adriatic,  along  the 
coasts  of  Dalmatia,  Croatia,  Istria,  etc.,  lies 
its  only  sea  frontage,  which,  compared  to  the 
size  of  the  monarchy,  is  of  insignificant  ex- 
tent. Besides  being  divided  into  the  two  great 
divisions  above  mentioned,  the  Austro-Hunga- 
rian monarchy  is  further  divided  into  a  number 
of  governments  or  provinces.  The  following 
table  exhibits  the  name  and  area  of  these  govern- 
ments, with  their  population  in  1890  and  1900 : 


Natural  Features. —  Although  presenting  ev- 
ery variety  of  surface  the  prevailing  character 
of  the  Austrian  dominions  is  mountainous,  there 
being  few  districts  where  mountains  are  not 
found ;  while  the  plains  do  not  occupy  more  than 
a  fifth  part  of  the  whole  superficies.  The  loft- 
iest ranges,  and  the  most  extensively  ramified, 
are  found  in  Tyrol,  Styria,  lUyria,  and  the 
southern  parts  of  Austria  proper.  In  some  of 
these  regions  the  scenery  is  bold  and  romantic^ 
and  has  been  considered  equal  to  that  of  Switz- 
erland. The  most  extensive  tracts  of  low  or 
flat  land  occur  in  Slavonia  and  the  southeast 
and  central  parts  of  Hungary ;  much  of  this 
level  land  is  remarkably  fertile,  but  it  is  met 
at  various  points  by  vast  morasses  and  arid 
steppes.  The  principal  valleys  are  found  in 
Tyrol,  Salzburg,  Styria,  and  lUyria.  Extensive 
plains  stretch  along  the  courses  of  the  rivers, 
particularlj'  the  Danube,  the  Theiss,  and  the 
March.  The  principal  rivers  of  Austria  are 
the  Danube,  the  Elbe,  the  Save,  the  Drave, 
the  Waag,  the  March,  ihe  Inn,  the  Teiss  or 
Theiss,  and  the  Maros.  The  Danube  for  up- 
ward of  800  miles  is  navigable  for  quite 
large  vessels  throughout  the  whole  Austrian 
territory ;  while  all  the  others,  most  of  them 
tributaries  of  the  Danube,  are  navigable  for  ves- 
sels of  smaller  size.  All  the  rivers  abound  in 
fish.  The  lakes  are  numerous  and  often  pic- 
turesque, although  those  in  the  lowlands,  par- 
ticularly in  the  plains  of  Hungary,  are  rather 
marshes  than  lakes.  Austria  lies  between  the 
isotherms  of  60°  and  50°,  and  has  a  climate 
nearly  as  various  as  its  surface.  The  northern 
regions,  between  the  49th  and  51st  degrees  of 
north  latitude,  have  an  average  temperature  re- 
sembling that  of  the  north  of  France.  Be- 
tween lat.  46°  and  49°  the  heat  is  considerable ; 
and  between  42°  and  46°,  which  comprises  the 
whole  of  South  Austria,  it  is  still  greater ;  the 
winter  lasting  two  or  three  months  only,  and 
being,  in  general,  extremely  mild.  The  prin- 
cipal products  of  the  north  are  wheat,  barley, 
oats,  and  rye ;  in  the  centre,  vines  and  maize  are 
added ;  and  in  the  south,  olives.  The  productive 
capabilities  of  the  soil,  however,  are  not  ren- 
dered available  to  their  full  extent.  The  wines 
of  Austria  are  inferior  on  the  whole,  with  ex- 
ception of  a  few  choice  kinds,  including  the 
well-known    Tokay.    A    great    portion    of    the 


Divisions. 


Austrian    Provinces  — 

Lower     Austria 

Upper     Austria 

Salzburg     

Styria      

Carinthia      

Carniola      

Coast    land 

Tyrol    and     Vorarlberg 

Bohemia      

Moravia      

Silesia      

Galicia      

Bukowina      

Dalmatia      

Hungarian   Provinces  — 

Hungary     and     Transylvania. 

Croatia    and    Slavonia 

Fiume      

Military    out    of    the    country 

Total      


Area  in 
sq.    m. 


7-654 

4.631 

2,767 

8,670 

4,005 

3,856 

3,084 

11.324 

20,060 

8,583 

1,987 

30,307 

4.035 

4.940 


115.903 

108,258 
16,773 


Population, 
Dec.     31,     1890. 


2,661,799 
785.831 
173.510 
282,708 
361,008 
498,958 
695.384 
928,769 

5,843,094 

2,276,870 
605.649 

6,607,816 
646,591 
527.426 


23.895.413 

15,231,527 

2,201,927 

30,337 

23.752 


17,489,543 


Population, 
Dec.  31,  1900. 


3,100,493 
810,246 
192.763 

1,356,494 
367.337 
508,150 
756,546 
981,989 

6,318,697 

2,437.706 
680,422 

7. 315. 816 
730.19s 
593.783 


26,150,597 

16,656,904 

2,397.249 

38.139 

1 14,81 1 


19,207,103 


41,384,956 


AUSTRIA 


■worst  wine  is  made  into  brandy.  The  average 
produce  of  wine  is  about  540,000  gallons,  of 
which  Hungary  yields  by  far  the  largest  pro- 
portion. The  forests  cover  69,000  square  miles, 
or  one  third  of  the  productive  soil  of  the 
empire,  and  yield  timber  of  excellent  quality, 
adapted  for  all  purposes.  Wild  deer,  wild  swine, 
chamois,  foxes,  lynxes,  and  a  species  of  small 
black  bear,  are  found  in  many  districts,  the  fox 
and  lynx  being  particularly  abundant.  Herds 
of  a  native  breed  of  horses,  of  small  size,  roam 
wild  over  the  plains  of  Hungary.  All  the 
domestic  animals  of  England  are  known 
throughout  the  empire.  A  large  portion  of  the 
countries  now  composing  the  Austrian  empire 
was  at  one  time  submerged  by  the  sea,  par- 
ticularly Hungary,  where  the  general  appear- 
ance of  its  vast  plains,  the  nature  of  their  soil, 
and,  above  all,  the  occurrence  of  fossil  sea 
shells,  leave  no  room  to  doubt  the  former  domin- 
ion of  the  ocean.  Throughout  all  Austria  the 
Tertiary  formation  prevails,  with  a  margin  of 
the  Secondary  formation,  stretching  to  a  greater 
or  lesser  extent  nito  the  surrounding  countries, 
and  diversified  by  patches  of  igneous  rocks  of 
the  Tertiary  and  Alluvial  epochs.  In  mineral 
productions  Austria  is  very  rich,  possessing, 
with  the  exception  of  platinum,  all  the  metals. 
We  may  more  particularly  mention  gold,  silver, 
iron,  copper,  lead,  zinc,  quicksilver,  coal,  and 
salt.  The  total  annual  value  of  the  mineral 
products  of  the  Austrian  empire  is  estimated  at 
upward  of  ii2,ooo,ooo;  of  which  £2,300,000  rep- 
resents coal;  £2.000,000  lignite;  £4,300,000 
smelted  ores ;  and  £3,400,000,  salt. 

Manufactures  and  Commerce. — Manufactures 
are  in  the  most  flourishing  condition  in  Bohemia. 
Moravia,  Silesia,  and  Lower  Austria ;  less  so 
in  the  eastern  provinces,  and  insignificant  in 
Dalmatia,  Bukowina,  and  the  military  frontiers. 
The  total  money  value  of  manufactured  products 
amounts  to  at  least  £130,000,000,  the  value  of 
agricultural  products  to  more  than  £200,000,000. 
As  regards  the  individual  branches  of  manufac- 
ture, there  are  machines  produced  yearly  to  the 
value  of  £4,000,000  to  £5,000,000,  and  the 
supply  about  equals  the  demand.  In  the  manu- 
facture of  musical  and  scientific  instruments 
Austria  holds  a  high  position ;  those  of  Vienna 
are  especially  celebrated.  The  manufactvire  of 
stoneware  and  chinaware  is  very  extensive,  be- 
ing valued  at  about  £2.500,000  yearly,  and  giv- 
ing rise  to  a  brisk  export  trade.  The  glass 
manufacture  is  one  of  the  oldest  and  most  high- 
ly developed  branches  of  industry  in  Austria. 
The  manufactories,  about  200  in  number,  are 
spread  over  the  whole  of  the  monarchy,  hut 
arc  most  numerous  in  Bohemia,  where  glass 
and  glasswares  of  every  kind  are  produced. 
The  yearly  value  of  this  class  of  manufactures 
is  estimated  at  about  £2.500,000.  of  which  a  Very 
considerable  quantity  is  exported.  The  manu- 
facture of  metal  goods  is  carried  on  to  a  great 
extent,  being  valued  at  about  £10,000,000;  and 
some  of  the  iron  and  steel  goods,  such  as 
scythes  and  reaping  hooks,  have  a  world-wide 
reputation.  The  manufacture  of  gold  and  silver 
plate  and  jewelry  is  also  important,  and  the  ar- 
ticles of  Vienna  workmanship  compete  success- 
fully with  the  French.  The  production  of  chem- 
icals reaches  the  amount  of  £5.000,000,  and  about 
covers  the  home  demand.  As  regards  articles 
of  food,  the  sugar  from  beets  has  an  annual 
value  of  about  £12,000,000;  of  beer  the  produc- 


tion is  £4,000,000  in  value,  the  number  of  brew- 
eries is  over  2,000;  spirits  are  distilled  to  the 
value  of  £3,500,000.  The  manufacture  of  tobac- 
co is  a  state  monopoly,  and  is  carried  on  in 
38,  mostly  large,  establishments.  Of  textile  in- 
dustries, the  silk  manufacture,  since  the  loss  of 
the  Lombardo-Venetian  provinces,  has  become 
greatly  limited.  The  manufactures  of  woolen, 
hemp,  and  flax  are  among  the  oldest  and  most 
important  of  the  state.  The  first  gives  employ- 
ment to  about  400,000  persons,  and  turns  out 
about  £14,000,000  worth  of  goods  yearly,  of 
which  a  considerable  proportion  is  annually  ex- 
ported. In  the  whole  monarchy  there  are  about 
650.000  spindles  and  65,000  looms  employed  in 
woolen  weaving.  The  linen  manufacture  (in- 
cluding also  hemp  and  jute)  gives  employment 
to  a  greater  number  of  persons  than  any  other 
branch  of  industry  (many  of  them  in  their 
homes),  and  produces  goods  to  a  greater  value. 
The  chief  seats  of  the  manufacture  are  Bohemia, 
Moravia,  and  Silesia.  The  annual  produce  of 
the  cotton  manufacture  is  next  in  value  to  that 
of  woolens.  Although  about  2,400,000  spindles 
are  in  activity,  cotton  yarn  has  to  be  imported. 
On  the  other  hand,  however,  excellent  cotton 
cloths  are  exported.  Tanning  is  carried  on  to 
the  greatest  extent  in  Moravia,  Lower  Austria, 
and  Bohemia,  3'et  not  sufficiently  to  supply  the 
demand.  The  manufacture  of  leather  goods, 
however,  is  very  large,  and  in  the  production  of 
gloves  (in  Vienna  and  Prague)  Austria  stands 
next  to  France.  Altogether  the  manufacture 
of  leather  and  leather  goods  employs  about 
200,000  persons  and  produces  goods  to  about 
£10,000,000  yearly. 

In  addition  to  the  general  import  and  export 
trade,  Austria  carries  on, —  partly  from  its  cen- 
tral position  in  the  contient  of  Europe,  and  part- 
ly from  its  numerous  navigable  streams,  excel- 
lent roads,  and  in  later  times  its  partially 
completed  railway  system, —  a  very  considerable 
amount  of  business  in  the  transit  of  goods 
through  her  territory  to  other  countries.  In 
1887  the  total  value  of  the  imports  into  Austria- 
Hungary  was,  in  round  numbers,  £53.000,000, 
while  the  value  of  the  exports  was  £69,860,000 ; 
the  respective  figures  for  the  year  1897  were 
£62,940,000  and  £63,854,000.  These  values  were 
exclusive  of  coin  and  bullion,  the  import  of 
which  into  Austria-Hungary  in  1897  amounted 
to  £8,322,000,  while  the  export  for  the  same 
year  was  £4.304,000.  The  principal  import  is 
raw  cotton,  which  was  imported  in  1897  to  the 
value  of  £4,225,000;  wool  being  imported  to  the 
value  of  £3,209,000 ;  cotton  and  woolen  yarn  to 
the  value  of  £2,433,000;  silk  and  silk  goods 
to  the  value  of  £2,725.000;  coffee  to  the  value  of 
£2.192,000;  tobacco  leaf  and  manufactured  to 
the  value  of  £2,167,000;  coal  and  coke  to  the 
value  of  £3,100.000.  Among  the  other  chief 
articles  furs  and  hides  were  imported  to  the 
value  of  £1.842,000;  leather  was  imported  to  the 
value  of  £1,783.000;  machinery,  locomotives,  etc., 
to  the  value  of  £1,642.000:  hardware  and  clocks 
to  the  value  of  nearly  £1,000.000;  books,  news- 
papers, and  maps  to  the  value  of  £1,492,000; 
grain  to  the  value  of  £3.400,000;  cattle  to  the 
value  of  £1,300,000.  Wood  formed  the  chief 
article  of  export,  the  value  of  this  product  being 
in  1897  £7,000.000;  next  came  sugar,  value 
£5,120.000;  cattle  to  the  value  of  £3.800,000. 
Among  other  exports  of  importance  were  grain 
to  the  value  of  £3,475,000;   leather  and  leather 


AUSTRIA 


wares  (including  gloves),  £2,242,000;  hardware, 
£1,533,000;  eggs,  £3,660,000;  coal  and  coke,  £2,- 
850,000;  woolen  manufactures,  £1,542,000;  glass 
and  glassware,  £1,867,000;  paper  and  paperwares, 
£909,000;  wool,  £883,000;  malt,  £2,042,000;  wood- 
en goods,  £1,600,000;  hides,  etc.,  £1,420,000. 
Nearly  one  half  of  the  commerce  of  Austria  is 
carried  on  with  German}',  the  next  places  being 
occupied  by  Great  Britain,  Italy,  Russia,  and 
the  United  States.  Including  fishing  vessels  and 
small  craft,  Austria-Hungary,  in  the  beginning 
of  1897,  had  12,447  vessels  of  all  sizes,  with  a 
tonnage  of  270,250,  and  employing  34,431  men. 
Of  these  227  of  212,069  tons  were  sea-going  ves- 
sels, the  coasting  vessels  being  1,739  in  number 
with  a  tonnage  of  35,515.  The  principal  ports 
of  the  empire  are  Trieste,  Pola,  and  Fiume.  In 
1898  there  were  20,445  miles  of  railway  open  for 
traffic  in  the  empire,  of  which  10,598  were  in 
Austria,  and  9.847  in  Hungary. 

Money,  Weights,  and  Measures. —  On  i  Jan. 
1900  a  new  monetary  system  went  into  effect, 
the  coinage  being  changed  from  a  silver  to  a 
gold  basis,  and  the  standard  coin  and  money  of 
account  being  the  crown  (equal  to  20.3  cents  in 
United  States  gold) .  Practically  the  chief  me- 
dium of  exchange  is  banknotes,  of  various  de- 
nominations. The  Austrian  centner,  the  weight 
by  which  all  large  quantities  are  rated,  is  123^ 
pounds  avoirdupois.  The  metze  (pi.,  metzen), 
the  largest  dry  measure  =1.7  of  a  bushel,  or 
somewhat  less  than  the  fourth  part  of  an  Eng- 
lish imperial  quarter,  nine  metzen  making  two 
quarters  nearly.  The  eimer,  the  most  generally 
used  liquid  measure,  is  equal  to  14.94  English 
wine  gallons.  The  Vienna  foot  is  equal  to 
12.45  inches  English.  The  joch  of  land  is  1.43 
English  acre. 

Population. —  None  of  the  European  states, 
with  the  exception  of  Russia,  exhibits  such  a 
diversity  of  race  and  language  among  their 
population  as  does  the  Austrian  empire.  The 
Slavs,  who  amount  to  above  19,000.000,  or  45  per 
cent  of  the  total  population,  are  the  chief  of  the 
component  nationalities  of  the  monarchy  in 
point  of  numbers,  forming  the  great  mass  of 
the  population  of  Bohemia,  Moravia,  Carniola, 
Galicia,  Dalmatia,  the  kingdom  of  Croatia  and 
Slavonia,  and  Northern  Hungary,  and  half  the 
population  of  Silesia  and  Bukowina.  This  pre- 
ponderance, however,  is  only  apparent,  as  none 
of  the  other  races  are  split  up  into  so  many 
branches  differing  so  greatly  from  each  other  in 
language,  religion,  civilization,  manners,  and  cus- 
toms. These  branches  are  the  North  Slavic 
Czechs,  Moravians,  and  Slovaks,  the  Ruthenians 
and  Poles,  and  the  South  Slavic  Slovenians, 
Croats,  Serbs,  and  Bulgarians.  The  Germans, 
about  10,570,000  in  number,  are  scattered  over 
the  whole  monarchy  and  form  almost  the  sole 
population  of  the  archduchy  of  Austria,  Salz- 
burg, the  greatest  portion  of  Styria  and  Carin- 
thia,  almost  the  whole  of  Tyrol  and  Vorarlberg, 
considerable  portions  of  Bohemia  and  Moravia, 
the  whole  of  the  west  of  Silesia,  etc. ;  and  they 
are  also  numerous  in  Hungary  and  Transylva- 
nia. The  Magyars  or  Hungarians  (7,440,000  in 
number,  or  about  16  per  cent  of  the  total  popu- 
lation) form  the  great  bulk  of  the  inhabitants 
of  the  kingdom  of  Hungary  and  of  the  eastern 
portion  of  Transylvania.  To  the  Italic  or  West- 
em  Romanic  stock  belong  the  inhabitants  of 
South  Tyrol  and  parts  of  the  coast  lands  and 
Dalmatia,    numbering  about    700,000   in    all.     A 


considerable  portion  of  the  southeast  of  the 
empire  is  occupied  by  members  of  the  Rumanian 
(or  Eastern  Romanic)  stock,  who  number  alto- 
gether about  2,800,000,  and  form  more  than 
half  the  population  of  Transylvania,  besides  be- 
ing spread  over  the  southeastern  parts  of 
Hungary,  Bukowina,  and  part  of  Croatia  and 
Slavonia.  The  number  of  Jews  is  also  very  con- 
siderable (above  1,000,000),  especially  in  Galicia, 
Hungarj',  Bohemia,  and  Moravia.  There  are 
also  several  other  races  whose  numbers 
are  small,  such  as  the  Gypsies  (95,000),  who  are 
most  numerous  in  Hungary  and  Transylvania, 
and  the  x-\lbanians  in  Dalmatia  and  neighboring 
regions.  The  population  is  thickest  in  Lower 
Austria,  Bohemia,  Silesia,  and  Moravia ;  thin- 
nest in  Salzburg.  Generally  speaking,  it  de- 
creases in  density  from  west  to  east. 

Religion. — The  state  religion  of  Austria  is 
the  Roman  Catholic,  and  next  in  numbers  is  the 
Greek  Church.  Calvinism  and  Lutheranism  are 
also  professed  by  a  large  body  of  the  people; 
the  former  mostly  in  Hungary  and  Transylva- 
nia^  the  latter  in  the  German  provinces  and  in 
Galicia.  The  civil  power  exercises  supreme  con- 
trol in  all  ecclesiastical  matters,  the  emperor 
being,  in  everything  but  name,  head  of  the 
Church ;  and  as  no  sentence  of  excommunica- 
tion, or  other  ecclesiastical  edict,  can  be  issued 
without  the  sanction  of  the  Crown,  the  Pope's 
direct  authority  in  Austria  is  somewhat  limited. 
In  1890  there  were  in  the  Austrian  portion  of 
the  monarchy  18,784,063  Roman  Catholics,  2,797,- 
089  Greek  Catholics  united  to  the  Roman 
Church,  540,715  non-united,  430,849  Protestants, 
and  1,135,118  Jews.  In  Hungary  and  Transyl- 
vania there  were  8.823,105  Roman  Catholics, 
1,670,283  Greek  united  and  2,633,491  non-united, 
3,427,896   Protestants,  and  724,588  Jews. 

Education. —  The  intellectual  culture  of  the 
people  is  at  very  different  stages  of  advancement 
among  the  different  racss.  It  is  highest  in  the 
German  provinces  and  lowest  in  the  east.  In 
Upper  and  Lower  Austria,  Salzburg,  Tyrol,  Mo- 
ravia, Silesia,  and  Bohemia,  almost  all  the  chil- 
dren of  suitable  age  are  in  attendance  on  the 
public  schools ;  while  in  Bukowina  only  about 
34,  and  in  Galicia  about  59  per  cent  of  them  are 
at  the  schools.  The  educational  system  has  been 
entirely  remodeled  in  recent  times.  The  elemen- 
tary schools,  or  those  in  which  the  common 
branches  are  taught,  are  designated  national 
schools  or  schools  for  the  people  (Volksschu- 
Icn),  and  there  children  have  to  attend  from  the 
end  of  their  6th  to  the  end  of  their  14th 
(in  some  provinces  only  their  12th)  year.  A 
higher  class  of  elementary  schools  are  known  as 
town  schools  (Biirgerschulen),  in  which  a  su- 
perior education  may  be  obtained.  For  the 
training  of  instructors  for  the  people's  schools, 
there  are  43  normal  schools  for  male  teachers 
and  26  for  female.  As  secondary  schools  or  in- 
stitutions of  a  more  advanced  grade,  there  are 
the  gymnasia  and  the  '^real-schools,**  as  they 
are  called.  The  gymnasia  resemble  the  best 
sort  of  our  grammar  schools,  being  intended 
chiefly  to  prepare  pupils  for  the  universities, 
great  attention  being  paid  in  them  to  the 
classical  languages.  In  the  real-schools  a  more 
practical  end  is  kept  in  view,  and  modem 
languages  and  physical  science  form  the  ground- 
work of  the  educational  course.  A  complete 
course  in  a  gymnasium  extends  over  four  years, 
in    a    real-school    either   three   or    four.    There 


AUSTRIA 


are  also  schools  of  an  intermediate  stamp  known 
as  "real-gymnasia.**  The  higher  education  is 
provided  for  by  the  universities,  the  pol3'technic 
institutes,  and  the  various  institutions  in  which 
particular  subjects  are  taught.  There  are  ii 
universities  in  the  monarchy,  namely,  in  Vienna, 
Prague  (two  —  a  German  and  a  Bohemian), 
Pesth,  Gratz,  Cracow,  Lemberg,  Innsbruck, 
Klausenburg,  Agram,  and  Czernowitz.  Most 
of  these  have  four  faculties  —  Catholic  theology, 
law  and  politics,  medicine,  and  philosophy. 
There  are  also  several  technical  high  schools  in 
which  mathematics,  physics,  and  natural  science 
are  the  chief  objects  of  study.  Besides  these 
there  are  theological  institutions ;  schools  for 
jurisprudence  and  philosophy;  schools  of  com- 
merce, industrial  arts,  agriculture,  arboriculture, 
and  mining;  military  schools,  naval  schools,  art 
schools,  conservatories  of  music,  etc.  The  prin- 
cipal libraries  are  the  royal  librar}'  at  Vienna, 
with  450,000  volumes,  24,000  manuscripts,  and 
7,000  incunabula ;  and  the  university  libraries 
of  Vienna  and  Prague. 

Constitution,  Revenue. —  As  already  men- 
tioned, the  Austrian  dominions  now  consist  of 
a  German,  or  Slav'O-Germanic,  or  Cisleithan 
empire,  and  a  Transleithan  or  Hungarian  king- 
dom, each  with  its  own  parliament,  ministers, 
and  government.  The  same  hereditary  sover- 
eign rules  over  both,  and  they  have  a  common 
army  and  navy,  and  a  sort  of  common  parlia- 
ment known  as  the  Delegations.  The  Delega- 
tions consist  of  120  members,  one  half  of  whom 
are  chosen  by  and  represent  the  legislature  of 
German  Austria,  and  the  other  half  that  of 
Hungary,  the  upper  house  of  each  legislature 
returning  20  and  the  lower  house  40  deputies. 
In  all  matters  affecting  the  common  affairs  of 
the  monarchy  the  Delegations  have  a  decisive 
vote,  and  their  resolutions  do  not  require  the 
confirmation  of  the  representative  assemblies 
in  which  they  have  their  source.  The  Delega- 
tions meet  alternately  in  Vienna  and  Budapest. 
Their  ordinary  mode  of  procedure  is  to  sit 
and  vote  in  two  chambers,  the  60  deputies  of 
Cisleithan  Austria  forming  the  one,  and  the 
60  of  Hungary  the  other.  But  if  no  agree- 
ment can  be  arrived  at  in  this  manner,  the 
two  bodies  must  meet  together  and  without 
further  debate  give  their  final  vote,  which  is 
binding  for  the  whole  empire.  The  jurisdiction 
of  the  Delegations  extends  specially  to  all  mat- 
ters affecting  foreign  affairs,  war,  and  finance. 
The  constitution  of  German  Austria  was  final- 
ly established  in  December  1867.  The  prov- 
inces have  each  a  diet  or  legislature  of  their  own 
for  provincial  aft'airs,  these  diets  being  16  in 
number,  one  each  for  Bohemia,  Dalmatia.  Ga- 
licia.  Upper  Austria,  Lower  Austria,  Salzburg, 
Styria,  Carinthia,  Carniola,  Bukowina,  Moravia, 
Silesia.  Tyrol,  Vorarlberg,  Gorz  and  Gradisca, 
and  Istria.  the  municipal  council  of  Trieste 
having  similar  functions.  The  provincial  diets 
are  composed  of  the  archbishops  and  bishops,  the 
rectors  of  the  universities,  the  representatives  of 
the  great  estates,  of  towns,  of  boards  of  com- 
merce, of  rural  communes,  etc.  The  laws  passed 
in  these  diets  have  reference  to  provincial  taxa- 
tion, agricultural,  educational,  and  other  mat- 
ters. The  national  parliament  or  legislature 
of  German  Austria,  called  the  Reichsrath  (or 
council  of  the  realm),  consists  of  an  upper  house 
or  house  of  lords  (HerrnJiaus),  and  a  lower 
house  or  house  of  deputies  (Abgeordnetenhaus) . 


The  former  is  composed  of  princes  of  the  im- 
perial family,  of  nobles  whose  families  have  a 
hereditary  right  to  this  dignity,  of  the  arch- 
bishops, the  bishops  of  princely  rank,  and  of  a 
certain  number  of  life  members  nominated  by  the 
emperor.  The  lower  houses  consist  of  353  mem- 
bers, elected  by  all  citizens  above  24  possessing 
a  small  property  qualification.  The  rights  be- 
longing to  the  Reichsrath  are:  consent  to  all 
laws  relating  to  military  service ;  co-operation  in 
the  legislation  on  commercial  matters,  customs, 
railways,  etc. ;  and  examination  of  the  estimates 
of  the  income  and  expenditure  of  the  state,  and 
other  financial  matters.  The  constitution  of 
Hungary,  including  also  Croatia,  Slavonia,  and 
Transylvania,  dates  from  the  foundation  of  the 
kingdom,  or  about  895  a.d.  It  rests  upon  a 
number  of  statutes  published  at  long  intervals, 
the  principal  of  these  being  the  Bulla  Aurea  or 
Golden  Bull  of  Andrew  II.,  granted  in  1222,  by 
which  the  government  was  defined  as  an  aristo- 
cratic monarchy.  The  legislative  power  is  vest- 
ed in  the  king  and  the  parliament  {Reichstag) 
conjointly.  The  latter  consists  of  an  upper 
house  or  house  of  magnates,  and  of  a  lowei 
house  or  house  of  representatives.  The  house 
of  magnates  consists  of  the  archdukes  of  the 
imperial  family  who  have  attained  their  major- 
ity, 54  ecclesiastical  dignitaries,  151  counts,  and 
36  barons  as  hereditary  members,  84  life  mem- 
bers nominated  by  the  sovereign,  or  elected  by 
the  chamber,  etc.  The  lower  house  (of  453 
members)  is  composed  of  elected  representa- 
tives. The  Hungarian  Reichstag  corresponds  to 
the  Reichsrath  of  the  Cisleithan  provinces,  and 
accordingly  only  deals  with  such  matters  as  are 
common  to  the  provinces  belonging  to  the  Hun- 
garian crown.  Transylvania  is,  so  far  as  legis- 
lation and  administration  are  concerned,  entirely 
incorporated  with  Hungary.  Croatia  and  Sla- 
vonia, however,  have  a  Landtag  or  diet  of  their 
own,  which,  like  the  provincial  diets  of  the 
Cisleithan  portion  of  the  empire,  consists  of 
only  one  chamber,  and  which  is  competent  to 
deal  with  all  matters  belonging  to  the  interior 
administration  of  the  provinces,  with  religion 
and  education,  and  with  the  administration  of 
justice.  Fiume,  which  was  formerly  associated 
with  Croatia  and  Slavonia,  and  subject  to  the 
Landtag  of  these  provinces,  has,  since  August 
1870,  been  put  directly  under  the  central  Hun- 
garian government. 

There  being  three  distinct  parliaments  in  the 
empire,  there  are  also  three  budgets,  namely, 
that  for  the  whole  empire,  that  for  Cisleithan, 
and  that  for  Transleithan  Austria.  In  the  budget 
of  the  whole  empire  for  IQ02  the  revenue  and 
expenditure  were  each  estimated  at  365.181,966 
crowns ;  in  that  for  Cisleithan  Austria  the  reve- 
nue was  estimated  at  1,685,966.357  crowns,  and 
the  expenditures  at  1,685.117.944  crowns;  and 
in  that  for  Transleithan  Austria  the  estimated 
revenue  was  1.086,870,018  crowns,  the  estimated 
expenditure  being  a  little  less.  A  small  portion 
of  the  imperial  revenue  of  Austria  is  derived 
from  customs  and  other  sources,  and  the  re- 
mainder is  made  up  by  the  two  divisions  of  the 
empire,  70  per  cent  thereof  being  contributed 
by  the  Cisleithan  and  30  per  cent  by  the  Trans- 
leithan portion. 

Recent  Politics. —  Austria  to-day  is  what 
]\Ietternich  with  less  truth  called  Italy,  little  more 
than  a  geographical  expression.  Three  bonds 
do  indeed  unite  its  discordant  nationalities;  but 


AUSTRIA 


for  the  hasty  observer  the  country  mght  well 
seem  in  the  last  stages  of  decomposition.  There 
is  nothing  really  Austrian  in  Austria  —  no  Aus- 
trian interests,  no  Austrian  language,  or  litera- 
ture, or  patriotism,  no  Austrian  nationality,  no 
Austrian  standard  of  civilization  ;  nothing  except 
the  emperor,  and  the  army,  and  the  cockpit 
of  the  Reichsrath  that  the  races  share  in  com- 
mon. The  Germans  form  a  compact  entity  by 
themselves  in  Upper  and  Lower  Austria  and  the 
Duchy  of  Salzburg.  In  Bohemia  there  is  a 
respectable  colony  of  them  along  the  borders 
of  Saxony  and  Bavaria,  over  2.000,000  strong, 
but  even  so  they  are  outnumbered  by  the  Czechs 
in  the  ration  of  3  to  5.  All  together  the 
German-speaking  subjects  are  about  a  third  of 
the  total  population  of  Austria  —  some  8,500,- 
000  out  of  24,000,000.  The  Czechs  in  Bohemia, 
Moravia,  and  Silesia  number  roughly  5,000,000. 
In  Galicia  some  4.000,000  Poles  hold  down  a 
trifle  over  3,000,000  Ruthenians.  A  couple  of 
million  Slovenes,  Servians,  and  Croats  are  scat- 
tered over  Carinthia  and  Carniola,  while  nearly 
1,000,000  Italians  inhabit  the  Tyrol.  None  of 
these  races  can  alone  be  said  to  represent  Aus- 
tria, though  all  of  them  claim  to ;  and  their  mu- 
tual wranglings,  struggles  to  realize  themselves, 
struggles  to  elbow  out  their  neighbors  and  seize 
an  incontestable  ascendency,  are  the  back- 
ground, and  at  times  something  more,  of  mod- 
ern Austrian  politics.  But  for  the  dashing 
tenacity  of  the  Magyars,  Hungary  might  be  as 
heterogeneous  as  her  partner  in  the  dual  mon- 
archy. The  Magj'ars  are  only  7,500,000  out  of 
nearly  18,000,000,  but  they  are  a  race  with  the 
fierce  hardihood  and  determination  of  the  Teu- 
tonic stock  and  a  grace  and  fascination  that 
are  neither  Latin  nor  Celtic,  but  distinctively 
their  own.  Since  the  two  nations  entered  into 
a  partnership  agreement  as  coequal  and  sover- 
eign states,  the  Magyars  have  devoted  all  their 
brilliant  energies  and  the  immense  force  of  a 
concentrated  one-idealness  to  making  them- 
selves paramount  throughout  the  southern  half 
of  the  realm.  They  revolted  against  being  Ger- 
manized, but  see  no  inconsistency  in  insisting 
that  the  Servians,  Croats,  Rumanians,  and  Slo- 
venes shall  be  Magyarized ;  and  they  have  set 
about  the  task  with  unsparing  persistency  just 
saved  from  relentlessness  by  their  genius  for 
wise  compromise.  A  restricted  suffrage,  ex- 
excluding  nineteen  twentieths  of  the  people  from 
the  polls,  keeps  public  affairs  in  their  grasp. 
The  schools  have  been  a  much  more  effective  in- 
strument in  the  development  of  a  national  feel- 
ing, and  the  Magyars  have  thoroughly  worked 
them  to  that  end.  Like  the  Russians  and  Amer- 
icans, but  unlike  the  English,  the  Magyars  rec- 
ognize that  where  there  is  difference  of  speech 
there  will  be  difference  of  sentiment,  of  heart, 
of  interests,  and  at  a  pinch  perhaps  of  loyalty, 
and  have  accordingly  refused  to  make  the  pres- 
ervation of  dialects  an  object  of  government. 
Fifty  years  ago  the  Hungarian  nobles  spoke 
German  and  a  bastard  monkish  Latin  in  their 
homes  and  diets.  To-day  the  native  tongue  ob- 
tains, among  all  classes,  and  the  absorption  of 
all  manner  of  outlanders, —  German,  Slovacks, 
jews,  Rumanians,  and  Croats, —  by  the  irresist- 
ible and  peaceful  process  of  denationalization  in 
the  schoolroom,  has  gone  on  at  such  a  pace  that 
the  Magyars  increase  nearly  three  times  as  quick- 
ly as  any  of  the  neighboring  races.  The  strug- 
gle of  the  nationalities  in  Hungary  has  ended 


in  a  more  or  less  reoigned  acquiescence  in  Mag- 
yar rule. 

In  Austria,  as  in  Spain,  the  factory  is  placed 
some  distance  behind  the  barracks  as  an  ele- 
ment of  national  welfare,  and  a  contemptuous 
bureaucracy  shackles  trade  with  a  hundred  en- 
tangling regulations.  The  Magyars,  on  the  other 
hand,  have  been  as  attentive  to  commerce  as 
to  their  racial  position.  Perhaps  there  is  no 
country  in  which  the  state,  as  such,  has  done 
more  for  industrial  development.  The  really 
vital  domestic  problems  of  Hungary  are,  indeed, 
no  longer  racial,  and  as  freedom  ot  worship  is 
the  law,  they  have  never  been  acutely  religious. 
But  in  the  rise  of  what  is  called  Agrarian  So- 
cialism, there  is  something  that  may  test  Mag- 
yar statesmanship  severely.  Meanwhile  the 
Magyars  are  the  backbone  of  the  dual  monarchy. 
Against  the  rising  tides  of  Pan-Slavism  they 
present  a  compact  and  unbending  front.  To- 
gether with  the  German  empire  they  may  be 
considered  the  outposts  of  Europe  against  Slav 
aggression ;  and  even  in  the  domestic  affairs  of 
the  monarchy  their  unbreakable  unity  as  a 
political  force  has  made  their  influence  well- 
nigh  decisive.  The  Aiisgleich  of  1867, —  the 
partnership  agreement  between  the  two  halves  of 
the  realm, —  prescribed  that  matters  of  com- 
mon concern,  such  as  foreign  affairs,  diplo- 
matic representation,  and  naval  and  military 
matters,  should  be  arranged  by  60  delegates 
from  each  country,  meeting  twice  a  year.  The 
Austrian  delegation  is  made  up  of  Germans, 
Czechs,  Poles,  Ruthenians,  Italians,  whose  feuds 
make  steady  co-operation  all  but  impossible.  The 
Hungarian  delegation,  on  the  other  hand,  is 
composed  of  55  Magyars  and  5  Croatians,  work- 
ing with  the  directness  and  harmony  of  a  single 
man.  The  consequence  is  that  in  the  long  run 
the  Hungarian  view  is  fairly  sure  to  carry  the 
day.  So  far  each  renewal  of  the  Aiisgleich  has 
brought  substantial  modifications  in  favor  of 
Hungary,  and  the  centre  of  gravity  has,  in  fact, 
shifted  from  Vienna  to  Budapest.  The  em- 
peror, when  driven  to  it,  might  go  against  the 
German-speaking  Austrians,  but  never  against 
the  Magyars ;  and  the  Magyars,  fully  realizing 
their  power,  have  extorted  concession  after  con- 
cession from  their  unhappy  partner ;  have 
applied  the  screw  so  persistently,  that  it  is  be- 
coming a  question  whether  they  are  not  as  un- 
popular among  Austrian  statesmen  as  the  very 
Czechs  themselves.  The  troubles  of  the  dual 
monarchy  are  due  to  the  failure  of  the  Ger- 
mans to  repeat  in  Austria  the  successes  of 
the  Magyars  in  Hungary.  "You  look  after  your 
hordes,*'  said  Count  Beust  to  a  Hungarian 
statesman  when  the  Austrian  empire  became  the 
dual  monarchy,  "and  we'll  look  after  ours.^' 
The  Czechs  of  Bohemia  have  turned  to  ridicule 
the  count's  too  valiant  declaration.  The  Ger- 
mans of  Vienna,  one  must  remember,  are  very 
different  from  the  Germans  of  Berlin.  Of  all 
the  sections  of  the  Teutonic  race  they  appear  to 
have  the  least  robustness  of  intellect  or  charac- 
ter and  the  laxest  grip  on  practical  affairs.  In- 
dolent, hypercritical,  and  self-satisfied,  they  are 
the  emasculated  editions  of  their  northern  kins- 
men. From  whatever  cause,  some  paralyzing 
blight  of  lassitude  and  ineffectiveness  seems  to 
have  eaten  its  way  into  their  energies.  Against 
their  cultured  fecklessness  the  Czechs  oppose 
the  elemental  force  of  racial  ambition,  the  driv- 
ing power  of  a  people  that  has  the  conscious- 


AUSTRIA 


ness  of  a  great  destiny  before  it  and  feels  itself 
on  the  top  of  the  rising  wave. 

The  Germans  protest  that  they  have  educated 
themselves  beyond  the  point  where  race  is  every- 
thing and  cannot  at  this  time  of  day  be  expected 
to  return  to  first  principles.  It  is  of  course 
tenable  that  the  variety  of  parties  into  which 
the  Germans  are  split  up  argues  an  advanced 
and  broad  political  intelligence.  At  the  same 
time  it  makes  a  poor  barrier  against  the  impact 
of  a  race  that  subordinates  everything  to  a  sin- 
gle practical  end ;  and  unless  the  Germans  are 
prepared  to  see  a  great  part  of  their  old  ascen- 
dency pass  away,  they  must  be  ready  to  drop 
"theorizing, >>  take  up  the  issue  that  has  been 
forced  upon  them,  and  meet  their  antagonists 
with  weapons  not  necessarily  of  their  own  choos- 
ing. In  other  words,  they  need  simplifying 
if  they  are  to  combat  the  Czechs  successfully. 
As  it  is,  the  Czechs  for  the  last  30  years  have 
been  slowly  driving  them  to  the  wall.  City 
after  city  has  fallen  into  their  hands ;  Prague 
and  Pilsen,  that  only  a  quarter  of  a  century 
ago  were  German  in  tongue  and  sentiment,  are 
now  Slavonized  down  to  their  very  street  names. 
And  in  politics  and  industry  as  well  as  music 
and  literature  and  the  lighter  arts,  the  past 
hundred  years  have  seen  the  Czechs  advance  in 
a  quite  wonderful  fashion.  They  have  long 
ceased  to  fear  the  Germans,  and  with  the  dis- 
appearance of  fear  comes  naturally  the  claim 
to  equality.  Moreover,  the  Czechs  have  a  strong 
historical  case.  Four  hundred  years  ago  what 
are  now  the  crown-lands  of  Bohemia,  Moravia, 
and  Silesia  formed  the  Czech  kingdom  of  St. 
Vacslav ;  and  what  is  now  Hungary  was  then 
the  kingdom  of  St.  Stephen.  The  Czechs  of- 
fered their  crown  in  1526  to  the  Hapsburgs, 
at  the  same  time,  for  the  same  reasons,  and 
on  the  same  conditions  as  the  Magyars ;  stipu- 
lating only  that  they  should  retain  their  old 
rights  of  self-government.  This  contract,  to- 
gether with  the  Pragmatic  Sanction,  was  the 
legal  basis  of  the  Hungarian  rebellion  of  1848. 
Th  Czechs  still  use  it  to  point  the  justice  of 
their  demands  for  a  resurrection  of  St.  Vac- 
slav's  kingdom,  maintaining  that  their  case  is 
on  all  fours  with  that  of  Hungary,  rests  on 
the  same  documents,  and  is  supported  by  the 
same  coronation  oaths.  The  Hapsburgs  never 
quite  lived  up  to  their  side  of  the  agreement. 
They  allowed  the  Turks  to  overrun  Hungary  at 
will,  and  when  the  Reformation  came  and  the 
Czechs  gathered  round  John  Huss.  they  stamped 
out  the  heresy  in  blood  and  established  a  strong 
German  colony  along  the  northern  borders  of 
Bohemia  for  the  protection  of  the  faith  and  the 
suppression  of  the  natives.  The  Czechs  have 
kept  their  native  tongue  alive,  and  just  across 
their  borders  are  their  kinsmen  of  the  Russian 
empire.  The  card  of  Russian  sympathy  is  often 
played,  and  after  every  fresh  frustration  of  their 
national  hopes  follows  the  spectacle  of  5,500.000 
Czechs  cautiously  sounding  the  Czar's  "racial 
instinct.'^  It  is  this  that  lends  color  to  the 
common  charge  that  the  Czechs  are  disloyal, 
but  it  is  to  be  noticed  that  when  the  situation 
is  reversed  and  the  emperor  makes  even  the 
shortest  step  toward  Home  Rule,  the  Germans 
at  once  adopt  their  opponents'  tactics,  throw 
themselves  into  the  arms  of  their  Prussian 
brethren,  and  vow  that  sooner  than  stay  and 
be  swamped  by  a  hated  and  inferior  race,  they 
would  willingly  exchange  the  Hapsburgs  for  the 


Hohenzollerns  and  enroll  themselves  among 
Kaiser  Wilhelm's  subjects.  The  suspicion  cannot 
be  avoided  that  these  dramatics  are  at  bottom 
intended  for  home  consumption,  and  that  the 
tune  would  be  quickly  changed  if  the  czar  or 
kaiser  were  to  listen  too  seriously. 

The  whole  history  of  the  dual  monarchy  goes 
to  show  that  real  consolidation  and  unity  can 
be  effected  only  by  the  seemingly  paradoxical 
method  of  allowing  each  nationality  the  widest 
possible  freedom.  Justice  toward  and  equal 
treatment  of  all  races  is  the  only  sure  road  to 
peace  and  perpianency.  It  is  a  hard  one  for 
the  Germans  to  tread,  for  it  means  the  over- 
throw of  an  ascendency  once  paramount  in 
every  corner  of  the  realm ;  but  unless  universal 
suffrage  brings  to  the  front  an  entirely  new 
set  of  problems,  trod  it  must  be.  The  inter- 
play of  these  racial  ambitions  has  been  com- 
plicated, sometimes  retarded  and  sometimes 
acutely  emphasized  by  a  hundred  differences  of 
religious,  economic,  and  purely  political  inter- 
ests, all  of  which  have  representatives  in  the 
Reichsrath.  They  act  upon  one  another  under 
the  shadow  of  the  racial  issues  in  a  way  that 
no  foreigner  can  disentangle.  The  confusion 
of  the  country  is  worthily  reproduced  in  the 
15  distinct  parties  and  the  seven  or  eight  lan- 
guages that  crop  up  in  the  Vienna  parliament. 
Austria-Hungary  is  a  polyglot  chaos  in  which 
even  Austrians  do  not  profess  to  see  more  than 
a  half  light.  The  prophecies  of  disruption  may 
therefore  appear  at  least  plausible.  But  it  is 
one  of  the  many  paradoxes  of  the  dual  mon- 
archy that  it  seems  unable  to  break  up.  In  part 
it  is  protected  by  the  very  diversity  and  num- 
ber of  the  antagonisms  it  is  obliged  to  house. 
A  more  visible  bond  of  union  is  the  army,  in 
which  all  must  serve,  which  is  of  all  races 
and  creeds,  and  therefore  of  none,  and  the 
atmosphere  of  which  is  broadly  and  impressively 
imperial.  What  its  actual  effectiveness  will 
prove  to  be  like,  should  it  ever  be  tested,  is 
one  of  the  most  interesting  military  problems 
of  the  day.  The  only  force  with  which  it  can 
be  compared  in  the  excellence  of  its  units  and 
the  variety  of  its  nationalities  and  tongues  is 
the  allied  army  that  rescued  the  Pekin  lega- 
tions; and  the  parallel  is  not  altogether  hope- 
ful. A  polyglot  army  must  of  necessity  be  to 
some  extent  a  disorganized  army,  and  while 
the  forces  of  the  dual  monarchy  use  German  as 
the  language  of  military  command,  the  rank  and 
file  and  the  bulk  of  the  officers  retain  their  own 
speech  for  general  purposes.  The  heteroge- 
neous character  of  its  composition  has  had  a 
steadying  influence"  on  the  internal  struggles 
of  the  dual  monarchy,  however  much  it  may 
hamper  its  efficiency  on  the  battlefield.  The 
army  has  kept  itself  largely  aloof  from  poli- 
tics, and  though  the  Czechs  did  once  attempt 
to  transfer  the  racial  bitterness  to  the  parade 
ground  by  answering  the  roll-call  in  their  own 
tongue,  a  sharp  rebuke  from  the  emperor  was 
enough  to  bring  them  to  reason. 

A  second  and  equally  powerful  bond  of 
union  is  the  monarchy.  Not  only  is  it  accepted 
everywhere,  but  the  idea  of  upsetting  it  in 
favor  of  any  other  form  of  government  has 
never  yet  been  broached.  Even  the  Kossuth 
irreconcilables,  who  would  like  to  see  the 
Ausglcich  abolished  and  Hungary  direct  her 
own  fiscal  policy, —  a  quite  possible  development, 
—  and  manage  her  own  foreign  affairs,  still  do 


AUSTRIA 


not  propose  to  sever  the  personal  tie  that  binds 
the  two  countries.  And  not  only  is  the  mon- 
archy secure  in  the  affections  of  the  people,  but 
the  dynasty  is  eaually  popular.  So  long  as 
there  is  a  throne  it  is  not  conceivable  that  any 
one  but  a  Hapsburg  should  occupy  it.  This 
two-fold  devotion  to  monarchy  and  to  the 
dynasty  has  been  greatly  strengthened  of  late 
years,  partly  by  the  breakdown  of  parliamentary 
government  and  the  weariness  which  has  made 
the  people  look  to  the  throne  as  an  escape 
from  the  turmoil  and  wranglings  of  small 
groups,  and  partly  through  the  patience  and 
wisdom,  the  sterling  fair-mindedness  and  com- 
petency of  the  present  emperor,  as  well  as  the 
ghastly  tragedies  of  his  private  life.  But  it  is 
a  curious  delusion  to  argue  that  just  because 
Francis  Joseph  is  so  adequate  and  well  be- 
loved, and  comes  so  near  to  the  ideal  of  what 
a  constitutional  monarch  should  be,  therefore 
the  empire  must  go  to  pieces  when  his  mod- 
erating and  persuasive  influence  is  withdrawn. 
Such  a  reign  as  his  is  far  more  than  a  merely 
personal  triumph ;  it  is  the  consecration  of  a 
system ;  it  exalts  the  monarchy  as  well  as  the 
monarch,  and  it  smooths  out  the  path  for  his 
successors  by  bequeathing  to  them  an  office 
made  more  illustrious  by  his  example  and 
memory,  more  powerful  and  more  deeply  based 
in  the  hearts  of  the  people.  So  far  from  being 
a  signal  for  dismemberment,  the  close  of  the 
present  emperor's  reign  is  more  likely  to  wit- 
ness a  splendid  rally  round  the  house  and  throne 
of  the  Hapsburgs.  The  general  peace  of  Eu- 
rope would  indeed  be  jeopardized  in  the  event 
of  a  scramble  for  the  fragments  of  the  dual 
monarchy.  But  no  such  catastrophe  is  likely, 
for  the  reason  that  it  is  to  no  one's  interest 
to  bring  it  about.  It  is  not  for  secession  from, 
but  for  the  fullest  liberty  within,  the  empire 
that  "the  numerous  nationalities  involved**  are 
struggling.  The  only  genuine  secessionists  are 
HerreH  Wolf  and  Schonerer  and  their  follow- 
•srs,  who  wish  to  incorporate  German-speaking 
Austria  with  the  German  empire.  It  is  possible 
that  their  wishes  may  ultimately  be  gratified, 
but  not  in  our  time,  not  till  after  the  next  Euro- 
pean war,  if  even  then,  and  not  till  the  clerical- 
ism of  Austrian  Germans  has  considerably  toned 
down.  What  the  Czechs  and  the  other  races 
Tvant,  is  the  same  independence  as  the  Magyars 
poss^ess,  and  such  independence  is  as  incon- 
sistent with  Russian  as  with  German  domina- 
tion. It  is  against  their  interests  to  break  away 
from  the  Hapsburgs.  The  day  of  small  states 
has  gone  by,  and  a  lonely  Czech  kingdom 
could  not  exist  for  a  year  by  the  side  of  Russia. 

Army. —  Military  service  is  obligatory  on  all 
citizens  capable  of  bearing  arms  who  have  at- 
tained the  age  of  20,  and  lasts  up  to  the  age  of 
42,  either  in  the  active  army,  in  the  landwehr,  or 
the  landsturm.  The  period  of  service  in  the 
active  army  is  12  years,  of  which  three  are 
passed  in  the  line,  seven  in  the  reserve,  and  two 
in  the  landwehr.  In  1900  the  standing  army 
numbered  361,693  men  (including  officers)  on 
the  peace  footing,  and  1,826,940  men  and  45,238 
officers  on  the  war  footing. 

Navy. —  On  account  of  the  recent  develop- 
ment of  the  Italian  navy,  Austria  has  found  it 
necessary  for  her  self-defense  to  have  a  fleet 
of  her  own,  and  the  last  ship  of  a  new  squadron 
was  launched  in  1904.  The  new  ships  are  re- 
markable   for    their   armament    and    speed,    and 


will  compare  favorably  with  any  equal  number 
and  size  of  ship  in  the  world.  Leaving  out  the 
ships  constructed  prior  to  1887,  the  new  fleet 
is  composed  of  two  battleships,  the  Erzherzog 
Friedrich  and  the  Erzherzog  Karl,  of  10,600  and 
10,100  tons  respectively,  and  19.25  knots  speed. 
Each  will  carry  four  9.45-inch  Skoda  guns  of 
40  calibres  and  twelve  7.48-inch  of  42  calibres. 
The  first  will  have  in  addition  fourteen  2.75-inch 
and  the  other  2  of  the  same  calibre,  each  being 
furnished  with  a  full  complement  of  small  bore 
quickfirers.  The  7.48-inch  guns  will  fire  four 
rounds  a  minute. 

The  next  division  is  composed  of  three  ships 
of  8,300  tons  each,  named  the  Habsburg,  Baben- 
berg  and  Arpad.  Their  speed  is  18.5  knots,  and 
the  armaments  three  9.4-inch  and  twelve  6-inch 
guns  each,  besides  the  usual  complement  of  small 
calibre  quickfirers. 

Then  comes  a  division  of  three  coast  defence 
ships,  the  Monarch,  Wien  and  Budapest,  of 
5,600  tons  each  and  17  knots  speed.  Their  arma- 
ment of  four  9.4-inch  and  six  5.9-inch  each,  with 
fourteen  smaller  calibre  quickfirers,  is  extremely 
formidable  for  their  size,  and  it  is  well  disposed 
and  protected,  entitling  them  to  be  reckoned  as 
battleships. 

The  cruisers  of  the  Austro-Hungarian  navy 
are,  in  order  of  size,  the  Kaiser  Karl  VI.,  of 
6,250  tons ;  the  Maria  Theresa,  of  5,370 ;  and  the 
Kaiser  Franz  Joseph  I.  and  Kaiserin  Elizabeth, 
of  4,060  tons  each.  Each  carries  two  9.4-inch 
guns ;  the  first  two  eight  6-inch  quickfirers ;  and 
the  last  two  six  6-inch  quickfirers  each,  with 
numerous  small  calibre  pieces.  Their  speed  is 
between  19  and  20  knots,  and  they  hold  a  place 
between  armored  and  protected  cruisers. 

Two  ships  classed  as  battleships,  launched  in 
1887,  the  Erzherzog  Rudolf  of  6,900  tons  and 
the  Erzherzogin  Stefanie,  of  5,100  tons,  may  be 
added  to  the  effective  squadron  and  would  raise 
it  to  fourteen  vessels.  Their  armament  is  suffi- 
ciently powerful,  consisting  of  three  and  two  12- 
inch,  six  4.7-inch  and  six  6-inch  guns  respec- 
tively, with  two  2.75-inch  pieces  each.  Their 
speed  is   16  knots. 

There  are  three  small  cruisers  of  2,306  tons 
each,  the  Zenta,  Jaguar  and  Aspern ;  and  three 
torpedo  cruisers,  of  1,600  to  1,700  tons  each,  the 
Panther,  Leopard  and  Tiger.  The  seven  tor- 
pedo boat  destroyers,  range  from  310  to  610  tons, 
of  21  knots  speed,  and  there  is  a  small  torpedo 
boat  flotilla,  which  is  being  increased.  Experi- 
ments are  also  in  progress  with  submarines. 

The  personnel  of  the  Austro-Hungarian  navy 
is  excellent,  and  should  the  squadron  it  can 
turn  out  ever  be  called  on  to  act  alone  or  as 
part  of  the  naval  force  of  an  alliance,  it  can  be 
relied  on  to  give  a  good  account  of  itself. 

Judiciary. —  The  courts  of  first  instance  com- 
prise 940  Bezirksgerichte,  county  courts,  and  71 
Landes  und  Kreisgerichte,  provincial  and  district 
courts;  Geschzvorenengerichte,  or  jury  courts 
being  connected  with  the  latter.  These  courts 
act  as  courts  of  inquiry  and  have  summary  juris- 
diction. The  courts  of  second  instance,  or  courts 
of  appeal  from  the  lower  courts,  having  the 
supervision  of  the  criminal  courts,  comprise  9 
Oberlandesgcriclifc  or  higher  provincial  courts. 
There  are  also  special  tribunals  for  military, 
revenue,  shipping,  and  other  matters,  including 
four  industrial  courts  and  three  commercial 
courts.  The  Oberste  Gerichts  und  Kassations- 
hof,   Supreme    Court   of   Justice   and    Court   of 


AUSTRIAN  SUCCESSION— AUTOMATISM 


Cassation,  at  Vienna,  is  the  final  court  of  ap- 
peal. The  High  Court  of  Administrative  Affairs 
decides  differences  between  private  individuals 
and  public  officials,  and  the  Reichsgericht,  or 
Court  of  the  Empire,  the  conflicts  of  law  and 
jurisdiction  between  different  authorities. 

Bibliography. —  Broglie,  'Frederick  the  Great 
and  Maria  Theresa'  ;  Coxe,  *  History  of  the 
House  of  Austria^  ;  Gindely,  *  History  of  the 
Thirty  Years'  War'  ;  Leger,  'History  of  Aus- 
tro-Hungary'  ;  Lowell,  'Government  and  Par- 
ties in  Continental  Europe'  ;  Ranke,  'History  of 
the  Reformation  in  Germany*  ;  Slegnobos,  'Po- 
litical History  of  Europe  since  1814'  ;  Whitman, 
'The  Realm  of  the  Hapsburgs'  ;  Whitman  and 
Mcllrath,    'Austria.' 

Austrian  Succession.  See  Succession 
Wars. 

Au'thors,  British  Society  of,  an  associa- 
tion of  authors  formed  in  London  in  1883,  for 
social  and  business  purposes.  It  has  a  govern- 
ing committee  of  30  members ;  maintains  an 
attractive  club-room  and  publishes  a  periodical 
called  'The  Author.'  The  late  Lord  Tennyson 
was  its  president  till  his  death. 

Au'thors  Club,  an  American  organization 
founded  in  New  York  in  1882,  and  incorporated 
in  1887.  It  is  governed  by  an  executive  com- 
mittee without  a  president.  Any  person  who 
is  the  author  of  a  published  book  proper  to 
literature,  or  of  creditable  literary  work  equiva- 
lent to  such  a  book,  is  eligible  to  membership. 
The  club  holds  meetings  semi-monthly,  and 
gives  Saturday  receptions  for  ladies  in  the 
winter  season.  It  has  a  library  consisting  of 
the  publications  of  its  members  and  another  de- 
voted to  literary  biography. 

Au'thors,  French  Society  of,  an  organiza- 
tion founded  in  Paris  in  1837,  for  the  protec- 
tion of  authors  in  their  rights,  and  open  to  any 
man  of  letters.  It  is  governed  by  an  elective 
committee  of  24  members,  and  has  a  pension 
fund  which  provides  for  aid  in  work,  for  sick- 
ness and  in  old  age.  Besides  publishing  a  jour- 
nal, the  'Chronique,'  the  society  has  collected  a 
large  sum  of  money  from  pirating  publishers. 

Au'thors,  American,  Society  of,  an  organi- 
zation founded  in  New  York  in  1892,  and  in- 
corporated in  1895,  having  for  its  objects  the 
promotion  of  a  professional  spirit  among  au- 
thors and  a  better  understanding  between  au- 
thors and  their  publishers,  and,  in  general,  the 
protection  of  literary  property  and  the  advance- 
ment of  the  interests  of  American  authors  and 
literature.  All  persons  engaged  in  literary  pur- 
suits are  eligible  to  membership.  The  society 
has  a  pension  fund  for  members  who  may  be- 
come needy. 

Auto  de  fe,  ow'to  da  fa  (Spanish);  Auto 
da  Fe  (Portuguese),  lit.  "act  of  faith."  See 
Inquisition. 

Auto-intoxication,  a  poisoning  of  the  body 
by  its  own  products.  In  the  complicated  pro- 
cesses that  make  up  the  sum  total  of  human 
metabolism  many  products  are  formed  which  if 
not  modified  in  some  manner  would  poison  and 
kill  the  body.  The  simplest  illustration  of  this  is 
seen  in  the  function  of  respiration,  in  which  the 
carbon  dioxid  in  the  venous  blood  is  oxidized 
m   the   lungs   and  thus   eliminated.     The   urine 


contains  a  number  of  bodies  which  if  prevented 
from  leaving  the  body  would  cause  its  death. 
Thus  auto-intoxication  may  result  from  the 
normal  products  elaborated  in  the  body  if  these 
are  not  modified,  or  are  prevented  an  outlet. 
But  the  problem  of  auto-intoxication  is  much 
more  complicated  in  many  of  its  manifestations. 
Sick-headache,  gout,  diabetes,  many  neuralgias, 
Addison's  disease,  myxedema,  acromegaly  and 
many  other  obscure  diseased  conditions  are 
known  to  be  due  to  some  form  of  perversion 
of  the  normal  processes  of  metabolism  and  are 
instanced  as  forms  of  auto-intoxication.  The 
general  organs  of  defense  in  the  constant  play 
of  these  factors  may  be  divided  into  two  general 
groups,  (i)  those  that  have  the  function  of 
transforming  by  chemical  means  many  of  the 
poisonous  products  of  the  normal  metabolism  of 
the  body,  and  (2)  those  organs  that  are  chiefly 
concerned  in  the  elimination  of  these  products. 
To  the  first  group  belong  the  liver,  the  mucous 
membranes,  the  thyroid,  lymphnodes,  the  adre- 
nal glands,  the  blood  cells,  the  blood  serum  and 
the  lymph.  In  the  second  group  are  the  kid- 
neys, the  lungs,  the  skin,  and  the  intestines. 

Classification. —  Auto-intoxication  may  re- 
sult (i)  from  the  failure  of  functions  of  certain 
organs  having  a  definite  chemical  function. 
Pancreatic  diabetes,  bronze  diabetes,  pernicious 
ansernia,  myxedema,  acromegaly,  cachexia,  stru- 
mipriva,  Addison's  disease,  these  all  come  in 
this  class ;  (2)  by  a  faulty  metabolism  wherebv 
normal  amounts  of  waste  products  are  not 
thrown  off.  Gout,  diabetes,  oxaluria,  are  ex- 
amples of  this  type;  (3)  through  retention  of 
the  normal  physiological  products  in  the -organs 
themselves.  Carbon  dioxid  poi.soning  is  a  type; 
(4)  by  means  of  excessive  production  of  physio- 
logical or  pathological  products.  Diabetic  coma, 
cystinuria,  acetonuria.  uremia  are  types  of  this 
form.  Such  a  classification  is  necessarily  very 
inadequate  and  will  be  found  to  be  of  service 
only  as  a  general  framework  on  which  a  more 
exact  systematization  of  knowledge  may  take 
place.  Consult:  Herter,  'Chemical  Pathology' 
(1902)  ;  Vaughan  and  Novy,  'Cellulartoxins' 
(1902).  See  Animal  Alkaloids;  Metabolism; 
Ptomaine;  Toxicology. 

Au'to  Sugges'tion.     See  Hypnotism. 

Autocrat  of  the  Breakfast  Table,  The,  a 

noted  work  by  Oliver  Wendell  Holmes,  consist- 
ing of  imaginary  conversations  around  a  board- 
ing-house table.  The  characters  are  introduced 
to  the  reader  as  the  Autocrat,  the  Schoolmis- 
tress, the  Old  Gentleman  Opposite,  the  Young 
Man  Called  John,  The  Landlady,  the  Landlady's 
Daughter,  the  Poor  Relation,  and  the  Divinity 
Student.  It  is  the  most  popular  of  Dr.  Holmes' 
books ;  and  in  none  of  them  are  his  ease  of 
style,  his  wit,  his  humor,  his  kindly  sympathy 
and  love  of  humanity,  more  clearly  shown. 

Automatic     Telephony.       See     Telephony, 

Automatic. 

Autom'atism,  in  animals  the  powder  of 
movement  or  of  action  without  any  stimulus 
independent  of. that  arising  in  the  protoplasm  of 
cells  and  tissues.  Thus  Descartes  regarded  ani- 
mals (other  than  man)  as  "automata,"  and 
declared  that  they  act  independently  of  any  voli- 
tion, or  instinctive  or  intellectual  power  or  tac- 
ulty;  in  other  words,  that  their  so-called  mental 
acts  are  involuntary  and  mechanical  —  that  they 


AUTOMATON  —  AUTOMOBILE 


may  be  compared  to  machines.  In  physiology 
while  automatism  is  apparently  the  result  of  the 
internal  conditions  of  the  living  body,  yet  strict- 
ly speaking,  says  Loeb,  no  animal  movements 
are  exclusively  determined  by  internal  condi- 
tions. The  co-ordinated  character  of  automatic 
movements,  he  says,  has  often  been  explained 
by  a  "centre  of  co-ordination,**  which  is  sup- 
posed to  keep  a  kind  of  police  watch  on  the  dif- 
ferent elements  and  see  that  they  move  in  the 
right  order.  "But,"  he  adds,  "observations  on 
the  lower  animals  show  that  the  co-ordination 
of  automatic  movements  is  caused  by  the  fact 
that  the  element  which  beats  most  quickly  forces 
the  others  to  beat  in  its  own  rhythm.**  The 
swarm-spores  of  algas,  which  possess  no  gan- 
glion cells,  show  spontaneity  equal  to  that  of 
animals  having  ganglion-cells,  and  he  concludes 
that  automatism  is  due  to  a  chemical  cause ; 
that  is,  the  pressure  or  absence  of  certain 
ions,  or,  in  other  words,  to  the  chemical  consti- 
tution of  the  protoplasm.  Consult  Loeb, 
^Physiology  of  the  Brain*    (1901). 

Autom'aton,  a  mechanical  contrivance 
whose  actions  are  arranged  to  correspond  to 
those  of  a  human  being.  Friar  Bacon  had  the 
reputation  of  having  constructed  a  brazen  head 
v/hich  spoke,  and  Regiomontanus  an  iron  fly, 
v/hich,  after  making  the  tour  of  the  room,  re- 
turned to  its  master.  Albertus  Magnus  is  said 
to  have  spent  30  years  in  constructing  a  human 
figure  which  advanced  to  the  door  when  any- 
one knocked,  opened  it,  and  saluted  the  visitor. 
In  the  water-clock  presented  to  Charlemagne 
by  Harun  al-Rashid,  12  doors  in  the  dial 
opened  respectively  at  the  hour  which  they  rep- 
resented ;  they  continued  open  till  noon,  when 
12  knights  issued  out  on  horseback,  paraded 
round  the  dial,  and  then  returning  shut  them- 
selves in  again.  Camus  constructed  an  in- 
genious toy  for  Louis  XIV.,  consisting  of  a 
carriage  drawn  by  two  horses,  containing  a  lit- 
tle figure  of  a  lady  with  a  coachman  and  at- 
tendants. The  coachman  cracked  his  whip,  the 
horses  moved  their  legs  naturally,  and  when  the 
carriage  arrived  opposite  the  king's  seat  it 
stopped ;  the  page  stepped  down  and  opened  the 
door ;  the  lady  alighted  and  presented  a  peti- 
tion to  Louis.  The  flute-players,  the  tambour- 
player,  and  the  wonderful  duck  of  Vaucanson 
are  celebrated  for  the  astonishing  ingenuity  dis- 
played in  their  construction.  Among  the  most 
remarkable  automata  are  the  whist-playing  and 
other  figures  designed  by  Maskelyne. 

Automobile.  The  word  denotes  prima- 
rily :  A  vehicle  designed  mainly  for  transporta- 
tion of  persons  on  highways  or  over  unpre- 
pared ground,  equipped  with  an  internal  com- 
bustion, hydrocarbon-vapor  engine,  which  fur- 
nishes the  motive  power  and  forms  a  structural 
portion  of  the  vehicle.  Secondarily,  it  is  used 
as  synonymous  with  "motor  vehicle,**  denoting 
a  vehicle  moved  by  inanimate  power  of  any  de- 
scription, generated  or  stored  within  it,  and 
intended  for  the  transportation  of  either  goods 
or  persons  on  common  highways.  As  an  ad- 
jective the  word  denotes  broadly  some  relation 
to  mechanically-driven  vehicles.  Even  certain 
railway  cars  used  on  short  feeder  lines  in 
France,  Austria,  Germany  and  Italy  are  known 
as  "automobile  railway  cars**  because  they  are 
driven  by  means  of  engines  of  types  first  used 
m    motor    vehicles,    and,    having    passenger    or 


freight  space,  also  form  independent,  self-con- 
tained transportation  units. 

The  automobile,  in  the  more  distinctive  pri- 
mary sense  of  the  word,  consists  of : 

(i)  Fuel  tank;  (2)  Carburetter;  (3)  Engine, 
with  3a,  the  Mechanism  of  the  Cooling  System, 
and  3b,  the  Ignition  System;  (4)  Clutch  Mech- 
anism; (5)  Power  Transmission  Mechanism, 
with  5a,  Change-Gear  Mechanism,  and  5b  Dif- 
ferential Gear;  (6)  Vehicle  Frame  and  Springs; 
(7)  Running  Gear;  (8)  Brake  Mechanism;  (9) 
Steering  Mechanism;  (10)  Carriage  Work; 
(11)  Lubrication  System,  and  (12)  Operating 
System,  including  the  devices  by  which  the 
operation  of  the  vehicle  is  brought  under  con- 
trol of  hand  or  foot  motions  of  the  driver. 
These  various  portions  of  the  automobile  form 
an  organic  whole,  being  more  or  less  interde- 
pendent, and  sharp  lines  distinguishing  one 
portion  from  another  cannot  always  be  drawn. 
The  classification  serves  convenience  in  de- 
scription,  however. 

1.  Fuel  Tank. — The  source  of  the  power  de- 
veloped by  the  automobile  motor  is  a  liquid 
hydrocarbon  fuel  (see  Hydrocarbons),  which 
may  be  benzine,  benzol,  gasolene,  naphtha,  kero- 
sene, crude  oil,  alcohol  (pure  or  mixed  with 
other  hydrocarbons,  or  water),  a  solid  hydro- 
carbon, such  as  naphthaline,  that  can  be  liquefied 
at  a  low  temperature  (79°  C),  or  calcium  car- 
bide (see  Acetylene),  throwing  off  hydrocar- 
bon gas  (acetylene)  when  moistened.  In  order 
to  be  utilized,  the  liquid  fuel  must  be  trans- 
formed into  vapor,  the  vapor  mixed  with  oxy- 
gen or  atmospheric  air,  and  the  mixture  ignited. 
Aside  from  the  process  of  generating  an  un- 
stable gas  by  vaporizing  the  fuel,  the  principle 
of  the  automobile  motor  is  identical  with  that 
of  the  gas  engine  operated  with  illuminating 
gas   (see  Gas  Engine). 

The  fuel  tank  is  usually  made  of  sheet  cop- 
per and  is  provided  with  internal  bulkheads  to 
obviate  swashing  of  the  liquid.  It  should  have 
as  few  seams  as  practicable,  the  solder  should 
contain  no  ingredient  soluble  in  the  liquid 
the  tank  is  intended  to  contain,  and  it  should 
be  mounted  on  a  rigid  foundation  to  obviate 
torsion,  from  which  leakage  might  result.  In 
most  gasolene  tanks  a  small  air  vent  in  the 
screw  cap  by  which  the  charging  aperture  is 
closed  permits  the  liquid  to  be  drawn  off  grad- 
ually by  gravity  through  a  pipe  leading  to  the 
carburetter.  But  the  same  air  vent,  if  left  open, 
causes  loss  of  fuel  by  evaporation.  By  a  more 
modern  arrangement  a  small  quantity  of  ex- 
haust gas  is  piped  into  the  tank  at  each  ex- 
haust stroke,  supplying  sufficient  pressure  to 
feed  the  fuel,  even  if  the  tank  is  below  the  level 
of  the  carburetter. 

2.  Carburetter. — Early  carburetters  were 
spacious  and  situated  at  some  distance  from  the 
motor,  connected  by  a  pipe  often  12  to  18  inches 
long  and  containing  a  diaphragm  of  wire  gauze 
to  prevent  a  flame  from  accidentally  striking 
back  to  the  vapor  and  liquid  contained  in  the 
carburetter.  Air  was  let  into  the  latter  from 
the  atmosphere  and  brought  in  contact  with  a 
considerable  area  of  the  liquid  (then  always 
benzine,  gasolene  or  naphtha),  from  which 
vapor  was  absorbed  either  by  simple  surface 
evaporation,  or  by  forcing  the  air  through  the 
liquid,  or  by  passing  the  air  at  high  velocity 
through  a  narrow  channel  containing  a  wick 
saturated  with  the  liquid.     In  all  cases  the  sue- 


AUTOMOBILE 


tion  stroke  of  the  motor  piston  caused  the  air 
current. 

The  composition  of  the  mixture  drawn  into 
the  cylinder,  to  be  fired,  was  regulated  by  an 
additional  air  channel  leading  direct  from  the 
atmosphere  to  the  induction  pipe.  In  warm  and 
dry  weather  the  duct  leading  through  the  car- 
buretter was  contracted  and  the  direct  air  ad- 
mission opening  was  enlarged,  while  in  cold 
and  damp  weather  this  adjustment  was  re- 
versed. The  object  was  to  obtain  an  explosive 
charge  of  unvarying  quantity  and  composition 
for  a  motor  intended  for  constant  speed  and 
power  development,  all  necessary  changes  in 
vehicle  speed  being  effected  through  the  power- 
transmission  gearing.  In  raw  weather  ice 
(from  atmospheric  moisture  precipitated  on  the 
metal   cooled   by   the   evaporation   of   the    fuel) 


Fig.    I. —  Simple    Modern    Carburetter,    with    Auto- 
matic Adjustment  According  to  Throttlk 
Opening. 
A,    Floating    plunger.     B,    Inspection    screw    to    T. 
C,    Cap   carrying  float   feed   adjijstment.      EE',   Lock  nut 
to  V.      F,   Gasoline  admission    pipe.     J,   Gasoline  nozzle. 
M,     Regulating    lever    having     disks    formed    with    two 
openings    to   accord   with    S    and    S',    in   wall    of   mixing 
thamber.     P.  Float.     R,  Float  chamber.     SS,  Air  inlets. 
T,   Induction  pipe,   to   engine. 

was  frequently  formed  in  the  carburetter  and 
induction  pipe,  clogging  them.  By  degrees  the 
method  of  heating  the  air,  by  passing  it  around 
the  exhaust  pipe,  was  learned,  and  all  pipes 
were  shortened.  Still,  starting  a  "cold"  motor 
was  an  uncertain  operation,  often  requiring  pre- 
liminary heating  of  the  metal,  as  it  still  does 
(1904)  when  the  heavier  oils  are  used  as  fuel. 
The  evolution  of  the  modern  carburetter  was 
brought  about  by  the  necessity  of  regulating  the 
force  of  explosions  by  a  throttling  system,  to 
relieve  the  operator  of  frequent  mechanical  gear 
changes.  The  steps  in  this  evolution  were 
many  and  irregular,  the  most  important  one 
consisting  in  the  employment  of  a  nozzle  from 
which  the  liquid  fuel  is  drawn  off  in  a  spray  by 
air  suction,  to  take  the  place  of  surface  evap- 
oration. Thus  the  quantity  of  fuel  introduced 
in  each  explosive  charge  is  regulated  by  a  me- 
chanical factor  which  is  under  control,  namely, 
the  air  current  created  by  the  suction  stroke, 
and  not  materially  affected  by  temperature  and 
atmospheric  conditions.  This  system  requires 
a  modification,  however,  because  an  air  current 
w^ill  suck  liquid  gasolene  from  a  nozzle  placed 
in  its  path  in  proportion  to  the  square  of  the 
velocity  of  the  current  (approximately),  while 
the  power  developed  is  in  simple  proportion  to 
the  velocity  of  the  piston.  An  automatic  device 
is  therefore  required  for  reducing  the  air  cur- 
rent which  draws  the  spray  of  fuel,  while  in- 
creasing the  current  of  atmospheric  air  when 
the  motor  speed  is  being  raised,  and  vice  versa. 
The  difference  in  devices  serving  this  purpose 
constitutes  the  main  difference  in  carburetters. 

Vol.   2 — 9. 


3-  Engine. — In  adapting  the  gas  engine  to 
the  automobile  the  first  requirement,  after  de- 
vising the  carburetter,  was  the  reduction  of 
weight  and  bulk.  The  heavy  foundation  and 
heavy  fly-wheel  were  undesirable.  A  small  cyl- 
inder with  a  piston  working  at  high  speed  was 
preferable  to  a  larger  cylinder  working  with 
low  compression  and  small  piston  speed. 
When  weight  was  cut  down  and  compression  of 
the  explosive  charge  was  increased,  it  was  found 
that  the  rapid  succession  of  explosions  shook 
the  engine  and  vehicle  in  a  manner  destructive 
to  the  mechanism  and  disagreeable  to  the  occu- 
pants of  the  vehicle.  By  lightening  recipro- 
cating parts  of  the  engine,  distributing  the 
weight  of  rotary  parts  equably  with  relation  to 
the  axis  of  revolution,  by  building  engines  with 
two,  three  or  four  cylinders  instead  of  one,  and 
balancing  the  explosions  in  one  cylinder  against 
those  in  an  opposed  cylinder,  but  most  of  all 
by  learning  to  graduate  the  volume  of  the  ex- 
plosive charges  according  to  the  requirements 
for  power,  excessive  shaking  and  vibration  were 
in  course  of  years  considerably  reduced. 

Equally  good  results  have  been  obtained  with 
cylinders  lying  horizontally  and  standing  ver- 
tically, the  former  being  more  readily  "bal- 
anced," the  latter  more  easily  inspected  and  re- 
paired. Automobile  motor  cylinders  are  made 
of  cast  iron,  seldom  of  steel.  The  pistons  are 
of  the  trunk  pattern,  fitting  loosely  in  the  cyl- 
inders. Circumferential  grooves  in  the  pistons 
contain  split  iron  rings  (usually  two  or  three 
at  the  upper  and  one  at  the  lower  end)   suffi- 


■2ZZZZZZZZZ2t 


Fig.     2. —  Complicated    Modern     Carburetter,     with 
Automatic  Adjustment  According  to  Throttle 

Opening  and   Piston    Speed. 
I,   inlet  to  induction   pipe  J   to  cylinder.      F,   throttle 

Ciston  (to  uncover  aperture  I  more  or  less)  actuated 
y  rod  H  to  governor.  D,  gasoline  spray  nozzle  com- 
municating through  E  with  gasoline  float  chamber  (not 
shown).  A,  air  inlet.  M,  additional  air  ports  more 
or  less  uncovered  by  piston  K,  held  in  normal  position 
by  spring  N  and  diaphragm  P,  rigid,  and  Q,  flexible 
S,  pinhole  vent,   moderating  action  of  spring  N. 

ciently  elastic  to  expand  snugly  against  the  cyl- 
inder wall.  The  high  temperature  produced  in 
the    cylinders    by   the    successive    explosions   oi 


AUTOMOBILE 


charges  compressed  75  to  100  pounds  per  square 
inch  before  ignition  preclude  the  use  of  packed 
fits. 

Throttling  of  the  explosive  charge  is  ac- 
complished by  obstructing  the  induction  pipe 
between  the  inlet  valve  and  the  carburetter  noz- 
zle by  means  of  a  butterfly  valve,  or  in  any 
other  suitable  manner.  Excessive  speed  of  the 
motor  under  light  load  or  when  running  idle  is 
obviated  by  a  centrifugal  governor  acting  usu- 
ally upon  the  throttle  valve,  but  in  some  in- 
stances upon  the  exhaust  valve.  In  small 
motors  the  inlet  valve  is  usually  automatic, 
opened  by  the  suction  in  the  cylinder  against 
the  resistance  of  a  helical  spring  as  in  a  gas 
engine ;  in  large  motors  the  inlet  valve  is  fre- 
quently actuated  from  the  cam  shaft,  as  is  the 
exhaust  valve  when  opening,  and  with  this  con- 
struction throttling  of  the  motor  is  sometimes 
effected  by  shutting  the  inlet  valve  before  the 
suction  stroke  is  completed. 

In    four-cylinder    motors    reduction    of    the 


MuMers. — When  the  burnt  gases  are  ex- 
hausted from  the  cylinder  they  are  still  of  high 
temperature  and  of  high  tension  and  their  es- 
cape into  the  atmosphere  is  therefore  accom- 
panied by  a  report-like  noise.  To  subdue  this 
noise  a  muffler  is  employed,  consisting  of  an  ex- 
pansion box  through  whicli  the  gases  must 
pass  and  in  which  the  current  of  the  gas  is  par- 
tially obstructed  and  subdivided.  One  of  the 
most  efficient  mufflers  consists  simply  in  a  box 
filled  with  parallel  plates  turned  edgewise 
against  the  current  of  gas. 

3a.  The  Ignition  System. — When  the  mix- 
ture of  gasolene  spray  and  air  (usually  heated 
by  contact  with  the  exhaust  pipe)  reaches  the 
inlet  valve  of  each  cylinder,  the  fuel  is  partially 
or  wholly  vaporized  and  absorbed  in  the  air  cur- 
rent. Entering  the  cylinder,  some  recondensa- 
tion  takes  place  if  the  cylinder  walls  and  piston 
are  cold  (as  at  the  start),  but  the  next  piston 
stroke  compresses  the  charge  to  a  small  volume 
(usually  J4  to  H  of  the  whole  cylinder  volume), 


Fig.  3. —  Longitudinal    Section    Through    Four-Cylinder    Mo- 
tor AND   Flywheel   Clutch. 


power  development  was  until  1902  commonly  ef- 
fected, when  required,  by  preventing  ignition 
in  one  or  two  of  the  cylinders,  and  also  by 
shutting  the  exhaust  valve  before  the  exhaust 
stroke  was  completed,  thereby  setting  up  inter- 
nal resistance  and  also  reducing  the  volume  of 
the  next  explosive  charge,  while  changing  its 
composition  by  mixing  it  with  the  remaining 
exhaust  gases.  These  methods  are  now  (1904) 
almost  abandoned.  The  earliest  means  of  re- 
ducing the  effective  power  of  the  motor  con- 
sisted in  retarding  the  ignition,  so  that  the 
combustion  would  not  be  finished  when  the  ex- 
haust valve  was  opened.  This  method  is  still 
generally  used,  but  only  as  an  auxiliary  to  the 
throttling  of  the  explosive  charge. 


and  thereby  heats  its  and  prepares  it  for  igni- 
tion. The  means  employed  for  igniting  the 
charge  consisted  at  first  altogether,  and  still 
occasionally,  in  a  kerosene  lamp  (later  pattern: 
an  alcohol  vapor  lamp)  over  the  flame  of  which 
(later:  in  the  flame)  a  platinum  tube  was 
screwed  into  the  upper  end,  or  combustion 
chamber,  of  the  cylinder.  The  outer- end  of  the 
tube  was  closed  and  brought  to  red  heat  or  in- 
candescence by  the  flame. 

By  the  compression  stroke  a  small  portion 
of  the  charge  was  forced  into  the  tube  and  fired 
back  into  the  cylinder  when  it  reached  the  hot 
portion  of  the  tube.  The  ignition  took  place  at 
the  highest  compression  or  slightly  earlier  or 
later,    varying   according    to    the    piston    speed, 


Copyright  by  the  Scientitic  American. 


AUTOMOBILE    MOWING   MACHINES. 


AUTOMOBILE 


but  the  variation  was  insufficient  to  give  the 
highest  power  at  the  highest  piston  speed  and 
yet  not  too  early  for  low  speed,  because  the 
whole  charge  should  be  aflame  and  expanding 
with  maximum  force  shortly  after  the  power 
stroke  has  begun  and,  when  the  piston  moves 
with  high  velocity,  this  cannot  be  accomplished 
unless  the  ignition  begins  long  before  the  com- 
pression is  at  its  maximum,  the  time  required 
for  spreading  the  flame  being  almost  constant 
for   a   vapor  mixture   of  given   composition. 

The  method  was  also  unadapted  for  a  motor 
in  which  the  new  throttling  system  introduced 


Fig.    4. —  Jump    Spark    Plug. 

variations  in  compression,  and  the  open  flame 
of  the  lamp  was  a  source  of  danger  in  case  of 
gasolene  leaks  or  road  accidents.  So,  when  the 
throttled  fuel  admission  came  in  vogue,  "hot 
tube"  ignition,  despite  its  reliability,  was  grad- 
ually abandoned  in  favor  of  the  electric  spark, 
produced  internally  in  the  cylinder  head  by  (i) 
a  dry  battery;  (2)  an  induction  coil  (see  In- 
duction), causing  a  high-tension  current;  (3) 
an  interrupter  or  "trembler,"  and  (4)  a  switch 
turning  the  current  off  and  on  at  the  proper 
time,  operated  from  the  same  camshaft  from 
which  the  exhaust  valve  is  opened.  A  "spark 
plug"  contains  the  two  terminal  wires,  insulated 
by  porcelain,  lava  or  pressed  mica  within  a  hol- 
low metal  screw  plug,  and  is  screwed  into  the 
cylinder  head.  The  terminals  are  about  1-16 
inch  part,  and  this  is  the  length  of  the  "jump 


Fig,    5. —  Diagram   of   Magneto   System    for   Igniting 

Explosive  Vapor  Mixture  by  Primary 

Current    Jump    Spark. 

A,  permanent  field  magnets;    B,   armature  of  H-sec- 

tion;   C,  armature  coil  wound  in  two  sections,  D  and   E, 

connected   in  series;    F,   wire  to  one   terminal   of  circuit 

breaker  G,   worked  by  cam  H;   I,   grounding  wire   from 

other  terminal   of    G   to   metal    of   armature   and   thence 

on   to   metal    work   of   motor    and   vehicle;   J,    condenser 

in  parallel  with  G;  K,  spark  plug,  wired  from  E's  outer 

terminal. 


spark."  The  metal  mass  of  the  vehicle  frame 
serves  to  "ground'*  the  current.  The  wiring 
throughout    is    insulated.     Instead    of    a    jump 


spark  a  "hammer  spark"  or  a  "wipe  spark"  may 

be  used.  ' 

The  main  drawback  to  this  arrangement 
arises  from  the  fact  that  the  life  and  potentiality 
ot  dry  batteries  vary  greatly,  so  that  they  often 
fail  unexpectedly.  Storage  batteries  are  used 
m  their  place  in  many  European  automobiles, 
but  these  too,  eventually  give  out  and  must  be 
recharged.  A  dynamo,  however,  driven  by  the 
vapor  engine,  furnishes  a  current  for  ignition 
so  long  as  the  mechanism  remains  in  order,  ren- 
^enng  the  ignition  an  automatic  function. 
While  the  other  methods  remain  in  extensive 
use,  the  dynamo  driven  by  belt  or  gear  from  the 
motor  shaft,  is  fitted  to  most  high-powered 
automobiles,  especially  in  the  form  known  as 
the  magneto. 

In  the  further  development  it  became  cus- 
tomary to  use  both  the  magneto,  either  high 
tension  or  low  tension,  and  a  storage  br.ttery, 
the  latter  being  required  for  starting  the  engine 
from  the  seat  by  turning  on  the  electric  spark  in 
that  one  of  the  cylinders  in  which  an  ignitable 
charge  remained  after  the  last  stop. 

3b.  The  Cooling  System. —  Part  of  the  heat 
generated  by  the  explosions  is  transformed  into 
the  work  of  driving  the  piston,  but  a  large  por- 
tion is  absorbed  as  heat  in  the  piston,  cylinder 
walls,  valves,  etc.  These,  unless  artificially 
cooled,  become  so  hot  as  to  ignite  the  lubricat- 
ing oil,  and  also  the  next  explosive  charge  be- 
fore the  piston  is  in  position  to  receive  a  new 
impulse.  Such  premature  ignition  drives  the 
piston  back  in  the   direction  opposite  that  de- 


Fig.    6. —  Horizontal,    Two-Cylinder,     Air-Cooled    Auto- 
mobile Engine. 

sired  and  stops  the  motor.  The  burning  of 
lubricating  oil  also  leaves  a  deposit  on  walls 
and  valves  which  soon  interferes  with  piston 
travel,  valve  action  and  spark  ignition.  The 
means  adopted  to  keep  the  motor  sufficiently 
cool  are  in  brief  as  follows  : 

Small  cylinders  (up  to  2  horse-power)  may 
be  ribbed  externally,  thereby  increasing  the 
metal  surface,  from  which  heat  is  lost  by  radia- 
tion and  contact  with  the  atomsphere.  Rapid 
motion,  constantly  bringing  fresh  cool  air  to 
the  heated  metal,  is  essential  to  render  this 
system  efficacious.  When  the  motor  works  at 
full  charges  while  the  vehicle  is  at  rest  or 
moving  slowly,  renewal  of  the  air  must  be  ef- 
fected by  a  blow  fan  or  equivalent  means.  A 
few  automobiles  are  operated  with  air-cooled 
motors ;  some  of  them  are  now  equipped  with 
a  fan,  but  until  recently  the  motors  were  usu- 
ally shut  down  when  the  cars  were  at  rest,  and 
the   vehicles   are   not  adapted   for  heavy,   slow 


AUTOMOBILE 


work.  The  smaller  each  cylinder,  the  more  ac- 
ceptable the  air-cooling  method,  because  a  small 
cylinder  has  more  radiation  surface  in  propor- 
tion to  the  volume  of  vapor  burned  than  a  large 
cylinder. 

Ordinarily  the  automobile  cylinder  is  kept 
at  the  proper  temperature  by  means  of  a  *water 
jacket'^  surrounding  cylinder  and  valve  chamber, 
a  water  circulating  pump  (driven  from  the 
motor  shaft)  and  a  "radiator*  consisting  of  a 
nest  of  coiled  tubes.  The  latter  are  strung  with 
metal  fins,  soldered  on,  to  increase  the  radiation 
area.  A  water  tank  is  coimected  with  this  sys- 
tem. The  order  of  circulation  is  from  water 
jacket  to  radiator,  thence  to  the  tank  through 
pump  and  back  to  the  water  jacket.  The  pump 
is  usually  of  the  centrifugal  class,  sometimes 
"rotary"  (see  Pumps),  and  in  a  few  automo- 
biles is  omitted,  circulation  in  that  case  depend- 
ing solely  upon  the  difference  in  temperature 
between  the  water  in  the  jacket  and  that  in  the 
radiator,  the  latter  being  unusually  large. 

By  increasing  the  dimensions  of  the  pump, 
to  produce  more  rapid  circulation,  and  reducing 
the  diameter  of  radiating  tubes  while  increasing 
their  total  radiation  surface,  the  amount  of 
water  to  be  carried  and  the  capacity  of  the  tank, 
have  been  gradually  diminished.  With  the  so- 
called  "honeycomb*^  coolers  the  water  tank  is 
almost  dispensed  with,  consisting  of  only  two 
small  compartments  framing  a  network  of  flat- 
tened tubes  erected  in  front  of  the  motor, 
through  which  air  is  drawn  rapidly  by  means 
of  an  exhaust  fan,  usually  forming  the  spokes 
of  the  engine  fly-wheel.  The  air  current  in  this 
case  is  defined  within  a  closed  motor  hood.  In 
other  cases  the  hood  is  provided  with  slits.  In 
the  winter  when  water  might  freeze  and  burst 
water  jacket,  cylinder  or  radiator,  calcium 
chloride  or  glycerine  is  admixed  to  lower  the 
freezing  point,  or  a  special  oil  distilled  from 
crude  petroleum  is  used  instead  of  water. 

The  water  jackets  were  up  to  1903  com- 
monly cast  integrally  with  the  cylinders,  cylin- 
der heads  and  valve  chambers,  but  the  difficult 
cored  castings  were  often  faulty,  especially 
when  only  cylinder  heads  and  valve  chambers 
were  jacketed.  More  recently  sheet  copper  has 
been  secured  to  flanges  on  the  cylinders,  etc., 
so  as  to  form  a  jacket  between  the  copper  and 
the  plain  cylinder  casting,  and  weight  reduc- 
tion as  well  as  some  elasticity  (afifording  secur- 
ity against  accidental  freezing  of  the  water) 
have  been  gained  thereby,  while  the  quality  of 
castings  has  been  improved. 

With  reference  to  sheet  copper  jackets, 
it  is  now  noted,  however,  that  difficul- 
ties were  experienced  in  securing  the  joints 
against  eventual  leakage  and  in  1906  only 
three  or  four  firms  continued  to  employ  this 
method,  while  the  art  of  producing  sound  cast- 
ings of  complicated  design  and  with  integral 
jackets  and  cylinder  heads  had  advanced  greatly. 

4.  Clutch  Mechanism. —  A  vapor  engine, 
like  the  gas  engine,  must  be  started  by  hand 
power,  or  auxiliary  power  of  some  kind,  as  no 
power  is  stored  in  it  while  at  rest.  It  cannot 
be  started,  therefore,  under  load  without  an  in- 
convenient efifort,  and  every  automobile  vapor 
engine  (excluding  those  used  on  motor  bicy- 
cles and  motor  boats)  is  arranged  to  be  started 
running  idle  to  be  subsequently  connected  with 


its  load  by  a  clutch.  Often  there  is  a  separate 
clutch  for  each  rate  of  gear  reduction.  In  ear- 
lier automobiles  this  was  the  rule,  while  now 
(1904)  it  is  the  exception.  AH  the  various 
forms  of  clutches  used  in  other  branches  of 
mechanical  engineering  have  been  tried  on  auto- 
mobiles, all  being  more  or  less  perfectly  adapted 
to  the  requirements :  That  they  shall  grip  a 
motor  shaft  revolving  at  high  velocity  without 
sudden  seizure ;  that  they  shall  be  automatic- 
ally self-adjusting  to  wear  within  a  consider- 
able range  and  further  adjustable  by  a  screw  or 
other  convenient  means ;  that  the  clutch  sur- 
face shall  be  large  enough  and  smooth  enough 
to  obviate  injurious  heating  when  slipping,  and 
that  the  release  shall  be  positive,  without  re- 
quiring much   physical   effort. 

The  clutch  most  commonly  used  in  those 
automobiles  having  the  motor  shaft  disposed 
longitudinally  of  the  vehicle,  consists  of  a  male 
truncated  cone  (angle  10  to  12  degrees),  en- 
gaging a  corresponding  female  cone  formed  in 
or  attached  to  the  rim  of  the  motor  flywheel. 
The  male  cone  is  leather  faced,  and  is  secured, 
slidingly,  to  the  transmission  gear  shaft,  a 
strong  helical  spring  pressing  it  forward  (or, 
in  later  construction,  drawing  it  back)  into  the 
female  cone.  To  secure  concentricity  of  the 
two  cones  the  transmission  gear  shaft  is  usu- 
ally journaled  in  the  end  of  the  motor  shaft 
(carrying  the  flywheel)  by  a  ball  bearing,  and 
end  thrust  at  this  point  is  obviated  in  modem 
design.  The  engagement  of  the  clutch  is  ef- 
fected by  a  clutch  lever  which  releases  the 
spring,  permitting  the  cones  to  come  together. 
The  same  action  usually  releases  one  set  of 
brakes,  which  is  intended  to  be  used  only  when 
the  motor  is  disengaeed  from  the  driving  p'ear. 
After  disengaging  the  clutch  it  requires  a 
further  movement  of  this  lever  to  set  these 
brakes. 

During  1905  and  1906  the  cone  clutch 
yielded  its  popularity  for  high-class  auto- 
mobiles to  the  internal  expansion  clutch, 
which  consists  of  two  segments  expanded  by 
toggle  levers  or  similar  means  against  the 
inside  of  a  drum  formed  upon  the  flywheel,  and 
to  the  multiple-disk  clutch,  consisting  of  many 
small  disks  secured  to  the  clutch  shaft,  alternat- 
ing with  an  equal  number  of  annular  disks 
secured  in  the  flvwheel ;  both  series  of  disks 
being  keyed   against  rotation  but  free  to  slide. 

5.  Pozvcr  Transmission  Mechanism. —  In 
starting  a  heavy  car  from  a  standstill  by  clutch- 
ing a  rapidly  revolving  motor  shaft,  there  would 
be  danger  of  breaking  the  connections  between 
the  clutch  and  the  rear  wheels  (which  are  the 
driving  wheels  in  nearly  all  automobiles,  so 
far),  or  of  stopping  the  motor  by  the  resistance, 
unless  the  latter  were  reduced  by  gearing  per- 
mitting the  vehicle  to  move  slowly  while  the 
motor  shaft  revolves  at  high  velocity.  As 
motor  power  is  proportional  to  motor  speed, 
under  a  given  load,  the  necessity  for  at  least 
one  gear  reduction  between  motor  shaft  and 
driving  wheels  remains,  even  with  modern 
motors  capable  of  being  throttled  to  low  speed, 
the  power  of  the  higher  speed  being  frequently 
required  for  overcoming  the  inertia  of  the  ve- 
hicle—  on  hills,   for  example. 

As  a  matter  of  fact,  most  heavy  automobiles 
have  three  geared  driving  connections  and  one 


AUTOMOBILES. 


GASOLINE  TuLRiNG  CARS. 


AUTOMOBILE 


direct  connection  for  going  ahead,  and  one 
geared  connection  for  driving  backward,  while 
lighter  vehicles  have  one  gear  reduction  for 
going  ahead  and  one  for  reverse,  besides  the 
direct  drive  ahead.  In  all  cases  the  motor 
speed  alone  determines  the  power  available  at 
the  moment,  and  the  motor  speed  in  conjunc- 
tion with  the  driving  gear  employed  determines 
the  vehicle  speed.  The  art  of  driving  an  auto- 
mobile coneists  largely  in  using  the  smallest 
gear  reduction  (the  "highest  gear")  and  the 
smallest  moior  speed  that,  combined,  will  pro- 
duce the  desired  vehicle  speed.  Before  motors 
could  be  throttled  to  give  a  wide  range  of  power 
development,  the  art  of  driving  consisted  largely 
in  the  manipulation  of  the  levers  by  which  the 
gear  reduction  was  changed.  The  development 
has  been  from  gear  control  of  the  vehicle  to 
throttle  control  of  the  motor;  under  both  meth- 
ods the  brakes  are  freely  used  as  an  auxiliary, 
especially  in  congested  traffic. 

Hundreds  of  transmission  systems  have 
been,  and  are,  in  use,  and  are  described  in  text- 
books on  the  subject.  The  mechanical  elements 
of  which  they  are  composed  are  mainly  those 
well  known  in  machine  tool  practice :  the  belt. 


principle  is  the  ^^expansion  pulley*  belt  trans- 
mission system,  which  also  takes  the  place  of 
all  change-gear  mechanism.  Only  one  belt  is 
used,  which  has  broad  chamfered  edges  and 
transverse  reinforcing  strips  sufficiently  rigid  to 
permit  the  belt  to  ride  mainly  on  the  edges  over 
V-pulleys  of  changeable  diameter.  When  the 
driving  pulley  is  expanded  the  driven  pulley  is 
correspondingly  contracted.  The  gear  ratio 
may  in  this  manner  be  altered  by  insensible 
graduations.     See  Pulley. 

Fig.  9  shows  one  pattern  of  power  trans- 
mission in  a  vehicle  with  a  transverse  motor 
shaft.  Fig.  10  shows  the  system  of  bevel- 
gear  transmission,  through  change-gear  mech- 
anism, to  a  differential  gear  on  a  countershaft 
and  sprocket-and-chain  transmission  from  the 
ends  of  the  latter  to  the  rear  wheels,  the  rear 
axle  being  fixed.  Fig.  ii  shows  the  system  of 
bevel-gear  transmission,  through  change-gear, 
to  a  differential  gear  on  a  divided  rear  axle 
which  revolves  and  turns  the  wheels  keyed  to 
it.  In  modern  construction  of  this  type  the 
rear  driving  axle  is  relieved  of  the  support  of  all 
weight,  being  contained  within  a  tubular  sup- 
porting axle,  brazed  or  bolted  to  the  differential 


=i^^^Ms?h~ 


Fig.  8. —  Cone  Clutch  (to  the  right),  Sliding  Gear  Mechanism 
AND    Universal   Joint    (to  the  left)    to 
Bevel-gear  Shaft. 


spur  wheel,  bevel  gear  and  shaft,  the  counter- 
shaft, sprocket  wheel  and  chain.  From  i886  to 
1902  belts  were  employed  to  transmit  power 
from  a  transverse  motor  shaft  to  a  parallel 
countershaft  in  automobiles  evolved  from  the 
model  first  designed  and  built  by  Karl  Benz,  of 
Maniilieim,  Germany,  in  1886.  By  a  series  of 
stepped  pulleys,  any  pair  of  which  could  Ije 
clutched  and  keyed  to  the  shafts,  respectively, 
this  belt  sj'stem  served  also  as  engagement 
clutch  and  change-gear  device.  In  cornmercial 
competition  with  toothed-gear  transmission,  pat- 
terned after  the  vehicle  designed  by  Gottlieb 
Daimler,  of  Cannstatt,  German}',  also  in  1886, 
the  belt  system  gradually  lost  favor,  probably 
more  by  reason  of  the  energy  and  ingenuity  ap- 
plied to  the  general  improvement  of  vehicles 
equipped  with  tooth-gear  transrriission  and 
change-gear  devices,  than  owing  to  any  intrin- 
sic superiority  of  the  gear  drive.  For  the 
present  (1904)  belt  transmission  is  practically 
abandoned.     A     surviving     adaptation     of     the 


gear  casing,  on  the  ends  of  which  the  wheels 
are  mounted  by  ball  or  rolling  bearings,  while 
the  driving-axle-ends  are  keyed  to  the  external 
faces  of  the  wheel  hubs. 

5a.  Change-Gear  Mechanism. —  The  primi- 
tive change-gear  included  a  clutch  or  key  for 
each  gear  ratio.  With  numerous  variations,  the 
general  principle  is  as  follows :  To  the  trans- 
verse motor  shaft,  prolonged  beyond  the  fly- 
wheel, are  rigidly  secured  spur  wheels  of  vary- 
ing diameter.  On  a  parallel  countershaft  are 
mounted  other  spur-wheels  meshing  pairwise 
with  those  on  the  motor  shaft,  but  free  to  ro- 
tate around  their  own  shaft,  instead  of  with  it, 
unless  clutched.  To  a  small  spur  wheel  on  the 
motor  shaft  corresponds  a  large  one  on  the 
countershaft,  and  this  combination  produces,  of 
course,  the  low  countershaft  speed  which  can 
be  still  further  reduced  by  transmitting  the  mo- 
tion from  a  small  sprocket  wheel  at  the  end  of 
the  countershaft  to  a  larger  one  on  the  rear 
wheel  of  the  vehicle. 


AUTOMOBILE 


Suppose  the  speed  is  divided  by  five  from 
motor  to  countershaft  and  further  divided  by 
three  by  the  sprocket  chain  ratio,  the  total  re- 
duction is  then  from  15  to  i ;  the  wheel  re- 
volves once  for  fifteen  revolutions  of  the  motor 
shaft.  The  vehicle  speed  will  further  depend 
upon  the  diameter  of  the  rear  wheels.  If  this 
is  about  34  inches,  making  the  circumference 
about  9  feet,  and  the  motor  shaft  revolves  900 
times  per  minute  or  15  times  per  second,  the 
rear  wheels,  revolving  once  per  second,  will 
advance  the  vehicle  9  feet  per  second  or  540 
feet  per  minute.  In  ten  minutes  the  car  will 
have  traveled  5,400  feet,  or  somewhat  more 
than  a  mile,  corresponding  to  between  6  and  7 
miles  per  hour.  By  throttling  the  vapor  ad- 
mission the  motor  speed  may  be  reduced  to 
200  revolutions  per  minute,  reducing  the  vehicle 


time.  Modern  developments  of  this  system  are 
much  simplified,  mainly  by  the  employment  of 
epicyclic  gears. 

The  change-gear  system  which  was  developed 
when  the  engine  was  placed  in  the  front  portion 
of  the  vehicle  with  the  motor  shaft  in  the  plane 
of  the  lengthwise  axis,  was  designed  to  reduce 
noise,  wear  and  waste  of  power,  by  having  only 
one  pair  of  spur  wheels  in  mesh  at  one  time. 
It  is  known  as  the  clash-gear  or  sliding-gear 
system  (see  Fig.  8).  The  shaft  carrying 
the  cone  clutch  has  a  universal  joint  coupling 
it  to  a  shaft  in  prolongation  of  it,  the  latter 
carrying  spur  wheels  of  different  diameter 
rigidly  secured.  It  is  journaled  in  an  oil-tight 
casing  hung  in  the  vehicle  frame.  Lower  in  the 
same  casing  is  journaled  a  parallel  squared  shaft 
carrying  a  slidable  sleeve  with   rigidly  secured 


Fig.  9. —  Plan    View   of   American    Automobile   "  Runabout  " 
Mechanism. 
With    Transverse    Engine    Shaft,    Horizontal    Single- Cylinder    Engine,    Change-Gear   by   Brake   Clutches   and 
Epicyclic    Gears  and  Side-Spring  Vehicle  Frame.     Steering  wheel,  pillar,  and  gear  not  shown. 


A  Radiator. 

B   Engine. 

C  Gasoline   tank, 

D  Muffler. 


E  Water  pump. 
F-G  Clutches. 
H   Chain. 
I   Starting    crank. 


J-J   Side     springs. 
K  Water   tank. 
L  Differential. 


speed  to  i^  miles  per  hour.  In  early  automo-  spur  wheels  so  disposed  that,  in  one  position 
biles,  where  throttling  was  not  so  effective,  the  of  the  sleeve,  none  of  these  spur  wheels  is  in 
brake  served  to  redi:ce  the  motor  speed  by  in-  mesh  with  any  of  those  in  the  fixed,  upper  shaft, 
creasing  the  resistance.  _  But  when  a  fulcrumed  fork,  acting  against  a 
While  one  pair  of  spur  wheels  drives,  the  flange  of  the  sleeve  causes  the  latter  to  slide  a 
several  other  pairs  are,  with  this  system,  in  short  distance,  one  pair  of  gears,  say,  the  lowest 
mesh,  but  revolve  idly.  This  accounted  largely  gear,  are  engaged.  A  further  motion  in  the 
for  the  metallic  neise  of  the  earlier  models,  same  or  the  opposite  direction,  releases  the  low 
One  of  the  pairs  of  spur  wheels  was  not  gear  and  engages  the  second  gear.  A  still 
strictly  in  mesh  but  a  small  intermediate  pinion  further  motion  releases  the  second  and  engages 
on  a  rock  shaft  transmitted  the  motion  to  the  the  third ;  and  in  the  same  manner  the  fourth 
spur  wheel  on  the  countershaft,  thereby  re-  and  the  reverse  are  engaged  and  released.  A 
versing  its  direction  and  causing  the  vehicle  to  small  pinion  on  a  special  rock  shaft  produces  the 
be  driven  backwards  when  the  clutch  was  ap-  reverse,  as  in  the  older  system.  The  edges  of 
olied  to  this  purpose.  Clutch  levers  and  change-  the  spur  teeth  are  rounded  to  facilitate  mesh- 
gear  levers  were  identical,  and  were  so  inter-  ing,  and  the  cone  clutch  is  automatically  re- 
locked  that  only  one  clutch  could  be  set  at  one  leased  while  a  change  of  gear  is  made;  yet  it 


American    Touring 
Equipment. 


Car    with    Full    Road       2. 


Automobile     Used 
Sightseeing. 


for     Excursions     and 


AUTOMOBILE 


requires  rapid  and  resolute  manipulation  of  the 
change-gear  lever  (or  levers)  to  avoid  burring 
of  the   spur  wheels. 

Ingenious  arrangements  are  made  in  many 
cars  to  have  consecutive  motions  of  the  gear 
lever  produce  a  consecutive  ^^ransition  from  the 
lower  to  the  higher  gear,  and  vice  versa.  In 
some  cases  the  upper  shaft  is  divided  into  two 
portions,  the  rear  one  of  which,  in  its  foremost 
position,  grasps  the  front  portion  by  a  hollow 
square  while  all  spur  wheels  are  disengaged, 
thereby  transmitting  power  direct  from  the 
motor  shaft  to  the  differential  gear  without 
speed  reduction.  The  advantage  is  always 
bought  at  the  cost  of  more  gear  complications 
for  the  lower  speeds. 

5b.  Differential  Gear. — This  apportions  mo- 
tion between  the  two  rear  wheels,  permitting 
one  to  revolve  faster  than  the  other,  as  at  turns, 
where  the  outer  wheel  describes  a  longer  curve 
than  the  inner  one.  The  dififerential  gear  used 
in  automobiles  was  at  first  the  same  as  used  in 
other    mechanical    constructions     (see    Differ- 


machine  portions  of  an  automobile  has  been  real- 
ized only  by  degrees.  The  small  motors  of 
early  vehicles  were  mounted  either  in  the  wagon 
'box  at  the  rear  of  the  seat  (only  one  seat),  with 
'two  radius  rods  running  from  the  motoi  shaft 
to  the  rear  axle  (so  as  to  keep  the  sprocket  chain 
at  even  tension),  or  on  a  rieid  frame  of 
angle  iron  or  steel  tubes  extending  from  the 
rear  to  the  front  axle.  The  latter  method  sur- 
vived in  a  few  instances  up  to  1900  and  is  now 
observed  only  in  some  heavy  vehicles  intended 
for  slow  hauling  of  goods,  in  which  the  absence 
of  spring  suspension  for  the  motor  mechanism 
is  not  so  injurious  as  in  fast-moving  cars. 
Metal  reaches  between  the  two  axles,  serving 
merely  to  brace  the  construction,  survived 
longer,  but  finally  disappeared  with  the  general 
adoption  of  a  rigid  steel  frame  supported  by 
four  semi-elliptical  springs  and  carrying  the 
entire  mechanism  as  well" as  the  vehicle  body. 
Some  notable  American  exceptions  to  this  rule 
have  inverted  elliptical  springs  transversely  in 
front  instead  of  the  two  semi-elliptical  springs, 


Fig.  10. —  Plan    of    Automobile    "Chassis"    of    Type    Common 
FOR    "  Touring    Cars." 
With    3-cylinder    engine,    longitudinal    shaft,    cone    clutch,    clash    change-gear,     sprocket    chain    drive    from 
countershaft  to  rear  wheels.     Steering  wheel,  pillar,  and  gear    not    shown. 


A  Radiator. 

B   Starting  handle 

C  Motor. 

D  Flywheel. 


E  Change    gear 

case. 
F  Counter-shaft. 
G-G  Side    chains. 


H   Band    brake. 
T-J  Sides  of    frame 
K  Gasoline    tank. 
L  Muffler. 


ENTiAL  Ge.\r),  consisting  of  two  bevel-gear 
plates,  of  equal  diameters,  mounted  on  the  con- 
tiguous end  portions  of  the  divided  shaft,  de- 
signed to  be  revolved,  and  four  bevel-gear  pin- 
ions journaled  radially  between  the  two  gear 
plates  and  meshing  with  them.  Motion  trans- 
mitted to  the  ring  holding  the  outer  ends  of  the 
pinion  shafts,  cause  both  bevel-gear  plates  to 
revolve  equally,  unless  one  resists  more  than 
the  other,  in  which  case  the  small  pinions  re- 
volve and  permit  the  plate  which  moves  easier 
to  move  farther.  In  the  United  States  a  form 
of  dififerential  gear  was  developed  in  connection 
with  automobiles,  in  which  straight  spur  wheels 
and  pinions  took  the  place  of  bevel-gears. 

6.     Vehicle  Frame  and  Springs. —  The  need 
of    a    special    metal    frame    for   supporting   the 


giving  the  front  axle  more  freedom  to  oscillate, 
as  required  when  traveling  over  rough  ground. 
Many  popular  small  American  automobiles  form 
another  exception,  having  the  entire  frame  se- 
cured by  clips  to  the  inactive  middle  portions 
of  two  side  leaf-springs,  whose  bent-down  rear 
and  front  portions  are  secured  to  the  rear  and 
front  axles,  respectively  (see  Fig.  9). 

At  first  most  frames  were  made  of  wood  or 
drawn  steel  tubes  brazed  together  (an  adaptation 
from  bicycle  construction).  Subsequently 
greater  rigidity  was  attained  bv  armoring  the 
wood  with  steel  flitch  plates,  or  by  the  use  of 
structural  iron  or  steel  in  various  shapes,  bolted 
and  riveted  together.  This  was  convenient  for 
experimental  work,  changes  being  easily  effected. 
When  the  types  of  vehicles  became  more  defi- 


AUTOMOBILE 


nilely  accepted,  frames  pressed  in  one  piece 
from  larg-e  blanks  of  sheet  steel  made  their 
apoearance.  P  ns  of  sheet  steel  joined  the  side 
reaches  forminfr  a  protection  underneath  against 
mud  and  dust  and  prevented  oil  drip. 

The  springs  used  in  automobiles  are  gen- 
erally common  carriage  leaf  springs  calculated 
for  such  weights  as  they  are  intended  to  sup- 
port. In  course  of  time  their  length  and  weight 
have  been  gradually  increased,  with  a  view  to 
combining  strength  with  great  flexibility.  In 
case  of  side  springs  extending  from  axle  to  axle, 
as  referred  to  above,  this  tendency  influenced 
and  modified  the  general  design  of  the  vehicles. 
7.  Running  Gear. —  In  this  division  may  be 
included  axles,  wheels  and  tires.  Nearly  all 
early  automobiles  (1890  to  1898)  were  equipped 
with  wire-spoke  wheels,  the  spokes  laced  tan- 
gentially  to  the  hub  on  the  suspension  principle 
borrowed  from  bicycle  construction.  These 
wheels  have  given  way  to  stout  wood  wheels, 
seldom  more  than  34  inches  in  diameter,  built 
around  a  metal  hub  and  enclosed  in  an  iron  ring 
to  which  a  solid  or  inflated  rubber  tire  is  attached. 
The  pneumatic  or  air-inflated  rubber-covered 
canvas  tire  is  used  almost  exclusively  for  pleas- 


selves  readily  to  traction  from  one  motive  centre, 
but  front  wheels  are  sometimes  arranged  to  re- 
volve in  a  slightly  inclined  (2°)  plane,  with  a 
view  to  facilitating  the  steering  operation  by 
bringing  the  ground  contact  of  the  wheel 
directly  under  the  pivot  pin,  a  design  of  special 
value  on  rough  ground  where  slanting  impacts 
at  the  wheel  rim  w^ould  otherwise  tend  to  turn 
the  wheel  or  strain  the  steering  gear. 

The  front  axle  of  automobiles  is  stationary 
and  frequently  bowed  down  at  the  middle  to 
permit  a  low  position  of  the  motor.  To  each 
end,  just  beyond  the  spring  clips,  is  brazed  a 
"knuckle*  or  fork,  in  which  is  journaled  a  pivot 
pin  carrying  at  right  angles,  or  slightly  inclined, 
the  rock  shaft  around  which  the  front  wheel 
revolves,  usually  on  ball  or  roller  bearings.  The 
pivot  pin  is  mounted  in  end-thrust  ball  bearings. 
Each  pivot  pin  carries,  besides  the  wheel  shaft, 
a  lever  arm,  projecting  either  forward  and 
slightly  outward,  or  rearward  and  slightly  for- 
ward. The  arms  are  connected  by  a  rod, 
synchronizing  the  turning  of  the  two  wheels. 
The  steering  gear  acts  upon  this  rod  or  upon  an 
additional  arm  on  one  of  the  pivot  pins.  The 
''fifth  wheeP^   device   has   never  been  generally 


Fig.    II. —  Side    Elevation    of    Automobile    Chassis. 
With    bevel-gear   driving    shaft   from    change-gear   to  differential  gear   on   special   rear   driving   axle   separate 
from  the  rear  supporting  axle  of  the  vehicle. 


ure  automobiles,  and  its  maintenance  involves 
from  25  per  cent  to  50  per  cent  of  the  cost  of 
operating  a  vehicle.  On  the  other  hand,  air-tires 
aff'ord  a  cushioning  action,  supplementary  to 
that  of  the  carriage  springs,  which  protects 
machinery  and  wheels,  especially  against  lateral 
shocks,  in  a  manner  for  which  no  substitute 
has  been  found  for  vehicles  intended  for  a  speed 
above  15  or  20  miles  per  hour.  At  such  and 
higher  speeds  the  tire  resiliency  is  characterized 
by  the  avoidance  of  vertical  recoil. 

Autoinobile  wheels  are  also  made  of  steel 
tubing,  locked  and  brazed  in  a  steel  hub;  elastic 
wheels  with  S-shaped  spokes  of  tempered  metal 
leaves  have  been  tried,  as  well  as  composite 
wheels  involving  a  cushioning  medium  between 
the  felloe  and  the  hub.  So  far  (1904)  the 
wheels  have  not  been  dished  (to  gain  strength), 
as  inclined  or  «set»  axle  ends  do  not  lend  them- 


used  in  automobiles,  being  practical  only  when- 
steadied  with  the  leverage  of  a  long  pole,  as  in 
horse-drawn  vehicles. 

The  bearings  in  automobile  wheels  were  first 
plain  ''parallel  bearings,*  then  mostly  ball  bear- 
ings. Then  followed  a  reaction  favoring  plain 
bearings.  Lately  ball  bearings  (in  Europe)  and 
roller  bearings  (in  America)  are  usually  fitted 
and,  if  well  made  and  calculated  for  their  loads, 
give  satisfaction  and  reduce  traction  resistance, 
besides  being  more  durable  than  parallel  or 
coned  shaft  bearings. 

Rear  axles  are  either  stationary  (solid,  tubu- 
lar or  H-shaped),  carrying  wheels  revolved  by 
sprocket  wheels  and  chains,  or  rotary  and  di- 
vided near  the  middle  by  the  difi'erential  gear, 
the  wheels  keyed  to  the  axle  ends  and  the  bear- 
ings clipped  to  the  vehicle  springs.  It  was  early 
found,    however,    that    an    axle    supporting    the 


Type    of    European    High-power    Touring 
Car. 


2.  American  Touring  Car  1906,  with  Air- 
cooled  4-cylinder  Engine  and  Dummy 
Radiator  Front. 


AUTOMOBILE 


greater  portion  of  the  vehicle's  weight  should 
not  be  subjected  to  the  alternating  stresses  re- 
sulting from  rotation,  unless  it  was  made  much 
stronger,  theoretically,  than  a  fixed  axle.  Grad- 
ually the  divided  and  revolving  axle  was  there- 
fore modified  until  a  design  was  developed  sep- 
arating motive  power  from  support,  as  explained 
under  Power  Transmission. 

(8)  Brake  and  (9)  Steering  mechanism,  and 
also  (10)  Carriage  work  are  essentially  con- 
structed on  the  same  principles  in  vapor  engine 
automobiles  as  in  motor  vehicles  in  general  and 
are  referred  to  under  Motor  Vehicles. 

II.  Lubricating  System.— The  lubrication  of 
vapor  engines  presents  certain  difficulties  caused 
by  the  very  high  temperature  of  pistons  and 
cylinder  walls,  and  the  liability  of  fouling  valves 
and  spark  points  if  an  excess  of  lubricant  is 
used.  A  thin  oil  of  high  flash  and  ignition  test  is 
required,  but  it  is  of  still  higher  importance  that 
the  oil  shall  not  "crack'^ ;  that  is,  split  into  por- 
tions which  burn  completely  when  ignited  and 
other  portions  which  leave  a  residue.  The  mer- 
cantile method  of  placing  different  oils  on  the 
market  under  the  same  name,  and  the  same  oil 
under  different  names  (allowing  agents  to  name 
it),  has  obscured  lubricating  problems  and  re- 


FlG.  12. —  Elev.'^tion  of  Automobile  Front  Axle  with 

Knuckles,  Steering  Pivot  Pins,  and  Inclined 

Wheel  Shafts. 

A,  Front  Axle;  BB,  Knuckles;  CC,  Pivot  pins;  D, 
Rod  connecting  arms  on  pivot  pins;  E,  connection  from 
arms  to  steering  gear   (not  shown  J. 

tarded  uniformity  in  practice.  With  vertical 
cylinders  it  is  customary  to  place  a  quantity  of 
oil  in  the  crank  casing  and  depend  upon  lubri- 
cating the  cylinder  and  connecting  rod  by  the 
oil  splashed  from  the  casing  by  the  rotation  of 
the  crank.  For  horizontal  cylinders  sight  feed 
drip  lubricators  regulated  by  hand  have  been 
extensively  used,  as  they  still  are  for  steering 
gear,  transmission  gear  and  wheel  bearings,  but 
the  most  approved  practice  demands  a  force 
feed  system  operated  from  the  cam  shaft  of  the 
engine,  so  as  to  proportion  the  feed  to  the 
engine  speed. 

It  is  common  practice  to  stuff  the  change- 
gear  box  with  grease  (vaseline  and  graphite  is 
a  popular  mixture)  and  to  use  cylinder  oil  for 
all  other  bearings.  Mechanical  oilers  distribut- 
ing the  oil  from  a  central  reservoir,  often  placed 
on  the  dashboard,  through  a  svstem  of  canaliza- 
tion and  by  pressure  derived  from  small  positive 
plunger  pumps  within  the  reservoir,  driven  by 
gear  or  chain  from  the  cam  shaft,  are  gener- 
ally  employed. 

13.  Operating  System. —  The  devices  by 
which  the  operator  of  an  automobile  controls  the 
motor,  clutch  or  clutches,  the  chan"^e-gear, 
brakes,   steering  wheel  and  the   lubrication  sys- 


tem have  undergone  many  changes  and  remain 
much  diversified.  The  starting  device  is  nearly 
alwavs  a  detachable  crank  fitting  the  squared 
end  of  the  motor  shaft,  either  in  front  of  the 
vehicle  or  at  the  side.  The  motor,  when  started, 
automatically  releases  the  crank,  the  turning  of 
the  shaft  pushing  the  crank  out  of  engagement 
by  a  screw  action  supported  bv  a  spring.  In 
many  automobiles  a  small  lug  prevents  the  in- 
sertion of  the  crank  if  the  ignition  device  hap- 
pens to  be  adjusted  to  give  an  early  spark  which 
would  start  the  piston  in  the  wrong  direction, 
and  whereby  the  crank  might  be  thrown  vio- 
lently back,  injuring  the  starter. 

The  spark-timing  handle  and  the  throttle 
handle  are  generally  placed  close  to  the  steer- 
ing wheel  (or  steering  lever),  while  one  band 
brake  (usually  acting  on  the  circumferential  ring 
of  the  differential  gear),  and  the  cone  clutch  are 
actuated  by  one  or  more  pedals.  The  change- 
gear  lever  (sometimes  two)  and  the  brake  lever 
(actuating  band  brakes  contracting  around,  or 
expanding  into,  drums  in  the  rear  wheels) 
usually  extend  through  slots  in  the  footboards, 
or  at  the  side  of  the  vehicle  within  convenient 
reach  of  the  operator's  right  hand.  In  a  few 
cases  the  operating  devices  are  at  the  left  side, 
the  operator's  seat  being  there.  Automobiles 
vary  more,  perhaps,  in  the  arrangement  of  oper- 
ating devices  than  in  any  other  feature  of  con- 
struction, and  1  brief  general  description  cover- 
inp-  established  practice  is  therefore  impossible. 

In  the  broadest  definition  of  "automobile,* 
which  is  sanctioned  by  common  usage,  the  word 
may  be  applied  to  any  mechanically  propelled 
vehicle,  whether  the  source  of  power  is  a  vapor 
engine,  or  steam  engine,  an  electric  accumulator 
or  storage  batterv.  stored  compressed  air  or  any 
other  form  of  primarv  or  secondary  generator, 
but  historically  the  word  was  not  coined  or  ap- 
plied until  (about  18S8,  it  seems)  the  appearance 
in  France  of  benzine  vapor  engine  vehicles,  while 
steam  cars  for  common  highways  antedate  loco- 
motives, having  been  made,  especially  in  Eng- 
land, before  the  railways  were  thought  of.  The 
development  of  electric  vehicles  also  began  inde- 
pendently of  the  vapor  engine  vehicle.  If  a  dis- 
tinction should  be  made  between  automobiles 
and  motor  vehicles  —  and  the  distinction  would 
be  a  convenience  in  nomenclature  —  the  latter 
term  should  be  the  broader  one,  including  all 
forms  of  power,  while  "automobile"  should  be 
reserved  for  motor  vehicles  equipped  with  a 
vapor-explosion  engine  and  driven  by  purely 
mechanical  transmission  of  power  from  the  en- 
gine  shaft. 

Recent  Development. —  From  1904  to  1906 
the  development  of  the  automobile  in  America 
was  marked  by  a  very  general  adoption  of  four- 
cylinder  engines,  even  for  vehicles  of  small  size, 
and  by  a  wider  use  of  the  air-cooling  system, 
both  resulting  in  a  remodeling  of  the  "runabout" 
style,  with  its  single-cylinder  engine  in  the  mid- 
dle portion  of  the  frame.  The  single-chain  drive 
to  the  rear  axle  was  usually  replaced  by  a 
bevel-gear  shaft.  The  characteristics  of  the 
"runabout"  were  thereby  removed ;  it  became 
simply  a  "small  car"  for  two  persons,  often 
equipped  with  sliding  gear  transmission.  The 
epicycle  transmission  gear,  on  the  other  hand, 
found  extensive  employment  in  delivery  wagons 
and  trucks,  being  more  easily  operated  by  inex- 
perienced drivers.    Two-cylinder  engines,  of  the 


AUTOMOBILE  SPEED    RECORDS  —AUTREFOIS  CONVICT 


horizontal,  ^^double-opposed"  type,  were  com- 
monly used  for  these  business  vehicles  and  were 
second  to  the  four-cylinder  engine  in  popularity 
for  pleasure  automobiles  of  medium  size  and 
power. 

In  general,  the  development  was  toward 
greater  refinement  in  all  details  of  the  vehicles, 
but  at  the  same  time  the  increased  reliability  of 
the  gasoline  engine  was  seized  upon  by  some 
manufacturers  as  a  signal  for  a  return  to  the 
"gasoline  buggy"  type,  a  vehicle  built  as  an  ordi- 
nary buggy  or  surrey  placed  on  a  steel  frame, 
however  with  a  horizontal,  two-cylinder  engine 
underneath  it  and  a  very  simple  steel  cable  driv- 
ing device  to  pulleys  on  the  .rear  wheels ;  the 
reverse  being  operated  by  a  small  sheave  acting 
by  direct  frictional  contact  upon  the  solid  tires 
of  the  large  dished  carriage  wheels. 

In  practically  all  automobiles  the  tread  pedals, 
or  piano  pedals,  used  for  control  of  clutch  and 
brakes  and  sometimes  for  the  throttle,  as  well, 
were  replaced  by  pedals  pushed  forward  by  the 
■foot  instead  of  down. 

In  accordance  herewith,  information  in  re- 
gard to  steam  and  electric  vehicles  for  common 
roads,  as  well  as  vehicles  propelled  through 
electric  motors  deriving  their  current  from 
either  a  steam  or  a  vapor  engine,  will  be  found, 
together  with  general  information  applying  to 
all  types,   under  Motor  Vehicles. 

Marius  C.  Krarup, 
Formerly  Editor  of   ^The  Automobile? 

Automobile  Speed  Records.  The  most  im- 
portant affairs  in  the  world  of  automobiling, 
from  the  viewpoints  of  record-making  and 
breaking,  enthusiasm  and  excitement,  are  the 
Glidden  Tour,  the  Auto  Show,  and  the  Vander- 
bilt  Cup  Race.  This  latter  event,  inaugurated  in 
1904,  was,  for  that  year,  over  a  30-mile  tri- 
angular Long  Island  course.  The  records  made 
and  the  big  attendance,  50,000,  stamped  this  cup 
race  as  certain  to  become  a  great  national  an- 
nual affair  in  the  realm  of  outdoor  sport. 
George  Heath,  an  American,  was  the  winner,  in 
a  French  Panhard.  Lytle,  also  an  American, 
finished  third  in  an  American-made  car,  a  24- 
horse-power  Pope-Toledo.  The  exact  distance 
was  284.J  miles ;  time,  5  hours,  26  minutes,  45 
seconds ;  the  average  rate  of  speed  being  52.2 
miles. 

The  second  Vanderbilt  Cup  Race,  held  Octo- 
ber 14,  1905,  resulted  in  the  triumph  of  Hemery, 
a  Frenchman,  in  a  Darracq  car.  Heath's  Panhard 
being  second.  The  distance  covered  was  283 
miles ;  time,  4  hours.  36  minutes,  8  seconds,  the 
average  rate  of  speed  Ijeing  61.51  miles  per  hour. 

The  third  Vanderbilt  Cup  Race,  held  on 
October  6,  1906,  was  won  by  Louis  Wagner,  a 
Frenchman.  The  distance  covered  was  297.1 
miles ;  time,  4  hours.  50  minutes,  10  seconds. 
The  average  rate  of  speed  per  hour  being  61.43 
miles.  More  than  250,000  people  witnessed  the 
event. 

Grand  Prix,  Sanhe  Circuit  (Prance),  766  miles,  12.14.07. 
Flono  Cup  Contest,  Brescia  Circuit  (Italy),  311. 12  miles, 
4.46.47.  1Q05  Ardennes,  Ardennes  Circuit,  372.8  miles,  S-sS.- 
3214.  1905  Bennett  Cup,  Auvergne  Circuit,  341.4  miles, 
7.10.00.     1906  Ardennes,  Ardennes  Circuit,  376  miles,  5.38.00. 

Auton'omy,  the  self-government  of  a  state. 
This  power  may  reside  within  limited  bodies 
of  the  same  people,  such  as  parishes,  corpora- 
tions, religious  sects.     These  districts  or  com- 


munities may  be  autonomous,  if  not  absolutely, 
yet  within  certain  defined  limits.  They  may  be 
said  to  enjoy  a  partial,  limited,  or  local  auton- 
omy. Autonomy  is  often  used  to  designate  the 
characteristic  of  the  political  condition  of 
ancient  Greece,  where  every  city  or  town  com- 
munity claimed  the  right  of  independent  sov- 
ereign action.  Recently  the  word  is  more 
specifically  used  of  territories  or  provinces, 
which,  while  subject  in  some  matter  to  a 
higher  sovereignty,  are  autonomous  in  other  re- 
spects. Thus  the  Treaty  of  Berlin  made  eastern 
Rumelia  an  autonomous  province  ;  though  sub- 
ject to  the  direct  political  and  military  author- 
ity of  the  Sultan,  it  was  to  have  administrative 
autonomy  in  all  its  internal  affairs.  Egypt  pos- 
sesses a  higher  autonomy.  The  self-govern- 
ment enjoyed  bv  the  British  colonies  may  be  de- 
scribed as  a  modified  form  of  autonomy. 

Autoplate,  a  machine  for  making  and  fin- 
ishing curved  stereotype  printing  plates  for  use 
in  printing  newspapers,  invented  by  H.  A.  Wise 
Wood  of  New  York,  the  first  put  into  use  upon 
the  New  York  Herald.  This  machine,  after  a 
flexible  papier-mache  matrix,  made  from  a  type 
page,  is  inserted  therein,  proceeds  to  cast  print- 
ing plates,  weighing  about  50  pounds  each,  at 
the  rate  of  four  a  minute,  and  to  dress  their 
edges  and  inner  surfaces  and  prepare  them  for 
attachment  to  the  printing  cylinders,  and 
this  is  done  automatically  —  all  within  the  com- 
pass of  one  machine.  Previous  to  the  advent 
of  the  autoplate  such  work  had  been  inva- 
riably done  by  hand-worked  devices,  with  which 
the  fastest  rate  of  production  attainable  was  at 
the  rate  of  slightly  less  than  one  plate  per 
minute.  So  great  a  change  did  this  invention 
make  in  the  work  of  stereotyping  upon  the 
la.ger  newspapers,  that  not  only  was  the 
machine  generall"  adopted,  but  in  every  case 
the  hand  apparatus  were  entirely  dispensed 
with,  and  sole  dependence  placed  upon  the  auto- 
plate. 

Autran,  6-tran',  Joseph,  French  poet:  b. 
Marseilles,  June  1813 ;  d.  there,  6  March  1877. 
His  verse  is  admired  for  its  purity  of  form  and 
refined  sentiment.  He  attracted  attention  in 
1832  v.-ith  an  ode  to  Lamartine,  'The  Departure 
for  the  East.^  His  works  include  'The  Sea,' 
poems  (1835)  ;  'Milianah,^  an  epic  (1842)  ; 
'Rural  Life>  (1856)  ;  and  'The  Daughter  of 
^schylus,^  drama  (1848),  which  won  a  prize 
from  the   French  Academy. 

Autrefois  Convict,  6'tr-fwa'  kon-ve',  in 
criminal  pleading,  a  plea  made  by  a  defendant 
indicted  for  a  crime  or  misdemeanor,  that  he 
has  formerly  been  tried  and  convicted  of  the 
same.  This  plea  is  similar  in  form  as  the  plea 
of  autrefois  acquit,  and  is  based  upon  the  same 
general  principle,  to  wit:  thj.t  no  man's  life  or 
liberty  shall  be  twice  put  in  jeopardy  for  the 
same  offense.  A  plea  of  autrefois  convict, 
which  shows  that  the  judgment  on  the  former 
indictment  has  been  reversed  for  error  in  the 
judgment,  is  not  a  good  bar  to  another  indict- 
ment for  the  same  offense.  But  a  prior  convic- 
tion before  a  justice  of  the  peace,  and  a  per- 
formance of  the  sentence  pursuant  to  the 
judgment,  constitute  a  bar  to  an  indictment  for 
the  same  offense,  although  the  complaint  on 
which  the  judgment  proceeded  was  so  defective 


AUTUMN  — AVA 


that  his  judgment  might  have  been  reversed  for 
error.  The  New  York  Code  of  Criminal  Pro- 
cedure, §  9,  expressly  prohibits  a  second  prose- 
cution for  the  same  crime.  At  common  law  it  is 
necessary,  according  to  the  weight  of  authority 
in  a  majority  of  the  United  States,  to  specially 
plead  former  conviction  or  acquittal.  In  many 
of  the  States,  however,  by  statute,  the  plea  of 
autrefois  acquit  may  be  taken  advantage  of  un- 
der the  plea  of  not  guilty.  The  statute  adopted 
in  New  York  is  similar  in  its  terms  to  that  of 
many  other  States.  It  is  provided  by  the  New 
York  Code  of  Criminal  Procedure,  §  322,  that  a 
plea  of  tormer  judgment  of  conviction  or  ac- 
quittal of  the  crime  charged  may  be  pleaded 
with  or  without  the  plea  of  not  guilty. 

Au'tumn,  the  season  of  the  year  w^hich 
follows  summer  and  precedes  winter.  Astro- 
nomically, it  is  considered  to  extend  from  the 
autumnal  equinox,  22  September,  in  which  the 
sun  enters  Libra,  to  the  winter  solstice,  22  De- 
cember, in  which  he  enters  Capricorn.  In 
popular  speech  it  includes  the  months  of  Sep- 
tember,   October,   and    November. 

Autun,  6-ten,  France  (ancient  Bibracte),  a 
town  in  the  department  of  Saone  et  Loire,  of 
considerable  interest  both  from  its  antiquities 
and  from  its  modern  edifices.  Of  the  former 
the  more  remarkable  are  two  Roman  gates  of 
exquisite  workmanship  and  in  good  preserva- 
tion, the  ruins  of  an  amphitheatre  and  of  sev- 
eral temples ;  of  the  latter  the  most  conspicu- 
ous is  the  cathedral  of  St.  Lazare,  a  Gothic 
structure  of  the  nth  century.  Pop.  (1896) 
11,873. 

Autunite,  a  beautiful  canary-yellow  min- 
eral, occurring  in  thin,  tabular  crystals  of  ortho- 
rhombic  symmetry,  but  closely  approaching  the 
tetragonal  mineral  torbernite  in  form.  Both  of 
these  minerals  are  hydrous  phosphates  of 
uranium,  but  while  calcium  is  an  essential 
constituent  of  autunite,  whose  formula  is 
Ca(U02)2P208  +  8H20,  it  is  replaced  by  copper 
in  torbernite,  which  is  further  distinguished 
by  its  green  color.  Autunite  has  eminent  basal 
cleavage,  resulting  in  a  pearly  lustre  on  the 
basal  plane,  while  on  the  edges  of  the  crystal 
the  lustre  approaches  adamantine.  It  has  a 
hardness  of  2  to  2.5  and  a  specific  gravity  of 
about  3.12.  Some  autunite  is  beautifully  fluor- 
escent. Its  name  is  derived  from  its  most  noted 
locality,  Autun,  France,  where  it  is  found  in 
closely  aggregated  masses  of  crystals.  Other 
noteworthy  occurrences  are  in  Cornwall,  Eng- 
land, in  Saxony,  North  Carolina  and  South 
Dakota. 

Auvergne,  ovarn'y,  a  province  of  central 
France,  now  included  in  the  departments  Cantal, 
Puy-de-D6me,  and  Haute  Loire.  The  moun- 
tains of  Auvergne  are  the  highest  in  the  interior 
of  France,  the  highest  of  them,  Puy-de-D6me, 
being  4.805  feet  above  the  sea.  It  is  entirely 
composed  of  volcanic  matter,  and  has  a  regular 
crater  1,000  feet  in  circumference,  and  300  feet 
deep.  The  whole  of  the  cones  present  the  same 
general  character  —  well-defined  craters  en- 
closed by  regular  cones,  on  whose  sides  the  lava 
currents  may  be  traced  as  easily  as  on  those  of 
Vesuvius. 

Auvergne,  Mountains  of,  a  branch  of 
the    Cevennes,    chiefly    situated    in    the    depart- 


ments of  Puy-de-D6me  and  Cantal  (France). 
The  most  important  peaks  are  Puy-de-Sancy 
(6,185  feet),  Plomb  du  Cantal,  and  Puy-de- 
Dome. 

Auwers,  Arthur,  German  astronomer:  b. 
Gottmgen  12  Sept.  1838.  He  became  assistant 
m  the  observatory  at  Konigsberg  in  1859,  and 
at  Gotha  in  1862;  in  1866  was  made  a  member 
of  the  Berlin  Academy  and  astronomer  to  it. 
In  his  capacity  of  president  of  the  Astronomical 
Society  he  was  conspicuously  identified  with 
the  preparation  of  the  great  co-operative  cata- 
logue of  over  100,000  stars.  For  his  services 
to  astronomy  he  was  made  a  foreign  member 
of  the  Academy  of  Sciences  at  Washington, 
from  which  he  also  received  the  Watson  gold 
rnedal.  Among  his  works  are  <Neue  Reduk- 
tion  der  Bradleyschen  Beobachtungen  i750-62> 
(1882-8),  and  <Katalog  von  9,789  Sternen> 
(1896). 

Aux  Cayes,  o-ka',  a  seaport  town  of  Haiti, 
situated  on  the  southwest  coast  of  the  island, 
about  85  miles  west  of  Jacmel.  It  has  an  ex- 
cellent harbor,  a  good  export  trade,  and  is  the 
seat  of  an  American  consular  agent.  Pop. 
about  25,000. 

Auxerre,  6-sar'  (ancient  Antissiodurum) ,  a 
town  in  France,  96  miles  southeast  of  Paris.  It 
is  finely  situated  on  a  height  above  the  Yonne, 
which  here  becomes  navigable,  but  is  very  poorly 
built.  Its  principal  edifices  are  its  cathedral  of 
St.  Stephen,  a  splendid  Gothic  structure,  with 
a  finely  proportioned  interior,  and  windows 
containing  most  beautiful  stained  glass;  the 
church  of  St.  Germain,  with  some  curious 
crypts;  and  a  magnificent  old  episcopal  palace, 
now  converted  into  the  Hotel  de  Prefecture. 
The  manufactures  consist  of  woolens,  hats,  wine 
casks,  leather,  red  and  yellow  ochre,  earthen- 
ware, and  violin  strings;  and  the  trade  is 
chiefly  in  wood  and  in  the  wines  of  the  district 
Of  these  wines  the  most  famous  is  the  white 
Chablis.     Pop.   (1896)    15,082. 

Auxonne,  6-siin'  (Latin  Asona  or  Aus- 
soiia),  a  town  in  France,  18  miles  east-south- 
east of  Dijon,  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Saone, 
here  crossed  by  a  beautiful  bridge  of  23  arches. 
Auxonne  is  well  built,  the  seat  of  a  court  of 
commerce,  and  has  a  communal  college,  and  a 
public  library  containing  4,000  volumes;  a 
castle,  an  arsenal,  and  a  cannon  foundry.  Pop. 
(1896)    6,700. 

Auzout,  6-zoo',  Adrian,  French  mathe- 
matician: d.  1691,  inventor  of  the  micrometer, 
still  in  use  among  astronomers  to  measure  the 
apparent  diameter  of  celestial  bodies.  He  was 
the  first  who  thought  of  applying  the  telescope 
to  the  astronomical  quadrant. 

Ava,  a'va,  or  Aungwa,  a  town  in  Asia,  the 
former  capital  of  Ava  or  Birmah,  on  the  Irra- 
waddy.  It  has  a  circuit  of  about  five  miles,  and 
consists  of  an  inner  and  an  outer  town,  each 
surrounded  by  a  brick  wall.  Pop.  (1891) 
39,477- 

A'va,  Arva,  Yava,  or  Kava  (Piper  methys- 
ticum),  a  plant  of  the  natural  order  Piper- 
acecc,  possessing  narcotic  properties.  It  is 
a  shrubby  plant,  with  heart-shaped  acumi- 
nate leaves,  and  very  short,  solitary,  axil- 
lary spikes  of  flowers.  It  is  a  native 
of    many    of    the    South    Sea    Islands,    where 


AVADHUTA  —  AVALON 


the  inhabitants  intoxicate  themselves  with  a 
fermented  Hquor  prepared  from  the  upper  por- 
tion of  the  root  and  the  base  of  the  stem.  The 
rhizone  is  thick,  woody,  rugged,  and  aromatic. 
The  intoxicating  Uquor  is  prepared  by  macerat- 
ing it  in  water.  The  narcotic  property  is 
ascribed  to  an  acrid  resin,  kazvine,  present  in 
the  root.  The  taste  is  unpleasant  to  those  un- 
accustomed to  it,  and  has  been  likened  to  that 
of  rhubarb  and  magnesia.  The  intoxication  is 
not  like  that  produced  by  ardent  spirits,  but 
rather  a  stupefaction  like  that  caused  by  opium. 
It  is  succeeded  by  a  copious  perspiration.  The 
habitual  use  of  ava  causes  a  whitish  scurf  on 
the  skin,  which,  among  the  heathen  Tahitians, 
v.'as  reckoned  a  badge  of  nobility,  the  common 
people  not  having  the  means  of  indulgence  re- 
quisite to  produce  it.  Ava  is,  like  cocaine,  a 
local  ansesthetic. 

Avadhuta,  ii'va-d'-hoo'ta,  a  member  of  a 
mendican  sect  in  southern  India  addicted  to 
self-torture. 

Av'alanche,  a  mass  of  snow  or  ice  which 
slides  down  steep  mountain  slopes.  On  lofty 
mountains  snow  would  accumulate  indefinitely 
if  the  excess  were  not  removed  by  sudden  falls 
or  by  glaciers  which  bring  it  into  the  valleys, 
where  it  melts.  Avalanches  may  occur  at  any 
season  of  the  year,  but  they  are  most  frequent 
in  early  spring  after  the  snow  has  begun  to 
melt  from  the  sun's  rays.  The  water_  which 
collects  beneath  the  snow  bank  loosens  it  from 
the  ground,  and  the  whole  mass  may  then  be 
precipitated  to  the  base  of  the  mountain.  Such 
avalanches  occur  regularly  in  the  Alps,  where 
they  are  known  as  grundlazvinen.  Another 
type  (staublazvinen)  occurring  in  the  winter 
season  is  characterized  by  the  dry  and  finely 
divided  condition  of  the  snow,  and  results  from 
the  overloading  of  the  snow-fields.  A  third 
class  is  the  ice-avalanche,  occurring  along  the 
course  of  glaciers.  Avalanches  are  often  very 
destructive,  sweeping  away  trees,  houses  and 
everything  in  their  path.  Their  destructive  ef- 
fects are  greatly  increased  by  the  wind-blasts 
which  accompany  them.  Those  occurring  in 
winter  usually  cause  the  greatest  loss  of  life, 
as  they  develop  suddenly  and  without  warn- 
ing; those  that  take  place  in  spring  generally 
follow  a  definite  path  and  are  more  or  less 
regular  in  their  occurrence.  The  planting  of 
forests  on  the  high  slopes  sometimes  affords 
protection  from  avalanches,  but  when  this  is 
not  feasible,  stone  structures  are  employed. 
Aval  Islands.  See  Bahrein. 
Av'alon,  Cal.,  a  summer  resort  on  Santa- 
Catalina  Island,  established  for  the  purpose  of 
supplying  the  comforts  of  life  at  a  minimum 
cost.  It  is  owned  by  a  joint  stock  company, 
and  was  literally  built  to  order  when  it  was 
determined  to  build  the  town.  The  sight  se- 
lected was  a  desert,  with  not  a  tree  in  sight 
and  only  a  few  shanties  of  fishermen  along 
shore.  Water  was  found  in  a  neighboring 
caiion  to  the  north  and  piped  over  the  hills. 
The  ground  was  leveled,  the  hollows  filled,  and 
small  prominences  cut  down.  The  surveyor 
platted  the  tract,  laid  out  streets,  avenues,  walks, 
and  a  central  plaza  or  park  with  provision  for 
fountains.  This  accomplished,  the  plumbers  fol- 
lowed, and  a  system  of  sewerage  and  water 
pipes  was  introduced.     The  aid  of  the  forester 


was  next  called  into  play,  and  the  streets  and 
avenues  were  planted  with  small  Australian 
eucalyptus  trees.  A  wharf  was  .built,  a  hotel 
or  restaurant,  several  cottages  for  the  superin- 
tendent, a  number  of  tents  erected,  and  what  is 
known  as  the  "tent  city"  was  finished.  The 
tent  city  is  a  feature  peculiar  all  along  the 
southern  California  coast,  for  the  benefit  of 
ranchers  and  others  from  the  inland  cities  and 
towns  who  desire  to  escape  the  heat  and  enjoy 
life  at  the  seashore  at  a  minimum  cost. 

What  is  known  as  the  "tent  city"  is  more  or 
less  peculiar  to  California,  and  the  local  papers, 
from  the  heart  of  the  Sierras  to  the  sands  of 
the  ocean,  during  the  summer  months,  all  con- 
tain glowing  advertisements  of  the  "tent  city.*^ 
Such  cities,  with  a  population  of  several  hun- 
dred, are  found  at  many  points  on  the  Pacific 
coast.  The  equipment  of  the  "tent  city®  con- 
stitutes a  business  in  itself.  At  Avalon  is  a 
large  circus  tent  which  in  winter  contains  fur- 
niture of  every  description.  Here,  in  fact,  the 
"tent  city*  was  in  winter  quarters,  everything 
being  classified  and  arranged  with  order  and 
system.  In  April  or  May  a  gang  of  workrrien 
descends  upon  the  winter  quarters,  and  like 
magic  the  vacant  lots  are  filled,  and  in  a  day 
a  city  is  reared  as  though  by  the  touching  of 
the  proverbial  button.  Each  tent  is  neatly  and 
well  furnished,  and  can  be  rented  for  a  nominal 
cost,  the  owners  of  the  island  giving  the 
ground  rent  and  free  water,  each  lot  being  sew- 
ered and  perfect  in  its  sanitary  arrangement. 
The  visitor  can  rent  a  tent  for  sleeping,  a  parlor 
and  kitchen,  or  he  can  rent  a  single  room.  In 
the  centre  of  the  "tent  city"  is  a  store  where 
every  description  of  food,  carefully  prepared 
and  cooked,  can  be  obtained.  Near  by  the  Y.  M. 
C.  A.  has  opened  a  reading  room  and  library. 

The  questions  of  the  physical  and  moral  wel- 
fare of  such  a  community  would  seem  an  im- 
portant and  difficult  one  to  manage,  but  all  this 
and  even  the  amusements  are  included  in  the 
plan,  and  we  have  a  city  where  every  door  is 
open  and  where  probably  the  jail  is  used  hardly 
once  in  the  season.  On  the  borders  of  the  city 
is  a  large  amusement  hall,  and  in  the  neighbor- 
ing grove  is  a  band  stand  where  the  finest  band 
in  southern  California  gives  an  open-air  con- 
cert from  7  until  g,  seats  being  provided 
for  1,200  people.  No  smoking  is  allowed  with- 
in the  area  of  the  seats.  At  the  end  of  the  con- 
cert the  band  adjourns  to  the  "pavilion,"  and 
a  ball  is  given  free  to  the  inhabitants  of  the 
"tent  city"  and  others.  No  policeman  is  in 
evidence  in  the  town,  though  guardians  of  the 
peace  are  present  in  citizen's  clothes.  In  fact, 
here  is  a  summer  municipality  of  large  size, 
conducted  by  a  corporation  that  attends  to 
everything;  keeps  the  town  clean,  provides 
amusement,  sustains  a  health  officer,  adminis- 
ters justice  through  a  justice  of  the  peace,  pro- 
vides the  government  with  a  post-office,  and 
maintains  two  daily  boats  between  the  island 
and  the  mainland  —  an  experiment  in  govern- 
ment worthy  the  attention  of  the  pessimist  wha 
affects  to  believe  that  communities  cannot  be  run 
by  machinery,  as  this  virtually  is,  so  well  ar- 
ranged and  systematized  are  the  methods.  It 
might  be  assumed  that  a  series  of  stringent  and 
excessive  taxes  would  be  imposed  upon  each  resi- 
dent, but  investigation  shows  that  each  resident 
of  the  tent  city  of  Avalon  pays  but  $2.75  per 
capita  per  season  for  the  privileges,  which  is  the 


AVALON  —  AVELLANED A 


•cost  of  round  trip  fare  from  Los  Angeles  to 
the  island,  a  distance  of  50  miles,  more  or  less. 
This  and  the  rent  of  tent  constitute  the  sole 
tax.  The  winter  population  is  generally  less 
than  1,000,  but  in  summer  75,000  persons  are  to 
be  found  at  times  living  within  the  corporate 
limits. 

Av'alon,  the  legendary  elysium  of  King 
Arthur,  being  his  abode  after  disappearing 
from  the  haunts  of  men ;  called  also  Avilion. 
The  name  is  also  identified  with  Glastonbury, 
and  has  been  given  to  a  peninsula  of  New- 
foundland. 

Avalos,  a'va-los',  the  name  of  a  noble 
Neapolitan  family,  which  included  Ferdinand 
D'  Avalos,  IMarquis  de  Pescara :  b.  Naples, 
1490;  d.  1525.  He  served  with  distinction  in 
the  army  of  Charles  V.,  and  was  taken  prisoner 
by  the  French  at  the  battle  of  Ravenna  in  15 12. 
He  beguiled  the  hours  of  captivity  by  writing  a 
*  Dialogue  of  Love,^  which  he  dedicated  to  his 
wife,  the  beautiful  and  accomplished  Vittoria 
Colonna.  He  soon  recovered  his  libertj'^,  and 
subsequently  displayed  extraordinary  ability  in 
the   wars   of  Charles   V. 

Avancini,  Nicholas,  an  ascetic  writer  of 
the  Society  of  Jesus :  b.  1612 ;  d.  1686.  His  lit- 
tle book  of  meditations  on  the  life  and  doctrine 
of  Jesus  Christ  which  has  been  translated  into 
several  languages  and  is  widely  used  to-day  by 
members  of  clergy,  first  appeared  in  Vienna  in 
1665.  By  reason  of  its  arrangement,  its  scrip- 
tural sources,  its  pithy  suggestiveness,  and  its 
practical  character.  Cardinal  Gibbons  states 
that  it  has  been  his  Vade  Alecum,  his  book  of 
meditations  during  all  the  years  of  his  ministry. 

Avare,  L',  la-var'  (The  Miser),  the  title  of 
one  of  the  most  famous  of  Moliere's  prose 
comedies,  first  produced  9  Sept.  1668.  It  is 
founded  on  the  'Aulularia^  of  Plautus,  and  was 
paraphrased  by  Fielding  in  his  comedy  of  *Tlie 
Miser. ^  Harpagon  is  a  sexagenarian  miser 
who  incarnates  the  spirit  of  avarice  and  has 
determined  to  marry  a  young  woman  named 
Mariane,  but  ultimately  prefers  his  gold  to 
matrimony. 

Avars,  a'varz,  or  Avares,  a  nation  of  Mon- 
golian or  Turkish  origin,  who  at  an  early  period 
migrated  to  the  regions  around  the  Don,  the 
Caspian  Sea,  and  the  Volga.  They  served  in 
Justinian's  army,  and  later  made  themselves 
masters  of  Dalmatia,  pressed  into  Thuringia 
and  Italy,  where  they  fought  with  the  Franks 
and  Lombards,  and  extended  their  dominion 
over  the  Slavonians  dwelling  on  the  Danube 
and  farther  north,  as  well  as  over  the  Bul- 
garians on  the  Black  Sea.  They  were  at  length 
overcome  by  Charlemagne,  and  after  827  dis- 
appear from  history ;  but  the  valley  of  Erlav,  a 
small  tributary  of  the  Danube  in  Lower  Austria, 
was  called  the  "land  of  the  Avars"  as  late  as 
the   loth  century. 

The  name  is  also  borne  by  a  tribe  estimated 
to  number  upward  of  100.000,  now  living  in 
the  Caucasus  Mountains,  noted  for  their  strug- 
gle with  Russia,  in  which  they  were  led  by 
Schamyl    (q.v.).     See    also    Lesghians. 

Avatar,  iv'a-tar',  in  Hindu  mythology,  an 
incarnation  of  the  Deity.  Ten  avatars  are  pe- 
culiarly distinguished,  and  four  of  them  are  the 
subjects  of  Purdnas,  or  sacred  poems.  These 
ID  are  among  the  incarnations  of  Vishnu,  the 


supreme  God.  The  Matsya  avatar  was  the  de- 
scent of  the  Deity  in  the  form  of  a  fish ;  Kach- 
yapa  or  Kurma,  in  that  of  a  tortoise;  Varaha, 
as  a  boar;  Nara-sinha,  as  a  monster,  half  man, 
half  lion;  Vamana,  as  a  dwarf;  Parasurama,  as 
the  son  of  Jamadagni.  All  these  took  place  in 
the  Satya  Vuga,  or  golden  age.  The  seventh 
incarnation  was  in  the  form  of  the  four  sons 
of  King  Dasaratha,  under  the  names  of  Rama, 
Lakshmana,  Bharata,  and  Satrughna,  in  order 
to  destroy  certain  demons  that  infested  tht 
earth.  The  achievements  of  Rama  form  the 
subject  of  the  celebrated  epic  called  the  Rama- 
yana.  The  eighth  avatar  of  Vishnu,  in  the 
form  of  Krishna,  is  the  best  known  of  all,  from 
the  fact  that  it  forms  the  subject  of  the  great 
Sanskrit  epic  poem,  the  Mahabharata.  Its  ob- 
ject was  to  relieve  the  earth  from  the  Daityas, 
and  the  wicked  men  who  oppressed  it.  The 
ninth  was  in  the  form  of  Buddha.  The  Kalki, 
or  tenth  avatar,  is  yet  to  come  at  the  end  of  the 
Kali  Yuga,  or  the  iron  age.     See  Vishnu. 

Avatcha,  a-va'cha,  a  volcano  and  bay  in. 
Kamchatka.  The  volcano,  9,000  feet  high,  was 
last  active  in  1855.  The  town  of  Petropavlovsk 
is  situated  on  the  bay. 

Ave  Maria,  a'va  ma-re'a  (Latin;  hail  Mary, 
frorn  averre)  ;  among  ithe  Roman  Catholics  the 
beginning  of  a  prayer  to  the  Virgin,  whence 
the  whole  prayer  is  called  Ave  Maria.  It  is  the 
beginning  of  the  salutation  which  the  angel 
addressed  to  the  Virgin,  as  he  announced  to 
her  that  she  should  be  the  mother  of  the  Sa- 
viour (Luke  i.  28;  "Hail,  highly  favor»d,  the 
Lord  is  with  thee :  blessed  art  thou  among 
women.").    See  Rosary. 

Avebury,  a'ber-T,  Lord.  See  Lubboch,  Sir 
John. 

Ave'bury,  England,  a  village  in  Wiltshire, 
occupying  the  site  of  a  so-called  Druidical  tem- 
ple, which  originally  consisted  of  a  large  outer 
circle  of  100  stones,  from  15  to  17  feet  high, 
and  about  40  feet  in  circumference,  surrounded 
by  a  broad  ditch  and  lofty  rampart,  and  enclos- 
ing two  smaller  circles.  On  the  neighboring 
downs  are  numerous  barrows  or  tumuli,  one  of 
which,  called  Silbury  Hill,  rises  to  the  height 
of  130  feet,  with  a  circumference  of  2,027  feet 
at  the  base,  covering  an  area  of  more  than  five 
acres. 

Avellaneda,  a-va'lya-na'da,  Alfonso  Fer- 
nandas de,  the  pseudonym  of  the  writer  of 
a  sequel  to  *Don  Quixote,^  issued  prior  to  the 
sequel  by  Cervantes.     See  Don  Quixote. 

Avel'lane'da,  Nicholas,  Argentine  states- 
man: b.  Tucuman,  i  Oct.  1836;  d.  26  Dec.  1885. 
He  was  professor  of  political  economy  in  the 
University  of  Buenos  Ayres ;  minister  of  pub- 
lic instruction  in  1868-74,  and  president  of  the 
republic  in  1874-86.  He  published  several  his- 
torical and  economical  works. 

Avellaneda  y  Arteaga,  a-va'lya-na'da  e 
ar'ta-a'ga.  Gertrudis  Gomez  de,  distinguished 
Spanish  poet,  dramatist  and  novelist:  b.  Puerto 
Principe,  Cuba.  23  March  1814:  d.  Madrid.  2 
Feb.  1873.  Under  the  pseudonym  Peregrina 
she  contributed  to  Andalusian  journals  many 
'Lyric  Poems*  (1851-54),  and  afterward 
wrote  a  series  of  spirited  novels:  'Two 
Women,'  'The  Baroness  de  Joux,'  'Dolores,* 
and  others.  She  gained  still  higher  distinction 
with  the  tragedies    'Alfonso   Munio,*    the  hero 


AVELLINO  —  AVERNUS 


of  which  was  her  own  ancestor,  and  /T^^ 
Prince  of  Vianna.^  Her  later  compositions 
had  a  tone  of  melancholy;  among  these  are 
Biblical  dramas,  as  *SauP  and  '^Balthasar'  ; 
the  spiritual  song,  ^At  the  Cross,'  and  ^The 
Last  Ascent  of  My  Harp'  (1850).  In  the  later 
years  of  her  life  she  composed  16  plays  which 
still  have  a  place  on  the  Spanish  stage. 

Avellino,  a'vel-le'no,  a  town  in  Italy,  29 
miles  east  of  Naples.  It  has  a  square  adorned 
with  an  obelisk,  and  possesses  several  agreea- 
ble promenades.     Pop.   (1901)   23,700. 

Ave'na.     See  Oats. 

Avenarius,  Richard,  German  philosopher: 
b.  Paris  1843 ;  d.  Ziirich  1896.  He  studied  phi- 
losophy at  the  universities  of  Ziirich,  Berlin,  and 
Leipsic,  and  from  1877  to  his  death  was  profes- 
sor of  philosophy  at  Ziirich.  He  wrote  on 
Spinoza's  pantheism,  published  a  theory  of  ex- 
perience and  contributed  many  papers  to  maga- 
zines and  reviews,  upon  philosophical  subjects. 

Avenches,  a-vansh',  Switzerland,  a  town 
in  the  canton  of  Vaud,  seven  miles  northwest 
of  Fribourg.  It  is  the  ancient  Aventicum, 
capital  of  Helvetia  under  Roman  rule,  and  is 
noted  for  its  Roman  relics,  notably  the  ruins 
of  an  amphitheatre,  and  a  Corinthian  column 
belonging  to  a  temple  of  Apollo.  In  Roman 
times  it  was  a  city  of  20,000  inhabitants.  The 
population  now  is  about  2,000. 

Av'enel,  Mary,  a  character  appearing  in 
Scott's  novels,  ^The  Monastery'  and  ^The 
Abbot.' 

Avenel,  av-nel',  Paul,  a  French  poet  and 
novelist:  b.  Chaumont  9  Oct.  1823.  He  was 
active  in  connection  with  several  periodicals, 
and  besides  several  vaudevilles,  he  wrote  ^The 
Peasant  Woman  from  the  Abruzzi'  (1861),  a 
drama;  *^The  King  of  Paris'  (i860),  a  histor- 
ical romance;  <The  Calicoes'  (1866),  scenes  of 
real  life.  Among  several  collections  of  poems 
may  be  mentioned  "^Alcove  and  Boudoir,'  in- 
terdicted  in   1855  and   re-published   in   1885. 

Aven'ger  of  Blood,  among  primitive  peo- 
ples the  next  of  kin  to  a  murdered  man,  upon 
whom  was  laid  the  duty  of  avenging  the  crime 
by  killing  the  murderer.  In  this  custom  may  be 
detected  the  source  of  the  system  of  criminal 
law. 

Av'entine,  the  southernmost  of  the  seven 
hills  of  Rome,  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Tiber, 
between  the  river  and  the  Caelian  hill.  The 
Circus  Maximus  lay  to  the  northeast  of 
the  Aventine,  between  it  and  the  Palatine,  and 
the  baths  of  Caracalla  were  on  the  southeast. 

Aven'turine.    See  Quartz;  Sunstone. 

Avenzoar,  a'ven-zo'ar,  or  more  correctly, 
Abu-Merwan-Mohammed  -  ben  -  Abdalmalec  - 
ben-Zohar,  Arabian  physician  of  the  12th  cen- 
tury: b.  Seville,  Spain;  d.  Morocco,  1169. 
He  became  eminent  in  his  profession,  traveled 
much,  and  passed  through  many  adventures, 
among  which  was  a  long  imprisonment  at  Se- 
ville. He  had  the  care  of  a  hospital,  and  com- 
posed a  work  entitled  <A1  Theiser,'  contain- 
ing a  compendium  of  medical  practice,  and 
including  many  facts  and  observations  not  found 
m  the  preceding  writers,  which  was  probably 
the  result  of  his  own  experience.  The  report 
of  his  having  lived  to  the  age  of  135  is  probably 
an   error    arising  from  his  having  been     corv- 


founded  with  his  son,  of  the  same  name  and 
profession,  who  lived  at  Morocco,  and  was 
the  author  of  a  treatise  on  the  regimen  of 
health. 

Av'erage,  in  maritime  law,  is  general,  par- 
ticular or  petty.  General  average  (also  called 
gross)  consists  of  expense  purposely  incurred, 
sacrifice  made,  or  damage  sustained  for  the 
common  safety  of  the  vessel,  freight  and  cargo, 
or  the  two  of  them,  at  risk,  and  is  to  be  con- 
tributed for  by  the  several  interests  in  the  pro- 
portion of  their  respective  values  exposed  to 
the  common  danger,  and  ultimately  surviving, 
including  the  amount  of  expense,  sacrifice  or 
damage  so  incurred  in  the  contributory  value. 
Indemnity  for  general  average  loss  is  ordi- 
narily stipulated  for  in  policies  against  the  risks 
in  navigation,  subject,  however,  to  divers  modi- 
fications and  conditions.  Under  maritime  poli- 
cies in  the  usual  form,  insurers  are  liable  for 
the  contributions,  for  loss  by  jettison  of  cargo, 
sacrifice  of  cables,  anchors,  sails,  boats,  delay  for 
the  purpose  of  refitting,  voluntary  stranding, 
etc.  Average  particular  (also  called  partial 
loss)  is  a  loss  on  the  ship,  cargo  or  freight,  to 
be  borne  by  the  owner  of  the  subject  on  which 
it  happens,  and  is  so  called  in  distinction  from 
general  average,  and,  if  not  total,  it  is  also 
called  a  partial  loss.  It  is  insured  against  in 
marine  policies  in  the  usual  forms  on  ship, 
cargo  or  freight,  when  the  action  of  peril  is  ex- 
traordinary, and  the  damage  is  not  mere  wear 
or  tear,  and  on  the  ship  covers  loss  by  sails 
split  or  blown  away,  masts  sprung,  machinery 
of  steamship  disabled,  planks  started,  change 
of  shape  by  strain,  loss  of  boat,  breaking  of 
sheathing  or  upper  works  or  timbers,  damage 
by  collision  or  stranding,  by  lightning  or  fire, 
or  in  defense  against  pirates  or  enemies,  or 
by  hostile  or  piratical  plunder.  Petty  average 
consists  of  small  charges  formerly  assessed  upon 
the  cargo,  to  wit :  anchorage,  pilotage,  beacon- 
age,   towage,   quarantine,   etc. 

Av'erage  Man,  An,  a  society  novel  by 
Robert  Grant.  It  is  a  story  of  manners  rather 
than  plot,  concerning  itself  more  with  types 
than   with  individuals. 

A'verell,  William  Woods,  American  mili- 
tary officer :  b.  Cameron,  N.  Y.,  5  Nov.  1832 ; 
d.  Bath,  N.  Y.,  3  Feb.  1900.  He  was  edu- 
cated at  West  Point,  and  served  on  the  frontier, 
and  in  several  Indian  campaigns  till  the 
beginning  of  the  Civil  War,  when  he  was  ap- 
pointed colonel  of  the  Third  Pennsylvania  Cav- 
alry, and  assigned  to  the  command  of  the  cav- 
alry defenses  of  Washington.  During  the  war 
he  distinguished  himself  on  numerous  occasions 
as  a  cavalry  raider  and  commander,  and  at  its 
close  was  brevetted  major-general  of  volunteers. 
He  resigned  from  the  regular  army  while  hold- 
ing the  rank  of  captain,  in  1865,' and,  under  an 
act  of  Congress,  was  reappointed  captain  in 
August  1888,  and  was  placed  on  the  retired  list 
in  the  same  month.  He  was  United  States  Con- 
sul-General  at  Montreal  in  1866-9.  He  in- 
vented a  system  of  asphalt  pavement  now  quite 
generally  adopted  and  the  Averell  insulating 
conduits  for  wires  and  conductors. 

Avernus,  a-ver'nus,  a  small  circular  lake, 
now  called  Lago  d'Averno.  in  Naples,  kingdom 
of  Italy,  between  the  ancient  Cumse  and  Puteoli. 
It  is  surrounded  by  hills  of  a  moderate  height, 
which  used  to  be  covered  with  immense  woods, 


AVERROES  —  AVESTA 


while  the  atmosphere  was  charged  with  un- 
healthy mephitic  effluvia,  and  occupies  the  cra- 
ter of  an  extinct  volcano.  By  ancient  Greek 
writers,  subsequent  to  Homer,  it  was  fabled 
to  be  the  entrance  to  the  infernal  regions,  and 
to  have  been  the  place  where  Ulysses  entered  in 
his  visit  to  the  shades.  It  was  also  thought 
that  the  Cimmerians  of  Homer  dwelt  on  the 
banks  of  this  lake.  The  sibyl  of  Cumae  is  said 
to  have  had  her  grotto  here,  and  Virgil  repre- 
sents her  as  guiding  ^neas  when  he  made  his 
descent  C-^facilis  descensus  Averno^^)  to  the 
infernal   regions  at  this  place. 

Averroes,  av-er-ros'  (corrupted  from 
Ebn  or  Ibn  Roshd),  a  renowned  Arabian  phi- 
losopher: b.  Cordova,  Spain.  1126;  d.  about 
1 198.  He  became  a  cadi  or  judge  first  in  Se- 
ville and  afterward  in  Cordova.  He  was  ac- 
cused of  rejecting  the  established  religion,  and 
in  consequence  deprived  of  his  offices,  and  fled 
to  Fez.  Here  he  was  condemned  by  a  spiritual 
court  to  recant  and  undergo  a  public  penance. 
Upon  this  he  went  back  to  his  own  country,  but 
was  latterly  restored  to  his  dignities  in  Maroc- 
co.  Averroes  regarded  Aristotle  as  the  great- 
est of  all  philosophers,  and  explained  his  writ- 
ings, with  only  a  slight  deviation  from  his 
views.  Besides  commentaries  on  Aristotle  and 
other  philosophical  works  he  wrote  also  a  com- 
pendium of  physic,  called  ^Colliget^  (a  corrup- 
tion of  the  Arabic  ^Kulliyat,^  or  summary), 
and  treatises  on  jurisprudence,  astronomy, 
grammar,  etc.  His  commentaries  upon  Aristotle, 
in  a  Latin  translation,  were  repeatedly  printed 
at  Venice  m  the  15th  and  i6th  centuries.  His 
*CoIliget^  also  was  early  translated  into  Latin, 
and  several  times  printed.  See  Renan,  ^Aver- 
roes et  I'Averroisme^  (i860)  ;  Miiller,  ^Philo- 
sophic und  Theologie  von  Averroes^    (1875). 

Aversa,  a-ver'sa,  a  town  of  Italy,  nine 
miles  north  of  Naples,  on  a  plain  covered  with 
vines  and  orange  trees.  It  is  the  seat  of  a 
bishop,  and  is  famed  for  a  kind  of  almond- 
cake,  called  torrone,  in  great  demand  at  Naples. 
Pop.   (1901)   22A77- 

A'very,  Benjamin  Parke,  American  jour- 
nalist and  diplomatist:  b.  New  York  1829; 
d.  Peking,  China,  8  Nov.  1875.  He  went  to 
California  in  1849  and  became  connected  with 
several  papers  on  the  Pacific  coast,  among  them 
the  San  Francisco  Bulletin.  In  1872  he  was 
appointed  editor  of  the  ^Overland  Monthly.^ 
From  1874  to  1875  he  was  United  States  minis- 
ter to  China.  His  chief  work  is  'Californian 
Pictures  in  Prose  and  Verse^    (1877). 

A'very,  Elroy  McKendree,  American 
writer  •  b.  Erie,  Mich.,  1844.  He  served  m  the 
Federal  army  during  the  Civil  War,  and  has 
since  been  prominent  in  educational  matters. 
Among  his  m.any  published  works  are  text- 
books in  physics  and  chemistry,  *  Words  Cor- 
rectly Spoken>  (1887)  ;  and  ^A  Popular  His- 
tory of  the  United  States,^  now  in  progress  of 
publication. 

Avery,  Otis,  American  dentist:  b.  Bridge- 
water,  Oneida  County,  N.  Y.,  19  Aug.  1808;  d. 
Honesdale,  Pa.,  1904.  He  then  took  up  the  study 
of  dentistry,  and  began  the  practice  of  his  pro- 
fession at  Honesdale,  Pa.,  where  he  lived  for  the 
greater  part  of  his  life.  For  some  years  he  was 
the  only  dentist  between  Honesdale  and  Utica, 
N.  Y.,  and  at  the  time  of  his  death  was  the  old- 
est practising  dentist  in  the  United  States. 


A'very,  Samuel  Putnam,  American  mer- 
chant: b.  New  York,  17  March  1822;  d.  there 
12  Aug.  1904.  He  became  a  copper-plate  and 
wood  engraver,  and  subsequently  an  art  pub- 
lisher and  dealer.  He  was  a  founder  of  the 
Metropolitan  Museum  of  Art;  life  member 
of  the  American  Museum  of  Natural  History, 
American  Geographical  Society,  American  His- 
torical Society,  American  Zoological  Society; 
president  of  the  Grolier  Club,  and  first  presi- 
dent of  the  Sculpture  Society.  In  1891,  with 
his  wife,  he  created  and  endowed  the  Avery 
Architectural  Library,  in  Columbia  University, 
as  a  memorial  of  his  deceased  son;  and  in 
May  1900  presented  to  the  trustees  of  the 
New  York  Public  Library  a  collection  of 
etchings,  lithographs,  and  photographs,  num- 
bermg  more  than  17,500  pieces,  together  with 
a  number  of  large  volumes  illustrated  bv  '■he 
same  arts. 

A'very,  Waitstill,  American  lawyer:  b. 
Nor\vich,  Ct. ;  d.  North  Carolina,  1821.  He 
practised  his  profession  successfully;  wii 
appointed  in  1777  attorney-general  of  North  Caro- 
lina, and  was  at  the  time  of  his  death  the  patri- 
arch of  the  bar  of  that  State.  He  was  promi- 
nent in  the  political  affairs  of  the  State,  being 
a  member  of  the  State  congress  prior  to  the 
Revolution,  and  of  the  State  legislature  after 
the  establishment  of  peace.  In  1777  he  was  ap- 
pointed one  of  a  commission  to  treat  with  the 
Cherokee  Indians. 

A'very's  Gores,  the  name  of  several  tracts 
of  land  in  Vermont,  granted  to  Samuel  Avery 
in  1791.  One  of  them  is  in  Addison  County, 
nearly  on  the  summit  of  the  Green  Mountains, 
now  forming  a  part  of  Granville. 

Aves,  a'vas,  or  Bird  Islands,  a  group  of 
small  islands  belonging  to  Venezuela,  valuable 
for  their   deposits   of  guano. 

Aves,  a'vez,  the  class  of  vertebrated  ani- 
mals which  contains  the  birds.  They  have 
been  defined  by  Dr.  Gadow  as  "oviparous, 
warm-blooded,  amniotic  vertebrates,  which 
have  their  anterior  extremities  transformed  in- 
to wings. '^  The  metacarpus  and  fingers  carry 
feathers  or  quills;  there  is  an  intertarsal  joint, 
and  the  feet  have  not  more  than  four  toes,  of 
which  the  first  is  the  hallu.x.    See  Birds. 

Aves'ta,  or  Zend-Avesta,  the  Bible  of 
Zoroaster,  the  sacred  book  of  ancient  Iran,  ^nd 
holy  scripture  of  the  modern  Parsis.  The  ex- 
act meaning  of  the  name  "Avesta*^  is  not  cer- 
tain ;  it  may  perhaps  signify  "law,'^  "text,'^  or, 
more  doubtfully,  "wisdom,**  "revelation."  The 
modern  familiar  designation  of  the  book  as 
Zend-Avesta  is  not  strictly  accurate ;  if  used  at 
all,  it  should  rather  be  Avesta-Zend,  like  "Bible 
and  Commentary,"  as  zand  signifies  "explana- 
tion," "commentary,"  and  Avcsta  11  Zand  is  em- 
ployed in  some  Persian  allusions  to  the  Zoro- 
astrian  scriptures  as  a  designation  denoting  the 
text  of  the  Avesta  accompanied  by  the  Pahlavi 
version  or  interpretation.  The  story  of  the  re- 
covery of  the  Avesta,  or  rather  the  discovery  of 
the  Avesta,  by  the  enthusiastic  young  French 
scholar,  Anquetil  du  Perron,  who  was  the  first 
to  open  to  the  western  world  the  ancient  rec- 
ords of  Zoroastrianism,  reads  almost  like  a 
romance.  Du  Perron's  own  account  of  his  de- 
parture for  India  in  1754,  of  his  experiences 
with  the  dasturs  (or  priests)  during  a  seven 
years'    residence    among   them,    of   his    various 


AVESTA 


difficulties  and  annoyances,  setbacks,  and  suc- 
cesses, is  entertainingly  presented  in  the  intro- 
ductory volume  of  his  work  ^Zend-Avesta, 
Ouvrage  de  Zoroastre^  {^77})-  This  was  the 
first  translation  of  the  ancient  Persian  books 
published  in  a  European  language.  Its  appear- 
ance formed  one  of  those  epochs  which  are 
marked  by  an  addition  to  the  literary,  religious, 
or  philosophical  wealth  of  our  time ;  a  new  con- 
tribution was  added  to  the  riches  of  the  West 
from  the  treasures  of  the  East.  The  field  thus 
thrown  open,  although  worked  imperfectly  at 
first,  has  yielded  abundant  harvests  to  the  hands 
of  later  gleaners..  With  the  growth  of  know- 
ledge of  the  language  of  the  sacred  texts,  we 
have  now  a  clear  idea  also  of  the  history  of 
Zoroastrian  literature,  and  of  the  changes  and 
chances  through  which  with  varying  fortunes 
the  scriptures  have  passed.  The  original  Zoro- 
astrian Avesta,  according  to  tradition,  was  in  it- 
self a  literature  of  vast  dimensions.  Pliny,  in 
his  ^Natural  History,'  speaks  of  two  million 
verses  of  Zoroaster ;  to  which  may  be  added  the 
Persian  assertion  that  the  original  copy  of  the 
scriptures  was  written  upon  twelve  thousand 
parchments,  with  gold  illuminated  letters,  and 
was  deposited  in  the  library  at  Persepolis.  But 
what  was  the  fate  of  this  archetype?  Parsi  tra- 
dition has  an  answer.  Alexander  the  Great, — 
"the  accursed  Iskander,''  as  he  is  called, —  is  re- 
sponsible for  its  destruction.  At  the  request  of 
the  beautiful  Thais,  as  the  story  goes,  he  al- 
lowed the  palace  of  Persepolis  to  be  burned, 
and  the  precious  treasure  perished  in  the  flames. 
Whatever  view  we  may  take  of  the  different 
sides  of  this  story,  one  thing  cannot  be  denied : 
the  invasion  of  Alexander  and  the  subjugation 
of  Iran  was  indirectly  or  directly  the  cause  of  a 
certain  religious  decadence  which  followed  up- 
on the  disruption  of  the  Persian  empire,  and 
was  answerable  for  the  fact  that  a  great  part 
of  the  scriptures  was  forgotten  or  fell  into 
disuse.  Persian  tradition  lays  at  the  doors  of 
the  Greeks  the  loss  of  another  copy  of  the  origi- 
nal ancient  texts,  but  does  not  explain  in  what 
manner  this  happened ;  nor  has  it  any  account 
to  give  of  copies  of  the  prophet's  works  which 
Semitic  writers  say  were  translated  into  nearly 
a  dozen  different  languages.  One  of  these  ver- 
sions was  perhaps  Greek,  for  it  is  generally  ac- 
knowledged that  in  the  4th  century  B.C.  the 
philosopher  Theopompus  spent  much  time  in 
giving  in  his  own  tongue  the  contents  of  the 
sacred  Magian  books. 

Tradition  is  unanimous  on  one  point  at 
least:  it  is  that  the  original  Avesta  comprised 
21  Masks,  or  books,  a  statement  which  there  is 
no  good  reason  to  doubt.  The  same  tradition 
which  was  acquainted  with  the  general  charac- 
ter of  those  Nasks  professes  also  to  tell  ex- 
actly how  many  of  them  survived  the  inroad 
of  Alexander;  for  although  the  sacred  text  it- 
self was  destroyed,  its  contents  were  lost  only  in 
part,  the  priests  preserving  large  portions  of 
the  precious  scriptures.  These  met  with  many 
vicissitudes  in  the  five  centuries  that  inter- 
vened between  the  conquest  of  Alexander  and 
the  great  restoration  of  Zoroastrianism  in  the 
3d  century  of  our  era,  under  the  Sassanian 
dynasty.  At  this  period  all  obtainable  Zoro- 
astrian scriptures  were  collected,  the  compila- 
tion was  codified,  and  a  detailed  notice  made 
of  the  contents  of  each  of  the  original  Nasks 
compared  with  the  portions  then  surviving.    The 


original  Avesta  was,  it  would  appear,  a  sort  of 
encyclopaedic  work ;  not  of  religion  alone,  but 
of  useful  knowledge  relating  to  law,  to  the  arts, 
science,  the  professions,  and  to  every-day  life. 
If  we  may  judge  from  the  existing  table  of 
contents  of  these  Nasks,  the  zealous  Sassanians, 
even  in  the  time  of  the  collecting  (226-380  a.d.), 
were  able  to  restore  but  a  fragment  of  the 
archet3'pe,  perhaps  a  fourth  part  of  the  original 
Avesta.  Nor  was  this  remnant  destined  to  es- 
cape misfortune.  The  Mohammedan  invasion, 
in  the  7th  century  of  our  era,  added  a  final  and 
crushing  blow.  Much  of  the  religion  that 
might  otherwise  have  been  handed  dov/n  to  us, 
despite  "the  accursed  Iskander's"  conquest,  now 
perished  through  the  sword  and  the  Koran.  Its 
loss,  we  must  remember,  is  in  part  compensated 
by  the  Pahlavi  religious  literature  of  Sassanian 
days. 

Fragmentary  and  disjointed  as  are  the  rem- 
nants of  the  Avesta,  we  are  fortunate  in  pos- 
sessing even  this  moiety  of  the  Bible  of  Zoro- 
aster, whose  compass  is  about  one  tenth  that 
of  our  own  sacred  book.  A  grouping  of  the 
existing  texts  is  here  presented:  (i)  Yasna 
(including  Gathas)  ;  (2)  Visperad;  (3)  Yashts ; 
(4)  Minor  Texts;  (5)  Vendidad;  (6)  Frag- 
ments. 

Even  these  texts  no  single  manuscript  in 
our  time  contains  complete.  The  present  col- 
lection is  made  by  combining  various  Avestan 
codexes.  In  spite  of  the  great  antiquity  of  the 
literature,  all  the  existing  manuscripts  are  com- 
paratively young.  None  is  older  than  the  13th 
century  of  our  own  era,  while  the  direct  his- 
tory of  only  one  or  two  can  be  followed  back 
to  about  the  loth  century.  This  mere  external 
circumstance  has  of  course  no  bearing  on  the 
actual  early  age  of  the  Zoroastrian  scriptures. 
It  must  be  kept  in  mind  that  Zoroaster  lived 
at  least  six  centuries  before  the  birth  of  Christ. 

Among  the  six  divisions  of  our  present 
Avesta,  the  Yasna,  Visperad,  and  Vendidad  are 
closely  connected.  They  are  employed  in  the 
daily  ritual,  and  they  are  also  accompanied  by 
a  version  or  interpretation  in  the  Pahlavi  lan- 
guage, which  serves  at  the  same  time  as  a  sort 
of  commentary.  The  three  divisions  are  often 
found  combined  into  a  sort  of  prayer-book, 
called  Vendidad-Sadah  (Vendidad  Pure)  ;  that 
is,  Avesta  text  without  the  Pahlavi  rendering. 
The  chapters  in  this  case  are  arranged  with 
special    reference    to    liturgical    usage. 

Some  idea  of  the  character  of  the  Avesta 
as  it  now  exists  may  be  derived  from  the  fol- 
lowing sketch  of  its  contents  and  from  the  il- 
lustrative selections   presented : 

I.  Yasna  (sacrifice,  worship),  the  chief  litur- 
gical work  of  the  sacred  canon.  It  consists 
mainly  of  ascriptions  of  praise  and  of  prayer, 
and  corresponds  nearly  to  our  idea  of  a  prayer- 
book.  The  Yasna  comprises  72  chapters ;  these 
fall  into  three  nearly  equal   parts. 

The  greater  part  of  the  Yasna  book  is  of  a 
liturgic  or  ritualistic  nature,  and  need  not  here 
be  further  described.  Special  mention,  how- 
ever, must  be  made  of  the  middle  section  made 
up  by  "the  Five  Gathas^'  (hymns,  psalms),  a 
division  containing  the  17  sacred  psalms,  say- 
ings, sermons,  or  teachings  of  Zoroaster  him- 
self. These  Gathas  form  the  oldest  part  of  the 
entire  canon  of  the  Avesta.  In  them  the  prophet 
of  the  new  faith  is  speaking  with  the  fervor 
of  the  Psalmist  of  the  Bible.     In  them  we  feel 


AVEYRON  —  AVIGNON 


the  thrill  of  ardor  that  characterizes  a  new  and 
struggling  religious  band ;  we  are  warned  by 
the  burning  zeal  of  the  preacher  of  a  Church 
militant.  Now,  however,  comes  a  cry  of  de- 
spondency, a  moment  of  faint-heartedness  at 
the  present  triumph  of  evil,  at  the  success  of 
the  wicked  and  the  misery  of  the  righteous  ;  but 
this  gives  way  to  a  clarion  burst  of  hopefulness, 
the  trumpet  note  of  a  prophet  filled  with  the 
promise  of  ultimate  victory,  the  triumph  of 
good  over  evil.  The  end  of  the  world  cannot 
te  far  away;  the  final  overthrow  of  Ahriman 
(Anra  Mainyu)  by  Ormazd  (Ahura  Mazda)  is 
assured ;  the  establishment  of  a  new  order  of 
things  is  certain ;  at  the  founding  of  this  "king- 
dom" the  resurrection  of  the  dead  will  take 
place  and  the  life  eternal  will  be  entered  upon. 

The  Visperad  (all  the  masters)  is  a  short 
collection  of  prosaic  invocations  and  laudations 
of  sacred  things.  Its  24  sections  form  a  supple- 
tnent  to  the  Yasna.  Whatever  interest  this  di- 
version of  the  Avesta  possesses  lies  entirely  on 
the  side  of  the  ritual,  and  not  in  the  field  of 
literature.  In  this  respect  it  differs  widely  from 
the  book  of  the  Yashts,  which  is  next  to  be 
mentioned. 

Yashts  (praises  of  worship)  form  a  poetical 
book  of  21  hymns,  in  which  the  angels  of  the 
religion,  ^<the  worshipful  ones"  (Yacatas, 
Izads),  are  glorified,  and  the  heroes  of  former 
<ia3's.  Much  of  the  material  of  the  Yashts  is 
evidently  drawn  from  pre-Zoroastrian  sagas 
which  have  been  remodeled  ajid  adopted, 
worked  over,  and  modified,  and  incorporated 
into  the  canon  of  the  new-founded  religion. 
There  is  a  mythological  and  legendary  atmo- 
sphere about  the  Yashts,  and  Firdausi's  'Shah 
Nameh'  serves  to  throw  light  on  many  of  the 
■events  portrayed  in  them,  or  allusions  that 
would  otherwise  be  obscure.  All  the  longer 
Yashts  are  in  verse,  and  some  of  them  have 
poetic  merit.  There  are  several  translations  of 
the  Avesta.  The  best  (except  for  the  Gathas, 
where  the  translation  is  weak)  is  the  French 
version  by  Darmesteter,  ^Le  Zend  Avesta,^ 
published  in  the  ^Annales  du  Musee  Guimet\ 
An  English  rendering  by  Darmesteter  and  Mills 
is  contained  in  the  'Sacred  Books  of  the  E^st,^ 
Vols.   IV.,   XXIIL,   XXXI. 

Aveyron,  a'va-roh',  a  department  in  the 
south  of  France.  It  is  extremely  mountainous, 
and  is  traversed  by  five  considerable  rivers, 
the  Aveyron,  after  which  the  department  is 
named,  the  Viaur,  the  Truyere,  the  Lot,  and 
the  Tarn.  Of  these,  the  only  one  navigable 
within  the  department  is  the  Lot.  It  is  only 
in  the  west  that  plains  of  any  considerable  ex- 
tent are  found.  Agriculture  is  in  a  very  defect- 
ive state,  tjut  considerable  attention  is  paid  to 
sheep-breeding.  Cheese  of  an  excellent  quality 
is  made  and  exported  in  large  quantities.  Avey- 
ron possesses  valuable  coal,  iron,  and  copper 
mines,  besides  other  minerals.  Pop.  (1901) 
.377o59- 

A'viary,  a  house  or  enclosure,  larger  than 
an  ordinary  cage,  for  living  birds.  Out-of-door 
aviaries  are  common  in  the  warm  countries  of 
southeastern  Europe  and  in  Asia,  and  are  also 
quite  numerous  in  England.  The  freedom  of 
motion  possible  for  a  bird  in  a  good-sized  avi- 
ary helps  to  keep  them  in  good  condition,  and 
many  species  which  are  unable  to  bear  the  close 
confinement  of  a  cage  flourish  in  the  larger  en- 
voi. 2 — 10. 


closures.  In  a  climate  like  that  of  the  United 
States,  where  the  extremes  of  temperature  are 
great,  outdoor  aviaries  are  uncommon  except  in 
zoological  gardens.  In  the  New  York  Zoological 
Park  is  an  aviary  built  in  igoo,  measuring  153 
feet  long,  72  feet  wide,  and  55  feet  high ;  at 
present  this  is  the  largest  in  the  world.  It  is 
a  wire  cage,  in  the  shape  of  a  pointed  arch,  sup- 
ported by  steel  frames.  It  stands  among  trees, 
and  several  are  enclosed  by  it.  Game  birds, 
herons,  and  other  large  ^ecies  live  in  this 
aviary,  and  many  smaller  species,  which  would 
suffer  out  of  doors  in  winter,  dwell  there  dur- 
ing the  summer  months.     See  C.\ge-Bikds. 

Avicebron,  ii-ve'tha-bron',  Solomon  ben 
Jehuda  ibn  Gabriol,  Hebrew  poet  and  phi- 
losopher: b.  Cordova,  about  1028;  d.  about  1058. 
Of  his  poetical  works,  'The  Royal  Crown*  is 
the  most  famous;  of  the  philosophical,  'The 
Fountain  of  Life,'  written  in  Arabic,  but 
known  only  through  a  Latin  translation  (re- 
edited  in   Miinster,   in   1895). 

Av'icen'na,  Arabian  philosopher  and  phy- 
sician :  b.  near  Bokhara,  980  a.d.  ;  d.  1037. 
He  completed  his  studies  at  the  early  age  of 
18,  and  began  to  practise  as  a  physician.  He 
settled  subsequently  at  Hamadan,  at  first  as  phy- 
sician to  a  noble  lady,  afterward  as  vizier  of 
the  emir.  On  the  death  of  his  patron  his  son 
and  successor  refused  to  recognize  him  as 
vizier,  and  accordingly  he  lived  in  retirement 
at  Hamadan.  Going  in  later  life  to  Ispahan, 
he  passed  in  quietness  the  last  14  years  of  his 
life,  and  composed  the  greater  part  of  his  works 
on  medicine,  logic,  metaphysics,  astronomy,  and 
geometry.  Avicenna  left  many  writings,  mostly 
commentaries  on  Aristotle.  Of  his  medical 
works,  the  principal  is  called  ^ Canon  of  Medi- 
cine,' founded  on  the  Greek  writers,  and  in 
some  parts  of  the  East  is  still  an  authority.  It 
has  been  printed  in  the  original  Arabic,  and 
there  have  been  many  Latin  translations  of  it. 
His  other  works  have  also  appeared  in  transla- 
tions. 

Av'icen'nia,  or  White  Mangrove,  a  genus 
of  Vcrbenacca,  consists  of  trees  or  large  shrubs 
resembling  mangroves,  and,  like  them,  growing 
in  tidal  estuaries  and  salt  marshes.  Their  creep- 
ing roots,  often  standing  six  feet  above  the 
mud  in  crowded  pyramidal  masses,  and  the 
naked  asparagus-like  suckers  which  they  throw 
up,  have  a  singular  appearance.  The  bark  of 
A.  tomentosa.  the  white  mangrove  of  Brazil,  is 
much  used  for  tanning.  A  green,  resinous  sub- 
stance exuding  from  A.  resinifera  is  eaten  by 
the  New  Zealanders.  The  genus  is  narned  in 
memory  of  the  Arabian  physician,  Avicenna 
(q.v.). 

Avie'nus,  Rufus  Festus,  Latin  descriptive 
poet,  who  flourished  about  the  end  of  the 
4th  century  after  Christ,  and  wrote  'Descriptio 
Orbis  Terr?e,'  a  general  description  of  the  earth: 
'Ora  Maritima,'  an  account  of  the  Mediter- 
ranean coasts,  etc. 

Avignon,  a've-nyori'  (ancient  Avenio),  a 
French  city,  capital  of  the  department  Vau- 
cluse,  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Rhone.  It  con- 
sists generally  of  large  antique  houses,  in 
narrow,  crooked,  dirty  streets.  The  principal  ob- 
jects of  interest  are  "the  large  and  very  ancient 
cathedral :  the  papal  palace,  with  lofty  massive 
walls  and  strong  towers,  and  the  chamber  of 
the    Inquisition.      The    silk   manufacture   is   the 


AVILA  — AVON 


principal  source  of  employment  at  Avignon, 
and  the  rearing  of  silkworms  is  carried  on  ex- 
tensively in  the  district.  The  city  has  also 
maiuifactories  of  velvet,  woolen,  and  other 
goods,  hats,  jewelry,  etc.,  with  silk  dye-works, 
paper-mills,  tanneries,  etc.,  and  a  trade  in  wnne, 
brandy,  iron,  cotton,  wool,  grain,  and  other  arti- 
cles, of  which  it  is  the  entrepot  for  Lower  Dau- 
phine,  Provence,  and  all  Languedoc.  Here 
Petrarch  lived  several  years ;  here  he  saw  his 
Laura,  who  formed  the  subject  of  his  most  beau- 
tiful verses,  and  whose  tomb  is  still  to  be  found 
in  the  Franciscan  Church.  The  fountain  of 
Vaucluse  is  five  leagues  from  Avignon.  It  be- 
longed to  the  papal  see  from  1348  to  1791,  and 
from  March  1309  to  September  1376  seven 
Popes  in  succession,  from  Clemens  V.  to  Greg- 
ory XL,  were  compelled  to  reside  in  this  city. 
The  Catholic  historians  commonly  call  this 
period  the  Babylonish  captivity  of  the  Popes. 
Pop.  about  45,000. 

Avila,  a've-la,  Gil  Gonzalez  d',  Spanish 
antiquary  and  biographer:  b.  1577;  d.  1658. 
He  was  made  historiographer  of  Castile  in  1612, 
and  of  the  Indies  in  1641.  Most  valuable 
works:  ^Teatro  de  las  Grandezas  de  Madrid* 
(1623)  ;  and  ^Teatro  Ecclesiastico^  (1645-53). 

A'vila,  Juan  de,  celebrated  Spanish  preach- 
er, commonly  called  the  *' Apostle  of  Andalu- 
sia'^; b.  Almodavar  del  Campo,  1500;  d.  at  I\Ion- 
tilla  1569.  His  missionary  labors  in  Andalusia 
were  prosecuted  with  singular  success,  until  he 
arrived  at  the  age  of  50,  when,  with  a  worn- 
out  constitution,  he  was  obliged  to  desist.  His 
'Spiritual  Letters'  have  been  translated  into 
most  European  languages. 

Avila  y  Zuniga,  a've-la  e  thoo'nye-ga,  Don 
Luis  d',  Spanish  general,  diplomatist,  and 
historian ;  a  favorite  of  Charles  V. :  b.  about 
1490;  d.  after  1552.  His  chief  work,  translated 
into  five  or  six  languages,  was  on  the  war  of 
Charles  V.  in  Germany. 

A'vila,  a  town  of  Spain,  the  capital  of  the 
province  of  Avila,  a  modern  division  of  Old 
Castile.  It  is  the  see  of  the  bishop  suffragan 
of  Santiago,  with  a  fine  cathedral,  and  was 
once  one  of  the  richest  towns  of  Spain.  A  uni- 
versity founded  here  in  1482  b}'  Ferdinand  and 
Isabella  continued  its  existence  until  the  begin- 
ning of  the  19th  century.  Saint  Theresa  and 
several  men  celebrated  in  Spanish  history  were 
born  here.  Principal  employment  in  the  town 
is  spinning;  in  the  province,  breeding  sheep 
and  cattle.     Pop.  about  12,000. 

Av'ison,  Oliver  R.,  English  physician:  b. 
Yorkshire,  30  June  i860.  He  removed  to  Can- 
ada in  youth,  and  became  professor  of  ma- 
teria medica,  instructor  of  microscopy  and  dem- 
onstrator of  materia  medica  in  the  University 
of  Toronto.  In  1893  he  went  to  Korea  as  a 
medical  missionary ;  the  same  year  he  w'as  ap- 
pointed to  the  charge  of  the  Royal  Korean  Hos- 
pital, and  in  the  following  year  became  physi- 
cian to  the  royal  family. 

Avi'tus,  Marcus  Maecilius,  an  emperor  of 
the  West.  He  belonged  to  a  Gaulish  family  in 
Auvergne,  and  gained  the  favor  of  Constantius, 
the  colleague  of  Honorious,  and  of  Thcodnric, 
king  of  the  Visigoths.  He  served  w^'th  distinc- 
tion under  /?£tius,  became  Prefect  of  Gaul,  and 
concluded    a    favorable    treaty    with    the    Goths. 


He  afterward  retired  into  private  life  until  the 
invasion  of  x\ttila,  when  he  induced  the  Goths 
to  join  the  Romans  against  the  common  enemy. 
Avitus  was  proclaimed  emperor  in  455,  took 
for  his  colleague  Marcianus,  and  died  the  year 
following. 

Avitus,  Saint,  bishop  of  Vienna  from  490^ 
until  his  death  in  523.  He  was  the  leading 
champion  of  his  day  in  the  conflict  with  Arian- 
ism  and  Semi-Pelagianism.  A  signal  victory  in 
a  public  disputation  gained  for  him  the  esteem 
and  confidence  of  King  Gundobald.  whose  son 
Sigismund  he  received  into  the  Catholic  Church 
and  who  was  afterward  canonized  as  a  saint. 
His  writings  have  given  him  a  prominent  place 
in  early  Burgundian-Roman  literature.  His 
chief  w'ork  is  a  didactic  poem  in  five  books,  en- 
titled *De  Spiritalis  Historise  Gestis,'  and  deals 
with  such  subjects  as  the  origin  of  the  world, 
original  sin,  etc.  Another  poem  in  praise  of 
chastity,  while  inferior  in  literary  merit  to  the 
work  just  mentioned,  contains  much  of  value 
from  a  historical  standpoint. 

Aviz,  a'vesh.  Order  of,  a  Portuguese  order 
of  knighthood,  created  in  1147  by  Alphonso  I. 
The  knights  were  then  called  Knights  of  Evora, 
but  took  their  present  title,  in  1287,  from  their 
gallant  defense  of  the  fortress  of  Aviz  against 
the  Moors.  The  order  was  changed  from  an 
ecclesiastical  to  a  civil  institution  in  1789.  The 
king  of   Portugal    is   grand   master. 

Avlona,  av-l5'na,  a  seaport  in  Albania^ 
protected  by  *the  island  of  Sasseno,  the  ancient 
Saso.  It  is  one  of  the  stations  of  the  Austrian 
Lloyd  steamers,  and  carries  on  considerable 
trade  with  Brindisi,  etc.  The  Christian  inhabit- 
ants, chiefly  Italians,  are  engaged  in  commerce, 
exporting  oil,  wool,  salt,  pitch,  and  especially 
some  40.000  tortoise  shells  yearly.  The  Turks 
are  employed  in  the  manufacture  of  weapons- 
and  woolen  fabrics.  Valonia,  a  material  ex- 
ported to  England  for  tanning,  is  the  pericarp 
of  an  acorn  grown  nearby.  Up  to  1691  the 
town  belonged  to  the  Venetians.     Pop.  6,000. 

Avocado  (av'o-ka'do)  Pear,  a  tropical 
fruit.     See   Alligator    Pear. 

Av'ocet,  a  shore-bird  of  the  limicoline 
genus  Recurvirostra,  remarkable  for  its  very 
slender  beak,  which  curves  upward  toward  the 
end  like  a  cobbler's  awl.  It  is  a  near  relative 
of  the  stilt  sandpiper,  and  various  species  occur 
throughout  the  world.  The  North  American 
species,  Recurvirostra  aincricana  is  found  in 
summer  throughout  the  temperate  parts  of  the 
country,  migrating  to  the  tropics  in  winter.  It 
is  about  17  inches  in  length,  brownish-black 
above  and  white  below,  with  the  head,  neck,  and 
chest  light  cinnamon.  Its  general  habits  are 
those  of  sandpipers. 

Avoirdupois,  av'er-du-poiz'  (French  avoir 
dn  poids,  to  have  weight),  a  system  of  weights 
and  measures  in  which  a  pound  contains  7,000 
grains  or  16  ounces,  w^hile  a  pound  troy  contains 
1,760  grains  or  12  ounces.  All  larger  and 
coarser  commodities  are  weighed  by  avoirdu- 
pois weight.  The  avoirdupois  ounce  is  less 
than  the  troy  ounce  in  proportion  of  72  to  79. 

Avon,  a'von,  the  name  of  several  rivers  in 
England,  the  most  important  of  which  are  the 
following:  (i)  The  Upper  Avon,  rising  in 
Leicestershire,  runs  southwest,  and  falls  inta 
the  Severn  at  Tewkesbury.     Stratford-on-Avon,. 


AVONDALE  — AXE 


a  town  on  this  river,  is  the  birthplace  of  Shake- 
speare; (2)  the  Lower  Avon,  which  rises  near 
Tetbury,  in  Gloucestershire,  and  falls  into  the 
Severn  northwest  of  Bristol,  being  navigable  as 
far  as  Bath ;  (3)  in  ^lonmouthshire ;  (4)  in 
Wiltshire  and  Hampshire,  enters  the  English 
Channel  at  Christchurch  Bay,  in  the  latter 
county. 

A'vondale,  a  parish  of  Scotland,  in  the 
county  of  Lanark.  At  the  battle  of  Drumclog, 
fought  near  this  place  i  June  1679,  Grahame  of 
Claverhouse,  the  famous  Viscount  Dundee,  was 
defeated  by  the  forces  of  the  Scottish  Cove- 
nant. A  graphic  description  of  this  battle  is 
found  in  Sir  Walter  Scott's   ^Old  Mortality. > 

Avranches,  a-vransh'  (ancient  Abriticce), 
a  town  in  France,  about  3  miles  from  the  Atlan- 
tic, and  30  miles  east  of  St.  IMalo.  It  is  pleas- 
antly situated  at  the  end  of  a  long  ride,  the 
summit  of  which  was  crowned  by  a  magnificent 
cathedral;  built  in  the  nth  century,  and  de- 
stroyed at  the  revolution.  In  this  cathedral 
Henry  II.  did  penance  before  two  of  the  Pope's 
legates  for  the  murder  of  Thomas  a  Becket. 
One  of  its  bishops  was  the  celebrated  Huet,  au- 
thor of  the  'Demonstratio  Evangelica.^  The 
manufactures  are  chiefly  lace,  white  thread,  and 
wax  candles,  and  there  is  some  trade  in  agri- 
cultural produce.       Pop.   (1896)  7,600. 

Avul'sion  (Latin,  avulsion,  a  tearing  oflf),  a 
term  denoting  the  sudden  transfer  by  natural 
causes  of  a  portion  of  one  man's  land  to  that 
of  another,  as  when  the  course  of  a  river  is 
suddenly  changed  and  former  boundaries  al- 
tered, it  differs  from  accretion,  which  describes 
a  gradual  addition  to  the  property  of  a  riparian 
OA\ner  by  the  action  of  the  water.  See  Alluvi- 
on. 

Awaji,  a-wa'je,  one  of  the  islands  of  Japan, 
situated  between  the  main  island  and  Sikokee. 
Its  area  is  218  square  miles.     Pop.  170,000. 

Award'  is  the  judgment  or  decision  of 
arbitrators  or  referees,  on  a  matter  submitted 
to  them.  The  award  should  be  consonant  with 
and  follow  the  submission,  to  be  binding.  It 
must  be  final  and  certain.  It  must  be  possible 
to  be  performed,  and  must  not  direct  anything 
illegal  to  be  done.  At  common  law  an  award 
could  be  oral  or  written,  but  in  some  of  the 
States  an  award  to  be  valid  must  be  in  writing. 
The  New  York  Code  Civil  Procedure  provides 
that  an  award  to  be  valid  must  be  in  writing. 
See  Arbitration  and  Award. 

Awata  (a-wa'ta)  Ware,  a  yellow  faience 
called  "egg-ware"  by  the  Japanese,  manufactured 
in  the  village  of  Awata,  a  suburb  of  Kioto,  and 
largelj'  purchased  in  the  United  States. 

Awe,  a,  a  narrow  Scottish  lake  in  Argyle- 
shire,  about  28  miles  long,  and  communicating 
by  the  Awe  with  Loch  Etive.  It  is  of  great 
depth,  has  sloping  and  well-cultivated  shores, 
terminated  by  ranges  of  lofty  mountains,  among 
which  that  of  Ben  Cruachan,  rising  to  a  height 
of  3.670  feet,  at  its  northern  extremity,  is  most 
conspicuous.  A  number  of  islets  are  scattered 
over  its  surface,  and  on  two  of  them  are  some 
beautiful    ruins. 

Axayacat,  ax'a-ya-kat,  or  Axayacatl,  a 
Mexican  fly,  the  eggs  of  which,  deposited 
abundantly  on  rushes  and  flags,  are  collected 
and  sold  as  ?.  species  of  caviare.     The  use  of 


these  as  an  article  of  diet  was  learned  by  the 
Spanish  settlers  from  their  predecessors,  the 
native  Indian  Mexicans,  who  called  the  dish 
ahuauliti. 

Axayacatl,  a'cha-ya-ka't'l,  a  ]\Iexican  em- 
peror :  d.  about  1477. '  He  was  the  father  of 
Montezuma,  whom  Cortez  conquered,  and  reigned 
14  years.  He  was  already  famous  as  a  warrior 
when  he  became  emperor  of  the  Aztecs,  and  in- 
augurated his  reign  by  a  successful  expedition 
against  Tehauntepec,  and  in  1467,  conquered 
anew  the  cities  of  Cotasta  and  Tochtepec.  A 
little  later  he  repelled  the  tribes  who  strove  to 
get  possession  of  the  Mexican  capital,  and 
maintained  a  vigorous  warfare  against  his 
neighbors.  The  palace  of  Axayacatl,  a  gigan- 
tic pile  of  stone  buildings,  became  the  bar- 
racks of  the  Spaniards.  His  treasures  were 
discovered  by  Cortez,  within  a  concealed  door, 
and  the  chronicler  of  the  conquest  e.xclaims  that 
*it  seemed  as  if  all  the  riches  in  the  world  were 
in  that  room.*  They  consisted  of  gold  and  sil- 
ver in  bars  and  in  the  ore,  many  jewels  of  value, 
and  numerous  rich  and  beautiful  articles  of 
curious  workmanship,  as  imitations  of  birds,  in- 
sects, or  flowers. 

Axe  (apparently  an  original  Aryan  word), 
a  long-handled  tool  for  wood-cutting.  Its  es- 
sential feature  is  the  helve,  though  a  certain 
shape  is  imposed  by  the  nature  of  its  service. 
The  chipped  flint  of  the  oldest  Stone  Age  was 
a  tool  of  all  work,  to  crush,  dig,  or  cut  (rather, 
bruise  off),  as  occasion  demanded,  and  was  too 
heavy  and  shapeless  to  be  used  except  by  hand. 
As  soon  as  one  was  shaped  and  sharpened  to 
admit  of  tying  a  handle  to  it  for  a  heavier 
stroke,  the  axe  came  into  being,  and  was  proba- 
bly the  earliest  implement  thus  dififerentiated.  So 
natural  a  device  was  separately  invented  by  each 
race  early  in  its  history,  and  made  of  the  material 
at  hand :  flint  in  England  and  America ;  whin- 
stone  or  granite  in  Ireland,  and  by  the  lake 
dwellers  of  the  Continent ;  bone  by  the  Ameri- 
can Indians  and  Eskimos ;  while  stone  axes  are 
still  used  by  some  of  the  South  Sea  Islanders. 
In  all  these  cases  and  until  the  use  of  metal, 
the  handle  was  secured  with  a  thong,  as  piercing 
with  an  eye  was  impracticable.  The  first  cop- 
per and  bronze  "celts"  were  made  in  the  same 
way.  But  when  casting  had  become  familiar, 
it  was  seen  that  there  was  no  difficulty  in  cast- 
ing a  hole  to  thrust  the  handle  in,  making  a 
much  surer  and  heavier  stroke :  and  with  this 
"eye"  the  modern  axe  appeared  The  bronze 
axe  was  lightened  and  better  shaped,  and  in  its 
turn  displaced  by  iron,  for  which  with  the  pro- 
gress of  invention  has  been  substituted  an  iron 
butt  inset  w'ith  a  steel  cutting  part.  The  old  hand 
forges  have  for  some  generations  been  replaced 
by  immense  establishments  with  developed  ma- 
chinery. The  American  process  consists  of  cut- 
ting the  butt  from  a  piece  of  white-hot  iron, 
punching  the  eye,  then  reheating  and  shaping  it 
by  pressure  between  concave  dies :  again  heat- 
ing, cutting  in  the  edge  a  groove,  into  which  the 
arched  steel  edge-piece  is  set,  then  welding  the 
two  and  drawing  out  the  axe  to  a  proper  edge 
by  trip-hammers  at  a  white  heat.  The  next 
process  is  hammering  oflf  the  implement  by  a 
combination  of  hand  and  machine  work,  and  re- 
storing the  shape  lost  in  drawing  out.  It  is 
then  ground  to  symmetry,  hung  on  a  revolving 
table    in    a    furnace,    and   heated    over    a    small 


AXEL  — AXOLOTL 


coal  fire,  at  a  peculiar  red  heat,  determined  by 
the  eye ;  cooled  in  brine  and  then  in  fresh  wa- 
ter, and  removed  to  another  furnace,  where  it 
receives  the  last  temper.  It  is  next  polished  to 
a  finish  that  shows  every  flaw,  and  enables  it 
to  resist  rust  and  enter  wood  easily;  then 
stamped,  the  head  painted  to  prevent  rust, 
weighed,  labeled,  and  packed  for  sale.  The 
leading  axe  establishment  of  the  world  is  the 
Collins  Company,  of  Collinsville,  Conn.,  whose 
processes  are  largely  special  inventions  for  the 
compan)^  It  manufactures  5,000  axes  and 
other  edge  tools  daily,  besides  other  miscel- 
laneous goods ;  and  consumes  annually  3,500 
tons  of  iron  and  1,200  of  steel,  and  ro,ooo  tons 
of  coal.  Nearly  700  men  are  employed ;  13 
water-wheels  and  four  steam  engines  supply 
the  motive  power. 

Ax'el,  or  Absalon,  Danish  prelate,  arch- 
bishop of  Lund:  b.  near  Soroe,  Zealand,  1 128; 
d.  1201.  His  family  name  was  Axel.  In  11 57 
he  was  chosen  bishop  of  Roeskilde  or  Roths- 
child. In  that  age  warlike  pursuits  were  not 
deemed  inconsistent  with  the  clerical  office,  and 
Absalon  was  a  renowned  warrior  by  sea  and 
land,  as  well  as  a  zealous  ecclesiastic,  his 
avowed  principle  being  that  "both  swords,  the 
spiritual  and  the  temporal,  were  intrusted  to  the 
clerg>\**  To  his  exertions  as  statesman  and 
soldier  Waldemar  was  largely  indebted  for  the 
independence  and  consolidation  of  his  kingdom. 

Ax'elsen,  a  powerful  Danish  family  who 
flourished  in  the  latter  half  of  the  15th  century, 
and  the  members  of  which  figured  in  the  wars 
of  Christian  I.  and  John  IV.  of  Denmark,  and 
Karl  Knutsen  and  Eric  the  Pomeranian,  kings 
of  Sweden.  Peter  Axelsek  was  the  head  of 
the  family.  Of  his  nine  sons,  the  eldest,  Olaf, 
made  himself  master  of  Gothland;  the  second, 
Iver,  retained  that  possession,  and  became  a 
corsair;  the  third,  Eric,  was  governor  of  Stock- 
holm ;  and  the  fourth  Aage,  became  a  Danish 
councilor  of  state. 

Axholme,  an  island  in  Lincolnshire.  Eng- 
land, formed  by  the  rivers  Trent,  Don,  Idle,  and 
Vicardyke.  Epworth,  the  home  of  the  Wesleys, 
is  the  principal  parish.  Its  area  is  47,000  acres. 
The  soil   is  exceedingly   fertile. 

Ax'il,  in  botany,  the  angle  between  the 
upper  side  of  a  leaf  and  the  stem  or  branch 
from  which  it  grows.  Buds  usually  grow  out 
from  the  stem  in  axils  of  leaves,  and  this  posi- 
tion is  naturally  termed  axillary.  In  anatomical 
terminology,  the  axilla  is  the  armpit. 

Axim,  a-sheng',  or  axTm,  an  Important 
station  and  port  on  the  African  Gold  Coast, 
near  the  mouth  of  the  Ancobrah  River.  In- 
land from  Axim,  in  the  basin  of  that  river,  and 
in_  the  district  between  it  and  the  Prah,  gold- 
mining  operations  have  been  carried  on  on  a 
large  scale.  It  was  ceded  to  the  English  by  the 
Dutch  in  1872. 

Ax'inite  (Greek,  <*like  an  axe''),  a  mineral 
usually  occurring  in  broad,  acute-edged  triclinic 
crystals,  suggestive,  in  shape,  of  an  axe.  It 
has  a  glassy  lustre,  brown  or  yellow  in  color, 
and  is  translucent  and  strongly  pleochroic.  It 
has  a  hardness  of  6.5  to  7,  and  a  specific  gravity 
of  about  3.28.  Its  exact  composition  is  still 
doubtful,  but  it  may  be  described  as  a  calcium 
and  aluminum  borosilicate,  containing  also  vary- 
ing amounts  of  manganese  and   iron.     Its  most 


important  occurrences  are  in  Dauphine,  France, 
Mount  Skopi,  Switzerland,  in  Japan  and  at 
Franklin  Furnace,  N.  J. 

Axin'oman'cy,  a  mode  of  divination  much 
practised  by  the  ancient  Greeks,  particularly 
with  the  view  of  discovering  the  perpetrators  of 
great  crimes.  An  axe  poised  upon  a  stake  was 
supposed  to  move  so  as  to  indicate  the 
guilty  person ;  or  the  names  of  suspected 
persons  being  pronounced,  the  motion  of 
the  axe  at  a  particular  name  was  accepted 
as  a  sign  of  guilt.  Another  method  of 
axinomancy  was  by  watching  the  movements  of 
an  agate  placed  upon  a  red-hot  axe. 

Ax'iom  (an  assumption),  a  universal  prop- 
osition, which  the  understanding  must  per- 
ceive to  be  true  as  soon  as  it  perceives  the 
meaning  of  the  words,  though  it  cannot  be 
proved.  It  is,  therefore,  called  a  self-evident 
truth.  In  mathematics,  axioms  are  those  propo- 
sitions which  are  assumed  without  proof,  as  be- 
ing in  themselves  independent  of  proof,  and 
which  are  made  the  basis  of  all  the  subsequent 
reasoning.  Euclid  has  assumed  15  axioms  as 
the  basis  of  geometry.  Among  these  are :  *^The 
whole  is  greater  than  its  part* ;  "Things  that 
are  equal  to  the  same  thing  are  equal  to  one 
another'' ;  "Magnitudes  which  coincide,  that  is, 
which  exactly  fill  the  same  space,  are  equal  to 
one  another  in  every  respect."  Bacon  calls 
axiom  a  general  principle,  obtained  by  experi- 
ment and  observation,  from  which  we  may 
safely  proceed  to  reason  in  all  other  instances ; 
and  Newton  gives  the  name  of  axiom  to  the  laws 
of  motion,  which,  of  course,  are  ascertained  by 
the  investigation  of  nature ;  he  also  terms  axi- 
oms those  general  experimental  truths  or  facts 
which  form  the  groundwork  of  the  science  of 
optics. 

Ax'is  (in  crystallography).     See  Crystal. 

Ax'is  (Latin,  of  unknown  origin),  a  white- 
spotted  deer  (Axis  axis)  of  India  and  the  East 
Indies,  known  locally  among  the  Hindus  as 
"chitra,"  among  the  English  as  the  "hog-deer.® 
It  resembles  the  European  fallow  deer  in  size 
and  color,  and  as  it  is  easily  domesticated,  is  a 
favorite  in  European  parks.  The  slender,  sharp- 
pointed  horns  are  not  palmated  and  only  a  little 
branched,  while  the  female  is  hornless.  It  is 
timid  and  usually  goes  in  small  herds,  in  which 
females  largely  predominate.  It  lives  in  thick 
jungles  near  water,  and  usually  feeds  in  the 
night.  Colored  plates,  illustrating  its  varieties, 
are  given  in  Lydekker's  ^Deer  of  All  Lands' 
(1898). 

Ax'minster,  a  market  town  in  Devonshire, 
England,  24  miles  east  of  Exeter,  on  the  side 
of  a  hill  that  rises  above  the  River  Axe.  The 
only  public  building  worthy  of  notice  is  the 
parish  church,  a  very  ancient  edifice,  contain- 
ing some  interesting  antique  monuments.  Ax- 
minster  was  at  one  time  celebrated  for  its  woolen 
cloth,  and  carpet  manufactures,  and  gave  name 
to  a  special  make  of  carpet  having  a  thick,  soft 
pile.  Brushes  are  now  made  here,  and  there 
are  flour  and  other  mills.     Pop.  (1901)  4,100. 

Axolotl,  ax'o-lofl  (Mex.,  "play  in  the 
water"),  a  larval  salamander  regarded  as 
edible.  They  are  numerous  in  the  lakes  about 
the  City  of  Mexico,  are  6  to  10  inches  long, 
and  are  prepared  by  either  roasting  or  boiling, 
and  eaten  with  vinegar  or  cayenne  pepper.     The 


AXON  — AYESHA 


most  extraordinary  thing  about  them,  however, 
is  the  fact  that  they  are  the  young  of  a  species 
of  terrestrial  salamander  {Amblystoma  tigri- 
nuni),  well  known  over  all  the  warmer  parts 
of  the  United  States  and  Mexico,  which  in  these 
lakes  never  transform  into  adults,  but  remain 
permanently  in  the  larval  condition,  yet  become 
sexually  mature  when  about  six  months  old,  so 
that  they  are  able  to  breed.  This  astonishing 
fact  was  long  unknown.  The  axolotl  has  bushy, 
external  gills  similar  to  those  which  perma- 
nently characterize  the  mud-puppy.  It  was  re- 
garded as  a  distinct  animal,  and  named  Siredon 
lichenoides.  The  disco\-ery  of  the  truth  was 
made  accidentally  in  Paris  in  1865,  when  some 
axolotls  in  an  aquarium  in  the  Jardin  des 
Plantes  lost  their  gills  and  were  transformed 
into  perfected  amblystomas.  A  lady,  studying 
in  the  University  of  Freiburg,  Frl.  Marie  von 
Chauvin,  then  undertook  a  series  of  careful  ex- 
periments with  other  captives,  and  worked  out 
the  complete  history  of  metamorphosis,  which  is 
dependent  (at  least  in  Europe)  on  a  very  narrow 
set  of  favorable  circumstances,  but  differs  in  no 
essential  degree  from  that  of  other  salamanders 
(q.v.).  Why  the  change  never  takes  place  in 
the  Mexican  lakes  is  unexplained.  The  theories 
in  regard  to  it,  and  the  detailed  history  of  the 
observations  above  mentioned;  are  given  by  Ga- 
dow  in  'Amphibia  and  Reptiles^  (1901),  with 
many  references  to  other  books  and  periodicals. 

Ax'on,  that  part  of  the  nerve  cell  that 
carries  the  nervous  impulses,  the  axis  cylinder 
process,  or  the  nerve  fibre  proper.  See  Nerve 
Cell;  Nerve  Fibre. 

Axum,  ax-oom',  a  town  in  Abyssinia,  once 
the  capital  of  a  powerful  kingdom,  and  at  one 
time  the  great  depot  of  the  ivory  trade  in  the 
Red  Sea.  The  importance  of  this  city  and  its 
kings  was  first  made  known  to  us  by  a  stone 
(A.rumitic  marble)  with  a  Greek  inscription, 
first  explained  by  Salt,  w^ho  discovered  it,  and 
afterward  by  Buttmann  and  Niebuhr.  The  in- 
terest in  this  inscription  was  increased  by  the 
explanation  which  it  afforded  of  the  second  half 
of  the  Adulian  marble.  Axum.  the  place  where 
it  was  found,  still  exhibits  many  remains  of 
its  former  greatness.  Among  its  ruins  are  shown 
the  royal  throne,  and  groups  of  obelisks,  origi- 
nally 55  in  number,  one  of  which  Salt  declared 
to  be  the  most  beautiful  that  he  had  seen.  Pop. 
5.000.  See  Bent,  'The  Sacred  City  of  the  Ethi- 
opians^   (1893). 

Ayacucho,  a'ya-koo'cho,  the  name  of  a  de- 
partment of  Peru  and  also  of  its  capital.  The 
department  has  an  area  of  about  24,000  square 
miles,  and  is  traversed  by  both  chains  of  the 
Cordilleras  and  watered  by  numerous  rivers.  It 
produces  coffee,  sugar,  cotton,  etc.  The  capital, 
situated  on  the  main  road  from  Lima  to  Cuzco, 
has  a  cathedral  and  a  university.  It  w^as  found- 
ed by  Pizarro  in  1539,  and  long  known  as  Hua- 
manga.  A  battle  took  place  here,  one  of  the 
most  celebrated  in  the  history  of  South  Amer- 
ica, having  been  decisive  of  the  independence 
of  upper  and  lower  Peru.  See  Ayacucho,  Bat- 
tle OF.     Pop.  of  town  22,000. 

Ayacucho,  a'ya-koo'cho.  The  Battle  of,  a 
decisive  engagement  in  the  South  American 
struggle  for  liberty;  was  fought  on  9  Dec.  1824, 
at  and  near  the  Peruvian  town  of  that  name. 
On   the    one   side   was   the   Spanish   viceroy   of 


Peru  with  nearly  all  that  remained  of  the  Span- 
ish power  in  its  last  stronghold  upon  the  con- 
tinent ;  on  the  other  Gen.  Sucre,  second  in  com- 
mand to  Bolivar  (the  latter  not  being  present), 
with  Colombian  troops,  and  Peruvians  led  by 
Gen.  Lamar.  The  viceroy  was  taken  prisoner; 
the  utter  defeat  of  his  army  made  possible  the 
independence  of  Bolivia  (realized  the  following 
year),  and  strengthened  the  republican  govern- 
ments in  all  the  neighboring  states. 

Ayala,  a-ya'la,  Adelardo  Lopez  de,  a 
Spanish  dramatist:  b.  Gaudalcanal,  Badajoz, 
jMarch  1820;  d.  30  Dec.  1879.  After  studying 
law  in  Seville,  he  went  to  Madrid,  where  he 
devoted  himself  entirely  to  poetry  and  speedily 
won  national  fame.  His  first  drama,  <A  States- 
man^ (1851),  met  with  immediate  success,  and 
was  followed  in  the  same  year  by  'The  Two  No- 
blemen,^ and  'Penalty  and  Pardon.'  To  the 
modern  comedy  of  manners,  his  specific  domain, 
he  first  contributed  'The  Glass  Roof,'  and  in 
1861  attained  to  wide  reputation  with  'Percent- 
age.' Of  his  other  works  the  most  noteworthy 
are  'The  Modern  Don  Juan'  (1863)  ;  and  'Con- 
suelo'    (1878),  a  drama. 

Aya'la,  Lopez  de,  Spanish  historian  and 
poet :  b.  1332 ;  d.  1407.  He  was  a  prominent 
statesman  and  warrior  during  the  reigns  of  the 
Castilian  kings  Pedro  the  Cruel,  Henry  II., 
John  I.,  and  Henry  III.,  and  is  known  as  the 
author  of  a  'Chronicle  of  the  Kings  of  Castille' 
(his  contemporaries),  in  which  the  crimes  of 
Pedro  the  Cruel  are  detailed  and  drawn  in  colors 
said  to  be  sometimes  overcharged. 

Ayamonte,  a'ya-mon'ta,  a  seaport  town  in 
Spain,  near  the  mouth  of  the  Guadiana,  which 
here  forms  the  boundary  between  Spain  and 
Portugal. 

Aycock,  Charles  Brantley,  American  poli- 
tician :  b.  Mahunta.  now  Fremont,  Wayne  Coun- 
ty, N.  C,  I  Nov.  1859.  He  was  educated  at 
the  University  of  North  Carolina,  studied  law 
and  began  the  practice  of  his  profession  at 
Goldsboro,  N.  C.  in  i88r.  In  1893  he  was  ap- 
pointed United  States  district  attorney  for  the 
eastern  district,  and  in  1900  was  elected  gov- 
ernor of  North  Carolina  by  a  majority  which 
was  the  largest  ever  given  to  a  gubernatorial 
candidate  in  that  State. 

Aye-Aye,  ai'ai'  (native  Malagasy  name; 
from  its  cry),  a  lemur  (Danbentonia  mada- 
gascarensis),  about  the  size  of  a  rabbit,  and 
with  teeth  like  a  bat.  It  is  small  and  brownish, 
with  a  long  bushy  tail.  Arborial  and  nocturnal 
in  habit,  it  lives  in  bamboo  jungles  feeding  on 
vegetables  and  the  larv?e  of  certain  borers.  Its 
feet,  as  well  as  its  hands,  have  opposable 
thumbs,  and  exceedingly  long,  naked,  flexible- 
fingers  armed  with  pointed  nails,  suitable  for 
extracting  grubs  out  of  deep  crevices. 

Ayeen,  ji-yen',  or  Akbery,  a  valuable  sta- 
tistical description  of  the  ^logul  empire  as  it 
was  in  the  reign  of  Akbar.  It  was  compiled  by 
Abul  Fazi.  the  vizier  of  the  Emperor  Akbar. 
There  is  an  English  translation  of  it  by  Gladwin. 

Ayesha,  a-ye'sha,  the  daughter  of  .\bu- 
Bekr,  the  favorite  wife  of  Mohammed  :  b.  610  or 
611 ;  d.  677  or  678.  After  Mohammed's  death 
she  opposed  the  succession  of  Ali,  raised  an 
army  against  him.  and  was  taken  prisoner,  but 
dismissed  with  that  spirit  of  chivalry  which  had 
already  arisen  among  the  Arabians. 


AYLESBURY  —AYR 


Aylesbury,  alz'ber-i,  a  market  town  in 
Buckinghamshire,  England,  38  miles  northwest 
of  London,  in  the  centre  of  the  fertile  valley  of 
Aylesbury.  There  are  many  old  houses,  irregu- 
larly but  picturesquely  built.  The  parish  church 
of  St.  i\Iarj'  is  a  fine  early  English  edifice,  and 
there  are  various  other  places  of  worship ;  a 
county-hall,  market-house,  clock  tower,  and  corn 
exchange.  There  are  also  baths,  a  large  county 
hospital,  and  the  only  convict  prison  for  women 
in  England.  The  chief  industries  are  printing, 
making  condensed  milk,  and  poultry-raising  for 
the  London  market,  Ajdesbury  ducks  being  wide- 
ly known,  and  there  are  several  breweries  and 
flour-mills.     Pop.   (1901)  9,244. 

Ayles'bury  Duck.     See  Ducks. 

Aylesford,  alz'ferd,  a  town  in  Kent,  Eng- 
land, three  miles  from  Maidstone.  In  its  vi- 
cinity is  the  remarkable  monument  called  Kit's 
Coty  House,  a  kind  of  Druidical  cromlech. 

Ayllon,  i-lyon,  Lucas  Vasquez  de,  Span- 
ish adventurer:  b.  about  1475;  d.  1526,  who,  in 
1509,  occupied  the  position  of  counsel  at  the 
supreme  court  of  St.  Domingo,  and  was  subse- 
quently employed  by  Fernando  Cortes,  on  a  mis- 
sion to  Velasquez.  In  1520,  he  joined  an  ex- 
pedition to  Florida,  treacherously  captured  a 
great  number  of  natives,  and  proposed  to  found 
a  new  colony,  but  was  unsuccessful,  and  is  sup- 
posed to  have  lost  his  life  while  engaged  in  a 
second  expedition  to  Florida. 

Aylmer,  al'mer,  John,  English  prelate: 
b.  Norfolk  1521 ;  d.  1594.  He  was  tutor  to  Lady 
Jane  Grey.  On  the  accession  of  Mary,  he  was 
forced  to  leave  his  country,  but  when  Queen 
Elizabeth  came  to  the  throne  he  returned  to 
England;  and  in  1576  was  made  bishop  of  Lon- 
don. 

Ayl'mer,  Matthew,  Canadian  military  offi- 
cer:  h.  Melbourne,  P.  Q.,  28  March  1842.  He 
entered  the  British  army  in  1864 ;  retired  from 
the  imperial  service  and  entered  the  Canadian 
volunteer  militia  in  1870;  and  became  adjutant- 
general  of  the  Dominion  militia,  the  highest 
military  office  in  Canada  next  to  that  of  the 
major-general  commanding,  in  1896. 

Ayl'mer-Gowing,  Emilia,  English  poet 
and  reciter :  b.  Bath,  October  1846.  She  was 
educated  partly  in  Brighton,  partly  in  Paris, 
where  she  received  the  attention  of  Lamartine. 
After  a  short  career  on  the  stage  she  success- 
fully produced  two  dramas,  *^A  Life  Race,^  and 
^A  Crown  for  Love.^  Her  ^Ballads  and 
Poems, ^  and  ^The  Cithern^  have  become  popu- 
lar, as  well  as  two  novels,  ^The  Jewel  Reputa- 
tion,^ and  *An  Unruly  Spirit.^  In  1891  she 
published  ^Ballads  of  the  Tower  and  Other 
Poems.  ^ 

Ayl'mer,  Lake,  (i)  A  Canadian  lake,  lying 
80  miles  north  of  Great  Slave  Lake  on  the  mar- 
gin of  the  forest  area.  (2)  A  Canadian  lake  in 
Quebec,  about  70  miles  south  of  the  city  of 
Quebec. 

Ay'lofTe,  a'lof,  Sir  Joseph,  an  English  anti- 
quary: b.  about  1708;  d.  1781.  He  was  one  of 
the  first  council  of  the  Society  of  Antiquaries, 
a  commissioner  for  the  preservation  of  state 
papers,  and  author  and  editor  of  several  works, 
of  which  the  best  known  is  his  ^Calendars  of 
the  Auntient  Charters,'  etc. 


Aymaras,  I'ma-raz',  an  Indian  race  of 
Bolivia  and  Peru,  speaking  a  language  akin  to 
the  Quichua.  They  are  physically  characterized 
by  great  chest  development,  caused  by  the  rare- 
fied air  of  the  region  they  inhabit. 

Aymon,  a'mon,  the  surname  of  four 
brothers,  called  respectively  Alard,  Richard, 
Guiscard.  and  Renaud,  sons  of  Aymon  or  Hai- 
mon,  Count  of  Oordogne,  who  figure  among  the 
most  illustrious  heroes  of  the  chivalric  poetry  of 
the  Middle  Ages ;  but  their  historic  existence 
must  be  considered  problematical.  Their  career 
furnished  rich  material  to  the  romantic  narra- 
tives of  Italy  in  the  15th  and  i6th  centuries.  A 
novel,  entitled  ^The  Four  Aymon  Brothers,' 
by  Huon  de  Villeneuve,  a  French  poet  of  the 
age  of  Philip  Augustus,  details  very  minutely 
their  exploits,  and  Ariosto  conferred  a  poetical 
immortality  on  the  family  by  the  publication  of 
his  '■  Roland,'  in  which  Renaud,  the  bravest  of 
the  four  brothers,  plays  continually  the  most 
distinguished  part. 

Ay'oubites,    or    Ayyubites,    the    Saracenic 

dynasty  founded  by  Saladin,  which  in  Egypt  sup- 
planted the  Fatimite  caliphs,  about  1171  a.d. 
Several  of  the  descendants  of  Saladin,  known  as 
Ayoubites,  afterward  ruled  in  Egypt,  Syria,  Ar- 
menia, and  Arabia  Felix.  In  the  13th  century 
their  power  was  destroyed  by  the  Mamelukes. 

Ayr,  ar,  a  town  in  Scotland,  on  the  river 
Ayr,  and  34  miles  south-southwest  of  Glasgow. 
The  principal  streets  of  modern  Ayr  are  spa- 
cious and  well  paved,  and  many  of  the  buildings 
handsome.  The  most  important  edifices  are  sev- 
eral churches  of  the  various  denominations  ;  the 
town-hall  and  connected  offices,  in  great  part 
completed  in  1881,  surmounted  by  a  fine  spire  of 
older  date,  226  feet  high ;  the  county  build- 
ings ;  the  academy,  a  celebrated  educational  in- 
stitute, the  buildings  of  which  are  handsome  and 
commodious;  the  Wallace  tower,  115  feet  high 
on  the  site  of  a  more  ancient  tower ;  the  free 
library ;  the  railway  station  and  hotel ;  a  hospi- 
tal ;  etc.  There  is  a  handsome  esplanade  along 
the  sea  front  1,500  yards  long.  Two  bridges 
connect  Ayr  with  Newton  and  Wallacetown, 
incorporated  in  the  burgh.  One  of  these,  opened 
in  1879,  occupies  the  place  of  the  '<New  Brig" 
of  Burns'  < Brigs  of  Ayr,'  the  «Auld  Brig" 
(built  1252)  being  still  serviceable  for  foot  traf- 
fic. There  is  now  also  a  third  bridge  farther 
up  the  river,  besides  the  railway  bridge.  Ayr 
exports  manufactured  goods,  iron,  coal,  whet- 
stones, etc. ;  and  imports  iron-ore,  grain,  tim- 
ber, slates,  bricks,  etc.  The  harbor  lies  within 
the  mouth  of  the  river,  and  is  enclosed  and  pro- 
tected by  a  north  and  a  south  pier  and  a  break- 
water ;  there  being  also  a  wet  dock  and  a  slip 
dock.  Shipbuilding  is  carried  on,  also  tanning, 
boot  and  shoe  making,  the  manufacture  of  car- 
pets, lace  curtains,  etc.  The  poet  Burns,  as  is 
well  known,  was  born  in  a  house  which  stands 
within  one  and  one  half  miles  of  the  town,  be- 
tween it  and  the  church  of  Alloway  (^^Alloway's 
auld  haunted  kirk"),  and  a  monument  has  been 
erected  to  his  memory  on  a  height  between  the 
church  and  the  bridge  over  the  Doon.  Pop. 
(1901)   28,624. 

Ayr,  a  river  of  Ayrshire,  Scotland,  which 
after  a  course  westward  of  18  miles,  finally 
loses  itself  in  the  Frith  of  Clyde  below  the  town 
of  Ayr. 


AYKEK  —  AYUNTAMIENTO 


Ayrer,  i'rer,  Jacob,  German  dramatist: 
"b.  Nuremberg  about  1560;  d.  there,  26  March 
1605.  Between  1595  and  1605  he  wrote  more 
than  100  plays,  of  which  the  *Opus  Theatricum^ 
(Nuremberg  1618)  contains  30  tragedies  and 
comedies,  and  36  Shrovetide  plays  and  vaude- 
villes. In  his  dramas  the  influence  of  the  Eng- 
lish stage  is  apparent. 

Ayres^  arz,  Alfred.  See  Osmux,  Thomas 
Ermblev. 

Ayres,  Anne,  American  author:  b.  Eng- 
land, 1816 ;  d.  February  1896.  She  was  the 
first  member  of  an  American  sisterhood  in 
the  Protestant  Episcopal  Church.  She  wrote 
^Evangelical  Sisterhood'  (1867)  ;  and  ^Life  of 
Augustus   Aluhlenberg.  ^ 

Ayres,  Romeyn  Beck,  American  soldier: 
b.  East  Creek,  N.  Y.,  20  Dec.  1825;  d.  New 
York  4  Dec.  1888.  He  served  in  the  Federal 
army  during  the  Civil  War,  and  at  its  close  was 
brevetted  brigadier-general  and  major-general 
in  the  volunteer  and  regular  service. 

Ayr'shire,  an  extensive  maritime  county 
of  Scotland,  about  60  miles  in  length,  with  a 
breadth  varying  from  10  to  26  miles.  Its  coast 
line  is  about  75  miles  in  length,  has  several  ex- 
cellent harbors.  The  singular  rock  off  the  coast, 
known  by  the  name  of  Ailsa  Craig,  belongs  to 
the  count}',  as  also  do  one  or  two  other  islets. 
The  surface  has  no  great  elevations,  the  highest 
summits  varying  from  about  1,200  to  1,900  feet. 
The  principal  streams  are  the  Ayr,  Stinchar, 
Girvan,  Doon,  Irvine,  and  Garnock. 

The  mineral  riches  are  very  considerable. 
Coal  is  abundant,  especially  in  the  middle  and 
northern  parts  of  the  count}',  and  there  are  over 
100  collieries.  Extensive  seams  also  of  black- 
band  ironstone  exist,  and  are  now  being  actively 
worked,  Ayrshire  having  become  the  great  seat 
of  the  iron  manufactures  of  Scotland  next  to 
Lanarkshire.  Plumbago  is  found  in  some  lo- 
calities ;  and  lead,  antimony,  and  copper  are  also 
met  with.  Limestone  and  freestone  abound. 
Millstones,  of  coarse  granite,  much  esteemed 
for  their  hardness  and  durability,  are  quarried 
near  the  north  coast,  in  the  district  of  Cunning- 
ham. 

The  native  sheep  are  bred  in  great  num- 
bers ;  their  wool  is  coarse  and  scanty,  but  the 
flesh  is  excellent.  The  horses  of  Ayrshire  are 
of  superior  breed,  being  hardy,  strong,  and  of 
large  size.  The  woolen  manufactures  are  ex- 
tensive, particularly  carpets,  bonnets,  and  wor- 
sted shawls,  which  are  produced  in  great  quan- 
tities. On  the  coast  is  the  ancient  castle  of 
Turnberry,  in  which  Robert  Bruce,  king  of 
Scotland,  is  said  to  have  been  born,  and  where 
he  is  known  to  have  spent  many  of  his  youthful 
years.  It  was  here  that  a  fire,  accidentally  kin- 
dled, was  mistaken  by  Bruce  for  an  appointed 
signal,  and  caused  him  to  cross  the  sea  from 
the  island  of  Arran  opposite  to  attempt  the  de- 
liverance of  his  country.  Of  the  ecclesiastical 
ruins  the  most  interesting  is  the  abbey  of  Cross- 
ragruel,  founded  in  1244.  The  chief  towns  are 
Ayr,  Kilmarnock,  Irvine,  Troon,  Saltcoats, 
Largs,  and  Ardrossan.     Pop.  (1901)  254,436. 

Ayrton,  ar-ton,  William  Edward,  Eng- 
lish electrician  and  inventor :  b.  London  1847. 
He  entered  the  Indian  telegraph  service,  having 
studied  electrical  engineering  with  Prof.  William 
Thomson ;  became  electrical  superintendent  and 
introduced  throughout  India  the  system  of  de- 


terniining  the  position  of  a  fault  by  electrically 
testing  one  end  of  a  line.  In  1873-9  he  was 
professor  of  natural  philosophy  and  telegraphy 
at  the  Imperial  College  of  Engineering  in  Japan  ; 
in  1879  became  professor  of  applied  physics  in 
London  Technical  College,  and,  in  1884,  chief 
professor  of  physics  at  the  Central  Institute, 
South  Kensington.  He  was  elected  president 
of  the  Institute  of  Electrical  Engineering  in 
1892.  With  Prof.  Perry,  he  invented  the  am- 
meter, voltmeter,  electric  power  meter,  ohmme- 
ter,  and  dispersion-photometer;  and,  with  Profs. 
Jenkin  and  Perry,  the  system  of  telpherage.  He 
has  been  a  voluminous  writer  and  is  widely 
known  for  his  < Practical  Electricity.* 

Aytoun,  a'toon.  Sir  Robert,  Scottish  poet: 
b.  1570;  d.  London,  March  1630,  and  studied 
at  St.  Andrews.  He  addressed  an  elegant 
panegyric  in  Latin  verse  to  King  James  on 
his  accession  to  the  crown  of  England,  which 
had.  no  doubt,  some  influence  in  securing  to  the 
author  the  favor  of  that  monarch.  He  was  at  a 
later  period  of  his  life  honored  with  the  ap- 
pointment of  secretary  to  Henrietta  Maria,  queen 
of  Charles  I.  During  his  residence  abroad,  as 
well  as  at  the  court  of  England,  he  lived  in 
intimacy  with,  and  secured  the  esteem  of,  the 
most  eminent  persons  of  his  time.  The  poems 
of  Sir  Robert  Aytoun,  for  the  first  time  pub- 
lished together  in  the  Miscellany  of  the  Banna- 
tyne  Club,  are  few  in  number,  but  are  distin- 
guished by  their  elegance  of  diction.  Several 
of  his  Latin  poems  are  preserved  in  the  work 
called   ^Deliti.-e   Poetarum   Scotorum'    (1637). 

Ay'toun,  William  Edmondstoune,  Scot- 
tish poet  and  prose  writer :  b.  Edinburgh,  1813 , 
d.  Blackhills,  Elgin,  4  Aug.  1865.  He  studied 
at  the  L^niversity  of  Edinburgh,  and  passed  as 
advocate  in  1840.  His  first  independent  work 
was  the  "^Life  and  Times  of  Richard  I.'  (1840). 
In  1848  he  published  a  collection  of  ballads  en- 
titled ^Lays  of  the  Scottish  Cavaliers,'  which 
has  continued  to  be  the  most  popular  of  all  his 
works,  and  has  passed  through  numerous  edi- 
tions. It  was  followed  in  1854  by  'Firmilian,  a 
Spasmodic  Tragedy'  :  in  1856  by  the  poem  of 
^BothwelP  ;  and  in  subsequent  years  by  the 
novel  called  *  Norman  Sinclair,'  and  various 
other  original  works.  In  1858  he  issued  a  criti- 
cal and  annotated  edition  of  the  'Ballads  of 
Scotland.'  The  translation  of  the  poems  and 
ballads  of  Goethe  which  he  undertook  in  con- 
junction with  Theodore  Martin  was  less  success- 
ful than  some  of  his  other  works.  In  1845 
he  was  appointed  professor  of  rhetoric  and 
English  literature  in  the  University  of  Edin- 
burgh —  a  position  which  he  held  till  his  death. 
In  1854  he  became  editor  of  "^  Blackwood's 
Magazine.' 

Ajmntamiento,  a-yoon'ta-myan'to,  the 
name  given  in  Spain  to  municipal  councils. 
Firmly  established  during  the  struggles  with 
the  Moors,  the  ayuntamientos  acquired  great  in- 
fluence and  political  power,  the  nobility  being 
admitted  to  them  without  their  class  privileges. 
The  Cortes,  in  1812,  adopted  the  leading  features 
of  the  former  system.  On  the  return  of  Ferdi- 
nand VII.,  the  ayuntamientos  were  abolished, 
but  restored  in  1837.  The  ayuntamientos  were 
empowered  to  make  up  the  lists  of  electors  and 
jurors,  to  organize  the  national  guards,  to  com- 
mand the  police  within  their  ov/n  bounds,  to  di- 
rect the  apportionment  and  raising  of  taxes,  and 


AZALEA  —  AZIMUTH 


to  manage  the  funds  of  the  commune.  The 
municipal  law  of  1870  deprived  them  of  all  polit- 
ical authority,  and  regulated  them  as  adminis- 
trative bodies,  subject  in  certain  respects  to  the 
authorities  of  the  provinces,  the  law  courts,  and 
the  Cortes. 

Aza'lea,  a  genus  of  about  25  species  of 
shrubs  of  the  natural  order  Ericaceae,  natives  of 
the  northern  hemisphere,  principally  of  eastern 
Asia  and  North  America.  By  some  botanists 
the  genus  is  united  with  rhododendron  (q.v.)j 
as  may  be  seen  below.  The  species  have  decid- 
'  uous  or  ei^ergreen  leaves  and  showy,  often  fra- 
grant flowers,  usually  in  terminal  umbel-like 
r-acemes.  They  are  commonly  divided  into  two 
groups :  the  Indian  azaleas  and  the  hardy  de- 
ciduous azaleas,  including  the  Ghent  hybrid 
forms.  The  Indian  azaleas,  mostly  imported 
from  Holland  and  forced  in  greenhouses,  are 
propagated  by  grafts  or  cuttings,  rarely  by 
seeds.  They  are  planted  in  loose,  moderately 
fertile  soil ;  sheltered  from  the  sun  and  wa- 
tered freely  during  the  summer;  repotted  in 
early  autumn ;  and,  by  special  attention,  brought 
into  flower  as  desired  from  late  autumn  until 
early  summer.  The  leading  species  of  the 
group  is  A:  indica  (R.  indicum),  of  which  two 
varieties,  amana  and  koemoferi  are  fairly  hardy 
as  far  north  as  New  Jersey.  The  members  of 
the  hardy  group  need  some  protection  in  the 
north  and  in  exposed  situations  to  prevent  in- 
jury to  the  flower-buds  due  to  sudden  varia- 
tions of  temperature.  Named  varieties  are 
usually  propagated  by  grafts  or  by  cuttings. 
Seedlings  are  often  grown  for  their  own 
merits,  but  are  generally  used  for  stocks 
upon  which  to  graft  choicer  varieties.  The 
following  are  among  the  best  known  species  of 
ithis  group:  A.  vaseyi  (R.  vaseyi),  an  excellent 
North  Carolina  species  with  spotted  flowers 
which  appear  in  early  May;  A.  niidiflora  {R. 
nudiUorum)  pinxter-flower,  found  from  Can- 
ada to  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  has  pink,  white, 
or  sometimes  purple  flowers  in  mid-spring;  A. 
calendulacea  (R.  calendulaceum),  found  from 
Pennsylvania  to  Georgia,  has  large  orange-  or 
flame-colored,  particularly  handsome  blossoms 
in  late  spring;  A.  occidentalis  (R.  occidentale) , 
a  California  species,  bears  fragrant,  white, 
pinkish  flowers  in  early  summer ;  A.  arborcscens 
(R.  arborescens),  found  in  the  Alleghany 
Mountains,  has  fragrant  white  or  pink  flowers 
in  June;  A.  viscosa  (R.  viscosum),  clammy 
azalea  or  white  swamp  honeysuckle,  is  found 
in  swamps  from  maritime  Canada  to  Flonda 
and  westward  to  Arkansas,  and  bears  fragrant 
white  or  pink  flowers  in  June  or  July.  Among 
the  Asiatic  members  of  this  group  the  best 
known  are  probably:  A.  mollis  (R.  mollc)  ; 
A.  rhombica  (R.  rhombicum)  ;  and  A.  pontica 
^  (R.  ponticum).  Consult:  Halliday,  ^Treatise  on 
the  Propagation  and  Cultivation  of  Azalea  In- 
dica)''; Van  Geert,  <Iconographie  des  Azalees)  ; 
Bailey  and  Miller,  (Cyclopedia  of  American 
Horticulture.* 

Azari'as,  Brother  CPatrick  Francis  Mul- 
lany),  b.  29  June  1847,  near  Killenaule,  County 
of  Tipperary,  Ireland;  d.  20  Aug.  1893,  Platts- 
burgh,  N.  Y.  (Cliff  Haven).  His  father  emigrated 
to  the  United  States  in  1851,  leaving  Patrick, 
his  eldest  son,  in  Ireland  a  few  years  on  ac- 
count of  his  health.  Deerfield,  N.  Y.,  a  place 
near  Utica,   was  the  new  home,  where  he  at- 


tended the  public  school  and  later  the  Christian 
Brothers'  academy  in  Utica.  At  the  early  age 
of  fourteen  he  decided  to  become  a  Brother, 
and  on  June  29,  1862,  Patrick  Francis  Mullany 
received  the  black  habit  and  white  collar  of  a 
Christian  Brother,  and  henceforth  became  known 
to  the  world  as  Brother  Azarias.  At  the  age  of 
seventeen  he  was  put  in  charge  of  a  large  class ; 
and  at  the  age  of  nineteen  he  was  professor  of 
mathematics  in  Rock  Hill  College,  near  Balti- 
more, Md.  Ten  years  later,  he  was  made  head  of 
the  college.  His  first  book,  <An  Essay  Contrib- 
uting to  a  Philosophy  of  Literature)  (1874), 
won  him  the  respect  of  scholars.  His  philo- 
sophical articles  on  literature,  published  in  vari- 
ous magazines,  were  well  received,  and  he  was 
soon  in  demand  as  a  lecturer  before  educational 
bodies,  Catholic  and  non-Catholic.  When  in  the 
Bo's  he  went  to  Europe,  he  found  friends  every- 
where ;  scholars  who  had  read  his  books,  men 
like  Cardinal  Newman  greeted  him  as  a  friend. 
He  was  a  promoter  of  the  Catholic  Summer 
School  of  America,  and  of  several  other  educa- 
tional movements.  After  finishing  his  course  of 
lectures  at  the  Catholic  Summer  School  at  Cliff 
Haven,  1893,  he  was  too  ill  to  go  home  or  to  any 
of  the  other  meetings  where  he  was  expected. 
His  last  days  were  spent  in  «Blue  Point  Hotel,)> 
near  the  Summer  School  grounds.  His  published 
works  are :  <Aristotle  and  the  Christian 
Church)  ;  <Books  and  Reading)  ;  (Culture  of 
Spiritual  Sense)  ;  (Development  of  English  Lit- 
erature) ;  (Development  of  Old  English 
Thought)  ;  (Essays  Educational)  ;  (Essays  Mis- 
cellaneous) ;  (Essays  Philosophical)  ;  (Mary, 
Queen  of  May)  ;  (Mary,  Queen  of  May  and 
Essays)  ;  (Phases  of  Thought  and  Criticism)  ; 
(Philosophy  of  Literature)  ;  (Psychological  As- 
pects of  Education.) 

Azeglio,  ad-za'lyo,  Massimo  Taparelli, 
Marquis  d',  Italian  author,  artist,  diploma- 
tist, and  statesman :  b.  Turin,  1801  ;  d.  16  Jan. 
1866.  In  1816  he  accompanied  his  father  to 
Rome,  and  there  occupied  his  time  principally 
with  painting  and  music.  He  was  already  fa- 
vorably known  as  a  painter,  when,  in  18^0, 
he  went  to  Milan,  married  the  daughter  of 
Manzoni,  the  great  novelist,  and  wrote  sev- 
eral romances.  The  earliest  of  these,  (Et- 
tore  Fieramosca,)  was  received  with  great 
enthusiasm.  His  next  romance,  (Niccolo  de 
Lapi,)  became  equally  popular,  and  is  esteemed 
by  Italian  critics  the  best  historical  novel  in 
any  language.  _  Deeply  imbued  with  the  spirit 
of  Italian  nationality,  in  1842  Azeglio  made  a 
tour  through  the  provinces  of  Italy,  awakening 
the  revolutionary  spirit  which  troubled  the  last 
years  of  Gregory  XVI.  After  the  revolution 
of  1848  he  supported  the  cause  of  the  king  of 
Piedmont,  and,  at  the  head  of  the  papal  troops, 
fought  against  the  Austrians  at  Vicenza,  where 
he  was  wounded.  In  1849  Victor  Emmanuel 
appointed  him  president  of  the  cabinet  of  min- 
isters, an  office  which  he  resigned  in  1852  to 
his  political  adversary.  Count  Cavour.  In  1859, 
after  the  peace  of  Villafranca,  he  undertook  a 
confidential  mission  as  ambassador  extraordinary 
to  England ;  and  was  afterward  appointed  gov- 
ernor of  the  city  of  Milan. 

Az'imuth,   in    astronomy,    the    arc    of    the 

horizon  comprehended  between  the  meridian  of 
the  observer  and  the  vertical  circle  passing 
through  the   star.     It  is   easterly   if  the   s'.ar  i& 


AZOBENZENE  —  AZOV 


observed  before,  westerly  if  after,  and  zero  if 
at  the  time  of  culmination.  It  is  usual  to  con- 
nect with  the  quadrant  a  graduated,  horizontal 
circle,  called  the  azimuth  circle, 

Azio,  Greece,  a  village  on  the  gulf  of 
Arta,  in  the  district  and  promontory  of  the  same 
name.  A  German  archaeologist.  Dr.  Erlingcr, 
succeeded,  in  1857,  after  several  years'  investi- 
gation, in  ascertaining  the  position  of  the  camps 
of  Antony  and  Augustus,  precisely  as  it  was  on 
the  eve  of  the  battle  of  Actium.  He  found  the 
camp  of  the  latter  surrounded  by  a  cincture  of 
redoubts  about  sYi  miles  in  extent,  which  were 
constructed  in  stone,  and  protected  by  a  ditch. 
In  advance  of  the  camp  were  external  works, 
consisting  of  several  small  forts  of  observation, 
one  of  them  serving  as  a  telegraph  for  commu- 
nicating with  the  fleet.  In  the  ruins  of  one  of 
these  forts  was  discovered  a  tablet  in  steel,  on 
which  signals  are  traced,  resembling  somewhat 
those  of  the  aerial  telegraphs. 

Azkar  Tuarik,  an  African  tribe  of  the 
Tuariks,  who  inhabit  the  desert  country  between 
Ghat  on  the  north  and  the  tracts  of  the  Kelowi 
Tuariks  on  the  south,  between  lat.  21°  and 
26°  N.  They  were  first  visited  and  made  known 
to  the  European  world  by  the  British  central 
African  expedition  of  Barth,  Overweg,  and  Rich- 
ardson. The  country  in  the  north  is  a  barren 
plain,  with  scarcely  any  vegetation,  and  with 
isob-ted  granite  peaks,  and  few  or  no  animals. 
The  southern  portion,  bordering  on  the  Kelowi 
Tuariks,  is  the  uninhabited  central  region  of 
the  great  desert.  The  inhabitants  of  Azkar,  like 
the  rest  of  the  Tuariks,  belong  to  the  Berber 
and  not  to  the  negro  race.  Thej'  are  fanatical 
Mohammedans  in  religion,  hating  both  Pagan 
and  Christian.  They  are  monogamists.  They  are 
a  warlike  aristocracj^  divided  into  5  tiyiisi,  or 
clans,  and  subdivided  into  30  divisions  or  fayas, 
each  of  which  has  a  separate  chief. 

Azmari,  the  name  applied  to  a  set  of  va- 
grant beggars  in  Ab3^ssinia,  part  of  whom  form 
the  music  bands  of  the  Abyssinian  armj',  while 
the  rest  exercise  their  musical  voices  in  the 
street,  especially  on   religious   holidays. 

Azo,  or  Azzo,  or  Azzolinus,  Fortius,  an 
Italian  law3'^er,  d.  in  1200.  He  professed  juris- 
prudence at  Bologna  with  such  eclat  that  the 
college  could  not  contain  all  his  auditors,  so 
that  he  had  to  take  to  the  public  square. 

Azoben'zene.     See   Benzene. 

Az'o  Colors.     See  Coal  Tar  Colors. 

Azo'ic,  the  name  given  to  the  earliest  geo- 
logical period,  before  the  appearance  of  life 
on  the  earth.  It  includes  the  oldest  rocks,  mostly 
granites,  gneisses,  and  schists,  in  which  there 
are  no  traces  of  organic  remains.  The  term  is 
practically  synonymous  with  Archaean. 

Azores,  or  Western  Islands,  a  Portuguese 
archipelago,  in  the  mid-Atlantic,  between  lat. 
36"  55'  and  39°  55'  N.  and  between  Ion.  25°  10' 
and  31°  16'  W.  Stretching  over  a  distance  of 
400  miles,  their  nine  islands  are  divided  into 
three  distinct  groups  —  Sta  Maria  and  Sa5 
Miguel  in  the  southeast ;  Terceira,  Sao  Jorge, 
Pico,  Graciosa,  and  Fayal  in  the  middle ;  and 
Flores  and  Corvo  in  the  northwest.  Of  these, 
Flores  lies  1,176  miles  west  of  Cape  Rocca  in 
Portugal,  1,484  miles  southwest  of  Falmouth, 
and  1,708  miles  east-southeast  of  Halifax.  In 
1431-53  the  Azores  were  taken  possession  of  by 
the  Portuguese.     They  were  at  that  time  unin- 


habited; but  that  they  had  been  visited  by  the 
Carthaginians  is  proved  by  Punic  coin.,  round 
on  Corvo.  They  seem  to  have  been  known  to 
the  Arabian  geographer  Edrisi  in  the  12th  cen- 
tury; and  they  are  marked  distinctly  on  a  map 
of  1351.  The  Portuguese  colonists  called  th( 
whole  group  Azores,  from  acor  or  acor,  a  hawk- 
and  they  named  two  individual  islands,  Corvo 
and  Sao  Jorge,  from  Corvi  Marini  and  San 
Zorze,  which,  according  to  a  map  of  1375,  had 
been  previously  seen  in  the  western  ocean.  In 
1466  Alfonso  V.  made  a  life  grant  of  the  island 
of  Fayal  to  his  aunt,  the  duchess  of  Burgundy, 
and  from  this  circumstance  many  settlers  mi- 
grated  thither   from    Flanders. 

The  total  area  of  the  group  is  919  square 
miles,  and  the  population  (1890)  255,594.  The 
area,  population,  and  the  maximum  altitude  of 
the  different  islands  are  as  follows:  Sta  Maria 
(38  square  miles;  5,880;  1,889  feet):  Sao  !\Ii- 
guel  (299  square  miles;  107,000;  3,854  feet); 
Terceira  (164  square  miles;  45,391;  3,435  feet)  ; 
Graciosa  (24  .square  miles;  8,718);  Sao  Jorge 
(91  square  miles;  18,000);  Pico  (173  square 
miles;  27,904;  7,613  feet);  Faj'al  (69  .square 
miles;  26,264)  •  Flores  (54  square  miles;  10,700; 
3,087  feet);  Corvo  (7  square  miles;  1,000). 
The  capital  is  Angra,  in  Terceira ;  but  Ponta 
Delgada,  in  Sao  Miguel,  is  a  larger  town.  The 
Azores  are  of  volcanic  origin,  and  with  the 
exception  of  Corvo,  Flores,  and  Graciosa,  are 
still  liable  to  eruptions  and  violent  earthquakes, 
the  worst  of  21  shocks  since  1444  having  been 
those  of  1591,  1638,  1719,  and  1841.  Hot  min- 
eral springs  are  numerous ;  and  the  baths  of 
Furnas,  in  Sao  Miguel,  are  much  resorted  to 
by  invalids.  The  coast  'is  generally  .steep  and 
rugged ;  the  interior  abounds  in  ravines  and 
mountains.  Perhaps  the  greatest  want  of  the 
group  is  a  good  harbor.  The  Azores  are  re- 
garded as  a  province,  not  a  colony,  of  Portu- 
gal, and  as  belonging  to  Europe. 

Az'ote,  a  name  formerly  given  to  nitro- 
gen ;  hence  substances  containing  nitrogen  and 
forming  a  part  of  the  structure  of  plants  and 
animals  are  known  as  azotized  bodies.  Such 
are  albumen,  fibrine,  casein,  gelatine,  urea, 
kreatine,  etc. 

Az'otine,  a  substance  procured  by  decom- 
posing wool  by  the  action  of  steam  at  150°  C. 
under  a  pressure  of  five  atmospheres ;  the  prod- 
uct, afterward  dried  by  evaporation,  contains 
nitrogen  completely  soluble  in  water.  Azotine 
is  mixed  with  dried  blood  for  a  fertilizer. 

Azov,  a-zof,  a  town  in  the  south  of  Rus- 
sia, on  the  Don,  seven  miles  from  its  mouth. 
The  sand  and  mud  deposited  by  the  river  have 
choked  up  the  port,  so  that  its  trade  and 
shipping  have  dwindled  away,  and  the  inhabi- 
tants depend  mostly  on  fish-curing.  Azov  was 
built  nine  miles  from  the  site  of  the  ancient 
Greek  colony  of  Tanais;  and  when,  in  the  13th 
century,  it  was  taken  possession  of  by  the  Gen- 
oese, they  altered  its  name  to  Tana.  They 
were  driven  out  of  it  by  Timur  (Tamerlane)  in 
1392.  In  1471  it  was  taken  by  the  Turks,  and 
in  1696  by  Peter  the  Great ;  and  it  was  finally 
ceded  to  Russia  in  1774.     Pop.   (1897)  27,500. 

Azov',  Sea  of  (ancient  Palus  Mocotis),  an 
arm  of  the  Black  Sea,  with  which  it  is  united 
by  the  Straits  of  Kertch.  Its  length,  southwest 
to   northeast,   is    about    168,    its   breadth   about 


AZPEITIA  — AZTEC  CONFEDERACY 


80  miles ;  greatest  depth,  near  its  north  side, 
not  more  than  8  fathoms.  The  western  part, 
called  the  Putrid  Sea,  bordering  on  the  Crimea, 
is  separated  from  the  main  expanse  bj'  a  long 
sandy  belt,  called  Arabat,  along  which  a  mili- 
tary road  has  been  formed.  The  sea  teems 
with  fish.  Of  the  islands  it  contains,  Benesch, 
the  largest,  has  an  area  of  65  square  miles. 

Azpeitia,  ath-pa'e-tya,  a  town  in  Spain, 
18  miles  southwest  of  San  Sebastian.  A  mile 
from  it  is  the  famous  convent  of  Loyola,  now 
converted  into  a  museum  and  built  by  the  Ro- 
man architect,  Fontana,  in  1683.  It  includes 
the  tower  of  the  Santa  Casa,  in  which  St.  Ig- 
natius of  Loyola,  the  founder  of  the  Society  of 
Jesus,  was  born  in  1491.  Here  every  3^ear  in 
July  a  great  festival  is  held  in  his  honor,  to 
which  pilgrims  flock  from  all  quarters.  Pop. 
about  7,000. 

Azrael,  az'ra-el,  in  Mohammedan  mythol- 
ogy, the  angel  of  death. 

Az'rek,  the  principal  stream  of  Abyssinia, 
which,  after  a  winding  course  through  Abys- 
sinia and  Sennaar,  falls  into  the  Nile  above 
Gerri. 

Az'tec  Club,  an  organization  formed  to 
preserve  the  memories  of  the  war  in  Mexico, 
established  in   Mexico  in   1847. 

Az'tec  Confederacy.  The  name  Aztecs 
(properly  Aztecas)  is  currently  used  for  all 
the  Nahua  (q.v.)  tribes  in  Mexico  at  the  time 
of  the  Spanish  conquest.  It  belongs  at  most 
only  to  the  seven  more  closely  cognate  tribes 
which  occupied  the  valley  of  Mexico,  and  is 
by  some  restricted  to  the  one  tribe  which  built 
Tenochtitlan,  or  Mexico  City,  and  is  so  used 
for  convenience  here.  The  name  is  from  the 
unidentified  place  (generally  assumed  as  north- 
ward) whence  they  came,  Aztlan,  variously 
interpreted  as  "heron  place,'^  "heron-clan  place," 
"white  place,"  and  "seacoast" ;  the  best  opinion 
makes  it  Jalisco  or  Michoacan,  on  the  west 
coast  of  Mexico.  Apparently  some  time  from 
the  9th  to  the  nth  century  they  invaded  the 
plateau  of  Anahuac  ("waterside,"  lake  district), 
where  tribes  of  the  same  stock  were  already 
living,  and  took  possession  of  several  com- 
manding points ;  the  chief  pueblo  being  that  of 
the  Aztecs  or  Toltecs  at  Tollan  (now  Tula), 
some  40  miles  north  of  Mexico  City,  a  leading 
pass  from  the  north  into  the  valley  of  Mexico. 
Driven  from  this  by  the  warfare  of  the  other 
natives  the  Aztecs  moved  south  into  the  val- 
ley, and  established  themselves  in  the  salt 
marshes  where  the  outlet  of  lakes  Chalco  and 
Xochimilico  flows  into  Lake  Tezcuco,  amid 
which  in  1325  (the  first  absolutely  sure  date  in 
their  history)  they  built  Tenochtitlan,  now  the 
city  of  Mexico.  They  converted  it  by  dikes  and 
causeways  into  an  island,  and  gradually  made 
it  another  Venice,  a  stone  town  intersected  with 
canals,  the  strongest  position  in  Mexico.  For 
more  than  a  century,  however,  they  were  trib- 
utary to  the  great  pueblo  of  Azcaputzalco,  near 
them  on  the  western  shore  of  the  lake.  Grad- 
ually they  formed  a  stable  military  organiza- 
tion and  more  stable  civil  society;  in  1375  they 
elected  their  first  "chief  of  men,"  wat;  chiej  and 
priest  in  one  —  Acamapichtli,  often  styled  in 
books  "the  founder  of  the  Mexican  empire^' ; 
and  under  the  fourth  chief,  Izcoatzin,  allied 
themselves   with    Tezcuco   on   the   eastern   lake 


shore.  The  two  destroyed  Azcaputzalco  about 
1430  and  deported  the  surviving  inhabitants  to 
Tlacopan,  near  Mexico,  which  was  made  trib- 
utary to  the  latter.  Tenochtitlan,  Tezcuco,  and 
Tlacopan  then  formed  a  league  (the  Aztec 
Confederacy,  formerly  termed  the  "Aztec  em- 
pire"), purely  for  plunder  and  tribute,  not  at 
all  for  government  or  incorporation.  The  trib- 
ute was  not  only  of  food  and  similar  supplies,  a 
certain  amount  of  land  being  cultivated  for  the 
benefit  of  the  confederacy,  but  what  was  still 
more  coveted,  human  victims  for  their  gods, 
to  be  afterward  eaten  by  themselves ;  some- 
times of  warriors  for  raids  on  others.  The 
spoil  was  divided  into  five  parts,  Tenochtitlan 
and  Tezcuco  each  taking  two  and  Tlacopan  one. 
In  its  less  than  a  century  of  life,  this  league 
made  some  30  pueblo  towns  tributary,  prin- 
cipally to  the  east  toward  the  gulf  and  south- 
east toward  the  Isthmus  of  Tehuantepec  —  a 
range  of  8,000  or  10,000  square  miles  out  of 
the  750,000  in  the  present  Mexico.  Even  this 
was  in  no  sense  a  military  occupation  of  the 
country,  much  less  the  foundation  of  a  state. 
Within  a  few  dozen  miles  were  great  inde- 
pendent pueblos  such  as  Cholula  and  Tlascala, 
the  latter  a  strong  and  warlike  settlement  of 
some  30.000  people,  who  waged  war  to  the 
knife  with  the  Aztec  confederacy,  defeated  their 
plundering  assaults  again  and  again,  and  aided 
other  pueblos  in  resistance.  Montezuma  (q.v.), 
who  acceded  1502,  was  heavily  defeated  by  them 
and  b}'  the  towns  in  Michoacan,  but  won  success 
on  the  gulf  coast ;  and  when  the  Spaniards  came, 
the  southern  Mexican  peninsula  was  a  mass  of 
seething  savage  hatreds  and  feuds,  no  two 
tribes  of  the  natives  having  any  community  of 
feeling  or  interest  that  could  prompt  them  to 
unite  with  one  another  rather  than  with  the 
foreigner.  See  Cortes  ;  Mexico  ;  Montezuma. 
The  Aztec  tribe  was  divided  into  20  clans 
or  calpullis,  each  clan  occupying  several  con- 
tiguous communal  houses,  each  of  which  held 
several  hundred  persons :  besides  a  clan  office 
building  where  assemblies  were  held  and 
strangers  entertained.  It  was  governed  by  an 
elected  council,  with  a  civil  and  a  military  head 
as  in  Rome,  the  latter  being  also  constable. 
Each  clan  had  its  special  rites,  priests,  and  tem- 
ple. It  was  divided  into  four  phratries,  each 
having  among  other  duties  that  of  exacting 
compensation  for  murders,  and  each  ward  had 
its  own  precinct,  constituting  four  wards  or 
quarters  of  the  town,  its  arsenal,  and  its  cap- 
tain. These  captains  were  called  "darthouse- 
man,"  "man-slasher,"  "bloodshedder,"  and  "chief 
of  the  eagle  and  cactus,"  the  latter  being  chief 
executioner,  and  not  eligible  for  the  chieftain- ' 
ship  of  the  tribe.  The  supreme  government  of 
the  Aztecs  was  by  a  council  of  20,  one  from 
each  clan,  who  must  not  be  a  sachem,  but  a 
member  of  the  clan  council ;  he  was  called  the 
"speaker,"  and  the  tribal  council  the  "speech- 
place"  (parliament,  literally).  It  met  every  10 
days  at  least,  and  oftener  if  called  together. 
Once  in  80  days  there  was  a  special  session  at- 
tended by  all  the  leading  clan  and  phratry  offi- 
cials and  priests,  to  reconsider  unpopular  de- 
cisions. The  tribe,  too,  had  a  dual  executive, 
civil  and  religious :  a  sachem  who  was  civil 
magistrate  and  chief  judge;  and  a  war  chief 
called  "chief  of  men,"  and  also  some  priestly 
functions,  though  there  was  a  high  priest  also. 


AZTEC  TREASURE-HOUSE  — AZZUBEYDI 


He  was  originally  chief  only  of  the  xVzlecs ;  but 
about  1430  (probably  on  occasion  of  the  de- 
struction of  Azcaputzalco),  was  made  chief  of 
the  confederate  army.  He  was  elected  by  the 
tribal  council  and  the  clan  war  chiefs  and 
leading  priests,  and  could  be  deposed  bj'  them. 
His  official  residence  was  in  the  tribal  office. 
From  the  time  of  the  first  chief,  Acamapichtli, 
the  office  remained  in  a  single  family,  like  the 
old   Aryan    kingship. 

The  social  and  religious  organization  was  a 
peculiar  mixture  of  the  lowest  barbarism  and 
the  beginnings  of  civilization.  There  was  no 
private  property  in  land  or  dwellings;  each 
man  could  keep  a  garden  plot  for  his  use,  but 
it  was  his  no  longer  than  he  used  it.  Family 
life  had  emerged  from  savage  promiscuity :  de- 
scent was  reckoned  in  the  male  line,  marital 
infidelity  was  punished,  and  remaining  unmar- 
ried was  not  permitted  except  by  special  dis- 
pensation,—  contumacy  being  punished  by  be- 
ing made  an  outcast,  a  serf  if  a  man  and  a 
prostitute  if  a  woman.  Slavery  had  thus  begun 
in  a  small  way ;  but  the  habitual  use  of  pris- 
oners of  war  as  slaves  had  not,  it  being  pref- 
erable to  sacrifice  and  eat  them.  Agriculture 
was  still  primitive;  but  irrigation  was  practised 
to  some  extent,  and  horticulture  was  beginning 
to  develop.  The  roads  were  only  narrow  trails ; 
but  they  facilitated  collection  of  tribute,  and 
served  military  and  trading  purposes  as  well. 
The  houses  were  generally  of  adobe  brick,  but 
many  of  the  great  pueblos  were  of  stone,  so 
that  the  towns  looked  like  castellated  cities. 
There  were  tessellated  marble  floors,  finely 
worked  and  colored  tapestries,  and  beautiful 
feather-w'ork,  vases,  goblets,  and  censers  of 
fine  marbles  and  precious  metals  exquisitely 
wrought.  There  were  regular  weekly  markets, 
which,  though  trade  was  by  barter,  indicated 
a  large  development  of  personal  property  and 
of  superfluity  above  subsistence.  There  were 
elaborate  pleasure-grounds,  menageries,  and 
aviaries,  baths  and  fountains,  and  pleasure  per- 
formances of  dramas  and  singers,  acrobats  and 
jugglers.  Yet  the  people  were  cannibals,  and 
their  religion  was  of  the  most  hideous  charac- 
ter, albeit  with  regularly  organized  priesthood 
and  temples  and  altars.  On  one  side  the  society 
touched  the  South  Sea  Islands,  on  the  other  it 
almost  rose  to  ancient  Egypt  and  was  above 
Homeric  Greece. 

Az'tec  Treasure-House,  The,  a  romance 
by  Thomas  A.  Janvier.  It  purports  to  be  a 
narration  of  the  thrilling  adventures  of  a  cer- 
tain Prof.  Thomas  Palgrave,  Ph.D. ;  an  archse- 
ologist  who  goes  to  Mexico  to  discover,  if  pos- 
sible,  remains  of  the  early  Aztec  civilization. 

Azuay,  a-thoo-T',  a  province  of  Ecuador, 
with  an  area  of  about  11,150  square  miles.  The 
cinchona  tree  is  found  here  in  abundance. 
Pop.    (1890)    132,400. 

Azulai,  a'zoo-ll,  Hayim  David,  i8th  cen- 
tury Jewish  bibliographer:  b.  Jerusalem.  His 
life  was  mainly  spent  at  Leghorn.  Of  his 
numerous  works,  the  best  known  is  *Shem-ha- 
Gedolim^  (the  names  of  the  great),  a  bibliogra- 
phy containing  the  names  of  over  1,300  Jewish 
authors  and  more  than  2.200  of  their   works. 

Azuni,  ad-zoo'ne,  Domenico  Alberto,  Ital- 
ian jurist:  b.  Sassari,  Sardinia,  1749;  d. 
23  Jan.  1827.     He  became  judge  of  the  tribunal 


of  commerce  at  Nice,  and  in  1795  published  a 
work  in  which  he  endeavored  to  reduce  mari- 
time laws  to  fixed  principles,  and  which  ap- 
peared in  French  in  1805,  under  the  title  of 
^Droit  Maritime  de  I'Europe.'  Napoleon  ap- 
pointed him  one  of  the  commissioners  for  com- 
piling the  new  commercial  code. 

Az'ure,  the  heraldic  term  for  the  color  blue, 
represented  in  engraving  by  horizontal  lines. 

Az'urine,  a  European  cockroach,  blue  iiv 
color. 

Azurite,  one  of  the  commonest  ores  of 
copper,  a  basic  copper  carbonate,  having  the 
formula  2CuC0,^.Cu(0H)2.  Its  hardness  is  3.5 
to  4  and  specific  gravity  about  3.8.  It  is  a  min- 
eral of  rare  beauty,  its  usual  color  being  a  rich 
Prussian  to  azure  blue,  from  which  fact  its  name 
is  derived.  Its  color  is,  however,  often  so  dark 
as  to  appear  nearly  black,  this  frequently  being 
true  of  its  crystallized  forms.  These  are  very 
varied  and  complex,  and  belong  to  the  mono- 
clinic  system.  They  are  often  transparent  and 
have  a  most  brilliant  vitreous  to  adamantine  lus- 
tre, and  are  beautifully  striated,  while  their  fre- 
quent association  with  bright  green  malachite 
adds  much  to  the  beauty  of  the  specimens.  These 
two  minerals  sometimes  occur  in  stalactitic 
forms,  the  one  encircling  the  other.  Such  speci- 
mens have  been  extensively  cut  and  polished  in 
cross  sections  and  worked  up  for  various  orna- 
mental purposes.  The  finest  material  of  this  kind 
comes  from  Morenci,  Arizona,  this  locality  also 
yielding  exceptionally  fine  crystallized  speci- 
mens rivaling  those  from  its  other  most  cele- 
brated localities,  Bisbee,  Ariz.,  and  Chessy, 
France.  Its  occurrence  at  the  latter  locality, 
which  has  been  famous  for  many  years,  has  led 
to  the  frequent  use  of  the  name  "chessylite''  for 
azurite,  especially  in  Europe.  Many  other  local- 
ities yield  choice  specimens,  the  copper  mines  of 
the  western  portion  of  the  United  States  being 
especially  celebrated.  In  New  Mexico  curious 
pseudomorphs  of  native  copper  after  azurite 
<<balls"  occur  in  large  numbers,  while  pseudo- 
morphs of  malachite  after  azurite  are  very 
common. 

Az'ymites  (Lat.  asymus,  unleavened),  a  term 
applied  by  the  Eastern  to  the  Western  Church 
because  the  latter  used  unleavened  bread  in  the 
administration  of  the  Eucharist.  In  the  Western 
Church  the  point  has  never  been  regarded  as  of 
vital  importance.  The  matter  was  considered  at 
the  Council  of  Florence  (1439).  The  Western 
Church,  called  the  Greek  schismatics  Prozymites. 

Azzarkal,  az'ar-kal',  Arabian  mathemati-i 
cian  and  astronomer :  b.  Cordova  in  the  first' 
half  of  the  nth  century.  He  was  royal  as- 
tronomer of  Al-Mamoun,  king  of  Toledo.  He 
invented  divers  instruments  for  making  obser- 
vations, constructed  a  water-clock  of  extraor- 
dinary dimensions,  as  well  as  a  planisphere  and 
an  astrolabe,  upon  new  principles. 

Azzubeydi,  a'zoo-bl'de,  Mohammed  Ibn  el 
Hasan,  Arabian  lexicographer:  b.  Seville,  927; 
d.  982.  He  was  cadi  of  Seville  and  preceptor 
of  Hischeam,  son  and  heir  of  the  Sultan.  He 
wrote  an  abridgment  of  the  great  biography  of 
the  Spanish  grammarians,  by  Khalil ;  a  treatise 
on  grammar,  and  a  work  upon  the  character  of 
the   syntax  of  the   Arabic   language. 


B 


Bthe  second  character  in  our  alphabet, 
holds  the  same  relative  place  in  the 
alphabet  of  all  European  languages 
except  the  Russian  and  two  or  three 
others,  as  Servian  and  Bulgarian : 
in  these  alphabets  the  symbol  B  holds 
the  third  place,  yet  it  stands  not  for  our  mute 
B  but  for  a  labial  (not  denti-labial)  V  or  W ; 
while  in  the  second  place  stands  a  modified 
form  of  B  with  the  same  phonetic  value  as  our 
B.  The  Russian  alphabet  is  derived  from  the 
scheme  of  the  monk  Cyril,  one  of  the  first 
evangelists  of  Bulgaria,  who  translated  into  the 
language  of  the  Sclavonians  parts  of  the  Bible. 
To  do  this  it  was  necessary  to  contrive  new 
characters  for  designation  of  sounds  alien  to 
the  Greek  language,  and  to  modify  existing 
Greek  characters.  But  as  in  his  time, —  the  9th 
century, —  and  at  a  much  earlier  date,  the  cur- 
rent phonetic  value  of  B  was,  as  it  still  is, 
labial  V,  Cyril  retained  the  symbol  B  as  repre- 
senting that  V  sound,  while  for  the  mute  labial 

B  he  devised  the  symbol  B  •  With  this  ex- 
ception the  character  B  has  from  immemorial 
time  held  the  second  place  in  the  alphabets  of 
all  the  Aryan  languages  of  Europe,  as  well  as 
in  Hebrew  and  Aramaic,  Phcenician,  Arabic, 
and  Coptic.  The  most  ancient  form  of  this 
symbol,  both  in  Greek  and  Latin,  was  i 
with  two  angular  loops,  which  were  afterward 
rounded.  The  most  ancient  form  of  the  sym- 
bol B  among  the  Phoenicians  was  not  unlike 
the  Arabic  figure  9,  namely,  3  .  The  Greeks 
not  only  added  a  second  loop  but  they  reversed 
the  position  of  the  loop  by  setting  it  on  the 
right  of  the  upright  stem;  and  they  similarly 
transposed  the  loop  of  the  Phcenician  sign  T 
which  they  made  P  (rho,  our  R).  The  differ- 
ence between  the  two  labials  B  and  P  is  that 
P  is  an  absolute  mute,  in  pronouncing  which 
the  voice  is  completely  obstructed  before  the 
lips  are  drawn  apart,  while  B  is  sonant,  though 
the  lips  be  still  compressed :  in  the  effort  to 
pronounce  B  the  voice  is  heard  even  before 
the  lips  are  parted ;  but  in  pronouncing  P  no 
sound  is  heard  while  the  lips  are  compressed ; 
and  when  they  are  opened  there  is  emission  of 
breath  but  no  voice.  B  and  P  substitute  each 
other  in  words  common  to  two  or  more  lan- 
guages and  in  transmutations  of  words  within 
one  language.  Examples:  Latin  pila  is  Eng- 
lish and  German  ball.  Bretzel  is  commonly 
pronounced  pretzel ;  but  it  is  of  the  same  origin 
as  the  English  word  bracelet,  from  Latin 
brachiale,  an  armlet,  bracelet;  and  bretzel 
means  also  handcuffs.  B  is  nearlv  allied  also  to 
F,  Th,  V,  and  W;  thus  beech   (German  buche) 


is  represented  in  Greek  by  phegos  and  in  Latin- 
by  fagus ;  whale  is  from  the  same  source  as- 
Greek  phalaina  and  Latin  balaena ;  habere  irt 
Latin  becomes  in  French  avoir ;  caballus,  Latin, 
is  French  cheval ;  German  liebe,  English  love ; 
Latin  labium,  French  levre.  V  and  B  are  little 
discriminated  in  Spanish  and  we  have  in  one 
of  the  epigrams  of  Martial  proof  that  in  his 
day  natives  of  Vasconia  (Navarre)  pronounced 
B  as  V  and  vice  versa  when  he  wittingly  scores 
the  bibulous  habits  of  that  people  by  saying 
that  for  them  not  without  reason  vivere  (to 
live)  is  bibere  (to  drink)  :  so  that  one  of  that 
nature  might  say  vivimus  ut  bibamus,  and  the 
meaning  would  be  either,  we  live  to  drink  or 
we  drink  to  live.  In  the  Roman  catacombs  in 
sepulchral  inscriptions  of  the  2d  and  3d  cen- 
turies of  our  era,  vixit  (lived),  is  in  very  many 
instances  written  bixit ;  and  the  name  of  a  vir- 
gin martyr  of  that  age  is  written  Bibiana,  and 
that  form  is  retained  in  the  Roman  martyrology 
instead  of  the  correct  form  Viviana. 

B.  A.  C,  the  abbreviation  used  by  astron- 
omers in  referring  to  'The  Catalogue  of  Stars 
of  the  British  Association  for  the  Advancement 
of  Science,'  by  Francis  Baily,  London,  1845. 

Baader,  ba'der,  Benedict  Franz,  Xaver 
von,  German  physician  and  philosopher:  b. 
^lunich,  1765  ;  d.  1841.  He  studied  engineering,, 
became  superintendent  of  mines,  and  was  en- 
nobled for  his  services.  He  was  deeply  inter- 
ested in  the  religious  speculations  of  Eckhart, 
St.  Martin,  and  Bohme,  and  in  1826  was  appointed, 
professor  of  philosophy  and  speculative  theology 
in  the  University  of  Alunich.  The  main  pur- 
pose of  his  life  as  revealed  in  his  lectures,  books^ 
and  correspondence,  seems  to  have  been  a  re- 
construction of  society  along  ethical  religious 
lines,  not  entirely  in  harmony  with  conventional 
ideas.  To  the  allied  princes  he  addressed  a 
memorial  in  1814  upon  the  necessity  of  a  closer 
union  between  politics  and  religion. 

Baal,  ba'al,  a  Semitic  word  denoting  lord 
or  ruler,  and  used  to  designate  the  Supreme 
Deity,  by  the  Phoenicians  and  Chaldfeans,  and 
most  of  the  Oriental  nations,  in  the  time  of 
the  Exodus.  Baal  seems  to  have  been  the  sun- 
deity  and  was  the  same  as  Bel  or  Belus  of  the 
Babylonians  and  Assyrians,  whose  language  was 
cognate  to  the  Syriac  and  Phoenician.  Collat- 
eral with  these,  may  be  placed  the  Osiris  and 
Isis  of  Egypt,  and  the  Gad  and  Meni,  so  fre- 
quently mentioned  in  the  Scriptures,  whom  the 
jews  worshipped  in  the  days  of  Jeremiah,  hav- 
ing incorporated  them  into  their  own  cultus 
from  that  of  the  Phoenicians  or  the  Cartha- 
ginians. 


BAAL-ZEBUB  —  BABBAGE 


The  Scriptures  give  us  an  account  of  the  fa- 
cility with  which  the  Jews  embraced,  and  the 
tenacity  with  which  they  retained,  the  worship  of 
Baal,  who  was  identical  with  Moloch.  Manas- 
seh,  the  i6th  king  of  Judah,  set  up  altars  to  Baal 
in  groves  and  high  places,  prepared  for  the 
purpose,  and  made  his  children  pass  through 
the  fire  to  that  god.  Israel  also  was  no  less 
involved  in  this  departure  from  the  monotheism 
of  the  Mosaic  system,  to  the  duo-theism  of 
Chaldasa.  In  Samaria,  the  capital  of  Israel,  af- 
ter the  revolt  of  the  lo  tribes,  Baal  was  ex- 
tensively worshipped,  until  the  time  of  Jehu, 
who  destroyed  the  altars  of  Baal,  and  tore 
down  the  high  places  of  his  worship.  When 
the  Jews  were  reproved  by  the  prophet  for  their 
idolatry,  they  insisted  that  ever  since  they  had 
left  off  sacrificing  to  the  queen  of  heaven,  they 
had  been  consumed  by  sword  and  famine.  As 
early  as  the  times  of  the  Judges,  the  whole 
Jewish  people  served  Baal  and  Ashtoreth,  and 
the  vocabulary  of  Palestine  geography  attests 
the  domestication  of  Baal-worship  among  the 
inhabitants,  in  the  frequency  with  which 
the  word  Baal  appears  as  a  component  part  of 
the  names  of  towns  and  cities,  as  Baalath,  Baal- 
meon,  Baal-peor,  and  Baal-tamar.  Remnants 
of  Baal-worship  have  descended  either  through 
the  Jews  or  the  Gentiles  even  to  our  own  time, 
and  exist  to-day  in  nearly  all  Christian  coun- 
tries. In  Sir  John  Sinclair's  statistical  account 
of  Scotland,  he  describes  a  ceremony  which 
used  to  be  celebrated  in  Scotland  on  i  Maj-^ 
(O.  S.),  in  which  the  inhabitants  of  a  district, 
having  assembled  in  a  field,  dug  out  a  square 
trench  in  which  they  built  a  fire  and  baked  a 
cake,  and  cutting  it  into  as  many  pieces  as  there 
were  persons,  and  blacking  one  piece  over  with 
charcoal,  threw  them  into  some  convenient  re- 
ceptacle, when  each  one,  blindfolded,  drew  a 
piece.  He  who  drew  the  black  piece  was  sac- 
rificed to  Baal,  to  propitiate  his  favor  for  the 
coming  year.  The  same  ceremony  was  long 
observed  in  some  parts  of  Scotland  and  Ire- 
land, except  that  the  person  who  drew  the  black 
piece  was  made  to  leap  three  times  through  the 
flames,  instead  of  being  sacrificed,  a  similar 
substitution  to  that  instituted  by  Manasseh, 
who  *made  his  sons  pass  through  the  fire  to 
Moloch.^'  This  ceremony  is  known  by  the 
name  of  Beltane,  or  Baal-tine. 

Baal-zebub,  ba-al'ze-bub.      See  Beelzebub. 

Baalbek,  bal'bek,  a  locality  in  Syria,  in  a 
fertile  valley  at  the  foot  of  Antilibanus,  40 
miles  from  Damascus,  famous  for  its  magnifi- 
cent ruins.  Of  these,  the  chief  is  the  temple 
of  the  Sun,  built  either  by  Antoninus  Pius  or  by 
Septimius  Severus ;  a  rectangular  building  290 
by  160  feet.  Some  of  the  blocks  used  in  its 
construction  are  60  feet  long  by  12  thick;  and 
its  54  columns,  of  which  6  are  still  standing, 
were  72  feet  high  and  2.2  in  circumference.  Near 
it  is  a  temple  of  Jupiter,  of  smaller  size,  though 
still  larger  than  the  Parthenon  at  Athens,  and 
there  are  other  structures  of  an  elaborately  or- 
nate type.  Originally  a  centre  of  the  sun- 
worship,  it  '"ecame  a  Roman  colony  under  Julius 
Caesar,  was  garrisoned  by  Augustus,  and  under 
Trajan  acquired  renown  as  the  seat  of  an  oracle. 
Under  Constantine  its  temples  became  churches, 
but  after  being  sacked  by  the  Arabs  in  748,  and 
more  completely  pillaged  hy  Tamerlane  in  1401, 
it  sank  into  hopeless  decay.     The  work  of  de- 


struction was  completed  by  an  earthquake  in 
1759.  See  Franberger,  *Die  Akropolis  von 
Baalbek^  (1892);  Baedeker,  *  Syria  and  Pales- 
tine^   (1894). 

Baanites,  ba-a-nlts.     See  Religious  Sects. 

Baar,  bar,  a  plateau  in  Germany,  in  the 
province  of  Baden  and  Wiirtemberg,  formerly 
constituting  a  county  of  the  Furstenberg  prin- 
cipality.    It  contains  the  sources  of  the  Danube. 

Bab  Ballads,  The,  a  collection  of  humor- 
ous verses  by  W.  S.  Gilbert  (q.v.)  published  in 
1868.  They  form  the  source  of  several  of  the 
librettos  of  the  Gilbert  and  Sullivan  operas. 

Bab-el-Mandeb,  bab'el-man'deb  (.A.rabic, 
the  gate  of  tears,  so  called  from  the  danger 
arising  to  small  vessels  from  strong  currents), 
the  name  of  the  strait  between  Arabia  and  the 
continent  of  Africa,  by  which  the  Red  Sea  is 
connected  with  the  Gulf  of  Aden  and  the  In- 
dian Ocean.  The  Arabian  peninsula  here 
throws  out  a  cape,  bearing  the  same  name  as 
the  strait,  rising  to  the  height  of  865  feet.  About 
20  miles  distant  stands  the  wall-like  coast  of 
Africa,  rising  in  Ras  es  Sean  to  the  height 
of  over  400  feet.  Within  the  strait,  but  nearer  to 
Arabia,  lies  the  bare,  rocky  Island  of  Perim, 
since  1857  occupied  by  the  British  as  a  fort ; 
its  guns  commanded  the  entrance  to  the  Red 
Sea.  The  strait  on  the  east  side  of  this  is- 
land is  called  the  Little  Strait,  and  that  on  the 
west  the  Great  Strait. 

Baba,  ba'ba  (the  old),  in  Slavonic  mythol- 
ogy, a  thunder-witch  (the  devil's  grandmother), 
represented  as  a  little,  ugly  old  woman,  with  a 
monstrous  nose,  long  teeth,  and  disheveled 
hair,  flying  through  the  sky  in  an  iron  mortar. 
By  the  Czechs  she  is  called  now  the  iron,  now 
the  golden,  Baba.  It  is  also  a  Turkish  word, 
signifying  father,  originating,  like  our  word  papa, 
in  the  first  efforts  of  children  to  speak.  In  Per- 
sia and  Turkey  it  is  prefixed  as  a  title  of  honor 
to  the  names  of  ecclesiastics  of  distinction,  es- 
pecially of  such  as  devote  themselves  to  an  as- 
cetic life ;  it  is  often  affixed  in  courtesy,  also, 
to  the  names  of  other  persons,  as  Ali-Baba.  A 
cape  near  the  northwest  point  of  Asia  Minor  is 
known  as  Baba. 

Baba  Budan,  ba'ba  boo'dan,  a  spur  of  the 
West  Ghats,  Mysore,  India,  extending  east  for 
15  miles,  leaving  a  narrow  opening  at  its  west 
end  for  the  passage  of  the  Bhadra,  and  then 
south  in  an  unbroken  line  for  20  miles,  enclos- 
ing between  itself  and  the  main  chain  of  the 
Ghats  a  rich,  but  unhealthy  valley.  To  this 
spur  belong  three  peaks  above  6,000  feet  high, 
among  these  Mulaina-giri,  6,317  feet,  the  highest 
in  the  West  Ghats.  On  the  slopes  of  Kalhatti, 
one  of  these  peaks,  is  a  hill  station,  a  resort  of 
Europeans  during  the  heat.  Coffee  v/as  first 
planted  in  India  on  another  part  of  this  spur 
toward  the  close  of  the  17th  centurj',  by  a  Mo- 
hammedan saint  named  Baba  Budan. 

Bab'bage,  Charles,  English  mathematician 
and  inventor  of  a  calculating  machine :  b. 
near  Teignmouth,  England,  26  Dec.  1792;  d.  18 
Oct.  187 1.  He  was  educated  first  at  the  Totnes 
Grammar  School,  and  Peterhouse  College,  Cam- 
bridge, where  he  became  closely  associated  with 
Herschel  (afterward  Sir  John)  and  Mr._  Pea- 
cock, then  tutor  of  Trinity  College.  Being  in 
possession  of  an  independent  fortune,  Babbage 
was   in  a  position  to   devote  all   his   time  and 


BABBITT  —  BABCOCK 


energies  to  his  favorite  studies  —  mathematics 
and  mechanics.  In  1822  we  find  him  broaching 
the  idea  of  a  difference  engine,  by  which  in- 
tricate arithmetical  calculations  could  be  correct- 
ly and  rapidly  performed.  Through  the  recom- 
mendation of  the  Royal  Society  he  received,  in 
1823,  a  grant  from  the  government  of  £1.500 
for  the  construction  of  such  a  machine.  After 
a  series  of  experiments  lasting  eight  years,  and 
an  expenditure  of  £17,000  (£4,000  of  which  was 
sunk  by  the  originator  of  the  scheme,  the  bal- 
ance voted  by  the  government),  Babbage  aban- 
doned the  undertaking  in  favor  of  a  much  more 
complicated  work,  an  analytical  engine,  worked 
with  cards  like  the  jacquard  loom.  The  govern- 
ment, alarmed  at  the  probable  demands,  refused 
to  support  Babbage  in  his  new  adventure,  and  as 
a  quarrel  ensued  with  his  engineer,  who  with- 
drew his  tools,  the  pet  project  was  never  com- 
pleted. The  machine,  along  with  some  400  or  500 
plans,  was  presented  in  1843  to  the  King's  Col- 
lege Museum,  London.  Among  the  many  treat- 
ises he  published  on  subjects  connected  with 
mathematics  and  mechanics,  the  most  valuable 
and  interesting  are:  *0n  the  Economy  of  Ma- 
chinery and  Manufactures'  ;  *The  Decline  of  Sci- 
ence^ ;  and  an  autobiographic  sketch,  ^Passages 
in  the  Life  of  a  Philosopher.'  In  1828  he  was 
appointed  Lucasian  professor  of  mathematics  in 
his  university,  an  oflfice  he  held  for  11  years.  In 
1832  and  1834  he  stood  for  Finsbury  in  the  Radi- 
cal interest,  but  was  unsuccessful.  He  was  one 
of  the  founders  of  the  Royal  Astronomical  So- 
ciety, and  a  Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society. 

Bab'bitt,  Isaac,  American  inventor:  b. 
Taunton,  Mass.,  26  July  1799;  d.  26  May  1862. 
He  learned  the  goldsmith's  trade ;  early  became 
interested  in  the  production  of  alloys ;  and  in 
1824  manufactured  the  first  britannia  ware  in 
the  United  States.  In  1839,  he  discovered  the 
well-known  anti-friction  metal  which  bears  his 
name,  Babbitt  metal  (q.v.).  For  this  discovery, 
the  Massachusetts  Charitable  Mechanics'  Asso- 
ciation awarded  him  a  gold  medal  in  1841,  and 
subsequently  Congress  voted  him  $20,000. 

Bab'bitt  Metal,  an  alloy  of  copper,  tin  and 
antimony,  invented  and  patented  in  1839,  by 
Isaac  Babbitt  (q.v.)  of  Boston.  It  is  soft  and 
nearly  white,  and  is  widely  used  as  an  anti-fric- 
tion metal.  The  proportions  of  the  constituent 
metals  vary  considerably  in  modern  practice. 
Babbitt's  original  alloy  contained  24  parts  of  tin, 
4  parts  of  copper,  and  8  parts  of  antimony. 
Many  engineers  prefer  a  larger  proportion  of 
tin,  and  the  following  mixture  is  recommended 
as  giving  a  tough  and  very  serviceable  metal : 
Tin,  96  parts ;  copper,  4  parts ;  antimony,  8 
parts.  Lead  is  also  added,  in  many  cases,  on 
account  of  its  cheapness.  In  small  amounts  it 
is  not  usually  objectionable,  but  the  Babbitt  metal 
that  is  sold  in  the  market,  ready-mixed,  usually 
contains  a  considerably  larger  proportion  of  lead 
than  its  price  would  indicate.  The  alloy  is 
usually  melted  and  run,  while  fluid,  directly  into 
the  bearings  on  which  it  is  to  be  used,  a  space 
from  an  eighth  to  half  an  inch  thick  being  left 
for  it  between  the  box  and  the  shaft  that  is  to 
be  supported. 

Bab'cock,  Earle  Jay,  American  educator: 
b.  St.  Charles,  Minn.,  11  June  1865.  After 
working  extensively  with  the  United  States  Geo- 
logical Survey  he  was  appointed  in  1902  director 
of  the  State  School  of  Mines  of  North  Dakota, 


and  professor  of  chemistry  and  geology'  in  the 
State  University.  He  is  the  author  of  many  spe- 
cial scientific  articles  and  of  geological  reports. 
Bab 'cock,  James  Francis,  American  chem- 
ist :  b.  Boston,  23  Feb.  1844 ;  d.  Dorchester, 
Mass.,  20  July  1897.  He  studied  at  Lawrence 
Scientific  School,  and  became  an  analytical 
chemist  and  chemical  expert.  He  was  State  as- 
sayer  and  inspector  of  liquors  in  Massachusetts, 
1875-85,  and  city  inspector  of  milk  in  Boston, 
1885-89.  While  state  assayer  he  brought  about 
the  insertion  in  the  liquor  statutes  of  the  defi- 
nition of  the  term  ^^intoxicating  liquor,''  knowa 
as  the  3-per-cent  limit.  He  is  the  inventor  of 
the  fire  extinguisher  which  bears  his  name;  a 
popular  lecturer  on  scientific  subjects;  and  has 
appeared  as  an  expert  chemical  witness  in  im- 
portant trials.  He  has  published  several  reports 
on  sanitation  and  the  chemistry  of  food. 

Bab'cock,  Maltbie  Davenport,  American 
Presbyterian  clergyman :  b.  Syracuse,  N.  Y.,  3. 
Aug.  1858;  d.  Naples,  Italy,  18  May  1901.  He 
was  graduated  from  Syracuse  University  in  1879, 
and  Auburn  Theological  Seminary  in  1883.  He 
filled  most  successful  and  popular  pastorates  at 
Lockport,  N.  Y.,  Baltimore,  Md.,  and  at  the 
Brick  Presbyterian  Church  in  New  York. 
While  on  a  visit  to  the  Levant  in  1901  he  was 
seized  with  the  Mediterranean  fever  and  died  in 
the  International  Hospital  at  Naples.  A  post- 
humous volume  of  his  prose  and  verse,  edited 
by  his  wife,  appeared  in  1901,  entitled  ^Thoughts 
for  Every-Day  Living.' 

Bab'cock,  Orville  E.,  American  military 
officer :  b.  Franklin,  Vt.,  25  Dec.  1835 ;  d.  2 
June  1884.  He  served  with  distinction  in  the 
Civil  War,  was  a  member  of  Gen.  Grant's  staff, 
and  was  made  a  brigadier-general  of  the  regular 
army  at  the  close  of  the  war.  When  Grant  was 
elected  President,  Babcock  became  his  private 
secretary,  and  the  superintending  engineer  of  sev- 
eral important  public  works.  He  was  indicted 
in  1876  for  taking  part  in  revenue  frauds,  but  on 
his  trial  was  acquitted. 

Bab'cock,  Stephen  Moulton,  American 
educator :  b.  Bridgewater,  N.  Y.,  22  Oct.  1843. 
He  was  educated  at  Tufts  College,  Cornell 
University,  and  at  Gottingen,  Germany ;  and 
was  graduated  from  Tufts  College  in  1866. 
He  gave  special  attention  to  the  chemistry 
of  milk  and  its  products,  and  was  the  in- 
ventor of  the  Babcock  milk-tester.  He  was  in- 
structor of  chemistry  at  Cornell  University 
in  1875-6;  professor  of  agricultural  chem- 
istry at  the  University  of  Wisconsin  :  and  chem- 
ist to  the  New  York  State  Experimental  Station 
in  1888-1900.  He  is  the  author  of  numerous  ar- 
ticles on  the  composition  of  milk  and  butter, 
and  joint  author  with  G.  C.  Caldwell  of  *A 
Manual   of  Qualitative  Chemical  Analysis.' 

Bab'cock,  Washington  Irving,  American 
shipbuilder:  b.  Stonington,  Ct.,  21  Sept.  1858. 
He  was  graduated  at  the  Brooklyn  Poly- 
technic Institute  in  1876,  and  at  Rensselaer 
Polytechnic  Institute  in  1878.  He  was  em- 
ployed at  the  Roach  Shipyard,  Chester,  Pa.,  in 
1878-85,  and  with  the  Providence  and  Stonington 
Steamship  Co.,  New  York,  in  1885-7 :  was  su- 
perintendent of  the  Union  Dry  Dock  Co.,  Buf- 
falo. N.  Y.,  in  1887-9 ;  manager  of  the  Chicago 
Shipbuilding  Co.,  in  1889-99,  becoming  presi' 
dent  of  the  latter  in  1900. 


BABEL  —  BABIRUSSA 


Ba'bel,  Tower  of,  the  name  of  a  structure 
in  the  Plain  of  Shinar,  Mesopotamia.  According 
to  the  nth  chapter  of  Genesis,  it  was  begun  by 
the  descendants  of  Noah  subsequent  to  the  del- 
uge, but  not  allowed  to  proceed  to  completion. 
It  has  coimnonly  been  identified  with  the  great 
temple  of  Belus  or  Bel,  one  of  the  chief  edifices 
in  Babylon,  and  the  huge  mound  called  Birs 
Nimrud  is  generally  regarded  as  its  site,  though 
another  mound,  which  to  this  day  bears  the 
name  of  Babil,  has  been  assigned  by  some  as  its 
site.  Babel  means  literally  *  gate  of  God."  The 
meaning  "confusion**  assigned  to  it  in  the  Bible 
really  belongs  to  a  word  of  similar  form.  See 
'  Babylon. 

Babenberg,  ba'ben-berg,  a  princely  Fran- 
conian  family,  whose  castle  occupied  the  site  of 
the  later  Bamberg  Cathedral.  They  were  most 
prominent  in  the  wars  of  the  lOth  century.  The 
Austrian  dynasty  of  976-1246  was  formerly  be- 
lieved to  be  sprung  from  them. 

Baber,  ba'ber  (or  "The  Tiger**),  the  his- 
torical surname  of  Zehir-ed-din-Mohammed, 
the  conqueror  of  Hindustan  and  founder  of  the 
so-called  Mogul  dynasty :  b.  14  Feb.  1483 ;  d.  26 
Dec.  1530.  Baber  was  of  mixed  Turkish  and 
Mongol  origin,  but  in  feeling,  as  in  personal 
characteristics,  he  was  a  Tartar  (Turk),  and  of- 
ten in  his  memoirs  speaks  most  contemptuously 
of  Mongols  or  Moguls.  Yet  Hindu  ignorance 
has  designated  the  throne  which  he  established 
in  India  as  that  of  the  Great  Mogul.  At  the 
age  of  12,  on  his  father's  death,  he  ascended  the 
insecure  thron-e  of  Ferghana  in  Turkestan ; 
soon  after  he  was  attacked  on  all  sides  by  his 
uncles  and  other  neighboring  princes,  which 
obliged  him,  in  his  turn,  to  assume  the  aggressive. 
Accordingly,  at  the  age  of  15.  Baber  seized  on 
Samarcand,  the  capital  of  Timour,  but,  while 
thus  engaged,  a  revolution  at  home  deprived  him 
of  his  sovereignty.  After  many  years  of  an 
adventurous  and  romantic  career,  he  raised  an 
army,  entered  Hindustan,  and  was  met  by  Ibra- 
him, the  ruling  Sultan  of  that  country.  The  two 
armies  fought  the  battle  of  Paniput,  which  de- 
cided the  fate  of  India,  on  21  April  1525.  Baber, 
with  his  army  of  12,000  men,  completely  over- 
threw that  of  Ibrahim,  numbering  100,000,  and 
entered  Delhi  in  triumph.  Difficulties  and  fresh 
foes  had  still  to  be  encountered  and  mastered, 
but  in  the  battle  of  Sakri,  in  February  1527, 
Baber  utterly  defeated  the  opposing  Hindu 
princes,  and  then  proclaimed  himself  Padishah, 
or  emperor  of  Hindustan. 

Babeuf,  ba-bef,  or  Baboeuf,  Frangois  Noel, 

French  communist,  who  called  himself  Caius 
Gracchus:  b.  Saint-Quentin,  1760;  d.  28  May 
1797.  He  founded  in  Paris  a  journal  called  the 
*  Tribune  of  the  People  *  (1794),  in  which  he  ad- 
vocated his  system  of  communism,  known  as 
Baboeuvism,  and  contemplating  absolute  equality 
and  commimity  of  property.  His  followers  were 
called  Baboeuvists.  Betrayed  in  a  conspiracy 
against  the  directory,  aiming  to  put  his  theories 
into  practice  he  was  guillotined  in  Paris.  His 
principal  works  were  *  Perpetual  Rt'gister  of  the 
Survey  of  Lands*  (1780).  and  'Ol  the  System 
of  Population  (1794).  See  Adviell^,  ^Histoire 
de  Babeuf  et  du  Babouvisme*    (1884). 

Babi,  ba'be,  the  name  of  a  modern  Persian 
sect,  derived  from  the  title,  Bal>ed-Din  (gate  of 
the  faith),  assumed  by  its  founder,   Alirza  Ali 


Mohammed,  a  native  of  Shiraz,  who,  in  1843 
undertook  to  establish  a  new  religion  from  a 
mixture  of  Mohammedan,  Christian,  Jewish,  and 
Parsee  elements.  His  controversies  with  the 
mollahs  shortly  led  to  his  confinement  to  his 
own  house,  where  he  formulated  his  doctrines, 
privately  instructed  his  disciples,  and  increased 
his  pretensions.  The  sect  soon  became  numer- 
ous ;  but  on  the  accession  of  Nasir-ed-Din  in 
1848,  apprehending  persecution,  they  took  up 
arms,  proclaiming  the  advent  of  the  Bab  as  uni- 
versal sovereign.  The  insurgents  were  reduced 
by  famine,  and  most  of  them  executed  (i849r- 
50).  The  Bab  had  held  aloof  from  the  revolt, 
but  was  arrested  and  put  to  death,  after  a  long 
imprisonment,  in  1850.  His  successor  was  rec- 
ognized in  the  youthful  son  of  the  governor  of 
Teheran,  who  retired  to  Bagdad,  where  he  af- 
terward lived  quietly.  An  attempt  of  three  be- 
lievers to  assassinate  the  Shah,  in  1852,  led  to  a 
persecution  of  the  sect ;  numbers  were  tortured 
and  burned,  among  them  Gurred-ul-Ain.  Bab- 
ism  is  at  present  widely  diff^used  in  Persia ;  its 
members  live  in  apparent  conformity  to  orthodox 
Mohammedanism,  but  privately  holding  the  Bab's 
doctrines,  which  are  contained  in  an  Arabic 
treatise,  'Biyan*  (the  exposition),  written  by  the 
founder  himself.  They  form  es.sentially  a  sys- 
tem of  Pantheism,  with  Gnostic  and  Buddhistic 
additions.  All  beings  are  emanations  from  the 
Deity,  by  whom  they  will  ultimately  be  reab- 
sorbed. Babism  enjoins  few  prayers,  and  those 
only  on  fixed  occasions;  encourages  hospitality 
and  charity ;  prohibits  polygamy,  concubinage, 
and  divorce ;  discourages  asceticism  and  men- 
dicancy;  and  directs  women  to  discard  the  veil, 
and  share  as  equals  in  the  intercourse  of  social 
life.  See  Andreas,  ^Die  Babis  in  Persien* 
(1896)  ;  Browne,  *A  Traveler's  Narrative  Writ- 
ten to  Illustrate  the  Episode  of  the  Bab*   (1892). 

Bab'ington,  Anthony,  English  Roman 
Catholic  gentleman :  b.  Dettrick,  Derbyshire, 
1561 ;  d.  20  Sept.  1586.  He  associated  with 
others  of  his  own  persuasion  to  deliver  Mary, 
Queen  of  Scots,  but  the  plot  being  discovered, 
the  conspirators  were  executed. 

Bab'ington,  Churchill,  English  philologist: 
b.  Leicestershire.  1821  ;  d.  13  Jan.  1889.  He  was 
educated  at  St.  John's  College,  Cambridge,  and 
was  Disney  professor  of  archaeology  there  in 
1865-80.  He  was  a  voluminous  writer  on  orni- 
thology, botany,  archaeologj',  numismatics,  etc. ; 
and  a  contributor  to  Smith's  ^Dictionary  of 
Christian  Antiquities.* 

Bab'ingtonite,  a  native,  anhydrous  silicate 
of  calcium,  iron  and  manganese,  associated 
with  an  iron  silicate  having  the  composition 
Fe2(Si03)3.  It  is  greenish-black  in  color,  with  a 
vitreous  lustre,  and  crystallizes  in  the  triclinic 
system.  It  occurs  in  Norway,  Italy,  and  the 
British  Isles,  and  in  the  United  States  has  been 
found  at  Gouverneur.  N.  Y..  and  perhaps  also 
at  Athol,  Mass.  Its  hardness  varies  from  5.5 
to  6,  and  it  has  a  specific  gravity  of  about  3.36. 
The  mineral  was  named  for  Dr.  William  Bab- 
ington. 

Babirussa,  bab'T-roo'sa,  a  wild  hog  of  the 
East  Indies,  remarkable  for  the  long,  exposed, 
canine  teeth  of  the  male.  The  upper  tusks,  in- 
stead of  growing  downward  in  the  usual  vvay, 
turn  and  grow  upward  through  the  skin  on  each 
side  of  the  snout  and  curve  backward  until,  in 
old  animals,  they  may  be  8  or   10  inches  long. 


BABISM  —  BABYLONIA 


and  reach  nearly  to  the  eye.  These  hogs,  which 
inhabit  Celebes  and  Bouru,  are  almost  hairless, 
long-legged,  and  active,  and  feed  upon  fallen 
fruits  instead  of  rooting  in  the  ground.  One 
cannot  see  that  the  great  tusks  are  of  any  pres- 
ent use,  but  Wallace  suggests  that  they  were 
useful  to  the  ancestors  of  these  pigs  under  dif- 
ferent conditions,  and  were  then  kept  worn 
down  by  service. 

Babism,  bab'izm.     See  Babi. 

Babe,  ba'bo,  Josef  Marius  von,  German 
poet:  b.  Ehrenbreitstein,  14  Jan.  1756;  d.  5  Feb. 
1822.  He  was  professor  of  fine  arts  at  Munich 
in  1778,  and  of  aesthetics  at  Mannheim,  and  later 
became  director  in  the  Munich  Military  Acad- 
emy, and  superintendent  of  the  theatre.  He  was 
the  author  of  *Otto  of  Wittelsbach,*  a  tragedy 
(1781);  'Oda>  (1782);  <Dagobert,  the  Prankish 
King'  (1787)  ;  <The  Pulse,'  a  comedy  (1804), 
etc. 

Baboo,  ba'boo,  or  Babu,  a  Hindu  title  of 
respect  equivalent  to  Sir  or  Mr.  It  is  usually 
given  to  wealthy  and  educated  native  gentlemen, 
especially  when  of  the  mercantile  class. 

Baboon,  bab-oon',  a  large,  long-haired, 
terrestrial  monkey  of  Africa  or  Arabia,  belonging 
to  the  genus  Cyiwcephalus,  of  the  family  Cerco- 
pithecidce.  All  are  of  large  size,  have  elongated, 
blunt  muzzles,  with  nostrils  at  the  extreme  end, 
and  great  canine  teeth  which  together  give  the 
face,  when  seen  in  profile,  a  dog-like  aspect. 
The  naked  parts  of  the  face,  as  well  as  the  great 
callosities  upon  the  buttocks,  are  often  brilliantly 
colored.  Some  also  have  shaggy  manes,  and  all 
add  to  their  repulsive  appearance  a  fierceness  of 
disposition  which  makes  them  more  feared  than 
perhaps  is  necessary,  for  they  rarely,  if  ever, 
have  attacked  human  beings.  All  of  the  species 
go  about  in  troops  under  the  guidance  and  pro- 
tection of  several  old  males.  They  are  rare  in 
wooded  regions,  preferring  rocky  and  bushy  dis- 
tricts, like  those  in  northern  Africa,  in  Arabia, 
and  in  southeastern  Africa.  As  their  fore  and 
hind  limbs  are  of  nearly  equal  length,  and  very 
stout,  they  go  mostly  on  all  fours,  galloping 
swiftly  and  climbing  rocks  with  agility.  Their 
food  is  principally  vegetable  —  fruits,  berries, 
young  sprouts,  etc ;  but  they  also  eat  insects, 
worms,  snails,  and  such  young  birds  or  small 
animals  as  they  are  able  to  catch.  They  do  great 
damage  to  the  plantations  of  the  native  Afri- 
cans, ruthlessly  spoiling  much  more  than  they 
are  able  to  eat.  The  ancient  Egyptians  seem  to 
have  trained  them  to  pick  fruits,  but  within  re- 
cent times  their  confinement  in  menageries, 
where  they  live  and  breed  well,  is  the  extent 
of  their  domestication.  There  is  nothing  attrac- 
tive about  any  of  them,  either  in  appearance  or 
disposition. 

Among  the  best  known  is  the  great  Arabian 
Of  sacred  baboon,  or  hamadryad  {Cynoccphalus 
hamadryas) ,  the  one  represented  upon  Egyptian 
monuments,  and  venerated  by  the  primiitive 
Egyptians.  It  is  supposed  that  their  habits  of 
noisy  activity  at  sunrise,  as  though  adoring  the 
sun-god,  is  the  basis  of  this  very  ancient  form 
of  worship.  Mummies  of  baboons  are  commonly 
found  in  tombs  in  the  Nile  valley ;  and  the  spe- 
cies itself  is  still  abundant  from  the  Sudan  to 
southern  Arabia.  It  is  ashy  gray  in  color,  and 
has  a  heavy  mane.  The  great  baboon  of  South 
Africa,  common  in  the  wilder  mountains  of  Cape 


Colony,  is  the  chacma  (Cynocepliahis  porca^ 
rius),  which  is  dark-brown  and  has  long  hair 
but  no  mane,  and  a  tail  about  half  the  length 
of  the  body,  terminated  by  long,  black  tufts. 
This  is  the  one  most  commonly  seen  in  menag- 
eries. The  mandril  (Cynocepliahis  mormon) 
is  still  larger,  exceeding  a  mastiff  in  size.  It  has 
short  legs,  a  mere  stump  of  a  tail,  and  an  enor- 
mous head,  with  a  crest  of  greenish  hair  upon 
the  forehead,  and  a  beard  which  is  orange- 
yellow  ;  while  the  naked  parts  of  the  face  consist 
mainly  of  a  huge  nose,  light-blue  in  color,  the 
skin  of  which  is  folded  into  ridges.  The  naked 
buttocks  are  bright  scarlet.  This  ugly  brute  is 
one  of  the  most  ferocious  and  justly  dreaded 
animals  of  the  Congo  forests.  In  the  same  re- 
gion lives  a  second  similar  species  called  the 
drill  (Cynoceplialiis  leiicophcciis),  which  differs 
mainly  in  lacking  the  bright  colors  and  ribs  of 
the  nose  of  the  mandril.  Several  other  baboons 
live  in  West  Africa,  but  are  not  well  known, 
although  one  reddish-brown  species,  the  Guinea 
baboon  (Cynocepliahis  sphinx)  is  commonly 
seen  in  the  hands  of  showmen.  A  large  monkey 
of  southern  Abyssinia,  looking  like  a  black, 
clipped  Prench  poodle,  is  substantially  a  true 
baboon,  although  it  belongs  to  another  genus ;  it 
is  the  gelada  (TJicropithecus  gelada).  Consult 
^Cassell's  Natural  History,'  Vol.  I.  (1885). 

Ba'brius,  a  Greek  fabulist  whose  fables  in 
verse  are  variously  referred  to  the  time  imme- 
diately preceding  the  Augustan  age,  and  to  the 
3d  century  of  our  era ;  his  name  also  shows  va- 
riants, as  Babrias,  Gabrius.  Till  1842  only  a 
few  fragments  of  Babrius  were  known  to  be 
extant ;  but  in  that  year,  in  the  Laura  of  Mount 
Athos  was  discovered  a  manuscript  containing 
123  of  his  fables.  In  1846  Sir  George  Cornewall 
Lewis  published  them  together  with  the  pre- 
existing fragments,  and  in  1859  or  i860  ap- 
peared a  good  English  version  by  James  Davies. 
The  fables  have  also  been  edited  by  W.  G.  Ruth- 
erford   (1883)    and  by  Crusius    (1897). 

Babuyanes,  ba'boo-3^an'ez,  or  Madjicosi- 
ma  Islands,  a  number  of  islands  lying  about 
30  miles  north  of  Luzon,  and  generally  consid- 
ered the  most  northern  of  the  Philippines.  The 
chief  islands  are  Kamiguin,  area  54  square  miles ; 
Babuyan  Claro,  36  square  miles ;  Calayan,  37 
square  miles ;  Puga,  21  square  miles ;  and  Dalu- 
piri,  20  square  miles.  They  are  subject  to  the 
Loo-Choo  Islands ;  aggregate  population  about 
12,000. 

Bab'ylans  or  Babyllus,  Saint,  a  bishop  of 
Antioch  between  237  and  250.  He  declined  to 
admit  to  public  worship  the  Emperor  Philip,  who 
had  murdered  his  brother  Gordianus  in  order  to 
gain  the  throne.  In  the  Roman  calendar  his 
day  is  celebrated  on  24  January;  in  the  Greek 
on   4   September. 

Bab'ylon,     See  Babylonia. 

Babylon,  N.  Y.,  village  in  Suffolk  County, 
Long  Island,  zy  miles  east  of  New  York;  popular 
as  a  summer  resort  on  account  of  its  fine  beach, 
and  as  a  rendezvous  for  sportsmen  by  reason  of 
its  opportunities  for  fishing.     Pop.   (1900)  2,157. 

Babylonia.  Discoveries  of  the  recent 
decades  seem  to  confirm  the  idea  that  Babylonia 
is  the  cradle  of  civilization.  The  country,  which 
is  nearly  enclosed  by  the  Tigris  and  Euphrates 
from  Bagdad  to  the  Persian  Gulf,  is  bounded  on 
the  north  by  Mesopotamia ;  on  the  east  by  the 


BABOONS. 


1.  Bearded  Ape  (Cynocephalus  silenus). 

2.  Chacma  (Cynocephalus  porcarius). 

3.  Tufted  Baboon  (Cynopithecus  niger). 


4.  Hamadryad  (.Cynocephalus  hamadryas). 

5.  Gelada  (Cynocephalus  gelada). 

6.  Mandrill  (.Cynocephalus  mormon). 


BABYLONIA 


plain  of  Elam ;  on  the  south  by  the  Persian  Gulf; 
and  on  the  west  by  the  Arabian  desert.  It  con- 
stitutes the  largest  portion  of  the  country  now 
known  as  **Iraq  el  Arabi.*'  A  considerable  part 
of  this  alluvial  plain  has  been  made  through  de- 
posits by  the  river.  This  land-making  process 
continues  at  the  present  time  at  the  rate  of 
about  70  feet  per  year. 

At  one  time  the  plain  was  covered  with  a 
perfect  network  of  canals  which  carried  agricul- 
tural prosperity  to  every  part  of  the  land.  The 
neglect  of  these  has  changed  the  conditions  of 
the  country  so  completely  that  instead  of  a 
fertility  which  was  once  the  wonder  of  the  an- 
cient world,  a  cheerless  waste  now  presents  it- 
self. Some  months  of  the  year  the  country  is 
partially  covered  with  swamps  and  marshes, 
while  the  remaining  portion  is  a  desolate  plain. 

Here  and  there  throughout  the  land  are  to 
be  seen  mounds  of  debris,  every  one  of  which 
covers  the  remains  of  a  long-forgotten  civiliza- 
tion. About  the  middle  of  the  last  century  a 
number  of  English  explorers,  Loftus,  Layard, 
and  Taylor,  visited  the  ruins  of  some  of  the  im- 
portant cities.  Through  their  tentative  investi- 
gations Nuffar  (Nippur  or  Calneh),  Warka 
(Uruk  or  Erech),  Senkera  (Larsa),  Muqayyar 
(Ur),  Abu  Shahrain  (Eridu),  besides  Babylon, 
Borsippa,  and  other  cities  were  located.  A  few 
decades  later  Rassam,  also  an  Englishman,  dis- 
covered that  the  ruins  known  as  Abu-Habba  rep- 
resented the  ancient  Sippara ;  and  decided  defi- 
nitely also  that  Tell-Ibrahim  was  Kutha  (Cutha). 
The  ancient  names  of  most  o-f  these  cities  were 
known  through  the  Old  Testament. 

The  first  methodical  and  extensive  excava- 
tions in  the  country  were  begun  by  the  French, 
under  De  Sarzec,  at  Tello  (Shir-pur-la),  in 
1876.  These  were  followed  in  1889  by  those 
of  the  Americans,  representing  the  University 
of  Pennsylvania,  under  Peters,  for  about  six 
months,  followed  by  Hilprecht  and  Haynes. 
For  a  few  months  in  1894  Scheil,  a  Frenchman, 
in  the  interest  of  the  Turkish  government,  exca- 
vated at  the  ruins  of  Abu-Habba  (Sippara). 
The  Germans  under  Koldewey  and  Moritz  devot- 
ed several  months  to  the  exploration  of  two 
sites  known  as  El-Hibba  and  Surghul ;  but  in 
1900  Koldewey  began  systematic  excavations 
among  the  mounds  of  ancient  Babylon.  It  is 
expected  that  the  Germans  at  Babylon,  the 
French  at  Tello,  and  the  Americans  at  Nuffar 
will  continue  their  operations  for  many  years. 

The  excavations  at  Tello  and  Nuffar  have 
been  exceptionally  fruitful  in  important  results, 
especially  those  conducted  at  the  latter  place 
by  the  University  of  Pennsylvania.  At  Tello 
Vi'ere  uncovered  the  remains  of  an  ancient  civi- 
lization of  the  3d  and  4th  millenniums  B.C., 
representing  the  Sumerian  people.  The  Nippur 
excavations  yielded  antiquities  of  the  Semitic 
race  as  well  as  the  Sumerian.  At  this  city  the 
excavators  were  able  to  examine  the  remains 
of  the  longest  period  of  occupation  known  up 
to  the  present  time.  The  lowest  stratum  of 
debris  yielded  antiquities  which  belong  to  the 
7th  m.illennium  B.C.,  while  the  city  continued  to 
be  inhabited  until  about  1000  a.d. 

The  earliest  inhabitants  of  the  country,  which 
was  known  in  the  early  period  as  Shumer  (Bib- 
lical Shinar),  are  called  Sumerians.  By  the  aid 
of  the  statues  and  inscriptions  discovered,  the 
physiognomy  and  customs  of  this  people  be- 
come comparatively  well  known.     The  remains 

\'ol.     2 II. 


of  their  civilization  as  regards  sculpture,  en- 
graving, etc.,  are  of  an  exceptionally  highly 
developed  character  as  revealed  by  the  antiqui- 
ties, some  of  v\?hich  are  remarkable  for  their 
beauty  and  the  fineness  of  their  execution.  They 
show  that  the  flower  of  art  in  this  country  be- 
longs to  about  the  4th  millennium  B.C.  Their 
writing  also,  instead  of  being  primitive,  is  so  far 
removed  from  the  original  hieroglyphs  that  in 
many  instances  the  pictorial  outline  can  no 
longer  be  recognized.  These  things  demonstrate 
the  fact  that  back  of  that  which  is  now  known 
as  the  earliest  there  must  be  a  long  period  of 
development   covering  many   centuries. 

The  Sumerians  spoke  an  agglutinative  tongue 
which  belongs  to  that  great  unclassifiable  group 
of  languages  known  as  Turanian.  Clay  was 
principally  used  as  their  writing  material.  The 
impression  made  by  the  stylus  upon  the  soft  clay 
has  the  appearance  of  a  wedge,  for  which  the 
Latin  word  cuncus  is  used ;  hence  cuneiform 
writing.  The  characters,  having  ideographic  and 
phonetic  values,  are  made  up  from  one  to  a  doz- 
en or  more  wedges.  There  are  over  500  char- 
acters, some  of  which  have  many  values.  For 
the  different  characters  and  combinations  of  two 
or  more,  about  20,000  values  are  already  known. 

It  has  not  been  ascertained  whence  the  Su- 
merians or  Semites  came.  In  4500  B.C.  the  latter 
had  already  entered  the  land.  They  gradually 
conquered  their  predecessors,  the  Sumerian  peo- 
ple, and  adopted  their  script  for  their  own 
language.  Side  by  side  these  two  people  lived 
in  the  country  until  the  amalgamation  known  to 
us  as  Babylonian  was  more  or  less  complete ; 
at  least  the  Semitic  population  succeeded  in  su- 
perseding the  Sumerian,  whose  identity  seems 
to  be  practically  lost  in  the  later  period.  The 
Sumerian  language,  however,  continued  to  be 
used  by  the  Babylonians  until  the  close  of  their 
history,  especially  for  official,  legal  and  litur- 
gical purposes. 

The  number  of  inscriptions,  small  and  large, 
discovered  in  Babylonia  up  to  the  present  time, 
number  fully  150,000.  At  Tello,  De  Sarzec  un- 
earthed a  library  containing  about  30,000  tablets 
belonging  to  the  time  of  Gudea  3000  B.C.  The 
temple  library  at  Nippur,  although  only  one 
twelfth  part  excavated,  has  yielded  to  Prof. 
Hilprecht  over  20,000  tablets  belonging  to  the 
3d  millennium  B.C.  It  contained  mathematical, 
astronomical,  medical,  historical,  linguistic,  re- 
ligious, etc.,  texts,  arranged  and  classified  ac- 
cording to  subjects.  Besides  the  clay  tablets, 
cylinders,  and  prisms,  most  important  documents 
in  stone  have  been  found,  which  have  furnished 
the  data  upon  which  the  knowledge  of  the  early 
period  is  largely  based. 

Through  other  sources,  particularly  the  Baby- 
lonian duplicates  found  in  Ashurbanapal's  li- 
brary at  Nineveh,  considerable  is  known  con- 
cerning the  literature  of  this  people.  Notably 
might  be  mentioned  the  Creation  and  Nimrod 
epics,  the  Deluge  story,  which  greatly  resemble 
the  Biblical  accounts ;  Ishtar's  descent  into 
Hades ;  the  Etana  legend ;  Adapa  and  the  South 
Wind,  etc.  Here  properly  should  be  mentioned 
also  the  codes  of  laws  upon  which  the  decisions 
of  the  kings  and  judges  were  made,  particularly 
the  code  of  Hammurabi  (Amraphel,  Gen.  xiv.), 
discovered  by  the  French,  in  Susa,  under  De 
Morgan.  It  consists  of  282  laws  written  on  a 
stela  which  stands  over  seven  feet  high.  This 
had  been  carried  away  by  the  old  national  enemy 


BABYLONIA 


of  Babylonia,  the  Elamites.  Very  extensive  also 
is  the  knowledge  of  the  customs  and  manners 
of  the  people  gained  through  the  thousands  of 
contract  tablets  dated  in  the  reigns  of  kings 
of  all  periods.  Practically  every  kind  of  legal 
and  domestic  contract  imaginable,  mortgages, 
deeds  of  sale,  promissory  notes,  guarantees,  etc., 
the  archives  of  business  firms,  notably  the  Egibi 
House  of  Babylon,  and  the  Murashu  Sons  of 
Nippur  have  been  found.  Most  valuable  for  the 
decipherment  of  the  inscriptions  have  been  the 
syllabaries,  or  sign  lists,  in  which  the  different 
values  of  characters  are  given.  Commentaries ; 
lists  of  gods,  names,  places,  temples,  animals, 
stones,  etc. ;  incantations,  hymns,  penitential 
psalms,  prayers,  etc.,  are  included  among  the 
tablets  discovered. 

The  earliest  inscriptions  reveal  a  polytheism 
in  a  developed  state.  Most  of  the  gods  have 
Sumerian  as  well  as  Semitic  names.  Until  the 
religion  of  the  Sumerians,  or  of  the  Semites, 
prior  to  their  occupation  of  this  country  is 
known,  it  will  be  impossible  to  ascertiain  with 
which  people  the  different  gods  and  religious 
conceptions  originated.  The  pantheon,  which 
was  practically  different  in  every  period  of 
Babylonian  history,  is  exceedingly  large.  Some 
of  the  gods  mentioned  most  frequently  in  the 
inscriptions  are :  Anu,  Bel,  and  Ea,  the  impor- 
tant triad  of  the  early  perioJ;  Merodach,  Sha- 
mash.  Sin,  Ishtar,  Nergal,  Nebo,  Nusku,  Ninib, 
Gula,  etc. 

Each  city  had  its  temple,  which  was  dedi- 
cated to  some  particular  god  :  for  example,  Ekur, 
at  Nippur,  was  sacred  to  Bel ;  Esaggil,  in  Baby- 
lon, to  Merodach.  In  addition  to  the  patron 
deity,  shrines  to  other  gods  were  found  in  each 
sanctuary.  At  Nippur,  besides  Bel.  24  other 
gods  were  worshipped,  for  whom  shrines  were 
set  up  within  the  temple  precincts.  Through  the 
researches  of  Prof.  Hilprecht  in  the  trenches  at 
Nippur,  and  in  connection  with  the  inscriptions 
discovered,  the  real  conception  of  a  Babylonian 
temple  and  its  tower  is  made  known  for  the 
first  time.  The  temple  had  an  inner  and  outer 
court,  both  of  which  were  nearly  square,  the 
latter  being  somewhat  smaller  than  the  former. 
The  prominent  feature  of  the  temple  architecture 
was  the  ziggurrat,  or  storied-tower,  which  occu- 
pied nearly  one  third  of  the  area  of  the  inner 
court.  In  close  proximity  to  the  tower  stood 
the  temple  proper,  where  the  sacrifices  were 
offered.  The  ziggurrat  consisted  of  quadrangu- 
lar platforms,  one  superimposed  upon  the  other, 
on  the  top  of  which  was  to  be  found  the  shrine. 
The  number  of  platforms  varied  according  to  the 
period  and  ability  of  the  builder.  In  the  3d 
millennium  B.C.  the  number  generally  appears  to 
have  been  three.  The  ziggurrat  had  its  origin 
in  the  earliest  pre-Semitic  period,  when  it  was 
regarded  as  the  tomb  of  the  god.  At  that  time 
it  was  the  central  feature  of  a  fire  necropole, 
or  cemetery.  The  Sumerians  cremated  their 
dead.  In  an  early  stratum  at  Nippur  one  of 
their  crematoriums  was  found.  The  remains 
of  the  incineration  were  placed  in  jars,  thou- 
sands of  which  were  found  buried  around  the 
ziggurrat.  It  is  not  known  what  the  Semites 
did  with  their  dead,  but  when  they  became  the 
dominant  people  of  the  land  the  conception  of 
the  temple  and  ziggurrat  seems  to  have  been 
changed,  for  thereafter  no  burials  are  found 
within  the  courts  of  the  temple. 


In  their  cosmology  the  Semitic  Babylonian 
conception  of  the  earth  was  a  mountain  over 
which  the  god  Bel  ruled.  This  they  believed 
extended  down  into  Ea's  region  (subterranean 
waters),  and  also  that  it  reached  up  unto  that 
of  Anu  (Heaven).  They  regarded  the  zig- 
gurrat as  symbolical  of  the  earth,  the  dominion 
of  Bel.  In  their  inscriptions,  therefore,  concern- 
ing the  building  or  restorations  of  these  towers, 
the  following  expression  is  repeatedly  found : 
H  laid  the  foundations  of  the  ziggurrat  in  the 
breast  of  the  earth  and  built  it  up  that  its  head 
was  in  the  heavens  *  (compare  the  story  of 
Babel,  Gen.  xi.),  thus  showing  that  the  ziggur- 
rat was  a  representation  of  Bel's  kingdom,  the 
earth. 

In  connection  with  the  temple  library  at  Nip- 
pur a  school  or  department  of  instruction  was 
found.  Within  its  rooms  were  discovered  text- 
books, and  exercises  of  the  students.  At  Sip- 
para  a  school  similar  in  character  was  also 
found.  The  complete  excavation  of  all  impor- 
tant Babylonian  cities  will  doubtless  bring  to 
light  a  temple,  a  library,  and  a  school  in  each. 

Recent  investigations  show  that  in  a  general 
way  the  Babylonian  chronology  coincides  fairly 
well  with  the  Hebrew  from  about  the  time  of 
Abraham.  A  great  many  rulers  prior  to  Ham- 
murabi (Abraham's  co-temporary,  about  2200 
B.C.)  are  known  through  their  inscriptions.  King 
Nabonidus,  the  historian  and  archaeologist  (556- 
538)  stated  that  Naram-Sin  had  founded  the 
temple  of  Shamash  at  Sippara  3,200  years  before 
his  time.  This  in  round  numbers  would  make 
his  father,  Sargon's  date  3800  B.C.  Sargon  was 
a  powerful  ruler ;  having  conquered  all  the  city 
kingdoms  of  his  land,  he  extended  his  con- 
quests as  far  as  the  Mediterranean.  Many  pre- 
Sargonic  rulers  are  also  known,  of  whom  notably 
may  be  mentioned  Lugalzaggisi,  about  4500  B.C., 
who  conquered  the  ancient  world  from  the  Per- 
sian Gulf  to  the  shores  of  the  Mediterranean. 
A  number  of  important  rulers  of  Tello  also  be- 
longing to  this  period  are  known.  Between  Sar- 
gon and  Hammurabi  several  dynasties  are  more 
or  less  completely  filled  out.  Among  the  im- 
portant rulers  whose  names  are  known  should 
be  mentioned  Gudea  about  3000  B.C.,  who  held 
sway  over  the  whole  of  Babylonia ;  Ur-Gur 
about  2700  B.C.,  who  erected  temples  in  Ur,  Nip- 
pur, Erech,  and  other  cities;  and  also  his 
son  Dungi,  who  extended  his  rule  over  parts  of 
Elam  and  Syria.  Hammurabi  about  2200  b.c. 
inherited  a  throne  which  was  subject  to  Larsa. 
but  this  mighty  sovereign  overthrew  its  king  and 
also  Elam's,  and  succeeded  not  only  in  uniting  the 
petty  principalities  under  one  rule,  but  he  reor- 
ganized them  in  such  a  way  that  the  kingdom  had 
an  uninterrupted  history  for  several  centuries. 
Hammurabi  was  the  sixth  king  of  the  first  dy- 
nasty of  Babylon.  This  was  followed  by  the 
so-called  second  dynasty  of  Babylon  ;  the  foreign 
dynasty  of  Cassite  rulers;  1580-1180  B.C.,  the 
dynasty  of  Pashi  11 77-1043,  and  other  rulers. 
During  the  period  which  followed.  Babylonia 
was  subject  to  Assyria  until  the  powerful  Neo- 
Babylonian  rule  began  with  the  Chaldsean  Nabo- 
polassar,  626-605,  and  his  son  Nebuchadrezzar 
II.  605-562.  These  were  succeeded  by  Evil- 
Merodach,  562-560 ;  Neriglissar,  560-556 ;  Labo- 
soarchod,  556;  and  Nabonidus,  555-538.  With 
the  overthrow  of  the  latter  and  his  son  Belshaz- 
zar,  the  Achaemenian  rule  began,  which  contin- 
ued until  the  time  of  Alexander  the  Great.     This 


BABYLON. 


[/pper— Excavating  the  entrance  of  the  Temple  of  B61,  at  Xippur,  4500  B  C. 
ix>wer— Mounds  covering  the  Temple  of  Bel. 


BABYLONIAN  EXILE  :  BACACAY 


great  conqueror  was  followed  bj'  the  Seleucid 
and  Arsacid  kings.  Under  the  Parthians  all 
that  remained  of  Babylonian  culture  died  out, 
when  the  knowledge  of  the  language  and  writ- 
ing was  entirely  lost.  Jews  continued  to  live 
on  some  of  the  mounds  of  Babylonia  until  about 
looo  A.D.,  when  finally  the  country  was  given 
up  to  the  Bedouin  and  the  Arab. 

Bibliography.  History. —  Maspero:  I.  *The 
Dawn  of  Civilization^  ;  II.  "^The  Struggle  of  Na- 
tions^ ;  III.  ^The  Passing  of  the  Empires.^  Rog- 
ers. 'History  of  Babylonia  and  Assyria*   (1900). 

Explorations. —  Hilprecht,  'Explorations  in 
Bible  Lands  During  the  19th  Century*  (1903)  ; 
Kaulen,  'Assyrien  und  Babylonien  nach  den 
Neuesten  Entdeckungen*    (1899). 

Relation  to  Old  Testament. —  'Die  Keilin- 
schriften  und  das  Alte  Testament*  (1902); 
Price,  'The  Monuments  and  the  Old  Testament* 
(1900). 

Religion. —  Zimmern,  'Die  Keilinschriften 
und  das  Alte  Testament*  ('1902)  ;  Sayce,  'His- 
tory of  the  Babylonian  and  Egyptian  Religion* 
(1902). 

Translations. —  Schrader  (editor),  'Keilin- 
schriftliche  Bibliothek,*  6  vols.  (1902)  ;  Harper 
(editor),  'Assvrian  and  Babvlonian  Literature* 
(1901).  A.  T.  Clay, 

Assistant  Professor,  Department  of  Archae- 
ology,  University  of  Pennsylvania. 

Bab'ylo'nian  Exile,  or  Captivity.  It  seems 
to  have  been  part  of  the  statecraft  of  the  ancient 
Assyrians  to  remove  the  people  of  conquered 
nations  and  plant  them  in  unoccupied  parts  of  the 
dominion,  as  far  distant  as  possible  from  the 
home  country  of  the  victims.  This  custom  grew 
out  of  civil  and  geographical  conditions.  The 
degree  of  national  intercourse  requisite  for  main- 
taining a  proper  ascendency  over  the  subjugated 
nation  could  not  be  maintained  if  they  were  al- 
lowed to  remain  in  their  own  land.  Conse- 
quently, deportation  was  necessary  —  a  process 
which  has  come  to  be  designated  in  our  lan- 
guage by  the  word  captivity.  Anciently,  deport- 
ed nations  were  not  treated  with  that  cruelty 
we  are  in  the  habit  of  associating  with  the 
captive.  The  captivity  of  the  Jews,  who  are 
more  especially  to  be  treated  in  this  article, 
demand  the  preceding  remarks  in  order  to  aid 
in  a  proper  understanding  of  the  frequent  no- 
tices we  find  in  the  Scriptures  of  the  conse- 
quence to  which  these  people  attained  in  their 
foreign  residences.  There  are  two  Babylonish 
captivities  of  the  Jews,  having  their  beginnings 
at  different  times,  although  their  endings  were 
synchronous.  In  the  civil  dissensions  following 
the  death  of  Saul,  and  culminating  at  the  death 
of  Solomon,  the  tribes  north  of  the  mountains  of 
Ephraim,  and  those  east  of  Jordan,  separated 
from  the  rest,  leaving  Judah  and  Benjamin  in 
the  naturally  fortified  province  of  the  south.  To 
the  north  of  the  revolted  tribes  lay  the  king- 
dom of  Syria,  then  powerful  and  extensive. 
Syria  had  an  old  feud  with  Israel,  ever  since 
David  had  made  Damascus,  the  Syrian  capital, 
tributary  to  himself.  Rezon  had  regained  the  city 
under  Solomon,  but  was  "an  adversary  to  Israel 
all  the  days  of  Solomon.**  The  attention  of 
Syria  was  now  turned  to  the  defenseless  condi- 
tion of  the  revolted  tribes.  They  had  no  longer 
the  fortifications  and  fastnesses  from  which 
David  had  sallied  forth  to  the  northern  plains 
at  the  foot   of  the   Anti-Lebanon.     Judah   had, 


meanwhile,  made  a  treaty,  in  the  reign  of  Asa 
her  third  king,  with  the  Syrian  power,  who,  by 
his  counsel  and  stratagem,  had  been  induced  to 
break  a  former  league  with  Israel  (i  Kings 
XV.).  Judah  also,  fearing  inroads  from  the 
north,  had  built  two  new  fortifications  in  the 
passes  of  Benjamin  (Geba  and  Mizpeh),  and 
used  all  her  arts  to  keep  herself  in  favor  with 
Syria,  and  on  the  other  hand  turned  her  pam- 
pered ally  against  the  revolted  and  unprotected 
tribes  at  the  north.  Israel,  tired  at  length  of  the 
continual  exposures  to  Syrian  invasion,  and 
exasperated  at  the  immunity  and  prosperity 
of  the  rival  Judah,  formed  a  conspiracy  with 
Syria  (during  the  reign  of  Pekah  in  Israel  and 
Ahaz  in  Judah)  against  her  southern  antagonist. 
In  the  emergency  Judah  appealed  to  the  Assyrian 
power,  and  Tiglath  Pileser  came  against  Israel, 
carried  captive  a  portion  of  its  inhabitants,  and 
then  marched  upon  Syria,  slew  its  king,  subdued 
its  capital,  and  absorbed  it  into  the  Assyrian 
em.pire,  from  which  it  reappears  only  in  the 
time  of  Alexander  the  Great.  The  successor  of 
Pileser,  exasperated  by  an  attempted  conspiracy 
of  Hoshea  with  the  king  of  Egypt,  took  Sa- 
maria, and  subdued  Israel  to  a  tributary  relation, 
taking  away  to  Babylon  the  people  whom  Pileser 
had  left  in  the  first  deportation.  Thus  was  ac- 
complished the  first  captivity  of  the  numerically 
most  powerful  branch  of  the  divided  house  of 
Israel  (721  B.C.).  They  were  first  in  the  subju- 
gation to  foreign  power  from  purely  geographi- 
cal considerations.  A  little  more  than  a  hun- 
dred years  after,  Judah,  from  her  mountain 
fastnesses,  followed  Israel  into  the  Assyrian  em- 
pire, in  the  second  great  Babylonish  captivity. 
Disregarding  some  chronological  differences.  Ju- 
dah seems  to  have  been  progressively  carried  into 
captivity,  like  Israel,  by  at  least  two,  and  per- 
haps three  successive  deportations.  The  first 
was  598  B.C.,  and  was  probably  made  with  the 
direct  object  of  colonizing  the  city  of  Nineveh, 
which  the  Assyrian  monarch  was  then  endeavor- 
ing to  restore.  The  second  was  in  the  reign  of 
Zedekiah.  Judah  had  for  three  successive  reigns 
been  heavily  tributary  to  Assyria.  Zedekiah 
rebelled  against  the  tribute,  and,  like  Israel, 
further  exasperated  her  master  by  calling  upon 
Egypt  in  her  extremity.  In  revenge,  Nebuchad- 
nezzar burnt  the  temple  and  city,  put  out  the 
eyes  of  Zedekiah,  and  led  away  the  people  to 
Babylon,  and  so  ended  the  Jewish  kingdom  (588 
B.C.),  never  again  to  be  restored  to  a  national  ex- 
iste^.ce ;  for  when,  70  years  after  the  second  cap- 
tivity, the  permission  to  return  was  given,  only 
a  very  small  part  of  the  Jewish  people  were  in  a 
condition  to  desire  a  removal,  having  become 
thoroughly  naturalized  in  their  foreign  dwell- 
ings ;  and  even  if  they  had  desired  it,  it  would 
have  been  only  a  return  to  a  Medo-Persian 
satrapy,  not  to  the  glory  of  their  ancient  king- 
dom and  temple-worship.  They  remained  by 
the  rivers  of  Babylon  and  wept.  See  Daniel; 
EzEKiEL  ;  Ezra  ;  Jews. 

The  term  "Babylonish  Captivity**  is  frequent- 
ly applied  by  writers  of  Church  history  to  the 
residence  of  the  Popes  at  Avignon  for  nearly 
70  years. 

Bibliography. —  Ewald,  'The  History  of  Is- 
rael,* translated  by  Martineau ;  Piepenbring, 
'History  of  the  People  of  Israel.* 

Bacacay,  ba-ka'kl,  Philippines,  a  town  in 
the  province  of  Albay,  Luzon  Island.  It  is  sit- 
uated on  the  Gulf  of  Albay.     Pop.  10,550. 


BACALAO  —  BACCHUS 


Bacalao,  ba'ka-la'o.     See  Cod. 

Bacara,  ba-kar'ra,  Philippines,  a  town  of 
Luzon  in  the  province  of  Ilocos  Norte.  Pop. 
13,735- 

Baccanarists.      See  Jesuits. 

Baccarat,  ba-ka-ra',  a  town  of  France,  in 
the  department  of  Meurthe-et-Moselle,  having 
the  most  important  plate  glass  works  in  France. 
Pop.    (1900)    6,772. 

Baccarat',  a  game  of  Italian  origin  played 
with  ordinary  playing  cards ;  very  simple  in 
details  and  freer  from  complications  than  most 
games  at  cards.  Any  number  of  players  may 
participate,  and  as  many  packs  of  cards  may  be 
used  as  necessary,  the  number  being  increased 
to  correspond  with  the  number  of  players.  The 
member  of  the  party  selected  to  act  as  banker 
deals  out  the  cards  from  a  box,  after  they  have 
been  shuffled.  The  face  cards  each  count  10, 
and  the  others  according  to  the  numbers  of 
their  spots.  After  the  bets  have  been  made, 
the  banker  deals  two  cards  to  each  of  the 
players,  including  himself,  but  the  other  play- 
ers must  receive  their  cards  before  the  banker 
is  served.  The  aim  of  the  players  is  to  make 
the  numbers  9,  19,  29,  or  as  nearly  those  as 
possible,  as  8,  18,  and  28.  Any  player  is  at 
liberty  either  to  "stand"  or  to  be  "content*  with 
the  two  cards  at  first  dealt,  or  to  call  for  more, 
at  the  risk  of  exceeding  29,  when  his  stake  is 
forfeited  to  the  dealer.  If,  after  the  first  dis- 
tribution of  two  cards  to  each,  any  player 
has  a  "  natural," —  that  is,  a  sum  making  9,  or 
next  in  value,  19, —  he  declares  it  wins,  and 
the  banker  pays  all  who  hold  superior  hands  to 
his  own,  and  claims  from  those  holding  inferior 
hands.  The  players  stake  their  money  separate- 
ly, there  being,  in  fact,  as  many  separate  games 
in  progress  as  there  are  players,  and  the  spec- 
tators may  wager  their  money  on  any  one  of 
them,  all  of  which  must  be  accepted  by  the 
banker.  Prior  to  the  banker  making  a  start, 
he  names  the  amount  of  the  bank.  Any  one  sit- 
ting down  at  the  table  has  the  right  to  call  the 
whole  of  the  bank,  selecting  the  left  or  the  right 
on  which  to  pick  up  the  cards.  Previous  to  the 
banker  dealing  the  cards,  it  is  the  duty  of 
two  croupiers,  one  on  the  right  and  the  other 
on  the  left,  to  count  up  the  stakes  deposited  on 
either  side,  and  then  make  up  the  bank.  Thus 
the  banker  knows,  to  the  smallest  coin,  the 
exact  amount  of  his  liabilities. 

Bacchanalia,  bak'ka-na'li-a,  feasts  in  honor 
of  Bacchus,  or  Dionysos,  characterized  by  licen- 
tiousness and  revelry,  and  celebrated  in  ancient 
Athens.  In  the  processions  were  bands  of  Bac- 
chantes of  both  sexes,  who  wandered  about 
rioting  and  dancing.  They  were  clothed  in 
fawn  skins,  crowned  with  ivy,  and  bore  in  their 
hsnds  thyrsi,  that  is,  spears  entwined  with  i\^, 
or  having  a  pine  cone  stuck  on  the  point.  These 
feasts  passed  from  the  Greeks  to  the  Romans, 
who  celebrated  them  with  still  greater  dissolute- 
ness till  the  Senate  abolished  them,  186  B.C. 

Bacchante,  bak-kan'te,  a  person  taking 
part  in  revels  in  honor  of  Bacchus. 

Bacchiglione,  bak'ke-lyo'ne,  a  river  of 
northern  Italy.  It  rises  in  the  Alps,  passes 
through  the  towns  of  Vicenza  and  Padua,  and 
enters  the  Adriatic  near  Chioggia,  after  a  course 
of  about  90  miles. 


Bacchus,  bak'kus,  or  Dionysos,  the  god  of 

wine.  His  history  is  one  of  the  most  perplexing 
in  the  Greek  mythology.  Semele  was  pregnant 
with  him  by  Zeus,  but  became  a  victim  of  the 
craft  of  Hera.  Zeus  hastened  to  save  the  un- 
born fruit  of  his  embrace,  and  concealed  it  till 
mature  in  his  own  thigh.  He  afterward  com- 
mitted the  infant  to  Hermes,  who  carried  him 
to  the  nymphs  of  Nysa  in  India,  where  he  grew 
and  prospered.  His  teacher  was  Silenus,  after- 
ward his  constant  companion. 

In  the  vales  of  Nysa  Bacchus  invented  the 
preparation  of  a  beverage  from  grapes,  and 
taught  the  planting  of  vines.  To  spread  the 
knowledge  of  his  invention  he  traveled  over 
almost  the  whole  known  world,  and  received  in 
every  quarter  divine  honors.  Drawn  by  lions 
he  began  his  march,  which  resembled  a  triumphal 
pomp,  with  a  great  suite  of  men  and  women, 
Sileni,  Satyrs,  and  Masnades.  Inspired  by  the 
presence  of  the  god,  rejoicing,  brandishing  the 
thyrsus,  and  crowned  with  vines  and  ivy,  they 
danced  around  him,  shouting,  ^'^Evoe!  Eleleus!^^ 
over  hill  and  valley,  accompanied  by  the  tones 
of  Phrygian  flutes  and  timbrels.  The  Thebans 
would  not  acknowledge  his  divinity,  and  Pen- 
theus  armed  himself  against  him.  Bacchus  re- 
solved to  punish  the  crime,  and  inspired  the 
women  with  a  fury  which  drove  them  from  their 
dwellings  to  wander  on  Mount  Cithseron.  Pen- 
theus  himself  was  torn  in  pieces  by  his  own 
mother  and  her  sisters,  to  whom  he  appeared 
a  wild  beast.  Bacchus  punished  the  daughters  of 
Mynias,  who  derided  his  feasts,  with  frenzy  and 
transformation.  At  Naxos  some  Tuscan  sail- 
ors attempted  to  carry  him  off  to  Italy,  sup- 
posing him  from  his  purple  robe  to  be  the  son  of 
a  king.  They  fettered  him ;  but  the  fetters  fell 
off,  vines  and  ivy  entwined  the  vessel,  and  kept 
it  fixed  in  the  midst  cf  the  sea :  the  god  trans- 
formed himself  to  a  lion,  and  the  seamen,  seized 
with  madness,  leaped  into  the  waves,  where  they 
were  changed  into  dolphins.  On  the  other  hand, 
he  rewarded  such  as  received  him  hospitably  and 
rendered  him  worship,  as,  for  instance,  Midas, 
who    restored   to   him  the   faithful    Silenus. 

His  love  was  shared  by  several ;  but  Ariadne, 
whom  he  found  deserted  upon  Naxos,  alone  was 
elevated  to  the  dignity  of  a  wife,  and  became 
a  sharer  of  his  immortality.  To  confer  the  same 
favor  on  his  mother,  Semele,  he  descended  into 
the  realms  of  Pluto,  and  conducted  her  to  Olym- 
pus, where  she  was  henceforth  called  Th3'one. 
In  the  dreadful  war  with  the  giants  he  fought 
heroically,  and  saved  the  gods  from  impending 
ruin.  During  the  rejoicing  for  victory  Zeus 
joyfully  cried  to  him,  ^^Evan,  evoeP^  (Well 
done,  my  son!),  with  which  words  Bacchus 
was  afterward  usually  saluted.  We  find  him 
represented  with  the  round,  soft,  and  graceful 
form  of  a  maiden  rather  than  with  that  of  a 
young  man.  An  ornament  peculiar  to  him  is  the 
tiara.  His  long  waving  hair  is  gathered  behind 
in  a  knot,  and  wreathed  with  sprigs  of  ivy  and 
vine  leaves.  He  is  usually  naked ;  sometimes 
he  has  an  ample  mantle  hung  negligently  round 
his  shoulders;  sometimes  a  fawn  skin  hangs 
across  his  breast.  The  earlier  bearded  Bacchus 
is  properly  of  Indian  or  Egyptian  origin.  His 
head  is  sometimes  shown  with  small  horns  (the 
symbol  of  invincible  force).  In  his  hand  is 
borne  a  thyrsus,  or  a  drinking  cup.  The  bull, 
panther,  ass,  and  goat  were  symbolically  asso- 
ciated with  this  god. 


BABYLON. 


/>/'«r— Excavating  around   the   Ziggurrat   of  the  Temple  of   Bel  to  virgin   soil,   6500   P..    C. 

o^er— Excavations  in  the  Temple  area.     Pavement  of  Ur-Gur.  2700  B.  C.     Pre-Sargonic  strata  in  the  for 


Lower — Excavations  in  the  Temple 

ground 


BACCHYLIDES  —  BACH 


The  feasts  consecrated  to  Bacchus  were 
termed  Bacchanalia,  Dionysia,  or  in  general  Or- 
^ia.  They  were  celebrated  with  peculiar  solem- 
nity in  Athens,  where  the  j'ears  were  universally 
reckoned  by  them,  and  during  their  continuance 
the  least  violence  toward  a  citizen  was  a  capital 
crime.  The  great  Dionysia  were  celebrated  in 
spring.  The  most  important  part  of  the  cele- 
bration was  a  procession  representing  the  tri- 
umph of  Bacchus.  This  was  composed  of  a 
train  of  Bacchantes  of  both  sexes,  who  were 
masked,  clothed  in  fawn  skins,  crowned  with 
ivy,  and  bore  in  their  hands  drinking  cups  and 
rods  entwined  with  ivy  (thyrsi).  Amidst  this 
mad  crowd  marched  in  beautiful  order  the  dele- 
gated bodies  of  the /'/u-a/n'a  (corporations  of  citi- 
zens). They  bore  upon  their  heads  consecrated 
baskets,  which  contained  first-fruits  of  every 
kind,  cakes  of  different  shape,  and  various  mys- 
terious symbols.  This  procession  was  usually 
in  the  night-time.  The  day  was  devoted  to 
spectacles  and  other  recreations.  At  a  very 
early  hour  they  went  to  the  theatre  of  Bacchus, 
where  musical  or  dramatical  performances  were 
exhibited.  Thespis,  known  as  the  inventor  of 
tragedj^  is  said  to  have  introduced  into  the 
Bacchic  performance  an  actor  who  carried  on 
a  dialogue  with  the  coryphaeus  (leader)  regard- 
ing the  myths  narrated  of  Bacchus  or  some  other 
divinity.  The  chorus  surrounding  its  leader, 
stood  on  the  steps  of  the  altar  of  Bacchus, 
while  the  actor  occupied  a  table.  Some  regard 
this  as  the  origin  of  the  stage.  The  vintage 
festivals  in  rural  districts  were  celebrated  by 
Bacchic  processions,  ruder  in  form  than  those 
of  Athens,  but  characterized  by  the  same  wild 
license  and  ribaldrj'.  Coarse  ridicule  of  individ- 
uals was  a  marked  feature  of  these  occasions. 

Bacchylides,  bak-kil'i-dez,  Greek  poet  who 
flourished  about  470  B.C. ;  a  native  of  Julis, 
a  town  on  the  Island  of  Cos.  He  was  a  cousin 
of  the  still  more  famous  lyric  poet  Simonides, 
with  whom  he  remained  for  some  time  at  the 
court  of  Hiero  in  Sicily.  He  traveled  also  in  the 
Peloponnesus,  and  is  said  to  have  been  a  rival 
of  Pindar.  Until  recently,  this  poet  was  known 
to  the  modern  world  only  in  fragments  of  beau- 
tiful versification.  In  1895,  however,  a  well-pre- 
served text  was  discovered  and  published,  and 
Bacchylides  has  now  taken  permanent  place  as  a 
master  of  Greek  verse.  An  English  translation 
of  the  poems  appeared  in  1897. 

Bacciocchi,    ba-chok'ke,    Felice     Pasquale, 

Corsican  captain :  b.  Corsica,  18  May  1762 ; 
d.  Bologna,  27  April  18.41.  In  1797  he  married 
Maria  Elisa  Bonaparte.  In  1805,  when  Napo- 
leon made  his  sister  Princess  of  Lucca  and  Piom- 
bino,  Bacciocchi  was  crowned  with  his  wife. 
After  the  emperor's  fall,  he  lived  quietly  and  in 
reduced  circumstances  at  Bologna. 

Bacciocchi,  Maria  Anna  Elisa  Bonaparte, 

the  eldest  sister  of  Napoleon  Bonaparte  :  b.  Ajac- 
cio,  Corsica,  1777  :  d.  7  Aug.  1820.  She  married 
Felice  Bacciocchi,  and  was  created  by  her  brother, 
in  1805,  Princess  of  Lucca,  Piombino,  Massa, 
and  Carrara,  and  in  1809  Grand  Duchess  of  Tus- 
cany She  shared  her  brother's  fall  and  spent 
her  ia=.t  years  in  Austria,  dying  on  her  estate 
near  Trieste.  Her  only  son  died  in  1833,  and 
her  only  daughter,  the  Countess  Camerata,  in 
i86q. 


Bach,  ban,  Alexander  von.  Austrian 
statesman:  b.  Loosdorf,  4  Jan.  1813:  d.  15  Nov. 
1892.  He  was  minister  of  justice  in  1848,  of  the 
interior  in  1849-59;  and,  subsequently,  am- 
bassador to  Rome.  In  1855,  he  negotiated  the 
concordat  with  the  papacy  which  brought  Aus- 
tria into  submission  to  the  Roman  Church. 

Bach,  Heinrich,  German  musician :  b.  16 
Sept,  1615;  d.  10  July  1691.  He  was  the 
father  of  Johann  Christoph  and  Johann  Michael 
Bach ;  organist  at  Arnstadt. 

Bach,  Johann  Christian,  German  musi- 
cian :  b.  Erfurt,  1640,  d.  1682.  He  was  a  son 
of  Johannes  Bach,  the  great  uncle  of  Johann 
Sebastian  Bach. 

Bach,  Johann  Christian,  German  musi- 
cian: b.  Leipsic,  1735;  d.  1782.  He  was  a  son 
of  Johann  Sebastian  Bach,  and  was  organist  in 
the  Cathedral  of  Milan  1754-9,  and  in  London, 
I759~82,  from  which  residences  he  was  sur- 
named  "the  Milanese"  and  "the  English."  He 
composed  operas,  masses,  Te  Deums,  etc. 

Bach,  Johann  Christoph  Friedrich,  Ger- 
man musician  :  b.  Leipsic,  1732  ;  d.  1795.  He  was 
a  son  of  Johann  Sebastian  Bach,  and  was  for  a 
long  period  music  master  to  Count  Schaumburg 
at  Biickeburg. 

Bach,  Johann  Michael,  German  com- 
poser and  instrument  maker:  b.  1648;  d.  1694. 
He  was  a  son  of  Heinrich  Bach  and  the  father- 
in-law  of  Johann  Sebastian  Bach. 

Bach,  Johann  Sebastian,  German  musician 
and  composer:  b.  Eisenach,  21  Mar.  1685;  d. 
Leipsic,  28  July,  1750.  Bach  was  the  most  pro- 
found and  original  musical  thinker  the  world 
has  ever  seen.  He  is  the  master  of  masters; 
from  him  most  of  the  great  composers  have 
drawn  inspiration.  When  Mozart  heard  one  of 
his  pieces  at  Leipsic,  in  1788,  he  exclaimed : 
"Thank  Heaven  !  here  at  last  is  something  new 
that  I  can  learn  from."  "Not  Bach  (brook) 
but  ^Ocean^  should  be  his  name."  Beethoven  ex- 
claimed. Mendelssohn  made  enthusiastic  efforts 
to  revive  the  interest  in  Bach.  Schumann 
helped  to  found  the  Bach  Society  and  urged 
students,  if  they  would  become  thorough  musi- 
cians, to  make  Bach  their  daily  bread.  Chopin 
confessed  that  before  giving  a  concert  he  locked 
himself  up  a  fortnight  with  nothing  but  Bach 
to  play.  Franz  devoted  a  great  part  of  his  life 
to  adapting  this  master's  works  for  use  in 
modern  concert  halls.  Liszt  and  Rubinstein 
adored  and  played  him.  Wagner,  as  he  grew 
older,  played  Bach  miore  and  more;  his  vocal 
compositions  he  pronounced  the  most  perfect 
ever  written;  and  he  said  that  the  proper  inter- 
pretation of  them  was  the  noblest  task  for  con- 
temporary musicians.  The  only  dissenting  voice 
in  this  chorus  of  praise  was  that  of  Berlioz ; 
but,  as  Saint-Saens  (one  of  the  principal  wor- 
shipers), has  pointed  out,  this  was  due  solely 
to  the  fact  that  Berlioz  was  not  familiar  with 
the  works  of  Bach.  His  pre-eminence  is  the 
more  remarkable  when  we  remember  that  he 
was  born  as  early  as  1685 ;  but  it  seems  perhaps 
a  trifle  less  astonishing  when  we  bear  in  mind 
that  Johann  Sebastian  inherited  the  accumulated 
musical  gifts  of  a  long  line  of  ancestors. 
"Throughout  six  generations."  says  Foikei. 
"there  were  hardly  two  or  three  members  of 
this  family  who  did  not  inherit  a  natural  talent 


BACH 


for  music,  and  make  the  cultivation  of  this  art 
the  principal  occupation  of  their  life.**  For 
more  than  a  century  there  were  so  many  repre- 
sentatives of  this  widely-scattered  family  that 
in  one  place,  at  any  rate  (Erfurt),  town  musi- 
cians came  to  be  called  *'Bachs,"  even  when 
that  family  did  not  happen  to  be  represented 
among  them.  After  the  culmination  had  been 
reached,  however,  in  Johann  Sebastian,  the 
family-tree  soon  withered,  although  some  of  his 
sons  play  a  quite  considerable  role  in  musical 
history. 

At  the  age  of  lo,  Johann  Sebastian  was  left 
an  orphan,  in  care  of  his  older  brother,  John 
Christoph,  who  appears  to  have  been  jealous  of 
the  boy's  musical  gifts.  Christoph  had  got  to- 
gether a  collection  of  the  best  German  organ 
music  of  the  time,  which  Sebastian  was  very 
eager  to  get  at  and  study.  Denied  access  to  it, 
he  managed  to  smuggle  it  into  the  garret,  where, 
for  six  months,  he  busied  himself  making  a 
copy  of  it  on  moonlit  nights.  But  the  brother 
at  last  discovered  his  secret  and  took  away 
from  him  both  the  copy  and  the  original.  This 
is  only  one  instance  of  many  showing  how 
Sebastian  was  determined  to  educate  himself 
in  face  of  all  obstacles.  Several  times  he  went 
on  foot  to  Hamburg  —  a  distance  of  twenty-five 
miles  —  to  hear  the  famous  organist  Reinken ; 
subsequently  he  made  a  similar  trip  to  hear  the 
illustrious  organist  Buxtehude  at  Liibeck.  This 
happened  when  he  himself  was  already  busy  as 
organist  and  choirmaster  at  Arnstadt.  Previ- 
ously to  that  he  had,  as  a  boy,  helped  to  support 
himself  by  joining  a  choir  of  boys  who  sang  at 
funerals  and  weddings,  as  well  as  in  church  and 
in  the  street.  He  missed  no  chance  to  practice 
on  the  violin^  the  organ,  and  the  piano  —  or, 
rather,  the  harpsichord  and  clavichord,  which 
were  the  predecessors  of  the  pianoforte.  To 
these  tasks,  and  to  his  efforts  at  composition,  he 
often  devoted  whole  nights.  He  got  his  first 
salaried  position  (as  violinist)  in  1703  at  Wei- 
mar, but  left  this  post  after  a  few^  months  for 
that  of  organist  at  Arnstadt.  It  was  thence 
that  he  made  the  trip  (a  foot  tour  of  over  200 
miles)  to  Liibeck,  already  referred  to,  to 
hear  Buxtehude.  He  had  obtained  a  four 
weeks'  leave  of  absence,  but  was  so  delighted 
with  his  opportunities  for  improvement  at  Lu- 
beck  that  he  remained  four  months,  until  per- 
emptorily called  back.  The  church  consistory 
of  Arnstadt  took  this  occasion  to  reprimand 
him,  not  only  for  prolonging  his  leave  cf  ab- 
sence, but  for  neglecting  rehearsals,  going  to  a 
wine  cellar  during  the  sermon,  allowing  a 
strange  rnaiden  to  make  music  in  the  choir,  and 
for  "having  made  extraordinary  variations  in 
the  chorals,  and  intermixing  many  strange 
sounds,  so  that  thereby  the  congregation  were 
confounded."  Yet,  with  all  his  faults,  they  loved 
him  still  and  allowed  him  to  remain  at  his  post, 
till  he  left  of  his  own  accord,  having  secured  a 
position  as  organist  at  Miihlhausen.  Here,  too, 
however,  he  did  not  remain  long,  as  still  better 
opportunities  presented  themselves  to  him  at 
Weimar,  where  the  Duke  Wilhelm  Ernst  had  his 
court.  This  duke  was  deeply  interested  in  the 
religion  of  the  German  Protestant  Church  and 
was  glad  to  avail  himself  of  the  services  of 
Bach,  who  was  destined  to  become  the  chief 
representative  of  the  music  of  that  church,  as 
Palestrina  was  of  the  Catholic  Church.      Here 


Bach  remained  nine  years,  during  which  time 
he  wrote  many  of  his  master  works  for  organ 
and  church  choir.  In  1717  he  accepted  a  posi- 
tion in  Kothen  which  involved  a  complete 
change  in  his  activity.  Instead  of  havmg  an 
organ  and  a  choir  to  occupy  his  time  he  had  the 
duty,  as  Kapellmeister,  of  writing  and  rehears- 
ing works  for  the  orchestra  as  a  whole  or  for 
groups  of  orchestral  instruments  (chamber 
music).  In  1720  he  was  a  candidate  for  the  post 
of  organist  at  the  Jacobi  Kirche  in  Hamburg; 
but,  although  he  was  at  this  time  already  famous 
as  an  organist,  he  failed  to  get  the  place,  an 
obscure  j'oung  man  having  secured  it  after  pay- 
ing $1,000  for  the  office.  Three  years  later  Bach 
became  the  cantor  of  the  Thomasschule  at 
Leipsic  and  director  of  the  music  in  the  two 
principal  churches  ;  this  position  he  held  twenty- 
seven  years,  till  his  death,  28  July  1750,  at  the 
age  of  65. 

Bach  was  twice  married  and  became  the 
father  of  20  children ;  5  sons  and  5  daughters 
died  before  him,  while  6  sons  and  4  daughters 
survived  him.  His  first  wife  was  also  a  Bach 
—  a  cousin ;  she  died  in  1820,  while  he  was  on 
a  concert  tour.  Eighteen  months  after  her 
death  he  married  a  girl  of  21  who  was  also 
musical ;  yet  none  of  the  13  children  by  this 
second  marriage  attained  as  high  a  rank  as 
some  of  the  seven  by  the  first  wife.  The  sec- 
ond wife  helped  him  copy  his  MSS.  (which  he 
was  constantly  revising)  and  in  course  of  time 
her  handwriting  came  to  resemble  his  so  closely 
that  the  two  were  hard  to  distinguish.  In  no 
way  did  Bach  differ  more  widely  from  his  great 
contemporary,  Handel,  than  in  his  family  life; 
Handel  died  a  bachelor.  There  were  times 
when  Bach  found  it  difficult  to  bear  the  mate- 
rial burden  of  his  large  family,  but  he  was  not 
so  poor  in  his  lifetime  as  is  usually  supposed. 
His  income  from  various  sources  was,  it  is  true, 
only  about  $500  at  the  best;  but  the  purchas- 
ing power  of  that  sum  was  equal  to  $3,000  in 
our  day.  It  was  after  his  death  that  the  pinch 
of  poverty  was  felt ;  his  widow  died  in  an  alms- 
house ;  he  himself  was  buried  in  a  pauper's 
grave.  For  more  than  a  century  no  one  knew 
the  exact  place  of  this  grave ;  the  circumstances 
of  its  discovery  read  like  a  detective  story. 
Some  years  ago  it  became  necessary  to  rebuild 
the  old  Johannis  Church  in  Leipsic,  and,  in 
connection  with  this,  to  remove  the  bones  from 
that  part  of  the  adjoining  cemetery  in  which 
Bach  was  believed  to  have  been  buried.  The 
director  of  the  archives,  Wustmann,  took  this 
opportunity  to  search  for  Bach's  grave.  He  had 
found  in  the  books  of  the  Johannis  Hospital  an 
item  stating  that  $4  had  been  paid  for  Johann 
Sebastian  Bach's  oak  coffin,  which  gave  him 
his  principal  clue,  for  oak  coffins  were  seldom 
used  in  those  days.  Near  the  place  where  Bach 
was  believed  to  have  been  buried  he' found  two 
oak  coffins,  one  containing  the  remains  of  a 
j'oung  woman,  the  other  the  bones  of  a  man, 
whose  skull  was  so  unique  as  to  arouse  the 
suspicion  at  once  that  it  was  Bach's.  It  was 
placed  in  the  hands  of  the  famous  anatomist. 
Prof.  His,  who,  after  a  long  series  of  compara- 
tive investigations,  came  to  the  conclusion  that 
there  could  be  no  doubt  whatever  that  the  skull 
was  Bach's.  He  embodied  his  argument  in  a 
brochure,  "Forschungen  iiber  Bach's  Grab- 
stette  und  Gebeine."      The  fact  that  Bach's  con- 


BACH 


temporaries  thus  took  no  note  of  his  burial  place 
is  disgraceful  evidence  that  they  never  dreamed 
he  was  destined  to  rank  as  the  greatest  of  all 
musical  geniuses.  Further  evidence  of  this  lies 
in  the  circumstance  that  he  really  brought  about 
his  death  by  his  efforts  to  save  some  of  his 
unappreciated  MSS.  from  destruction  by  en- 
graving them  on  copper  plates.  This  led  to 
serious  trouble  with  his  eyes ;  two  operations 
by  an  English  surgeon  were  followed  by  total 
blindness,  which  made  it  impossible  for  him 
to  complete  his  great  work^  "The  Art  of 
Fugue".  He  dictated  for  its  final  number  a 
choral,  "When  we  are  overwhelmed  by  Woe,** 
and  died  not  long  afterward. 

The  thematic  catalogue  of  his  works  con- 
tains 1,110  instrumental  and  1,936  vocal  num- 
bers. All  of  them  combined  probably  never 
brought  him  in  as  much  as  the  $1,175  paid  at 
a  Berlin  auction  sale  a  few  years  ago  for  three 
■of  his  MSS.  Until  1829,  when  Mendelssohn, 
after  overcoming  a  good  deal  of  opposition,  suc- 
ceeded in  producing  the  wonderful  'Saint  Mat- 
thew's Passion*  in  Berlin,  for  the  first  time 
since  its  composer's  death,  the  great  Leipsic 
Cantor  was  looked  on,  in  INIendelssohn's  words, 
as  "a  mere  old-fashioned  big-wig  stuffed  with 
learning.**  That  work  opened  the  eyes  of  the 
musicians  to  their  colossal  stupidity,  and  from 
that  year  to  the  present  time  Bach's  fame  has 
been  growing  in  a  steady  crescendo.  In  185 1 
a  Bach  Society  was  formed  at  Leipsic  for  the 
printing  of  a  monumental  edition  of  Bach's 
works  by  Breitkopf  and  Hartel.  For  nearly 
half  a  century  (up  to  1896)  a  huge  folio  vol- 
ume was  issued  every  year,  and  after  its  com- 
pletion the  Bach  Society  began  to  make  efforts 
for  multiplying  performances  of  these  works, 
the  majority  of  which  constitute  even  now  an 
vmsurveyed  Klondike.  Bach  himself  does  not 
appear  to  have  been  chagrined  by  the  neglect 
of  his  works  during  his  lifetime.  "We  find  in 
him,**  writes  Abdy  Williams,  "little  of  that  de- 
sire for  applause,  for  recognition,  which  is  usu- 
ally one  of  the  strongest  motives  in  an  artist. 
He  was  content  to  labor  as  few  men  have  la- 
bored, in  a  remote  corner  of  Germany,  simply 
for  art  and  art  alone.**  To  cite  Bach's  own 
words:  "The  sole  object  of  all  music  should 
be  the  glory  of  God  and  pleasant  recreation.** 
At  the  same  time,  it  is  obvious  that  he  would 
have  been  gratified  if  he  had  won,  as  composer, 
some  of  the  honors  which  fell  to  him  abund- 
antly as  player.  Of  the  esteem  in  which  he  was 
held  as  organist  and  clavichordist,  two  anecdotes 
give  the  best  illustration.  In  1717.  while  on  one 
of  his  concert  tours,  he  happened  to  be  in  Dres- 
den at  the  same  time  as  the  famous  French 
organist  and  harpsichord  player  Marchand.  The 
Dresdeners  thought  this  was  a  good  chance  for 
an  international  contest,  and  Bach  was  induced 
to  offer  the  Frenchman  a  challenge.  It  was 
accepted,  and  all  the  details  had  been  arranged; 
but  when  the  hour  arrived  there  was  no  Mar- 
chand. He  had  taken  "  French  leave "  that 
morning  on  the  fast  coach  !  IMany  years  later, 
in  1747,  Bach  accepted  a  repeatedly  given  in- 
vitation to  visit  Frederick  the  Great  at  Pots- 
■dam.  The  king  was  delighted  to  see  him.  With- 
out allowing  him  to  take  off  his  traveling  clothes, 
he  made  him  improvise  on  all  his  pianos  and 
organs  in  his  palace,  and  again  and  again  he 
.exclaimed  :     "There  is  only  one  Bach  !** 


It  has  been  said  of  Bach  that  music  owes 
almost  as  much  to  him  as  a  religion  does  to  its 
founder.  This  is  true  especially  of  two  branches 
—  the  organ  and  choral  music.  Both  as  a  writer 
for  the  organ  and  a  player  he  has  had  no  equal. 
The  best  account  of  this  phase  of  his  art  is  con- 
tained in  Pirro's  <Bach,  the  Organist,  and  his 
Works  for  the  Organ;*  the  author's  aim  being 
to  make  it  easier  to  play  Bach  "in  the  Bach 
spirit.'*  He  refers  to  the  great  composer  as 
"the  man  who  suddenly  surpassed  all  that  had 
been  done  before  him  while  at  the  same  time 
anticipating  all  that  was  to  be  written  in  the 
future.'*  The  organ  works  are  contained  in 
vols.  XV,  XVII,  XXXVIII,  and  XL  of  the 
Breitkopf  and  Hartel  edition.  Some  of  them 
are  best  known  to  music  lovers  through  their 
superb  arrangements  for  pianoforte  by  Liszt, 
Eusoni.  and  others.  Quite  as  striking  is  Bach's 
pre-eminence  in  choral  music.  The  vocal  works 
make  up  more  than  30  vols. ;  among  them 
there  are  4  of  chamber  music  with  voice,  9  of 
passions,  oratorios,  and  masses;  and  no  fewer 
than  17  of  church  cantatas.  It  is  known  that 
he  wrote  5  complete  sets  of  these  cantatas  for 
all  the  Sundays  and  holidays  in  the  year;  prob- 
ably there  were  about  350  in  all,  but  of  those 
only  al^out  200  have  been  preserved.  The  great- 
est choral  works  in  existence  are  Bach's  *  Saint 
Matthew  Passion*  and  his  Mass  in  B  minor. 
Schumann  preferred  the  'Saint  John  Passion* 
even  to  the  Saint  Matthew.  Three  other  pas- 
sions written  by  Bach  are  lost.  Concerning  this 
class  of  works  Wagner  exclaimed :  "What  opu- 
lence, what  fullness  of  art,  what  power, 
clearness,  and  withal  simple  purity,  speak  to  us 
from  these  unrivaled  masterworks  !"  They  are 
made  up  of  arias,  recitatives,  chorals,  and  other 
choruses,  beside  the  instrumental  accompani- 
ment. The  arias  are  sometimes  embroidered 
after  the  fashion  of  the  time,  but  usually  they 
are  simple,  chaste,  and  delightfully  melodious. 
Indeed,  Bach  was  so  full  of  melody  that  it  over- 
flows into  his  recitatives,  which  are,  at  the  same 
time,  often  highly  dramatic  and  emotional,  fore- 
shadowing Wagner's.  If  Bach  had  written 
operas  they  would  have  been  more  dramatic 
than  Handel's;  but  the  opera  was  (apart  from 
the  Lied,  or  lyric  art  song,  which  had  not  yet 
been  created),  the  one  form  of  music  which 
Bach  avoided.  As  for  the  choruses  in  his 
works,  they  are  of  incomparable  grandeur,  and 
at  the  same  time  of  great  difficulty.  All  the 
parts  are  melodious ;  indeed  there  is  in  these 
works  little  practical  difference  between  the 
chorus  singers  and  the  soloists.  jNIany  of  the 
choruses  are  stately  chorals  —  the  hymns  in- 
troduced into  the  Church  by  Luther  and  per- 
fected by  Bach.  These  were  sung  by  the  trained 
choir,  the  harmonies  being  too  elaborate  for  the 
congregation.  In  his  own  churches  Bach  found 
the  means  of  execution  lamentably  inadequate. 
The  singers  and  students  could  barely  master 
the  technique ;  of  the  inner  spirit  they  had  no 
conception. 

Of  Bach's  orchestral  scores,  also,  it  may  be 
said  that  all  the  players  are,  in  turn,  soloists. 
His  harmony  is  "a  manifold  melody;**  it  forms 
the  bridge  between  the  mediaeval  polyphonic 
and  the  modern  harmonic  styles.  In  his  or- 
chestral accompaniments,  a  favorite  device  is  an 
obligatfl  part  for  some  string  or  wind  instru- 
ment playing  a   duet   with  the  solo  voice.     His 


BACH  — BACHE 


•works  for  orchestral  instruments  alone  com- 
prise three  overtures  and  six  concertos.  Among 
his  compositions  for  violin  there  are  three  suites 
and  three  sonatas  that  are  unique,  inasmuch  as 
they  have  no  pianoforte  accompaniment  but  are 
complete  in  themselves,  the  polyphonic  or  har- 
monic accompaniment  being  played  together 
with  the  melody  by  the  violinist;  for  the  yio- 
lincelio,  also,  there  are  six  sonatas  and  suites 
of  this  kind.  While  it  is  true  that  in  all  of  his 
works  the  organ  style  prevails  more  or  less, 
there  is  nevertheless  a  keen  instinct  (far  ahead 
of  the  time  in  which  he  lived)  for  what  is  idio- 
matic, or  peculiar  to  each  instrument.  This  is 
particularly  true  in  regard  to  the  pianoforte 
compositions.  In  these,  Bach  is  more  modern 
than  Haydn,  Mozart,  or  even  Beethoven.  While 
writing  for  the  imperfect  clavichords  and  harp- 
sichords of  his  time  he  had  in  his  mind  a  pro- 
phetic vision  of  the  modern  grand  piano;  on 
that  alone  can  justice  be  done  to  his  superb 
compositions  of  this  class.  His  preludes  and 
fugues,  his  inventions,  suites,  toccatas,  fantasias, 
etc.,  are  the  fountain  head  of  modern  music. 
Of  special  importance  is  the  ^Well-tempered 
Clavichord,'  a  collection  of  48  preludes  and 
fugues,  two  in  each  key,  arranged  in  the  order 
of  chromatic  ascent.  Hans  von  Biilow  called 
this  "the  Old  Testament  in  music.*'  It  is  in- 
dispensable to  every  student;  but  it  is  infinitely 
more  than  a  group  of  studies.  "We  find  these 
fugues,''  wrote  Rubinstein,  "of  a  religious,  he- 
roic, melancholy,  grand,  serious  character;  in 
one  respect  only  are  they  all  alike  —  in  their 
beauty!  And  then  the  preludes,  whose  charm, 
variety,  perfection,  and  splendor  are  simply  in- 
comparable !  That  the  same  composer  who  wrote 
those  organ  compositions  of  overv-helming 
grandeur  could  also  write  such  delightfully  hu- 
morous gavottes,  bourrees,  gigues,  such  melari- 
choly  sarabandes,  short  piano  pieces  of  such 
charming  simplicity,  transcends  belief.  These 
remarks  refer  to  his  instrumental  works  alone, 
but  if  we  add  to  them  his  gigantic  vocal  compo- 
sitions, we  are  led  to  the  conclusion  that  the 
time  will  come  when  it  will  be  said  of  Bach  as 
of  Homer:  *This  was  not  written  by  one  man 
but  by  several.'  "  Rubinstein's  reference  to  the 
gavottes,  etc.,  calls  attention  to  the  fact  that 
Bach  was  not  above  writing  dance  music;  a 
great  deal  of  it,  in  fact.  He  also  did  much  to 
improve  the  technique  of  pianoforte  playing,  es- 
pecially in  the  matter  of  fingering  (use  of 
thumbs).  He  would  have  been  the  first  to 
adopt  all  modern  improvements,  and  in  playing 
him,  therefore,  the  pedal,  for  instance,  should  be 
used  as  freely  as  in  playing  Chopin.  And  while 
it  was  not  customary  in  Bach's  day  to  write 
expression  marks,  it  is  idiotic  to  suppose  that 
he  played  his  pieces  without  changes  in  loud- 
ness and  pace.  Here  students  should  follow  the 
guidance  of  Liszt  and  Biilow.  The  more  Bach's 
works  are  studied  from  this  point  of  view,  the 
more  does  he  seem  a  modern  romanticist,  and 
his  works  music  of  the  future,  even  more  than 
music  of  the  past. 

Bibliography. —  Spitta's  ^Bach,'  in  2  vols. 
(English  by  Bell  &  Maitland)  is  the  most  elabo- 
rate and  authoritative  work.  Of  shorter  books 
the  most  serviceable  is  that  by  Abdy  Williams, 
which  also  contains  a  classified  list  of  Bach's 
works  and  a  bibliography.  Consult  also  Parry: 
'The  Evolution  of  the  Art  of  Music;'  Ap- 
thorp:     'Musicians    and    Music    Lovers;'     and 


vol.  IV  of  the  'Oxford  History  of  Music  ;> 
'The  Age  of  Bach  and  Handel'  by  Fuller 
]\Iaitland.  Henry  T.  Finck, 

Musical  Critic  ^Evening  Post,*  New  York. 

Bach,  Karl  Philipp  Emanuel,  Germaa 
musician:  b.  Weimar,  14  March  1714;  d-  U  Dec. 
1788.  He  was  the  son  of  Johann  Sebastian 
Bach  and  was  court  musician  in  the  service  of 
Frederick  the  Great  in  1740-67.  He  wrote  on 
the  theory  of  piano  playing  and  was  a  volumi- 
nous composer  of  piano  music,  oratories,  etc. 

Bacharach,  ban'a-raH,  a  town  of  Germany,, 
situated  on  the  Rhine,  12  miles  south  of  Coblenz. 
The  vicinity  produces  excellent  wine,  which  was 
once  highly  esteemed.  The  view  from  the  ruins 
of  the  castle  is  one  of  the  sublimest  on  the  Rhine. 
Pop.   (1900)   1,904. 

Bache,  bach,  Alexander  Dallas,  Ameri- 
can scientist :  b.  Philadelphia,  Pa.,  19  July  1806 ; 
d.  17  Feb.  1867.  He  was  graduated  from  the 
United  States  Military  Academy,  at  the  head  of 
his  class,  in  1825  ;  became  professor  of  natural 
philosophy  and  chemistry  at  the  University  of 
Pennsylvania  in  1828;  was  the  organizer  and 
first  president  of  Girard  College,  1836,  where  he 
established  a  magnetical  and  meteorological  ob- 
servatory, and  was  appointed  superintendent  of 
the  United  States  Coast  Survey,  in  1843.  In 
the  last  office  he  performed  services  of  lasting 
and  invaluable  character.  He  was  regent  of  the 
Smithsonian  Institution  in  1846-67;  an  active 
member  of  the  United  States  Sanitary  Commis- 
sion during  the  Civil  War;  and  president  of  the: 
National  Academy  of  Sciences  in  1863.  Besides 
a  long  series  of  notable  annual  reports  of  the 
United  States  Coast  Survey,  he  published  a 
report  on  'Education  in  Europe'  (1839),  and 
'Observations  at  the  Magnetic  and  Meteorolog- 
ical Observatory  at  the  Girard  College'  (3  vols. 
1840-47). 

Bache,  Benjamin  Franklin,  Aincrican 
surgeon:  b.  1801  ;  d.  1881.  He  was  great  grand- 
son of  Benjamin  Franklin.  He  established  a 
laboratory  in  New  York  which  during  the  Civil 
War  was  of  great  service  to  the  Federal  army. 

Bache,  Franklin,  American  chemist :  b. 
Philadelphia,  25  Oct.  1792;  d.  19  March  1864. 
He  was  appointed  professor  of  chemistry  at  the 
Philadelphia  College  of  Pharmacy  in  1831,  and 
at  the  Jefferson  Medical  College  in  1841.  He 
published  'System  of  Chemistry  for  Students  of 
Medicine'  (1819),  and  was  one  of  the  authors 
of  Wood  &  Bache's  'Dispensatory  of  the  United 
States'    (1833). 

Bache,  George  M.,  American  naval  offi- 
cer: b.  in  the  District  of  Columbia,  12  Nov. 
1840;  d.  II  Feb.  1896.  He  was  graduated  at  the 
United  States  Naval  Academy,  in  i860,  and  com- 
manded the  ironclad  Cincinnati  in  the  various 
engagements  on  the  Mississippi  River,  until  she 
was  sunk  by  the  Vicksburg  batteries,  27  May 
1863.  He  was  highly  commended  by  Admiral 
Porter,  Gen.  Sherman,  and  Secretary  Welles 
for  his  conduct  in  the  last  engagement.  Subse- 
quently, he  took  part  in  both  attacks  on  Fort 
Fisher,  and,  in  the  second  one,  15  Jan.  1865,. 
led  the  naval  assault  on  the  fort.  He  was  re- 
tired with  the  rank  of  commander,  5  April 
1875. 

Bache,  Hartman,  American  military  en- 
gineer: b.  Philadelphia,  Pa.,  3  Sept.  1798;  d. 
8    Oct.    1S72.      He    entered    the    United    States. 


BACHE  — BACHIAN 


Topographical  Corps ;  and  for  47  years  was  con- 
stantly employed  on  surveys  and  on  works  of 
hydrographic  and  civil  engineering.  On  13 
March  1865  was  appointed  brigadier-general, 
and  7  March  1867  was  retired.  His  most  not- 
able achievements  were  the  building  of  the 
Delaware  breakwater  and  the  application  of  iron- 
screw  piles  for  the  foundation  of  lighthouses 
upon  sandy  shoals  and  coral  reefs.  He  retired 
from  active  service,  1867. 

Bache,  Sarah,  American  philanthropist : 
b.  Philadelphia,  Pa.,  11  Sept.  1744;  d.  5  Oct. 
1808.  She  was  the  only  daughter  of  Benjamni 
Franklin,  and  the  wife  of  Richard  Bache.  Dur- 
ing the  Revolutionary  War  she  organized  and 
became  chief  of  a  band  of  patriotic  ladies  who 
made  clothing  for  the  soldiers,  and  in  other  ways 
relieved  their  sufferings,  especially  during  the 
severe  winter  of  1780. 

Bache,  Walter,  English  pianist :  b.  Birming- 
ham, 19  June  1842 ;  d.  London,  26  March  1888. 
In  1S58  he  studied  music  in  the  Leipzig  Conser- 
vatorium  under  Hauptmann,  Richter,  Plaidy, 
and  Moscheles.  In  1862  he  went  to  Rome,  and 
from  that  time  till  1865,  when  he  returned  to 
London,  studied  with  Liszt,  of  whose  style  and 
compositions  he  became  an  ardent  admirer  and 
advocate.  Upon  his  return  to  London  he  insti- 
tuted annual  concerts,  at  which  he  put  forward 
Liszt's  music,  and  lived  long  enough  to  see  the 
indifference  of  the  public  toward  his  master 
change  to  open  admiration.  For  several  years 
prior  to  his  death  Bache  was  professor  of  the 
pianoforte  at  the  Royal  Academy  of  Music,  and 
it  was  mainly  due  to  his  efforts  that  the  Liszt 
scholarship  was  established  in  that  institution. 

Bachelder,  Nahum  Josiah,  American 
statesman ;  b.  Andover,  N.  H.,  3  Sept.  1854. 
Educated  at  Franklin  Academj-,  Taunton  Hill 
School,  Andover;  and  became  prominent 
farmer.  Was  nominated  by  the  Republicans  and 
elected  governor  of  New  Hampshire  in  1902. 

Bacheller,  Addison  Irving:,  America  nov- 
elist :  b.  Pierpont,  Saint  Lawrence  co.,  N.  Y., 
26  Sept.  1859.  He  was  graduated  at  the  Saint 
Lawrence  University  in  1882,  from  1882-3  ^vas 
a  member  of  the  staff  of  the  Daily  Hotel  Re- 
porter of  New  York  city,  and  in  1884  became 
a  reporter  for  the  Brooklyn  Times.  In  the  lat- 
ter year  he  established  the  Bacheller  Syndicate 
for  the  purpose  of  supplying  literary  matter  to 
periodicals,  and  for  14  years  was  a  director  of 
that  syndicate.  He  was  for  a  short  time  editor 
of  The  Pocket  Magazine,  and  subsequently 
joined  the  editorial  staff  of  the  Nczv  York 
World,  but  remained  in  that  capacity  for  a  short 
time  only.  His  novels,  the  scenes  of  which  are 
laid  in  northern  New  York,  include:  ^The 
Master  of  Silence^  (1890)  ;  'The  Still  House  of 
O'Darrow'  (1894)  ;  'The  Unbidden  Guest;' 
<Eben  Holden'  (1900):  'D'ri  and  P  (1901); 
'Darrel  of  the  Blessed  Isles'  (1903);  'Candle- 
light'   (1903);   'Virgilius'   (1904)  ;  etc. 

Bach'elor,  a  term  anciently  applied  to  a 
person  in  the  first  or  probationary  stage  of 
knighthood  who  had  not  yet  raised  his  standard 
in  the  field.  A  knight  bachelor  is  one  who  has 
been  raised  to  the  dignity  of  a  knight  without 
being  made  a  member  of  any  of  the  orders  of 
chivalry  such  as  the  Garter  or  the  Thistle.  It 
also  denotes  a  person  who  has  taken  the  first  de- 
gree   in    the    liberal    arts    and    sciences,    or    in 


divinity,  law,  or  medicine,  at  a  college,  or  uni- 
versity ;  or  a  man  of  any  age  who  has  not  been 
married,  the  most  usual  meaning  of  the  term. 
Taken  as  a  class  in  a  community, bachelors  have, 
from  the  earliest  times,  been  the  subjects  of 
much  and  varied  legislation.  In  nearly  every 
country,  at  some  period  in  its  history,  penalties 
have  been  imposed  upon  male  celibates  through 
the  legislative  branch  of  the  government,  the 
general  basis  for  such  legislation  being  the  prin- 
ciple that  the  citizen  was  under  moral  obligation 
to  the  State  to  rear  up  a  family  of  legitimate 
children,  at  least  should  he  be  capable,  morally, 
physically,  and  financially.  The  old  Jewish 
command  to  "be  fruitful  and  multiply"  was 
faithfully  carried  out  by  the  Hebrews  who  re- 
garded marriage  as  a  duty. 

In  such  nations  as  Sparta,  where  individunl 
interests  were  always  subservient  to  those  of 
the  State,  the  laws  were  more  severe,  and  crimi- 
nal proceedings  were  instituted,  under  the  laws 
of  Lycurgus,  both  against  those  who  for  any 
unreasonable  excuse  failed  to  marry,  and  against 
those  who  through  marriage  in  late  life  made 
probable  children  of  unhealthy  constitution.  At 
Athens,  though  formerly  regarded  as  a  crime 
by  the  laws  of  Solon,  celibacy  was  not  severely 
punished,  and  later,  though  the  practice  was  dis- 
couraged, interference  with  the  inclinations  of 
individuals  in  this  respect  gradually  became  of 
little  practical  value,  and  the  laws  finally  fell 
into  disuse. 

In  Rome,  the  imposition  of  heavy  penalties 
upon  male  celibates  was  instituted  at  a  very 
early  period,  and  later  even  women  were  sub- 
jected to  the  same  rigid  laws.  According  to  the 
Lex  Julia  et  Papia  Poppcra,  penalties  were  im- 
posed on  those  who  failed  to  marry  after  a 
certain  age,  and  an  unmarried  person  could 
not  come  into  possession  of  a  legacy  un- 
less he  be  married  within  a  hundred  days 
after  the  testator's  death.  The  provisions 
of  the  law  allowed  widows  a  year  in  which 
to  comply,  and  divorced  women  six  months 
from  the  date  of  divorce,  but  these  pe- 
riods w^ere  later  changed  and  extended  to  two 
years,  a  year  and  six  months,  respectively. 
This  law  did  not  apply,  however,  to  men  above 
60  years  of  age,  and  women  above  50  years.  In 
cases  of  childless  persons  (males  from  25  to  60 
years  of  age,  and  females  from  20  to  50  years) 
who  should  become  beneficiaries  under  a  legacy, 
one  half  of  the  value  of  such  legacy  was  for- 
feited. In  later  years,  especially  in  England, 
France,  and  the  United  States,  taxes  upon 
bachelors  have  been  imposed  more  for  purposes 
of  State  revenue  than  to  compel  marriage,  but 
though  such  legislation  has  been  pushed  in  some 
instances  with  great  vigor,  the  success  of  the 
movement  in  later  years  has  not  been  marked. 

Bach'elor,  a  local  name  in  the  Mississippi 
valley  for  the  small  bass,  more  usually  called 
crappie  (q.v.). 

Bachelor's  Button,  the  double  yellow  but- 
tercup (Ranunculus  acris).  Similar  forms,  as 
R.  aconitifolius,  are  often  called  white  bachelor's 
buttons.  The  name  is  also  given  to  Centaurea 
cyanus  (see  Cornflower)  and  to  Goniphrena 
globosa. 

Bachian,  bach-yan',  one  of  the  Molucca. 
Islands,  immediately  south  of  the  equator,  and 
southwest  of  Gilolo ;  area.  800  square  miles.  It 
is  ruled  bv  a  native  sultan  under  the  Dutch. 


BACHMAN  —  BACKUS 


Bachman,  bak'man,  John,  American  cler- 
gyman and  naturalist:  b.  Dutchess  County, 
N.  Y.,  4  Feb.  1790;  d.  25  Feb.  1874.  He  became 
pastor  of  a  Lutheran  church  in  Charleston,  S. 
C,  and  published  among  other  works,  'Charac- 
teristics of  Genera  and  Species  as  Applicable  to 
the  Doctrine  of  the  Unity  of  the  Human  Race* 
(1854).  He  is  best  known  by  reason  of  his 
association  with  Audubon  in  the  making  of  the 
*  Quadrupeds  of  North  America,^  he  writing  the 
principal  part  of  the  text,  which  Audubon  and 
his  sons  illustrated. 

Bachmut,  bach-moot',  a  town  of  southern 
Russia,  in  the  government  of  Ekaterinoslav, 
with  a  trade  in  cattle  and  tallow.  It  has  coal 
mines  and  salt  wells,  and  soda  is  extensively 
manufactured.  The  salt  produced  here  is  of  a 
very  high  grade  of  excellence.  Pop.  (1897) 
19,400. 

Bacil'lus.     See  Bacteria. 

Back,  Sir  George,  English  explorer:  b. 
Stockport,  6  Nov.  1796;  d.  London,  23  June 
1878.  He  entered  the  British  navy  in  1808,  and 
in  181 7  was  in  the  expedition  to  Spitzbergen. 
He  accompanied  Sir  John  Franklin  to  the  Arctic 
regions  in  1819  and  again  in  1825,  and  in 
1833  led  a  party  in  search  of  Sir  John  Ross, 
then  in  the  Arctic  Ocean,  and  in  1836,  in  com- 
mand of  the  Terror,  made  his  last  trip  to  the 
north.  The  Geographical  Society  awarded  him 
a  gold  medal  in  1837,  and  in  1839  he  was  knight- 
ed. He  became  admiral  in  1867.  Among  his 
works  are  *A  Narrative  of  the  Arctic  Land 
Expedition^  (1836)  ;  a  'Narrative  of  the  Expe- 
dition in  Her  Majesty's  Ship  Terror'    (1838). 

Back  Bay,  a  fashionable  residential  dis- 
trict in  Boston,  made  by  filling  in  an  enlarge- 
ment of  the  Charles  River,  formerly  called  the 
Back  Bay.     See  Boston. 

Back  Land,  name  applied  to  the  region 
around  the  Arctic  Circle,  in  British  North  Amer- 
ica.    It  was  explored  by  Capt.  Back  in  1831. 

Back-Staff,  an  instrument  invented  by 
Capt.  Davies,  about  a.d.  1590,  for  taking  the 
altitude  of  the  sun  at  sea.  It  consisted  of  two 
concentric  arcs  and  three  vanes.  The  arc  of  the 
longer  radius  was  30°,  and  that  of  the  shorter 
one  60° ;  thus  both  together  constituted  90°. 
It  is  now  obsolete,  being  superseded  by  the 
sextant. 

Back'bite,  Sir  Benjamin,  an  evil-minded, 
sharp-tongued  character  in  Sheridan's  comedy, 
'School  for  Scandal.' 

Back'gam'mon  is  a  game  in  which  two  op- 
posing players  move  symbolic  men  into  or  out 
of  each  other's  territory  on  a  board,  according 
as  they  are  respectively  entitled  to  do  so  by  the 
throw  of  a  dice.  Without  question  a  game  of 
that  nature  was  played  among  the  Aztecs  of 
Mexico  centuries  before  the  landing  of  Cortez, 
and  it  is  probable  that  it  was  brought  from  Asia 
to  the  Pacific  coast  by  the  original  immigrants. 
Francisco  Lopez  de  Gomara  described  it  in 
1552,  and  Joan  de  Torquemada  in  1616  gave  ad- 
ditional details  of  the  game,  mentioning  that 
the  httle  stones  of  each  contestant  varied  in 
color.  The  Iroquois  Indians  had  a  dice  game 
of  a  somewhat  similar  sort. 

Modern  backgammon  is  played  by  two  play- 
ers who  have  between  them  a  board,  each  side 
of  which  has  alternate  black  and  white  angular 


marks  projecting  like  rays  from  the  rim.  Each 
player  has  15  flat  tablets  (similar  to  those  with 
which  drafts  is  played)  called  men.  One  play- 
er's men  are  black,  the  others  are  white.  Each 
player  has  a  dice  box  for  his  own  use  but  the 
two  dice  are  used  alternately  by  them  both. 
Each  dice  has  a  number  on  each  face  numbered 
from  one  spot  to  six.  Each  player  throws  the 
dice  in  turn  on  to  the  centre  of  the  board :  and 
moves  two  men,  one  man  according  to  the  dis- 
tance indicated  by  one  of  the  dice  and  the  other 
according  to  the  number  on  the  second  dice. 
So  the  game  proceeds  in  the  usual  manner,  the 
players  throwing  and  moving  their  men  alter- 
nately into  and  out  of  each  other's  territory, 
until  one  player  has  carried  all  the  men  from 
the  opposite  home  (or  inner  table)  into  the 
outer  table :  and  thence  into  his  own  outer  table 
and  finally  into  his  own  home  or  inner  table. 
The  simplest  text-book  on  the  subject  is  that  of 
A.   Howard    Cady. 

Backhuysen,  bak'hoi-zen,  or  Bakhuysen, 
Ludolf,  celebrated  painter  of  the  Dutch 
school,  particularly  in  sea  pieces :  b.  Emden  18 
Dec.  1631 ;  d.  1709.  His  most  famous  picture 
is  a  sea  piece  which  the  burgomasters  of  Amster- 
dam commissioned  him  to  paint  as  a  present  to 
Louis  XVI.,  and  which  is  still  at  Paris. 

Backstrom,  bek'strem,  Per  Johan  Edvard, 

Swedish  dramatist  and  lyric  poet :  b.  Stock- 
holm, 27  Oct.  1841  ;  d.  13  Feb.  1886.  His  prin- 
cipal work  is  'Dagvard  Frey'  (1876),  a  tragedy; 
besides  this,  the  dramas  'A  Crown'  (1869)  ; 
'Eva's  Sisters'  (1869),  and  'The  Prisoner  of 
Kallo'  (1870),  met  with  success.  His  lyrics 
were  published  in  three  collections  (i860,  1870, 
1876). 

Back'us,  Azil,  first  president  of  Hamilton 
College,  Clinton,  N.  Y. :  b.  Norwich,  Conn.,  13 
Oct.  1765  ;  d.  9  Dec.  1817.  After  graduating  at 
Yale  in  1787,  he  served  the  Church  at  Bethlehem, 
Conn.,  until  he  became  president  of  Hamilton 
College  in   1812. 

Back'us,  Isaac,  Baptist  clergyman  and  au- 
thor:  b.  Norwich,  Conn.,  9  Jan.  1724;  d.  20 
Nov.  1806.  He  was  ordained  13  April  1748  and 
became  pastor  of  a  Congregational  church  in 
Middleborough,  Mass.  Some  of  his  congrega- 
tion sympathizing  with  the  Baptists  he  united 
with  them  and  formed  a  Baptist  church  in 
1756.  Throughout  his  life  he  was  a  persistent 
advocate  of  the  widest  religious  freedom,  hold- 
ing open  communion  for  many  years.  For  34 
years  he  was  a  trustee  of  the  present  Brown 
University,  then  Rhode  Island  College.  As  a 
delegate  to  the  convention  that  adopted  the 
Federal  constitution,  he  voted  in  its  favor.  Of 
his  numerous  writings  the  most  important  is 
'A  History  of  New  England  with  Special  Refer- 
ence to  the  Baptists'  (3  vols.  1777-96;  new  ed. 
by  D.  Weston,  2  vols.  1871),  a  partisan  but 
valuable  work.  His  'History  of  Middleborough* 
is  in  Massachusetts  Historical  Society  Collec- 
tions  (Vol.  III.,  1st  Series,  1794;  repr.  1810). 

Backus,  Truman  Jay,  American  educator: 
b.  Milan,  N.  Y.,  11  Feb.  1842;  was  grad- 
uated at  the  University  of  Rochester  in  1864; 
was  professor  of  English  literature  at  Vas- 
sar  College,  1867-83 ;  then  became  president  of 
the  Packer  Collegiate  Institute  in  Brooklyn, 
N.  Y.     After  going  to  Brooklyn,  he  served  op 


BACON 


several  state  commissions.  His  publications  in- 
clude ^  Great  English  Writers,^  *  Outlines  of 
English  Literature,'  and  a  revised  edition  of 
Shaw's  *  History  of  English  Literature.'' 

Ba'con,  Alice  Mitchell,  American  educa- 
tor: b.  New  Haven,  Conn.,  26  Feb.  1858;  was 
•educated  privately  and  took  the  Harvard  ex- 
aminations in  1881  ;  taught  at  the  Hampton 
Normal  and  Agricultural  Institute  in  1B83-8, 
and  in  Tokio,  Japan,  in  1888-9;  returned  to  the 
Hampton  Institute  in  1889,  and  founded  the 
Dixie  Hospital  for  training  colored  nurses  in 
1890.  In  1900  she  again  began  teaching  in 
Tokio.  She  published  ^Japanese  Girls  and 
Women,^    ^Japanese  Interior,'  etc. 

Bacon,  Augustus  Octavius,  American 
legislator :  b.  Bryan  Count)',  Ga.,  20  Oct.  183Q. 
He  was  graduated  from  the  University  of 
Georgia  in  1859,  from  the  law  department  of  the 
university  in  i860;  entered  the  army  of  the 
Confederate  States  at  the  beginning  of  the  Civil 
War,  and  was  adjutant  of  the  9th  Georgia  regi- 
ment in  the  Army  of  Northern  Virginia,  and 
later  promoted  captain  and  assigned  to  general 
staff  duty;  and  in  1866  began  the  practice  of 
law  at  Macon,  Ga.  In  1880  he  was  president 
of  the  State  Democratic  convention,  and  in  1884 
a  delegate  from  the  State  at  large  to  the  na- 
tional Democratic  convention.  He  was  a  mem- 
ber of  the  Georgia  house  of  representatives  in 
1871-82,  1892,  and  1893,  and  for  the  greater 
part  of  the  time  its  speaker.  Elected  to  the 
United  States  Senate  in  November  1894,  he 
was  re-elected  in  1900. 

Ba'con,  Benjamin  Wisner,  American  edu- 
cator:  b.  Litchfield.  Conn.,  15  Jan.  i860;  stud- 
ied in  Germany  and  Switzerland;  and  was  grad- 
uated at  Yale  College  in  1881 ;  held  several 
Congregational  pastorates ;  and  in  1896  became 
professor  of  New  Testament  criticism  and  exe- 
gesis in  Yale  University.  Author  of  "^Genesis 
of  Genesis'  ;  ^Triple  Tradition  of  the  Exodus'  ; 
^Introduction  to  the  New  Testament'  ;  ^The 
Sermon  on  the  Mount'  (1902)  ;  ^The  Story  of 
Saint  Paul'   (1904)  ;  etc. 

Ba'con,  Delia  Salter,  American  author : 
h.  Tallmadge,  O.,  2  Feb.  1811 ;  d.  2  Sept.  1859. 
She  was  eminent  in  her  day  as  a  teacher,  and 
■wrote  several  stories,  but  is  now  remembered 
only  as  an  eloquent  advocate  of  the  theory  that 
the  plays  of  Shakespeare  were  written  by  Lord 
Bacon.  She  herself  did  not  originate  the  idea, 
but  was  the  first  to  give  it  any  currency,  in 
her  <  Philosophy  of  the  Plays  of  Shakespeare 
Unfolded'  (1857).  The  book  had  the  honor  of 
a  preface  from  the  pen  of  Nathaniel  Hawthorne, 
and  the  theory  has  been  accepted  by  a  few 
persons  in  both  England  and  the  United  States, 
who  have  wasted  not  a.  little  ingenious  reasoning 
in  its  advocacy. 

Ba'con,  Edwin  Munroe,  American  author : 
h.  Providence.  R.  I.,  20  Oct.  1844-  He  re- 
ceived an  academical  education ;  was  on  the 
staff  of  several  Boston  papers;  and  wrote 
<King's  Handbook  of  Boston'  ;  ^Boston  Illus- 
trated';  < Historic  Pilgrimages  in  New  Eng- 
land' ;  ^Literary  Pilgrimages  in  New  England'  ; 
^Boston  of  To-day';  ^Bacon's  Dictionary  of 
Boston'  ;    <Walks    and    Rides    in    the    Country 


Round   About   Boston';    <Walks  on  the  Norfh 
Shore';   *^Iassachusetts  Bay'    (1903);  etc. 

Bacon,  Francis,  English  statesman,  philoso- 
pher, and  essayist:  b.  London,  22  Jan.  1561  ; 
d.  Highgate,  London,  9  April,  1626.  Bacon  was 
commonly  called  Lord  Bacon  in  accordance  with 
long  literary  tradition,  though  his  exact  titles 
in  the  peerage  were  Baron  Verulam  and  Vis- 
count Saint  Alban.  He  was  the  youngest  of 
eight  children  of  Sir  Nicholas  Bacon,  the  Lord 
Keeper,  six  of  whom  were  by  a  former  mar- 
riage. His  mother  was  Ann,  daughter  of  Sir 
Anthony  Cooke,  and  her  sister  married  Sir 
William  Cecil  (Lord  Burghley).  The  family 
thus  stood  in  a  position  of  exceptional  influence 
at  the  court  of  Elizabeth,  but  Bacon  profited 
little  by  the  fact  in  his  official  career.  He 
entered  Trinity  College,  Cambridge,  in  1573  and 
was  admitted  to  Gray's  Inn  in  1575.  In  1576 
he  went  to  France  as  a  member  of  the  embassy 
of  Sir  Amias  Paulet,  and  remained  there  until 
the  death  of  his  father  in  1579.  It  then  became 
necessary  for  him  to  return  to  England  and 
take  up  his  legal  studies  with  a  view  to  pro- 
fessional practice.  In  1582  he  was  admitted 
utter  barrister.  Already  before  this  time  he  had 
entertained  hopes  of  a  political  career  and  had 
made  unsuccessful  appeals  to  Lord  Burghley 
for  support ;  and  in  1584,  being  elected  to  Par- 
liament from  Melcombe  Regis,  he  began  a  long 
and  conspicuous  service  in  the  House  of  Com- 
mons. He  produced  at  once  a  political  docu- 
ment, entitled  *A  Letter  of  Advice  to  Queen 
Elizabeth,'  in  which  the  religious  situation,  and 
particularly  the  Catholic  question,  was  discussed 
with  wisdom  and  moderation.  In  1589  he  w-rote 
a  second  paper,  'An  Advertisement  Concerning 
the  Controversies  of  the  Church  of  England,' 
reiterating  his  policy  of  moderation  with  more 
especial  reference  to  Puritanism.  Bacon's  nat- 
ural instinct,  in  both  religious  and  political 
controversies,  was  conciliatory,  and  he  e.xerted 
himself  in  favor  of  moderate  measures  through- 
out Elizabeth's  reign  and  after  the  accession  of 
James.  He  manifested  also,  at  the  beginning  of 
his  career,  some  power  of  acting  with  disinter- 
ested independence, — a  capacity  which  was  less 
evidently  displayed  in  his  later  life.  In  1593 
he  led  the  opposition  of  the  Commons  to  the 
proposal  of  the  Lords  for  a  joint  settlement  of 
a  question  involving  subsidies  and  thus  falling 
within  the  prerogatives  of  the  Lower  House. 
In  his  prolonged  resistance  to  the  subsidy  legis- 
lation he  earned  the  disfavor  of  both  Burghley 
and  the  Crown.  His  opposition,  which  was  ap- 
parently conscientious,  may  have  been  the  cause 
of  his  failure  to  obtain  the  vacant  attorney- 
generalship  in  1594  and  the  solicitor-generalship 
in  1595.  though  in  the  former  instance  his  claim 
was  urged  by  Essex  and  in  the  latter  by  both 
Essex  and  Burghley.  The  attorney-generalship 
was  given  to  Sir  Edward  Coke,  who  was  repeat- 
edly a  rival  and  enemy  of  Bacon's  in  later  years. 
Bacon's  association  with  Essex,  which  con- 
stituted one  of  the  most  important  of  his  per- 
sonal relations,  began  in  1591.  He  attached 
himself  to  the  rising  young  nobleman  in  the 
hope  of  obtaining  political  advancement.  But 
it  is  not  necessary  to  deny  him  all  sentiment  of 
personal  attachment  or  all  real  belief  in  the 
availability  of  Essex  for  the  public  service.  He 
received  from  Essex  earnest  patronage,  as  has 
been  already  shown,  and  when  recommendations 


BACON 


failed,  Essex  gave  his  follower  a  valuable  estate 
by  way  of  consolation.  In  1597  Essex  tried  to 
arrange  a  marriage  between  Bacon  and  Lady 
Hatton,  but  Coke  again  proved  a  successful 
rival.  Bacon,  on  his  side,  undertook  to  advise 
Essex  and  to  manage  his  career  at  court.  In 
1598  he  appears  to  have  urged  him  (though  he 
afterward  denied  it)  to  attempt  the  suppression 
of  Tyrone's  Irish  rebellion, — an  undertaking 
which  led  to  the  dismissal  of  Essex  from  office 
in  disgrace.  Bacon's  conduct  in  the  investiga- 
tion is  hard  to  trace,  but  he  may  perhaps  be 
granted  to  have  acted  in  the  interests  of  Essex, 
though  he  was  formally  one  of  his  prosecutors. 
Later,  however,  in  1601,  when  Essex  rebelled 
openly  against  the  throne,  Bacon  helped  to 
secure  his  conviction,  and  after  his  execution 
prepared  the  official  declaration  of  his  treasons. 
For  this  active,  and  apparently  unnecessary, 
participation  in  the  prosecution  of  his  friend 
Bacon  has  probably  received  more  blame  than 
for  any  other  act  of  his  life.  It  may  be  urged 
in  extenuation  that  Essex  was  actually  a  dan- 
gerous person  to  the  state,  and  that  Bacon 
steadily  warned  him  that  he  would  not  prefer 
the  claims  of  friendship  to  the  public  good.  It 
is  true,  too,  that  Bacon's  position  was  difficult 
as  between  such  a  reckles  ,  friend  and  the  jealous 
and  imperious  queen  whose  favor  he  desired 
both  for  his  friend's  interest  and  his  own.  Yet 
in  the  last  analysis  there  is  little  defence  to  be 
made  for  Bacon's  willingness  to  profit  by  the 
ruin  of  Essex. 

After  the  accession  of  James  I.  Bacon  con- 
tinued his  active  service  in  Parliament.  He 
published  papers  on  the  religious  situation  and 
on  the  union  of  the  English  and  Scottish 
crowns,  and  he  served  on  a  commission  to  ar- 
range the  terms  of  the  union.  In  1603  he  was 
knighted,  and  in  1604  given  a  pension  of  I60. 
In  1605  he  offered  to  King  James  the 
very  important  treatise;  on  the  ^Advancement  of 
Learning,^  which  will  be  more  particularly  dis- 
cussed below  among  Bacon's  writings.  In  1606 
he  married  Alice  Barnham,  a  London  alder- 
man's daughter,  who  brought  him  a  substantial 
dowry.  He  had  no  children.  Little  is  known  of 
his  domestic  life  except  that  it  ended  unpleas- 
antly. In  his  last  will  he  revoked  "for  just  and 
grave  causes'^  such  provisions  as  he  had  made 
earlier  for  his  wife's  benefit.  In  June,  1607, 
Bacon's  long-deferred  advancement  came  and 
he  was  made  solicitor-general.  At  this  period 
the  unfortunate  estrangement  between  the  King 
and  the  Commons  was  steadily  progressing,  and 
Bacon,  who  clearly  saw  the  danger  that  attended 
upon  this  breach  of  sympathy,  took  an  earnest 
part  in  the  struggle.  Quite  apart  from  his  per- 
sonal aims,  he  seems  to  have  been  genuinely 
distrustful  of  the  governmental  capacity  of  the 
Commons  and  consequently  to  have  espoused 
the  cause  of  the  monarchy,  becoming,  as  he 
described  himself,  a  "peremptory  royalist.*  His 
policy  was  doomed  to  failure;  but  it  is  only  just 
to  recognize  that  it  had  elements  of  moderation 
and  statesmanship,  contemplating  to  be  sure  the 
royal  prerogative,  yet  aiming  at  religious  tolera- 
tion, the  amelioration  of  the  lot  of  the  humbler 
-lasses,  and  a  friendly  relation  with  parliament. 
After  the  death  of  Salisbury  in  1612  he  under- 
took to  manage  the  King's  interests,  and  in  the 
parliament   of   1614  he   continued  his   efforts  to 


reconcile  the  crown  and  the  people  by  the  policy 
to  which  in  his  'Commentary^  he  gives  the  name 
"e  Gemino."  But  his  attempt  was  unsuccessful; 
the  parliament  was  dissolved,  and  the  King  and 
the  people  took  different  courses.  From  this 
time  forth  Bacon  seems  on  the  whole  to  have 
relinquished  his  higher  political  aims  and  to 
have  given  himself  over  to  the  struggle  for  per- 
sonal advancement.  In  politics,  as  in  friendship, 
he  was  incapable  of  serious  self-sacrifice;  or  at 
least  he  always  persuaded  himself  that  he  could 
best  serve  the  public  good  by  having  due  regard 
to  his  own  interests. 

In  1613  he  had  been  promoted  to  the  attorney- 
generalship.  In  1615  he  prosecuted  Saint  John 
for  denouncing  benevolences,  and  in  the  same 
year  he  consented  to  the  torture  of  Edmund 
Peacham,  who  was  charged  with  having  written 
a  treasonable  sermon.  He  came  in  the  latter 
case  into  conflict  with  his  old  enemy.  Coke,  who 
denied  Peacham's  guilt,  and  who  also  objected 
to  the  separate  consultation  of  the  judges  by  the 
attorney-general.  In  1617  Bacon  helped  to  secure 
Coke's  removal  from  the  King's  Bench  for  in- 
sufficient subserviency  to  the  Crown.  Coke's 
personal  independence  throughout  the  contro- 
versy has  been  often  praised,  and  stands  in 
favorable  contrast  with  Bacon's  self-seeking 
policy.  At  the  same  time  it  should  be  remem- 
bered that  there  was  involved  a  real  issue  be- 
tween the  legal  and  the  political  powers,  and  that 
Bacon,  in  resisting  Coke's  effort  to  make  the 
court  an  arbiter  of  the  constitution,  was  fighting 
for  the  principle  which  actually  prevailed,  though 
under  changed  conditions,  in  English  govern- 
ment. 

Bacon  took  part  in  1616  in  the  prosecution  of 
the  Earl  of  Somerset  for  the  murder  of  Sir 
Thomas  Overbury,  and  after  Somerset's  fall  he 
attached  himself  with  ardor  to  George  Villiers,. 
the  King's  new  favorite,  in  whom  he  seemed, 
along  with  many  others,  to  be  for  the  time  genu- 
inely deceived.  Through  Villiers  (afterwards 
Earl  and  Duke  of  Buckingham)  Bacon  received 
a  succession  of  royal  favors.  In  1616  he  was 
made  Privy  Councillor,  in  1617  Lord  Keeper, 
and  in  1618  Lord  Chancellor.  In  July  1618  he 
was  elevated  to  the  peerage  as  Baron  Verulam, 
and  in  1621  he  was  made  Viscount  St.  Alban. 
But  his  adherence  to  Buckingham,  who  was 
growing  steadily  unpopular,  led  at  last  to  dis- 
aster. In  1621  the  Commons,  led  by  Coke,  would 
have  called  Bacon  to  account  for  defending 
Buckingham's  increase  of  monopoly  patents,  if 
the  King  had  not  interfered.  Thereupon  they 
sent  to  the  Lords  a  formal  accusation  that  Bacon 
had  taken  bribes  from  suitors  in  his  court. 
Bacon  at  first  treated  the  charges  with  uncon- 
cern. Then,  when  he  found  that  the  Lords 
meant  to  investigate  them  seriously,  he  collapsed 
and  offered  no  defense.  He  was  fined  £40,000, 
imprisoned,  and  banished  from  parliament  and 
the  court.  In  June,  1621,  he  was  released  from 
the  Tower,  and  retired  to  his  family  residence 
at  Gorhambury;  and  in  September  of  the  same 
year  the  King  pardoned  him,  though  without 
restoring  him  to  parliament  and  the  court.  Bacon 
begged  both  James  and  Charles  without  avail 
for  a  further  remission  of  his  penalty.  While 
admitting  the  justice  of  his  condemnation,  he 
protected  that  there  had  been  no  juster  judge 
in  England  for  50  years;  and  there  is  of  cours? 


FRANCIS  BACON. 


BACON 


an  important  difference  between  corruption  and 
perversion  of  justice.  Although  he  constantly 
accepted  gifts  from  suitors  while  their  cases 
were  pending,  it  does  not  appear  that  he  ever 
perverted  justice  for  money,  and  some  of  the 
cases  urged  against  him  were  those  in  which  the 
suitors  had  lost  after  giving  him  gifts.  But  this 
record  is  not  so  clear  in  cases  where  Bucking- 
ham interposed  to  ask  favor  for  his  friends,  and 
in  at  least  one  instance  he  allowed  a  decision  of 
his  court  to  be  practically  set  aside  at  the  Favor- 
ite's  request. 

Forbidden  to  re-enter  the  field  of  politics. 
Bacon  devoted  the  last  years  of  his  life  to  the 
literary  and  scientific  labors  which  had  always 
divided  his  time  and  which  he  had  professed  to 
regard  as  his  real  and  proper  work;  and  he  met 
his  death  as  a  result  of  a  scientific  experiment. 
In  March,  1626,  he  caught  cold  while  stuffing  a 
fowl  with  snow  in  order  to  observe  the  effects 
•of  refrigeration  on  the  preservation  of  meat.  On 
9  April  he  died  of  what  is  now  known  as  bron- 
chitis at  the  house  of  Lord  Arundel,  where  he 
had  been  carried  at  the  time  of  his  attack.  He 
was  buried  in  Saint  Michael's  church,  Saint 
Albans. 

Bacon's  Writings. — From  early  youth,  if  tra- 
dition can  be  trusted.  Bacon  showed  extraordi- 
nary mental  powers  and  a  keen  interest  in  philo- 
sophical pursuits.  Throughout  his  life  his  labors 
in  authorship  kept  pace  closely  with  his  political 
work,  and  prone  as  he  was  to  yield  to  the  temp- 
tations of  wealth  and  power,  he  seems  really  to 
have  accorded  the  first  place  in  life  to  what  he 
called  his  "contemplative  aims."  His  strictly 
philosophical  writings  may  therefore  properly 
claim  first  attention  among  his  works.  At  the 
age  of  2S  he  produced  an  essay  which  bore  the 
ambitious  title,  <The  Greatest  Birth  of  Time,  or 
the  Great  Renewal  of  the  Empire  of  Man  Over 
the  Universe.'  The  work  is  now  lost,  but  the 
title  shows  that  the  young  author  had  already 
conceived  some  notion  of  a  ^'great  instauration.* 
The  ^Partus  Masculus  Temporis*  ("The  Male 
Birth  of  Time''),  a  fragment  which  is  also  of 
early  date,  is  perhaps  a  modification  of  previ- 
ous work.  It  contains  little  more  than  an  attack 
on  the  false  fancies  ("idols")  of  the  older 
philosophies,  and  is  Bacon's  first  plea  for  a  law- 
ful wedlock  between  the  mind  of  man  and  the 
universe.  The  'Conference  of  Pleasure'  (writ- 
ten for  Essex  in  1592),  'Gesta  Grayorum' 
(1594),  and  the  <^Device  on  the  Queen's  Day' 
(1595)  are  not  primarily  philosophical  works, 
but  they  contain  many  expressions  of  Bacon's 
intellectual  ideals;  and  in  the  <Gesta  Grayorum' 
there  is  an  elaborate  proposal  for  the  endovv-ment 
of  libraries,  museums,  and  establishments  of  re- 
search. 'Valerius  Terminus,  of  the  Interpreta- 
tion of  Nature,  with  the  Annotations  of  Hermes 
Stella'  (written  about  1603)  is  a  fragmentary 
treatise  anticipating  some  of  the  most  familiar 
matter  in  the  later  philosophical  works.  In  it 
Bacon  defends  the  study  of  science  from  the 
charge  of  impiety,  urges  the  importance  of  an 
encyclopaedic  survey  of  human  knowledge,  and 
mentions  for  the  first  time  (though  without  ox- 
plaining  them)  the  four  classes  of  "idols"  which 
were  afterward  discussed  in  the  'Novum  Or- 
ganum.'  In  160.S  Bacon  presented  to  King 
James  an  English  treatise  of  enduring  value, 
'The  Advancement  of  Learning.'     This  was  a 


splendid  attempt  to  defend  and  magnify  the  pur- 
suit of  learning  and  then  to  survey  the  existing 
state  of  human  knowledge.  Part  of  the  argu- 
ment of  the  first  part  has  lost  its  cogency,  or 
even  its  relevancy,  to-day.  But  in  breadth  of 
view  and  fertility  of  suggestion  the  work  is 
extraordinary.  As  a  statement  of  intellectual 
ideals,  and  a  programme,  or  even  a  prophecy,  of 
their  accomplishment,  it  stands  among  the  most 
significant  productions  of  the  Renaissance.  When 
Bacon  sketched  a  few  years  later  the  plan  of 
his  'Great  Instauration,'  he  designated  the 
'Advancement  of  Learning,'  as  a  temporary  fill- 
ing of  the  first  place  on  the  "partitiones  scicn- 
tiarum,"  and  in  his  last  years  he  made  a  greatly 
amplified  Latin  translation  of  it  ('De  Aug- 
mentis  et  Dignilate  Scientige')  to  be  incor- 
porated in  the  great  work.  In  1606-7  he  pub- 
lished the  'Outline  and  Argument'  ('Delincatio 
et  Argumentum')  of  the  second  part  of  the 
Instauration,  giving  a  brief  general  account  of 
his  new  induction.  In  1607  the  'Cogitata  et  Visa 
de  Interpretatione  Naturae,  sive  de  Scientia 
Operativa*  were  published  as  an  introduction  to 
some  investigations  on  motion.  The  'Cogitata' 
cover  most  of  the  ground  afterwards  traversed 
in  the  first  book  of  the  'Novum  Organum.'  The 
'Redargutio  Philosophiarum'  (1609),  one  of  the 
best  specimens  of  Bacon's  Latin  style,  contains 
an  imaginary  speech  of  a  French  philosopher  to 
his  disciples,  and  sets  forth  anew  the  author's 
ideas  about  the  fruitlessness  of  the  older  philoso- 
phies. The  'De  Sapientia  Veterum,'  though  it 
lies  outside  the  immediate  scheme  of  the  'Instau- 
ration' and  might  perhaps  be  mentioned  rather 
among  Bacon's  literary  works,  is  a  very  char- 
acteristic production  containing  an  exposition  of 
his  theory  of  ancient  mythology  as  an  allegorical 
embodiment  of  moral  and  scientific  wisdom. 
This  primitive  wisdom  he  was  fond  of  extolling 
to  the  disparagement  of  the  later  philosophy  of 
Aristotle,  against  which  he  was  in  revolt.  In 
161 1  and  1612  fall  a  number  of  scientific  treatises 
of  less  importance.  Not  until  1620,  after  his 
long  struggle  to  political  power  and  on  the  eve 
of  his  fall,  did  Bacon  publish  the  'Novum  Or- 
ganum,' though  much  of  its  material  had  been 
anticipated  in  his  earlier  writings.  Prefixed  to 
the  work  is  a  "distributio  operis"  for  the  whole 
'Instauration,'  which  was  planned  to  contain 
the  following  parts:  i.  Partitiones  Scientiarum 
(represented  temporarily  by  the  English  'Ad- 
vancement of  Learning');  2.  Novum  Organum 
(the  new  instrument  or  inductive  method)  ;  3. 
Phasnomena  Universi ;  4.  Scala  Intellcctus  (by 
which  fanciful  title  he  meant  to  indicate  the 
operation  of  the  new  method  in  passing  gradu- 
ally from  less  general  to  more  general  principles 
"per  scalam  veram")  ;  5.  Prodromi  Philosophise 
Secundae  (to  contain  such  tentative  discoveries 
as  Bacon  had  made  without  using  the  new 
method)  ;  6.  Philosophia  Secunda,  sive  Scientia 
Activa  (a  final  embodiment  of  the  results  of  the 
new  philosophy).  The  first  book  of  the  'Novum 
Organum'  was  still  introductory  in  character, 
discussing  the  uselessness  of  the  older  philoso- 
phies, the  traditional  errors  of  mankind,  and  the 
grounds  of  hope  in  the  future  of  science.  Bacon's 
optimistic  devotion  to  science  has  been  not  in- 
eptly compared  with  that  of  the  young  Renan. 
His  classification  of  the  "idols"  (phantasms  or 
delusions)    of  the  tribe,   the  cave,   the  market- 


BACON 


place  and  the  theatre,  has  become  a  literary 
commonplace.  In  the  second  book  the  new 
induction  itself  is  finally  expounded  and  illus- 
trated by  a  study  of  the  nature  of  heat.  The 
exposition  is  incomplete  and  falls  short,  as  in 
the  nature  of  things  it  was  bound  to,  of  what 
Bacon  himself  apparently  hoped  to  achieve, 
namely  a  mechanical  method  of  invention.  Bacon 
never  pursued  the  theory  further,  and  in  his 
later  works  he  turned  from  the  new  method,  or 
instrument,  toward  other  parts  of  his  great 
scheme.  Ihe  *Parasceue  ad  Historiam  Natura- 
lem'  (.1620)  is  a  brief  and  incomplete  prepara- 
tion for  the  third  part  of  the  Instauration,  and 
was  followed  in  1G22  by  the  'Natural  and  Ex- 
perimental History  for  the  Foundations  of  Phi- 
losophy, or  Phenomena  of  the  Universe,  being 
the  ihird  Part  of  the  Great  Instauration.'  This 
treatise  which  was  to  take  up  winds,  density  and 
rarity,  gravity,  sympathy  and  antipathy  of  things, 
and  a  variety  of  other  topics,  was  also  left 
in  a  fragmentary  state.  In  1623  appeared  the 
<De  Augmentis,'  which  was  to  supersede  the 
English  ^Advancement  of  Learning'  as  the  first 
portion  of  the  Instauration.  Probably  about 
1624  Bacon  wrote  the  'Syl  a  Sylvarum'  (pub- 
lished in  1627),  an  ill-classified  collection  of 
materials  for  natural  history.  Its  contents  belong 
in  considerable  degree  to  the  realm  of  folk-lore 
and  superstition,  and  Bacon's  detractors  have 
found  in  the  work  some  of  their  best  grounds  of 
attack  on  his  character  as  a  man  of  science.  It 
was  his  belief,  however,  stated  in  the  ^Advance- 
ment of  Learning,'  that  a  collection  and  com- 
parison even  of  the  erroneous  opinions  of  man- 
kind might  give  useful  guidance  in  the  pursuit 
of  truth.  Under  the  titles  ^Scala  Intellectus' 
and  ^Prodromi  sive  Anticipationes  Philosophise 
Secundae'  Bacon  wrote  at  a  later,  but  uncertain, 
date  two  mere  prefaces  which  filled  the  fourth 
and  fifth  gaps  in  the  'Instauration.'  They  were 
his  last  philosophical  writings. 

Bacon's  position  in  the  history  of  science  and 
of  philosophy  has  been  very  diflFerently  esti- 
mated. He  constructed  no  philosophical  system, 
and  one  would  search  his  writings  in  vain  for 
much  discussion  of  the  great  problems  which  have 
divided  the  schools  of  metaphysics  since  Des- 
cartes. As  a  man  of  science  his  shortcomings 
are  still  more  notable.  He  was  commonly  un- 
successful in  his  own  investigations  and  ill- 
informed  about  the  best  work  of  his  contem- 
poraries. He  was  hardly  possessed  at  all  of 
what  is  now  understood  by  the  scientific  mind. 
Yet  there  is  much  justification  for  the  traditional 
view  of  him  as  the  father  of  modern  philosophy 
and  the  primary  instigator  of  modern  scientific 
progress.  If  not  the  originator,  he  made  himself 
at  least  the  leading  exponent  of  the  revolt  against 
the  .Aristotelian,  or  more  properly  the  scholastic, 
tradition,  and  he  profoundly  influenced  the  Eng- 
lish realists  of  the  next  generations.  In  ethics 
his  distinction  between  ^'individual  or  self-good'* 
and  "good  of  communion"  points  forward  to  the 
doctrine  of  the  later  utilitarians.  And  science 
certainly  owed  him  a  large  debt  for  the  formu- 
lation _  and  urgent  presentation  of  the  *new 
induction.'*  No  one,  of  course,  will  maintain 
that  Bacon  invented  induction.  Macaulay,  in 
his  familiar  account  of  the  plain  man  and  the 
minced  pies,  has  made  some  sport  of  his  claims 
to  originality  in  this  matter.     But  a  more  judi- 


cious estimate  would  recognize  the  high  and 
lasting  educational  value  01  the  'iN'ovum  Ur- 
ganum.'  And  Bacon's  broad  outlook  and  fertile 
imagination  enabled  him  to  lay  down  the  lines 
of  scientific  progress  and  to  win  recruits  for  the 
work.  He  furnished  his  followers  not  only  with 
an  improved  method,  but  also  with  a  more  vital 
aim, — that  of  practical  service.  In  his  revolt 
against  Aristotle  ami  the  schoolmen  he  con- 
stantly dwelt  upon  th  fruitlessness  of  the 
earlier  'philosophies,  and  one  of  the  most  elo- 
quent passages  in  the  'Advancement  of  Learn- 
ing' sets  forth  the  ideal  of  human  service  as  the 
goal  of  scientific  effort.  This  aim  has  come  to  be 
called  Baconian,  so  much  so  that  Bacon  is  often 
charged  with  having  ignored  or  denied  the  more 
purely  intellectual  purposes.  But  the  charge  is 
extreme.  He  thought  it  wise,  in  view  of  the 
sentiment  of  his  time  to  emphasize  particularly 
the  practical  aim ;  but  he  recognized  Veritas  and 
utilitas  ('Novum  Organum'  I,  Ap.  124)  as  co- 
ordinate ends  of  study.  Finally,  in  spite  of  his 
deficiencies  in  investigation,  Bacon  made  some 
noteworthy  discoveries  in  pure  science.  His 
explanation  of  heat  as  a  mode  of  motion  is 
quoted  by  Tyndall  as  a  striking  anticipation  of 
the  modern  doctrine.  On  the  whole,  however, 
it  was  as  a  prophet  or  leader,  rather  than  as  a 
productive  scholar  that  Bacon  served  learning 
best. 

By  far  the  greater  part  of  Bacon's  writings 
(apart  from  his  state  papers,  legal  works,  and 
copious  personal  memoranda)  dealt  with  phi- 
losophy and  science,  and  bore  directly  or  indi- 
rectly upon  the  construction  of  the  'Great  In- 
stauration.' Some  of  his  more  important  state 
papers  have  been  already  mentioned  in  the 
account  of  his  life.  His  strictly  professional 
writings  (treatises  on  English  law)  will  be  found 
in  the  seventh  volume  of  the  Spedding  and  Ellis 
edition  of  his  collected  works.  His  personal 
memoranda,  which  permit  an  intimate  view  of 
his  life  and  character,  are  published  in  Sped- 
ding's  'Letters  and  Life'  (the  highly  character- 
istic 'Commentarius  Solutus,'  of  the  year  1608, 
in  the  fourth  volume).  Besides  all  these  pro- 
ductions of  his  scholarship  and  his  professional 
life  he  made  eminent  contributions  to  history 
and  to  pure  letters.  His  'History  of  Henry 
VII.'  (1621),  which  has  been  accepted  by  later 
scholars  as  essentially  sound,  ranks  with  the  best 
historical  writing  of  its  age  in  England.  Bacon 
wrote  also  a  memorial  of  Elizabeth  ('In  Felicem 
Memoriam  Elizabethse'  (1607),  another  of 
Henry,  Prince  of  Wales,  who  died  in  1612,  and 
fragments  on  the  reign  of  Henry  VIII.  and  on 
the  accession  of  James  I. 

In  pure  literature  Bacon's  reputation  rests 
chiefly  on  three  works:  the  'Advancement  of 
Learning'  (which  has  been  already  discussed), 
the 'Essays,'  and  the  'New  Atlantis.'  The  first 
two  of  these,  curiously  enough,  he  translated,  or 
had  translated,  into  Latin  in  order  to  secure 
them  a  wider  and  more  permanent  public.  The 
'New  Atlantis'  (first  published  by  Rawley  in 
1627,  but  probably  written  between  1622  and 
1624),  is  a  fragmentary  sketch  of  an  ideal  com- 
monwealth, and  in  particular  of  an  ideal  "palace 
of  invention"  called  "Solomon's  House," — a 
great  establishment  of  scientific  research  such  as 
Bacon  longed  to  see  founded.  The  book,  which 
expresses  the  idealistic  spirit  of  the  Renaissance, 


BACON 


shows  Bacon  at  his  best.  The  description  of 
Solomon's  house  is  said  to  have  led  to  the  es- 
tabhshment  of  the  Royal  Society.  The  'Es- 
says,* which  were  designed  to  "come  home  to 
men's  business  and  bosoms,"  are  better  known 
than  anything  else  that  Bacon  wrote.  They 
deal  with  many  subjects  and  are  characterized 
by  ripe  reflection  and  consummate  mastery  of 
style.  Bacon  had  them  in  hand  during  the 
greater  part  of  his  mature  life.  He  published 
the  first  edition  in  1597,  and  twice  revised  and 
enlarged  the  collection  (in  1612  and  1625).  The 
title  is  supposed  to  have  been  suggested  by  the 
'Essais*  of  Montaigne,  and  there  are  occasional 
resemblances  between  the  two  works  in  sub- 
ject-matter; but  Bacon  was  not  largely  in- 
debted to  any  source,  and  his  conception  of  the 
essay  was  totally  different  from  the  personal 
and  leisurely  discourses  of  Montaigne.  "Brief 
thoughts,  set  down  rather  significantly  than  cu- 
riously,*' was  his  own  characterization  of  them 
in  the  dedication  of  the  second  edition ;  and  al- 
though some  of  the  later  essays  contain  pas- 
sages of  adorned  and  sustained  eloquence  such 
as  were  lacking  in  the  earlier  ones,  the  general 
type  was  maintained  to  the  end. 

A  small  number  of  religious  works,  in  ele- 
vated thought  and  style,  remain  to  be  mentioned : 
the  'Meditationes  Sacrse'  (published  in  1597), 
the  'Confession  of  Faith*  (written  before  1603), 
several  prayers,  and  Bacon's  only  accredited 
verse,  'A  Translation  of  Certain  Psalms  into 
English  Verse'  (1624).  A  poem  on  'The 
World,' — "The  world's  a  bubble,  and  the  life  of 
man  less  than  a  span.*' — is  sometimes  ascribed 
to  him,  but  is  of  doubtful  authorship. 

Bibliography. — The  dates  of  Bacon's  chief 
works  have  been  mentioned  in  the  body  of  the 
article.  The  standard  collected  edition  is  that 
of  Spedding,  Ellis  and  Heath  (London  1857-59). 
Single  works  have  in  several  cases  been  pub- 
lished separately  with  more  elaborate  annota- 
tion ;  among  the  best  of  such  editions  being  the 
'Novum  Organum'  by  T.  Fowler  (Oxford 
1878),  the  'Advancement,  of  Learning'  by  W. 
A.  Wright  (O.xford  1896),  the  'Essays'  by 
Archbishop  Whately  (London  1856),  E.  A.  Ab- 
bott (London  1896),  and  S.  H.  Reynolds  (Ox- 
ford 1890),  and  the  'New  Atlantis'  by  G.  C. 
Moore  Smith  (Cambridge  1900).  A  useful 
reprint  of  the  three  editions  of  the  'Essays' 
has  been  published  by  Edward  Arber,  English 
Reprints,  No.  27  (1871).  For  the  life  of  Bacon 
the  great  source  of  original  materials  is  Sped- 
ding's  'Letters  and  Life  of  Bacon'  (7  vols., 
1861).  A  brief  digest  of  the  material  was  is- 
sued in  two  volumes,  'The  Life  and  Times  of 
Francis  Bacon'  (Triibner  1878).  Short  biog- 
raphies of  value  have  been  written  by  R.  W. 
Church,  'Francis  Bacon'  (London  1884), 
Thomas  Fowler.  'Francis  Bacon'  (New  York 
1881),  E.  A.  Abbott,  'Francis  Bacon,  an  Ac- 
count of  His  Life  and  Works'  (London  1885), 
S.  R.  Gardiner  (in  the  'Dictionary  of  National 
Biography'),  and  John  Nichol,  'Francis  Bacon, 
His  Life  and  Philosophy'  (London  1898-9). 
Macaulay's  essay  on  Bacon  furnishes  a  brilliant 
though  by  no  means  just  or  satisfactory  esti- 
mate of  the  man  and  his  work.  On  Bacon's 
philosophical  doctrines  and  influence  one  shouM 
consult,  besides  the  standard  histories  of  phi- 
losophy, Ellis's  general  introduction  to  the  phil- 


osophical works,  Kuno  Fischer's  <  Francis 
Bacon  of  Verulam :  Realistic  Philosophy  and 
Its  Age'^  (Engl,  translation  by  John  Oxenford 
1857),  Fowler's  elaborate  commentary  on  the 
'Novum  Organum'  and  his  'Francis  Bacon.' 
The  history  of  Bacon's  reputation  and  influence 
is  treated  with  some  fulness  in  Dr.  Fowler's  in- 
troduction to  the  'Novum  Organum.'  An  idea 
of  the  arguments  of  Bacon's  adverse  critics  can 
be  derived  from  Joseph  de  Maistre,  'Examen  de 
la  Philosophic  de  Bacon'  (Paris,  1836),  Sir 
David  Brewster,  'Memoirs  of  the  Life,  Writings, 
and  Discourses  of  Sir  Isaac  Newton'  (Edin- 
burgh, 1855),  and  Justus  von  Liebig,  'Ueber 
Francis  Bacon  von  Verulam  und  die  Methode 
der  Naturforschung'    (Munich,  1863). 

Fred  N.  Robinson, 
Professor  of  English,  Harvard  University. 

Ba'con,  Henry,  American  painter:  b.  Hav- 
erhill, Mass.,  1839.  He  served  in  the  Civil  War, 
studied  art  in  Paris  under  Cabanel  and  Edward 
Frere,  and  painted,  among  others,  '  Boston 
Boys  and  Gen.  Gage'  (1875)  ;  'Paying  the  Scot' 
(1870);  and  'The  Farewells'    (1878). 

Ba'con,  John,  English  sculptor:  b.  South- 
wark.  24  Nov.  1740;  d.  4  Aug.  1799.  In  early 
life  he  was  employed  in  modelling  small  por- 
celain ornaments,  and  while  yet  an  apprentice 
he  formed  a  project  for  making  statues  of  arti- 
ficial stone.  In  1763  he  began  to  work  in  mar- 
ble ;  and  shortly  afterward,  invented  an  instru- 
ment for  transferring  the  form  of  the  model 
to  the  marble.  In  1768  he  became  a  student  of 
the  Royal  Academy,  and  next  year  he  obtained 
the  first  gold  medal  for  sculpture  given  by  that 
society,  the  following  year  he  was  chosen  an 
associate,  and  in  1778  was  made  a  full  member. 
His  chief  works  are  two  groups  for  the  interior 
of  the  Royal  Academy,  the  statue  of  Judge 
Blackstone  for  All  Souls'  College,  Oxford  ;  an- 
other of  Henry  VI.  for  Eton  College ;  the  monu- 
ment of  Lord  Chatham  in  Westminster  Abbey; 
and  the  statues  of  Dr.  Johnson  and  the  pliilan- 
thropist  Howard  in  Saint  Paul's  Cathedral. 

Ba'con,  John  Edmund,  lawyer :  b.  Edge- 
field, S.  C,  3  March  1832;  d.  Columbia,  S.  C, 
19  Feb.  1897.  Graduated  at  South  Carolina  Col- 
lege, 185 1  ;  Litchfield  (Conn.)  Law  School,  and 
admitted  to  the  bar,  1854.  He  was  secretary  of 
the  United  States  legation  at  St.  Petersburg,  and 
married  a  daughter  of  ex-Gov.  Pickens,  then 
minister  to  Russia.  He  resigned  in  i860,  entered 
the  Confederate  army,  and  rose  to  the  rank  of 
major.  He  was  one  of  the  negotiators  for  the 
restoration  of  South  Carolina  to  the  L'nion. 
1866;  and  to  him  was  chiefly  due  the  reopening 
of  South  Carolina  College  by  act  of  the  legisla- 
ture in  1873.  In  1886  he  was  appointed  charge 
d'affaires  in  LVuguay  and  Paraguay. 

Ba'con,  John  Mosby,  American  military 
officer:  b.  Kentucky,  17  April  1844;  served  in 
the  Union  army  through  the  Civil  War:  was 
appointed  captain  in  the  9th  L'^nited  States 
Cavalry,  in  1866,  and  colonel  of  the  8th  cavalry 
in  1897.  On  4  May  1898,  he  was  appointed 
brigadier-general  of  volunteers  and  placed  in 
command  of  the  Department  of  Dakota.  Sub- 
sequently, he  was  assigned  to  duty  in  Cuba, 
till    8    May    1899.       He    was    retired    in    1902. 


BACON 


Ba'con,  Leonard,  American  clergyman :  b. 
Detroit,  Mich.,  19  Feb.  1802;  d.  24  Dec.  1881 ; 
graduated  at  Yale  in  1820,  after  which  he  stud- 
ied theology  at  Andover,  Mass.  In  1825  he  be- 
came pastor  of  the  First  Congregational  Church 
in  New  Haven,  a  post  wdiich  he  held  officially, 
though  not  always  actively,  until  his  death.  He 
was  professor  of  didactic  theology  in  Yale 
(1866-71).  He  was  throughout  his  life  an  ac- 
tive opponent  of  slavery.  In  1847  he  joined  with 
Drs.  Storrs  and  Thompson  to  found  the  New 
York  Independent,  in  the  joint  editorship  of 
which  he  continued  for  16  years.  Besides  a 
vast  number  of  reviews  and  pamphlets,  he  pub- 
lished <Views  and  Reviews^  (1840);  ^Slavery 
Discussed  in  Occasional  Essays^  (1846);  and 
< Genesis  of  the  New  England  Churches.^ 

Ba'con,  Nathaniel,  American  insurrection- 
ary leader:  b.  Friston  Hall,  Suffolk,  Eng- 
land, 2  Jan.  1647;  d.  26  Oct.  1676.  His  great- 
grandfather was  cousin  to  Lord  Bacon ;  his 
mother,  a  Brooke,  was  daughter  of  a  Suffolk 
knight.  He  entered  St.  Catherine's  College, 
Cambridge,  in  1660;  took  M.A.  1667;  studied 
law  at  Gray's  Inn,  London,  and  traveled  on  the 
Continent.  He  found  life  too  straitened  in 
England  on  the  income  his  father  allowed  him, 
and  the  latter  gave  him  ii.Soo  outright  to  emi- 
grate to  Virginia,  where  his  cousin,  Nicholas 
Bacon,  had  been  living  since  1650.  He  arrived 
in  the  latter  part  of  1673  with  a  young  wife, 
daughter  of  Sir  Edward  Duke,  and  soon  became 
a  member  of  the  governor's  council,  as  was  his 
cousin ;  and  settled  on  a  plantation  some  20 
miles  below  Richmond,  on  the  James,  called 
"Curie's  Wharf.*^  He  also  had  another  on  a 
part  of  the  site  of  Richmond,  the  attack  on 
which  by  the  Indians  was  part  of  the  raid  that 
brought  on  the  imbroglio  known  as  "Bacon's 
Rebellion,"  which  see  for  his  career  and  fate. 

Ba'con,  Roger,  English  monk  and  philos- 
opher:  b.   near   Ilchester,   about   1214;    d.    1294. 
He  first  entered  the  University  of  Oxford,  and 
afterward  went  to  that  of  Paris,  where  he  seems 
to  have  distinguished  himself  much  by  success- 
ful study  and  teaching,  and  received  the  degree 
of  doctor  of  theology.     About  1250  he  returned 
to    England,    where    he    entered    the    order    of 
Franciscans,  fixed  his  abode  at  Oxford,  and  de- 
voted himself  to  his   studies,  chiefly   in   natural 
philosophy.     Means  were  furnished  him  by  gen- 
erous   friends    of    science,    whose    contributions 
enabled  him   to  purchase  books,  to   prepare   in- 
struments,   and   to   make   the   necessary   experi- 
ments.    In  examining  the   secrets  of  nature  he 
made    discoveries    and    deduced    results    which 
appeared  so  extraordinary  to  the  ignorant,  that 
they  were  believed  to  be  works  of  magic.    There 
is  clear  evidence  in  his  writings  that  he  accepted 
the    Aristotelian   theory   of   stellar   influence   on 
the  minds  and  wills  of  men,  not  indeed  directly, 
but    through    the    medium    of    the    body.     Such 
views  brought  him  into  conflict  with  the  teach- 
ings of  the  Church  on  free  will,  and  in  1257  he 
was  sent  to  Paris,  where  he  was  kept  in  confine- 
ment for  the  long  period  of  10  years.     In  1267, 
Bacon  wrote  a  work  under  the  title  of   'Opus 
Majus,^  giving  a  connected  view  of  the  different 
branches    of    human    knowledge,    supplemented 
soon  after  by  two  other  works,  namely,   'Opus 
Secundum^  and  'Opus  Tertium.^     Under  Clem- 
ent's   successor,    Nicholas    III.,    the    general    of 


the  Franciscans,  Jerome  of  Ascoli,  declared 
himself  against  Bacon,  forbade  the  reading  of 
his  writings,  and  issued  an  order  for  his  im- 
prisonment, which  was  confirmed  by  the  Pope. 
This  new  confinement  lasted  10  years;  and 
when  Jerome  of  Ascoli  was  elected  pope,  under 
the  name  of  Nicholas  IV.,  Bacon  vainly  en- 
deavored to  convince  him  of  the  innocence  and 
utility  of  his  labors,  by  sending  him  a  treatise 
'On  the  Means  of  Avoiding  the  Infirmities  of 
Old  Age.^  After  the  death  of  Nicholas  IV.  he 
regained  his  liberty,  and  returned  to  Oxford, 
where  he  wrote  a  'Compendium  of  Theology.* 

Though  an  extraordinary  man.  Bacon  could 
not  entirely  free  himself  from  the  prejudices 
of  his  time.  He  believed  in  the  philosopher's 
stone  and  in  astrology.  There  are  to  be  found 
in  his  writings  new  and  ingenious  views  on  op- 
tics ;  for  example,  on  the  refraction  of  light, 
on  the  apparent  magnitude  of  objects,  on  the 
magnified  appearance  of  the  sun  and  moon 
when  in  the  horizon,  etc.  He  describes  very 
exactly  the  nature  and  effects  of  convex  and 
concave  lenses,  and  speaks  of  their  application 
to  the  purposes  of  reading,  and  of  viewing  dis- 
tant objects,  both  terrestrial  and  celestial;  and 
it  is  easy  to  prove  from  his  writings  that  he 
was  either  the  inventor  or  improver  of  the  tele- 
scope. He  also  gives  descriptions  of  the  camera 
obscura,  and  of  the  burning-glass.  He  made, 
too,  several  medical  discoveries.  The  discovery 
of  gunpowder  has  been  attributed  to  him.  His 
writings  contain  the  chemical  formula  for  it, 
but  it  is  generally  supposed  that  he  obtained  it 
from  the  Arabs,  from  whose  writings  he  de- 
rived other  suggestions.  He  was  acquainted 
with  geography  and  astronomy,  discovered  the 
errors  of  the  calendar  and  their  causes,  and 
made  a  corrected  calendar.  In  moral  philoso- 
phy also.  Bacon  laid  down  some  excellent  pre- 
cepts. 

Ba'con,  Roger,  his  Opus  Majus  (1267 
A.D.).  Newly  edited  and  published,  with  intro- 
duction and  full  English  analysis  of  the  Latin 
text,  by  J.  H.  Bridges  (2  vols.  1897).  An  ade- 
quate publication,  after  630  years,  of  one  of  the 
most  remarkable  productions  of  the  human 
mind. 

The  work  is  an  exhortation  addressed  to 
Pope  Clement,  urging  him  to  initiate  a  reform 
of  Christian  education,  in  order  to  establish  the 
ascendancy  of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church  over 
all  nations  and  religions  of  the  world.  Its  cen- 
tral theme  was  the  consolidation  of  the  Roman 
Catholic  faith  as  the  supreme  agency  for  the 
civilization  of  mankind.  Its  author  wished  to 
see  recognition  of  "all  the  sciences,*  since  all  are 
parts  of  one  and  the  same  complete  wisdom. 
He  first  gave  experiment  the  distinct  and  su- 
preme place  which  was  later  revived  by  Des- 
cartes, and  carried  out  in  modern  science.  He 
formed  a  clear  conception  of  chemistry,  in  his 
day  not  yet  separated  from  alchemy';  and  of  a 
science  of  living  things,  as  resulting  with 
chemistry  from  physics.  In  the  part  of  his  work 
dealing  with  moral  philosophy.  Bacon  makes 
the  first  attempt  ever  made  at  the  comparative 
study  of  the  religions  of  the  world.  His  pro- 
tests against  the  intellectual  prejudices  of  the 
time,  his  forecasts  of  an  age  of  industry  and 
invention,  the  prominence  given  to  exoeriment, 
alike  as  the  test  of  received  opinion  and  the 
guide  to  new  fields  of  discovery,  render  compari- 


BACON  — BACON'S  REBELLION 


son  with  Francis  Bacon  unavoidable.  In  wealth 
of  words,  in  brilliancy  of  imagination,  Francis 
Bacon  was  immeasurably  his  superior.  But 
Roger  Bacon  had  the  sounder  estimate  and  the 
firmer  grasp  of  that  combination  of  deductive 
with  inductive  method  which  marks  the  scien- 
tific discoverer. 

Ba'con,  Thomas  Scott,  American  theo- 
logical writer :  b.  Saratoga,  N.  Y.,  i  Feb.  1825. 
Originally  a  lawyer,  he  became  an  Episcopal 
clergyman  (1854).  Besides  sermons,  addresses, 
reviews,  etc.,  he  has  written  'Both  Sides  of  the 
Controversy  Between  the  Roman  and  the  Re- 
formed Church'  (1858);  <The  Reign  of  God, 
not  the  Reign  of  Law'  (1879)  ;  "^The  Begin- 
nings of  Religion'  (1887)  ;  <  Primitive  and 
Catholic  Doctrine  as  to  Holy  Scripture'  ;  "^It 
is  Written.' 

Ba'con,  Philippine  Islands,  a  town  in  the 
province  of  Albay,  Island  of  Luzon.  Pop.  about 
13,000. 

Ba'con,  the  name  given  the  sides  of  a  pig 
which  have  been  cured  or  preserved  by  salting 
with  salt  and  saltpetre,  and  afterward  drying 
with  or  without  wood  smoke.  By  the  old  pro- 
cess of  rubbing  in  the  saline  mixture,  the  curing 
occupied  from  three  to  four  months.  The 
method  now  adopted  on  a  larger  scale  is  to 
place  the  prepared  flitches  in  a  fluid  pickle.  The 
pickling,  -drying,  and  smoking  now  occupy  not 
more  than  six  weeks.  Bacon  may  be  called  the 
poor  as  well  as  the  rich  man's  food.  By  the 
former  it  is  prized  as  a  necessary  of  life ;  by 
the  latter,  for  its  exquisite  flavor.  The  nitro- 
genous. Of  flesh-forming  matter  in  bacon  is 
small,  one  pound  yielding  less  than  one  ounce 
of  dry.  muscular  substance,  while  the  amount 
of  carbon  compounds,  or  heat  givers,  is  large, 
exceeding  60  per  cent.  Its  digestibility,  how- 
ever, owing  to  the  large  proportion  of  fat  it 
contains,  is  not  less  than  that  of  beef  or  mutton. 

Ba'con  Bee'tle  ( Dermestes  lardarius),  an 
insect,  the  larva  of  which  destroys  bacon,  lard, 
and  furs. 

Baco'nian  Philos'ophy,  the  inductive  phi- 
losophy of  which  it  is  sometimes  said  that  Lord 
Bacon  was  the  founder.  This,  however,  is  an 
exaggerated  statement.  What  Lord  Bacon  did 
for  this  mode  of  ratiocination  was  to  elucidate 
and  systematize  it ;  to  point  out  its  great  value, 
and  to  bring  it  prominently  before  men's  no- 
tice ;  lending  it  the  support  of  his  great  name 
at  a  time  when  most  of  his  contemporaries  were 
satisfied  with  the  barren  logic  of  the  schools. 
The  triumphs  of  modern  science  have  arisen 
from  a  resolute  adherence  on  the  part  of  its 
votaries  to  the  Baconian  method  of  inquiry. 

Ba'con's  Rebel'lion,  in  Virginia,  1676. 
The  English  Navigation  Acts  of  1651  and  1660, 
restricting  colonial  trade  to  English  vessels,  had 
produced  universal  distress  in  Virginia,  forcing 
it  to  buy  and  sell  to  the  home  monopolists  at 
their  own  price ;  tobacco,  not  only  the  chief 
product,  but  the  chief  currency,  became  almost 
worthless.  In  1667  the  smaller  landholders 
were  reported  on  the  brink  of  rebellion,  and  in 
1673  there  were  meetings  to  refuse  payment  of 
taxes.  Meantime  the  corrupt  civil  service  of 
the  colony,  place-hunters  sent  over  by  Charles 
II.  to  be  rid  of  them,  were  plundering  the 
planters  by  means  of  the  export  dues,  in  col- 
lusion with  the  governor.  Sir  William  Berkeley 
Vol.    2 — 12. 


(q.v.)  ;  and  the  latter  was  fattening  on  a  fur 
trade  with  the  Indians.  To  save  himself  from 
the  opposition  or  criticism  of  the  masses,  whom 
he  hated  and  despised,  and  perpetuate  the 
oligarchy  of  the  small  group  of  rich  planters 
who  formed  his  council,  he  kept  his  legislature 
of  1662, —  strongly  royalist  from  the  enthusiasm 
of  the  Restoration,— in  office  till  1676  by  an- 
nual adjournments  without  new  elections  ;  he  had 
also  abolished  universal  suflfrage  and  substi- 
tuted a  property  qualification.  This  built  up  a 
strong  opposition,  including  some  of  the  solidest 
citizens.  In  1675  a  terrible  Indian  war  broke 
out,  wrapping  the  frontier  in  fire  and  blood  ;  36 
whites  were  murdered  in  one  day  of  January 
1676.  Berkeley,  implored  to  protect  the  settle- 
ments, ordered  out  a  force  under  Sir  Henry 
Chicheley,  then  suddenly  dissolved  it,  recalled 
Chicheley's  commission,  and  refused  to  do  any- 
thing more  till  the  Assembly  met  in  March. 
The  result  was  frightful :  within  17  days  60  of 
the  71  plantations  in  Rappahannock  parish  were 
destroyed,  and  by  the  time  of  the  March  meet- 
ing, over  300  victims  had  perished,  a  large  part 
by  fiendish  tortures.  Even  then,  under  Berke- 
ley's orders,  the  «Long  Assembly"  (so  called 
in  allusion  to  the  Long  Parliament)  merely 
committed  another  outrage:  instead  of  author- 
izing an  army,  they  authorized  frontier  forts,  to 
have  a  garrison  of  500  soldiers  (from  the  sea- 
board counties,  not  the  frontier  one  which  suf- 
fered from  the  Indians,  and  hated  the  governor). 
No  attack  on  the  Indians  was  to  be  permitted 
except  under  specific  orders  from  the  governor. 
Two  million  pounds  of  tobacco  more  were 
added  to  their  taxes  for  this  mockery  of  pro- 
tection, and  most  of  that  was  embezzled  and 
the  forts  built  so  as  to  be  worthless,  even  for 
the  little  service  they  could  do.  The  people 
petitioned  for  leave  to  form  expeditions  at  their 
own  charge  under  any  leader  Berkeley  might 
appoint ;  he  forbade  any  further  petitions  of  the 
sort  under  heavy  penalties.  It  was  the  univer- 
sal belief  that  his  one  solicitude  was  to  save 
his  Indian  trade  monopoly  from  harm.  Finally 
the  people  of  Charles  City  County  petitioned 
once  more  for  leave,  in  face  of  actual  ravages 
then  g:oing  on  ;  and  once  more  the  obstinate  and 
avaricious  old  man  refused  it.  Men  could  bear 
no  more ;  they  raised  300  volunteers  on  their 
own  risk,  and  by  acclamation  placed  at  their 
head  Nathaniel  Bacon  (q.v.),  a  planter  of  29, 
recently  from  England,  and  one  of  the  govern- 
or's council.  He  accepted  it  and  wrote  to 
Berkeley  for  a  commission ;  Berkeley  returned 
an  evasive  answer,  and  Bacon  started  on  his 
expedition  without  it.  Berkeley  hearing  of  it, 
sent  an  order  for  the  company  to  disperse ;  all 
but  a  few,  however,  kept  on  and  dispersed  the 
Indians.  Berkeley  collected  a  troop  of  horse- 
men, and  set  out  to  arrest  Bacon,  when  he  heard 
that  the  colony  was  all  in  revolt  behind  him; 
and  he  hurried  back  to  Jamestown,  dissolved 
his  14-year-old  Assembly,  and  issued  writs  for 
a  new  one.  Despite  his  suflfrage  restriction, 
there  was  a  heavy  majority  against  him.  Ba- 
con being  one  of  the  new  members.  As  the 
latter  approached  Jamestown,  he  was  arrested 
and  brought  before  Berkeley,  who,  in  view  of 
the  uprising,  did  not  dare  proceed  to  extremi- 
ties, but  paroled  him,  and  on  Bacon's  making 
submission  for  attacking  the  Indians  without 
license  allowed  him  to  take  his  seat,  with  a  tacit 
agreement  to  give  him  his  commission  to  finish 


BACOOR  —  BACTERIA 


the  Indian  war.  The  new  legislature,  besides 
restoring  universal  suffrage  and  making  other 
reforms  very  distasteful  to  Berkeley,  provided 
for  raising  an  army  of  1,000  men  for  Indian 
service.  But  Bacon,  still  refused  the  commis- 
sion, and  privately  warned  that  his  life  was  in 
danger,  fled,  shortly  returned  with  600  men, 
and  forced  Berkeley  to  sign  his  commission  as 
major-general  for  the  Indian  campaign,  and  also 
a  memorial  to  the  king  in  his  favor  and  recit- 
ing the  colonial  grievances.  This  later  was  sent 
off  with  a  secret  note  from  Berkeley,  disavow- 
ing it.  Bacon  within  a  month  had  nearly  put 
down  the  Indian  outbreak,  especially  by  a  crush- 
ing victory  at  Bloody  Run  (near  Richmond), 
when  he  heard  that  the  covernor  had  pro- 
claimed him  and  his  party  rebels,  and  to  escape 
popular  wrath  had  fled  across  the  peninsula  to 
Accomac.  Bacon  marched  back  to  Middle  Plan- 
tation (the  site  of  Williamsburg),  launched  a 
manifesto  against  Berkeley,  and  drew  around 
him  a  gathering  of  some  prominent  men  and  a 
vast  number  of  penniless  ones  (for  the  movement 
was  largely  a  democratic  revolt  against  an  over- 
weening aristocracy).  They  agreed  to  stand  by 
him  even  against  a  royal  army ;  feeling  that  they 
were  compromised  beyond  retreat  at  best,  and 
hoping  to  hold  out  till  the  king  could  be  cor- 
rectly informed  and  pardon  them.  Bacon  car- 
ried on  the  Indian  campaign  till  September, 
thoroughly  stamping  out  the  danger  to  the 
colony ;  meantime  sending  an  expedition  to  cap- 
ture Berkeley,  which  was  itself  captured. 
Berkeley  gathered  about  1,000  militia  by  prom- 
ising them  the  confiscated  estates  of  the  rebels, 
and  reoccupied  Jamestown ;  Bacon  marched 
against  him,  drove  him  to  Accomac  once  more, 
and  burnt  Jamestown  to  the  ground.  But  he 
had  taken  malaria  there,  and  while  invading 
Gloucester  County  to  attack  Major  Brent,  was 
stricken  down,  and  died  i  October.  The  re- 
bellion at  once  collapsed,  and  Berkeley 
wreaked  a  frightful  vengeance  upon  Bacon's 
adherents.  See  Berkeley,  Sir  William.  For 
authorities,  besides  new  documents  published  in 
^Virginia  Magazine  of  History^  (1893-8),  see 
the  'Century  Magazine,'  Vol.  XL.,  under  "Na- 
thaniel Bacon,*'  by  Edward  Eggleston ;  and 
John  Fiske's  "Old  Virginia  and  Her  Neigh- 
bors,»   1897,  Vol.  II.). 

Bacoor,  ba'ko-or',  Philippine  Islands,  a 
town  of  the  province  of  Cavite,  on  the  Island  of 
Luzon.     Pop.  about  14,000. 

Bacsanyi,  bo'chan-ye,  Janes,  Hungarian 
poet:  b.  Tapolcza,  11  May  1763;  d.  12  May 
1845.  His  first  work,  published  in  1785,  pro- 
cured him  an  appointment  in  a  public  office,  but 
a  liberal  poem  cost  him  this  in  1793,  as  well 
as  his  liberty  the  year  after.  In  1796  he  went 
to  Vienna,  and  there  he  married  a  few  years 
later  the  German  poet,  Gabrielle  Baumgarten  — 
an  unhappy  match.  In  1809,  Bacsanyi  trans- 
lated Napoleon's  proclamation  to  the  Hun- 
garians, and  was  afterward  obliged  to  take 
refuge  in  Paris.  After  the  Peace  of  Paris,  he 
lived  at  Linz,  where  he  died.  His  collected 
poems  appeared  at  Budapest  in  1827. 

Bacterae'mia,  a  form  of  poisoning  due  to 
bacterial  products.  This  poisoning  is  usually 
due  to  the  absorption  of  toxins  from  bacteria 
situated  either  on  the  surface  of  the  body,  the 
intestinal  canal,  or  in  some  confined  space.  See 
Pyemia. 


Bacteria.  Literally  the  word  bacterium, 
bacteria  being  its  plural,  means  a  tiny  rod  or 
stick.  As  understood,  however,  by  biologists, 
bacteria  constitute  a  genus  of  lowly  organized 
microscopic  plants  having  forms  other  than  that 
indicated  by  the  literal  meaning  of  the  word. 
Briefly  defined,  bacteria  are  unicellular  vegeta- 
bles that  multiply  by  the  simple  process  of 
transverse  division  —  they  are,  therefore,  schiz- 
omycetes.  In  size  they  are  all  of  microscopic 
dimensions  requiring  in  most  cases  to  be  magni- 
fied from  600  to  1,000  diameters  before  becom- 
ing visible  and  even  then  they  appear  in  many 
instances  as  scarcely  more  than  tiny  points. 
As  encountered  in  nature  they  assume  a  variety 
of  forms  which  may  be  conveniently  arranged 
into  three  principal  groups,  namely:  the  spheri- 
cal, the  rod-like,  and  the  spiral.  To  the  spherical 
forms  the  name  cocci  or  micrococci  {coccus, 
singular)  is  given,  and,  according  to  the  man- 
ner in  which  these  tiny  spheres  develop  and 
their  progeny  adhere  to  one  another,  they  are  fur- 
ther severally  designated  as  staphylocci,  that  is, 
cocci  clustering  irregularly  together  like  grapes 
in  a  bunch;  streptococci,  that  is,  cocci  adher- 
ing together  like  beads  or  pearls  in  a  strand ; 
diplo-cocci,  that  is,  cocci  occurring  in  pairs; 
tetracocci,  that  is,  cocci  clustered  in  fours,  etc. 

To  the  rod-like  group  —  that  is,  those  which 
are  straight,  having  one  diameter  longer  than 
another  —  the  designation  bacilli  (bacillus,  shi- 
gular)  is  given.  While  the  structure  and  mode 
of  multiplication  of  many  of  the  bacilli  is  as 
simple  as  is  that  of  the  micrococci  —  that  is,  one 
cell  divides  into  two,  two  into  four,  and  so  on 
ad  infiiiitiDii,  without  variation,  it  is  neverthe- 
less in  the  group  of  bacilli  that  we  encounter  a 
ntimber  of  species  provided  by  nature  with  a 
more  highly  organized  and  complicated  means 
for  propagation  and  perpetuation.  It  is  here 
that  we  encounter  species  in  the  course  of  whose 
life  cycle  there  develops  within  each  rod  a  single 
tiny,  oval,  highly  resistant  body,  a  spore  as  it  is 
called,  which  may  be  fairly  compared  to  the 
seeds  of  higher  plants  and  which,  like  the  seed, 
may  be  gathered  and  kept  for  almost  indefinite 
periods,  without  losing  their  power  of  germina- 
tion. Since  such  spores  of  bacteria  are  marked- 
ly tenacious  of  life  even  under  the  most  un- 
favorable of  circumstances  it  is  obvious  that 
the  power  to  form  spores  is  an  important  pro- 
vision for  the  preservation  of  the  species.  It 
is  of  passing  interest  to  know  that  the  ability 
to  form  spores  is  possessed  by  some,  but  not 
all,  of  the  disease-producing  bacteria,  a  fact 
that  serves  to  explain  in  part  the  difficulties 
experienced  by  the  sanitarian  in  eliminating  cer- 
tain types  of  infection.  For  it  must  be  remem- 
bered that  the  infective  species  capable  of  enter- 
ing the  spore  stage  are  by  virtue  of  that  property 
much  less  vulnerable  to  the  action  of  disin- 
fectants and  disinfecting  processes  than  are  the 
species  not  so  endowed. 

The  spiral  forms,  spirilla,  spirochaeta,  as  they 
are  called,  comprise  those  bacteria  having  one 
or  more  curves  in  their  long  axis,  that  is,  those 
that  are  twisted  like  a  corkscrew.  They  are 
sometimes  seen  as  homogeneous,  long  spiral 
threads  without  segmentations,  while  again  they 
may  consist  of  short  curved  segments  adhering 
end  to  end.  Spore  formation  is  not  a  charac- 
teristic of  the  spiral  bacteria. 

In  structure  bacteria  are  non-nucleated 
masses    of    protoplasm    surrounded    by    an    en- 


BACTERIA 


veloping  zone  appearing  in  some  instances 
to  be  but  a  condensation  of  the  central 
protoplasm,  while  in  others  it  partakes  some- 
what of  the  nature  of  mucin.  Many  of  the 
bacteria  exhibit  no  evidence  of  independent  mo- 
tility, while  others,  by  virtue  of  special  locomo- 
tive apparatus  {Hagc'Ua)  move  themselves  about 
in  fluids  in  a  most  energetic  manner.  As  their 
structure  is  exceedingly  simple,  in  so  far  as 
formed  elements  are  concerned,  their  mode  of 
nutrition  is,  physically  speaking,  corresponding- 
ly simple  —  that  is,  the  nourishment  is  absorbed 
and  their  waste  products  discharged  directly 
through  their  enveloping  membranes  by  the  pro- 
cess of  osmosis.  This  being  the  case  it  is  ob- 
vious that  bacteria  can  multiply  and  perform 
their  physiological  functions  only  under  condi- 
tions of  moisture.  Unlike  the  more  highly  or- 
ganized plants  bacteria  are  apparently  without 
special  provisions  for  gaseous  exchange,  that  is, 
they  are  devoid  of  chlorophyl.  They  obtain 
their  oxygen  as  such  from  the  free  air  or  from 
easily  decomposable  oxygen  compounds.  In  the 
course  of  his  early  investigations  in  this  field 
Pasteur  discovered  a  group  of  bacteria  that  have 
ever  proven  to  be  of  the  greatest  interest  —  a 
group  that,  paradoxical  as  it  may  seem,  not 
only  does  not  require  free  oxygen  for  its  life  pro- 
cesses but  to  the  growth  of  which  free  oxygen 
is  actually  prohibitive.  To  these  species  he  gave 
the  designation  anaerobic  to  distinguish  them 
from  the  majority,  the  aerobic  varieties,  to  which 
free  oxygen  is  essential.  In  their  relations  to 
higher  life  bacteria  may  be  regarded  as  allies  or 
as  enemies,  according  to  the  nature  of  the  spe- 
cies under  consideration.  Contrary  to  notions 
that  have  been  more  or  less  prevalent  the  ma- 
jority of  bacteria  have  nothing  to  do  with 
disease  production.  Their  natural  role  is  that 
of  scavengers.  They  are  concerned  in  nature's 
great  laboratory,  the  soil,  in  working  over  dead 
organic  matters  into  forms  appropriate  to  the 
nourishment  of  growing  vegetation.  Since  in 
the  course  of  this  conversion  dead  bodies  that 
would  otherwise  encumber  the  earth  are  caused 
to  disappear  they  must  from  both  the  aesthetic 
and  economic  standpoints  be  regarded  as,  in  the 
main,  benefactors.  In  this  group  of  sapropJiytic 
bacteria,  as  they  are  called,  that  is,  those  that 
live  on  dead  matters,  we  encounter  species  of  the 
greatest  interest  and  importance.  It  is  here 
that  we  perceive  the  omnipresent  forms  con- 
cerned in  the  reduction  of  dead  animal  and 
vegetable  tissues  into  such  simple  forms  as  car- 
bon dioxid,  ammonia  and  water  to  be  used  by 
higher  plants.  It  is  in  this  group  that  we  find 
the  ever-present  nitrifying  species  —  that  is, 
those  peculiar  ferments  that  assist  the  legumi- 
nous plants  in  assimilating  free  atmospheric  ni- 
trogen ;  that  oxidize  the  ammonium  of  decom- 
position to  the  nitrous  and  nitric  acids  so  essen- 
tial to  plant  life;  that  convert  the  objectionable 
organic  matters  of  sewage  and  polluted  waters 
into  an  inert  inorganic  form  and  that,  through 
their  specific  activities  supply,  where  circum- 
stances are  favorable,  the  entire  commercial 
world  with  its  supply  of   saltpetre. 

The  saprophytic  group  also  comprehends 
many  species  used  in  the  arts  and  industries  — 
such,  for  instance,  as  those  concerned  in  the 
production  of  certain  organic  acids ;  those  em- 
ployed m  the  manufacture  of  indigo  by  the 
fermentation  process  and  in  the  preparation  of 
hemp  ;  and  those  utilized  in  the  manufacture  of 


cheese  and  butter.  In  the  study  of  this  large 
group  one  constantly  encounters  other  species 
presenting  most  engaging  characteristics  —  some 
of  these,  the  chromogcnic  varieties,  have  the 
property  of  producing  during  the  course  of  their 
growth  pigments  of  great  beauty  —  brilliant 
reds,  delicate  pinks,  rich  purples,  yellows  ran- 
ging from  the  palest  lemon  to  the  deepest  orange, 
are  those  most  often  encountered.  In  another 
group,  the  pliotogenic,  we  meet  with  species 
having  the  emission  of  light  as  their  most  singu- 
lar peculiarity.  When  growing  these  forms  glow 
with  a  peculiar  phosphorescence,  and  it  is  signi- 
ficant to  note  that  these  luminous  varieties  have 
been  most  frequently  encountered  in  the  sea 
and  upon  articles  from  the  sea.  The  evil  odors 
of  putrefaction  are  the  results  of  saproph3-tic 
bacterial  development.  In  the  parasitic  group 
of  bacteria  we  encounter  those  species  that  ex- 
ist always  at  the  expense  of  a  living  host,  either 
animal  or  vegetable,  and  in  doing  so  not  only 
appropriate  materials  necessary  to  life,  but  give 
off  in  return  waste  products  that  may  act  as 
direct  poisons  to  the  host.  Fortunately  this  is 
a  much  smaller  group  than  is  the  saprophytic 
mentioned  above.  In  no  particulars,  save  for 
their  ability  to  exist  at  the  expense  of  a  living 
host  and  cause  disease,  are  the  disease-producing 
bacteria  distinguishable  from  the  innocent  varie- 
ties. The  essential  difference  between  the  dis- 
ease-producing and  the  innocent  bacterial  spe- 
cies is  that  the  former  possess  as  their  most 
striking  physiological  peculiarity  the  power  of 
elaborating  poisons,  toxins,  technicallj^  speak- 
ing, that  have  a  direct  destructive  action  upon 
the  tissues  of  their  host.  In  some  cases  the  poi- 
sons may  be  properly  regarded  as  secretions  of 
the  bacteria,  and,  under  artificial  conditions  of 
cultivation,  may  easily  be  separated  from  the 
living  bacteria  elaborating  them.  This  is  es- 
pecially true  of  the  poisons  of  diphtheria  and 
of  tetanus  or  lock-jaw.  When  thus  separated 
such  poisons,  entirely  independent  of  the  living 
bacteria,  retain  the  specific  property  of  causing 
the  symptoms  and  many  of  the  pathological 
changes  that  characterize  the  growth  of  the  liv- 
ing bacteria  in  the  tissues.  In  other  cases  the 
poisons  cannot  be  so  readily  separated ;  they 
appear  to  be  an  integral  constituent  of  the  proto- 
plasm of  which  the  bacteria  are  composed.  This 
is  especially  the  case  with  the  toxins  of  bacillus 
typhosus,  bacillus  dysentcrice,  and  spirillum 
cholercc  Asiaticcc  —  the  organisms  concerned  in 
the  causation  of  typhoid  fever,  epidemic  dysen- 
tery, and  Asiatic  cholera,  respectively.  In  the 
case  of  still  other  pathogenic  species  there  is  lit- 
tle doubt  that  specific  intoxicants  are  in  one 
way  or  another  elaborated  during  infection,  but 
as  yet  they  have  not  been  satisfactorily  demon- 
strated. Nevertheless,  it  may  be  said  that,  in 
general,  infection  by  bacteria  is  to-day  regarded 
as  essentjally  a  chemical  phenomenon  —  that  is, 
as  a  reaction  between  the  poisons  elaborated  by 
the  bacteria  and  the  tissues  with  which  they  come 
in  contact ;  the  result  of  the  reaction  being  the 
partial  or  complete  death  of  the  host  in  which 
the  phenomenon  is  in  operation. 

Bibliography. —  A.  Fischer,  ^  Vorlesungen 
iiber  Bakterien*  ;  W.  Migula,  'System  der  Bak- 
terien^  ;  Slater  and  Spitta,  'An  Atlas  of  Bacte- 
riology' ;  G.  Sim's  Woodhead,  M.D.,  'Bacteria 
and  Their  Products.' 

A.  C.  Abbott, 

Bacteriologist,  University  of  Pennsylvania. 


BACTERICIDE;     BACTERIOLOGY 


Bactericide,  any  agent  capable  of  killing 
bacteria.  The  older  terms,  antiseptic,  germicide, 
etc.,  cover  too  broad  a  field,  and  the  word  bac- 
tericidal has  come  to  mean  .something  more 
definite  and  exact  than  the  older  terms.  Heat 
is  one  of  the  best  bactericidal  agents.  Cold  is 
not  bactericidal.  Even  the  lowest  temperatures 
do  not  destroy  the  life  of  these  plants.  The 
metallic  salts  and  the  phenols  are  the  bacteri- 
cidal agents  most  in  use.  The  aldehydes,  for- 
maldehyde, benzyaldehyde  are  also  efficient. 
See  Antiseptic  ;  Germicides. 

Bacteriology.  Though  generally  consid- 
ered a  modern  science,  and  perhaps  properly  as 
regards  certain  of  its  most  important  develop- 
mental aspects,  bacteriology  in  reality  dates 
from  the  observations  of  the  Dutch  investi- 
gator Leeuwenhoek  in  the  latter  part  of  the  17th 
century.  With  simple  lenses  ground  by  himself, 
Leeuwenhoek  discovered  in  the  mouth,  in  the 
excreta,  in  water,  and  in  other  matters  exam- 
ined by  him,  the  presence  of  countless  bodies 
of  smaller  dimensions  than  anything  hitherto 
seen.  These  ^'animalcules,'^  as  he  called  them, 
were  often  observed  to  move  themselves  about 
in  a  remarkably  energetic  manner,  and,  judging 
from  his  text  and  illustrations,  they  were  doubt- 
less the  bodies  we  now  recognize  as  bacteria. 
Leeuwenhoek's  observations  were  immediately 
seized  upon  by  the  philosophers  of  the  day  as 
offering  an  explanation  for  many  hitherto  unex- 
plained phenomena.  So  general  became  the  be- 
lief in  a  causal  relation  between  the  "animal- 
cules'' and  all  manner  of  disease  conditions  that 
for  a  time,  we  are  told,  there  prevailed  almost  a 
*^germ  mania." 

To  the  investigators  of  the  time  the  question 
of  greatest  fascination  in  connection  with  this 
newly-discovered  world  was  as  to  its  origin. 
Many  believed  and  stoutly  maintained  that  the 
^^animalcules"  were  the  products  of  metamor- 
phosis of  either  living  or  dead  tissues  of  more 
highly  organized  beings ;  others  that  they  arose 
de  novo  in  '^putrescent  atmospheres" ;  many  sus- 
pected them  of  spontaneous  generation  in  some 
other  mysterious  way ;  while  a  few  maintained, 
on  experimental  evidence,  that  they  were  prob- 
ably the  descendants  of  pre-existing  creatures 
of  the  same  kind.  Singular  as  it  may  seem  it 
took  nearly  two  centuries  to  close  finally  that 
debate  and  to  prove  that  the  dictum  of  Harvey 
^'■omne  viinim  ex  ovo^^  or  better,  its  appropriate 
modification  ^'■ovme  vivuin  ex  vivo''*  was  as  ap- 
plicable to  the  microscopic  as  to  the  world  of 
higher  beings.  In  its  modern  aspect  bacteriology 
dates  from  the  epoch-making  investigations  es- 
pecially of  Koch  and  of  Pasteur  conducted  dur- 
ing the  eighth  decade  of  the  19th  century.  Dur- 
ing that  period  observations  were  made  and 
methods  of  work  devised  that  went  far  toward 
starting  the  subject  on  its  career  as  a  science. 
In  the  study  of  bacteria,  as  of  all  other  forms  of 
life,  it  is  essential  to  a  correct  interpretation  of 
form  and  physiological  function  that  the  obser- 
vations be  made  upon  isolated  species.  Prior 
to  the  period  mentioned  this  was  not  possible, 
for  the  methods  in  vogue  were  insufficient  for 
the  separation  of  these  minute  creatures  from 
one  another.  For  the  development  of  the  science 
probably  the  most  important  step  was,  therefore, 
the  introduction  by  Koch  of  trustworthy  meth- 
ods for  the  separation  of  individual  bacterial 
species  from  mixtures  of  them,  and  for  the 
more   or    less   complete    determination    of   their 


specific  morphological  and  physiological  pe- 
culiarities ;  that  is,  for  the  isolation  and  study  of 
bacteria  in  "pure  cultivation,'*  as  it  is  technically 
called.  Up  to  the  time  of  Koch's  classical  re- 
search upon  the  methods  of  investigating  bac- 
teria, their  study  had  been  conducted  in  fluid 
materials ;  that  is,  in  infusions  of  either  vegeta- 
ble or  animal  matters,  in  which  most  bacterial 
species  develop  with  remarkable  activity.  Since 
many  totally  distinct  species  are  indistinguish- 
able from  one  another  by  their  size,  shape,  and. 
general  appearance,  it  was  obviously  impossible, 
by  the  older  methods  of  study,  either  to  be  cer- 
tain if  one  were  dealing  with  one  or  more  spe- 
cies in  the  fluids  in  which  they  were  growing,  or 
to  separate  the  one  from  the  other  in  case  of 
confusion.  Koch  appreciated  this  defect  and 
suggested  the  use  of  solid  materials  as  culture 
media,  hoping  thereby  to  reproduce  the  condi- 
tions so  often  seen  when  such  organic  matters 
as^  bread,  potato,  cheese,  etc.,  become  moldy  on 
exposure  to  air.  Here  one  sees  the  mold  not 
always  as  an  inextricable  mixture  of  different 
species,  but  often  as  sharply  isolated  islands  of 
beginning  growth  —  as  mold  colonies  —  so  to 
speak.  These,  on  examination,  are  usually 
found  to  consist  of  single  species,  and  on  a  slice 
of  moistened  bread  one  may  often  observe  sev- 
eral colonies  of  distinct  species  growing  side 
by  side  without,  for  a  time  at  least,  encroach- 
ing one  upon  another.  By  appropriate  methods 
it  is  easily  possible  to  transplant  such  colonies, 
free  from  admixture  with  other  forms,  and 
study  them  as  "pure  cultures."  But  such  sub- 
stances as  bread,  potato,  etc.,  are  not  in  general 
as  well  adapted  to  the  study  of  bacteria  as  to 
that  of  molds.  Appreciating  this  Koch  demon- 
strated that  the  addition  of  gelatin  to  the  in- 
fusions employed  for  the  successful  cultivation 
of  bacteria  converted  them  into  practically  solid 
culture  media  without  robbing  them  of  any  of 
their  useful  properties ;  and  that  by  the  appro- 
priate employment  of  such  solid  media  it  was 
easily  possible  to  separate  as  pure  cultures  the 
individual  species  composing  the  mixtures  of 
bacteria  that  one  desired  to  analyze.  Thus,  for 
example,  if  a  tube  of  gelatinized  beef  tea,  freed 
from  all  living  bacteria  by  heat,  be  gently 
warmed  until  liquefied,  and  be  then  in- 
oculated with  a  mixture  of  several  spe- 
cies of  bacteria,  growth  at  once  begins,  and 
if  left  in  the  test-tube  progresses  in  about 
the  same  manner  as  if  the  beef  tea  did  not  con- 
tain gelatin ;  but  if  while  still  warm  and  fluid 
the  contents  of  the  tube  be  poured  out  upon  a 
flat,  cold  surface,  the  increased  area  causes  the 
bacteria  to  become  more  widely  separated  from 
one  another  and  the  lower  temperature  results 
in  the  solidification  of  the  gelatin,  so  that  each 
bacterium  is  fixed  in  its  new  position.  It  at 
once  begins  to  germinate,  and  presently  a 
"colony"  results ;  the  surface  ultimately  becom- 
ing studded  with  such  colonies.  As  the  colonies 
from  the  different  species  differ  from  one  an- 
other in  many  ways  —  in  outline,  texture,  color, 
effect  of  their  growth  on  the  gelatin,  etc.  —  it  is 
easily  possible,  after  a  little  practice  to  distin- 
guish them  by  the  naked  eye,  and  by  trans- 
planting them  to  tubes  of  sterile  culture  media 
to  study  them  without  the  disturbing  presence 
of  other  species  ;  that  is,  in  pure  culture. 

The  introduction  of  this  method  for  the 
isolation  and  study  of  bacterial  species  in  pure 
cultivation  certainly  constitutes  the  most  impor- 


BACTERIOLOGY 


tant  stimulus  to  the  development  of  modern 
bacteriology.  By  it  results  were  placed  upon  a 
more  secure  basis  than  ever  before,  and  a  con- 
fidence in  the  work  such  as  had  never  existed 
was  awakened  in  the  minds  of  all  students  of 
the  subject. 

The  studies  that  had  been  made  by 
Pasteur  upon  fermentation ;  upon  the  souring 
of  wines  ;  upon  the  maladies  of  silk  worms,  and 
upon  certain  fatal  epizootics  of  fowls  and  do- 
mestic cattle ;  together  with  Koch's  fundamental 
studies  upon  the  infections  of  wounds  and  the 
appropriate  methods  of  analyzing  them  were 
rich  in  suggestion  to  the  pioneers  in  this  new 
field.  Within  a  comparatively  brief  period  af- 
ter the  adoption  of  the  new  methods  our  know- 
ledge of  the  exciting  causes  of  many  nitherto 
obscure  diseases  was  greatly  extended ;  it  was 
shown  to  be  possible  to  determine  the  modes  of 
their  transmission  and  the  channels  through 
which  infection  occurreti.  The  conditions  most 
favorable  to  the  successful  action  of  a  host  of 
substances  employed  for  the  purpose  of  disin- 
fection were  accurately  determined.  And  early 
in  the  work  observations  were  made  that  indi- 
cated the  possibility  of  successful  vaccination 
against  disease  through  the  use  of  attenuated 
(weakened)  living  cultures  of  specific  disease- 
producing  bacteria.  One  of  the  most  important 
outgrowths  of  modern  bacteriology  has  resulted 
from  its  application  to  the  problems  of  the  sani- 
tary engineer.  As  a  result  of  these  studies  we 
know  that  sewage,  polluted  waters,  and  polluted 
soils  tend  naturally  to  revert  to  a  state  of  purity 
if  their  pollution  be  checked  and  that  this  pro- 
gressive purification  is  due  in  large  part  to  the 
activities  of  the  bacteria  located  within  them.  It 
has  been  found  that  by  the  appropriate  adjust- 
ment of  conditions  the  normal  activity  of  the 
bacteria  may  be  so  greatly  accentuated  as  to 
constitute  them  the  most  important  factors  in 
the  purification  of  polluted  waters  and  sewage. 
The  utilization  of  these  facts  is  conspicuously 
illustrated  in  the  purification  of  water  by  the 
process  of  natural  sand  filtration  and  in  the 
purification  of  sewage  by  irrigation  ;  by  the  sep- 
tic tank  process,  etc.  In  these  methods  the  liv- 
ing bacteria,  and  they  alone,  are  the  instru- 
ments through  which  the  results  are  attained. 
The  sand  grains  in  the  filters  and  the  particles 
of  soil  in  the  irrigation  fields  serve  only  as  ob- 
jects to  which  the  bacteria  can  attach  themselves 
and  multiply.  By  the  normal  life  processes  of 
the  bacteria  the  polluting  organic  matters  in  the 
fluids  to  be  purified  are  used  up  and  inert  mat- 
ters given  off  as  a  result. 

In  the  study  of  agricultural  phenomena  from 
the  bacteriological  standpoint  knowledge  has 
been  equally  extended.  J^t  one  time  it  was 
taught  that  atmospheric  nitrogen  —  represent- 
ing roughly  80  per  cent  of  the  air  by  volume  — 
was  of  no  direct  biological  significance.  This 
view  has  in  late  years  been  entirely  revised.  We 
have  learned  that  the  leguminous  plants  when 
assisted,  symbiotically,  by  certain  soil  bacteria, 
are  enabled  to  make  up  their  nitrogen  deficit  in 
large  part  from  the  free  nitrogen  of  the  air ;  a 
fact  that  sheds  important  light  upon  the  signifi- 
cance of  plants  of  this  type  in  the  practice  of 
^rotation  of  crops.''  Under  normal  conditions 
instead  of  impoverishing  the  soil,  the  legumens 
• — clover,  peas,  beans,  etc.,  —  with  the  aid  of  the 
bacteria  attached  to  their  roots,  may  actually 
enrich    it.      The    application    of    bacteriological 


methods  to  the  study  of  dairy  processes  has  re- 
vealed the  interesting  fact  that  the  delicate 
flavors  to  which  butters  and  cheeses  owe  their 
commercial  value  are  directly  due  to  the  pro- 
ducts of  growth  of  certain  species  or  groups  of 
species  of  bacteria  and  more  highly  organized 
molds.  A  number  of  such  species  have  been 
isolated  and  are  kept  in  pure  cultivation  —  so 
that  by  purposely  inoculating  the  fresh  cream 
with  them  butter  of  uniform  flavor  may  with 
comparative  ease  be  produced. 

Probably  the  most  important  results  of  ap- 
plied bacteriology  are  those  in  connection  with 
preventive  medicine.  Early  in  the  course  of  the 
work  it  was  discovered  by  Pasteur  that  certain 
virulent  pathogenic  bacteria  when  kept  under 
particular  conditions  gradually  lost  their  dis- 
ease-producing power,  wholly  or  in  part,  with- 
out their  other  life  properties  being  conspicu- 
ously disturbed.  If  injected  into  animals  when 
in  this  attenuated  state  the  result  was  a  mild, 
temporary,  and  modified  form  of  infection  usu- 
ally followed  by  recovery.  With  recovery  the 
animals  so  treated  were  immune  from  the  ac- 
tivities of  the  fully  virulent  bacteria  of  the  same 
species  ;  in  other  words,  they  had  been  protected 
from  the  fatal  injection  by  vaccination  with  an 
attenuated  species.  The  subsequent  develop- 
ments growing  out  of  this  observation  have  re- 
sulted in  the  annual  saving  of  millions  of  money 
through  the  successful  vaccination  of  sheep, 
horses,  and  bovines  against  the  fatal  infection 
known  as  splenic  fever  or  anthrax,  and,  though 
less  successfully,  of  other  domestic  animals 
against  other  infections  also.  In  the  closer 
analysis  of  the  means  by  which  infective  bac- 
teria cause  disease  it  soon  became  evident  that 
it  is  through  the  elaboration  of  specific  poisons ; 
sometimes  easily  separated  from  the  bacteria, 
at  others  so  intimately  associated  with  the  bac- 
terial tissues  as  to  make  their  separation  diffi- 
cult or  impossible.  The  question  arose  as  to  the 
effect  of  the  poisons,  separated  from  the  living 
bacteria,  upon  the  animals  susceptible  to  infec- 
tion by  the  bacteria  themselves,  and  it  was  found 
that  fatal  intoxications  often  accompanied  by  the 
same  constitutional  symptoms  and  pathological 
lesions  followed  the  use  of  the  poisons,  just  as 
would  follow  inoculations  with  the  bacteria  by 
which  they  were  produced.  In  pursuance  of 
this  topic  it  was  discovered  that  if  very  small, 
only  mildly  intoxicating  doses  of  these  specific 
poisons  of  bacterial  origin  were  repeatedly  in- 
jected into  susceptible  animals  that  after  a 
while  the  latter  acquired  not  only  a  sort  of  tol- 
erance to  them,  but  a  tolerance  that  was  accom- 
panied by  the  presence  in  the  circulating  blood 
of  an  antidote  for  these  poisons  —  an  "anti- 
toxin," as  it  is  called.  This  reaction  has  been 
shown  to  be  possible  for  a  number  of  specific 
infections,  and  in  the  case  of  diphtheria  has  met 
with  such  practical  success  as  to  be  deservedly 
regarded  as  the  triumph  of  modern  medicine. 

Bibliography. —  Fliigge,  ^Die  Mikroorganis- 
men'  ;  Koch,  *Zur  Untersuchung  von  pathogen- 
en  Organismen,'  Mittheilungen  aus  dem  Kaiser- 
lichen  Grundheitsamte  1881,  Band,  I.  S.  i ; 
Koch,  <Untersuchungen  iiber  die  Aetiologie  der 
Wundinfections-Krankluiten'  ;  Lofifler,  ^Vorles- 
ungen  iiber  die  geschichtliche  Entwickelung  der 
Lehre  von  den  Bakterien'  ;  ^Arcana  Naturae,' 
detecta  ab  Antonio  von  Leeuwenhoek  (1695)  I 
Mason,     ^  Water     Supply     from    the     Sanitary 


BACTERIOLYTIC  — BAD  LANDS 


Standpoint' ;  < Purification  of  Sewage  and  Wa- 
ter/ Report  of  the  Massachusetts  State  Board 
of '  Heahh  (1890);  ^Bacterial  Purification  of 
Sewage/  Second  Report  of  the  Sewerage  Com- 
mission of  the  City  of  Baltimore  (1899); 
Metchnikoff,  ^L'lmmunite  dans  les  Maladies 
Infectieuses'  (1901);  Park,  < Bacteriology  in 
Medicine  and  Surgery >  ;  Vallery-Radot,  ^Life  of 
Pasteur'  ;  Russell,  < Outlines  of  Dairy  Bacteriol- 
ogy' (1899);  Tyndall,  ^Essays  on  the  Floating 
Matter  of  the  Air.' 

A.  C.  Abbott, 

Bacteriologist,  University  of  Pennsylvania. 

Bacteriolytic,  an  agent  cap.  ble  of  destroy- 
ing bacteria  and  usually  applied  to  some  product 
of  the  human  body,  or  of  an  animal  body,  nota- 
bly blood  serum,  which  when  injected  into  an 
animal  is  capable  of  destroying  some  form  of 
micro-organism  in  that  animal.  The  produc- 
tion of  specific  bacteriolytic  sera  is  one  of  the 
great  advances  in  modern  medicine  and  its  ex- 
tension promises  much  hope  for  the  future 
treatment  of  many  of  the  bacterial  diseases. 
Bacteriolytic  sera  have  been  made  for  a  num- 
ber of  micro-organisms.     See  Immunity. 

Bacterium,  a  genus  of  bacteria  of  the  fam- 
ily Bacillariacece,  characterized  by  rod-shaped 
forms  and  absence  of  flagella.  They  are  thus 
non-motile.  A  large  number  of  pathogenic  bac- 
teria belong  to  this  genus.  See  Bacteria;  Ba- 
cillus. 

Bac'tria.     See  Bactriana. 

Bactriana,  bak-tri-a'na,  or  Bactria,  a  coun- 
try of  the  ancient  Persian  empire,  lying  north  of 
the  Hindu  Kush  Mountains,  on  the  Upper  Oxus. 
It  corresponded  pretty  nearly  with  the  modern 
Balkh.  Here  many  scholars  locate  the  original 
home  of  the  Aryan  or  Indo-European  family  of 
nations.  Its  capital,  Bactra,  or  Zariaspa,  was 
also  the  cradle  of  the  Zoroastrian  religion. 
Originally  a  powerful  kingdom,  it  maintained  its 
independence  until  its  subjugation  by  Cyrus 
about  540  B.C.,  when  it  became  a  satrapy  of  the 
Persian  empire.  It  was  included  in  the  con- 
quests of  Alexander,  and  formed  a  part  of  the 
kingdom  of  the  Seleucidse  until  the  foundation, 
about  256  B.C.,  by  Diodotus,  of  the  Greek  king- 
dom of  Bactria,  which  extended  to  the  Indus, 
and  which,  after  a  long  struggle,  was  over- 
thrown by  the  Parthians.  Numerous  coins  with 
Greek  legends  have  been  found  in  the  topes 
or  burial  places  to  the  northeast  of  Kabul. 

Bac'trian  Cam'el.      See  Camel. 

Bac'tris,  a  genus  of  American  palms, 
numbering  more  than  50  species.  The  genus  is 
of  commercial  importance,  a  tough  thread  used 
for  net  weaving,  being  made  from  the  fibres  of 
Bactris  acanthocarpa,  and  walking-sticks  are 
manufactured  from  the  long  slender  stems  of 
Bactris  maraja.  The  fruit  of  the  latter  is  con- 
sidered a  delicacy. 

Bactrites,  bak-tri'tez,  a  genus  of  fossil 
ammonites,  with  a  straight  shell,  and  indented, 
but  not  ramified  septa.  The  genus  ranges  from 
the  lower  Silurian  to  the  Devonian. 

Bac'trus,  the  ancient  name  of  a  river  in 
the  province  of  Balkh,  central  Asia,  upon  which 
Bactria  was  situated. 

Baculites,  bak'u-li'tez,  a  genus  of  fossil 
ammonites,  characteristic  of  chalk  formations, 
having  a  straight,  tapering  shell. 


Bacup,  bak'iip,  England,  a  town  of  Lanca- 
shire, 18  miles  north  from  Manchester.  There 
are  a  number  of  churches,  chapels,  and  schools, 
a  mechanics'  institute,  court-house,  market-hall, 
large  co-operative  stores,  etc.  The  chief  manu- 
facturing establishments  are  connected  with  cot- 
ton spinning,  and  power-loom  weaving;  there 
are  also  iron  and  brass  foundries  and  machine- 
shops,  dye-works,  etc.,  and  in  the  neighborhood 
coal-pits  and  vast  stone  quarries.  Its  charter 
of  incorporation  was  granted  in  1882.  Pop. 
(1901)    22,505. 

Baczko,  bats'ko,  Ludwig  von,  German 
historian  and  scholar :  b.  Lick,  Prussia,  8  June 
1756;  d.  27  March  1823;  was  educated  at 
Konigsberg,  studying  philosophy,  medicine,  and 
law,  but  became  blind  in  1777,  through  an  at- 
tack of  small-pox.  In  1816,  he  was  appointed 
director  of  the  Institute  for  the  Blind  at 
Konigsberg.  He  is  the  author  of  'A  History 
of  Prussia,'  a  ^History  of  the  French  Revolu- 
tion,' and  ^Concerning  Myself  and  My  Com- 
panions in  Misfortune,  the  Blind'    (1807). 

Bad  Lands,  a  name  applied  to  the  arid  re- 
gions of  the  west,  where  are  districts  present- 
ing wide  areas  of  hills  and  ridges  of  moderate 
height,  bare  of  sod  and  intricately  broken  by 
numerous  gullies  and  ravines.  The  principal 
areas  are  in  the  western  Dakotas  and  cen- 
tral Wyoming,  and  smaller  examples  of  bad-land 
topography  are  of  frequent  occurrence  in  the 
arid  regions  in  various  portions  of  the  world. 
In  the  Big  Bad  Lands  of  western  South  Dakota, 
east  of  the  Black  Hills,  there  is  an  area  of 
about  2,000  square  miles,  which  consists  largely 
of  bad  lands  occupying  extensive  basins  cut  in 
a  plateau  along  the  White  and  Cheyenne  rivers. 
They  present  wonderfully  weird  scenery,  but 
are  rarely  visited  by  the  average  sight-seer. 
An  extensive  area  in  the  valley  of  the  Little 
Missouri  River  is  crossed  by  the  Northern  P. 
R.R.  in  the  vicinity  of  Medora,  and  many  bad- 
land  features  are  visible  near  the  railroad.  Typi- 
cal bad  lands  present  ridges  and  mesas  from 
200  to  400  feet  high  in  greater  part,  eroded  into 
fantastic  shapes  and  cut  by  ravines  and  gullies 
into  an  endless  variety  of  rugged  buttresses 
and  pinnacles.  The  materials  are  mainly  light- 
colored,  sandy  clays,  and  soft  sandstones  in 
nearly  horizontal  strata,  and  their  bare  slopes 
are  dazzling  in  the  bright  sunlight.  Most  bad 
land  regions  were  table-lands  originally,  and 
areas  of  the  old  surface  remain  in  level-topped, 
grass-covered  mesas  of  various  sizes,  with  bad 
land  slopes  extending  to  flat-bottomed  valleys 
of  greater  or  less  width.  Bad  lands  exhibit 
clearly  the  close  relations  of  topographic  form 
to  rock  texture,  tjie  homogeneous  clays  being 
carved  into  regular  slopes,  in  which  sandstone 
layers  give  rise  to  benches,  or  protect  columns 
and  pinnacles  of  clay.  Bad  lands  are  developed 
in  soft  rocks  where  a  region  has  been  so  uplifted 
that  there  is  rapid  erosion,  under  arid  or  semi- 
arid  climatic  conditions.  The  occasional  rains 
cut  gullies  which  eventually  are  deepened  into 
ravines,  and,  as  the  rocks  are  soft,  the  erosion 
progresses  more  rapidly  than  vegetation  can 
establish  itself.  In  regions  of  abundant  rainfall, 
vegetation  is  so  vigorous  that  it  usually  forms 
a  protective  mantle  on  all  but  the  steeper  slopes, 
but  in  arid  lands,  a  thin  sod  is  the  principal 
growth,  and  it  is  quickly  removed  by  the  rapid 
run-off   of  the  torrential   rains.     The    Big   Bad 


BADLANDS. 


Typical  views  in  Big  Badlands  of  South  Dakota,  showing  pinnacles  of  hard  clay  capped  by  sandstone, 
the  sodless  slopes,  and  in  the  distance  a  remnant  of  the  original  plateau  out  of  which  the  Badlands  are 
eroded. 


B  ADAGRI  —  BADEN 


Lands  of  South  Dakota  have  yielded  large  num- 
bers of  fossil  animals  of  late  Eocene  age,  which 
have  made  the  region  famous  as  a  collecting 
ground.  N.  H.  Darton, 

U.  S.   Geological  Sitn'ey. 

Badagri,  ba'da-gre,  or  Badagry,  a  British 
seaport  on  the  Bight  of  Benin,  in  the  extreme 
southwest  corner  of  the  British  Niger  Territory, 
Africa.  Early  in  its  history  it  was  a  noted  slave 
mart ;  contained  important  manufactories ;  and 
had  a  population  of  10,000.  It  was  from  this 
place  that,  in  1825,  Clapperton  and  Lander 
started  to  explore  the  African  interior. 

Badajoz,  ba'da-hoth',  the  capital  of  the 
Spanish  province  of  Badajoz,  on  the  left  bank 
of  the  Guadiana,  which  is  crossed  by  a  stone 
bridge  of  28  arches.  It  is  a  bishop's  see,  and  has 
an  interesting  cathedral.  During  the  Peninsular 
war,  Badajoz  was  besieged  by  Alarshal  Soult, 
and  taken  in  March  181 1.  It  was  twice  attempt- 
ed by  the  English,  on  5  and  29  May  181 1;  was 
besieged  by  Wellington  on  16  March,  and  taken 
6  April  1812.     Pop.  22,860. 

Badakhshan,  ba'dakh-shan',  a  territory  of 
central  Asia,  tributary  to  the  ameer  of  Afghan- 
istan. It  has  the  Oxus  on  the  north  and  the 
Hindu  Kush  on  the  south ;  and  has  lofty  moun- 
tains and  fertile  valleys ;  the  chief  town  is  Faiza- 
bad.  The  inhabitants  profess  MohammedanisiTU 
Pop.  100,000. 

Badalona,  ba'da-lo'na,  a  seaport  of  Spain, 
on  the  Mediterranean,  five  miles  from  Barce- 
lona.    Pop.  19,200. 

Baddeck',  a  fishing  village  and  summer 
resort  on  Cape  Breton  Island. 

Bad'derlocks  (alaria  esculenta),  an  olive- 
colored  sea  weed  which  grows  on  rocks  in  deep 
water  on  the  shores  of  Europe  and  Iceland.  It 
has  a  short  cylindrical  stem  with  lateral  spore- 
bearing  process,  and  a  membranous  olive-green 
frond  of  2  to  12  feet  long,  with  a  stout  midrib. 
This  midrib,  together  with  the  fruits,  is  eaten 
by  the  inhabitants  of  the  sea  coasts  of  Iceland, 
Denmark,  Scotland,  Ireland,  etc.,  and  is  said  to 
be  the  best  of  the  esculent  algae.  The  name  is 
supposed  to  be  a  corruption  of  balder-locks. 

Badeau,  ba-d5',  Adam,  American  military 
officer:  b.  New  York,  29  Dec.  1831 ;  d.  19 
March  1895 ;  was  educated  at  private  schools. 
He  served  with  gallantry  in  the  Union  army 
during  the  Civil  War ;  was  on  the  staff  of  Gen. 
Sherman  in  1862-3,  and  secretary  to  Gen.  Grant 
in  1864-9 ;  and  in  the  latter  year  was 
retired  with  the  rank  of  captain  in  the  regular 
army  and  of  brevet  brigadier-general  of  volun- 
teers, and  was  appointed  secretary  of  legation  in 
London.  He  was  consul-general  in  London, 
1870-81,  and  during  this  period  was  given  leave 
of  absence  to  accompany  Gen.  Grant  on  his  tour 
around  the  world  (1877-8).  In  1882-4  he  was 
consul-general  in  Havana.  After  the  death  of 
Gen.  Grant  he  brought  suit  against  his  heirs  for 
payment  of  services  rendered  in  the  preparation 
of  Gen.  Grant's  <  Memoirs, >  which  was  satis- 
factorily settled  out  of  court.  His  publications 
include:  ^The  Vagabond^  (New  York  1889); 
< Military  History  of  Ulysses  S.  Grant'  (3  vols. 
1867-81)  ;  ^Conspiracy;  A  Cuban  Romance' 
(18185)  ;  <  Aristocracy  in  England^  (1886)  ;  and 
<Grant  in   Peace'    ('1886). 

Baden,  ba'den,  a  grand  duchy  in  the  Ger- 
man empire.     The  Rhine  separates  it  from  Al- 


sace on  the  east,  and  Wurtemberg  bounds  it  on 
the  west.  It  has  an  area  of  5,823  square  miles, 
with  a  population  of  1,866,584  in  1900,  an  in- 
crease of  121. 120  over  the  census  of  1895,  or  a 
gain  of  1.58  +  per  cent  each  year.  The  country  is 
mountainous,  being  traversed  by  the  lofty  pla- 
teau of  the  Schwarzwald,  or  Black  Forest,  which 
attains  its  highest  point  in  the  Feldberg  (4,904 
feet).  The  nucleus  of  this  plateau  consists  of 
gneiss  and  granite.  In  the  north  it  sinks  down 
toward  the  Odcnwald,  which  is,  however,  of 
different  geological  structure,  being  composed 
for  the  most  part  of  red  sandstone.  The  whole 
of  Baden,  except  a  small  portion  in  the  south- 
east, in  which  the  Danube  takes  its  rise,  belongs 
to  the  basin  of  the  Rhine,  which  bounds  it  on 
the  south  and  west.  Numerous  tributaries  of 
the  Rhine  intersect  it,  the  chief  being  the 
Neckar.  Lakes  are  numerous,  and  include  a 
considerable  part  of  the  lake  of  Constance.  The 
climate  varies  much.  The  hilly  parts,  especial- 
ly in  the  east,  are  cold  and  have  a  long  winter, 
while  the  valley  of  the  Rhine  enjoys  the  finest 
climate  of  Germany.  The  principal  minerals 
worked  are  coal,  salt,  iron,  zinc,  and  nickel. 
The  number  of  mineral  springs  is  remarkably 
great,  and  of  these  not  a  few  are  of  great  celebri- 
ty. The  vegetation  is  peculiarly  rich,  and  there 
are  magnificent  forests.  The  cereals  comprise 
wheat,  oats,  barley,  and  rye.  Potatoes,  hemp, 
tobacco,  wine,  and  sugar  beet  are  largely  pro- 
duced. Several  of  the  wines,  both  white  and 
red,  rank  in  the  first  class.  Baden  has  long 
been  famous  for  its  fruits,  also.  Of  the  total 
area,  42  per  cent  is  under  cultivation,  ^j  per 
cent  under  forest,  and  17  per  cent  under 
meadows  and  pastures.  The  farms  are  mostly 
quite  small.  The  manufactures  are  important. 
Among  them  are  textiles,  tobacco,  and  cigars, 
chemicals,  machinery,  pottery  ware,  jewelry  (es- 
pecially at  Pforzheim),  wooden  clocks,  confined 
chiefly  to  the  districts  of  the  Black  Forest, 
musical  boxes,  and  other  musical  toys.  The  cap- 
ital is  Carlsruhe,  about  five  miles  from  the 
Rhine;  the  other  chief  towns  are  Mannheim, 
Freiburg-im-Breisgau,  with  a  Roman  Catholic 
university ;  Baden,  and  Heidelberg.  Baden  has 
warm  mineral  springs,  which  were  known  and 
used  in  the  time  of  the  Romans.  Heidelberg 
has  a  university  (Protestant),  founded  in  1386, 
the  oldest  in  the  present  German  empire.  The 
railways  have  a  length  of  850  miles,  and  are 
nearly  all  state  property. 

In  the  time  of  the  Roman  empire,  southern 
Baden  belonged  to  the  Roman  province  of  Rhse- 
tia.  Under  the  old  German  empire  it  was  a 
margravate,  which  in  1533  was  divided  into 
Baden-Baden  and  Baden-Durlach,  but  reunited 
in  1771.  The  title  of  grand  duke  was  conferred 
by  Napoleon  in  1806,  an  1  in  the  same  year 
Baden  was  extended  to  its  present  limits.  The 
executive  power  is  vested  in  the  grand  duke, 
the  legislative  in  a  house  of  legislature,  consist- 
ing of  an  upper  and  a  lower  chamber.  The 
former  consists  partly  of  hereditary  members; 
the  later  consists  of  elected  representatives  of 
the  people.  The  revenue  is  mainly  derived  from 
taxes  on  land  and  incomes,  and  the  produce 
of  crown-lands,  forests,  and  mines.  The  reve- 
nue in  1901  was  $37,723,000.  Baden  sends  three 
members  to  the  (German  Bundesrath,  or  Federal 
(Touncil,  and  14  deputies  to  the  Reichstag.  Two 
thirds  of  the  population  are  Roman  Catholics, 
the  rest  Protestants. 


BADEN  —  BADGER 


Ba'den,  a  town  in  Switzerland,  canton 
Aargau.  The  town  {Ober-Baden,  or  Baden- 
im-Aargau)  is  12  miles  northeast  of  Aarau, 
on  the  left  bank  of  the  Limmat.  It  has  a  town- 
hall,  a  handsome  Roman  Catholic  church,  a 
convent,  monastery,  hospital,  etc.,  and  is  cele- 
brated for  its  hot  sulphurous  baths,  which  are 
employed  in  gout,  rheumatism,  and  cutaneous 
diseases.  The  hottest  springs  have  a  tempera- 
ture of  116°  F.  The  Romans  were  well  ac- 
quainted with  the  baths  here ;  and  between  the 
15th  and  i8th  centuries  they  were  the  most  cele- 
brated in  Europe.     Pop.   (1900)   6,100. 

Ba'den-Ba'den  (anciently,  Civitas  Aurelia 
Aquensis),  a  town  and  watering-place  in  the 
grand-duchy  of  Baden,  18  miles  south-southwest 
of  Carlsruhe.  The  older  part  of  the  town  is 
built  on  a  spur  of  the  Black  Forest,  overhang- 
ing the  valley  of  the  little  stream  Oosbach.  The 
houses  here  are  in  general  old  and  high ;  the 
streets  mostly  narrow  and  crooked,  and  nearly 
all  steep.  The  new  and  larger  portion  of  the 
town  lies  below,  and  is  rich  in  fine  hotels,  ele- 
gant villas,  and  handsome  private  dwellings. 
The  edifices  most  deserving  of  notice  are  the 
New  Palace,  standing  on  an  isolated  height 
above  the  town,  and  surrounded  by  fine  gardens ; 
the  town  or  parish  church,  containing  the  tombs 
of  14  margraves  of  Baden ;  the  Protestant 
church,  the  English  church,  and  the  new  town- 
hall.  Baden  has  been  celebrated  from  remote 
antiquity  for  its  thermal  baths,  which  made  it 
a  favorite  resort  of  the  Romans.  The  season 
lasts  from  i  May  to  31  October,  and  60,000 
visitors  arrive  annually.     Pop.  (1900)    15,700. 

Baden-Powell,  ba'den-pow"l.  Sir  George 
Smyth,  English  politician  and  political  writer. 
b.  Oxford,  24  Dec.  1847;  d.  20  Nov.  1898. 
He  became  a  member  of  various  impor- 
tant commissions,  among  others  that  on  United 
States  and  Canadian  fisheries  (1886-87)  ;  the 
new  Malta  Constitution  (1887)  ;  the  Bering  Sea 
inquiry  (i8gi)  ;  the  Joint  High  Commission 
(Washington,  1892)  ;  and  the  Paris  j^rbitra- 
tion  (1893).  He  was  author  of  ^New  Homes 
for  the  Old  Country^  (1872),  a  storehouse 
of  information  about  Australia;  "^Protection  and 
Bad  Times^  (1879)  ;  'State  Aid  and  State  In- 
terference^ (1882)  ;  'The  Truth  About  Home 
Rule'  (1888)  •  <The  Land  Systems  of  India> 
(1892)  ;  etc.  He  was  a  member  of  Parliament 
from  Liverpool   from   1885  till  his  death. 

Ba'den-Pow'ell,  Robert  Stevenson  Smyth, 

British  military  officer ;  b.  London,  22  Feb. 
1857 ;  was  educated  at  the  Charterhouse  School ; 
joined  the  13th  Hussars  in  1876;  was  adjutant 
in  India,  Afghanistan,  and  South  Africa;  As- 
sistant Military  Secretary  on  the  staff  in  South 
Africa  in  1887-9;  took  part  in  the  operations 
in  Zululand,  for  which  he  was  highly  com- 
mended, in  1888;  assistant  military  secretary  in 
Malta  in  1890-3 ;  on  special  service  in  Ashanti, 
commanding  the  native  levies,  1895,  for  which 
he  was  brevetted  lieutenant-colonel ;  chief  staff 
officer  in  the  Matabeleland  campaign,  for  which 
he  was  brevetted  colonel,  and  became  lieutenant- 
colonel,  commanding  the  5th  Dragoon  Guards, 
in  1897.  In  the  war  in  South  Africa  in  1899- 
1900,  he  signally  distinguished  himself  by  his 
grand  defense  of  Mafeking,  Cape  Colony,  hold- 
ing the  town  with  a  small  force  against  repeated 
attacks,  under  an  almost  continuous  bombard- 
ment, from  15  Oct.  1899,  to  16  May  1900.    Three 


relief  columns  were  started,  the  last  only  being 
successful.  In  recognition  of  this  heroic  de- 
fense, the  queen  promoted  Baden-Powell  to  be 
a  major-general.  Gen.  Baden- Powell  has  pub- 
lished several  works,  including  'Reconnaissance 
and  Scouting'  (1890)  ;  'Vedette'  (1890)  ;  'Cav- 
alry Instruction'  (1895);  'The  Downfall  of 
Prempeh'  (1896)  ;  'The  Matebele  Campaign* 
(1896),  etc. 

Baden-bei-Wien,  ba'den-bi-ven,  a  watering 
place  of  lower  Austria,  about  15  miles  south- 
southwest  of  Vienna.  It  was  the  Aquae  Pan- 
nonise,  or  Cethise  of  the  Romans,  and  is  still 
famous  for  its  warm  mineral  springs,  which  are 
frequented  during  the  season  by  from  12,000  to 
15,000  persons,  chiefly  from  the  Austrian  cap- 
ital. Season  from  July  to  September.  Pop. 
(1900)    17,700. 

Badeni,  ba'den-e.  Count  Cassimir  Felix, 
Austrian  statesman:  b.  Poland,  14  Oct.  1846. 
His  father,  though  poor,  was  a  man  of  in- 
tellect, and  was  made  a  count  by  the  king  of 
Poland  just  before  the  birth  of  Cassimir.  He 
also  fell  heir  to  a  fortune,  and  his  two  sons  re- 
ceived a  university  education.  Cassimir  entered 
the  Austrian  civil  service;  became  district  chief 
at  Zolkiew  in  1871  ;  minister  of  the  interior 
in  1873;  governor  of  Galicia  in  1888;  and  prime 
minister  of  Austria-Hungary,  15  Sept.  1895. 
In  April  1897,  because  of  inability  to  maintain 
a  Liberal  majority  in  the  newly  elected  Reichs- 
rath,  he  resigned  with  his  cabinet,  but  the  em- 
peror declined  to  accept  his  resignation,  and  he 
remained  in  office  until  28  November,  when  he 
again  resigned  and  a  new  cabinet  was  organized. 
The  principal  feature  of  his  administration  and 
the  one  which  not  only  caused  his  fall,  but  a 
long  period  of  political  agitation,  was  his  intro- 
duction of  what  is  known  as  the  "language  ordi- 
nance," which  allowed  the  official  use  of  the 
Czech  language  in  Bohemia  and  Mcravia.  This 
measure  alienated  the  Germans  and  provoked 
a  racial  conflict  of  a  most  bitter  character  be- 
tween them  and  the  Czechs. 

Badenweiler,  ba'den-vi-ler,  a  watering 
place  in  the  grand  duchy  of  Baden,  near  Miill- 
heim.  Its  mineral  springs  are  now  rated  among 
the  indifferent  waters,  and  it  is  of  interest  chief- 
ly for  the  ruins  of  Roman  baths  that  were  dis- 
covered in  1847.  The  foundation  of  the  town 
is  referred  to  the  time  of  Hadrian,  and  the  re- 
m.ains  of  the  vapor  baths,  of  which  there  are 
excellent  specimens,  are  supposed  to  be  of  the 
same  period.  The  ruins  show  a  division  for 
men  and  for  women,  each  having  a  large  outer 
court  opening  into  a  dressing-room ;  there  is 
the  hot-air  bath,  the  warm  bath,  and  the  cold 
bath.  The  walls  and  steps  are  in  their  original 
position.  The  whole  structure  is  318  feet  by  90 
feet. 

Badge,  a  distinctive  device,  emblem,  mark, 
honorary  decoration,  or  special  .cognizance, 
used  originally  to  identify  a  knight  or  distin- 
guish his  followers,  now  worn  as  a  sign  of 
office  or  licensed  employment,  as  a  token  of 
membership  in  some  society,  or  generally  as  a 
mark  showing  the  relation  of  the  wearer  to  any 
person,   occupation,,  or  order. 

Badg'er,  George  Edmund,  American  states- 
man :  b.  Newbern,  N.  C,  13  April  1795;  d. 
13  April  1866;  was  graduated  at  Yale  College 
in  1813;  became  a  lawyer  at  Raleigh;  and  was 
judge    of   the    North    Carolina    Superior   court 


BADGER — BADGLEY 

in  1820-5.  He  was  appointed  secretary  of  the  the  dry  plains,  where  it  is  still  numerous  al- 
navy,  14  March  1841,  resigning  after  the  death  though  not  often  seen,  because  it  rarely  comes 
of  President  Harrison,  and  was  elected  to  the  abroad  except  in  the  night.  It  dwells  in  deep 
United  States  Senate  in  1846  and  1848.  In  burrows  which  it  digs  for  itself  and  feeds 
1853  he  was  nominated  for  justice  of  the  United  upon  gophers,  ground-squirrels,  such  ground- 
States  supreme  court,  but  was  not  confirmed,  building  birds  and  their  eggs  and  young  as  it 
He  serv'ed  in  the  State  convention  called  to  pass  is  able  to  catch,  and,  in  times  of  scarcity,  upon 
on  the  question  of  secession,  although  opposed  small  reptiles  and  insects.  Badgers  abound  in 
to  such  measure,  and  after  making  a  strong  the  vicinity  of  prairie-dog  towns,  whose  under- 
speech  in  defense  of  the  Union,  was  afterward  ground  homes  they  can  enter  or  dig  out  with- 
known  as  a  member  of  the  Conservative  party,  out  difficulty.  This  species  is  found  as  far 
Badg'er,  Joseph,  American  clergyman,  one  north  as  Hudson  Bay  and  south  to  central 
of  the  earliest  missionaries  to  the  country  Mexico,  where  the  local  variety  is  called 
northwest  of  the  Ohio  River:  b.  Wilbraham,  ^'tejon.»  When  by  rare  chance  a  badger  is  sur- 
Mass.,  28  Feb.  1757;  d.  5  May  1846.  He  re-  pnsed  durmg  the  day  too  far  away  from  his 
ceived  his  early  instruction  chiefly  from  his  hole  to  escape  mto  it  before  being  observed, 
parents,  and  at  the  age  of  18  joined  the  "^  squats  down,  withdrawing  nose  and  feet 
Revolutionary  army.  He  remained  in  service  beneath  his  body,  and  remains  absolutely  still, 
for  four  years,  then  determined  to  obtain  an  when  his  grizzled  back  looks  so  much  like  a 
education  and  engage  in  the  Christian  minis-  mere  hillock  of  earth  that  he  is  likely  to  escape 
try.  Entered  Yale  College  in  1781,  where  he  being  seen  altogether.  The  extraordinary 
maintained  himself  and  his  scholarship  by  al-  breadth  and  fatness  of  his  form  is  one  of  his 
ternately  studying  and  teaching.  He  remained  strongest  characteristics.  During  the  coldest 
a  few  years  in  Connecticut,  then  in  1800  was  P^rt  of  the  winter  he  retires  to  his  den  and 
selected  by  the  missionary  society  of  that  State  passes  the  time  when  no  food  is  to  be  had 
to  visit  the  unsettled  parts  of  Ohio.     His  work  ^   deep   sleep      The  best  account  of   this   am- 

.1,     V-  r __i.^i i     i_      -_..i.i t       _ri, mal     IQ    tn    np    fniinH     in     Dr      Pmipc'c     <  TTnrKoarinfr 


more 

rivers  w'iVhouVbddgesT^  Duririg"Vhr  War  of  }^97)-  The  European  badger  (Meles  taxus) 
1812  he  was  appointed  by  Gen.  Harrison  chap-  '-s  very  similar  in  general  appearance  but  dif- 
lain  to  the  army  in  that  district,  and  his  lers  m  anatomical  details.  Its  general  habits 
knowledge  of  the  countrv  was  of  great  service  and  food  are  like  those  of  the  American  badger 
to  that  commander-in-chief ;  but  he  resumed  except  that  in  the  absence  of  open  plains  it 
his  missionary  fun-tions  at  the  close  of  the  dwells  in  wooded  regions  and  has  a  fondness 
war  and  continued  them  till  1835,  when  he  re-  for  honey,  digging  it  out  of  the  nests  of  bum- 
tired  and  lived  with  his  onlv  daughter.  Dur-  b'ebees  and  others  which  make  their  homes  in 
ing  the  latter  years  of  his  'life  he  received  a  pe  ground  This  is  the  animal  formerly  used 
pension   from   the  United   States.  |"  ,the  cruel  sport  of  badger-baiting.     A  captive 

■r,   J   r       r\           T       \         ■                  1     cc  badgcr   was   placed   in   an   overturned  barrel   or 

K     ^^^^r^fu'  ^^""^r       '  ^"^^'"'^1"  naval  officer:  ^^^^  similar  place,  and   dogs  were  set  upon  it 

b.      Windham,      Conn.,      12      Aug.      1823 ;      d.  for  the  amusement   of   seeing  the  fighting  that 

20  June   1899;   entered   the  United   States  navy,  resulted.      It    required    a    powerful    and    active 

9    Sept.     1841;     became    lieutenant-commander,  dog  to  overcome  the  little  animal.     Frequently, 

16  July    1862;   commander,   2,    July    1866;   cap-  however,  the  badger  was  given  no  fair  chance 

tain,  25  Nov.  1872;  commodore.  15  Nov.   1881 ;  ^ut  was  compelled  to  face  in  the  open  two  o; 

and  was   retired   12  Aug.   1885.     He  served  on  ^^ree    dogs.     From  this   unmanly   sport    is    de- 

the    steamer    Mississippi    during    the    Mexican  ^.-^^^^   ^^e   verb   «to   badger.»      Many   references 

war    taking   part    in    the    attack    on    Alvarado  ^^^  ^^  ^  ^^^^^^   -^  ^^^]     ^     ^^^^  literature  to 

1846;  led  the  party  that  attacked  and  destroyed  ^^is  amusement,  and  to  the  animal  itself  under 

the  village  of  "V  utia,  Fiji  Islands    while  on  the  ^j^e    old   terms    «grey»    and    «brock.»    the    latter 

soop    John    Adams     1855-6;    and    m     he    Civil  ,^5,1    -^  common   use   in   northern   England   and 

War   commanded   the    Anacostia,    of   the    Poto-  Scotland.      Various   closely   related   species    and 

mac  flotilla,   1861-2    and  the  ironclads   Patapsco  ^^j-ieties    of    the    badger    are    to    be    found    in 

and   Montauk,   in  the  operations  in  Charleston  northern  Asia,   and  other  relatives  exist  in  In- 

harbor  in  1863 :  and  was  acting  fleet  cap  am  on  .      ^            ^  ^  ^       ^^  ^^^.^^      P^^  ^^^^^  ^^^ 

the  flagship  Weehawken  in  the  attack  on  Fort  s^^j^.^^oger ;  Honey  Badger;  Ratel;  Teledu; 

Sumter,    i    Sept.    1863.  Zorilla 

Bad'ger    a   stout    burrow-ing    carnivorous  Bad'ger   State,   a   nickname    given    to   the 

mammal   of  the    fur-bearing    family  AUisteliace,  state   of    Wisconsin 

related  to  the  skunks  and  weasels,  species  of  -n  ■,,•,,-  >  •  ,  c 
which  inhabit  various  parts  of  the  northern  Badghis,  bad-gez ,  a  region  north  of 
hemisphere.  Badgers  have  short  legs,  elongat-  Herat,  comprising  the  cpuntry  between  the  Mur- 
ed feet  with  powerful  toes  adapted  to  digging,  gjab  and  the  Harirud  rivers,  as  far  north  as  the 
heavv  jaws  with  big  teeth,  and  great  strength,  edge  of  the  desert  It  lies  J"st  to  the  south  of 
courkge,  and  cunning.  They  wear  coats  of  the  boundary  line  between  Afghanistan  and  the 
thick  fur  usually  grizzled  in  brown  and  gray,  Russian  territories,  as  defined  in  1887. 
the  face  is  striped  and  the  paws  are  blackish.  Badg'ley,  Sidney  Rose,  Canadian  archi- 
The  fur  is  of  considerable  value.  The  Amer-  tect :  b.  near  Kingston,  Ont..  28  May  1850.  He 
ican  badger  (Taxidea  amcricana)  was  formerly  studied  architecture  in  Toronto,  and,  after  prac- 
distributed  all  over  the  western  part  of  the  tising  some  time  in  St.  Catharines,  established 
United  States  from  the  prairie  districts  of  himself  in  Cleveland,  O.  He  has  made  a  special- 
Ohio  and  Wisconsin  to  the  Pacific  coast,  but  ty  of  the  architecture  of  churches  and  public 
has    been   exterminated    by   civilization   east   of  buildings,  and  has  planned  and  erected  churches 


BADHAM  — BAER 


in  almost  all  parts  of  Canada  and  the  United 
States,  and,  among  other  structures,  the  Massey 
Music  Hall,  Toronto;  the  Slocum  Library  and 
Perkins  Observatory,  in  Ohio;  Wesleyan  Uni- 
versity, in  Delaware,  and  the  Medical  College, 
Cleveland.  He  published  an  ^Architectural 
Souvenir'    (1896). 

Badham,  bad'am,  Charles,  English  educa- 
tor: b.  Ludlow,  18  July  1813;  d.  26  Feb.  1884; 
was  considered  one  of  the  most  eminent  classical 
scholars  of  his  day ;  and  after  serving  for  sev- 
eral years  as  head  master  of  King  Edward 
VL's  Grammar  School  at  Louth,  he  became 
professor  of  classics  and  logic  in  the  University 
of  Sydney,  Australia,  1867.  While  in  Sydney  he 
established  a  system  of  teaching  by  correspond- 
ence, similar  to  the  present  university  exten- 
sion scheme.  He  published  a  number  of  works 
on  Greek  classics,  and  'Criticism  Applied  to 
Shakespeare^    (1846). 

Badia  y  Leblich,  ba-de'a  e  la-blech', 
Domingo,  Spanish  traveler:  b.  1766;  d.  1818; 
he  visited  in  1803  and  the  four  following  years 
the  Mohammedan  countries  bordering  on  the 
Mediterranean.  During  the  whole  of  his  tour  he 
professed  to  be  a  Mussulman,  and  traveled  under 
the  denomination  of  "AH  Bey  el  Abbassi.''  He 
was  so  skilful  in  carrying  out  his  part  that  he 
deceived  Moslem  rulers  and  scholars,  and  was 
at  one  time  in  great  favor  in  the  court  of 
Morocco.  It  is  now  admitted  that  he  was  em- 
ployed as  a  political  agent  by  the  Prince  of 
Peace,  at  the  instigation  of  Napoleon.  His  pe- 
culiar situation  and  religious  profession  gave 
him  opportunities  for  making  many  observations 
which  could  not  occur  to  other  travelers,  and  he 
published  an  account  of  his  travels,  with  the 
title  'Voyages  d'  AH  Bei  en  Afrique  et  en  Asie.^ 

Badinguet,  ba'daii-ga',  afterward  Radot,  a 
Moor,  as  whom  Napoleon  HL  masqueraded  to 
escape  from  the  fortress  of  Ham  in  1846;  after- 
ward a  nickname  for  Napoleon  HL  He  died  in 
1883. 

Badius,  ba'de-us,  French  printer  and  writ- 
er: b.  1462;  d.  1535.  About  1500  he  founded 
his  printing  establishment  at  Paris,  and  publish- 
ed a  number  of  the  classics.  He  annotated 
these  himself  and  wrote  also  a  life  of  'Thomas 
a  Kempis.* 

Bad'lam,  Stephen,  American  military  offi- 
cer: b.  Milton,  Mass.,  25  March  1748;  d.  24 
Aug.  181 5;  entered  the  Revolutionary  army  in 
1775;  became  commander  of  the  artillery  in  the 
Department  of  Canada.  On  the  announcement 
of  the  adoption  of  the  Declaration  of  Independ- 
ence, he  took  possession  of  the  heights  oppo- 
site Ticonderoga  and  named  the  place  Mt.  In- 
dependence. Subsequently  he  rendered  good 
service  at  Fort  Stanwix,  and  in  1799  was  made 
brigadier-general. 

Bad'man,  The  Life  and  Death  of  Mr.,  an 
allegory  by  John  Bunyan,  published  in  1680.  It 
gives  a  vivid  picture  of  the  life  of  the  common 
people  during  the  time  of  Charles  II. 

Bad'minton.  The  game  now  called  Bad- 
minton is  in  reality  a  modification  of  the  very 
ancient  game  of  battledore  and  shuttlecock ;  but 
it  is  played  on  a  court  44  feet  long  by  20  wide 
over  a  net  strung  across  the  centre  not  less  than 
18  mches  deep,  with  its  lower  edge  five  feet  from 
the  ground.  The  bat  is  strong,  like  a  racquet 
bat,  and  weighs  about  five  ounces.    The  shuttle- 


cock is  feathered  after  the  old  fashion.  The 
service  line  is  drawn  six  and  one  half  feet  from 
the  net  on  either  side.  A  line  drawn  down  the 
centre,  joining  the  service  and  base  lines,  forms 
two  courts  at  each  end.  The  game  can  be 
played  by  two  or  four,  six  or  eight  players. 
Each  striker  scores,  or  is  penalized,  according 
to  the  result  of  the  rules.  See  'The  Ency- 
clopcedia  of  Sport>    (N.  Y.  1898). 

Bad'minton,  a  special,  sweetened  claret, 
named  for  the  Duke  of  Beaufort  (of  Badmin- 
ton). As  he  was  a  patron  of  pugilists,  the  term 
came  to  mean,  in  the  prize  ring,  blood,  for  which 
claret   was   previously   a    slang   term. 

'  Badoc,  ba-dok',  Philippine  Islands,  a  town 
of  the  province  of  IHcos  Notre,  on  the  Island 
of  Luzon.     Pop.  11,000. 

Badoura,  ba-doo'ra,  the  daughter  of  the 
king  of  China,  who  falls  in  love  with  the  sleep- 
ing prince  in  the  story  of  Prince  Camaralzaman, 
in  the  'Arabian  Nights'  Entertainment.^ 

Badrinath,  ba'dri-nath',  a  peak  of  the  main 
Himalayan  range,  in  Garhwal  district.  North- 
western Provinces,  India;  23,210  feet  above  the 
sea.  On  one  of  its  shoulders,  at  an  elevation 
of  10,400  feet,  stands  a  celebrated  temple  of 
Vishnu,  w^hich  some  years  attracts  as  many  as 
50,000  pilgrims. 

Badrulbudar,  ba-drool'boo-door',  the  wife 
of  Aladdin,  in  the  'Arabian  Nights'  Entertain- 
ment,^  story  of  Aladdin  and  the  lamp. 

Baebia  Gens,  be'bi-a  jenz,  a  plebeian  clan 
of  ancient  Rome.  The  first  member  of  the  fam- 
ily to  obtain  the  consulship  w^as  Cn.  Baebius 
Tamphilus  (182  b.c.).  The  other  distinguished 
ones  are  known  under  their  family  names.  Dives, 
Herennius,  Sulca.  etc. 

Baedeker,  bad'e-ker,  Karl,  German  pub- 
lisher: b.  1801  :  d.  1859;  originator  of  a  cele- 
brated series  of  guide-books  for  travelers. 

Baele,  ba-a'le,  an  African  tribe  dwelling 
northeast  of  Lake  Tchad.  It  is  nomadic,  half 
heathen  and  half  Mohammedan,  and  owns  large 
herds  of  cattle,  camels,  goats,  and  sheep. 

Baena,  ba-ya'na,  Antonio,  Portuguese- 
Brazilian  historian  and  geographer :  b.  Portugal 
about  1795;  d.  28  March  1850;  waa  an  officer  in 
the  Portuguese,  afterward  in  the  Brazilian,  army. 
He  studied  the  geography  and  history  of  the 
Amazon  valley.  His  principal  works  were  'The 
Ages  of  Para  (1838).  a  historic  compend  stop- 
ping in  1823,  and  'Chorographic  Essay  on  the 
Province  of  Para'  (1839),  a  geographical  and 
statistical  work,  giving  the  details  of  explora- 
tions made  by  himself.  The.^e  are  still  standard 
authorities  on  that  region. 

Bae'na,  Spain,  a  town  in  province  of  An- 
dalusia, 24  miles  south-southeast  from  Cordova, 
on  the  Marbella.  It  has  two  principal  and  two 
smaller  squares,  four  parish  churches,  a  town- 
and  court-house,  several  well-attended  schools, 
two  hospitals,  a  prison,  numerous  convents,  and 
manufactures  of  linen,  woolen  and  cotton  fab- 
rics. Large  quantities  of  grain  ^nd  oil  are  ex- 
ported to  Malaga      Pop.    (1897)   11,994. 

Baer,  bar,  Karl  Ernst  von,  Russian  natu- 
ralist: b.  Piep,  Esthonia,  28  Feb.  1792;  d. 
28  Nov.  1876 ;  was  professor  of  zoology  at  Ko- 
nigsberg  (1819),  and  librarian  of  the  Academy 
of  Sciences  at  St.  Petersburg  (1834).  His  princi- 
pal works  were  'History  of  the  E)evelopment  of 


BAER  — BAFFIN  BAY 

Animals^     (2   vols.    1828-37),    and    'Researches  Bae'yer,  Johann  Jakob,  Prussian  geometri- 

Into  the  Development  of  Fishes*    (1835).     The  cian :  b.  Muggelsheim,  5  Nov.  1794;  d-  10  Sept. 

writings    of    Baer    are    distinguished    for    their  1885 ;  was  an  army  volunteer  in  the  campaigns 

philosophical  teachings.  of    1813   and    1814;   joined   the    army   in    1815; 

Baer,    William    Jacob,    artist:    b.    Cincin-  a"d   became    a   lieutenant-general    in    1858.     He 

nati,  29  Jan.    i860.     He  studied  at  the  Munich  ^ad  charge  of  a   number  of   geodetic   surveys: 

Royal   Academy,   188(^4,   receiving  four  medals  was  elected  president  of  the  Geodetic  Institute 

there,   and   one    of   his   works    being   purchased  '"  ^erlm  in   1870;  and  was  the  author  of  nu- 

by  the   Academy.      Between    1885    and    1892   he  "^^^""^   treatises  on   the  refraction   of  light   m 

painted  portraits  and  pictures,  the  latter  chiefly  the  atmosphere,  the  size  and  form  of  the  earth, 

in   the   genre    style.     He   then   devoted   himself  ^  '~' 

almost    exclusively    to    miniature    painting,    of  Baez,    ba'ath,    Buenaventura,     Dominican 

which    he    became    a    pioneer    of    the    modern  statesman:    b.    Azua,    Haiti,    about    1810;    d.    21 

school.      ^A.urora,>     <The    Golden    Hour,'     'In  IMarch  1884;   aided  in  the  establishment  of  the 

Arcadia, >   and   'The  Madonna  with  the  Auburn  Dominican  Republic;  was  its  president  in  1849- 

Hair>   are  among  his  best-known  miniatures.  53;  was  then  expelled  by   Santa  Ana  and  went 

Baert,  ba-ar',  Alexandre  Balthazar   Fran-  to    New    York;    was   recalled   in    1856    on    the 

5ois   de   Paule,  Baron   de,   French  writer:   b  expulsion    ot    Santa    Ana,    and    again    elected 

Dunkirk  about  1750;  d.  23  ^larch  1825;  became  president;  and  was  re-elected  president  in  1865 

a    deputy    in    the    General    Assembly    of    1789.  and    1868.      During    his    last    term     he    signed 

When  the  Revolution  became  the  Reign  of  Ter-  treaties  with  the  United  States  (29  Nov.  1869) 

ror,    he    fled    to   the    United    States,    remaining  for  the   annexation   of   Santo   Domingo  to  the 

there   some  years.     He  returned   to    France  in  United   States,  and  for  the  cession  of   Samana 

181 5,  and  once  more  became  deputy,  maintaining  Bay.     The  treaties  failed  of   ratification   in  the 

his   old  position  as   a  moderate  reformer.     He  United  States  Senate,  and  caused  the  downfall 

published   two   historical    works,   one    on    Great  of  Baez. 

Britain    and    her    colonies,    the    other    6n    the  Baeza,  ba-a'tha,  Spain,  a  towm  of  Andalu- 

country  between  the  Black  and  Caspian  seas.  sia,   22    miles   east-northeast   from  Jaen.     It   is 

Baert',    or   Bart,   Jean,    French    sailor:    b.  pleasantly  situated   on  a  height  amid  rich   and 

Dunkirk.  1650;  d.  1702.     He  raised  himself,  un-  well-watered   plains,   and   from  a   distance  pre- 

der  Louis  XIV.,  to  the  rank  of  commodore,  and  sents  a  very   striking  appearance   wth    its  old 

made  the  French  navy  what  it  was,  at  that  time,  walls,    churches,    and    steep-roofed    houses.      It 

The  Dutch,  English,  and  Spanish  called  him  the  has  several  good  streets  and  three  squares,  one 

«French  Devil.»     Bart  brought  into  port  a  num-  of  which  is  lined  by  a  range  of  porticoes.     I  he 

ber  of  Dutch  and  English  vessels,  burned  others,  principal    edihces    are    the    cathedral     the    old 

landed  at  Newcastle,  and  laid  waste  the  neigh-  Aliatares  tower,  the  town-hall  with  a  fine  fagade, 

boring   country.      In    1694,    when    there    was    a  and    an   old    monastery,   now   a   theatre.      Fop. 

scarcity  of  corn  in  France,  he  succeeded  several  (1902)    about   14,300. 

times,  notwithstanding  the  watchfulness  of  the  Baffa,  baf'fa,  a  seaport  on  the  southwest 

English,  in  bringing  into  the  harbor  of  Dunkirk  coast   of  Cyprus.     It   occupies  the  site  of  New 

ships  loaded  with  this  article.    Once  he  delivered  Paphos,  which,  under  the  Romans,  was  full  of 

a  number  of  such  vessels,  in  the  boldest  manner,  beautiful  temples  and   other  public   buildings, 

from  the  Dutch,  into  whose  hands  they  had  fall-  Baffin,    William,     English    navigator:    b. 

en,  and  received,  m  consequence,  letters  of  nobil-  about    1584;  d.  23   May   1622.     He  visited  west 

ity      In  1695  he  was  taken  prisoner  by  the  Eng-  Greenland  as  a  pilot  in  1612,  again  in  1615,  and 

hsh  and  brought  to   Plymouth,   but  managed  to  j^^je  voyages  to  Soitzbergen  in  1613  and  1614. 

make   his    escape.     In    1696   he  met    the   Dutch  j^   1616  he  ascertained  the  limits  of  that  vast 

fleet   froni  the   Baltic   and   captured   the   escort  inlet  of  the  sea  since  distinguished  by  the  ap- 

with  40  ships ;  but  on  his  return  to  Dunkirk  13  pellation    of    Baffin    Bay,    and    also    discovered 

Dutch  ships  of  the  line  appeared,  and  to  avoid  g^d    named    Smith's    Sound,    Lancaster    Sound, 

a  very  unequal  combat  he  was  obliged  to  burn  ^^^      j^   1617-22  he  was  in  the  emplovment  of 

the    greater    part    of    his    captures.     From    the  ^^e  East  India  Companv,  and  on  board  vessels 

Peace  of  Ryswick  to  the  breaking  out  of  the  belonging  to  them  in  the  Indian  seas.     He  was 

war  of  the  Spanish  succession  he  lived  at  Dun-  j^jUg^i  ^^  the    siege  of   Ormuz,  on  the    Persian 

^irk.      _  G,,lf. 

Baetica,  be'ti-ka,  the  central  division  of  Baffin's  Bay,  an  inland  sea  or  gulf  in  North 
ancient  Spain  under  Roman  rule,  famed  for  its  America,  between  Greenland  and  the  lands  or 
fertility,  its  mines  of  iron,  gold,  and  silver,  and  islands  north  of  Hudson  Bay,  extending  from 
Its  delightful  climate.  These  advantages  gave  68°  to  78°  N.,  and  55°  to  80°  W.  It  communi- 
rise  to  a  number  of  fabulous  stories,  which  ^ates  with  the  Atlantic  Ocean  by  Davis  Strait 
made  it  the  home  of  Geryon,  an  assailant  of  o^  the  south,  with  the  Arctic  Ocean  by  Lancas- 
Hercules,  and  placed  there  the  Elysian  Fields,  ter  Sound  and  Jones  Sound  on  the  west,  and 
It  passed  into  the  hands  of  the  Vandals,  and  ^ith  the  Polar  Sea  by  Smith  Sound  and  Robe- 
it  was  the  first  province  conquered  by  the  son  Channel  on  the  north.  Depth,  200  to  1,050 
Moors.  fathoms.     The  tides   do   not   rise  more  than   10 

Baeyer,  ba'yer,  Adolf  von,  German  chem-  feet.     The  surface  of  the  sea  is   covered   with 

ist:    b.    Berlin,    31    Oct.    1835;    son    of   Johann  ice  during  the  greater  part  of  the  year,   which 

Jakob   Baeyer;    became   professor   of    chemistry  extends   from  shore  to  shore  in  winter,  though 

at   Strasburg  in    1872,   and   at   Munich,   in   1875,  possessing   a    slow,    southward    movement.      In 

succeeding  Liebig  at  the  latter.     He  made  many  spring  and  summer,  the  great  mass,  knov.-n  as 

important  discoveries   in  organic  chemistry,  es-  the    middle    ice,    begins    to    move    less    slowly 

pecially  cerulein,  eosin,  and  indol.  southward,    leaving   navigable   passages   on   th,e 


BAFFIN  LAND  — BAGDAD 


side  of  Greenland  and  America,  and  occasional 
channels,  or  crossings,  between  these  coasts. 
The  coasts  are  mountainous,  barren,  and  deeply 
indented  with  gulfs.  Whale  and  seal  fishing  is 
followed.  This  sea  was  discovered  by  the  Eng- 
lish navigator,  Baffin  (q.v.),  in  1616,  while  in 
search  of  a  passage  to  the  Pacific. 

Baffin  Land,  an  island  in  the  Arctic  re- 
gions west  of  Greenland.  Its  area  is  not  exactly 
known. 

Bafulabe,  ba'fii-lab,  a  town  of  the  French 
Sudan,  at  the  junction  of  two  head-streams  of 
the  Senegal,  connected  by  railway  with  Kayes 
on  that  river. 

Bagamoyo,  ba'ga-mo'yo,  a  seaport  and 
commercial  centre  of  German  East  Africa  op- 
posite Zanzibar,  and  north  of  Dar-es-Salaam. 
Though  it  has  no  harbor,  and  its  coast  is  often 
swept  by  hurricanes,  it  has  a  considerable  trade 
in  ivory,  copra,  caoutchouc,  etc.  It  has  a  fort, 
government  house,  custom-house,  post-office  and 
telegraph  building,  station  of  the  German  East 
African  Association,  government  school,  etc. 
The  climate  is  unhealthy  for  Europeans.  Fop. 
about  18,000. 

Bagasse,  ba-gas',  the  name  given  to  sugar 
cane  in  its  dry,  crushed  state,  as  delivered  from 
the  mill,  and  after  the  main  portion  of  its  juice 
has  been  expressed ;  used  as  fuel  in  the  sugar 
factory,  and  called  also  cane  trash. 

Bagatelle,  bag'a-tel',  a  table  ball  game  of 
the  class  of  billiards,  played  on  a  table  semi- 
circular at  the  top  end.  The  tables  vary  from 
6  to  7  feet  in  length  and  are  usually  about 
3  feet  6  inches  wide.  The  game  is  played  by 
two  or  more,  one  against  the  other.  There  are 
nine  balls,  eight  white  and  one  black,  and  nine 
holes  sunk  in  the  far  end'  of  the  table  in  a 
diamond  shape,  numbered  respectively  I,  2,  3, 
4,  5,  6,  7,  8,  9. 


The  black  ball  is  placed  on  a  spot  *  in  front 
of  the  foremost  hole.  The  player  then  takes 
one  of  the  white  balls,  and  placing  it  within  a 
balk  line  at  the  lower  end  of  the  table,  strikes 
it  with  the  cue  in  such  a  manner  that  it  strikes 
the  black  ball ;  both  balls  go  on  their  courses 
and  fall,  or  not,  into  one  or  other  of  the  open 
cups.  Whichever  cup  the  black  ball  falls  into 
counts  double  the  number  of  points  normally 
allotted  to  it.  Then  the  player,  in  like  manner, 
plays  the  remaining  seven  balls  up  the  table. 
For  so  many  cups  as  he  fills  he  counts  up  his 
dots,  and  that  is  his  score.     The  highest  wins. 

Bagau'dae,  or  Bagaudi,  a  body  of  Gallic 
insurrectionists  of  the  rural  class,  who  revolted 
against  the  Romans  270  a.d.,  headed  by  one 
Victoria,  called  by  the  soldiers  Mother  of  Le- 
gions. Claudius  temporarily  quelled  them,  and 
Aurelian,  by  a  remission  of  their  taxes  in  ar- 
rears, and  by  granting  them  a  general  amnesty, 
made  peace  with  them.  Under  Diocletian,  280 
A.D.,  they  rose  again,  and  their  two  leaders  as- 
sumed the  title  of  emperor ;  but  they  were  soon 
compelled  to  capitulate,  though  they  retreated 
to  an  island   formed  by  the   confluence  of  the 


Marne  and  Seine,  and  made  a  desperate  stand 
for  the  victory.  The  place  of  this  sanguinar 
contest  was  long  known  as  the  Fosses  do, 
Bagaudcs.  From  this  period,  the  Bagaudse  may 
be  considered  as  gradually  transforming  their 
activity  into  a  kind  of  brigandage,  which  in- 
fested the  forests  and  fastnesses  of  Gaul  until 
the  end   of  the  Western  Empire. 

Bag'by,  George  William,  American  physi- 
cian and  humorist :  b.  Buckingham  County, 
Va.,  13  Aug.  1828 ;  d.  29  Nov.  1883 ;  educated  at 
Delaware  College ;  wrote  under  the  pseudonym, 
Mozis  Addums.  He  was  editor  of  the  Lynch- 
burg Express  (1853),  and  ^Southern  Literary 
Messenger*  (1859);  State  Librarian  of  Vir- 
ginia (1870-8),  and  contributor  to  various 
magazines.  He  wrote  ^John  M.  Daniel's  Latch- 
key >  (1868)  ;  <What  I  Did  With  My  Fifty  Mil- 
lions*   (1875)  ;  and  ^Meekins'  Twinses*    (1877). 

Bag'dad,  a  town  in  Tamaulipas,  Mexico, 
near  the  mouth  of  the  Rio  Grande,  the  port  of 
Matamoras.  It  was  of  great  importance  during 
the  Civil  War  to  Confederate  blockade  runners. 

Bag'dad,  capital  of  the  Turkish  vilayet  of 
lad,  situated  on  the  Tigris.  The  old  Bag- 
dad, the  residence  of  the  caliphs,  said  to  have 
had  2,000,000  inhabitants,  was  situated  on  the 
western  bank  of  the  river.  The  modern  city  lies 
mostly  on  the  eastern  bank  of  the  river  and  is 
surrounded  with  a  brick  wall  about  six  miles  in 
circuit,  partly  in  a  ruinous  condition,  and  with, 
a  ditch  from  five  to  six  fathoms  deep,  intended 
to  be  filled  with  water  from  the  Tigris.  The 
houses,  mostly  built  of  brick,  are  but  one  story 
high,  the  streets  unpaved,  and  so  narrow  that 
two  horsemen  can  scarcely  ride  abreast.  The 
houses  of  the  wealthy  are  distinguished  by  a 
better  architecture.  Of  the  mosques,  about  100 
in  number,  only  a  few  attract  much  notice,  and. 
many  are  in  ruins.  Their  architecture  is  in 
general  inferior  to  that  of  other  Mohammedan 
cities,  but  they  have  a  gaudy  appearance  from 
the  glazed  tiles  covering  their  domes  and  min- 
arets, and  arranged  in  a  kind  of  mosaic  work 
in  various  colors.  The  bazaars  are  spacious 
and  well  stocked  with  goods.  That  built  by 
Daoud  Pasha  still  ranks  as  one  of  the  most 
splendid  in  the  world.  Bagdad  long  com- 
manded a  large  part  of  the  traffic  between  Eu- 
rope on  the  one  hand,  and  Persia  and  India  on 
the  other.  The  Persian  and  Indian  trade  is 
still  considerable,  as  also  that  with  Europe,  a 
large  portion  of  it  being  carried  on  by  steamers 
up  and  down  the  river.  The  trade  with  Europe 
was  formerly  more  largely  by  land,  passing 
through  the  Syrian  Desert  to  Damascus,  or  by 
way  of  Armenia  northward.  Since  the  open- 
ing of  the  Suez  Canal  the  sea  routes  are  of  far 
more  importance.  Wool  is  the  chief  export  to 
Europe,  others  being  wheat,  gum,  galls,  dates, 
etc.  The  heat  of  the  summer  is  oppressive  in 
Bagdad,  but  the  winter  is  cold  enough  to  make 
a  fire  necessary.  The  climate  is  on  the  whole 
agreeable  and  healthy,  though  sometimes  the 
plague  prevails.  Bagdad  is  inhabited  by  Turks, 
Arabs,  Persians,  Kurds,  Armenians,  Jews,  and 
a  small  number  of  Christians.  The  Turks  com- 
pose three  fourths  of  the  whole  population.  The 
Jews  are  confined  to  a  certain  district  of  the 
city,  and  are  in  a  very  oppressed  condition. 
The  population  of  the  city,  according  to  the  most 
recent  estimate,  amounts  to  between  175,000  ancL 
200,000. 


BAGE— BAGEHOT 


Bagdad  was  founded  in  •](i2  by  the  Caliph 
Almanzor,  and  was  raised  to  a  high  degree  of 
splendor  in  the  Qth  century  by  the  famous 
Harun  al-Rashid,  who  figures  so  often  in  the 
'Arabian  Nights.'  It  then  became  the  chief 
city  in  the  Moslem  world  and  a  great  centre  of 
culture  and  learning.  In  the  13th  century  it 
was  stormed  by  Hulagu  (Holagou),  grandson 
of  Genghis-Khan,  who  caused  the  reigning 
caliph  to  be  slain  and  overthrew  the  caliphate. 
The  descendants  of  the  conqueror  were  expelled 
in  1392  by  Tamerlane.  In  the  15th  century  Shah 
Ismael,  the  first  sovereign  of  Persia  of  the 
house  of  Soft,  took  possession  of  the  city.  From 
that  time  it  was  a  perpetual  subject  of  contest 
in  the  wars  between  the  Turks  and  Persians. 
After  a  memorable  siege  in  1638  it  w^as  con- 
quered by  the  Turkish  emperor,  Murad  IV., 
and  Nadir  Shah  endeavored  in  vain,  in  the  iStli 
century,  to  wrest  it  from  the  Turks. 

Bage,  Robert,  English  novelist :  b.  Bar- 
ley, Derbyshire,  29  Feb.  1728;  d.  Tamworth,  i 
Sept.  i8or.  He  began  to  write  at  the  age  of  53. 
Among  his  works  were:  'Mount  Henneth' 
(1781);  'Barham  Downs'  (1784);  'Herrn- 
sprong,  or  Man  as  He  Is  Not'  (1796),  etc.  The 
French  social  theories  then  prevailing  were  em- 
bodied in  his  novels. 

Bagehot,  Walter,  English  economist,  jour- 
nalist, and  critic ;  b.  Landport,  Somersetshire, 
England,  3  Feb.  1826;  d.  Landport,  24  March 
1877.  Bagehot's  career  was  in  an  uncommon 
degree  marked  for  him  ?'■  the  outset.  His  father, 
Thomas  Watson  Bagehot,  was  vice-chairman 
of  the  Somersetshire  bank,  founded  by  Samuel 
Stuckey  in  the  i8th  century.  His  mother, 
a  niece  of  Stuckey,  a  woman  of  much  char- 
acter and  lively  mind,  had,  through  an  earlier 
marriage,  been  brought  into  an  e.xcellent  intel- 
lectual atmosphere  from  which,  says  Hutton, 
"she  greatly  profited."  Bagehot,  a  boy  of  nat- 
urally keen  mind  and  with  a  habit  of  reading, 
was  educated  with  much  good  judgment.  He 
first  attended  school  in  Bristol,  whence,  in  1842, 
he  entered  University  College,  London,  grad- 
uating B.A.,  in  1846,  and  M.A.,  with  much 
honor  in  philosophy  and  political  economy,  two 
years  later.  He  was  also  distinguished  as  a 
mathematician  and  was  widely  read  in  poetry, 
metaphysics,  and  history.  Then  he  took  to 
reading  law,  but,  though  very  fond  of  the  study 
and  though  called  to  the  bar  in  1852,  he  never 
practised.  Instead  he  entered  the  banking  busi- 
ness under  his  father  in  Landport.  He  had  pre- 
viously, in  1851,  spent  some  time  in  Parts  dur- 
ing the  exciting  days  of  the  coup  d'etat  of  Na- 
poleon III.  His  first  essays  in  journalism  were 
accounts  of  the  afifairs  of  France  contributed  to 
a  little  weekly  newspaper,  the  Inquirer.  Herein 
Bagehot  astounded  his  friends  by  a  somewhat 
youthfully  cynical  support  of  the  cause  of  Na- 
poleon, on  the  paradoxical  ground  that  the 
French  were  too  clever  to  be  successful  as  a 
self-governing  people.  Stupidity,  according  to 
his  views  at  that  time,  was,  says  Hutton,  essen- 
tial to  political  freedom. 

_ While  in  business.  Bagehot  contributed  to  re- 
views,— first  to  the  Prospective  Rez'ie:i'  and  after 
1855  to  the  National  Rczneiv. — various  biograph- 
ical and  critical  articles.  These,  and  also  sev- 
eral sketches  originally  published  as  'Estimates 


of  Some  Englishmen  and  Scotchmen'  (1858), 
were  collected  after  his  death  in  'Literary 
Studies'  (2  vols.,  1878),  and  'Biographical 
Studies'  (1880).  In  time  they  extend  from 
1852  to  Bagehot's  death.  The  essays  "which 
best  represent  his  peculiar  genius"  (so  Hutton) 
are  'Tiie  First  Edinburgh  Reviewers,'  'Hart- 
ley Coleridge,'  and  'Bishop  Butler,'  but  such 
essays  as  those  on  Gibbon,  Shelley,  Clough, 
Dickens,  and  Wordsworth,  Tennyson,  and 
Browning,  are  among  the  most  vigorous  pieces 
of  English  criticism.  All  are  distinguished  by 
a  dash  and  keenness  of  phrase  and  an  uncom- 
mon faculty  for  sane  and  broad  generalization. 
In  1858  Bagehot  married  Miss  WiLson,  eldest 
daughter  of  the  Right  Hon.  James  Wilson,  who 
had  founded  the  London  Economist  during  the 
anti-corn  law  agitation  to  represent  free-trade 
sentiment.  In  i860  Bagehot  became  editor,  and 
there  remained  till  his  death.  His  practical 
knowledge  of  men,  his  great  experience  in  busi- 
ness, and  extensive  studies  enabled  him  to  win 
success  in  this  field,  and  also  to  write  the  books 
on  which  his  fame  as  an  economist  chiefly  rests. 
These  are  'The  English  Constitution'  (1867), 
which  is  extensively  used  as  a  text-book  and  has 
been  translated  into  French,  German,  and  Ital- 
ian; 'Physics  and  Politics'  (1872),  which  has 
been  even  more  widely  translated;  and  'Lom- 
bard Street'  (1873),  a  study  of  the  money  mar- 
ket. Besides  the  books  already  named  there 
anpeared  after  Bagehot's  death  'Economic 
Studies,'  a  collection  of  earlier  work,  and 
'The  Depreciation  of  Silver.'  Bagehot's  coun- 
sel was  much  sought  for  in  financi-al  and 
economic  questions.  He  tried  on  several  occa- 
sions, with  honesty  rather  than  zeal,  to  be 
elected  to  Parliament,  but  never  succeeded. 

Bagehot,  both  as  a  student  of  institutions  and 
of  men,  is  entitled  to  high  rank.  To  this  study 
he  brought,  in  spite  of  some  natural  prejudice 
in  favor  of  the  institutions  and  men  of  his  na- 
tive land,  a  mind  of  thoroughly  scientific  bent 
and  much  detachment.  As  a  student  he  is  in- 
terested in  fundamental  questions  rather  than 
in  minutiae.  His  broadest  book,  'Physics  and 
Politics,'  is  an  example  of  this,  and  may  be  re- 
garded as  an  exposition  of  his  main  methods 
and  interests.  It  is  an  at'.empt  to  show  how  the 
principle  of  the  survival  of  the  fittest  apphes 
to  the  formation  of  states.  The  thesis  is  that 
in  earliest  times  and  even  down  nearly  to  the 
present,  the  people  who  had  the  faculty  of  or- 
ganization and  obedience,  whether  in  family, 
tribe,  or  nation,  were  bound  to  prevail  over 
those  less  organized,  and  that  hence  obedience 
to  laws,  or  rulers  of  whatever  sort  was  necessary 
to  political  success,  until  the  habit  of  legality 
became  ingrained.  Hence  the  nation  with  the 
best  militarj'  power  could  seize  the  best  parts 
of  the  earth.  If,  however,  the  process  stopped 
with  organization,  the  nation  would  in  time  pre- 
sent a  case  of  arrested  development,  and  would 
no  longer  progress ;  for  the  principle  of  varia- 
tion, or  originality,  is  also  necessary  to  com- 
plete progress.  The  best  instrument  for  the 
cultivation  of  variation  is  free  discussion.  Hence 
arises  the  explanation  of  the  fact  that  the  west- 
ern nations  of  Europe  are  far  in  advance  of  the 
rest  of  the  world,  in  that  they  have  tempered 
the  rule  of  custom  with  discussion,  which  has, 
historically,  been  practically  limited  to  peoples 


BAGGAGE  —  BAGLEY 


of  Greek  and  Germanic  origin.  And  in  general, 
on  the  other  hand,  discussion  is  useful  in  check- 
ing the  impulse  to  hast}'  action,  a  relic  of  prim- 
itive civilizations.  Bagehot's  other  longer  works 
are  really  exemplifications  of  this  principle : 
'The  English  Constitution^  is  substantially  an 
examination  of  the  means  of  discussion  in  Eng- 
land and  a  comparison  of  it  with  that  in  other 
states;  'Lombard  Street'  is  an  analysis  of  one 
of  the  phenomena  of  variation  with  a  view  to 
expounding  and  criticising  it  as  an  efficient 
means  of  progress. 

Bagehot's  criticism  of  literature  is  likewise 
distinguished  by  breadth  and  a  fondness  for  the 
analysis  of  causes.  It  is  the  criticism,  not  of 
taste  or  of  morals,  of  the  beautiful  or  the  good 
and  bad,  but  of  types.  The  manner  in  which  the 
mind  of  his  author  worked,  the  type  of  person 
he  was,  are  the  fundamental  questions  of  inter- 
est with  Bagehot.  The  title,  for  example,  of  his 
excellent  essay  on  certain  famous  poets  illus- 
trates this :  ''Wordsworth,  Tennyson,  and 
Browning;  or.  Pure,  Ornate,  and  Grotesque  Art 
m  English  Poetry."  These  poets  are  treated  as 
examples  of  the  three  different  types  of  mind 
and  expression  named  in  the  title.  Dickens  is 
an  example  of  the  "irregular"  genius.  Hartley 
Coleridge  of  the  whimsical  and  wayward  mind 
with  a  gift  for  self-revelation,  Shakespeare, 
arnong  other  attributes,  of  the  experiencing 
mind.  Bagehot's  criticism  13,  in  all  these  es- 
says, never  formal  or  academic,  but  is  based  on 
a  wide  practical  knowled,?re  of  men.  His  point 
of  view  he  maintains  with  great  consistency, 
but  always  enlivens  his  criticism  with  such  an 
abundance  of  keen  and  witty  observations  that 
his  criticism  is  unsurpassed  in  vigor  and  is 
never  dull  He,  however,  founded  no  school  as 
certain  other  critics  have  done ;  for  his  criticism 
Is  essentially  that  of  a  lively  personality  and  the 
impressionism  of  a  scientific  and  detached  mind. 

Bibliography  — The  chief  authority  for  Bage- 
hot, besides  his  own  work,  is  R  H.  Hutton 
('Memoir>  prefixed  to  'Literarv  Studies,'  and 
'Dictionary  of  National  Biography'). 

William  T    Brewster, 
Professor  of  English,  Columbia  University. 

Bag'gage,  probably  from  the  old  French 
word  baguc.  meaning  bundle.  As  ordinarily 
used  it  includes  trunks,  valises,  portmanteaus, 
etc.,  which  a  traveler  carries  with  him  on  a 
J0urne3^  In  a  military  sense  the  word  includes 
tents,  furniture,  utensils,  etc. 

Baggara,  biig'ga-ra,  an  Arabic-speaking 
Hamitic  tribe  of  the  Upper  Nile  valley.  They 
occupy  this  valley  as  far  east  as  the  territory 
of  their  neighboring  negro  tribesmen,  the  Shil- 
luk.  They  are  nomads,  Egyptian  soldiers, 
hunters,  etc. 

Baggesen,  Jens,  Danish  poet,  who  also 
wrote  much  in  German:  b.  Korsor,  15  Feb.  1764; 
d.  Hamburg,  3  Oct.  1826.  He  traveled  exten- 
sively in  Europe,  and  on  his  return  received 
an  appointment  from  the  Danish  government. 
He  possessed  great  sensibility  and  imagination, 
and  his  works  are  said  to  present  a  singular 
mixture  of  contradictory  qualities.  His  best 
productions  are  his  smaller  poems  and  songs, 
several  of  which  are  very  popular  with  his 
countrymen.  His  'Seasons'  in  Danish,  are 
much  esteemed.  The  'Labyrinth'  is  his  most 
famous  work. 


Baghelkhand,  ba-gel-kund',  a  tract  ot 
country  in  central  India,  occupied  by  a  collection 
of  native  states  (Rewah  being  the  chief,  under 
the  governor-general's  agent  for  central  India)  ; 
area,  11,323  square  miles;  pop.  1,512,595. 

Bagheria,  ba'ga-re'a,  or  Bagaria,  a  town 
of  Sicily,  eight  miles  east  by  south  of  Palermo 
by  rail.  It  is  beautifully  situated  at  the  base 
of  the  isthmus  which  separates  the  Bay  of 
Palermo  from  that  of  Termini  and  is  surround- 
ed by  groups  of  palatial  villas  of  the  Sicilian 
nobility.      Pop.    12,650. 

Bagimont's  (baj'i-monts)  Roll,  a  rent-roll 
of  Scotland,  made  up  in  1275  by  Baiamund  or 
Boiamond  de  Vicci,  vulgarly  called  Bagimont 
who  was  sent  from  Rome  by  the  Pope,  in  the 
reign  of  Alexander  III.,  to  collect  the  tithe  of  all 
the  Church  livings  in  Scotland  for  an  expe- 
dition to  the  Holy  Land.  It  remained  the  statu- 
tory valuation,  according  to  which  the  benefices 
were  taxed,  till  the  Reformation.  A  copy  of  it, 
as  it  existed  in  the  reign  of  James  V.,  is  in  the 
Advocates'  Library,  Edinburgh. 

Bagirmi,  ba-ger'me,  a  Mohammedan  ne- 
gro state  in  central  Africa,  situated  partly  be- 
tween Bornu  and  Wadai,  to  the  southeast  of 
Lake  Chad,  and  watered  by  the  Shari,  which 
falls  into  Lake  Chad,  and  by  its  tributaries.  It 
has  an  area  of  about  65,000  square  miles,  and 
about  1,500,000  inhabitants ;  but  both  its  area  and 
population  fluctuate  according  as  it  encroaches 
on  or  is  encroached  on  by  its  neighbors.  The 
whole  country  is  a  plain  900  feet  above  the  level 
of  the  sea,  well  suited  for  the  cultivation  of 
sorghum,  which  is  accordingly  the  principal 
breadstuff.  Sesame,  beans,  cotton,  and  indigo 
are  also  cultivated.  The  government  is  an  abso- 
lute monarchy,  but  the  ruler  pays  tribute  to 
Wadai.  Bagirmi  was  formerly  included  in  one 
state  with  Bornu  and  Wadai.  An  inexhaustible 
supply  of  slaves  is  found  in  the  heathen  negro 
states  to  the  south,  at  the  expense  of  whom 
also  Bagirmi,  when  pressed  by  its  Mohamme- 
dan neighbors,  extends  its  territory.  The  cap- 
ital is  Masena,  situated  about  the  centre  of  the 
state.  By  Great  Britain  and  Germany  Bagirmi 
has  latterly  been  recognized  as  within  the 
French  sphere  of  influence,  and  in  1897  a  treaty 
was  concluded  between  the  French  government 
and  the  Sultan.  There  is  a  French  resident  in 
the  capital. 

Bag'ley,  "Worth,  American  naval  officer: 
b.  Raleigh,  N.  C,  6  April  1874;  d.  11  May 
1898.  He  was  graduated  at  the  United  States 
Naval  Academy  in  1895  ;  promoted  to  ensign,  i 
July  1897,  and  was  detailed  as  inspector  to  the 
new  torpedo-boat,  Winslow,  in  November  fol- 
lowing. This  boat  went  into  commission  the 
next  month,  and  he  was  appointed  her  execu- 
tive officer.  In  April  1898  the  Winslow  was 
assigned  to  the  American  fleet  off  the  coast  of 
Cuba,  and  on  9  May,  while  on  blockading  duty 
at  the  harbor  of  Cardenas,  with  the  Wilmington 
and  Hudson,  drew  the  fire  of  several  Spanish 
coast-guard  vessels.  All  the  American  vessels 
escaped  untouched.  Two  days  afterward  the 
three  vessels  undertook  to  force  an  entrance 
into  the  harbor,  when  they  were  fired  on  by 
Spanish  gunboats.  The  Winslow  was  disabled, 
and  with  difficulty  was  drawn  out  of  the  range 
of  the  enemy's  guns.  The  Wilmington  then 
silenced  the  Spanish  fire,  and  as  the  action 
closed,   Ensign   Bagley  and   four   sailors  on  the 


BAGLIONI  —  BAGOT 


Winslow  were  instantly  killed  by  a  shell,  he 
being  the  first  American  naval  officer  to  fall  in 
the  war  with  Spain. 

Baglioni,  ba-lyo'ne,  a  historical  family  of 
Perugia  in  Italy.  Perugia  contained  two  parties 
—  an  aristocratic  and  a  democratic  one.  The 
Baglioni  belonged  to  the  former.  In  the  12th 
century  Ludovico  Baglioni  was  appointed  im- 
perial vicar  of  Perugia  by  Frederic  Barbarossa, 
who  styles  Baglioni  his  relative,  as  coming,  like 
himself,  from  the  ducal  house  of  Swabia.  In 
I393>  70  Perugian  gentlemen,  and  among  them 
tn-o  Baglionis,  were  killed  in  a  street  fight  by 
the  populace,  and  the  whole  aristocratic  party 
was  expelled  from  the  city.  Braccio  Baglioni, 
in  the  service  of  the  Pope,  defeated  Francesco 
Sforza.  near  Lodi,  in  1453,  and  was  made  lord 
of  Spello  by  Sixtus  IV.  Gian  Paolo  Baglioni 
began  life  as  a  condottiere;  then  availing  him- 
self of  the  dissensions  of  his  native  state  he  ob- 
tained supreme  power  over  it  and  made  alliance 
with  Pandolfo  Petrucci,  ruler  of  Sienna.  He 
was  driven  out  of  Perugia  by  Csesar  Borgia  in 
1502.  Returning  in  1503,  after  the  death  of 
Alexander  VI.,  he  was  banished  again,  in  1506, 
by  Julius  II.  He  then  entered  the  service  of  the 
Venetians  in  the  war  of  the  league  of  Cambray. 
He  resumed  his  old  position  as  ruler  of  Perugia 
in  1513.  Here  he  created  so  much  scandal  that 
Leo  X.,  who  at  first  passed  over  his  usurpa- 
tion, summoned  him  to  Rome,  threw  him  into 
the  castle  of  St.  Angelo,  had  him  tried,  and  he 
was  beheaded  at  Rome  in  1520.  Malatesta  and 
Orazio,  his  sons,  recovered  possession  of  Peru- 
gia after  the  death  of  Leo.  Orazio  turned  con- 
dottiere in  the  seivice  of  France,  and  was 
killed  in  the  Neapolitan  expedition  of  1528.  Ma- 
latesta remained  in  Perugia  until  1529,  when  he 
was  driven  out  by  the  papal  and  imperial  troops. 
He  died  at  Perugia  in  December  1531.  In  the 
i6th  century  Astorre  Baglioni  served  Charles 
V.  in  Italy  and  on  the  coast  of  Tunis,  and  rose 
high  in  the  favor  of  Pope  Paul  III.,  who  re- 
stored to  him  his  paternal  estates.  He  then 
entered  the  Venetian  service,  and  was  governor 
of  Famagosta  in  Cyprus  when  the  Turks  be- 
sieged it  in  1570.  After  a  brave  defense  he  was 
obliged  to  capitulate  on  condition  of  being  sent 
home  to  Venice  with  his  garrison.  But  Musta- 
pha  Pasha,  disregarding  the  terms,  caused  Bag- 
lioni and  the  other  Venetian  officers  to  be  be- 
headed. 

Baglivi,  ba-lye-ve,  Giorgio,  Italian  phy- 
sician: b.  Ragusa,  Sicily,  1669;  d.  Rome,  1707. 
He  became  a  disciple  of  the  celebrated  physiol- 
ogist and  anatomist,  Malpighi ;  was  appointed 
professor  of  medicine  in  the  College  de  Sapien- 
za,  Rome,  by  Pope  Clement  XL,  and  afterward 
became  professor  there  of  anatomy.  In  op- 
position to  the  system  known  as  Galenism,  in 
medicine,  he  founded  that  of  solidism,  which 
locates  all  disease  in  the  solid  portions  of  the 
human  anatomy.  His  principal  writings  were 
published  under  the  title  of  ^ Opera  Omnia  Med- 
:co-Practica  et  Anatomica^    (1704). 

Bagnacavallo,  ba'nya-ka-val'lo,  Bartolom- 
meo  Ramenghi,  Italian  painter:  b.  1484; 
d.  1542;  called  Bagnacavallo  from  the  village 
where  he  was  born.  At  Rome  he  was  a  pupil  of 
Raphael  and  assisted  in  decorating  the  gallery 
of  .the  Vatican.  His  best  works  are:  ^Dispu- 
tation of  St.  Augustine^  and  ^A  Madonna  and 
Child,'    both  in   Bologna. 


Bagnferes  de  Bigorre,  ba'nyar'  de  be-gor' 
anciently  Aquensis  Vicus,  Aqucs  Bigerronum), 
a  celebrated  watering-place  of  France,  in  the  de- 
partrnent  of  Hautes  Pyrenees,  capital  of  the  ar- 
rondissement  of  the  same  name,  at  the  entrance 
of  the  valley  of  Campan,  on  the  left  bank  of  the 
Adour,  13  miles  south-southeast  from  Tarbes. 
Its  site  is  one  of  the  most  romantic  in  the  Pj'- 
renees.  Well-cultivated  slopes  surround  it  on 
all  sides,  and  are  terminated  in  the  distance  by 
a  mountain  range,  the  most  conspicuous  summit 
in  which  is  the  Pic  du  Midi.  The  town  is  well 
built  and  contains  several  good  squares  and 
numerous  spacious,  handsome  streets.  Bagneres 
owes  its  chief  celebrity  to  its  baths,  which  are 
sulphurous  and  saline.  The  bathing  establish- 
m.ent,  called  Fracasti,  is  very  complete,  and  is 
the  largest  and  most  handsome  building  of  the 
town.  It  stands  at  one  of  its  extremities,  imme- 
diately under  Mount  Olivet,  and  is  approached 
by  a  long  avenue  of  poplars  winding  through  a 
verdant  valley.  The  inhabitants  depend  chiefly 
on  the  baths,  almost  every  house  receiving 
lodgers ;  but  the  manufactures  are  of  some  im- 
portance. The  chief  of  these  are  a  kind  of 
crape  and  a  fine  woolen  gauze  woven  into 
shawls  and  scarfs.  The  springs  here  were 
known  to  and  used  by  the  Romans,  and  various 
ancient  remains  are  still  in  existence.  Pop. 
6,907. 

Bagneres  de  Luchon,  ba'nyar'  de  lU-shoh', 
a  town  of  France,  in  the  department  of  Haute- 
Garonne,  one  of  the  principal  watering-places  of 
the  Pyrenees,  having  sulphurous  thermal  waters 
said  to  be  beneficial  in  rheumatic  and  gouty 
complaints,  nervous  ailments,  skin  diseases,  etc., 
and  used  chiefly  as  baths.  The  town  is  situated 
in  the  picturesque  valley  of  Luchon,  surrounded 
by  hills  covered  with  wood.  The  main  street 
forms  a  splendid  avenue,  at  the  west  end  of 
which  the  large  bathing  establishment  is  placed. 
There  is  also  a  large  and  splendid  casino  build- 
ing of  recent  erection,  comprising  a  theatre, 
concert  and  ball  rooms,  etc.,  and  containing  a 
large-scale  model  of  the  Pyrenees,  giving  an 
excellent  idea  of  the  configuration  of  the  range. 
The  neighborhood  exhibits  some  of  the  most 
interesting  scenery  of  the  Pyrenees.  Visitors 
number  from  30,000  to  40,000  annually,  and 
are  most  numerous  in  the  months  of  July  and 
August.     Resident  pop.  4,000. 

Bagni,  ba'nye  (Italian  for  "baths*),  a 
name  in  Italy  for  various  places  which  possess 
natural  baths  or  thermal  springs,  distinctive  ap- 
pellations being  appended  to  mark  the  particu- 
lar locality.  Thus  there  are  Bagni  San  Giu- 
liano,  in  the  province  of  Pisa,  and  some  four 
miles  northeast  of  the  citj'  of  that  name;  and 
Bagni  di  Lucca,  in  the  province  of  Lucca,  and 
about  13  miles  northeast  of  the  city  of  Lucca, 
one  of  the  most  frequented  of  the  bathing  places 
of  Italy. 

Bagot,  Sir  Charles,  British  diplomatist: 
b.  23  Sept.  1781 ;  d.  Kingston,  Canada,  18  May 
1843.  He  was  the  second  son  of  William,  first 
Lord  Bagot.  In  1807  1  •.  was  appointed  under- 
secretarj'  of  state  for  foreign  affairs  in  the 
Canning  administration ;  in  1814,  minister  to 
France ;  in  1820,  ambassador  at  St.  Petersburg ; 
and  in  1824.  ambassador  in  Ho"and.  On  the 
death  of  Lord  Sydenham  he  was  made  governor- 
general  of  the  Canadas,  which  office  he  held  till 
his  demise. 


BAGOT  — BAHAMA  BANK 


Bagot,  Richard,  English  bishop,  brother 
of  the  preceding:  b.  22  Nov.  1782;  d.  15  May 
1854.  In  1829  he  was  made  bishop  of  Oxford, 
and  in  1845  he  was  promoted  to  the  bishopric  of 
Bath  and  Wells.  During  the  Tractarian  con- 
troversj'  he  was  violently  assailed  for  his  Pusey- 
ite  predilections,  and  for  his  induction  of  the 
Rev.  M.  Bennett  into  the  living  of  Frome.  This 
had  such  an  effect  on  Bishop  Bagot  that  his  in- 
tellect became  disturbed. 

Bag'pipe,  a  well-known  wind  instrument, 
of  high  antiquity  among  various  nations,  and 
so  long  a  favorite  with  the  natives  of  the  High- 
lands of  Scotland  that  it  may  now  be  considered 
as  their  national  instrument.  The  peculiarity 
of  the  bagpipe  consists  in  the  fact  that  the  air 
producing  the  music  is  collected  into  a  leathern 
bag,  from  which  it  is  forcibly  pressed  into  the 
pipes  by  the  arm  of  the  performer.  The  chanter, 
a  pipe  into  which  is  inserted  a  reed  for  the 
production  of  the  sounds  by  the  action  of  the 
air  from  the  bag,  is  perforated  with  holes  like 
the  German  flute,  which  are  stopped  with  the 
fingers.  The  other  parts  of  the  instrument,  in 
the  common  Highland  form,  are  three  tubes  or 
drones,  which  are  also  furnished  with  reeds. 
Two  of  the  drones  are  in  unison  with  D  on 
the  chanter,  which  corresponds  with  the  lowest 
note  of  the  German  flute.  The  third  drone,  which 
is  the  longest,  is  an  octave  lower.  The  tuning 
of  the  bagpipe  is  accomplished  by  lengthening 
or  shortening  the  tubes  or  drones,  as  may  be 
required.  Its  compass  is  from  the  G  of  the 
treble  stave  to  the  A  above  it,  but  its  scale  is 
imperfect.  The  Highland  bagpipe  is  a  power- 
ful instrument,  and  calls  for  great  exertion  of 
the  lungs,  the  air  being  forced  into  the  bag  by  a 
pipe  held  between  the  lips.  The  Irish  bagpipe 
is  smaller,  softer  in  its  notes,  and  is  always 
played  with  bellows  that  force  the  air  into  the 
bag.  It  has  a  number  of  keys  on  the  chanter 
and  drones,  and  is  a  much  more  perfect  instru- 
ment musically  than  the  Highland.  A  Low- 
land Scotch  form  of  the  bagpipe  is  also  played 
with  bellows.  It  is  not  known  when  the  bagpipe 
first  found  its  way  into  Scotland,  but  it  is  prob- 
able that  the  Norsemen  first  introduced  it  into 
the  Hebrides,  which  islands  the}-^  long  possessed. 
In  England  it  was  common  from  Anglo-Saxon 
times,  and  is  familiarly  referred  to  by  Chaucer 
and  Shakespeare.  The  bagpipe  is  indeed  of  very 
ancient  origin,  as  representations  of  it  are  to  be 
found  on  Grecian  and  Roman  sculptures ;  and  it 
has  long  been  well  known  among  various  east- 
ern nations.  In  Italy  to  this  day,  or  at  least  in 
certain  parts  of  it,  the  bagpipe  is  still  a  popu- 
lar instrument  among  the  peasantry,  but  the 
Italian  form  of  it  is  more  simple  than  the 
Highland  and  Irish. 

Bagratidae,  bag-ra'ti-de,  or  Bagratians,  a 
line  of  kings  and  princes  of  Armenia  that  ruled 
in  that  country  from  the  year  885  to  the  nth 
century.  After  the  seizure  of  Asia  Minor  by 
the  Seijuks,  some  of  the  princes  retained  power 
as  independent  lords,  holding  the  possession  of 
mountain  fastnesses.  The  dynasty  ended  with 
Leo  IV.,  who  was  assassinated   in   1342. 

Bagration,  ba-gra'te-6n',  Peter,  Prince, 
Russian  general,  of  the  Georgian  Bagradite 
family:  b.  about  the  year  1762;  d.  7  Oct.  1812. 
He  entered  the  Russian  army  in  1782  as  a  com- 
mon soldier;  and  in  a  long  military  career  rose 
to  the  highest  grades,  and  gained  a  place  among 


those  Russian  generals  the  most  celebrated  for 
their  stubborn,  unyielding  bravery.  Having  been 
created  a  lieutenant-general,  he  commanded  the 
vanguard  of  the  Austrian  army  at  Austerlitz, 
under  Prince  Lichtenstein.  In  the  Prussian 
campaign  of  1807,  his  resistance  made  the  battle 
of  Eylau  so  terrible  that  even  Napoleon  shud- 
dered at  its  bloody  results.  The  same  is  said 
of  him  at  the  battle  of  Friedland.  In  1808  he 
overran  Finland,  western  Bothnia,  and  the 
Aland  isles ;  in  1809  he  fought  at  Silistria,  and 
destroyed  the  Turkish  force  brought  up  from 
Adrianople  to  relieve  that  fortress.  In  1812  he 
fought  an  unsuccessful  battle  with  Davoust  at 
Mohileff,  but  succeeded,  nevertheless,  in  join- 
ing the  Russian  main  army.  He  was  mortally 
wounded  at  the  battle  of  ]\Ioja'isk  or  Borodino, 
7  Sept.  1812,  just  a  month  before  he  died. 

Bag'shaw,  Edward,  English  author:  date 
of  birth  unknown;  d.  1G62.  He  espoused  at 
first  the  cause  of  the  Puritans,  but  later  be- 
came a  Royalist,  and  sat  in  the  parliament  that 
Charles  I.  convened  at  Oxford ;  was  taken 
prisoner  by  the  Parliamentary  army,  and,  during 
his  detention,  composed  various  books,  the  most 
important  of  which  is  *The  Right  of  the  Crown 
of  England  as   Established  by  Law.' 

Bagshot  Heath,  a  level  tract  in  England, 
now -used  as  a  field  for  military  manoeuvres.  It 
is  famous  as  the  site  of  many  highway  rob- 
beries in  the  i8th  century. 

Bag'stock,  Major  Joe,  an  apoplectic,  glut- 
tonous character  in  Dickens'  novel,  ^Dombey 
and  Son.' 

Bagworm,  or  Basketworm,  a  common 
caterpillar  of  a  moth  (Thyriadopteryx  ephe- 
merccforniis) ,  found  in  large  numbers  through- 
out the  northern  part  of  the  LTnited  States. 
The  male  has  a  dark  body  and  light  wings,  but 
the  egg-laying  female  is  wingless.  The  larva 
lies  head  downward  in  a  sac  or  case  covered 
with  bits  of  leaves  (so  that  it  looks  like  a  bas- 
ket), where  it  finally  transforms,  the  worm-like 
female  remaining  in  its  case,  while  the  male 
flies  sluggishly  about,  and  may  be  known  by  its 
hairy  body  and  small  transparent  wings.  When 
the  young  hatch  (in  May),  they  crawl  on  a 
leaf,  gnawing  little  bits  from  the  surface  and 
fastening  them  together  with  a  thread.  They 
present  a  comical  sight  when  the  baskets  are 
partly  completed,  walking  about,  tail  in  the  air, 
with  the  body  hidden  in  the  case.  As  they 
grow  older  the  body  is  entirely  protected  by 
the  sac,  which  they  drag  about  when  in  motion. 
These  insects  frequent  the  trees  in  city  parks, 
especially  junipers,  in  great  numbers,  and  are 
apt  to  be  detrimental  to  foliage  unless  destroyed 
by  scraping  off  the  cocoons.  Certain  small  spe- 
cies occur  on  the  orange  in  Florida,  and  others 
in  the  tropics.     See  Faggotworm. 

Bahadur,  ba-ha'door,  the  last  Great  Mogul 
from  the  house  of  Tamerlane:  b.  1767;  d.  1862. 
When  the  British  captured  Delhi,  he  was  taken 
prisoner,  and  sent  to  Rangoon.  He  was  also 
a  poet  and  wrote  a  number  of  songs. 

Baha'ma  Bank,  Great  and  Little,  shoals 
among  the  West  India  Islands;  the  former  be- 
tween 22°  and  26°  N.,  75°  and  79°  W.,  having 
south  and  west  the  Bahama  old  and  new  chan- 
nels. On  it  are  the  islands  of  Providence,  An- 
dros,  and  Exuma.  The  Little  Bank,  northwest 
of  the  foregoing,  between  26°  and  27°   N.,  77° 


BAHAMA  CHANNEL  ;  BAHAMAS 


and  79°  W.,  has  on  it  the  Great  Bahama  and 
Abaco  Islands. 

Baha'ma    Channel,    Old    and    New,    two 

channels  of  the  West  Indies ;  the  former  sep- 
arates the  Great  Bahama  Bank  and  Cuba ;  the 
latter,  also  called  the  Gulf  of  Florida,  is  be- 
tween the  Great  and  Little  Bahama  Banks  and 
Florida,  and  forms  a  part  of  the  channel  of  the 
great  Gulf  Stream,  which  tiows  here  at  the  r^te 
of  from  two  to  five  miles  an  hour. 

Bahamas,   The,  or  The   Bahama   Islands, 

■were  formerly  known  as  the  Lucayos,  from 
the  name  of  a  tribe  of  aborigines  inhabiting 
them  at  the  time  of  their  discovery  by  Colum- 
bus in  1492.  The  scene  of  the  first  landing  was 
an  island  on  the  outer  or  Atlantic  side  of  this 
group  to  which  Columbus  gave  the  name  San 
Salvador.  By  the  natives  that  island  was 
called  Guanahani,  and  it  is  now  known  as  Wa-t- 
ling  Island.  The  total  habitable  area  of  the  is- 
lands is  small,  but  the  extent  of  the  group,  in- 
cluding cays  and  rocks  rising  from  banks  near 
the  surface  of  the  water,  is  very  great  —  nearly 
six  degrees  of  latitude,  and  more  than  six  de- 
grees of  longitude.  Stretching  through  a  total 
distance  of  780  miles,  these  islands  and  banks 
form  a  barrier  between  the  Atlantic  and  the 
eastern  entrance  to  the  Gulf  of  Mexico.  To 
reach  the  Florida  Strait,  a  large  vessel  must 
follow  one  of  three  channels :  the  Old  Bahama, 
north  of  Cuba ;  the  Florida,  and  the  Providence. 
The  last  passes  through  the  group  above  Nas- 
sau, the  capital  and  only  important  city,  an 
attractive  place  with  about  10,000  inhabitants. 

The  researches  of  Prof.  Agassiz  have  shown 
that  the  Bahamas  are  essentially  different  in 
geological  formation  from  the  Greater  and  Less- 
er Antilles,  being  ^Svind-blown  piles  of  shell 
and  coral  sand, —  once  much  more  extensive 
than  now, —  whose  areas  have  been  restricted  by 
a  general  regional  subsidence  of  some  300  feet, 
so  that  much  of  their  former  surface  now  oc- 
curs as  shallow  banks  beneath  the  water.  Mr. 
Robert  T.  Hill  says :  <*The  islands  are  merely 
the  exposed  tips  of  a  great  submerged  ridge, 
having  an  outline  and  configuration  which  would 
be  crudely  comparable  to  the  island  of  Cuba  if 
the  latter  were  so  submerged  that  its  highest 
points  merely  reached  the  surface.'' 

The  Indian  population  having  been  carried 
away  to  the  pearl  fisheries  of  Panama,  or  to 
labor  in  the  fields  and  mines  of  other  Spanish 
colonies,  the  Bahamas  remained  deserted  un- 
til, in  1629,  an  English  settlement  was  begun 
in  the  island  of  New  Provide.ice.  Twelve 
years  Ikter,  Spain  asserted  her  claim,  based  upon 
discovery  without  occupation.  The  English 
were  expelled,  but  again  attempted  colonization ; 
and  Charles  II.,  in  1680,  actually  granted 
the  islands  to  six  English  noblemen  and  gen- 
tlemen. Early  in  the  i8th  century  New  Prov- 
idence was  twice  raided  by  French  and 
Spanish  forces ;  and  again  it  became  a  desert. 
Buccaneers  of  all  nations  made  themselves  at 
home,  and  held  undisputed  possession,  until 
another  English  settlement  was  planted  in  1718, 
and  British  troops  assigned  to  its  defense.  Tory 
emigrants  from  the  English  colonies  on  the 
mainland  at  the  time  of  the  Revolution  intro- 
duced slave  labor  and  the  cultivation  of  cotton  — 
v/hich  did  not  thrive.  New  Providence  was 
captured  and  held  for  a  short  time  by  the  Amer- 

\'ol.     2 13. 


icans  under  Commodore  Hopkins  in  1776;  six 
years  later  it  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  gov- 
ernor of  Cuba,  but  was  retaken  by  the  loyalist 
Col.  Deveaux  before  12  months  had  passed.  The 
rights  of  the  old  lord  proprietors  were  pur- 
chased in  1787,  the  Bahamas  becoming  a  pos- 
session of  the  British  Crown,  administered  by  a 
colonial  government. 

During  the  Civil  War  in  the  United  States 
an  enormous  blockade-running  trade  swelled  the 
imports  of  the  islands  from  a  little  more  than 
$1,000,000  to  upward  of  $26,000,000;  the  ex- 
ports from  about  $800,000  to  more  than 
$23,000,000  —  a  period  of  prosperity  both  brief 
and  unique.  Violent  storms  and  droughts  have 
more  than  once  brought  ruin  to  the  natural  in- 
dustries ;  the  cultivation  of  small  fruits,  vege- 
tables, oranges,  pineapples,  cocoanuts,  etc.,  has 
been  carried  on  at  a  disadvantage,  owing  to  the 
tariff  laws  of  the  United  States,  and  the  re- 
moteness of  other  market-s.  Other  forms  of 
agriculture  have  been  attempted,  with  moderate 
success.  Sponge-fishing  is  carried  on  extensive- 
ly. At  the  eastern  end  of  the  group  are  the 
Turks  and  Caicos  islands,  which  were  sep- 
arated politically  from  the  Bahamas,  and  made 
a  dependency  of  Jamaica  in  1848.  Grand  Turk 
is  the  capital,  and  there  the  chief  executive  of- 
ficer, or  commissioner,  resides.  From  these  is- 
lands 1,500,000  bushels  of  salt  are  exported 
annually,  and  a  large  number  of  sponges  are 
also  gathered  and  exported.  The  total  value 
of  imports  to  all  the  islands  is  about  $825,000, 
the  United  States  supplying  nearly  three  fourths 
of  that  amount.  Besides  Turks  and  Caicos,  the 
principal  inhabited  islands  are :  New  Provi- 
dence, with  about  15,000  inhabitants;  Abaco, 
Harbor  Island,  Eleuthera,  Mayaguana,  Ragged 
Island,  Rum  Key,  Exuma.  Long  Island,  Long 
Key,  the  Biminis,  Great  Bahama,  Crooked,  Ack- 
lin.  Cat,  Watling.  Berry,  and  the  Andros  Is- 
lands. The  inhabitants  of  Great  Abaco  are 
chiefly  descendants  of  the  American  Tories,  re- 
ferred to  above.  Harbor  Island  has  about  2,000 
Inhabitants,  who  are  descendants  of  the  buc- 
caneers. Largest  and  most  densely  wooded  are 
the  Andros  Islands. 

From  November  to  May  the  temperature 
ranges  between  60°  and  75°  F. ;  in  the  summer 
months  it  varies  from  75°  to  85°.  The  cli- 
mate, though  subject  to  greater  extremes  of 
heat  and  cold  than  that  of  other  groups  in  the 
West  Indies,  is  agreeable  and  health-giving; 
and  Nassau  is  a  favorite  resort  for  tourists  in 
winter.  The  population  (about  54,000),  includes 
a  large  proportion  of  negroes,  the  natural  in- 
crease among  the  descendants  of  former  slaves 
being  greater  than  among  the  descendants  of 
the  white  settlers.  There  is  little  immigration. 
Good  schools  are  maintained  by  the  govern- 
ment, and  by  the  Church  of  England.  The  ad- 
ministration of  the  islands  is  conducted  by  a 
governor,  and  an  executive  council.  Members 
of  the  representative  assembly,  29  in  number, 
are  elected  by  suffrage.  There  is  a  legislative 
council.  From  Nassau  cables  run  to  Florida 
and  the  Bermudas.  A  line  of  steamers  connects 
the  capital  with  London,  and  there  is  regular 
mail  connection  with  New  York  and  Florida.  _ 

Authorities. —  Xuba    and    Porto    Rico,    with 
the    Other    Islands    of    the    West    Indies,^    by 
Robert  T.  Hill;   'Amerika,>  by  Rudolf  Cronau. 
M.\RRioN   Wilcox, 
Authority   on  Latin-America. 


BAHAR  —  BAHRAICH 


Bahar,  ba-har',  province  in  India.  See 
Behar. 

Bahar,  ba-har',  or  Barre,  the  name  of  cer- 
tain weights  used  in  several  places  in  the  East 
Indies.  They  have  been  distinguished  as  the 
great  bahar,  with  which  are  weighed  pepper, 
cloves,  nutmegs,  ginger,  etc. ;  and  the  little 
bahar,  with  which  are  weighed  quicksilver,  ver- 
milion, ivory,  silk,  etc.  But  this  weight  varies 
much  in  different  parts  of  the  East,  being  in 
some  places  not  much  above  400  pounds,  in 
others  considerably  over  500. 

Bahawalpur,  ba-ha'wal-poor',  India,  town 
and  capital  of  a  state  of  the  same  name  in  the 
Punjab,  two  miles  from  the  Sutlej.  It  is  sur- 
rounded by  a  mud  wall  and  contains  the  exten- 
sive palace  of  the  Nawab,  a  vast  square  pile 
with  towers  at  the  corners.  It  has  under- 
ground rooms,  which  afford  a  more  comfortable 
temperature  in  the  warm  season  than  the  upper 
rooms.  Silk  goods  are  manufactured.  Pop. 
about  14,000.  The  state  has  an  area  of  17,285 
square  miles,  of  which  10,000  is  desert,  the 
only  cultivated  lands  lying  along  the  Indus  and 
Sutlej.  Cultivation  largely  depends  upon  irriga- 
tion, which  has  been  considerably  extended  in 
recent  times,  with  a  great  increase  to  the  state 
revenue.  The  chief  crops  are  cereals,  cotton, 
and  indigo.  The  political  relations  between  the 
British  government  and  the  state  are  regulated 
by  a  treaty  concluded  in  1838.  No  tribute  is 
exacted  from  the  Nawab.     Pop.  720,700. 

Bahia,  ba-e'a,  or  Sao  Salvador  da  Bahia, 

so  named  because  it  is  situated  on  a  large  har- 
bor or  bay,  ranks,  in  population  and  importance 
among  the  cities  of  Brazil,  next  to  Rio  de  Ja- 
neiro. It  lies  about  740  miles  north  of  Rio,  in 
lat.  13°  i'  S.,  and  Ion.  38°  32'  W.  Amerigo 
Vespucci  visited  this  port  on  his  voyage  of  ex- 
ploration in  1503.  Before  1763  Bahia  was  the 
capital  of  Brazil,  and  in  the  i6th  century  it 
was  the  scene  of  frequent  conflicts  between  the 
Portuguese  and  the  forces  of  other  European 
nations  (see  Brazil).  At  present  it  is  the 
capital  of  the  state  of  Bahia,  which  has 
great  natural  resources  in  its  mines  and  for- 
ests, as  well  as  in  fertile  lands  devoted  largely 
to  the  cultivation  of  sugar-cane.  The  location 
of  the  city  is  picturesque,  its  upper  portion  being 
built  on  high  ground  several  hundred  feet  above 
the  sea-level.  On  the  upper  terraces  stand 
churches,  the  cathedral,  convents,  a  great  the- 
atre, the  mint,  and  the  governor's  palace.  Be- 
low, bordering  the  port,  which  has  a  fine  light- 
house and  is  defended  by  several  forts,  are 
docks  and  warehouses  where  the  products  of 
the  country, —  coffee,  sugar,  cotton,  dye-woods, 
tobacco,  rum,  hides,  horns,  and  tallow, —  are 
collected,  to  be  shipped  to  all  parts  of  the  world. 
Bahia  has  an  excellent  public  library,  which  was 
founded  in  181 1;  its  manufactures  have  received 
attention  in  recent  years,  and  formerly  it  was 
the  headquarters  of  the  diamond  trade  before 
the  mines  of  South  Africa  and  southern  Brazil 
were  developed.  The  population  is  somewhat 
more  than  200,000,  with  an  annual  increase  of 
nearly  6,000. 

Marrion  Wilcox. 

Bahia  Blanca,  ba-e'a  blan'ka,  Argentina, 
an  important  seaport  town  in  the  state  of  Buenos 
•  Ayres.     The  town  has  an  excellent  harbor    and 


is  the  seat  of  a  considerable  foreign  trade.  The 
United  States  is  represented  by  a  consular  agent. 
Pop.    (1903)    11,600. 

Bahia  Honda,  ba-e'a  on'da,  a  seaport  of 
Cuba,  on  the  coast  of  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  and 
lying'  on  a  small  bay,  bearing  the  same  name, 
which  affords  one  of  the  best  harbors  on  the 
island.  The  town  and  bay  are  about  50  miles 
west  of  Havana,  being  commanded  by  a  small 
fort.  There  are  mines  of  coal  and  copper  in  the 
vicinity.  A  short  distance  to  the  south  are  the 
sulphur  springs  of  Aguacate. 

Bahr,  bar,  Johann  Christian  Felix,  Ger- 
man philologist:  b.  Darmstadt,  13  June  1798; 
d.  29  Nov.  1872;  educated  at  Heidelberg  Gym- 
nasium and  University,  of  which  last  he  became 
ordinary  professor  of  classical  philology  in 
1823.  His  chief  work  is  his  'History  of  Ro- 
man Literature^  (1828;  4th  ed.  1868-70),  which 
is  noted  for  its  clearness  and  comnrehensive- 
ness.  Three  supplements  to  this  work  deal  with 
the   'Christian   Poets  and  Historians  of  Rome* 

(1836)  ;       the       'Christian-Roman       Theology^ 

(1837)  ;  and  the  'History  of  Roman  Literature 
in  the  Carlovingian  Period'  (1840).  His  edi- 
tion of  'Herodotus'  (2d  ed.  1855-61)  is  also 
noteworthy. 

Bahr,  bar,  an  Arabic  word  signifying  sea 
or  large  river ;  as  in  Bahr-el-Huleh,  the  Lake 
Merom  in  Palestine ;  Bahr-el-Abiad,  the  White 
Nile,  Bahr-el-Azrek,  the  Blue  Nile,  which  to- 
gether unite  at  Khartum. 

Bahr-el-Ghazal,  bar'el-ga-zal',  name  of  two 
rivers  in  central  Africa:  one  flows  from  Lake 
Chad  through  a  desert  region ;  the  other  is 
formed  by  the  union  of  several  streams  near  the 
Congo  Free  State,  and  flows  eastward  through 
a  very  swampy  region,  an^  shortly  after  leav- 
ing Lake  No  unites  with  the  Bahr-el-Jebel  to 
form  the  White  Nile.  Its  banks  are  apt  to  be 
very  indefinite  owing  to  inundations.  In  1869 
Schweinfurth  explored  the  greater  part  of  its 
basin.  The  head  of  steam  navigation  on  the 
river  is  Meshra-er-Rek.  The  basin  of  these  two 
rivers  is  a  province  of  the  same  name.  A  set- 
tled government  was  established  there  on  behalf 
of  Egypt  in  1878,  but  the  Mahdist  rebellion 
temporarily  severed  its  connection  with  that 
country.  Since  the  reconquest  of  the  Egyptian 
Sudan  by  the  British  and  Egyptian  forces  un- 
der Kitchener,  however,  the  Bahr-el-Ghazal  has 
been  again  brought  under  a  settled  administra- 
tion. It  is  said  to  be  rich  in  ivory,  rubber,  and 
timber,  and  suited  for  cotton  growing.  The 
Ubangi  district  of  the  French  Congo  lies  to 
the  west  of  the  Bahr-el-Ghazal. 

Bahr  Yusuf,  bar  yoo'suf,  or  Bahr  el  Yusuf, 

an  artificial  irrigation  channel  from  the  left 
bank  of  the  Nile  below  Sint,  to  the  Fayum ;  270 
miles  long.  According  to  Coptic  traditions  it 
was  constructed  during  Joseph's  administration. 

Bahraich,  ba-rlch',  a  town  of  Hindustan, 
capital  of  Bahraich  district,  Faizabad  division, 
Oudh.  The  town  is  in  a  flourishing  state ;  it  is 
drained  and  lighted,  and  carries  on  a  good  local 
trade.  The  chief  edifice  of  interest  is  the  shrine 
of  Musand,  a  warrior  and  saint  of  the  nth 
century,  which  attracts  both  Hindu  and  Moham- 
medan pilgrims  to  the  number  of  150,000  an- 
nually. The  American  Methodist  mission  has 
a  station  and  a  school  here.     Pop.  about  24,000. 


BAHRAL  —  BAIKIE 


Bahral,  ba'ral,  or  Burrel,  a  wild  sheep 
(Ovis  naliura)  of  the  high  plains  of  Tibet,  which 
resembles  a  goat  in  appearance,  although  it 
has  no  beard.  The  rams  carry  large  flattened 
and  nearly  smooth  horns,  which  curve  outward 
and  backward,  but  do  not  curl.  The  general 
color  is  brown,  becoming  gray  in  winter,  while 
the  abdomen  and  insides  of  the  legs  and  tail 
are  white ;  a  stripe  along  the  sides  and  on  each 
side  of  the  face,  the  throat,  and  the  front  of 
the  legs,  are  black,  interrupted  by  white  patches 
at  the  knees  and  above  the  hoofs.  The  fe- 
males are  plainer  and  have  small  horns.  This 
animal,  which  is  a  favorite  object  of  sport  in 
Tibet,  passes  its  whole  time  above  the  limit  of 
forest  growth,  and  clambers  about  the  rocks  in 
the  manner  of  a  goat  rather  than  of  a  sheep. 
It  is  believed  that  these  animals,  which  are  of- 
ten kept  captive  by  the  mountaineers,  have  in- 
fluenced the  Asiatic  races  of  domestic  sheep. 
Consult  Lydekker,  ^Roval  Natural  History,^ 
Vol.   II.    (London    1895)'. 

Bahrdt,  bart,  Karl  Friedrich,  German 
theologian  :  b.  Bischofswerda,  Saxony,  25  Aug. 
1741 ;  d.  Halle,  22,  April  1792;  studied  in  Schul- 
pforte  and  Leipsic,  where  he  first  showed 
his  great  talents.  In  1762  he  was  appointed 
professor  in  the  University  of  Leipsic.  His 
works  and  his  talents  as  a  preacher  pro- 
cured him  many  admirers,  but  in  consequence 
of  immoral  conduct  he  was  obliged  to  quit  that 
city  in  1768.  From  this  time  he  led  an  un- 
settled life.  He  was  successively  professor  of 
theolog}^  and  preacher  in  Erfurt  (where  he  was 
made  doctor  of  theolog>-),  in  Giessen,  Switzer- 
land, and  in  Diirkheim,  but  was  obliged  to  leave 
each  of  these  places  on  account  of  his  severe 
attacks  on  the  clergy  and  the  heterodox  views 
manifested  in  his  writings  and  sermons,  as  well 
as  on  account  of  his  irregular  life.  The  Aulic 
Council  declared  him  disqualified  to  preach  or  to 
publish  unless  he  would  revoke  the  religious 
principles  advanced  in  his  works.  In  1779  he 
went  to  Halle,  where  he  published  his  creed. 
It  is  thoroughly  deistical.  denying  the  miracles, 
and  not  insisting  on  the  immortality  of  the 
soul.  He  lectured  in  Halle,  but  soon  became 
involved  in  difficulties  with  the  clerg}^ ;  upon 
which  he  left  the  city,  and  established,  in  a 
neighboring  vineyard,  a  public-house,  where  he 
had  many  customers,  whose  vitiated  tastes  and 
depraved  habits  he  made  no  scruple  of  gratify- 
ing. Ultimately,  in  consequence  of  two  works 
which  he  wrote,  the  patience  of  government  was 
exhausted.  He  was  brought  to  trial,  con- 
demned, and  confined  in  the  fortress  of  Magde- 
burg. Here  he  wrote  his  life.  At  the  end  of  a 
year,  having  regained  his  liberty,  he  again 
opened  his  public-house  at  Halle,  where  he  died. 

Bahrein,  ba-ran',  or  Aval  Islands,  a 
group  of  islands  lying  on  the  south  side  of  the 
Persian  Gulf,  since  1867  under  British  protec- 
tion. The  principal  island,  usually  called  Bah- 
rein, is  about  27  miles  in  length  and  10  in 
breadth.  It  is  in  general  very  flat  and  low, 
a  mere  shoal  hardly  20  feet  above  sea-level ; 
though  in  the  centre  there  are  hills  400  feet 
high.  The  soil  is  not  fertile  except  in  some 
places,  and  is  often  cultivated  by  means  of  ir- 
rigation. Excellent  dates  are  produced.  Fish- 
ing is  an  important  industry,  and  the  pearl- 
fishery  here  is  famous.  The  inhabitants  are  a 
mixed  race.  The  principal  town  is  ]\Ianameh  or 
Manama ;  pop.  25,000.     The  island  of  Moharrek. 


separated  from  Bahrein  by  a  strait  two  miles 
broad  and  only  about  three  feet  deep  at  ebb,  is 
much  smaller  than  it ;  but  contains  a  town  called 
also  Moharrek,  w-hich  is  the  present  seat  of  gov- 
ernment, and  has  a  population  of  22,000.  The 
islands  are  governed  by  a  sheikh.  The  total 
population  is  estimated  at  70,000. 

Baiae,  bi-e,  iiaiy,  a  piace  where  wealthy 
Romans  had  their  summer  homes,  the  favorite 
abode  of  the  dancing-girls  and  the  buffoons.  It 
is  now  deserted,  and  mteresting  to  the  stranger 
only  for  the  ruins  of  old  baths,  which  are  shown 
as  temples,  and  for  the  remains  of  former 
palaces,  visible  beneath  the  waves  of  the  sea. 
Baiae  owes  its  fame  to  its  hot  baths,  and  its 
situation  on  a  most  charming  bay,  secured  by 
surrounding  hills  from  the  violence  of  the  winds. 
The  life  of  the  Romans  'there  was  particularly 
luxurious  and  dissolute.  It  has  now  entirely  lost 
its  ancient  position  of  importance. 

Baidyabati,  bad'ya-ba'te,  a  town  of  Ben- 
gal, situated  on  the  river  Hugli,  about  15  miles 
from  Calcutta,  with  an  important  market  for 
jute  and  other  produce.     Pop.  about  18,400. 

Baif,  ba-e,  Jean  Antoine  de,  French 
poet:  b.  1532;  d.  1589;  one  of  the  literary  league 
known  as  the  *  Pleiade,^  and  the  chief  advocate 
of  its  plan  of  reducing  French  poetry  to  the 
metres  of  the  classic  tongues ;  also  a  spelling 
reformer,  in  favor  of  the  phonetic  system.  His 
most  meritorious  works  were  translations  of 
Greek  and  Roman  dramas. 

Baikal,  bl-kal',  a  lake  of  Siberia,  360  miles 
long  from  southwest  to  northeast,  and  from  20 
to  53  in  breadth,  interspersed  with  islands  ;  Ion. 
104°  to  110°  E. ;  lat.  51°  20'  to  55°  20'  N.  It 
contains  seals  and  many  fish,  particularly  stur- 
geons and  pikes.  In  the  environs  are  several 
sulphurous  springs,  and  in  one  part,  near  the 
mouth  of  the  river  Barguzin,  it  discharges  a 
kind  of  pitch  which  the  inhabitants  purify.  The 
water  is  sweet,  transparent,  and  appears  at  a 
distance  green,  like  the  sea.  It  receives  the 
waters  of  the  Upper  Angara,  Selinga,  Barguzin, 
and  other  rivers ;  but  the  Lower  Angara  is  the 
only  one  by  which  it  seems  to  discharge  its 
waters.  It  is  enclosed  by  rugged  mountains, 
and  the  scenery  is  unusually  magnificent.  In 
summer  the  lake  is  navigated  by  steamboats,  but 
it  is  frozen  from  November  to  April,  and  trade 
is  carried  on  over  the  ice. 

Baikie,  ba'ki,  William  Balfour,  English 
naturalist  and  traveler:  b.  Kirkwall,  Orkney, 
1825 ;  d.  12  Dec.  1864.  He  studied  medicine 
at  Edinburgh,  and  after  receiving  his  degree 
entered  the  royal  navy  as  assistant  surgeon. 
He  served  in  the  Mediterranean,  was  assist- 
ant surgeon  at  Haslar  Hospital  in  1851-4, 
and  was  then  appointed  surgeon  and  naturalist 
to  the  Niger  expedition,  w-hich  was  about  to 
start  for  the  exploration  of  this  river.  The 
death  of  the  captain  of  the  exploring  vessel  the 
Pleiad,  left  him  in  chief  command,  and  he  suc- 
ceeded in  reaching  a  point  250  miles  higher  up 
the  river  than  had  previously  been  attained.  On 
a  second  expedition  he  was  able  to  establish 
a  settlement  at  the  confluence  of  the  Niger  and 
Benue.  and  in  a  few  years  did  much  to  spread 
civilization  among  the  natives  of  the  neighbor 
ing  regions.  He  was  author  of  'Observations 
on  the  Haussa  and  Fufulde  Languages,^  and 
joint  author  with  R.  Heddle  of  'Mammalia  and 
Birds  Observed  on  the  Orkney  Islands.^ 


B  AIKTASHI  —  BAILEY 


Baiktashi,  bik-ta'she.     See  Dervishes. 

Bail,  in  law,  is  the  delivery  of  a  person  to 
another  for  keeping,  and  is  generally  used  in 
reference  to  one  arrested,  or  committed  to  prison, 
upon  a  criminal  process,  such  person  being 
said  to  be  bailed  when  he  is  delivered  to  another 
(or  is  supposed  to  be  so,  but  is  simply  set  free 
from  custody),  who  becomes  his  surety  (to  a 
greater  or  less  amount  according  to  the  crime 
with  which  he  is  charged)  for  his  appearance  at 
court  to  take  his  trial.  The  person  who  thus  be- 
comes surety  is  said  to  become  bail,  and  the 
amount  itself  is  also  called  bail.  Bail  may  gen- 
erally be  granted  except  in  the  case  of  treason. 
The  word  is  not  used  as  a  plural. 

When  the  punishment  by  the  law  of  the 
United  States  is  death,  bail  can  be  taken  only 
by  the  supreme  or  circuit  court,  or  by  a  judge 
of  a  district  court  of  the  United  States.  The 
proceedings  attendant  on  giving  bail  are  sub- 
stantially the  same  in  England  and  in  all  States  of 
the  United  States.  An  application  is  made 
to  the  proper  officer,  and  the  bond  or  the  names 
of  the  bail  proposed  filed  in  the  proper  office, 
and  notice  is  given  to  the  opposite  party,  who 
must  except  within  a  limited  time,  or  the  bail 
justify  and  are  approved.  If  exception  is  taken, 
notice  is  given,  a  hearing  takes  place,  the  bail 
must  justify,  and  will  then  be  approved  unless 
the  other  party  oppose  successfully ;  in  which 
case  other  bail  must  be  added  or  substituted.  A 
formal  application  is  in  many  cases  dispensed 
with,  but  a  notification  is  given  at  the  time  of 
filing  to  the  opposite  party,  and  unless  excep- 
tions are  made  and  notice  given  within  a  limited 
time,  the  bail  justify  and  are  approved. 

Bail'ey,  Gamaliel,  American  journalist: 
b.  Mount  Holly,  N.  J.,  3  Dec.  1807;  d-  5  June 
1859;  was  editor  of  the  Methodist  Protestant 
at  Baltimore ;  with  J.  G.  Birney  founded  the 
anti-slavery  journal,  the  ^Cincinnati  Philanthro- 
pist^ (1836),  the  office  of  which  was  destroyed 
by  a  mob,  though  it  continued  to  be  published 
till  1847 :  after  1843  was  also  editor  of  a  daily 
paper,  The  Herald.  He  established  the  well- 
known  newspaper,  the  Washington  National 
Era  (1847),  in  which  the  famous  novel,  ^Uncle 
Tom's  Cabin,  ^  appeared  first. 

Bail'ey,  Jacob  Whitman,  American  scien- 
tist:  b.  Auburn,  Mass.,  29  April  181 1;  d.  26 
Feb.  1857 ;  was  graduated  at  the  United  States 
Military  Academy  in  1832 ;  and  from  1834  till 
his  death  was  professor  of  chemistry,  mineralogy 
and  geology  at  the  Military  Academy.  He  was 
the  inventor  of  the  Bailey  indicator  and  of 
many  improvements  in  the  microscope,  in  the  use 
of  which  he  achieved  high  distinction ;  and  he 
is  regarded  as  the  pioneer  in  microscopic  in- 
vestigation. He  was  president  of  the  American 
Association  for  the  Advancement  of  Science  in 
1857 ;  and  was  author  of  numerous  papers  on  the 
results  of  his  researches. 

Bail'ey,  James  Montgomery,  American 
humorist:  b.  Albany,  N.  Y.,  25  Sept.  1841  ;  d.  4 
March  1894;  served  in  the  17th  Connecticut 
regiment  during  the  Civil  War;  returned  to 
Danbury,  founded  the  Danbury  News  in  1870. 
He   wrote    'Life    in    Danbury^    (Boston    1873)  ; 

< Danbury  News  Man's  Almanac*  (1873)  ;  'They 
All     Do    It>     (1877);     'The    Danbury     Boom> 

(1880)  ;  etc. 


Bail'ey,  Joseph,  American  military  offi- 
cer :  b.  Salem,  O.,  28  April  1827 ;  d.  21  March 
1867 ;  entered  the  Union  army  as  a  private  in 
1861,  and  signally  distinguished  himself  in  the 
Red  River  campaign  under  Gen.  N.  P.  Banks, 
in  1864  by  building  a  dam  and  deepening  the 
water  in  the  channel,  which  enabled  Admiral 
Porter's  Mississippi  flotilla  to  pass  the  Red 
River  rapids  in  safety  and  so  escape  the  perilous 
situation.  For  this  engineering  feat,  Bailey, 
who  before  entering  the  army  was  a  plain 
farmer,  was  brevetted  brigadier-general,  pro- 
moted colonel,  voted  the  thanks  of  Congress, 
and  presented  by  the  officers  of  the  fleet  with 
a  sword  and  a  purse  of  $3,000.  Subsequently, 
he  was  promoted  to  full  brigadier-general,  and 
was  engaged  on  engineering  duty  till  his  resig- 
nation 7  July  1865. 

Bailey,  Joseph  Weldon,  United  States 
senator  for  Texas :  b.  Copish  County,  Mo.,  6 
Oct.  1863.  He  studied  for  the  legal  profession, 
graduated  as  a  lawyer  in  1883,  and,  entering 
politics,  in  1884  served  as  a  district  elector  on 
the  Cleveland  and  Hendricks  ticket.  The  fol- 
lowing year  he  removed  to  Gainesville,  Texas, 
and  in  1888  served  as  elector  for  the  State  at 
large  on  the  Democratic  ticket.  He  was  elected 
to  the  Fifty-second,  Fifty-third,  Fifty-fourth, 
Fifty-fifth,  and  Fifty-sixth  Congresses,  and  was 
the  Democratic  nominee  for  speaker  of  the 
House  of  Representatives  on  the  organization 
of  the  Fifty-fifth  Congress,  15  March  1897.  He 
was  chosen  to  succeed  the  Hon.  Horace  Chilton 
as  United  States  senator  for  Texas,  23  Jan. 
1901,  and  was  re-elected  22  Jan.  1907. 

Bail'ey,  Liberty  Hyde,  American  horti- 
culturist: b.  South  Haven,  Mich.,  15  March 
1858;  graduated  at  the  Michigan  Agricultural 
College  in  1882 ;  was  associate  to  Dr.  Asa  Gray 
at  Harvard  University  in  1882-3 ;  professor  of 
horticulture  and  landscape  gardening  in  the 
Michigan  Agricultural  College  in  1883-8 ;  in  the 
last  year  became  professor  of  horticulture  in 
Cornell  University ;  and  in  1903  was  appointed 
director  of  the  College  of  Agriculture  at  Cor- 
nell. He  was  an  associate  editor  of  the  revised 
edition  of  'Johnson's  Universal  Cyclopaedia* 
(1892-6),  and  editor  of  'American  Gardening.* 
.  He  has  published  a  large  number  of  technical 
works,  including  'Annals  of  Horticulture,* 
'Evolution  of  Our  Native  Fruits,*  'Text-book 
of  Agriculture,*  etc. 

Bail'ey,  Loring  Woart,  chemist  and  geolo- 
gist: b.  West  Point,  N.  Y.,  28  Sept.  1839.  He 
graduated  at  Harvard  in  1859,  and  in  1861  was 
appointed  professor  of  chemistry  and  natural 
history  in  the  University  of  New  Brunswick, 
Fredericton,  N.  B.,  since  which  date  he  has 
also  been  connected  with  the  geological  survey 
of  Canada.  Besides  his  official  reports  he  has 
published:  'New  Species  of  Microscopical  Or- 
ganism from  the  Para  River,  South  America* 
(1861);  'Mines  and  Minerals  of  New  Bruns- 
wick* (1864)  ;  'Geology  of  Southern  New 
Brunswick*  (1865)  ;  'Elementary  Natural  His- 
tory*   (1887). 

Bail'ey,  Nathaniel  (or  Nathan),  English 
lexicographer:  d.  1742.  He  was  the  author  of 
an  English  dictionary,  the  best  before  that 
of  Dr.  Johnson.  The  first  edition  appeared  in 
1721  under  the  title  of  'An  Universal  Etymo- 
logical English  Dictionary,*   by  N.   Bailey;  and 


BAILEY  —  BAILIWICK 


it  was  soon  republished  in  an  enlarged  form. 
Altogether  some  thirty  editions  of  it  appeared 
up  to  1802.  Dr.  Johnson  made  use  of  an  inter- 
leaved copy  of  it  when  drawing  up  his  own 
dictionary.  Bailey  also  published  a  spelling- 
book:  'All  the  Familiar  Colloquies  of  Erasmus, 
Translated^  ;  'The  Antiquities  of  London  and 
V  estminster'  ;  'Dictionarium  Domesticum,^  etc. 

Bail'ey,  Philip  James,  English  poet:  b. 
Nottingham,  22  April  1816;  d.  6  Sept.  1902.  He 
was  educated  first  in  his  native  city  and  after- 
ward at  Glasgow  University ;  was  called  to  the 
bar,  but  never  practised.  His  best  known  poem, 
*Festus,^  was  first  published  in  1839,  and  has 
passed  through  a  very  large  number  of  editions, 
both  in  Great  Britain  and  the  United  States.  He 
is  author  of  a  few  other  poems  and  of  one  prose 
work;  among  the  former  are  'The  Age' 
(1858),  a  satire,  and  'The  Angel  World> 
(1850),  now  incorporated  with    'Festus.' 

Bail'ey,  Samuel,  English  banker  and  writer 
on  political  and  mental  philosophy :  b.  Shef- 
field 1791 ;  d.  18  Jan.  1870.  His  first  work 
was  a  volume  of  'Essays  on  the  Formation  and 
Publication  of  Opinions'  (1821),  in  which  he 
ably  defended  the  proposition  that  a  man's  opin- 
ions are  independent  of  his  will.  His  'Essays 
on  the  Pursuit  of  Truth  and  on  the  Progress  of 
Knowledge'  (1829)  are  only  less  valuable. 
His  many  controversial  books  on  questions  of 
political  economy  are  already  almost  forgotten, 
though  these,  as  well  as  his  pamphlets  and 
treatises  on  political  representation,  primogeni- 
ture, and  the  like,  are  characterized  alike  by 
terse  exposition  and  vigorous  style.  Not  less 
interesting  are  his  'Review  of  Berkeley's  The- 
ory of  "Vision'  (1842)  ;  'Theory  of  Reasoning' 
(1851)  ;  and  'Letters  on  the  Philosophy  of  the 
Human  Mind'  (1855-63).  The  third  series  of 
the  last  contains  an  able  defense  of  utilitarian- 
ism, in  which  the  author  avows  himself  a  thor- 
ough determinist. 

Bail'ey,  Solon  Irving,  astronomer:  b. 
Lisbon,  N.  H.,  29  Dec.  1854.  He  graduated 
from  Boston  University,  1881 ;  and  Harvard 
(A.M.),  1887.  In  1889  he  was  sent  to  Peru 
to  determine  the  best  location  for  a  southern 
station  of  the  Harvard  Observatory.  Arequipa 
was  selected,  an  observatory  was  built,  and  as 
associate  professor  of  astronomy  Prof.  Bailey 
has  had  charge  of  the  work  there  for  eight  years. 
In  1893  he  established  a  meteorological  station 
on  the  summit  of  El  Misti,  by  far  the  highest 
scientific  station  in  the  world.  His  scientific 
writings  have  been  issued  in  the  'Annals  of 
Harvard  College  Observatory.' 

Bail'ey,  Theodorus,  American  naval  of- 
ficer: b.  Chateauguay,  N.  Y.,  12  April  1805;  d. 
ID  Feb.  1877;  entered  the  navy  in  1818;  served 
on  the  western  coast  of  Mexico  during  the 
Mexican  war ;  commanded  the  frigate  Colo- 
rado, of  the  western  Gulf  blocking  squadron, 
m  1861-2;  and  in  the  last  year  commanded  the 
right  column  of  Admiral  Farragut's  squadron 
in  the  passage  of  forts  St.  Philip  and 
Jackson,  and  led  the  fleet  at  the  capture  of  the 
Chalmette  batteries  and  the  city  of  New  Or- 
leans. In  1862-5  he  commanded  the  east  Gulf 
blockading  squadron.  He  was  commissioned 
rear-admiral   and   retired   in   1866. 


Bail'ey,  Vernon,  American  scientist:  b. 
Manchester,  Mich.,  21  June  1863 ;  received  a 
university  education  and  in  1900  was  chief  field 
naturalist  of  the  United  States  Biological  Sur- 
vey. Among  his  publications  are  'Spermophiles 
of  Mississippi  Valley,'  'Revision  of  Voles  of 
the  Genus  Evotomys,'  'Mammals  of  District  of 
Columbia,'    etc. 

Bail'ey,  William  Whitney,  American  bot- 
anist: b.  West  Point,  N.  Y.,  22  Feb.  1843. 
He  was  educated  at  Brown  and  Harvard,  having 
been  a  pupil  of  Prof.  Asa  Gray.  In  1867  he 
was  botanist  of  the  United  States  Geological 
Survey  of  the  40th  parallel ;  in  1867-9  assistant 
librarian  of  the  Providence  Athenaeum.  He  was 
appointed  instructor  in  botany  at  Brown  Uni- 
versity in  1877,  and  became  professor  there  in 
1881.  He  has  published  'Bot.mical  Collector's 
Handbook'  (1881),  and  contributed  to  several 
periodicals. 

Bailey,  Willis  T.,  American  statesman:  b. 
Carroll  County,  111.,  12  Oct.  1854.  He  was  edu- 
cated at  the  University  of  Illinois.  In  1873  he 
removed  to  Nemaha  County,  Kan.,  and  engaged 
in  farming  and  stock-raising.  In  1888  he  was 
elected  to  the  State  legislature  and  was  sent  to 
Congress  in  1899.  He  was  elected  governor  of 
Kansas  on  the  Republican  ticket  in  1903. 

Bail'ie,  or  Baillie,  a  municipal  officer  or 
magistrate  in  Scotland  whose  jurisdiction  ex- 
tends to  breaches  of  the  peace,  drunkenness, 
petty  thefts,  and  like  offenses.  They  sit  and 
vote  in  the  city  councils,  like  other  members,  and 
are  subject  to  the  ordinary  rules  of  retirement. 

Bail'iff,  a  name  which  was  introduced  into 
England  with  William  I.,  and  came  to  be  ap- 
plied to  various  officials  representing  or  acting 
for  the  king.  He  is  essentially  a  person  in- 
trusted by  a  superior  with  power  of  superin- 
tendence. In  the  United  States  the  word  bailiff 
has  no  precise  meaning.  The  term  is  most  fre- 
quently used  to  denote  a  court  officer  whose 
duty  it  is  to  take  charge  of  juries  and  wait  upon 
the  court.  In  England:  an  officer  appointed  for 
the  administration  of  justice  in  a  certain  baili- 
wick or  district.  The  sheriff  is  the  Icing's  bail- 
iff, whose  business  it  is  to  preserve  the  rights 
of  the  king  within  his  "bailiwick"  or  county, 
(i)  The  governor  of  a  castle  belonging  to  the 
king.  (2)  A  sheriff's  officer.  Bailiffs  are 
either  bailiffs  of  hundreds  or  special  bailiffs, 
(a)  Bailiffs  of  hundreds  are  officers  appointed 
by  the  sheriff  over  the  districts  so  called,  to  col- 
lect fines,  summon  juries,  to  attend  the  judges 
and  justices  at  the  assizes  and  quarter  sessions, 
and  to  execute  writs  and  process,  (b)  Special 
bailiffs  are  men  appomted  for  their  adroitness 
and  dexterity  in  hunting  and  seizing  persons  lia- 
ble to  arrest.  They  assist  the  bailiffs  of  hun- 
dreds in  important  work  for  which  the  latter 
have  no  natural  aptitude  or  acquired  skill. 
Special  bailiffs  being  compelled  to  enter  into  an 
obligation  for  the  proper  discharge  of  their 
duty  are  sometimes  called  bound  bailiffs,  a 
term  which  the  common  people  have  corrupted 
into  a  more  homely  appellation.  (Blackstone's 
'Commentaries,'   book  I.,  chapter  ix.) 

Bail'iwick,  the  jurisdiction  of  a  bailiff, 
from  bailie  and  nnck  (vicus),  a  town  or  vil- 
lage. In  the  United  States  it  generally  referr,  to 
a  county,  or  in  a  jocular  way  is  applied  to  any 
territory  or  place  in  which  a  person  has  au- 
thority. 


BAILLAIRGE  —  BAILIE 


Baillairge,  ba-yarzh',  Charles  P.,  Cana- 
dian architect  and  civil  engineer :  b.  Quebec, 
27  Sept.  1826.  Among  his  best  known  works 
as  an  architect  are  the  Laval  University,  the 
asylum  and  churches  of  the  Sisters  of  Charity 
and  Good  Shepherd,  the  Music  Hall,  the  new 
jail,  Dufferin  Terrace,  the  aqueduct  bridge  over 
the  St.  Charles,  and  the  Monument  aux  Braves 
de  1760,  all  in  the  city  of  Quebec.  In  1863-5 
he  was  joint  architect  and  engineer  with  Messrs. 
Fuller  and  Page,  of  the  parliamentary  and  de- 
partmental buildings  in  Ottawa.  He  is  a  mem- 
ber of  the  Royal  Academy  of  Arts,  Fellow  of 
the  Royal  Society  of  Canada,  and  a  past 
president  of  the  Quebec  Association  of  Arch- 
itects. He  has  received  many  honors  and  di- 
plomas from  his  own  and  other  governments, 
and  has  published  a  large  number  of  important 
works,  including  ^  Plane  and  Spherical  Geome- 
try and  Trigonometry^  (1863)  ;  *Key  to  the 
Stereometrical  Tableau^  (1870)  ;  ^Homonymes 
Francais^  (1891)  ;  ^English  Homonyms'  (1891), 
etc. 

Baillarger,      ba'yar-zha',      Jules      Gabriel, 

French  physician:  b.  1809;  d.  1891.  He  made 
a  specialty  of  mental  and  nervous  diseases  and 
in  1843  joined  with  Longet  and  Cerise  to  es- 
tablish a  review  especially  devoted  to  these  sub- 
jects, known  as  the  ^Annales  Medico-psycholog- 
iques  du  Systeme  Nerveux.'  In  1849  he  received 
the  medal  of  the  Legion  of  Honor;  in  1842  he 
received  a  prize  from  the  Academy  of  Music 
for  his  essay  on   ^Des  Hallucinations.' 

Baillet,  ba-ya',  Adrien,  French  writer:  b. 
Neuville,  13  June  1649;  d.  21  Jan.  1706.  He 
was  ordained  priest  in  1675,  and  his  love  for 
learning  was  so  intense  that  after  discharging 
for  five  years  the  duties  of  a  parish  priest,  he 
accepted  the  position  of  librarian  to  Lamoignon, 
president  of  Parliament.  His  first  publication 
was  entitled  ^Judgments  of  the  Learned  upon 
the  Principal  Works  of  Authors,'  a  book  of 
criticism  which  taught  better  rules  than  it  illus- 
trated. He  also  produced  a  book  on  ^Devotion 
to  the  Holy  Virgin,'  the  lives  of  the  saints, 
which  extended  to  four  volumes,  and  a  life  of 
Descartes. 

Bailleul,  ba-yel',  a  French  town,  in  the 
department  of  the  Nord,  near  the  Belgian  fron- 
tier, about  19  miles  west  of  Lille.  It  has  man- 
ufactures of  woolen  and  cotton  stuffs,  lace, 
leather,  etc.  Population,  about  13,600.  A  vil- 
lage of  the  same  name  in  the  department  of 
Orne  gave   its   name  to  the   Baliol   family. 

Bail'lie,  Lady  Grizel,  Scotch  poet:  b.  Red- 
braes  Castle,  25  Dec.  1665;  d.  6  Dec.  1746; 
daughter  of  the  first  Earl  of  Marchmont ;  mar- 
ried George  Baillie  in  1692;  published  a  large 
number  of  songs  in  Ramsay's  < Miscellany,'  and 
other  collections;  the  best  known  is  ^Werena 
My  Heart  Licht,  Isvad  Dee.' 

Bail'lie,  Harry,  the  proprietor  of  the 
Tabard  Inn,  who  acts  as  chairman  of  the  meet- 
ing of  the  pilgrims  in  Chaucer's  <  Canterbury 
Tales.' 

Bail'lie,  Joanna,  Scotch  author:  b.  Both- 
well,  near  Glasgow,  11  Sept.  1762;  d.  23  Feb. 
1851.  She  removed  in  early  life  to  London, 
where  in  1798  she  published  the  first  volume 
u-  u  Y^""^"own  <  Plays  on  the  Passions,'  in 
which  she  attempted  to  delineate  the  stronger 
passions   by   making   each    passion    the    subject 


of  a  tragedy  and  a  comedy.  These  plays  were 
not  well  adapted  for  the  stage,  but  gave  Miss 
Baillie  a  very  extended  reputation.  Her  first 
volume  was  followed  by  a  second  in  1802, 
a  third  (of  miscellaneous  plays)  in  1804, 
and  a  fourth  in  1812.  Other  plays  appeared  in 
1836,  and  a  complete  edition  of  her  whole  dra- 
matic works  in  1850.  The  only  plays  per- 
formed on  the  stage  were  a  tragedy  entitled  the 
^Family  Legend,'  which  was  brought  out  at 
the  Edinburgh  Theatre  in  1810  under  the  patron- 
age of  Sir  Walter  Scott,  and  had  a  run  of  14 
nights,  and  one  of  the  plays  on  the  passions  en- 
titled *De  Montfort,'  which  was  brought  out 
by  John  Kemble,  and  played  for  11  nights, 
though  an  attempt  to  revive  it  at  a  later  period 
failed.  Miss  Baillie  also  wrote  songs  and  mis- 
cellaneous poems.  All  her  productions  are  full 
of  genius.  The  language  is  simple  and  forcible, 
the  female  portraits  are  particularly  beautiful, 
and  great  knowledge  of  the  human  heart  is  dis- 
played in  the  delineations  of  character.  She 
was  an  intimate  friend  of  Sir  Walter  Scott,  who 
greatly  admired  her  writings,  and  her  home 
was  frequented  by  many  of  the  prominent  au- 
thors of  the  day. 

Bail'lie,  Matthew,  Scotch  physician 
and  anatomist :  b.  Lanarkshire,  Scotland,  2"] 
Oct.  1761;  d.  23  Sept.  1823;  brother  of  Joanna 
Baillie ;  educated  at  the  University  of  Glas- 
gow and  Oxford.  While  at  Oxford  he  be- 
gan his  medical  and  anatomical  studies  under 
his  maternal  uncles,  the  celebrated  William  and 
John  Hunter,  then  lecturers  in  London.  In 
1787  he  was  elected  one  of  the  physicians  of  St. 
George's  Hospital,  and  held  that  office  for  13 
years.  In  1789  he  took  the  degree  of  M.D., 
and  was  admitted  a  fellow  of  the  College  of 
Physicians.  He  very  soon  stood  at  the  head 
of  his  profession,  and  in  1810  was  made  physi- 
cian to  the  king  by  George  III.  He  published 
•^The  Morbid  Anatomy  of  Some  of  the  Most 
Important  Parts  of  the  Human  Body'  ;  also 
wrote  II  essays  in  the  ^^Transactions  of  the  So- 
ciety for  the  Promotion  of  Medical  and  Chirur- 
gical  Knowledge,"  and  7  papers  in  the  Medical 
Transactions,  published  by  the  London  College 
of    Physicians. 

Bail'lie,  Robert,  Scotch  Presbyterian  cler- 
gyman:  b.  Glasgow,  1599;  d.  1622;  educated 
at  the  University  of  Glasgow.  In  1638  he  sat 
in  that  famous  general  assembly  which  met  in 
Glasgow  to  protest  against  the  thrusting  of 
Episcopacy  on  an  unwilling  people.  In  1649 
he  was  chosen  hy  the  Church  to  proceed  to 
Holland,  and  to  invite  Charles  II.  to  accept  the 
covenant  and  crown  of  Scotland.  He  performed 
his  mission  skilfully;  and,  after  the  Restora- 
tion, through  Lauderdale's  influence,  he  was 
made  principal  of  Glasgow  University. 

Bail'lie,  Robert,  of  Jerviswood,.  Scotch 
patriot  of  the  reign  of  Charles  II. :  d.  24  Dec. 
1684.  He  first  came  into  notice  in  1676  through 
his  rescue  of  a  brother-in-law,  the  Rev.  Mr. 
Kirkton,  from  the  clutches  of  Archbishop 
Sharp's  principal  informer.  In  1683  he  took  a 
prominent  part  in  a  scheme  of  emigration  to 
South  Carolina,  as  he  saw  no  other  refuge 
from  the  degrading  tyranny  of  the  govern- 
ment. About  the  same  time  he  corresponded 
with  Monmouth's  supporters  in  London,  Rus- 
sell and  Sidney,  and  subsequently  repaired 
there    to    concert    measures    for    securing    ade- 


BAILLIE  OF  JERVISWOOD  — BAIN 


quate  reforms.  On  the  discovery  of  the  Rye- 
house  plot,  he  was  arrested  and  sent  to 
Scotland.  Accused  of  conspiring  against  the 
king's  Hfe,  and  of  hostihty  to  monarchical  gov- 
■ernnient,  he  was  tried  at  Edinburgh  and  con- 
demned to  death  upon  evidence  at  once  insig- 
nificant and  illegal.  The  sentence  was  carried 
into  execution  on  the  very  day  that  it  was 
passed. 

Bail'lie  of  Jerviswood.  See  Baillie,  Robert. 

Baillot,  ba-y5',  Pierre  Marie  Frangois  de 
Sales,  French  violinist:  b.  Passy,  1771;  d. 
15  Sept.  1842.  He  was  a  professor  in  the 
conservatory ;  traveled  in  Russia,  Belgium,  Hol- 
land, and  England,  and  was  considered  without 
a  rival.  His  style  was  severely  classical,  as 
■distinguished  from  that  introduced  by  Paganini. 

Baillou,  ba-yo',  Guillaume  de,  French 
physician:  b.  1538;  d.  1616;  became  physician  to 
the  Dauphin  in  1601  ;  was  author  of  several 
"works,  including  ^Adversaria  Medicinalia,^  and 
is  considered  the  first  exponent  of  the  nature 
of  croup. 

Bailly,  ba-ye',  Antoine  Nicolas,  French 
architect:  b.  6  June  1810;  d.  i  Jan.  1892;  was 
appointed  to  an  office  under  the  city  government 
of  Paris  in  1834;  in  1844  was  made  architect 
to  the  French  government,  and  received  the 
cross  of  the  Legion  of  Honor  in  1853.  The 
Moliere  Fountain  and  the  Tribunal  of  Com- 
merce in  Paris,  and  the  reconstruction  of  the 
Cathedral  of  Digne,  are  his  work. 

Bailly,  ba-j-e'.  Jean  Sylvain,  French  as- 
tronomer, statesman,  and  historian :  b.  Paris, 
15  Sept.  1736;  d.  12  Nov.  1793.  Leaving  the  art 
of  painting,  to  which  he  was  educated,  he  pur- 
such  poetry  and  belles-lettres,  until  his  acquaint- 
ance with  La  Caille,  when  he  turned  his  atten- 
tion to  astronomy,  and  calculated  the  orbit  of 
the  comet  of  1759.  In  1763  he  was  admitted  to 
the  Academy  of  Sciences;  in  1766  he  published 
his  treatise  on  Jupiter's  satelites,  which  also  con- 
tains a  history  of  that  section  of  astronomy. 
In  1771  he  published  a  valuable  and  interest- 
ing treatise  on  the  light  of  the  satellites.  Later 
he  wrote  also  a  history  of  astronomy.  In  1784 
lie  was  chosen  secretary  of  the  academy,  also 
admitted  to  the  French  academy,  and  the  next 
year  admitted  to  the  Academy  of  Inscriptions ; 
a  rare  thing  for  one  person  to  belong  to  the 
three  academies.  He  espoused  the  democratic 
cause  in  the  Revolution,  was  elected  from  Paris, 
in  1789,  first  deputy  of  the  tiersctat,  and  was 
chosen  president  of  the  assembly.  In  July  1789 
he  was  chosen  mayor  of  Paris  and  discharged 
liis  duties  during  26  months  of  a  most  trying 
and  dangerous  period  with  great  firmness  and 
wisdom.  Losing  his  popularity  by  repressing 
riots  and  defending  the  queen,  he  gave  up  pub- 
lic life,  and  lived  in  retirement,  till  seized  by 
the  Jacobins  and  brought  to  Paris,  where  he 
was  condemned  as  a  conspirator  and  executed. 
Several  posthumous  works  of  his  have  appeared  ; 
the  most  noted  are  an  ^  Essay  on  the  Origin  of 
Fables  and  Ancient  Religions,^  and  his  < Me- 
moirs of  an  Eye-witness  from  April  to  October 
1789.^ 

Bailly,  ba-ye',  Joseph  A.,  French  sculp- 
tor: b.  Paris,  1825;  d.  15  June  1883;  removed 
to  Philadelphia,  Pa.,  in  18.^0;  and  produced 
"*Adam  and  Eve,'  ^Eve  and  Her  Two  Children,' 


and   the   marble   monument   of    Washington   in 
front  of  the  State  house  (1869). 

Bail'ment,  in  law,  is  the  delivery  of  a  chat- 
tel or  thing  to  another  to  keep,  either  for  the 
use  of  the  bailor  or  person  delivering,  or  for 
that  of  the  bailee  or  person  to  whom  it  is  da- 
livered.  A  bailment  always  supposes  the  sub- 
ject to  be  delivered  only  for  a  limited  time,  at 
the  expiration  of  which  it  must  be  redelivered 
to  the  bailor ;  and  the  material  inquiries  in  cases 
of  bailment,  relate  to  the  degree  of  responsi- 
bility of  the  bailee  in  regard  to  the  safe-keeping 
and  redelivery  of  the  subject  of  the  bailment. 
This  responsibility  will  depend,  in  some  degree, 
upon  the  contract  on  which  the  bailment  is 
made.  If  a  thing  is  delivered  to  the  bailee  to 
keep  without  any  advantage  or  use  to  himself, 
or  any  compensation,  but  merely  for  the  benefit 
of  the  bailor,  he  is  answerable  only  for  gross 
negligence;  but  if  the  bailment  is  for  the  mu- 
tual benefit  of  both  parties,  the  thing  must  be 
kept  with  the  ordinary  and  usual  care  which  a 
prudent  man  takes  of  his  own  goods;  but  if  it 
be  delivered  for  the  benefit  of  the  bailee  only, 
he  must  exercise  .strict  care  in  keeping  it,  and 
will  be  answerable  for  slight  negligence.  A 
special  agreement  is  made  in  many  cases  of 
borrowing  or  hiring,  specifying  the  risks  as- 
sumed by  the  borrower  or  hirer;  and  in  such 
case  his  obligations  will  be  determined  by  his 
stipulations. 

Bail'y,  Edward  Hodges,  English  sculp- 
tor: b.  Bristol,  10  March  1788;  d.  22  May  1877. 
He  was  brought  up  with  a  view  to  a  mercantile 
career;  but  ere  long  gained  considerable  suc- 
cess as  a  modeler  in  wax.  He  became  a  pupil 
of  Flaxman  in  1807.  gained  the  academy  gold 
medal  in  181 1  for  his  <  Hercules  Ilestoring  Al- 
cestis  to  Admetus,'  and  was  elected  a  member 
of  the  Royal  Academy  in  1821.  His  principal 
works  are  ^Eve  at  the  Fountain'  ;  Eve  Listening 
to  the  Voice';  Maternal  Affection';  <Girl  Pre- 
paring for  the  Bath^  ;  ^The  Graces'  ;  etc.  The 
bas-reliefs  on  the  south  side  of  the  marble  arch, 
Hyde  Park,  the  statue  of  Nelson  on  the  Tra- 
falgar Square  monument,  and  many  statues  of 
distinguished  men,  were  executed  by  him.  In 
1863  he  was  placed  on  the  honorary  retired  list 
of  the  Royal   Academy. 

Bail'y,  Francis,  English  astronomer:  b. 
Newbury,  in  Berkshire,  1774;  d.  1844;  entered 
a  London  house  of  business,  and  traveled  two 
years  in  America ;  then  settled  in  London  as 
a  stockbroker  and  published  several  works  on 
the  doctrine  of  life  annuities  and  insurance.  On 
retiring  from  business  with  an  ample  fortune  in 
1825  he  turned  his  attention  particularly  to  as- 
tronomy, and  became  one  of  the  founders  of 
the  Astronomical  Society ;  improved  the  nauti- 
cal almanac,  and  investigated  and  described  the 
phenomenon  called  Bailj^'s  beads  (q.v.).  Be- 
sides many  astronomical  papers  he  wrote  a 
^Life  of  Flamsteed.' 

Bail'y's  Beads,  a  phenomenon  attending 
eclipses  of  the  sun,  the  unobscured  edge  of 
which  appears  discontinuous  and  broken  imme- 
diately before  and  after  the  moment  of  com- 
plete obscuration.  It  is  classed  as  an  effect  of 
irradiation  and  defraction. 

Bain,  Alexander,  Scottish  electrician:  b. 
Watten,  Caithness,  1810:  d.  1877.  He  went  to 
London  and  began  a  series  of  electrical  experi- 


BAIN  — BAINES 


inents  in  1837;  and  invented  electric  fire- 
;ilarm  and  sounding-apparatus,  and  the  auto- 
matic chemical  telegraph,  by  which  high  speed 
telegraphy  was  for  the  first  time  made  possi- 
ble. 

Bain,  Alexander,  Scotch  writer  on  mental 
science  and  education;  b.  Aberdeen,  1818;  d.  2 
Jan.  1887;  educated  at  Marischal  College  and 
University  there.  In  1840  he  became  deputy 
teacher  of  the  moral  philosophy  and  natural  phi- 
losophy classes  in  Alarischal  College;  between 
1845  and  i860  he  was  professor  at  the  Anderso- 
nian  College,  Glasgow,  assistant  secretary  to  the 
Metropolitan  Sanitary  Committee  and  the  general 
board  of  health,  and  examiner  in  mental  and 
moral  science  in  the  University  of  London,  and 
for  the  India  civil  service  examinations.  From 
i860  till  1880  he  occupied  the  chair  of  logic 
and  English  in  the  University  of  Aberdeen 
(formed  by  the  union  of  the  two  universities  of 
Marischal  College  and  of  King's  College),  and 
in  1881,  also  in  1884,  was  elected  its  lord  rec- 
tor. He  is  the  author  of  numerous  works  on 
mental  and  moral  philosophy,  the  two  most 
important  being  *^The  Senses  and  the  Intellect^ 
(1855),  and  ^The  Emotions  and  the  WilP 
(1859).  These  contain  a  comprehensive  exam- 
ination of  mental  phenomena  from  the  stand- 
point of  the  experiential  school,  and  have  run 
through  several  editions.  Among  his  other 
works  are  ^The  Study  of  Character^  (1861)  ; 
'Mental  and  Moral  Science^  (1868);  'John 
Stuart  Mill :  a  Criticism,  with  Personal  ReC' 
ollections^  (1882)  ;  'Logic,  Deductive  and  In- 
ductive^ (1870)  ;  'Higher  English  Grammar' 
(1863)  ;  'Manual  of  English  Composition  and 
Rhetoric'  (1866)  ;  'Education  as  a  Science' 
(1879). 

Bain'bridge,  Edmond,  English  military 
officer:  b.  1841.  He  was  educated  at  the  Royal 
Military  Academy,  joined  the  army  in  i860, 
and  became  colonel  in  1893.  Since  1876  he  has 
been  connected  with  the  ordnance  branch  of 
the  military  service,  serving  also  as  instructor 
in  the  School  of  Gunnery ;  and,  becoming,  in 
1899,  director-general  of  the  English  ordnance 
factories. 

Bain'bridge,  John,  English  astronomer 
and  mathematician :  b.  Ashby-de-la-Zouch,  in 
Leicestershire,  1582;  d.  1643.  He  studied  at 
Cambridge;  set  up  a  grammar-school  in  his 
native  place,  and  at  the  same  time  practised 
physic,  devoting  his  leisure  to  the  science  of 
mathematics.  His  'Description  of  the  Comet 
of  1618'  was  the  means  of  introducing  him  to 
Sir  Henry  Savile,  who  had  founded  an  as- 
tronomical lecture  at  Oxford,  and  who  in  1619 
appointed  Dr.  Bainbridge  to  the  professorship. 
He  died  while  engaged  in  publishing  corrected 
editions  of  the  works  of  the  ancient  astrono- 
mers, an  _  undertaking  which  was  one  of  the 
duties  enjoined  on  him  as  Savilian  professor. 
His  other  published  works  are  'Procli  Sphsera 
et  Ptolemsei  de  Hypothesibus  Planetarum,'  to- 
gether with  'Ptolemsei  Canon  Regnorum' 
(1620);  and  'Canicularia:  A  Treatise  on  the 
Dog  Star'    (1648). 

Bain'bridge,  William,  American  naval 
officer:  b.  Princeton,  N.  J.,  7  May  1774;  d.  28 
July  1833.  He  entered  the  merchant  service  and 
became  captain  within  four  years.  In  1798, 
when  the  United  States  navy  was  organized,  he 


was  made  lieutenant  and  given  command  of  the 
schooner  Retaliation.  He  was  captured  by  the 
French  and  kept  a  prisoner  for  several  months, 
and  on  his  return  to  the  United  States  was 
placed  in  command  of  the  Norfolk  and  sub- 
sequently appointed  to  the  command  of  the 
frigate  George  Washington,  which  was  ordered 
to  take  tribute  to  Algiers.  The  dey  of  Al- 
giers demanded  that  Bainbridge  convey  an 
Algerian  ambassador  and  valuable  presents  to 
Constantinople,  and  Bainbridge  was  forced  to 
comply  to  avoid  war  and  the  destruction  of  the 
unprotected  trade  in  the  Mediterranean.  The 
United  States  government  fully  approved  the 
course  he  had  pursued.  He  was  soon  employed 
in  the  Mediterranean  again  in  command  of  the 
frigate  Essex,  and  afterward  upon  the  decla- 
ration of  war  against  the  United  States  by  Tri- 
poli, was  appointed  to  the  frigate  Philadelphia, 
one  of  the  vessels  of  the  squadron  sent  against 
that  power,  under  the  command  of  Commo- 
dore Edward  Preble.  On  26  Aug.  1803,  he  cap- 
tured the  Moorish  frigate  Meshboa,  but  was 
himself  taken  prisoner  with  his  officers  and 
men  in  October  of  that  year.  While  pursunig 
one  of  the  enemy's  vessels,  the  Philadelphia  ran 
aground ;  every  possible  effort  was  made  to 
float  her,  but  she  was  soon  surrounded  by  gun- 
boats from  Tripoli,  about  three  miles  distant,, 
and  Capt.  Bainbridge  was  compelled  to  sur- 
render, having  first  taken  such  measures  as  it 
was  thought  would  ensure  the  final  loss  of  the 
ship.  He  remained  with  his  associate  prisoners 
in  Tripoli  until  the  conclusion  of  peace,  which 
took  place  3  June  1805.  On  his  return  a  court 
of  inquiry  for  the  loss  of  the  Philadelphia  gave 
him  honorable  acquittal.  His  next  service  afloat 
was  in  the  War  of  1812,  when  he  was  appointed,, 
with  the  rank  of  commodore,  to  the  command 
of  a  squadron,  consisting  of  the  Constitution 
(his  flagship),  Essex,  and  Hornet,  and  sailed 
from  Boston  25  Oct.  for  a  cruise.  On  26  Dec. 
off  San  Salvador,  while  separated  from  the  rest 
of  his  squadron,  it  was  his  good  fortune  tcv 
fall  in  with  and  capture  H.  B.  M.  frigate  Java. 
In  1815  he  was  appointed  to  the  command  of  a. 
squadron  of  20  sail,  intended  to  act  against  Al- 
giers, then  at  war  with  us,  but  peace  was  con- 
cluded before  it  reached  the  Mediterranean. 
In  1819  he  again  commanded  in  the  Mediter- 
ranean, and  returned  from  this,  his  last  service 
afloat,  in  1821.  From  this  time  until  his  death 
he  was  almost  constantly  employed  in  impor- 
tant shore  service,  commanding  at  different 
times  the  navy  yards  at  Boston  and  Philadel- 
phia, and  holding  the  position  of  president  of 
the  board  of  navy  commissioners.  Af  an  offi- 
cer he  had  few  superiors.  Though  ardent  in 
his  temperament,  he  was  cool  in  danger,  and 
always  had  the  confidence  of  those  under  his 
command.  His  system  of  discipline,  though 
rigid,  was  always  consistent  and  just,  and  he 
was  remarkable  for  paying  the  greatest  atten- 
tion to  the  formation  of  his  young  officers. 

Bainbridge^  Ga.,  a  town  and  county-seat 
of  Decatur  County,  situated  on  the  Flint  River, 
236  miles  west  of  Savannah.  It  is  in  a  cotton 
and  tobacco  region,  and  has  various  manufac- 
tures :  turpentine  distilleries,  lumber  mills,  etc» 
It  is  the  seat  of  the  Georgia  Southern  Military 
College.     Pop.  (1904)  5,000. 

Baines,  Thomas,  English  artist  and 
explorer:  b.  Norfolk,  1822;  d.  8  May  1875.     In 


BAINI  — BAIRD 


1842  he  went  to  Cape  Colony,  whence  he  ac- 
companied the  British  army  in  the  Kaffir  war 
as  artist.  He  afterward  went  with  Gregory's 
party  to  explore  northwest  Australia ;  with 
Livingston  to  the  Zambesi ;  with  Chapman's  ex- 
pedition to  the  Victoria  Falls ;  and  finally  head- 
ed an  expedition  to  the  gold  fields  of  Tati, 
Everywhere  he  made  large  numbers  of  sketches. 
A  handsome  folio  of  colored  lithographs  from 
his  drawings  at  Victoria  Falls  was  published 
in  1865.  His  last  journey  among  the  Kaffirs 
was  very  carefully  mapped  out  and  sketched. 
His  writings  are  ^Explorations  in  Southwest- 
ern Africa^  (1864)  ;  <The  Gold  Regions  of 
Southeastern  Africa^    (1877). 

Baini,  ba-e'ne,  Giuseppe,  Italian  musician: 
b.  Rome,  1775 ;  d.  1844.  He  was  director  of 
the  Pope's  choir  from  1814  till  his  death.  The 
severe  gravity  and  profound  science  of  his  com- 
positions contrasted  strongly  with  the  careless 
style  and  shallow  dilettanteism  of  most  of  his 
compeers  ;  but  it  was  by  his  historical  researches 
that  Baini  secured  for  himself  a  prominent  place 
in  musical  literature.  His  principal  work  is  his 
*  Life  of  Palestrina'   (1828). 

Bairaktar,  bi'rak-tar'  (more  correctly, 
B.\irak-dar),  signifying  **standard-bearer,'*  the 
title  of  the  Grand  Vizier  Mustapha :  b.  1755 , 
d.  15  Nov.  1808.  When  he  was  pasha  of 
Rustchuk  in  1806,  he  fought  with  some  success 
against  the  Russians,  and  after  the  revolt  of 
the  Janissaries  in  1807,  by  which  Selim  HI.  was 
deposed  from  the  throne  in  favor  of  Mustapha< 
IV.,  he  marched  his  troops  to  Constantinople, 
deposed  Mustapha  IV.,  and  proclaimed  the 
brother  of  this  prince,  Mahmoud  II.,  sultan  on 
28  July  1808.  Bairaktar  was  now  appointed 
grand  vizier,  and  endeavored  to  carry  out 
Selim's  reforms,  and  to  strengthen  the  regular 
army.  His  chief  object  was  the  annihilation  of 
the  Janissaries ;  but  they  rebelled,  and,  with  the 
support  of  the  fleet,  attacked  the  seraglio  15 
Nov.  1808,  and  demanded  the  restoration  of 
Mustapha  IV.  Bairaktar  defended  himself 
bravely;  but  when  he  saw  that  flames  threat- 
ened to  destroy  the  palace,  he  strangled  Mus- 
tapha, threw  his  head  to  the  besiegers,  and 
killed  himself. 

Bairam,  bi-ram'  or  Beiram,  bi'ram,  a 
Mohammedan  feast,  immediately  following  the 
Ramadan  or  Lent  (a  month  of  fasting),  and 
last  three  days.  This  feast  begins,  like  the 
Ramadan,  as  soon  as  the  new  moon  is  announced 
by  the  persons  appointed  for  that  purpose,  and 
during  the  course  of  33  years  makes  a  complete 
circuit  of  all  the  months  and  seasons,  since  the 
Turks  reckon  by  lunar  years.  It  is  the  custom 
at  this  feast  for  inferiors  to  make  presents  to 
their  superiors,  a  custom  formerly  extended  even 
to  the  Europeans.  Seventy  daj^s  after  this  first 
great  Bairam  begins  a  second  —  the  lesser 
Bairam.  They  are  the  only  two  feasts  whose 
celebration  is  prescribed  by  the  Mohammedan 
religion. 

Baird,  Absalom,  American  military  officer : 
b.  Washington,  Pa..  20  Aug.  1S24:  d.  near 
Relay,  Md.,  14  June  1905.  He  was  gradu- 
ated from  the  United  States  Military  Academy 
and  assigned  to  the  artillery  in  1S49.  He 
was  commissioned  brigadier-general  of  volun- 
teers, 28  April  1862,  and  brevetted  major-gen- 
eral,   I    Sept.   1862,   for  his  conduct  in   the  At- 


lanta campaign.  On  13  March  1865,  he  was 
brevetted  major-general,  United  States  army, 
for  meritorious  services  in  the  field  during  the 
war.  He  was  continually  in  the  field  from  the 
Manassas  campaign,  in  1861,  till  after  the  sur- 
render of  Gen.  Johnston's  army  in  1865.  He 
was  staff  inspector-general  from  1885  to  1888, 
when  he  was  retired. 

Baird,  Andrew  Wilson,  English  mili- 
tary engineer :  b.  Aberdeen,  Scotland,  26  April 
1842.  He  became  a  colonel  in  the  Royal  En- 
gineers Corps  in  1893 ;  was  special  assistant  en- 
gineer of  the  harbor  defenses  of  Bombay,  in 
1864;  assistant  field  engineer  of  the  Abyssinian 
expedition  in  1868,  and,  for  nearly  20  years 
thereafter,  employed  on  the  great  trigonometri- 
cal survey  of  India.  His  services  were  re- 
warded with  numerous  official  commendations, 
medals,  and  decorations;  and  he  has  published 
a  number  of  important  works  on  his  labors  in 
India. 

Baird,  Charles  Washington,  American 
historian  and  religious  writer,  son  of  Robert 
Baird :  b.  Princeton,  N.  J.,  28  Aug.  1828 ;  d.  10 
Feb.  1887.  He  was  a  graduate  of  Union  The- 
ological Seminary,  and  pastor  in  Brooklyn  in 
1859,  and  in  Rye,  N.  Y.,  1861.  Besides  works 
on  the  Presbyterian  liturgies  (which  he  was  the 
first  to  collect  and  investigate)  and  local  his- 
tories, he  wrote  'History  of  the  Huguenot  Em- 
igration to  America*  (2  vols.  1885),  a  work 
especially    interesting  to  the  genealogist. 

Baird,  Sir  David,  British  general:  b.  New- 
byth,  Scotland,  6  Dec.  1757;  d.  18  Aug.  1829. 
He  entered  the  English  army  in  1772,  and  go- 
ing to  India  distinguished  himself  at  a  disas- 
trous engagement  at  Peramboucum,  10  Sept. 
1780,  in  which  the  small  British  force  engaged 
was  nearly  cut  to  pieces  after  surrendering. 
His  life  was  spared,  but  he  was  kept  prisoner 
for  four  years.  He  attained  the  rank  of  major 
in  1787,  and  in  October  1789,  obtained  leave  of 
absence  and  returned  to  Britain.  In  1791  he 
joined  the  army  under  the  Marquis  Cornwallis, 
and  as  commander  of  a  brigade  of  Sepoys  he 
was  present  at  the  siege  of  Seringapatam,  in 
1791  and  1792;  and  likewise  at  the  storming  of 
Tippoo  Saib's  lines  in  the  Island  of  Seringapa- 
tam. In  1793  he  commanded  a  brigade  of  Eu- 
ropeans, and  was  present  at  the  siege  of  Pondi- 
cherry.  On  9  May  1799,  he  commanded  the 
storming  party  at  the  assault  of  Seringapatam; 
when,  in  requital  of  his  brilliant  services,  he 
was  presented  by  the  army,  through  the  com- 
mander-in-chief, with  the  state  sword  of  Tip- 
poo Saib.  In  1800  he  had  a  command  in  Egypt, 
and  with  the  increased  rank  of  lieutenant- 
general  commanded  an  expedition  which  sailed 
in  October  1805,  for  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope, 
where  he  defeated  the  Dutch  army  and  received 
the  surrender  of  the  colony.  After  a  short 
period  of  service  in  Ireland  Sir  David  sailed  in 
command  of  an  armament  of  10,000  men  for 
Corunna  to  assist  Sir  John  Moore.  Moore 
was  killed  in  the  battle  of  Corunna  and  Sir 
David  succeeded  to  the  chief  command  ;  he  re- 
ceived for  the  fourth  time  the  thanks  of  Parlia- 
ment, and  was  created  a  baronet.  In  1814  he 
was  promoted  to  the  rank  of  general,  and  in 
1819  became  governor  of  Kinsale,  next  year 
commander  of  the  forces  in  Ireland,  and  in 
1827  of  Fort  George  in  Scotland.  See  Hook, 
<Life   of   Sir   David   Baird*    (1832). 


BAIRD  — BAJAZET 


Baird,  Henry  Martyn,  American  author: 
b.  Philadelphia,  Pa.,  17  Jan.  1832;  d.  Yonkers, 
N.  Y.,  II  Nov.  1906.  He  was  graduated  from 
New  York  University  in  1850,  and  later  took  a 
course  in  theology  at  Union  and  Princeton.  In 
1859  he  was  appointed  professor  of  the  Greek 
languages  and  literature  in  the  New  York  Uni- 
versity. He  wrote:  ^History  of  the  Rise  of  the 
Huguenots >  (1879)  ;  ^The  Huguenots  and  Henry 
of  Navarre>  (1886);  and  <The  Huguenots  and 
the  Revocation  of  the  Edict  of  Nantes  >  (1895)  ; 
^Theodore  Bcza,  the  Counsellor  of  the  French 
Reformation'    (1899). 

Baird,  Julian  William,  American  chem- 
ist :  b.  Battle  Creek,  Mich.,  14  Feb.  1859.  He 
was  graduated  from  the  University  of  Michigan 
in  1882;  was  instructor  in  chemistry  and  in 
charge  of  the  qualitative  analysis  and  assaying 
in  Lehigh  University,  1883-6;  and  became  pro- 
fessor of  analytical  and  organic  chemistry  in 
the  Massachusetts  College  of  Pharmacy,  Bos- 
ton, in  1886,  and  its  dean,  in  1887. 

Baird,  Robert,  American  historian,  b.  Fay- 
ette County,  Pa.,  6  Oct.  1798;  d.  Yonkers,  N. 
Y.,  15  March  1863.  He  was  graduated  from 
Jefferson  College;  and  published  'History  of 
the  Waldenses,  Albigenses,  and  Vaudois,^ 
^History  of  the  Temperance  Societies'  (1836)  ; 
^Religion  in  America'  (1844)  ;  < Protestantism 
in  Italy'  (1845)  ;  etc.  He  was  corresponding 
secretary  of  the  American  and  Foreign  Chris- 
tian Union  (1849-55,  1861-3). 

Baird,  Spencer  Fullerton,  distinguished 
American  naturalist:  b.  Reading,  Pa.,  3  Feb. 
1823 ;  d.  19  Aug.  1887.  He  became  professor  of 
natural  sciences  at  Dickinson  College,  Carlisle, 
Pa.,  184s ;  assistant  secretary  Smithsonian  In- 
stitution, 1850;  United  States  commissioner  of 
fish  and  fisheries,  1871 ;  secretary  of  the  Smith- 
sonian Institution,  1878;  and  founder  of  the  Na- 
tional Museum.  Among  his  more  important 
works  are  a  ^Catalogue  of  North  American  Rep- 
tiles' (1853)  ;  'Birds  of  North  America'  (with 
Cassin  and  Lawrence,  i860)  ;  'Mammals  of 
North  America'  (1858);  'History  of  North 
American  Birds''  (with  Brewer  and  Ridgeway, 
1874-84),  etc.  His  work  had  a  beneficent  influ- 
ence on  natural  history  in  the  United  States. 

Baireuth,  bl-roit.  or  Bayreuth,  a  city  of 
Bavaria,  on  the  Red  Main,  41  miles  northeast  of 
Nuremberg.  The  principal  edifices  are  the  old 
palace  now  occupied  by  public  offices,  the  new 
palace,  with  garden  and  park  open  to  the  pub- 
lic ;  the  opera  house,  a  gymnasium,  and  the  na- 
tional theatre,  constructed  after  the  design  oi 
the  composer  Wagner,  and  opened  in  1876  with 
a  grand  performance  of  his  'Ring  of  the 
Nibelungen.'  Baireuth  fell  to  the  burgrave  of 
Nuremberg  in  1248,  and  after  many  vicissitudes 
was  ceded  to  Bavaria  in  1810.  The  chief  indus- 
tries are  cotton-spinning,  and  weaving,  sugar- 
refining,  brewing,  etc.     Pop.  (1900)  29,000. 

Baiter,  bi'ter,  Johann  Georg,  Swiss  philol- 
ogist: b.  Zurich,  31  May  1801 ;  d.  10  Oct.  1877. 
He  was  professor  in  the  University  of  Zurich, 
and  from  1849  to  1865,  director  in  the  gymna- 
sium there.  He  published,  alone  and  with  oth- 
ers, various  editions  of  the  classics,  'Panegyrics 
of  Socrates,'  'Ciceronis  Scholistae,'  'The  Attic 
Oratoris'    (1839-50),  etc. 


Ba'ius,   or   De   Bay     Michael:   b.    15 13,   at 

Melin,  near  Ath,  in  Hamaut ;  educated  at  Lou- 
vain,  in  1551  ;  made  professor  of  Scripture  at 
this  university  in  1563,  sent  by  the  king  of  Spain 
to  the  Council  of  Trent,  was  one  of  the  greatest 
theologians  of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church  in 
the  i6th  century.  He  founded  systematic  the- 
ology directly  upon  the  Bible  and  the  Christian 
fathers,  leaving  the  scholastic  method.  He 
studied  specially  the  writings  of  St.  Augustine 
and  had  his  own  interpretations  of  that  father. 
The  doctrines  that  the  human  will,  when  left 
to  itself,  could  only  sin ;  that  even  the  mother 
of  Jesus  was  not  free  from  hereditary  and  ac- 
tual sin ;  that  every  action  which  did  not  pro- 
ceed from  pure  love  of  God  was  sinful ;  and  that 
no  penance  was  effectual  for  the  justification  of 
the  sinner,  but  everything  was  to  be  attrib- 
uted solely  to  the  grace  of  God,  through  Christ, 
caused  the  superior  of  the  Franciscan  Order 
in  Belgium  to  submit  18  of  his  propositions 
to  the  Sorbonne  in  Paris.  The  Sorbonne  fac- 
ulty condemned  3  of  the  propositions  as 
false  and  13  as  contrary  to  Catholic  teach- 
ing. Baius  disavowed  the  condemned  sen- 
tences, claiming  that  some  of  them  had  not 
been  taught  by  him  and  that  others  had  been 
presented  incorrectly.  After  his  return  from 
Trent,  he  published  theses  which  contained  doc- 
trines that  were  rejected  by  the  Spanish  and 
Italian  universities  to  which  they  had  been 
submitted.  Finally  76  sentences  taken  from 
his  works  were  condemned  by  Pius  V.  in 
1567  and  some  dispute  arising  about  the  mean- 
ing of  this  bull,  it  was  confirmed  by  Gregory 
XIII.  and  entrusted  to  the  Jesuit  Cardinal  To- 
letus  to  deliver  to  Baius.  Baius  submitted ;  yet 
the  opposition  still  continued,  as  did  also  his 
defense  of  some  of  his  interpretations  of  Augus- 
tine in  his  lectures ;  and  as  the  theological  fac- 
ulty at  Louvain  was  entirely  in  his  favor,  he 
not  only  remained  in  the  quiet  possession  of  his 
dignities,  but  was  also  appointed  dean  of  St. 
Peter's  in  1575,  and  in  1578  chancellor  of  the 
university.  He  died  in  1589,  and  left  the  rep- 
utation of  great  learning,  pure  morals,  and  a 
rare  modesty.  His  interpretations  of  Augus- 
tine, which  were  called  Baianism,  were  adopted 
by  the  Jansenists  and  were  defended  by  them 
against  their  Jesuit  opponents.  His  doctrine  of 
pure  undivided  love  to  God  has  also  been 
adopted  by  the  Quietists.  His  writings,  mostly 
polemical,  were  published  at  Cologne  (4to 
1696). 

Bibliography. —  Duchesne,  'Historic  du  Bay- 
anism.'  ;  Linsenmann,  'Bayus  und  die  Grundle- 
gung  des  Jansenismus.' 

Baja,  bo'yo,  a  Hungarian  market  town 
situated  on  the  Danube,  90  miles  south  of  Buda- 
pest. It  has  important  manufactures  of  alcohol 
and  shoes  and  is  celebrated  for  its  annual  swine 
fair,  and  its  trade  in  grain  and  wine.  Pop. 
(1890)  19,500. 

Bajada  Del  Parana,  ba-ha'da  del  pa'ra-na'. 
See  Parana. 

Baj'azet'  I.,  or  Bayazid  I.,  a  Turkish  sul- 
tan: b.  1347;  d.  1403.  In  1389  he  succeeded  his 
father,  Murad  of  Amurath,  who  fell  in  the  bat- 
tle of  Kossova  against  the  Servians,  and  caused 
his  brother  Jacob,  his  rival  for  the  throne,  to 
be  strangled.  He  made  great  and  rapid  con- 
quests, in  three  years  conquering  Bulgaria,  part 


BAJAZEl  —  BAKER 


of  Servia,  Macedonia,  Thessaly,  and  subjecting 
the  states  of  Asia  Minor.  In  order  to  save 
Constantinople,  King  Sigismund  of  Hungary 
(afterward  emperor  of  Germany)  assembled  a 
great  army,  but  Bajazet  met  them  at  Nicopolis 
and  obtained  a  decisive  victory  over  the  allied 
Hungarians,  Poles,  and  French  in  1396.  He 
would  probably  have  now  overturned  the  whole 
Greek  empire  if  Timur  had  not  overrun  Asia 
Minor  in  1400  and  defeated  him  in  a  battle  at 
Angora.  He  himself  fell  into  the  power  of  the 
conqueror  and  died  in  Timur's  camp,  in  Cara- 
mania.  His  successor  was  Soliman  I.  Bajazet 
n.,  b.  1447;  d.  1512,  succeeded  his  father,  Mo- 
hammed II.,  Sultan  of  the  Turks,  in  1481.  He 
increased  the  Turkish  empire  by  conquests  on 
the  northwest,  and  in  the  east,  took  Lepanto, 
!Modon,  and  Durazzo,  in  a  war  against  the  Ve- 
netians, and  ravaged  the  coasts  of  the  Christian 
states  on  the  ]\Iediterranean,  to  revenge  the  ex- 
pulsion of  the  Moors  from  Spain.  At  home  he 
had  to  contend  against  his  rebellious  son  Selim, 
to  whom  he  at  last  resigned  the  empire.  It  has 
been  supposed  that  he  was  put  to  death  by  the 
order  of  his  son.  He  was  a  man  of  great  tal- 
ents, and  did  much  for  the  improvement  of  his 
empire  and  the  promotion  of  the  sciences. 

Baj'azet',  the  title  of  a  tragedy  by  Racine, 
in  which  the  chief  character  is  Bajazet,  the 
brother  of  the  Sultan  Amurath,  whose  choice 
between  the  throne  and  the  woman  he  loves 
forms  the  theme  of  the  drama. 

Baj'azet',  Mosque  of,  a  mosque  at  Con- 
stantinople, built  in  1505  by  Bajazet  II.  It  is 
one  of  the  finest  specimens  of  Mohammedan 
architecture,  and  displays  excellent  proportions 
and  great  richness  of  detail  in  decoration. 
There  are  four  Persian  doorways  and  an  octag- 
onal foundation  in  the  centre  of  the  court. 

Baj'imonts'  Roll.      See  Bagimonts'  Roll. 

Bajocco,  bayok'ko,  or  Baiocco,  a  papal 
state  copper  coin,  whose  value  is  about  one 
cent.  A  Neapolitan  coin,  value  about  83  cents, 
was  also  called  Bajocco  in  Sicily. 

Baj'ree.    See  Guinea  Corn. 

Bajura,  ba-joo'ra,  the  banner  of  Moham- 
med. 

Bajza,  boi'zo,  Joseph,  Hungarian  poet 
and  critic :  b.  1804 ;  d.  1858.  He  devoted  him- 
self to  history,  and  edited  a  ^Historical  Li- 
brary^ (1843-5)  and  the  *^New  Plutarch^ 
(1845-7).  He  was  also  editor  of  two  critical 
journals,  which  exerted  a  strong  influence  on 
Hungarian  literature.  From  1831  he  was  a 
member  of  the  Hungarian  Academy,  and  from 
1836  of  the  Kisfaludy  Society.  He  ranks  among 
the  best  lyric  poets  of  Hungary.  His  ^Po- 
ems' appeared  in  1835,  and  his  ^Collected 
Works  >  in  1861. 

Bakacs,  bd'koch,  Thomas,  Hungarian 
statesman,  son  of  a  peasant :  b.  about  the 
middle  of  the  15th  century;  d.  1521.  He  held 
several  bishoprics  in  succession,  became  chan- 
cellor of  the  kingdom,  and  finally  archbishop 
and  cardinal.  He  preached  a  crusade  against 
the  Turks ;  but  his  army  of  peasants  and  vaga- 
bonds turned  their  arms  against  the  nobility, 
and  a  fierce  civil  war  ensued. 

Bakairi,  ba-ka-T-re,  or  Baccahiry,  a  Carib- 
bean tribe  of  central  Brazil,  remarkable  for  their 
light     complexion.      The    men     have    assembly 


houses,    where    they   spend    most   of   their   time, 
which  women  are  forbidden  to  enter. 

Bakarganj,  bak'ar-ganj,  an  English  dis- 
trict in  India,  under  the  lieutenant-governor  of 
Bengal.  It  contains  3,649  square  miles,  is  fer- 
tile, and  is  watered  by  the  lower  streams  of 
the  Ganges  and  the  Brahmaputra.  In  the  south 
of  the  district  are  the  forest  tracts  of  the  Sun- 
derbunds.  Barisal,  the  headquarters,  on  the 
west  bank  of  Barisal  River,  is  the  only  town 
with  more  than  5,000  inhabitants.  Bakarganj. 
the  former  capital,  situated  near  the  junction  of 
the  Krishnakati  and  Khairabad  rivers,  is  now 
in  ruins.     Pop.  2,153,695. 

Bake,  ba'ke,  Jan,  Dutch  philologist:  b. 
Leyden,  i  Sept.  1787;  d.  28  March  1864.  In  1817 
he  became  professor  of  Greek  and  Roman  lit- 
erature at  the  University  of  Leyden,  holding  the 
position  till  1857.  Here  he  edited  and  published 
valuable  editions  of  Posidonius,  and  of  the  as- 
tronomer Cleomedes,  and  assisted  in  the  large 
and  original  work  entitled  'Bibliotheca  Critica 
Nova.^  He  published  a  series  of  philological 
articles,  edited  some  of  the  works  of  Cicero, 
and  wrote  an  excellent  essay  upon  the  Greek 
tragedians. 

Baker,  David  Augustine,  Benedictine  ascet- 
ical  writer;  b.  1575;  d.  1641.  The  most  original 
and  ablest  spiritual  writer  among  English  Cath- 
olics during  the  first  half  of  the  17th  centurj'. 
Having  finished  his  studies  at  Oxford,  he  de- 
voted himself  to  law  at  Clifford's  Inn,  and  later 
at  Inner  Temple.  In  his  40th  year  he  became  a 
convert  to  the  Catholic  faith,  and  a  few  years 
later  was  ordained  priest  and  was  subsequently 
received  into  the  Benedictine  Order.  Dugdale 
and  Dodsworth  are  indebted  to  his  historical 
l^ibors  for  much  of  the  data  found  in  their 
monumental  works.  It  was  Father  Baker  who 
discovered  that  the  old  English  Benedictine 
monastery  of  Saint  Peter  at  Westminster  was 
legally  continued  in  the  person  of  an  old  priest, 
Dom  Sigebert  Buckley.  By  this  sole  survivor 
David  Baker  was  professed  into  the  monastery 
of  Westminster,  and  thus  became  the  connecting 
link  between  the  old  and  the  new  congregation 
in  England.  It  was  as  spiritual  director  at 
Douai  and  Cambrai  that  he  composed  his  ad- 
mirable treatises  on  the  spiritual  life.  Consult: 
Wood,  'Athense  Oxoniensis'  :  Taunton,  ^Eng- 
lish Black  Monks  of  Saint  Benedict.^ 

Baker,  Sir  Benjamin,  English  engineer:  b. 
near  Bath,  1840 ;  d.  Pangbourne,  Berkshire,  19 
]\Iay  1907.  In  1877  he  superintended  the  re- 
moval of  Cleopatra's  Needle  from  Egv-pt  to  Lon- 
don and  was  consulting  engineer  on  the  As- 
souan dam.  In  conjunction  with  Sir  John  Fowler 
he  planned  the  bridge  over  the  Firth  of  Forth. 
He  wrote  *Long  Span  Iron  Bridges*:  'Suspen- 
sion Versus  Cantilever  Bridges*  ,  <The  Strength 
of  Beams':  and 'Transportation  and  Re-erection 
of  Cleopatra's  Needle.* 

Bak'er,  Benjamin  W.,  American  educator: 
b.  Coles  County,  111.,  25  Nov.  1841.  He 
served  in  the  Union  army  through  the  Civil 
War;  became  a  Methodist  Episcopal  clergyman 
in  1874 ;  and  was  financial  secretary  of  the  Il- 
linois Wesleyan  University  in  1883-93 ;  president 
of  Chaddock  College  in  1893-8:  and  subse- 
quently became  president  of  the  Missouri  Wes- 
leyan College  in  Cameron. 


BAKER 


Bak'er,  Charles  Whiting,  American  civil 
engineer:  b.  Johnson,  Vt.,  \^  Jan.  1865.  He 
was  graduated  at  the  engineering  department 
of  the  University  of  Vermont  and  became 
managing  editor  of  'Engineering  News^  in  1900. 
He  is  the  author  of  "^Monopolies  and  the  Peo- 
ple' ;  etc. 

Bak'er,  Edward  Dickinson,  American  sol- 
dier and  pohtician :  b.  London,  England,  24 
Feb.  181 1 ;  d.  21  Oct.  1861.  He  came  to  the 
United  States  in  youth,  was  elected  to  the  Il- 
linois legislature  in  1837,  became  a  State  sena- 
tor in  1840,  and  was  sent  to  Congress  in  1844. 
He  served  under  Gen.  Scott  in  the  war  with 
Mexico,  and  was  elected  United  States  senator 
from  Oregon  in  i860.  He  entered  the  Federal 
army  at  the  outbreak  of  the  Civil  War,  and  was 
killed  at  the  battle  of  Ball's  Bluff. 

Bak'er,  Frank,  American  zoologist:  b. 
Pulaski,  N.  Y.,  1841.  He  was  professor  of 
anatomy  in  the  University  of  Georgetown ;  and 
in  1900  was  superintendent  of  the  National  Zoo- 
logical park,  in  Washington,  D.  C.  He  is  a 
Fellow  of  the  American  Association  for  the  Ad- 
vancement of  Science,  and  a  member  of  the 
Academy  of  Science,  and  the  Anthropological 
and  the  Biological  Societies,  all  in  Washington. 

Bak'er,  George  Augustus,  American  paint- 
er: b.  New  York.  1821 ;  d.  2  April  1880.  He 
studied  at  the  National  Academy  of  Design  in 
New  York,  and  in  Europe,  and  was  elected  to 
the  National  Academy  in  1851.  He  was  espe- 
cially celebrated  as  a  portrait  painter,  and  re- 
produced flesh-tints  very  accurately.  His  prin- 
cipal works,  aside  from  his  portraits,  are  ^Love 
at  First  Sight'  ;  <Wild  Flowers^  ;  <Faith^  ;  and 
^The  May  Queen.' 

Bak'er,  George  Augustus,  American  w^ri- 
ter  of  verse  and  stories :  b.  New  York,  Aug- 
ust 1849.  He  wrote  *  Point  Lace  and  Diamonds,-* 
light  society  verse  (New  York  1875)  'Bad 
Habits  of  Good  Society'  (1876);  <Mrs.  Hep- 
hsestus  and  Other  Stories'  (1887)  ;  and  several 
comedies. 

Bak'er,  Harriette  Newell  (Woods)  (pseu- 
donyms Madeline  Leslie  and  Aunt  Hatty), 
American  writer  of  juvenile  stories:  b.  1815; 
d.  1893.  A  very  voluminous  writer,  several  of 
her  works  have  been  translated  into  French  and 
German.  She  has  written  'Tim,  the  Scissors- 
Grinder'  (1861,  sequel  in  1862),  her  most  popu- 
lar work;  'Up  the  Ladder'  (1862);  'The  Two 
Homes'  (1862);  'The  Organ-Grinder'  (1863); 
'White  and  Black  Lies'  (1864);  'Worth  and 
Wealth'  (1864)  ;  'Tim's  Sister'  (1864)  ;  'Wheel 
of  Fortune'  (1865)  ;  'Courtesies  of  Wedded 
Life'  (1869)  'Paul  Barton'  (1869);  'Fashion 
and  Folly'  (1869)  ;  'Lost  but  Found'  (1869)  ; 
'Ingleside'  (1886);  'This  and  That'  (1887); 
etc.  She  was  a  daughter  of  Leonard  Woods, 
the  theologian,  and  wife  of  Rev.  Abijah  R. 
Baker. 

Bak'er,  Henry,  English  naturalist:  b.  8 
May  1698;  d.  25  Nov.  1774.  In  1740  he  was 
chosen  a  Fellow  of  the  Royal  and  Antiquarian 
societies,  and  in  1744  obtained  the  Copley  medal 
for  his  microscopical  discoveries  on  crystalliza- 
tion. _  He  contributed  many  papers  to  the  'Philo- 
sophical Transactions'  ;  was  an  active  member 
of  the  Society  for  the  Encouragement  of  Arts. 
He  wrote  'The  Microscope  Made  Easy'  ;  'Em- 
ployment for  the  Microscope'  ;  many  scientific 
papers,  and  several  poetical  works. 


Bak'er,  Ira  Osborn,  American  educator: 
b.  Linton,  Ind.,  22,  Sept.  1853.  He  became 
professor  of  civil  engineering  in  the  University 
of  Illinois  in  1880,  and  has  published  'Engi- 
neers' Surveying  Instruments'  ;  'Treatise  on 
Masonry  Construction'  ;  and  'Brick  Pave- 
ments.' 

Bak'er,  James  Hutchins,  American  edu- 
cator: b.  Harmony,  Me.,  13  Oct.  1848.  He  was 
principal  of  the  Denver  High  School  in  1875- 
91  ;  and  in  the  last  year  became  president  of  the 
National  Council  of  Education,  and  also  of  the 
University  of  Colorado.  He  has  published  nu- 
merous lectures  and  monographs,  and  a  work 
on    'Elementary  Psychology.' 

Bak'er,  John  Gilbert,  English  botanist: 
b.  Guisborough,  Yorkshire,  13  Jan.  1834,  and 
was  appointed  assistant  curator  at  the  herbarium 
at  Kew  in  1866.  He  was  for  many  years  lec- 
turer on  botany  to  the  London  Hospital,  and  in 
1882  received  a  like  appointment  from  the 
Apothecaries'  Company;  he  is  also  a  member  of 
the  Royal  and  Linnaean  Societies.  His  vol- 
uminous writings  include  works  on  the  flora  of 
districts  so  diverse  as  the  north  of  England, 
Madagascar,  and  Brazil ;  and  popular  mono- 
graphs and  scientific  catalogues  of  high  value. 

Bak'er,  Lafayette  C,  American  detec- 
tive :  b.  Stafford,  N.  Y.,  13  Oct.  1826 ;  d.  2  July 
1868.  He  was  chief  of  the  Secret  Service  Bu- 
reau during  the  Civil  War;  and  reached  the  mil- 
itary rank  of  brigadier-general.  He  superin- 
tended the  pursuit  of  Wilkes  Booth,  President 
Lincoln's  assassin;  and  published  a  'History  of 
the  United  States  Secret  Service'    (1868). 

Bak'er,  Marcus,  American  cartographer: 
b.  Kalamazoo,  Mich.,  23  Sept.  1849.  He  be- 
came connected  with  the  United  States  Coast 
and  Geodetic  Survey  in  1873,  and  with  the  Unit- 
ed States  Geological  Survey  in  1886 ;  and  in 
1900  was  secretary  of  the  United  States  Board 
on  Geographic  Names.  He  was  cartographer  to 
the  Venezuela  boundary  commission,  and  after 
spending  many  years  surveying  and  exploring  in 
Alaska,  and  along  the  Pacific  coast,  prepared, 
with  William  H.  Dall,  the  'Alaska  Coast 
Pilot.' 

Bak'er,  Moses  Nelson,  American  civil  en- 
gineer :  b.  Enosburg,  Vt.,  26  Jan.  1864.  He  was. 
editor  for  several  years  of  the  'Manual  of  Amer- 
ican Waterworks'  ;  and  in  1900  was  associate 
editor  of  'Engineering  News.'  He  has  pub- 
lished 'Sewage  Purification  in  America'  ;  'Sew- 
erage and  Sewage  Purification'  ;  etc. 

Bak'er,  Osmon  Cleander,  American  clergy- 
man: b.  Marlow,  N.  H.,  30  July  1812;  d. 
20  Dec.  1871.  He  was  educated  at  Wesleyan 
University ;  spent  several  years  in  teaching,  and 
was  one  of  the  founders  of  the  system  of  Metho- 
dist Episcopal  theological  schools.  He  was  pro- 
fessor in  the  Biblical  Institute  in  Concord,  N. 
H.,  1847-52,  and  in  the  last  named  year  was 
elected  a  bishop.  His  work,  'Guide-Book  in  the 
Administration  of  Discipline  of  the  Methodist 
Episcopal  Church'  (1855),  is  a  standard  au- 
thority. 

Bak'er,  Sir  Richard,  English  historian:  b. 
Kent,  1568;  d.  1645.  He  was  educated  at  Ox- 
ford, and  knighted  in  1603  by  James  I. ;  in  1620 
he  filled  the  office  of  high  sheriff  of  Oxford- 
shire, having  estates  in  that  county.  Shortly 
afterward  he  was  thrown  into  Fleet  Prison  be-^ 


BAKER  — BAKER'S    DOZEN 


catise  of  having  given  security  for  a  debt  con- 
tracted by  his  wife's  family,  which  he  was  unable 
to  pay.  During  his  imprisonment  he  wrote 
^Chronicle  of  the  Kings  of  England,^  first  pub- 
lished in  1641,  and  afterward  continued  by  Ed- 
ward Phillips,  the  nephew  of  Milton,  and  others, 
a  work  popular  at  the  time,  but  not  of  perma- 
nent value.     He  died  in  prison. 

Bak'er,  Sir  Samuel  White,  English  ex- 
plorer :  b.  London,  8  June  1821  ;  d.  30  Dec.  1893. 
He  was  trained  as  an  engineer,  and  at  the  age 
of  24  went  to  Ceylon,  where  he  founded  an 
agricultural  settlement  at  Nuwara  Eliya  in  1847. 
In  the  early  part  of  1861,  accompanied  by  his 
"wife,  he  set  out  for  Africa  on  a  journey  of  ex- 
ploration. When  he  had  ascended  the  Nile  as 
far  as  Gondokoro  he  met  Speke  ar^d  Grant  re- 
turning after  their  discovery  of  the  Victoria 
Nyanza  Lake,  and  learned  from  them  that  an- 
other large  lake  in  the  district  had  been  spoken 
of  by  the  natives.  This  lake  he  determined  to 
•discover,  and  after  many  adventures  he  and  his 
wife  beheld  the  Albert  Nyanza,  on  14  March 
1864.  On  his  return  home  he  was  received  with 
•great  honor,  and  was  knighted.  In  1869  he  re- 
turned to  Africa  as  head  of  an  expedition  sent 
by  the  Khedive  of  Egypt  to  suppress  the  slave 
trade,  and  to  annex  and  open  up  to  trade  a 
large  part  of  the  newly  explored  country,  being 
raised  to  the  dignity  of  pasha.  Returning  in 
1873,  he  was  succeeded  by  the  celebrated  Gor- 
don. In  1879  he  explored  the  island  of  Cyprus, 
and  subsequently  traveled  in  Asia  and  America. 
His  writings  include:  <The  Rifle  and  the 
Hound  in  Ceylon^  (1854)  ;  < Eight  Years'  Wan- 
derings in  Ceylon'  (1855)  ;  <The  Albert  Ny- 
anza' (1866)  ;  "^The  Nile  Tributaries  of  Abys- 
sinia' (1867)  ;  "^Ismailia,  a  Narrative  of  the 
Expedition  to  Central  Africa'  (1874)  ;  'Cy- 
prus as  I  saw  It  in  1879'  ;  ^Wild  Beasts  and 
Their  Ways'  (1890)  ;  also,  ^Cast  up  by  the 
Sea,'  a  story  published  in  1869. 

Bak'er,  Thomas,  English  antiquary:  b. 
1656;  d.  1740.  His  ^Reflections  on  Learning' 
(1709-10)  went  through  seven  editions.  He 
left  in  manuscript  42  folio  volumes  of  an  ^Athe- 
nae  Cantabrigiensis,'  from  which  a  ^History  of 
St.  John's  College'  was  edited  by  Prof.  Mayor 
in  1869. 

Bak'er,  Valentine,  English  military  officer, 
also  known  as  Baker  Pasha :  b.  1825 ;  d. 
Tel-el-Kebir,  1887.  He  was  a  brother  of  Sir 
Samuel  White  Baker.  For  his  services  in  the 
Crimean  war  he  was  made  colonel  of  the  loth 
Hussars.  In  the  Russo-Turkish  war  of  1877 
he  was  in  the  Turkish  service,  and  subsequent- 
ly served  in  Egypt.  He  wrote  < Clouds  in  the 
East'  (1876)  ;  and  <The  War  in  Bulgaria' 
(1879). 

Bak'er,  William  Bliss,  American  artist: 
b.  New  York,  1859 ;  d.  Ballston,  N.  Y.,  1889. 
He  studied  at  the  National  Academy,  and  is 
especially  noted  for  his  landscapes.  Among  his 
works  are  ^In  the  Old  Pasture'  ;  'October 
Morning'  ;  and  *^Under  the  Apple-Tree.' 

Bak'er,  Sir  William  Erskine,  Scottish 
military  and  civil  engineer :  b.  Leith,  Scotland, 
1808;  d.  16  Dec.  1881.  He  served  in  the  first 
Sikh  war,  and  afterward  held  many  offices  in 
the  public  works  department  of  India.  His  en- 
gineering work  in  Scinde  was  very  valuable,  as 
the    scheme     of    irrigation    which    he     carried 


through  has  imparted  fertility  to  a  barren  ter- 
ritory. He  became  a  member  of  the  council  of 
India  in  1861  ;  major-general  in  1865;  a  K.  C.  B. 
in  1870;  and  retired  from  public  life  in  1875. 

Bak'er,  William  Henry,  American  gy- 
naecologist: b.  Medford,  Mass.,  11  March  1845. 
He  was  graduated  at  the  Harvard  Medical 
School,  and  became  professor  of  gynaecology 
there.  His  publications  include  'The  Treatment 
of  Cancer  of  the  Uterus'  ;  'Diseases  of  the  Ure- 
thra and  Bladder'  ;  etc. 

Bak'er,  William  Mumford,  American 
novelist  and  clergyman:  b.  Washington,  D.  C, 
27  June  1825;  d.  South  Boston,  Mass.,  20  Aug. 
1883.  He  was  graduated  at  Princeton  1846,  and 
held  Presbyterian  pastorates  in  Texas  for  15 
years,  when  he  returned  to  the  north  and  ac- 
cepted a  charge  in  South  Boston.  As  a  writer, 
one  of  his  most  important  books  was  'Inside:  A 
Chronicle  of  Secession'  (1866),  secretly  written 
during  the  war,  and  giving  an  illuminating  pic- 
ture of  Southern  sentiment.  Other  works  are: 
'Life  and  Labors  of  Rev.  D.  Baker'  (1858)  ; 
'The  Ten  Theopanies'  (1883).  His  novels, 
several  of  which  appeared  serially,  include: 
'Mose  Evans'  (1874);  'Carter  Quarterman' 
(1876)  ;  'Colonel  Dunwoodie'  (1878)  ;  'The 
Virginians  in  Texas'  (1878):  'His  Majesty 
Myself  (1879)  ;  and  its  sequel,  'The  Making 
of  a  Man'  (1884);  'Blessed  Saint  Certainty' 
(1881). 

Bak'er,  and  the  Baker's  Wife,  The,  names 
popularly  given  to  Louis  XVI.  of  France,  and 
Marie  Antoinette,  because  they  gave  bread  to 
the  starving  mob  at  Versailles,  6  Oct.  1789. 

Bak'er  City,  Ore.,  a  city  and  county- 
seat  of  Baker  County,  situated  on  the  east  fork 
of  the  Powder  River,  360  miles  east  of  Port- 
land, on  the  Oregon  R.R.  It  is  the  centre  of 
an  extensive  farming,  gold-mining  and  stock- 
raising  region,  and  has  a  considerable  export 
trade.  It  is  governed  by  a  mayor,  biennially 
elected,  and  a  city  council,  and  operates  the 
waterworks.  It  was  settled  in  i860  and  incor- 
porated in  1872.     Pop.    (1900)   6,663. 

Bak'er,  Mount,  an  occasionally  active  vol- 
cano in  Whatcom  County,  Wash.,  belonging  to 
the  Cascade  Range;  elevation,   10,827  feet. 

Bak'er  University,  a  co-educational  insti- 
tution in  Baldwin,  Kan.  It  was  founded  in 
1858,  under  the  auspices  of  the  Methodist  Epis- 
copal Church,  and  at  the  end  of  1905  had  40 
jirofessors  and  instructors,  and  1,000  students. 
Its  library  contained  14,000  volumes,  and  the 
grounds  and  buildings  were  valued  at  $80,000; 
graduates,  1.200;  productive  funds,  $50,000;  in- 
come $40,000. 

Bak'er's  Antelope,  a  large  antelope  (Hip- 
potragus  Bakcri)  of  equatorial  Africa,  dis- 
covered by  Sir  Samuel  Baker.  It  is  pale 
brownish-ri;d  with  black  stripes  on  the  shoulders, 
and  has  massive  horns. 

Bak'er's  Dozen,  a  familiar  phrase  sup- 
posed to  have  originated  in  an  old  practice  of 
bakers  who,  when  a  heavy  penalty  was  inflicted 
for  short  weight,  used  to  give  a  surplus  number  of 
loaves,  called  the  inbread,  to  avoid  all  risk  of  in- 
curring the  fine.  Thirteen,  therefore,  became  a 
baker's  dozen,  and  13  also  is  assumed  to  be  the 
number  of  witches  who  sat  down  together  at 
dinner  on  the  Lord's  Day,  even  as  it  was  the 


BAKERSFIELD  —  BAKUNIN 


number  who  were  at  that  last  Passover  supper 
which  immediately  preceded  the  betrayal  of  Christ. 
Thirteen  was  also  called  the  "devil's  dozen.^^ 

Bak'ersfield,  Cal.,  a  town  and  countj'-seat 
of  Kern  County,  situated  on  the  Kern  River  and 
on  the  Southern  Pacific  railrgad.  It  is  the 
centre  of  an  oil  region  and  of  a  stock-raising 
and  fruit-growing  industry;  therefore  has  a 
good  trade  and  some  manufacturing  interests  as 
w^cll.     Pop.   (1900)  4,836. 

Bake'well,  Robert,  English  agricultu- 
rist: b.  1725;  d.  1795.  He  succeeded  his  father, 
in  1760,  as  occupier  of  the  Dishley  farm  in 
Leicestershire,  and  then  began  experiments  for 
the  improvement  of  cattle  (introducing  the  cele- 
brated long-horned  breed),  and  also  of  horses, 
pigs,  and  sheep.  He  also  introduced  into  Eng- 
lish agriculture  the  practice  of  flooding  mead- 
ows. He  never  contributed  anything  to  litera- 
ture, but  Arthur  Young,  in  his  annals  of 
agriculture,  fully  described  and  praised  his 
plans  and  improvements. 

Bakhmut,  bakh-moot'.    See  Bachmut. 

Bakhtchissarai,  bak'che-sa-ri',  a  town  of 
Russia,  the  capital  of  the  government  of  Tau- 
rida;  situated  on  the  Tchoorook,  15  miles  south- 
west of  Simferopol.  It  consists  of  a  single 
street,  built  along  the  banks  of  the  Tchoorook, 
and  lined  in  Oriental  fashion  with  bazaars  and 
workshops.  It  contains  also  several  mosques, 
whose  tall  minarets  rise  high  above  the  neigh- 
boring houses.  Here  also  is  the  ancient  palace 
of  the  khans  who  ruled  over  the  Tauridian 
state  before  the  rise  of  Russian  power.  The 
inhabitants  are  chiefly  Mohammedans.  Pop. 
(1900)    13,000. 

Bakhtegan,  bakk-tc-giin,  a  salt  lake  in 
Persia,  47  miles  east  of  Shiraz :  74  miles  long 
and  from  4  to  13  miles  wide.  Large  quantities 
of  salt  are  gathered  from  its  basin. 

Bakhtiari,  bakh'te-a're.  (i)  A  range  of 
mountains  of  Persia  extending  parallel  to  the 
Arva  and  Laristan  ranges.  (2)  A  half-civilized 
tribe  living  in  the  above  mountains,  estimated 
to  number  232,800. 

Baki,  ba'ke,  the  greatest  lyric  poet  of  Tur- 
key: died  about  1600.  His  <Divan^  contains 
almost  exclusively  odes  in  praise  of  the  Sultan. 

Baking  Machinery.  See  Bread  and  Bread- 
making. 

Bak'ing  Pow'der,  a  chemical  preparation 
used  in  the  place  of  yeast  to  give  lightness  to 
bread  and  other  similar  articles  of  diet.  Yeast 
induces  a  kind  of  fermentation,  accompanied  by 
the  generation  of  bubbles  of  the  gas  known 
to  chemists  as  carbon  dioxid ;  and  it  is  the  de- 
velopment of  these  bubbles  within  the  dough 
that  causes  it  to  swell  (or  "rise*)  and  become 
light.  When  baking  powder  is  used  in  the 
place  of  yeast,  the  action  is  similar,  except  that 
the  gas  is  generated  by  direct  chemical  action, 
instead  of  by  fermentation.  The  best  baking 
powders  contain  bicarbonate  of  soda  or  bicar- 
bonate of  ammonia  as  their  alkaline  constituent, 
intimately  mixed  with  tartaric  or  phosphoric 
acid,  or  an  acid  tartrate  or  phosphate.  So  long 
as  the  powder  is  kept  dry,  its  acid  and  alkaline 
constituents  do  not  combine  with  each  other; 
but  when  moistened,  combination  takes  place, 
and  carbon  dioxid  is  generated,  just  as  in  the 
case   of  yeast.     Owing  to  the  cost  of  tartrates 


and  phosphates,  alum  is  not  infrequently  used 
as  the  acid  constituent  in  the  cheaper  powders; 
but  health  authorities  almost  universally  con- 
demn this  substitution. 

Bakkebakke,  bak'ke-bak'ke,  a  tribe  of  Af- 
rican pigmies  dwelling  in  the  Fren*;h  Congo 
territory. 

Bakonywald,  bo'kon-y'-valt,  a  mountain 
range  in  Hungary,  between  the  Raab  and  Lake 
Balaton,  separating  the  great  and  little  Hunga- 
rian plains.  Average  elevation,  2,000  feet.  It 
is  covered  with  forests,  on  the  mast  of  which 
large  herds  of  swine  are  fed.  There  are  fine 
quarries  of  marble  in  the  mountains. 

Baksheesh,  bak-shesh',  or  Bakshish,  an 
Eastern  word,  denoting  a  present  or  gratuity. 
In  Egypt  and  other  parts  of  the  Turkish  em- 
pire the  traveler  has  scarcely  set  foot  on  shore 
before  clamors  for  baksheesh,  on  the  most  friv- 
olous pretexts,  or  in  simple  beggary,  without 
pretext  at  all,  assail  his  ears  from  every  quar- 
ter. Baksheesh  is  the  first  Arabic  word  with 
which  he  becomes  acquainted,  and  he  acquires  it 
unwillingly. 

Baku,  a  Russian  towai  in  Georgia,  on  the 
Caspian  Sea.  The  rocky  peninsula  upon  which 
it  is  built  and  the  islands  in  the  bay  are  com- 
posed of  Tertiary  strata,  abounding  in  fossil 
shells.  Through  these  strata  numerous  springs 
of  naphtha  and  petroleum  issue,  together  with 
streams  of  inflammable  gas,  and  eruptions  of 
mud  from  so-called  mud  volcanoes.  These 
phenomena  give  to  the  region  the  name  of 
the  Field  of  Fire,  and  formerly  miade  Baku 
the  sacred  city  of  the  Guebres  or  Fire  Worship- 
pers. Naphtha  is  so  abundant  as  to  be  an  arti- 
cle of  commerce.  The  chief  product  of  the  re- 
gion, however,  is  petroleuni.  Over  500  oil  wells 
are  operated,  producing  large  quantities  of  pe- 
troleum, much  of  which  is  carried  by  pipes  di- 
rectly to  the  refineries.  Baku  has  a  large  trade, 
exporting  besides  the  oil,  grain,  salt,  etc.  It  has 
grown  very  rapidly  in  recent  years,  its  prosperity 
being  due  to  the  petroleum  industry  which  is 
chiefly  in  the  hands  of  foreign  capitalists  "See 
Marvin,  'The  Region  of  Eternal  Fire'  (ic«83)  ; 
Louis,  'The  Baku  Petroleum  District^  in  the 
'Engineering  Magazine,  No.  XV.^  (1898).  Pop. 
about  119.000. 

Bakunin,  ba-koon'yen,  Michel,  Russian 
anarchist:  b.  1814;  d.  i  July  1876.  He  was  edu- 
cated in  a  military  school  at  St.  Petersburg, 
and  served  for  a  time  in  the  artillery  of  the 
guards.  In  1841-3  he  was  in  Germany,  en- 
gaged in  philosophical  study.  In  1843,  he  went 
to  Paris,  and  entered  into  relations  with  the 
Polish  emigration,  and  shortly  afterward  to 
Switzerland,  where  he  participated  actively  in 
various  socialist  and  communist  associationc. 
The  Russian  government  ordered  him  to  return 
home.  Bakunin  refused,  and  his  estate  was 
confiscated.  In  1847,  during  the  excitement  pro- 
duced in  Paris  by  the  question  of  parliamentary 
reform,  he  made  a  speech  invoking  the  fusion 
of  Poles  and  Russians,  for  the  better  and  easier 
revolutionizing  of  Russia,  on  account  of  which 
the  Russian  government  demanded  his  expul- 
sion from  France.  For  the  next  two  years  he 
was  active  in  the  revolutionary  movement  at 
Prague,  at  Berlin,  and  at  Dresden.  He  was 
taken  prisoner  and  condemned  to  death ;  hut 
the  sentence  was  commuted  to  life  imprisonment 


BALA  —  BALAKLAVA 


and  he  was  sent  to  Siberia.  In  i860,  he  escaped 
to  Japan,  and  from  there  went  by  way  of  the 
United  States  to  London.  Here  he  joined  the 
work  of  the  revolutionary  sociaHst  movement, 
and  in  1869,  founded  the  Social  Democratic 
Alliance,  which  later  joined  the  International 
Workingmen's  Association.  His  views  were 
thoroughl}'  anarchistic  and  when  he  tried  to  im- 
pose them  upon  the  Association  he  was  expelled 
by  the  Hague  Congress  in  1872.  In  1873  Ba- 
kunin  stopped  active  work  and  lived  for  the 
rest  of  his  life  in  Switzerland. 

Bala,  ba-la,  a  town  of  North  Wales,  at  the 
north  end  of  the  Bala  lake,  county  of  Merion- 
eth. The  town  and  its  neighborhood  have  long 
been  famous  for  the  manufacture  of  knitted 
stockings,  and  gloves  of  strong  and  soft  tex- 
ture. At  the  south  end  of  the  town  is  a  large 
artificial  mound,  supposed  to  be  of  Roman  ori- 
gin. This  mound  was  ancientlj'  occupied  by  the 
Welsh  as  a  fort  to  prevent  the  incursions  of  the 
English. 

Bala  Beds,  a  local  deposit  in  North  Wales, 
near  Bala,  which  form  a  group  in  the  Lower 
Silurian  of  ]\Iurchison.  They  consist  of  a 
few  beds,  rarely  more  than  20  feet  in  thick- 
ness, and  chiefly  composed  of  hard  crystalline 
limestone,  alternating  with  softer  argillaceous 
bands,  which  decompose  more  freely,  and  leave 
the  limestone  like  a  cornice  molding,  affording 
a  characteristic  by  which,  at  a  considerable 
distance,  the  Bala  Beds  can  be  distinguished 
from  the  rocks  of  hard,  gritty  slate  above  and 
below.  Trilobite  and  cystidse  are  the  predomi- 
nant fossils  of  the  group. 

Balaam,  a  Biblical  personage,  the  son  of 
Beor,  and  a  native  of  Pethor.  The  children  of 
Israel  had  reached,  in  their  journey,  the  plains 
of  -\Ioab.  Balak,  the  king,  terrified  at  seeing 
so  great  a  host  invading  his  territory,  sent, 
therefore,  to  Balaam,  a  well-known  prophet 
and  soothsayer,  to  come  and  curse  these  hosts 
for  him,  so  that,  peradventure,  he  might  then 
smite  them  and  drive  them  out  of  the  land. 
Balaam,  warned  of  God  in  the  night,  refused 
to  go  with  the  messengers,  and  sent  them  away. 
Balak  sent  yet  others.  He  at  first  also  refused 
them,  but  in  the  morning  he  went,  with  the 
divine  injunction  to  speak  what  the  Lord  should 
tell  him.  The  angel  of  the  Lord  met  him 
in  the  way,  gave  the  ass  he  rode  a  vision  in 
three  several  instances,  and  each  time  Balaam 
angrily  smote  the  beast  for  her  involuntary 
manifestations  of  terror.  After  the  third  beat- 
ing an  interlocution  ensued  between  the  ass  and 
the  master,  when  the  Lord  opened  the  eyes  of 
Balaam,  and,  seeing  the  angel,  he  conversed 
with  him  instead  of  the  ass.  As  the  result  of 
the  conversation,  Balaam  was  permitted  to  go 
on,  and  the  charge  repeated  to  speak  only  that 
v.-hich  the  Lord  should  tell  him.  Coming  unto 
Balak,  he  informed  him  that  he  could  only  speak 
that  which  God  shall  put  into  his  mouth.  Ba- 
laam refused  to  curse  Israel,  but  pronounced  a 
blessing  upon  them,  in  the  three  several  places 
to  which  Balak  brought  him  in  the  vain  hope  of 
securing  his  purpose.  This  is  the  Old  Testament 
history  of  the  transaction,  given  in  Numbers 
xxii.-xxiv.  In  Numbers  xxxi.  8,  16,  and  Joshua 
xiii.  22,  Balaam  is  mentioned  as  advising  Balak 
to  lead  the  children  of  Israel  into  idolatry, 
which,  according  to  his  directions,  they  did,  and 
hence  arose  a  war  with  Aloab. 


Barachong,  an  Oriental  condiment,  com- 
posed of  small  fishes,  or  shrimps,  pounded  up 
with  salt  and  spices  and  then  dried. 

Bal'aena,  the  genus  including  the  Green- 
land or  right  whale,  type  of  the  family  Balce- 
nidcs,  or  whale-bone  whales.  Hence  baleen  =^ 
whalebone. 

Bal'aeniceps  0'whale-head*0,  a  genus  of 
African  wading  birds  belonging  to  the  region  of 
the  Upper  Nile,  intermediate  between  the  herons 
and  storks,  and  characterized  by  an  enormous 
bill,  broad  and  swollen,  giving  the  only  known 
species  {B.  rex),  also  called  shoe-bird.  It  feeds 
on  fishes,  water-snakes,  carrion,  etc.,  and  makes 
its  nest  in  reeds  or  grass  adjoining  water.  The 
bill  is  yellow,  blotched  with  dark  brown,  the 
general  color  of  the  plumage  dusky  gray,  the 
head,  neck,  and  breast  slaty,  the  legs  blackish. 

Balaguer,  ba-la-gar',  Victor,  Spanish  his- 
torian: b.  Barcelona,  11  Dec.  1824.  He  be- 
came keeper  of  the  archives  at  Barcelona,  pro- 
fessor of  history  in  the  university  there ;  and 
was  an  active  Liberal  politician,  and,  in  1888, 
chief  of  the  council  on  the  Philippine  Islands. 
He  wrote  ^The  Troubadours  of  Montserrat* 
(1850)  ;  ^Political  and  Literary  History  of  the 
Troubadours'  (1878-80);  <Poems>  (1874); 
'Don  Juan  de  Serravalle'   (5th  ed.  1875),  etc. 

Balahissar,  ba'-la-his-sar',  a  village  in  the 
southwestern  part  of  the  province  of  Angora, 
Asia  Minor.  It  is  on  the  site  of  the  ancient 
Pessinus,  famous  for  its  worship  of  Cybele. 
Among  fragments  of  marble  columns,  friezes, 
etc.,  rise  the  ruins  of  her  gorgeous  temple,  and 
remains  of  a  theatre  in  partial  preservation,  a 
castle,  and  a  circus. 

Balakireff,  ba-la'ke-rygf.  Mill  Alexeyevich, 

Russian  composer:  b.  Nizhni-Novgorod,  1837; 
he  is  ranked  as  the  founder  of  the  young 
Russian  school  of  music.  At  18  he  is  said 
to  have  known  by  heart  nearly  all  of  the 
musical  classics.  With  other  musical  enthusiasts 
he  strove  to  impart  a  flavor  of  nationalism  into 
music,  his  especial  works  in  this  direction  being 
'Songs'  (1858-60)  :  three  overtures  on  Russian 
themes;  three  on  Chekh  themes  (1867);  'Forty 
National  Songs'  (1866)  ;  'Islamey,'  a  fantasy 
(1869).  His  most  important  compositions  are 
'Tamora,'  a  fantasy  for  orchestra  and  a  sym- 
phony in  C  major.  His  extended  works  illus- 
trate programme  music  of  the  Berlioz  Liszt 
school.  See  Cui,  'La  Musique  en  Russie' 
(1880)  ;  Pongin,  'Essai  Historique  sur  la  Mu- 
sique en  Russie'   (1897). 

Balaklava,    ba-la-kla'va,    or    Balaclava,    a 

small  seaport  of  Russia,  in  the  Crimea,  eight 
miles  south-southeast  of  Sebastopol.  It  con- 
sists for  the  most  part  of  houses  perched  upon 
heights,  and  it  has  an  old  castle,  built  by  the 
Genoese.  The  harbor  has  a  very  narrow  en- 
trance, and,  though  deep,  is  not  capacious.  In 
1854  Balaklava  became  the  principal  landing- 
place  of  the  British  after  the  battle  of  the 
Alma.  The  battle  of  Balaklava  fought  25  Oct. 
1854,  when  the  Russians  in  overwhelming  force 
were  repulsed  by  a  small  body  of  British  troops, 
is  one  of  the  most  heroic  achievements  of 
modern  times,  the  "charge  of  the  light  brigade" 
being  the  most  glorious  incident  in  the  conflict. 
(Kinglake,  'Invasion  of  the  Crimea'  ;  Paget, 
'The  Light  Cavalry  Brigade  in  the  Crimea.') 


BALAMBAN  —  BALANCE 


Balamban,  ba-lam'ban,  a  small  town  on 
the  west  coast  of  Cebu,  on  Tanon  Strait,  Phil- 
ippines. It  was  occupied  by  a  garrison  of  Unit- 
ed States  infantry  after  a  battle  with  Filipino 
insurgents  early  in  January  igoo.  It  has  a  na- 
tive population  of  some  thousands,  and  a  public 
school  in  which  English  is  taught. 

Balan,  ba-liih.  (i)  A  French  poem,  an  early 
version  of  *Fierabras.'  of  which  there  was  also 
an  English  version,  "^The  Sowdan  of  Babylon. > 
(2)   The  brother  of  Balin,  in  Arthurian  legends. 

Bal'ance  (Latin,  bis,  ^^  twice,"  and  lanx,  a 
<'dish-,"  or  "pan''),  an  instrument  for  determin- 
ing the  mass  of  a  body  by  comparison  with  a 
series  of  other  bodies  (called  "weights")  whose 
masses  are  known.  The  term  is  often  applied, 
though  somewhat  incorrectly,  to  the  familiar  in- 
struments in  which  the  weight  of  a  body  is 
determined  by  observing  the  extension  that  it 
can  produce  when  acting  upon  a  spring  whose 
extensibility  has  been  previously  determined  by 
direct  experiments  with  known  weights.  The 
"spring  balance"  is  useful  in  the  ordinary  affairs 
of  life,  where  high  precision  is  not  essential ; 
but  it  is  seldom  employed  in  accurate  scientific 
work,  since  it  is  liable  to  errors  that  cannot  be 
eliminated  or  allowed  for  —  errors  that  are 
small  enough  to  be  neglected  in  commercial 
transactions,  but  quite  intolerable  in  refined 
laboratory  work. 

The  "lever  balance*  consists  essentially  of  a 
lever  (q.v.)  having  arms  of  known  lengths. 
The  mass  to  be  determined  is  suspended  at  the 
extremity  of  one  of  the  arms,  and  the  known 
masses  (or  weights)  are  suspended  from  the 
extremity  of  the  other  one,  their  number  and 
size  being  varied  until,  after  repeated  trials, 
a  perfect  equilibrium,  or  "balance,*  is  attained. 
If  the  two  arms  of  the  lever  are  equal,  the 
mass  of  the  body  under  examination  is  then 
equal  to  the  sum  of  the  masses  of  the  weights 
that  are  balanced  against  it.  In  many  cases  (for 
example,  in  the  familiar  "platform  scales")  the 
arms  of  the  lever  are  intentionally  made  very 
unequal,  the  object  to  be  weighed  being  sus- 
pended from  the  short  arm  of  the  lever,  while 
the  weights  are  suspended  from  the  long  arm. 
To  determine  the  mass  of  the  object  it  is  then 
necessary  to  multiply  the  sum  of  the  masses 
of  the  weights  by  the  ratio  of  the  long  arm 
to  the  short  one ;  but  in  practical  work  this  cal- 
culation does  not  need  to  be  performed,  because 
the  instrument  is  graduated  by  the  maker  so  that 
all  necessary  allowance  for  the  difference  in  the 
arms  has  been  made,  and  the  readings  give  the 
corrected  mass  directly.  In  many  cases  the  bal- 
ances (or  "scales")  used  in  commerce  are  con- 
structed so  that  equilibrium  is  attained  by  vary- 
ing the  length  of  the  lever-arm  rather  than  by 
varying  the  load  at  the  extremity  of  that  arm ; 
but  the  fundamental  principles  involved  are  the 
same  in  all  cases,  and  are  set  forth  in  detail  in 
the  article  Lever   (q.v.). 

In  the  "precision  balance*  of  the  chemist  and 
physicist,  the  lever  (called  the  "beam")  con- 
sists of  a  light  but  strong  and  rigid  framework, 
usually  made  of  brass  or  bronze,  and  having  a 
shape  somewhat  like  that  shown  in  Fig.  i.  It  is 
supported  by  means  of  a  wedge-shaped  piece 
of  steel,  technically  known  as  a  "knife-edge," 
which  is  hardened  and  ground  to  a  sharp  and  ac- 
curately straight  edge,  and  which  rests,  when 
the  balance  is  in  use,  upon  a  fiat  slab  of  agate, 


or  other  hard,  smooth  substance,  in  such  a 
manner  as  to  leave  the  beam  free  to  tip  one 
way  or  the  other,  with  practically  no  frictional 


Fig.   I 

resistance.  (The  agate  slab  is  suggested  by  the 
dotted  contour,  k,  in  the  figure ;  the  pillar  that 
supports  k  being  omitted  for  the  sake  of  clear- 
ness.) Knife-edges  similar  to  the  central  one, 
but  with  their  edges  directed  upward  instead 
of  downward,  are  provided  at  the  respective  ends 
of  the  beam  (as  shown  at  A  and  B)  for  the 
support  of  the  pans  (only  one  of  which  is 
shown)  in  which  the  masses  to  be  compared  are 
placed.  The  three  knife-edges.  A,  B,  and  C, 
must  be  made  with  great  care,  and  must  be  set 
in  position  so  that  they  shall  be  accurately 
parallel  to  one  another.  They  must,  moreover, 
have  their  edges  all  in  the  same  plane,  so  that 
a  straight  line  joming  any  two  points  in  the 
edges  of  A  and  B  will  likewise  pass  through  the 
edge  of  C.  The  two  arms  of  the  beam  should 
also  be  precisely  equal,  so  that  C  is  exactly  half 
way  between  A  and  B.  P  is  a  pointer  whose 
free  end  travels  over  a  graduated  scale,  so  as 
to  indicate  the  extent  of  the  oscillations  of  the 
beam  as  it  swings  to  and  fro  on  the  central 
knife-edge  C.  When  the  beam  is  horizontal, 
its  centre  of  gravity  (G  in  Fig.  2)  should  lie  in 


a. 


E= 


y.-.- 


^ 

7^ 


Fig.  2 

the  same  vertical  line,  ab,  with  the  central 
knife-edge.  Whether  this  condition  is  fulfilled 
or  not  is  easily  shown  by  removing  the  scale- 
pans  and  allowing  the  beam  to  come  to  rest.  It 
can  only  be  in  equilibrium  when  its  centre  of 
gravity  is  directly  below  the  knife-edge  C; 
so  that  if  it  comes  to  rest  in  a  horizontal  posi- 
tion it  is  evident  that  the  condition  specified 
above  is  sensibly  realized.  If.  on  the  other 
hand,  the  beam,  when  freed  from  the  pans, 
comes  to  rest  with  its  right-hand  end  lower  than 
the  left-hand  one,  it  is  evident  that  the  centre 
of  gravity  of  the  beam  is  too  far  to  the  right, 
as  is  indicated  by  the  point  g.  The  better  makes 
of  balance  are  provided  with  an  adjustment  to 
correct  an  error  of  this  sort.  This  adjustment 
may  take  the  form  of  a  fine  screw-thread  carry- 


BALANCE 


ing  a  nut,  as  suggested  at  E.  If  the  nut  be 
caused  to  approach  B,  the  centre  of  gravity  of 
the  beam  (considering  the  nut  as  a  part  of  the 
beam)  will  thereby  be  shifted  toward  the  left, 
■and  after  a  number  of  trials  the  point  g  may  be 
made  to  coincide  with  G,  so  that  the  beam, 
when  free  from  the  pans,  comes  to  rest  in  a 
perfectly  horizontal  position.  If  it  does  not  re- 
main horizontal  when  the  pans  are  suspended  in 
their  proper  places,  then  it  follows  that  one  of 
the  pans  is  heavier  than  the  other ;  this  defect 
is  easily  remedied  by  the  use  of  a  light  counter- 
poise in  connection  with  the  lighter  pan,  or  by 
removing  a  small  portion  of  the  material  of  the 
heavier  one. 

The  centre  of  gravity  of  the  beam  being 
properly  adjusted,  and  the  equality  of  the  two 
pans  being  assured,  it  is  evident  that  the  beam 
•will  set  itself  in  a  horizontal  position  when  the 
pans  are  empty.  The  balance  may  still  be  de- 
fective, however,  through  the  arms  not  being  of 
precisely  equal  length.  The  equality  of  the  arms 
may  be  tested  in  the  following  manner :  Let 
a  mass,  P,  be  placed  in  one  of  the  pans,  and 
suppose  that  w  is  the  mas?  that  has  to  be  placed 
in  the  other  pan  in  order  to  secure  a  perfect 
balance.  Let  L  be  the  length  of  the  arm  from 
which  P  is  suspended,  and  /  be  the  length  of  the 
arm  from  which  w  is  suspended,  as  indicated  in 


'\V 


Fig.  3 


Fig.  3.    Then,  by  the  principle  of  the  lever,  v/e 
have  — 

PXL  =  'wXl. 
Next,  let  P  be  placed  in  the  other  pan,  con- 
nected with  the  arm  whose  length  is  /,  and  yet 
IV  be  the  mass  that  must  be  suspended  from 
the  arm  of  length  L,  in  order  to  secure  a  perfect 
balance.     We  then  have  the  equation  — 

PXI  =  JV  XL 
Now,    if   P   be    eliminated    between    these    two 
equations,  we  have  the  relation  — 


and  since  W  and  zu  are  both  known,  it  follows 
that  the  ratio  of  the  two  arms  of  the  balance 
is  also  known.  If  this  ratio  does  not  come  out 
sensibly  equal  to  unity,  its  value  may  be  care- 
full}'-  determined,  and  allowance  made  for  the 
inequality  of  the  arms  after  a  v/eighing  has  been 
performed.  The  effect  of  inequality  in  the  arms 
may  also  be  eliminated  by  a  double  weighing, 
such  as  has  been  supposed  to  be  performed, 
above.  For  if  we  eliminate  L  (instead  of  P) 
from  the  foregoing  equations,  we  find  — 


P=V  IV  Xw; 
that  is,  the  true  weight  is  the  geometric  mean 
between  IV  and  w.  In  practice  the  arms  of  a 
good  balance  are  so  nearly  equal  that  the  simple 
arithmetic  mean  of  JV  and  w  is  a  sufficiently 
close  approximation  to  the  geometric  mean  re- 
quired by  theory. 

The  sensitiveness  of  a  balance  depends  large- 
ly upon  the  position  of  the  centre  of  gravity  of 

\'ol.     2 14. 


the  beam  relatively  to  the  central  knife  edge. 
Thus,  if  the  arms  of  the  balance  are  precisely 
equal,  and  the  beam  hangs  perfectly  horizontal 
with  a  weight  P  in  each  pan,  the  angle,  x, 
through  which  the  beam  turns  when  the  weight 
in  the  left-hand  pan  is  increased  to  P  +  p,  may 
be  taken  as  a  measure  of  the  sensitiveness  of  the 
balance.  Let  S  be  the  weight  of  the  beam  itself, 
and  let  the  centre  of  gravity  of  the  beam  be  at  a 
distance,  /;,  below  the  central  knife-edge  when 
the  beam  is  horizontal.  Then,  if  x  is  the  angle 
that  the  beam  makes  with  the  horizontal  when 
it  comes  to  rest  with  P  +  p  in  the  left-hand 
pan  and  P  in  the  right-hand  pan,  the  theory  of 
the  lever  gives  the  equation  (see  Fig.  4)  — 

(P  +  p).L.cos  x^=P.L.cos  x-\-h.S3m  x, 
from  which  we  easily  obtain  — 

LXp 
tan  X  = . 

hXS 


Fig.  4 

It  is  evident  that  x  will  be  increased  as  h  is 
decreased,  so  that  the  sensitiveness  of  the  bal- 
ance becomes  greater  the  nearer  the  centre  of 
gravity  of  the  beam  is  caused  to  approach 
to  the  centre  of  support.  The  balance  should 
be  provided  with  a  thread  and  nut,  D  (see  Fig. 
l),  to  facilitate  the  vertical  adjustment  of  the 
centre  of  gravity,  in  the  same  way  that  E  is  used 
in  adjusting  the  horizontal  position  of  that  point. 
The  centre  of  gravity  of  the  beam  must  always 
remain  below  the  centre  of  support,  because 
when  it  is  above  that  point  the  beam  is  unstable, 
and  when  it  coincides  with  the  centre  of  support 
the  instrument  will  remain  in  equilibrium  in  any 
position.  When  a  balance  is  made  very  sensi- 
tive, by  bringing  the  centre  of  gravity  close  to 
the  point  of  support  or  by  increasing  the  length 
of  the  arms  of  the  beam,  the  period  of  oscil- 
lation of  the  beam  grows  very  long,  so  that 
the  instrument  is  tedious  to  use.  The  experi- 
enced chemist  or  physicist  therefore  selects  a 
balance  whose  sensitiveness  and  period  of  os- 
cillation can  be  best  adapted  to  the  work  he 
has  in  hand. 

The  ^'precision  balance^'  is  a  delicate  instru- 
ment, and  should  be  kept  in  a  glass  case,  for 
protection,  when  not  in  actual  use.  The  weigh- 
ings are  also  performed  wnth  the  balance  en- 
closed in  like  manner,  in  order  to  avoid  error 
from  the  effect  of  air-currents  upon  the  beam. 
The  knife-edges  should  be  kept  away  from  their 
bearings,  and  provision  is  always  made  for  rais- 
ing the  pans  from  the  ends  of  the  beam,  and  the 
beam  itself  from  the  central  support,  by  means 
of  a  system  of  stops  and  levers  (not  here 
shown)  actuated  by  a  conveniently  situated  lever 
or  wheel.    The  beam  and  pans   should  always 


BALANCE  OF  POWER 


be  raised  in  this  manner  when  changing  the 
weights  in  the  pans,  in  order  to  avoid  giving  the 
least  shock  to  the  knife-edges;  for  when  these 
are  dulled  or  otherwise  injured  the  accuracy  and 
sensitiveness  of  the  balance  are  materially  les- 
sened. 

Weighings  may  be  eiTected  by  two  general 
methods.  In  the  first  method  the  position  of 
the  pointer,  P  (in  Fig.  i),  is  noted  on  the 
scale  at  its  extremity  when  the  balance  is  at 
rest  with  the  pans  empty.  The  position  so 
recorded  is  called  the  "zero'^  of  the  balance. 
The  object  to  be  weighed  is  then  placed  in  one 
of  the  pans,  and  weights  are  added  to  the  other 
pan  until  the  balance  will  come  to  rest  with 
its  pointer  at  the  same  spot,  or  zero,  as  before. 
The  weighing  is  then  complete. 

In  the  second  method  of  conducting  the  ex- 
periment (known  as  the  ^'method  by  oscilla- 
tions") the  balance  is  not  brought  to  rest  at  all, 
the  necessary  readings  being  taken  while  the 
beam  is  oscillating.  The  zero  reading  of  the 
pointer  is  first  obtained  (with  the  pans  empty) 
in  the  following  manner :  The  empty  balance  is 
allowed  to  oscillate  freely  for  a  short  time, 
and  then  the  position  attained  by  the  pointer  at 
one  of  its  extreme  positions  toward  the  right  is 
noted.  The  reading  of  the  next  following  ex- 
treme position  to  the  left  is  then  taken,  and  so 
on,  observing  the  positions  attained  at  the  alter- 
nate right  and  left  swings,  just  as  the  pointer 
pauses  and  begins  to  return  toward  the  mean 
position.  The  last  reading  is  taken  on  the  same 
side  as  the  first,  so  that  there  is  an  odd  num- 
ber of  observations  on  one  side  of  the  zero,  and 
an  even  number  on  the  other  side.  The  read- 
ings on  the  right  are  then  averaged  together, 
and  those  on  the  left  are  also  averaged  in  the 
same  way ;  after  which  the  mean  reading  on  the 
right  is  averaged  with  the  mean  reading  on  the 
left,  and  the  result  is  taken  as  the  position  of 
the  zero  of  the  balance.  The  object  to  be 
weighed  is  then  placed  in  one  pan,  and  the 
weights  in  the  other,  the  process  of  guess  and 
trial  being  followed  here  just  as  in  the  preceding 
method  until  an  almost  exact  balance  has  been 
attained.  The-  method  of  oscillations,  with  al- 
ternate readings  to  the  right  and  left,  is  next 
repeated  in  precisely  the  same  manner  as  when 
the  pans  were  empty,  and  the  reading  obtained 
by  the  final  averaging  of  tliese  observations  is 
taken  as  the  reading  of  the  balance  for  the 
loads  that  are  in  the  pans  at  the  time.  A  very 
small  weight  is  next  added  to  one  of  the  pans, 
and  the  oscillations  are  again  observed,  under  the 
new  conditions,  precisely  as  before.  The  weight 
of  the  object  under  examination  can  then  be 
determined  by  simple  proportion.  Thus,  sup- 
pose that  the  original  zero  reading  of  the  point- 
er, with  the  pans  empty,  was  11.6.  The  object 
to  be  weighed  being  placed  in  one  pan,  and 
weights  having  a  combined  mass  of  W  in  the 
other,  let  the  reading  of  the  pointer  (as  deduced 
from  the  oscillations)  be  10.4.  The  small  mass, 
%v,  being  then  added  to  W ,  let  the  final  reading 
of  the  pointer  be  12.2.  The  following  facts  are 
now  known :  With  empty  pans  the  pointer 
reads  11.6.  With  the  unknown  mass  (which 
may  be  denoted  by  F)  in  one  pan,  and  a  mass, 
W\  in  the  other,  the  pointer  reads  10.4.  Finally, 
with  P  in  one  pan  and  W  +  w  in  the  other, 
the  pointer  reads  12.2.  The  mass  zv  has  dis- 
placed the  reading  of  the  pointer  by  1.8  divi- 
sions.   If  it  be  assumed  that  a  mass  x,  when 


added  to  W,  would  have  made  the  read.iig  of 
the  pointer  precisely  11.6,  as  it  was  with  the 
empty  pans,  we  have  the  additional  fact  that  a 
mass  X  would  alter  the  reading  of  the  pointer 
by  1.2  divisions.  Hence  the  simple  proportion — - 
X  :  w  :  :  1.2  :  1.8; 

2W 

whence   .r  = ,    and   therefore   the    concluded 

3 

2W 

mass  of  P  is  IV -] . 

3 

The  method  of  oscillations  is  favored  by 
many  physicists,  in  the  belief  that  a  better  value 
of  the  zero  of  the  balance  can  be  obtained 
by  studying  the  free  swings  in  this  way  than  by 
allowing  the  instrument  to  come  to  rest.  In- 
stead of  adding  very  small  weights  to  secure  the 
last  adjustments,  the  "rider*'  is  often  used.  This 
consists  of  a  tiny  weight  made  of  wire,  and 
suspended  on  the  beam  of  the  balance,  as. 
indicated  at  R  in  Fig.  i.  The  beam  is  gradu- 
ated when  a  rider  is  to  be  used,  and  the  final 
step  in  the  weighing  consists  in  observing  what 
position  the  rider  must  have  in  order  to  make 
the  balance  perfect.  The  effect  of  moving  the 
rider  one  division  on  the  beam  being  known  by 
previous  experiment,  the  correction  to  be  ap- 
plied for  any  given  position  of  the  rider  is 
easily  calculated.  Obviously  the  rider  can  be 
used  with  equal  advantage  whether  the  weighing 
is  conducted  by  the  method  of  oscillations  or 
not. 

The  weights  used  in  connection  with  preci- 
sion balances  must  be  accurately  compared 
among  themselves  if  refined  work  is  to  be  done, 
and  a  table  of  corrections  prepared,  by  means 
of  which  the  proper  allowances  may  be  readily 
found,  for  any  minute  inconsistencies  that  may 
exist  among  them.  Reference  must  be  made 
to  the  standard  works  on  experimental  phycics 
for  the  details  of  the  process  by  which  these  cor- 
rections are  obtained.  Crookes'  classical  paper 
on  the  atomic  weight  of  thallium  ^Philosophical 
Transactions,^  (1873,  p.  277)  may  also  be  con- 
sulted with  advantage,  as  it  contains  full  de- 
tails on  this  point,  as  well  as  on  many  others  in 
connection  with  accurate  weighing.  (For  fur- 
ther information  on  the  theory  and  use  of  the 
precision  balance,  see  Stewart  &  Gee,  ^Lessons 
on  Elementary  Practical  Physics,^  Vol.  I,  and 
Glazebrook  &  Shaw,  ^Practical  Physics.'  Much 
advanced  information  may  also  be  had  in  the 
^Travaux  et  Memoires'  of  the  International  Bu- 
reau of  Weights  and  Measures.)  See  also 
Chronometer;  Induction  B.'s.lance;  Torsion 
Balance. 

Balance  of  Power,  is  the  system  by  which 
greater  states  are  withheld  from  absorbing- 
smaller  ones.  Vattel,  in  *Law  of  Nations,'  thus 
defines  it :  "By  this  balance  is  to  be  understood 
such  a  disposition  of  things,  as  that  no  one 
potentate  or  state  shall  be  able  absolutely  to  pre- 
dominate and  prescribe  to  the  others.''  The  sys- 
tem of  the  balance  of  power  is  entirely  the  out- 
growth of  the  modern  political  system  of 
Europe,  as  it  began  to  shape  itself  in  the  15th 
century;  not  that  it  was  entirely  unknown  to 
the  ancients  before  the  irresistible  progress  of 
Roman  arms  put  any  idea  of  balance  out  of 
the  question,  but  these  early  efforts  after  the 
balance  of  power  were  not  sustained  for  a  suffi- 
ciently long  period,   from  generation  to  genera- 


BALANCE  OF  POWER 


tion,  from  century  to  century ;  were  too  transi- 
tory and  casual  to  entitle  them  to  be  elevated 
into  a  system.  They  must  be  regarded  as  ap- 
proaches and  tentatives,  interesting,  but  in  the 
end  fugitive  and  unsuccessful.  During  the  latest 
centuries  of  the  Middle  Ages,  the  kings  of 
France  and  the  emperors  of  Germany  were  too 
much  engaged  in  their  domestic  struggles  with 
their  great  vassals,  to  spare  the  concentrated 
attention  and  energy  upon  international  affairs 
necessary  to  originate  and  sustain  a  system  of 
balance  in  Christian  Europe.  In  Italy,  then  so 
for  m  advance  of  the  rest  of  Europe  in  intel- 
lectual, social,  and  political  development,  the 
princes,  podestas,  and  republics  of  that  penin- 
sula, from  an  early  period  of  the  15th  century, 
had  built  up  the  institution  of  an  equilibrium 
for  their  mutual  regulation.  But  this  was  too 
local  and  on  too  small  a  scale  to  be  deemed  the 
parent  of  our  modern  system.  Not  until  Louis 
XL  of  France  had  repressed  the  Dukes  of  Bur- 
gundy and  Brittany,  not  until  Ferdinand  of 
Castile  and  Aragon  had  united  almost  the  whole 
of  modern  Spain  under  his  sway,  not  until  Max- 
imilian in  Germany,  and  Henry  VII.  in  England 
and  Ireland  had  consolidated  the  monarchical  au- 
thority, was  the  time  ripe  for  the  application  of 
this  idea.  The  invasion  of  Italy  by  Charles  VIII. 
of  France,  and  his  claim  to  the  kingdom  of 
Naples,  in  1494,  gave  rise  to  the  first  great 
European  combination  of  otherwise  hostile  pow- 
ers for  the  repression  of  the  ambition  of  one. 
Almost  all  the  Italian  states,  Maximilian,  the 
German  emperor,  and  Ferdinand  of  Aragon,  sus- 
pended their  animosities,  and  drove  the  French 
out  of  Italy.  The  Emperor  Charles  V.  of  Ger- 
many, Spain,  Burgundy,  the  Netherlands,  and 
a  vast  transatlantic  empire,  1519-56,  caused  the 
jealousy  of  Europe.  Francis  I.  of  France,  ac- 
tually went  so  far  as  to  ally  himself  with  the 
sultan,  Solyman  the  Magnificent,  against 
Charles.  The  Turks  at  one  end  of  Europe,  the 
kings  of  France  and  England  at  the  other,  and 
the  opposition  of  the  Protestant  princes  in  the 
centre,  prevented  Charles  from  realizing  his 
ambitious  schemes.  The  misfortunes  of  Philip 
IL,  the  son  of  Charles  V.,  in  the  Dutch  Nether- 
lands and  in  the  expeditions  against  England 
and  the  English  power  in  Ireland,  effectually 
dissipated  the  fears  Europe  entertained  con- 
cerning the  overgrown  power  of  the  Spanish 
branch  of  the  house  of  Llapsburg.  The  idea 
of  a  European  equilibrium  had  now  become  suf- 
ficiently definite  for  Henry  IV.  of  France  to 
propose  to  Elizabeth  of  England,  at  the  com- 
mencement of  the  17th  century,  a  scheme  for 
a  federative  congress,  whose  purpose  it  should 
be  to  maintain  the  peace  of  Europe  in  the  same 
manner  as  the  great  powers  do  now.  The 
idea  was  impracticable  in  those  days,  and  was 
entirely  abandoned  even  as  a  project,  on  the 
assassination  of  that  liberal  and  high-minded 
prince.  The  next  potentate  whose  power  gave 
general  alarm  and  caused  a  coalition  against 
him  in  the  general  interest,  was  the  emperor 
Ferdinand  II.  of  Germany  (reigned  1619-37). 
Gustavus  Adolphus,  of  Sweden,  appealing  to  the 
Protestant  princes  of  Germany,  subsidized  by 
Richelieu,  the  French  minister,  and  supplied 
with  men  by  England  and  the  united  provinces 
of  the  Netherlands,  achieved  the  task  of  hum- 
bling the  power  of  the  house  of  Austria.  After 
the  death  of  Gustavus,  Oxenstiern  of  Sweden, 
and  Richelieu  of  France,  together  forced   upon 


the  German  emperor  the  celebrated  Treaty  of 
Westphalia  (1648),  which  relieved  Europe  froir 
the  fear  of  the  house  of  Austria,  and  put  ar 
end  to  the  Thirty  Years'  war.  The  next  gen 
eral  danger  came  from  France.  The  invasion 
by  Louis  of  the  Dutch  Netherlands  (1672), 
brought  about  a  coalition  of  Holland,  the  em- 
peror of  Germany,  the  elector  of  Brandenburg, 
and  the  king  of  Spain,  against  the  French  king. 
William,  prince  of  Orange,  was  the  hero  of  this 
war;  but  the  Peace  of  Nimeguen  (1678)  sealed 
the  supremacy  of  Louis  XIV.  The  will  of  the 
king  of  Spain  nominating  the  second  son  of  the 
French  dauphin  as  his  successor  (1700),  thu^ 
putting  the  powerful  monarchies  of  France  and 
Spain  into  the  same  hands  and  utterly  destroying 
the  European  equilibrium,  created  the  grand  al- 
liance and  the  war  of  the  Spanish  succession. 
The  emperor  of  Germany,  the  Duke  of  Savoy, 
the  king  of  England,  and  the  states-general  of 
the  United  Provinces,  united  in  this  grand  al- 
liance. The  king  of  Portugal  afterward  joined 
the  anti-French  confederacy.  Marlborough  and 
Prince  Eugene  of  Savoy  were  the  great  mili- 
tary leaders  in  behalf  of  the  balance  of  power. 
The  Peace  of  Utrecht  (1713),  by  which  the 
union  of  the  French  and  Spanish  crowns  was 
prevented,  and  the  territorial  conquests  of  France 
almost  wholly  surrendered,  re-established  the 
influence  of  the  equilibrium  doctrine,  and  se- 
cured Europe  from  danger  on  this  side  until  the 
era  of  the  French  republic.  The  Empress  Eliza- 
beth, of  Russia,  was  the  first  Russian  potentate 
who  took  part  in  wars  in  which  she  had  only 
a  remote  general  interest.  Prussia  and  Russia, 
celebrated  their  entry  into  the  rank  of  first-class 
powers  by  dealing  the  most  terrible  blow  to  the 
balance  of  power  which  it  has  ever  suffered. 
The  first  partition  of  Poland  (1771-72)  is  ad- 
mitted by  every  writer  on  this  subject  to  be  at 
war  with  the  fundamental  principles  on  which 
the  equilibrium  rests.  The  achievement  of 
American  independence  (1783),  though  not  gen- 
erally reckoned  by  European  writers  as  belong- 
ing to  the  history  of  the  international  balance, 
may  well  be  included  therein,  inasmuch  as  it  put 
an  end  to  the  overgrowth  of  British  colonial 
power  and  British  naval  preponderance.  At 
the  Congress  of  Vienna  (1814-15),  it  was  the 
leading  wish  of  Lord  Castlereagh,  the  British 
plenipotentiary,  to  restore  the  kingdom  of  Po- 
land, as  included  in  the  European  equilibrium, 
in  which  he  was  seconded  by  Metternich  for 
Austria,  and  Talleyrand  for  the  French  legiti- 
mate sovereign,  but  opposed  by  the  representa- 
tives of  the  Russian  and  Prussian  monarchies. 
The  return  of  Napoleon  from  Elba  put  an  end 
to  this  difference,  and  in  the  renewed  conferences 
after  the  battle  of  Waterloo,  the  western  pow- 
ers did  not  insist  upon  the  point.  From  1815  to 
1853,  the  world  was  substantially  preserved  from 
any  war  of  importance  by  the  five  great  powers 
who  then  presided  over  the  destinies  of  Europe, 
namely,  France,  Great  Britain,  Russia,  Austria, 
and  Prussia.  In  1853.  the  invasion  of  the  trans- 
Danubian  provinces  of  the  Turkish  empire  by  a 
Russian  army  was  declared  by  a  congress  of  the 
great  powers  at  Vienna  to  be  a  breach  of  the 
political  equilibrium.  In  this  declaration  France, 
Great  Britain,  Austria,  and  Prussia  agreed.  An 
Anglo-French  alliance  was  made  (1854)  to  repel 
the  aggression,  and  the  confederation  of  Turkey, 
Great  Britain,  and  France,  was  reinforced  by 
the  king  of  Sardinia  in  the  spring  of  the  year 


BALANCE  OF  TRADE  — BALANOGLOSSUS 


1855.  After  a  war  of  three  campaigns,  the 
Treaty  of  Paris  was  signed  (30  March  1856), 
by  which  Russia  abandoned  her  claims,  and 
the  principle  of  the  balance  of  power  was  anew 
vindicated.  The  Congress  of  Berlin  in  1878,  act- 
ing in  the  interests  of  the  balance  of  power, 
deprived  Russia  of  many  benefits  gained  through 
the  Treaty  of  San  Stefano.  Within  a  genera- 
tion, the  principle  of  nationalism  has  arisen  in 
opposition  to  that  of  the  balance  of  power. 
This  is  exhibited  in  United  Italy,  United  Ger- 
many, and  the  spread  of  Pan-Slavism  in  Russia, 
but  as  a  set-off  to  this  may  be  mentioned  the  ex- 
tension of  European  influence  in  Asia  and  Afri- 
ca as  regards  colonization  and  trade.  Thus  the 
balance  of  power  has  become  a  world  question 
and  such  nations  as  Germany  and  Italy  are  de- 
sirOuS  of  acquiring  colonies  to  balance  the  colo- 
nial possessions  of  Russia  and  England.  At 
present  the  balance  of  power  in  Europe  is  held 
by  the  six  nations  of  Great  Britain,  France, 
Germany,    Austria,    Russia,    and    Italy. 

Balance  of  Trade.  The  so-called  balance 
of  trade  is  a  theory  arising  from  the  apparent 
relation  of  exports  to  imports.  The  protection- 
ist school  of  political  economy  holds  that  ex- 
cess of  exports  over  imports  constitutes  what 
is  termed  a  ^favorable  balance,^'  which  rnust  be 
returned  to  us  in  gold  and  silver,  this  being  the 
profit  to  the  nation  on  its  foreign  trade.  Ac- 
cording to  this  theory  the  one  desirable  thing  in 
foreign  commerce  is  the  exportation  of  mer- 
chandise. It  should  be  said  that  all  protection- 
ists do  not  share  in  a  belief  in  this  theory. 

In  a  great  measure,  and  in  its  more  exag- 
gerated form,  this  doctrine  is  a  survival  of  the 
old  mercantile  theory,  which  down  to  the  time 
of  Adam  Smith  controlled  most  of  the  legisla- 
tion relating  to  commerce,  and  which  held  that 
gold  and  silver  were  the  only  wealth.  It  still 
retains  a  firm  hold  on  the  popular  mind,  but  it 
may  be  said  that  the  full  weight  of  the  teachings 
of  orthodox  political  economy  is  against  the 
notion  that  excess  of  exports  constitutes  a 
favorable  balance. 

The  argument  of  the  latter  is  that  if  the 
theory  is  true  there  cannot  be  too  great  an  ex- 
cess of  exports,  and  that  our  imports  should 
therefore  consist  only  of  gold  and  silver.  In 
this  "reduction  to  absurdity^^  (since  a  country 
has  no  more  need  of  an  excessive  supply  of  the 
metals  than  of  any  other  commodity)  the  free- 
trade  school  of  political  economy  rejects  the  con- 
clusions based  upon  the  apparent  excess  of  ex- 
ports over  imports. 

Opponents  of  the  theory  hold  that  such  trade 
as  exists  between  two  countries,  exclusive  of 
what  is  paid  as  interest,  rent,  or  tribute,  must 
show  a  mutual  profit,  and  represent  to  each  a 
corresponding  excess  of  the  value  of  importa- 
tion. For  illustration :  A  commodity  costing 
in  one  country  $75  will  be  bought  in  another 
for  $T00,  in  exchange  for  a  commodity  costing 
$75  in  the  country  of  its  exportation  and  $100 
in  the  importing  country,  such  difference  rep- 
resenting the  degree  of  desirability  of  these  par- 
ticular commodities  to  each  country.  It  will 
be  observed  that  this  precisely  reverses  the 
"balance  of  trade'^  theory. 

Countries  may  be  able  to  show  a  favorable 
balance  from  two  causes,  neither  of  which  con- 
tributes to  their  prosperity.  It  may  result  from 
an  actual  drain,  as  in  the  case  of  Ireland,  which 


is  being  sapped  of  its  wealth  by  absentee  land- 
lords, and  in  India,  where  the  same  phenomenon 
is  caused  by  a  similar  drain  in  the  form  of 
tribute,  official  salaries  spent  outside  the  coun- 
try, pensions,  etc.  But  in  these  instances  it  is 
clear  that  there  is  a  condition  unprofitable  to 
both  countries.  Or,  on  the  other  hand,  it  may 
result,  as  in  the  United  States,  which  has  the 
same  favorable  balance,  by  reason  of  the  large 
sums  annually  paid  as  interest  on  loans  that  en- 
tered originally  into  railroad  building,  indus- 
trial improvements,  etc.  Most  of  the  royal  fam- 
ilies of  Europe,  not  to  mention  less  exalted 
individuals,  draw  large  dividends  from  Ameri- 
can investments.  Money  spent  by  American 
tourists  abroad  helps  to  swell  this  favorable 
balance. 

For  proof  that  this  theory  has  no  such  rela- 
tion to  national  prosperity  as  its  friends  con- 
ceive, its  opponents  point  to  England,  whose 
commercial  greatness  is  rivalled  by  this  country 
alone,  and  which  has  a  prevailing  '^unfavorable*^ 
balance,  because  she  has  been  the  money-lender 
of  the  world,  and  her  excess  of  imports  repre- 
sents the  return  received  by  her  people  for 
moneys  invested  in  foreign  lands. 

It  is  impossible  to  account  for  the  growing 
increase  of  our  own  export  balance  wholly  on  the 
explanation  that  such  excess  is  rent  or  interest 
upon  loans.  Much  of  such  excess  is  indeed 
fictitious,  and  is  to  be  accounted  for  by  under- 
valuation of  imports  and  overvaluation  of  ex- 
ports. In  the  latter  case  there  is  a  strong  in- 
ducement to  overvalue,  in  order  to  conceal  the 
fact  that  many  of  our  exporters  are  selling 
goods  cheaper  abroad  than  at  home.  The  in- 
ducement to  undervalue  imports  is  quite  as 
strong.  In  short,  customs  statistics,  with  every 
desire  on  the  part  of  the  treasui^y  department 
to  be  accurate,  are  of  necessity  unreliable. 

Balanga,  ba-lan'ga,  Philippines,  in  the 
province  of  Bataan,  on  the  western  coast  of 
Manila  Bay,  in  the  Island  of  Luzon.  It  has  a 
post-office  and  telegraph  station.  Pop.  about 
9,000. 

Balani'tis,  an  inflammation  of  the  mucous 
m.embrane  of  the  foreskin.  It  is  a  common 
condition  and  is  due  to  uncleanliness.  Quacks 
and  charlatans  magnify  its  importance,  declare 
it  to  be  a  fearful  malady,  and  promise  miracu- 
lous cures.  Ordinary  cleanliness  will  cause  a 
balantis  to  disappear  in  a  few  days.  This  can- 
not happen  if  the  local  trouble  is  of  a  venereal 
nature. 

Balanoglos'sus,  a  worm-like  marine  ani- 
mal, the  chief  representative  of  the  most  primi- 
tive class  of  chordate  animals,  Enteropneusta  or 
Adelocephala.  This  remarkable  creature,  the 
type  of  its  class,  combines  characters  peculiar  to 
itself,  with  features  reminding  us  of  the  nemer- 
tcans,  annelids,  tunicates,  and  the  vertebrate  om- 
phioxus,  while  its  free-swimming  larva  was 
originally  supposed  to  be  a  young  echinoderm. 
From  the  fact  that  the  central  nervous  system 
lies  above  a  notochord,  Bateson  placed  it  next 
to  the  vertebrates. 

One  American  species,  Balanoglossus  auran- 
tiacus,  is  a  long,  cylindrical,  soft,  fleshy  worm, 
footless,  without  bristles,  but  with  a  large,  soft, 
whitish,  tongue-shaped  proboscis  in  front  aris- 
ing dorsally  within  the  edge  of  the  collar  sur- 
rounding the  mouth.  The  surface  of  the  body 
is  ciliated.    At  the  beginning  of  the  digestive 


BALANTIDIUM  —  BALAWAT 


canal  is  a  series  of  sac-like  folds  of  which  the 
upper  or  dorsal  portion  is  respiratory  and  sep- 
arated by  a  constriction  from  the  lower,  which 
is  digestive,  and  leads  directly  to  the  intestine 
behind  This  pharj'ngeal  respiratory  portion  of 
the  digesL^.e  canal  has  on  each  side,  in  each  seg- 
ment, a  dorsal  sac,  the  two  communicating  along 
the  median  line  of  the  body.  The  dorsal  respira- 
tory sacs  each  bear  in  their  walls  a  delicate 
chitinous  gill-support  or  -arch.  Between  the  gill- 
arches,  forming  numerous  lamellae,  are  a  series 
of  slitS;  leading  on  each  side  to  openings  (spira- 
cles), situated  dorsallj'.  The  water  passes 
through  the  mouth  into  each  gill-sac,  and  out 
by  the  spiracles.  The  nervous  system  lies  above 
a  short  sac  regarded  as  a  notochord.  There 
is  a  dorsal  blood  vessel,  which  sends  branches 
to  the  respiratory  sacs,  and  a  ventral  vessel. 
The  worm  lives  in  sand  at  low-water  mark 
from  Cape  Ann  to  Charleston,  S.  C,  also  in  the 
Mediterranean. 

The  life-history  of  this  worm  is  most  inter- 
esting. The  young,  originally  described  under 
the  name  of  Tornaria,  was  supposed  to  be  an 
echinoderm  larva,  though  it  resembles  the  lar- 
val Gephyrca  and  Annelida.  It  is  a  transparent, 
surface-swimming,  minute,  ciliated,  slender, 
somewhat  bell-shaped  form,  with  black  eye- 
specks.  When  transforming  to  the  worm  con- 
dition, a  pair  of  gills  arise  on  sac-like  outgrowths 
of  the  oesophagus,  and  afterward  three  additional 
pairs,  with  their  external  slits,  arise,  somewhat 
as  in  ascidians.  The  entire  Tornaria  directly 
transforms  into  the  \vorm,  the  transitional  pe- 
riod being  very  short.  The  body  lengthens,  the 
collar  and  proboscis  develop,  afterward  the  body 
lengthens,  the  end  tapering  and  becoming  much 
coiled. 

Consult:  A.  Agassiz,  ^The  History  of  Ba- 
lanoglossus  and  Tornaria^  (*  Memoirs  of  the 
American  Academy  of  Arts  and  Sciences,^  Vol. 
IX,  Boston,  187,3)  :  ^The  Later  Stages  in  the 
Development  of  Balanoglossus  Kowalevskii,  etc.-* 
('Quarterly  Journal  of  the  Microscopical  Soci- 
ety,^   London,    1885-6.) 

Balantidium,  bal-an-tid'i-um,  a  genus  of 
Infusoria,  some  members  of  which,  notably  B. 
coli  have  been  found  in  the  large  intestine,  where 
they  cause  sj-mptoms  of  intestinal  derangement, 
anaemia,  peevishness,  and  other  symptoms  of  an 
intestinal  parasite.  The  diagnosis  is  made  by 
means  of  the  microscope.  Quinine  enemas,  five 
grains  to  the  pint,  are  usually  curative.  See 
Intestine  —  Intestinal  Parasites. 

Bal'anus  ("acorn-shells^O,  a  genus  of  ses- 
sile cirripeds,  family  Balanidcc,  of  which  col- 
onies are  to  be  found  on  rocks  at  low  water,  on 
submerged  timbers,  crustaceans,  shells  of  mol- 
lusks,  etc.  They  differ  from  barnacles  in  hav- 
ing a  symmetrical  shell  and  being  destitute  of 
a  flexible  stalk.  The  shell  consists  of  six  plates 
with  an  operculum  of  four  valves.  They  pass 
through  a  larval  state  in  which  they  are  not 
fi.xed,  moving  by  means  of  swimming-feet  which 
disappear  in  the  final  state.  All  the  Balanidce 
are  hermaphrodites.  A  South  American  species 
(5.  psittacus)  is  eaten  on  the  coast  of  Chile, 
the  B.  tintinnahidum  by  the  Chinese.  The  old 
Roman  epicures  esteemed  the  larger  species. 

Balao,  ba-la'6,  a  West  Indian  name,  among 
Spanish-speaking  fishermen,  for  the  half-beaks 
(q.v.). 


Balard,  ba-lar,  Antoine  Jerome,  Brench 
chemist:  b.  Montpellier,  30  Sept.  1802;  d.  Paris, 
31  March  1876.  He  was  professor  of  chemistry 
at  the  College  de  France,  Paris,  and  discoverer 
of  bromine;  also  of  a  process  of  extracting  sul- 
phate of  soda  directly  from  sea-water.  In  1868" 
he  was  made  Inspector-General  of  Superior 
Instruction. 

Balas  Ruby,  a  variety  of  ruby  spinel. 

Balashov,  bal-a-shof,  a  Russian  town  in 
the  government  of  Saratov,  situated  on  the 
Don,  170  miles  west  of  the  city  of  Saratov. 
It  has  a  considerable  export  trade  of  grain,  etc. 
Pop.  about  13,000. 

Balasore,  bal-a-s6r',  a  city  of  Bengal, 
British  India,  capital  of  the  district  of  Balasore. 
It  is  situated  near  the  coast  and  has  dry  docks 
and  a  considerable  coasting  trade.  Pop.  about 
20,000. 

Bal'ata,  bal'a-ta,  a  rubber-like  exudate  de- 
rived from  the  milky  juice  of  Mimusops  balata 
and  M.  schombiirgkii.  The  gum  is  used  widely 
in  the  arts,  and  is  sometimes  confused  with  gum 
chicle,  from  which  much  of  the  chewing-gum 
of  commerce  is  derived. 

Balate,  ba-la'ta,  the  Philippine  name  for  a 
kind  of  trepang   (Holotliuria  atra). 

Balatka,  ba'lat-ka,  Hans,  musician:  b. 
Hoffnungsthal,  Moravia,  1828.  After  studying 
music  in  Vienna  he  settled  in  Milwaukee,  Wis., 
where  he  founded  the  Musikverein  in  1851, 
which  he  conducted  for  nine  j'ears.  He  then 
removed  to  Chicago,  where  he  organized  the 
Liederkranz.  the  Mozart  Club,  and  conducted  the 
Philharmonic  Society  and  the  Symphony  Soci- 
ety. 

Balaton,  bo'lo-ton,  or  Flatten  See,  a  lake 
in  the  southwest  of  Hungary,  extending  from 
lat.  46°  45'  to  47°  5'  N.,  and  from  Ion.  17°  14' 
to  18°  10'  E. ;  area  about  no  square  miles,  or, 
including  the  marshy  shores,  about  138  square 
miles.  It  receives  the  waters  of  more  than  30 
small  streams.  It  discharges  through  the  Sio, 
which  empties  into  the  Sarviz,  an  affluent  of 
the  Danube.  The  Balaton  is  constantly  in  a 
state  of  motion,  sufficient  to  cause  waves.  Its 
waters  are  perfectly  transparent  and  abound  with 
fine  fish,  notably  one  called  fogas.  frequently  20 
pounds  in  weight,  and  with  delicious  flesh  of 
snowy  whiteness.  Another  kind,  resembling  the 
herring,  swarm  in  the  lake  during  the  winter 
in  such  shoals  that  fishermen  sometimes  haul 
50  cartloads  from  under  the  ice  in  a  single 
day. 

Balauang,  ba-low-ang',  Philippines,  a  town 
in  the  province  of  La  Union,  Luzon,  north  of 
San  Fernando.     Pop.  about  25,000. 

Balau'stion's  Adven'tures,  a  poem  by  Rob- 
ert Browning,  describing  a  Greek  girl  of  Rhodes. 
'Aristophanes'  Apology^  is  a  continuation  of  this 
poem. 

Balawat,  ba-la-wat',  a  ruined  city  of  Asia- 
tic Turkey,  10  miles  from  Nimrud.  Excavations 
there  have  resulted  in  the  finding  of  the  ruins  of 
the  palace  of  Shalmaneser  II.  The  bronze  gates 
that  opened  into  the  vestibule  of  this  palace  are 
especially  interesting  and  valuable,  and  have 
been  placed  in  the  British  Museum. 


BALAYAN  —  BALBOA 


Balayan,  ba-Ia'yan,  Philippines,  a  town  of 
Batangas  province,  Luzon,  situated  on  the  Gulf 
of  Balayan,  northwest  of  the  town  of  Batangas. 
Pop.  about  25,000. 

Bal'bec.     See  Baalbek. 

Balbi,  bal'be,  Adriano,  famous  geogra- 
pher: b.  Venice,  25  April  1782;  d.  Padua,  14 
March  1848.  In  1808  his  first  work  on  geog- 
raphy procured  his  appointment  as  professor 
of  that  science  in  the  College  of  San  Michele,  at 
Murano,  and  in  181 1  he  became  professor  of 
natural  philosophj^  in  the  Lyceum  at  Fermo. 
Having  married  an  actress,  he  went  in  1820  to 
Portugal,  where  he  became  acquainted  with  the 
leading  scholars  and  statesmen.  He  had  free 
access  to  the  government  archives,  and  from  the 
documents  he  collected,  composed  two  inter- 
esting works  entitled  *Essai  Statistique  sur  le 
Royaume  de  Portugal  et  d'Algarve,  Compare 
aux  Autres  fitats  de  TEurope,*  and  ^Varietes 
Politiques  et  Statistiques  de  la  Monarchie  Por- 
tugaise,*  which  he  published  at  Paris  in  1822. 
He  followed  his  scientific  pursuits  in  that  me- 
tropolis, and  four  years  later  produced  the  first 
part  of  his  ^ Atlas  Ethnographique  du  Globe,  ou 
Classification  des  Peuples  Anciens  et  Modernes 
d'apres  leurs  Langues,'  a  work  of  superior 
arrangement,  in  which  he  spread  before  the 
French  public  the  result  of  the  researches  and 
disquisitions  of  the  German  philologists.  He 
published  afterward,  in  concert  with  several  sci- 
entific men,  statistical  tables  of  Russia,  France, 
the  Netherlands,  etc.  He  now  gave  all  his  at- 
tention to  his  ^Abrege  de  Geographic  Redige 
sur  un  Plan  Nouveau,^  a  summary  of  geographi- 
cal science  which  appeared  in  1832  and  has  been 
translated  into  nearly  all  the  European  lan- 
guages. Then  he  retired  to  Padua,  where  he 
published,  in  1835,  his  ^Essai  sur  les  Biblio- 
theques  de  Vienne.^  Beside  the  works  above- 
cited  mention  may  be  made  of  ^La  Monarchie 
Frangaise  Comparee  aux  Principaux  fitats  de 
I'Europe^  (Paris,  1828)  ;  "^Balance  Politique  du 
Globe^  (1828)  ;  ^L'Empire  Russe  Compare  aux 
Principaux  Etats  du  Monde'  (1829)  ;  ^The 
World  Compared  with  the  British  Empire' 
(1830)  ;  *^Statisque  Comparee  de  I'lnstruction  et 
du  Nombre  des  Crimes'  (1829).  Balbi  was  also 
a  contributor  to  many  important  publications, 
'L'Encyclopedie  de^  Gens  du  Monde'  and  ^Le 
Dictionnaire  de  la  Conversation.'  His  works 
show  a  great  amount  of  knowledge,  thorough 
research,  and  skilful  arrangement  of  material ; 
but,  being  utterly  deficient  in  style,  they  are 
heavy  and  of  difficult  reading;  however,  they 
may  always  be  advantageously  and  safely  con- 
sulted. 

Bal'bi,  Gasparo,  Venetian  dealer  in  pre- 
cious stones,  who  lived  in  i6th  century.  He 
traveled  first  to  Aleppo  and  thence  down  the 
Euphrates  and  Tigris  to  the  Malabar  coast, 
sailing  finally  for  Pegu,  where  he  remained 
two  years.  His  <Viaggio  all'  Indie  Orientale,' 
published  on  his  return  to  Venice  in  1590,  con- 
tains the  earliest  account  of  India  beyond  the 
Ganges. 

Balbi,  Giovanni,  called  De  Janua  or 
Januensis,  from  his  birthplace,  Genoa,  a  Do- 
minican friar,  who  lived  toward  the  end  of  the 
13th  century.  He  composed  a  kind  of  encvclo- 
psedia,  which  he  called  the  ^Catholicon.'  This 
book   owes   its  celebrity  principally  to   the   fact 


that  it  has  become  one  of  the  earliest  inuna- 
ments  of  the  art  of  printing.  The  original  edi- 
tion is  to  be  found  under  the  title,  *Summa 
Grammaticalis  valde  Notabilis  quoe  Catholicon 
Nominatur'  (Moguntise,  per  Johannem  Faus- 
tum,  1460,  fob).  It  was  reprinted  at  Augs- 
burg, 1469  and  1472,  by  Schoefifer ;  at  Nurem- 
berg, 1483,  by  Koburger ;  at  Venice,  1487, 
revised  and   improved,  by  Pietro   Gilles. 

Balbi'nus,  Decimus  Caelius,  Roman  sen- 
ator and  poet.  After  the  death  of  the  two  Gor- 
diani,  killed  by  the  soldiers  of  Maximinus,  he 
was  elected  emperor  by  the  Senate,  concurrently 
with  Clodius  Pupienus  Maximus,  in  opposition 
to  the  usurper  ■Maximinus.  The  two  emperors 
reigned  little  more  than  one  year,  and  were 
assassinated  by  their   soldiers  238  a.d. 

Bal'bo,  bal'bo,  Cesare,  Count,  Italian 
statesman  and  author:  b.  Turin,  21  Nov.  1789; 
d.  3  June  1853.  Through  the  favor  of  Napoleon 
he  was  appointed  auditor  to  the  French  privy 
council  in  1807,  and  afterward  became  secre- 
tary to  the  French  commissioners  charged  with 
the  organization  of  Tuscany  and  the  Papal 
States.  In  1812  he  was  promoted  to  the  office 
of  commissioner  of  Illyria,  and  after  the  down- 
fall of  Napoleon  became  secretary  of  the  Sar- 
dinian ambassador  in  London  until  the  out- 
break of  the  Sardinian  revolution  in  1821,  when 
he  returned  to  his  native  town  in  order  to  de- 
vote himself  to  literary  pursuits.  He  wrote  a 
history  of  Italy  up  to  the  time  of  Charlemagne, 
^nd  translated  Heinrich  Leo's  ^Exposition  of 
the  Municipal  Institutions  of  Lombardy,'  from 
German  into  Italian,  under  the  name  of 
^Coniuni  Italiani.'  His  reputation  was  not 
firmly  established,  however,  until  the  latter 
year,  when  his  ^Speranze  dTtalia'  made  its  ap- 
pearance. His  appeal  in  favor  of  a  national 
independence  found  a  powerful  echo  in  the 
popular  heart,  and  paved  the  way  for  the  revo- 
lution in  which  he  was  destined  to  play  a 
prominent  part  as  a  champion  of  the  moderate 
party.  His  next  work,  printed  at  Bastia,  in 
1849,  ^Della  Storia  d'ltalia,  dall'  Origine  Fino 
al  1814'  (History  of  Italy,  from  the  Beginning 
to  1814),  was  not  only  inspired  by  the  same 
patriotic  spirit,  but  also  distinguished  by  his- 
torical merit.  But  although  in  1848  and  1849 
he  had  strenuously  opposed  the  democratic  par- 
ty and  unwaveringly  adhered  to  a  more  con- 
servative policy,  he  threw  the  entire  weight  of 
his  political  influence  into  the  scale  of  patriot- 
ism as  soon  as  the  war  against  Austria  began. 
He  supported  the  different  cabinets  which  gov- 
erned Sardinia  after  the  promulgation  of  the 
constitution  of  4  March  1848,  and,  though  for  a 
very  short  time,  was  personally  connected  with 
the  government.  He  became  a  regular  contrib- 
utor to  the  Risorgimento,  a  leading  paper  of 
Turin,  and  in  it  gave  a  constant  support  to 
D'Azeglio's  administration. 

Balboa,  bal-bo'a,  Vasco  Nufiez,  the  discov- 
erer of  the  Pacific  Ocean :  b.  Jerez  de  los 
Caballeros,  Spain,  1475;  d.  1517.  At  the  age  of 
25  he  went  to  America  to  seek  his  fortune,  join- 
ing the  expedition  of  Rodrigo  de  Bastidas  (see 
CENTR.A.L  America),  and  returned  to  Espahola, 
(Haiti),  after  exploring  with  Bastidas  a  part 
of  the  southwestern  coast  of  the  Caribbean  Sea. 
At  the  town  of  Salvatierra  in  Espanola  he  be- 
came a  planter,  but  with  such  indifferent  suc- 
cess that,    when   he  resolved  to  attach    himself 


BALBRIGGAN  —  BALCONY 


to  Alonzo  de  Ojeda's  new  colony  on  the  main- 
land of  South  America,  he  found  difficulty  in 
escaping  from  his  creditors.  To  elude  their  vigi- 
lance, he  hid  in  a  large  cask,  and  thus  was  car- 
ried from  his  plantation  to  the  landing,  and 
thence  on  board  one  of  Ojeda's  vessels,  as  a 
part  of  the  cargo.  It  is  probable  that  when  he 
emerged  from  his  place  of  concealment  he 
would  have  been  handed  over  to  the  authori- 
ties on  shore  if  the  expedition  had  not  stood  in 
need  of  every  available  fighting-man.  Admit- 
ted to  membership  reluctantly,  and  as  a  common 
soldier,  Balboa  showed  his  talent  for  leadership 
when  the  undertaking  seemed  on  the  point  of 
failure.  He  suggested  transferring  the  colony 
to  Darien,  describing  the  more  favorable  condi- 
tions there,  as  he  had  seen  them  on  his  previous 
voyage.  His  advice  was  taken,  and  the  name 
Antigua  (Santa  Maria  de  la  Antigua  del  Dari- 
en) was  given  to  the  new  settlement.  Here  the 
Spaniards  were  somewhat  more  successful  and 
Balboa  assumed  command. 

In  the  year  1513  he  received  a  letter  from 
a  commissioner  whom  he  had  sent  to  Spain,  in- 
forming him  that  he  might  expect  to  be  sum- 
moned to  court  to  answer  grave  charges.  Re- 
solving to  win  back  the  royal  favor  by  some 
striking  service,  he  selected  190  men,  the  best 
of  his  soldiers,  and  with  these  and  1,000  native 
v/arriors  and  carriers,  and  a  pack  of  blood- 
hounds, sailed  from  Antigua,  i  September  1513, 
following  the  Darien  coast  westward  until  he 
reached  a  point  opposite  the  Gulf  of  San 
Miguel.  This  gulf  extends  far  into  the  south 
coast  from  the  Pacific,  narrowing  the  isthmus 
to  a  width  of  50  miles.  Accurate  information 
in  regard  to  the  southern  coast,  the  ocean  that 
lay  beyond,  and  the  superior  civilization  of  the 
Incas  of  Peru,  whose  country  was  to  be  reached 
by  way  of  this  ocean,  had  been  obtained  from 
the  Indians,  especially  through  Balboa's  fa- 
vorite Indian  mistress,  Fulvia. 

The  march  began  6  September.  On  the  24th 
reaching  an  elevated  plateau,  the  Spaniards  re- 
pulsed an  attack  by  1,000  Indians  and  found 
supplies  in  the  village  of  Quarequa.  The  fol- 
lowing day,  25  September  1513,  Balboa  gained 
the  summit  of  a  mountain  from  which  the  wa- 
ters of  Mar  del  Sur  (southern  sea)  were  visi- 
ble. The  name,  Pacific,  was  not  applied  to  this 
ocean  until  seven  years  later,  when  it  was  be- 
stowed by  Magellan.  On  2Q  September  Balboa 
took  formal  possession  of  the  "Southern  Sea" 
by  marching  into  the  water,  and,  in  the  names 
of  the  king  and  queen  of  Castile,  claiming 
*these  seas  and  lands." 

The  warning  received  from  the  Spanish 
court  was  justified  in  the  event.  Balboa  had 
already  been  superseded  by  Pedrarias.  The  re- 
ward of  the  former  was  an  empty  title  of 
Adelantado  of  the  Southern  Sea ;  while  on 
shore  he  was  made  the  subordinate  of  his  rival 
and  bitter  enemy.  Governor  Pedrarias.  Three 
years  later  a  South  Sea  expedition  was  in  pros- 
pect, and  Balboa,  instead  of  Pizarro,  might 
have  been  the  conqueror  of  Peru ;  but  the  gov- 
ernor's jealousy  was  aroused,  and  Balboa  was 
executed  at  Ada.  Marrion  Wilco.x, 

Authority   on   Latin-America. 

Balbrig'gan,  a    watering  place   in    County 

Dublin,  Ireland,  21  miles  north  of  Dublin.     It  is 

a    seat    of    linen,    cotton,    calico,    and    stocking 

manufactures.     The  cotton  stockings  made  here 


are  remarkable  for  fineness  of  texture  and  beau- 
ty of  open  work.  Many  women  are  employed 
in  embroidering  muslin. 

Balbus,  Lucius  Cornelius,  Roman  officer, 
sometimes  surnamed  Major,  to  distinguish  him 
from  his  nephew  (see  below)  :  b.  Gades,  Iberia, 
in  the  ist  century.  He  served  his  first  cam- 
paign under  Q.  ]Metellus  Pius  and  Pompey.  tor 
his  conduct  in  this  war  the  privileges  of  a  Ro- 
man citizen  were  conferred  on  him,  his 
brother,  and  his  nephews.  In  72  B.C.  Balbus  re- 
moved to  Rome,  and  soon  became  an  intimate 
friend  of  Caesar.  He  was  consul  in  40  B.C.,  and 
is  supposed  to  have  been  the  first  adopted  citi- 
zen to  fill  that  office.  He  wrote  a  diary  in 
which  he  described  the  chief  events  in  his  own 
and  CfEsar's  life. 

Balbus,  Lucius  Cornelius  (Minor),  nephew 
of  the  above,  a  Roman  officer,  who  in  ac- 
knowledgment of  a  victory  gained  in  Africa, 
was  awarded  the  honor  of  a  triumph,  the  first 
ever  paid  to  one  not  born  in  Rome. 

Balch,  George  Beall,  American  rear-ad- 
miral: b.  Tennessee,  3  Jan.  1821.  He  was  ap- 
pointed to  the  navy  from  Alabama  1837,  was 
promoted  passed  midshipman  1843,  and  served 
through  the  Mexican  war.  He  was  with  Com- 
modore Conner's  squadron  in  the  first  attack 
on  Alvarado,  with  the  mosquito  fleet  under 
Commodore  Tatnall,  and  at  the  bombardment 
and  surrender  of  Vera  Cruz.  As  a  lieutenant 
on  the  Plymouth  he  was  with  the  Asiatic  squad- 
ron 185 1-5,  and  received  a  hip  wound  in  a 
fight  between  the  rebels  and  imperialists  at 
Shanghai,  China.  During  the  Civil  War  he 
commanded  the  Pocahontas  and  Pawnee,  tak- 
ing part  in  numerous  engagements  with  the 
Confederate  batteries,  chiefly  in  South  Carolina. 
He  became  captain,  25  July  1866;  commodore, 
13  Aug.  1872;  rear-admiral,  5  June  1878;  and 
was  retired  in  1883. 

Balcony,  a  gallery  or  framework  of  wood, 
iron,  or  stone,  projecting  from  the  front  of  a 
house,  generally  on  a  level  with  the  floors  of 
rooms,  and  supported  on  cantilevers  or  brackets, 
and  sometimes  on  columns  of  wood  or  stone. 
Balconies  are  often  surrounded  by  iron  rail- 
ings or  stone  balustrades.  The  etymology  of 
the  word  has  been  frequently  traced  to  the 
Greek  ^aWeiv,  to  throw.  This  rests  upon  the 
presumption  that  balconies  were  built  origi- 
nally for  purposes  of  defense,  the  enerny  being 
attacked  with  missiles  thrown  upon  him  from 
the  balcony.  The  Latin  word  is  balctis  or  />a/- 
ctis,  the  Italian  balcone,  also  balco  or  palco,  the 
Turkish  bala-khaneh,  the  German  balcon.  The 
use  of  balconies  is  comparatively  modern,  al- 
though there  is  no  doubt  about  their  existence 
in  times  of  antiquity.  Winckelmann,  the  great 
German  writer  upon  art,  refers  to  the  fact  that 
in  Greece  every  private  dwelling-house  had  con- 
trivances which,  although  then  designated  un- 
der diff'erent  terms,  would  be  called  balconies 
in  our  day.  In  Spain,  Italy,  and  South  Amer- 
ica, they  are  used  for  sitting,  walking,  chat- 
ting, and  flirting,  in  warm  summer  evenings; 
but  they  are  less  common  in  northern  countries, 
where  the  nature  of  the  climate  does  not  call 
for  such  romantic  contrivances.  They  are,  how- 
ever, often  used  as  miniature  gardens  for  potted 
plants.  Upon  Boccaccio  and  Bandello,  the  great 
Italian  novelists  of  the  i6th  century,  the  poetical 
utility  of  balconies  was  not  lost,  and  entertain- 


BALD  CYPRESS  — BALDUNG 


ing  balcony  scenes  abound  in  their  stories. 
Shakespeare  took  his  plot  of  Romeo  and  Juliet 
from  one  of  Bandello's  novels,  and  the  balcony 
scene  exhibits,  with  that  power  of  genius  of 
which  the  great  English  dramatist  alone  was 
capable,  the  beauty  of  a  balcony  when  two 
young  lovers  like  Juliet  and  Romeo  make  it 
the    witness   of   their    passion. 

In  modern  theatres  the  term  is  applied  to 
the  first  or  second  gallery  or  tier  of  seats  above 
the  pit. 

Bald  Cypress.     See  Cypress. 

Bald  Eagle,  the  American  white-headed 
eagle.     See  E.\gle. 

Bald  Mountain,  the  name  of  several  emi- 
nences in  the  United  States,  of  which  the  fol- 
lowing are  the  principal:  (i)  In  Colorado, 
height,  11,493  feet;  (2)  in  California,  8.295 
feet;  (3)  in  Utah,  11,975  feet;  (4)  in  Wyo- 
ming, in  the  Wind  River  Range,  10,760  feet; 
and,  (5)  in  North  Carolina,  5,550  feet.  The 
last  named  was  the  cause  of  much  excitement 
in  May  1878,  because  of  inexplicable  rumblings 
which  lasted  for  about  two  weeks.  The  moun- 
tain shook  as  if  in  the  throes  of  an  earthquake, 
immense  trees  and  rocks  were  hurled  down  its 
sides,  and  for  a  time  fears  were  entertained  lest 
a  volcanic  eruption  should  follow.  A  subse- 
quent examination  showed  that  a  large  section 
of  the  mountain  had  been  split  asunder,  but  no 
further  disturbance  occurred. 

Baldachin,  bal'da-chin.      See  Altar. 

Balde,  Jakob,  bal'da,  ya'cdb,  German  Latin 
poet:  b.  Ensisheim,  Alsace,  1604;  d.  Neu- 
burg,  on  the  Danube,  1668.  He  was  court- 
chaplain  to  the  prince  electoral  of  Bavaria,  and 
distinguished  himself  by  the  excellence  of  his 
Latin  poetry.  Herder  called  attention  to  the 
beauty  and  genius  of  his  lyrical  productions, 
many  of  which  he  translated. 

Balder,  bal'der,  or  Baldur,  in  Norse  myth- 
ology a  divinity,  represented  as  the  son  of  Odin 
and  Frigga,  beautiful,  wise,  amiable,  and  be- 
loved by  all  the  gods.  His  mother  took  an  oath 
from  every  creature,  and  even  from  every  in- 
animate object,  that  they  would  not  harm 
Balder,  but  omitted  the  mistletoe.  Balder  was 
therefore  deemed  invulnerable,  and  the  other 
gods  in  sport  flung  stones  and  shot  arrows  at 
him  without  harming  him.  But  the  evil  god, 
Loki,  fashioned  an  arrow  from  the  mistletoe 
and  got  Balder's  blind  brother  Hoder  to  shoot 
it,  himself  guiding  his  aim.  Balder  fell  dead, 
pierced  to  the  heart,  to  the  deep  grief  of  all 
the  gods.  He  is  believed  to  be  a  personification 
of  the  brightness  and  beneficence  of  the  sun. 

Balderstone,   bal'der-ston,    Caleb,    the    old 

butler  of  the  master  of  Ravenswood,  in  Scott's 
*  Bride    of    Lammermoor.^ 

Baldi,  bal'de,  Benardino,  Italian  scholar 
and  poet:  b.  I553;  d.  1617.  He  was  an  accom- 
plished linguist  and  a  very  prolific  writer,  and 
was  abbot  of  Guastalla  for  25  years.  Among 
his  numerous  works  are  "^Cronica  dei  Mate- 
matici^  ;  ^La  Nautica,^  a  poem  on  navigation; 
an  Arabic  grammar ;  and  a  translation  of  the 
*Targum  of  Onkelos.^ 

Baldness.  Under  the  title  Alopecia  the 
general  types  of  baldness  have  been  considered. 
Premature  alopecia,  or  the  general  afiFection 
of  the  young  and  middle-aged,  deserves  greater 


consideration.  Alopecia  presenilis,  or  prema- 
ture baldness,  is  recognized  as  of  two  distinct 
varieties,  the  idiopathic  and  the  symptomatic. 
In  the  idiopathic  variety  that  occurs  before  the 
age  of  45  there  does  not  seem  to  be  any  disease 
of  the  scalp  or  of  the  general  nutrition  to  ex- 
plain it.  It  is  a  gradual  and  progressive  loss 
of  hair,  thinner  and  thinner  hairs  replacing 
those  that  have  fallen  out,  until  the  follicle  will 
not  produce  hair.  It  is  usually  symmetrical,, 
beginning  at  the  tonsure  or  running  back  from 
the  temples.  The  skin  is  usually  left  thin  and 
hard. 

In  the  symptomatic  form  some  general  dis- 
order, or  a  definite  disease  of  the  scalp  is  the 
cause.  This  latter  is  usually  a  scaly  dandruff ; 
the  general  causes  may  be  syphilis,  tuberculosis, 
fevers  or  local  destructive  conditions.  Dan- 
druff (q.v.)  is  the  most  frequent  accompaniment 
and  cause  of  baldness.  Dandruff  is  really  at 
least  three  different  diseases  of  the  skin,  but 
the  general  character  is  that  of  a  general 
seborrheal  dermatitis ;  that  is,  a  mild  inflamma- 
tion with  excessive  fatty  secretions.  This  is 
frequently  due  to  digestive  disturbances,  and 
is  closely  dependent  upon  the  general  health 
of  the  entire  body.  The  hair  falls  out  as  in  the 
idiopathic  form.  The  dandruff  usually  con- 
tinues until  the  hair   is  gone,  and  then  ceases. 

Treatment  should  be  begun  early,  particu- 
larly in  those  whose  families  have  tended  to 
baldness.  The  details  of  treatment  require  pro- 
fessional advice.  The  large  number  of  hair- 
tonics  in  the  market  speaks  well  for  the  general 
inutility  of  all  of  them.  Cleanliness,  frequent 
dry-brushings,  and  shampoos  once  in  every  two 
or  three  weeks,  are  safe  measures,  and  tend  to 
keep  up  the  general  hygiene  of  the  scalp.  Con- 
sult Jackson,  ^Diseases  of  the  Skin^  (1900). 
See  Dandruff. 

Baldo,  Monte,  a  mountain  in  Lombardy, 
Italy,  near  Lake  Garda,  with  an  elevation  at  its 
highest  peak  of  7,275  feet. 

Baldovinetti,  bal'do-ve-net'te,  Alessio» 
Florentine  artist :  b.  1422 ;  d.  1499.  Few  of  his 
works  remain  except  a  ^  Nativity^  in  the  Church 
of  the  Annunziato,  and  two  altar-pieces  in  the 
gallery  of  the  Uffizi  and  the  Academy  of  Arts, 
Florence. 

Baldpate,  or  Baldhead,  the  name  of  sev- 
eral different  birds  having  a  white  head,  as  an 
eagle,  one  of  the  widgeons,  a  kind  of  domestic 
pigeon,  a  West  Indian  dove,  a  fruit-crow,  etc. 

Baldric,  bal'drik,  a  belt  or  sash  worn  over 
the  right  or  left  shoulder  diagonally  across  the 
body,  often  highly  decorated  and  enriched  with 
gems,  and  used  not  only  to  sustain  the  sword, 
dagger,  or  horn,  but  also  for  purposes  of  orna- 
ment and  as  a  military  or  heraldic  symbol.  The 
fashion  of  wearing  a  baldric  appears  to  have 
reached  its  height  in  the  15th  century.  In  the 
United  States  it  now  forms  a  part  of  the  imi- 
form  of  Knights  Templar  and  other  fraternal 
organizations. 

Balducci,  bal-do'che,  Francesco,  leading^ 
Italian  Anacreontic  poet :  b.  Palermo ;  d.  Rome, 
1642.  He  wrote  ^Sicilian  Songs^  in  the  Sicilian 
dialect,   etc. 

Baldung,  bal'dung,  Hans,  or  Hans  Griin^ 
German  painter  and  wood  engraver :  b.  Suabia, 
1470;  d.  Strasburg,  1522.  His  work,  though 
inferior  to  Durer's,  possessed  many  of  the  came 


BALDWIN 


characteristics,  and  on  this  account  he  has  been 
sometimes  considered  a  pupil  of  the  Nurem- 
berg master.  His  principal  paintings  are  the 
series  of  panels  (of  the  date  of  1516)  over  the 
altar  in  Freiburg  Cathedral ;  others  of  his  works 
are  to  be  found  at  Berlin,  Colmar,  and  Basel. 
His  numerous  and  often  fantastic  engravings 
have  the  monogram  H.  and  B.,  with  a  small  G. 
in  the  centre  of  the  H. 

Bald'win  I.,  king  of  Jerusalem.  He  was 
the  son  of  Eustace.  Count  of  Bouillon,  and  ac- 
companied his  brother  Godfrey  of  Bouillon  into 
Palestine,  where  he  gained  the  sovereignty  of 
the  state  of  Edessa.  He  succeeded  his  brother 
on  the  throne  of  Jerusalem  in  iioo,  and  for  18 
years  waged  war  against  the  Turks,  the  x^rabs, 
^he  Persians,  and  the  Saracens.  He  took  many 
iowns  and  secured  for  the  Christians  the  coast 
of  Syria  from  the  Gulf  of  Issus  to  the  confines 
of  Eg3'pt.  He  died  at  Laris,  in  the  desert  in 
ni8,  and  was  buried  on  Mount  Calvary.  In 
the  first  canto  of  Tasso's  'Gerusalemme  Liber- 
ata,^  the  poet  has  depicted  the  character  of 
this  monarch  as  well  as  that  of  his  brother, 
Godfrey. 

Bald'win  I.,  the  first  Latin  emperor  of 
Constantinople,  son  of  Baldwin  VIII.,  Count  of 
Flanders  and  Hainault :  b.  Valenciennes,  1170. 
In  1200  he  joined  the  crusaders  with  his  brother, 
Thierry,  and  in  1202  aided  the  Venetians  in 
their  attack  upon  Constantinople,  of  which  city 
he  was  crowned  emperor  16  May  1204.  In  the 
next  year  Baldwin  was  taken  prisoner  by  the 
king  of  Bulgaria,  and,  it  is  said,  died  in  cap- 
tivity in  1206.  He  was  much  esteemed  by  the 
Greeks  for  his  charity,  temperance,  and  justice. 

Bald'win  II.,  king  of  Jerusalem,  son  of 
Hugh,  Count  of  Rethel.  He  was  crowned  in 
1 1 18,  after  Eustace,  brother  of  Baldwin  I.,  had 
renounced  all  claim  to  the  vacant  throne.  In 
1 120  he  gained  a  great  victory  over  the  Sara- 
cens, but  in  1 124  he  was  taken  prisoner  by 
them,  and  was  ransomed  only  by  giving  up  the 
city  of  Tyre.  In  1131  he  abdicated  in  favor  of 
his  son-in-law,  Foulques  of  Anjou,  and  retired 
to  a  monastery,  where  he  died  in  the  same  year. 
The  military  and  religious  order  of  the  Tem- 
plars, for  the  defense  of  the  Holy  Land,  was 
instituted,  it  is  thought,  in  the  reign  of  this 
monarch. 

Bald'win  IL,  the  last  Frank  emperor  of 
Constantinople:  b.  1217;  d.  1273.  He  was  the 
son  of  Pierre  de  Courtenay,  and  succeeded  his 
brother  Robert  in  1228.  He  was  twice  besieged 
in  his  imperial  city,  and,  being  too  weak  to  de- 
fend his  dominions,  repaired  to  Italy  to  seek 
aid  from  the  Pope.  At  the  court  of  France 
Baldwin  was  favorably  received  by  the  king, 
St.  Louis,  to  whom  he  presented  a  crown  of 
thorns  which  was  held  by  all  Christendom  to  be 
the  genuine  relic.  Baldwin,  in  1239,  set  out  for 
Constantinople  with  a  body  of  crusaders,  who, 
however,  soon  quitted  him  and  took  the  route 
to  Palestine.  He  succeeded,  ultimately,  in  rais- 
ing new  forces  in  the  West,  and  regained  his 
capital ;  but  in  1261  Michael  Paleologus  in- 
vested it  and  entered  Constantinople  on  the 
29th  of  July.  Baldwin  fled  to  Sicily,  where  he 
died   in   obscurity. 

Bald'win  III.,  king  of  Jerusalem:  b.  1130; 
d.  Antioch,  11 62.  He  was  son  of  Foulques  of 
.Aniou,  whom  -he  succeeded   in   1142  under  the 


guardianship  of  his  mother.  He  took  Ascalon 
and  other  places ;  but  under  his  reign  the  Chris- 
tians lost  Edessa.  He  was  succeeded  by  his 
brother,  Amaury  I. 

Bald'win  IV.,  king  of  Jerusalem:  d.  1185. 
He  was  son  of  Amaury,  and  succeeded  to  the 
throne  on  the  death  of  his  father  in  1174;  but 
as  he  was  leprous,  Raymond,  Count  of  Tripoli, 
governed  the  kingdom  for  him.  He  afterward 
resigned  the  throne  to  his  nephew,  Baldwin  V., 
in   1 183. 

Baldwin  V.,  king  of  Jerusalem:  b.  1178; 
d.  1186.  He  was  son  of  Sibylla,  sister  of  Bald- 
win IV.,  and  was  called  to  the  throne  when 
five  years  old.  He  died  of  poison,  supposed  to 
have  been  administered  by  his  mother  in  order 
that  her  second  husband,  Guy  de  Lusignan, 
might  enjoy  the  throne.  The  following  year, 
1 187,  the  Christians  lost  Jerusalem,  which  was 
taken  by  Saladin. 

Baldwin,  Abraham,  American  statesman: 
b.  Guilford,  Ct.,  6  Nov.  1754;  d.  1807.  He  was 
graduated  at  Yale  in  1772,  and  was  tutor  there, 
'^77~)~79-  Durmg  the  American  Revolution  he 
was  a  chaplain  in  the  army,  and.  at  the  sugges- 
tion of  General  Greene,  settled  in  Savannah, 
Ga.,  1784,  where  he  was  admitted  to  the  bar. 
His  efforts  as  a  member  of  the  legislature  se- 
cured a  charter  and  endowment  for  the  Uni- 
versity of  Georgia,  which  was  established  ac- 
cording to  his  own  plans  and  ideas,  and  of 
which  he  became  president.  He  took  part 
in  the  Constitutional  Convention  of  1787;  was 
a  delegate  to  the  Continental  Congress  1785-88; 
member  of  the  House  of  Representatives  1789- 
99 ;  United  States  senator  1799,  until  his  death. 

Baldwin,  Charles  H.,  American  naval  oflS- 
cer :  b.  New  York  city,  3  Sept.  1822;  d.  17 
Nov.  1888.  He  entered  the  navy  as  a  midship- 
man in  1839.  Serving  on  the  frigate  Congress 
during  the  war  with  Mexico,  he  figured  in  sev- 
eral sharp  encounters  near  Mazatlan.  He  com- 
manded the  steamer  Clifton  at  the  passage  of 
Forts  Jackson  and  St.  Philip  in  1862.  and  at 
the  first  attack  on  Vicksburg.  He  became  rear- 
admiral  in  1883,  receiving  the  command  of  the 
Mediterranean  squadron,  and  was  retired  in 
1884. 

Baldwin,  Evelyn  Briggs,  arctic  explorer: 
b.  Springfield,  Mo.,  22  July  1862.  He  was 
graduated  from  Northwestern  College,  Naper- 
ville,  111.,  and  engaged  chiefly  in  teaching  until 
1892,  when  he  entered  the  United  States  Weath- 
er Bureau  service.  He  is  now  an  inspector-at- 
large  of  the  signal  corps  of  the  United  States 
army.  He  accompanied,  as  meteorologist, 
Peary's  North  Greenland  expedition,  1893-4; 
joined  the  Wellman  Polar  expedition.  1898-99, 
as  second  in  command,  built  Fort  McKinley, 
and  discovered  Graham  Bell  Land.  Securing 
the  co-operation  of  Mr.  William  Zieglcr  of 
New  York  he  organized  and  commanded  the 
Baldwin-Ziegler  expedition  of  1901.  He  has 
written  'The  Search  for  the  North  Pole,* 
<  Auroral  Observations,  Franz-Joseph  Land,^ 
'Meteorological  Reports  of  the  North  Green- 
land Expedition*  (1893-4).  and  meteorological 
publications    in    government    reports. 

Bald'win,  Frank  D.,  American  military 
officer:  b.  Michigan,  26  June  1842.  He  entered 
the  volunteer  army  in  1861  and  the  regular  army 
in    1866;    became    colonel    of    the    4th    United 


BALDWIN 


'States  Infantry,  26  July  1901 ;  and  was  pro- 
moted brigadier-general,  United  States  army, 
9  June  1902.  He  was  awarded  a  Congressional 
medal  of  honor  for  service  at  the  battle  of  Pine 
Tree  Creek,  Ga.,  20  July  1864,  and  another  for 
gallantry  in  an  action  against  Indians  in  Texas. 
He  greatly  distinguished  himself  in  the  Philip- 
pines  in  the  early   part   of   1902. 

Bald'win,  Henry,  American  jurist  and  author : 
b.  New  Haven,  Conn.,  14  Jan.  1780;  d.  Phila- 
delphia. Pa.,  21  April  1844.  A  graduate  from 
Yale  College  in  1797,  he  studied  law,  became  a 
barrister,  and  settled  in  Pittsburg,  Pa.  In  1817, 
and  twice  subsequently,  he  was  elected  a  Fed- 
eral member  of  Congress.  He  was  appointed 
justice  of  the  United  States  Supreme  Court  in 
1830,  and  in  the  same  year  received  the  de- 
gree of  LL.D.  from  his  alina  mater.  He  wrote 
*A  General  View  of  the  Origin  and  Nature  of 
the  United  States'   (1837). 

Baldwin,  Henry  Porter,  American  politi- 
cian :  b.  Coventry,  R.  I.,  22  Feb.  1814 :  d.  De- 
troit. Mich.,  31  Dec.  1892.  He  went  to  Michigan 
in  his  youth  and  from  1869  to  1873  was  governor 
of  the'  State.  From  1879  to  1881  he  sat  in  the 
United  States  Senate.  He  was  very  prorn- 
inent  in  the  affairs  of  the  Episcopal  Church  in 
Michigan. 

Baldwin,  James,  American  author :  b. 
Hamilton  County,  Ind.,  15  Dec.  1841.  Very 
largely  self-taught,  he  was  engaged  in  teaching 
from  1865  to  1887.  He  filled  an  editorial  posi- 
tion with  Harper  &  Bros.  1887-93,  when  he 
became  editor  of  school  books  for  the  American 
Book  Co.  He  has  written:  ^Storv  of  Sieg- 
fried>  ri882);  <Story  of  Roland'  (1883);  <Six 
Centuries  of  English  Poetry'  (1892);  <01d 
Greek  Stories'   (1895),  etc. 

Baldwin,  James  Mark,  American  psychol- 
ogist: b.  Columbia,  S.  C,  12  Jan.  1861.  He  was 
educated  at  Princeton  College,  Leipsic,  Berlin, 
and  Tubingen  universities ;  was  instructor  of 
German  and  French  at  Princeton  1886-87;  pro- 
fessor of  philosophy  in  Lake  Forest  University 
1887-89,  and  in  the  University  of  Toronto 
1889-93 ;  and  professor  of  psychology  at  Prince- 
ton University  since  1893.  He  was  vice-presi- 
dent of  the  International  Congress  of  Psychol- 
ogy at  London  1892;  honorary  president  of  the 
International  Congress  of  Criminal  Anthropol- 
ogy at  Geneva  1896;  president  of  the  American 
Psychological  Association  1897-98;  judge  of 
award  at  the  World's  Columbian  Exposition 
1893 ;  was  awarded  a  gold  medal  by  the  Royal 
Academy  of  Arts  and  Sciences  of  Denmark, 
in  1897,  for  the  best  work  on  the  general  ques- 
tion of  social  ethics ;  and  was  elected  a  member 
of  the  Institut  International  de  Sociologie  1898. 
He  is  author  of  *  Handbook  of  Psychology'  (2 
vols.,  1889-91);  a  translation  of  Ribot's  ^Ger- 
man Psychology  of  To-day'  (1886);  'Elements 
of  Psychology'  (1893)  ;  <  Social  and  Ethical 
Interpretations  in  Mental  Development'  (1897), 
etc.  He  was  also  one  of  the  founders  of  the  '■  Psy- 
chological Review,'  editor-in-chief  of  the  'Dic- 
tionary of  Philosophy  and  Psychology,'  and  a 
contributor  of  articles  on  psychology  to  'John- 
son's Universal    Cyclopaedia'    (1892-95). 

Baldwin,  John  Denison,  American  journal- 
ist, politician,  poet,  and  writer  on  archseology: 
b.  North  Stonington.  Conn.,  28  Sept.  1809 ;  d. 
8  July  1883.  After  studying  law  and  theology 
he    entered    journalism,    was    long    editor    and 


proprietor  of  the  Worcester  Spy,  and  was  a 
member  of  Congress  1863-69.  He  wrote  'Ray- 
mond Hill,  and  Other  Poems'  (1847);  'Pre- 
historic Nations'  (1869),  and  'Ancient  Amer- 
ica'   (1872). 

Baldwin,  Joseph  G.,  American  jurist:  b. 
Sumter,  Ala.  1815;  d.  30  Sept.  1864.  He  was  a 
judge  of  the  superior  court  of  California  in 
1857-63;  chief  justice  of  the  State  from  1863 
till  his  death,  and  author  of  'Party  Leaders' 
and  'Flush  Times  in  Alabama  and  Mississippi.' 

Baldwin,  Maurice  Scollard,  Canadian  cler- 
gyman :  b.  Toronto,  21  June  1836.  He  was 
graduated  at  Trinity  College  in  that  city  1862; 
became  rector  of  St.  Luke's  Church  in  Mon- 
treal; was  dean  of  Montreal  1882-83;  and  in  the 
last  year  was  made  Bishop  of  Huron.  He 
published  'Break  in  the  Ocean  Cable'  'Life  in 
a    Look,'    etc. 

Baldwin,  Robert,  Canadian  statesman: 
b.  Toronto,  12  May  1804;  d.  there,  9  Dec.  1858. 
He  began  to  practise  law  in  1825,  and  four 
years  later  became  a  member  of  the  Assembly 
of  Upper  Canada.  He  was  solicitor-general 
in  1840  and  premier  and  attorney-general  of  Up- 
per Canada  1842-43.  He  was  long  prominent 
as  a  Reform  leader  in  Canada,  but  retired  from 
office   in   1851. 

Baldwin,  Simeon  Eben,  American  jurist: 
b.  New  ^  Haven,  Conn.,  5  Feb.  1840.  He  is  a 
great-grandson  of  Roger  Sherman,  a  signer  of 
the  Declaration  of  Independence,  and  great- 
great-grandson  of  President  Clap,  of  Yale.  His 
father  was  a  United  States  senator  and  gover- 
nor of  Connecticut.  Judge  Baldwin  graduated 
from  Yale  1861,  and  from  the  Harvard  Law 
School  1863.  Settling  in  New  Haven  he  rapidly 
acquired  a  large  general  practice,  in  which  he 
continued  until  1893.  Since  1872  he  has  held 
a  professorship  in  the  Yale  Law  School,  and 
since  1893  he  has  been  an  associate  justice  of 
the  Connecticut  supreme  court  of  errors.  As  a 
legal  writer  he  has  a  wide  reputation  in  the 
United  States  and  abroad,  through  his  contri- 
butions to  leading  law  journals.  He  is  the 
author  of  'Digest  of  Connecticut  Reports'  (2 
vols.  1871-82;  revision,  2  vols.  1900):  'Illus- 
trated Cases  on  Railroad  Law'  ;  and  'Modern 
Political  Institutions'    (1899). 

Baldwin,  Stephen  Livingston,  American 
missionary:  b.  1835;  d.  1902.  He  went  to 
China  as  a  missionary  under  the  auspices  of  the 
Methodist  Episcopal  Church,  and  on  his  return 
to  the  United  States  he  held  several  pastorates. 
While  in  China  he  translated  a  large  part  of 
the  Bible  into  Chinese,  and,  it  is  said,  printed 
the  first  copy  of  the  Bible  in  that  language. 

Baldwin,  Theodore  A.,  American  military 
officer :  b.  New  Jersey,  21  Dec.  1839.  He  en- 
tered the  army  as  a  private  3  May  1862,  and 
served  in  that  grade  and  as  quartermaster- 
sergeant  in  the  19th  U.  S.  Infantry  till  31  May 
1865,  when  he  became  first  lieutenant.  He  was 
promoted  captain  23  July  1867;  major,  7th 
Cavalry,  5  Oct.  1887;  lieutenant-colonel,  loth 
Cavalry,  11  Dec.  1896;  and  colonel,  7th  Cavalry, 
6  May  1899.  From  6  Oct.  1898  till  31  Jan.  1899 
he  served  as  a  brigadier-general  of  volunteers. 

Baldwin,  Thomas,  Baptist  minister:  b. 
Norwich,  Conn.,  23  Dec.  1753 ;  d.  29  Aug.  1825. 
His  early  culture  was  very  limited ;  yet  he  ac- 
quired   a    reputation    for    scholarship.      At    an 


BALDWIN  —  BALESTIER 


early  age  he  removed  to  Canaan,  N.  H.,  where, 
becoming  converted,  he  joined  the  Baptist 
Church  in  1781  and  became  one  of  the  most 
energetic  supporters  of  its  tenets,  and  one  of 
the  ablest  advocates  of  its  civil  rights.  In 
1782  he  was  licensed  to  preach,  and  in  1783  was 
ordained  pastor  of  the  church  in  Canaan,  serv- 
ing for  seven  years.  In  1790  he  was  called  to 
the  Second  Baptist  Church  of  Boston  and 
served  there  till  his  death.  He  took  a  prominent 
part  in  the  establishment  of  Waterville  College, 
Me.,  and  of  Columbian  College,  Washington, 
D.  C.  He  was  several  times  elected  to  the 
State  legislature  and  was  a  member  of  the 
convention  of  1821  to  revise  the  Massachusetts 
Constitution.  He  published  a  volume  in  defense 
of  Baptist  tenets. 

Baldwin,  William  Henry,  American  cap- 
italist and  philanthropist :  b.  Boston,  Mass.,  5 
Feb.  1863 ;  d.  Locust  Valley,  L.  I.,  2  Jan.  1905. 
He  was  graduated  at  Harvard  College  in  1885, 
and  studied  for  a  year  at  the  Harvard  Law 
School.  He  then  entered  the  Omaha  auditor's 
office  of  the  Union  Pacific  Railway  as  a  clerk ; 
in  less  than  a  year  he  was  promoted  general 
traffic  manager  at  Omaha ;  in  1888  he  became 
assistant  general  freight  agent  for  the  Union 
Pacific ;  in  1889-90  he  was  president  of  the 
^Montana  Union  Railroad ;  and  in  1890  was 
elected  assistant  vice-president  of  the  Union 
Pacific.  In  1891  he  entered  the  service  of  the 
Flint  &  Pere  Marquette  Railroad  as  general 
manager;  and  in  1894  became  third  vice-presi- 
dent of  the  Southern  Railway,  and  in  1895  sec- 
ond vice-president  and  general  traffic  manager 
of  the  same  road.  In  1896  he  was  chosen 
president  of  the  Long  Island  Railroad;  his  ad- 
ministration was  particularly  efficient  and 
marked  by  a  rapid  growth  of  the  road,  and  the 
completion  of  a  number  of  improvements.  He 
was  actively  interested  in  reform  movements 
in  New  York  city,  and  served  as  chairman  of  the 
Committee  of  Fifteen  appointed  in  1900;  and 
was  also  a  leader  in  the  Southern  educational 
movement,  being  president  of  the  General  Edu- 
cation Board,  a  member  of  the  Southern  Educa- 
tion Board,  and  a  trustee  of  Tuskegee  Insti- 
tute. 

Bale,  John,  an  English  ecclesiastic:  b. 
Suffolk,  1495.  Although  educated  a  Roman 
Catholic,  he  became  a  Protestant,  and  had  to 
take  refuge  in  the  Netherlands.  On  the  acces- 
sion of  Edward  VI.  he  returned  to  England, 
was  presented  to  the  living  of  Bishop's  Stoke. 
Southampton,  and  soon  after  was  nominated 
Bishop  of  Ossory,  in  Ireland.  Here,  on  preach- 
ing the  reformed  religion,  popular  fury  reached 
such  a  pitch  that  in  one  tumult  five  of  his 
domestics  were  murdered  in  his  presence.  On 
the  accession  of  Mary  he  lay  some  time  con- 
cealed in  Dublin.  After  enduring  many  hard- 
ships he  was  enabled  to  reach  Switzerland, 
where  he  remained  till  the  death  of  Mary.  On 
his  return  to  England  he  contented  himself  with 
the  calm  enjoyment  of  a  prebendal  stall  at 
Canterbury,  where  he  closed  his  stormy  life  in 
1563.  He  was  so  bitter  a  controversialist  that 
he  earned  the  title  of  "Bilious  Bale.»  The  only 
work  which  has  given  him  distinction  arnong 
-authors  is  his  ^Scriptorum  Illustrium  Majoris 
Britanise  Catalogus^  ;  or  'An  Account  of  the 
Lives  of  Eminent  Writers  of  Britain.'  This 
account,    which,    according    to    the    title,    com- 


mences with  Japhet  the  son  of  Noah,  reaches 
to  the  year  1557,  at  which  time  the  author  was 
an  exile  on  the  Continent.  It  is  compiled  from 
various  writers,  but  chiefly  from  the  antiquary 
Leland. 

Bale,  bill.     See  Basel. 

Balearic   (bal-e-ar'ik)    Crane.     See    Cr.\ne. 

Bal'earic  Islands,  a  group  of  five  islands, 
southeast  of  Spain,  including  Majorca,  Minorca, 
Iviza,  and  Formentera.  The  popular  derivation 
of  the  ancient  name  Baleares  (Greek  ballein, 
to  throw),  has  reference  to  the  repute  of  the 
inhabitants  for  their  skill  in  slinging,  in  which 
they  distinguished  themselves  both  in  the  army 
of  Hannibal  and  under  the  Romans,  by  whom 
the  islands  were  annexed  in  123  B.C.  After  be- 
ing taken  by  the  Vandals  under  Genseric,  and 
in  the  8th  century  by  the  Moors,  they  were 
taken  by  James  I.,  king  of  Aragon,  1220-34.  and 
constituted  a  kingdom  which  in  1375  was  united 
to  Spain.  The  islands  now  form  a  Spanish 
province,  with  an  area  of  1,860  square  miles. 
Pop.  (1897)  306,926. 

Balechou,  ba-la-shoo,  Jean  Jacques  Nico- 
las, celebrated  French  engraver:  b.  Aries, 
1715;  d.  Avignon,  18  Aug.  1765.  His  full-length 
portrait  of  Augustus,  king  of  Poland,  has  been 
proclaimed  the  masterpiece  of  the  kind  in  the 
i8th  century.  But  Balechou  dishonestly  sold 
the  best  proofs  for  his  own  benefit,  and  was 
consequently  expelled  from  the  Academy  of 
Fine  Arts. 

Baleen',     See  Whalebone. 

Baleen  Whales,  the  group  of  whales  whose 

mouths  are  furnished  with  a  growth  of  baleen 
or  whalebone  (q.v.).  They  form  a  sub-order 
Mysticeti  of  the  Cetacea,  which  includes  the 
families  Balanopteridcc  or  rorquals,  and  Bal- 
cenidce,  the  right  whales.  Tliese  whales  are 
known  in  all  oceans  and  form  an  important 
object  of  the  chase.  See  Humpback;  Right 
Whale;  Rorqual;  Whale;  etc. 

Bal'er,  Philippines,  a  town  in  the  north- 
east part  of  Luzon.  The  population  is  several 
thousand,  mostly  natives.  The  most  conspicu- 
ous edifice  is  a  native  Catholic  church.  The 
town  is  noted  for  the  heroic  defense  of  a  Span- 
ish garrison  in  1899,  during  a  siege  by  the 
Filipinos,  lasting  11  months.  The  Spaniards 
were  commanded  by  Lieut.  Saturnino  Martin 
Cerezo,  who  refused  to  surrender  the  town, 
even  when  directed  to  do  so  by  his  superiors 
in  Manila.  He  entrenched  himself  in  the 
church  and  heroically  resisted  the  besiegers 
until  his  supplies  gave  out,  when  he  surrendered 
with  all  the  honors  of  war,  2  July  1899.  Baker 
was  occupied  by  the  American  troops  and  gar 
risoned  with  two  companies  of  the  34th  Volun- 
teer Infantry,  under  Major  Shunk.  in  March 
1900. 

Balestier,  bal-es-ter'.  Charles  Wolcott, 
American  novelist:  b.  Rochester.  N.  Y.,  13  Dec. 
1861 ;  d.  6  Dec.  1891.  He  studied  at  Cornell 
University,  and  became  connected  with  a  New 
York  publishing  house.  His  writings,  which 
deal  largely  with  frontier  life  in  Colorado,  in- 
clude <The  Naulahka,'  written  in  collaboration 
with  Rudyard  Kipling,  his  brother-in-law; 
'Benefits  Forgot'  (1892),  and  a  'Life  of  JameS 
G.  Blaine.' 


BALESTRA  —  BALFOUR 


Balestra,  ba-les'tra,  Antonio,  an  Italian 
painter:  b.  Verona.  1666;  d.  there,  21  April  1740. 
He  became  a  pupil  of  Belucci,  in  Venice,  and 
subsequently  studied  in  Rome  under  Carlo  Ma- 
ratti.  He  executed  the  ^Defeat  of  the  Giants,^ 
which  took  the  prize  at  the  Academy  of  St. 
Luke  in  1694.  In  1695  he  left  Rome  for  Venice, 
where  he  became  the  head  of  a  school,  and 
counted  many  distinguished  names  among  his 
pupils.  His  works  are  found  in  many  of  the 
galleries  and  churches  of  northern  Italy. 
Among  his  paintings  are  *^  Saint  Theresa,'  at 
Bergamo,  a  'Virgin,'  at  Mantua;  and  a  por- 
trait of  himself,  at  Florence.  He  was  among 
the  last  of  the  Venetian  school  of  artists. 

Balfe,  half,  Michael  William,  British  com- 
poser: b.  Dublin,  15  May  1808;  d.  20  Oct.  1870. 
He  received  his  first  instructions  in  music  from 
his  father  and  Charles  Horn.  In  his  7th  year 
he  performed  one  of  Viotti's  concertos  before 
the  public ;  at  16  he  performed  the  part  of  the 
Wicked  Huntsman  in  'Der  Freischiitz'  at  Dru- 
ry  Lane.  In  1825  he  went  to  Italy,  wrote  the 
music  for  a  ballet,  'La  Peyrouse,'  for  the  Scala 
at  Naples,  and  in  the  following  year  fulfilled 
an  engagement  to  sing  at  the  Theatre-Italien, 
Paris,  with  moderate  success.  He  returned  to 
Italy,  and  at  Palermo  (1830)  his  first  opera, 
'I  Rivali,'  was  produced.  For  five  years,  with 
somewhat  careless  haste,  he  continued  singing 
and  composing  sundry  operas  for  the  Italian 
stage,  which  are  now  forgotten.  In  1835  he 
came  to  England  and  had  his  'Siege  of  Ro- 
chelle'  brought  out  at  Drury  Lane.  It  hit  the 
popular  taste,  and  was  quickly  followed  by 
others  equally  successful  in  this  respect.  Part 
of  this  success  was  no  doubt  due  to  the  great 
artistes  who  took  the  leading  characters.  Mali- 
bran,  Grisi,  Lablache,  Rubini,  and  other  stars 
of  that  time ;  but  the  works  had  high  merits 
of  their  own,  being  marked  by  brilliancy,  mel- 
ody, and  fertility  of  invention.  In  1846  he  was 
appointed  conductor  of  the  London  Italian 
Opera.  If  Balfe  was  wanting  in  depth  and 
dramatic  force,  he  had  a  very  thorough  know- 
ledge of  efifects  and  command  of  orchestral  re- 
sources; and  his  compositions  are  distinguished 
by  fluency,  facility,  and  melodic  power.  His 
operas  continue  popular  in  England  and  else- 
where, among  the  chief  being  'The  Bohemian 
GirP  (the  most  popular  of  all),  'The  Rose  of 
Castile'  ;  'The  Daughter  of  St.  Mark'  ;  and 
'Satanella.'  His  posthumous  opera,  <The 
Talisman,'  was  brought  out  in  London  in 
June   1874,  with  great  success. 

Balfour,  bal'foor,  or  bal'fer,  Alexander, 
Scottish  novelist  and  poet :  b.  Monikie,  i  March 
1767;  d.  12  Sept.  1829.  He  was  a  frequent  con- 
tributor to  periodicals,  and  was  author  of 
'Campbell;  or  the  Scottish  Probationer' 
(1819)  ;  'Contemplations,  and  Other  Poems' 
(1820);  'Farmer's  Three  Daughters'  (1822); 
'The  Foundling  of  Glenthorn ;  or  the  Smug- 
gler's Cave' (1823)  ;' Highland  Mary' (1827),  etc. 

Balfour,  Sir  Andrew,  Scottish  botanist 
and  physician:  b.  Fifeshire,  1630;  d.  1694.  Af- 
ter completing  his  studies  at  St.  Andrews  and 
London,  and  traveling  on  the  Continent,  he 
settled  at  Edinburgh,  where  he  planned,  with 
Sir  Robert  Sibbald,  the  Royal  College  of  Phy- 
sicians, and  was  elected  its  first  president. 
Shortly  before  his  death  he  laid  the  foundation 
of  a  hospital    in  Edinburgh,   which,  though  at 


first  narrow  and  confined,  expanded  into  the 
Royal  Infirmary.  His  familiar  'Letters'  were 
published   in    1700. 

Balfour,  Right  Hon.  Arthur  James,  Eng- 
lish statesman:  b.  Scotland  (son  of  Mr.  Bal- 
four of  Whittinghame,  Haddingtonshire,  and 
a  daughter  of  the  second  Marquis  of  Salis- 
bury) 25  July  1848.  He  was  educated  at  Eton 
and  Trinity  College,  Cambridge,  where  he  took 
his  M.A.  degree  in  1873.  He  entered  Parlia- 
ment in  1874,  sitting  for  Hertford  from  that 
time  till  1885,  since  which  he  has  represented 
East  Manchester.  He  acted  as  private  secre- 
tary to  his  uncle  the  Marquis  of  Salisbury  at 
the  Foreign  Office  during  the  period  to  which 
the  Berlin  Treaty  belongs  (1878-80),  and  ac- 
companied him  to  Berlin.  He  was  president  of 
the  Local  Government  Board  from  June  1885 
till  the  beginning  of  the  following  year,  and 
from  July  1886  till  March  1887  he  discharged 
the  duties  of  secretary  for  Scotland.  He 
showed  much  ability  as  chief  secretary  for  Ire- 
land 1887-91,  passing  the  Crimes  Act  and  the 
Law  Act,  securing  a  free  grant  for  railways, 
and  creating  the  Congested  l3istricts  Board,  but 
resigned  this  post  in  order  to  succeed  Mr.  W. 
H.  Smith,  who  had  lately  died,  as  leader  of  the 
House  of  Commons  and  first  lord  of  the  treas- 
ury. On  the  defeat  of  the  Unionist  party  at  the 
general  election  in  1892  he  relinquished  this 
office,  but  returned  to  it  when  the  Unionists 
again  came  into  power  in  the  autumn  of  1895. 
On  the  resignation  of  Lord  Salisbury  12  July 
1902  Mr.  Balfour  became  prime  minister,  but 
resigned  with  his  Cabinet  on  4  Dec.  1905.  He 
was  returned  to  Parliament  from  London  on  27 
Feb.  1906,  by  a  majority  of  11,340.  In  1886  he 
was  elected  lord  rector  of  St.  Andrew's  University, 
in  1890  the  Glasgow  students  did  him  similar 
honor  and  in  1888  he  became  a  Fellow  of  the 
Royal  Society.  He  acted  as  chairman  of  Lhe 
commission  on  the  subject  of  bimetallism  in 
1887.  In  1879  he  published  <A  Defense  of  Philo- 
sophic Doubt';  in  1893  a  volume  of  <  Essays  and 
Addresses';  and  in  1895  'The  Foundations  of 
Belief,  being  Notes  Introductory  to  the  Study  of 
Theology.  > 

Bal'four,  Francis  Maitland,  embryologist: 
brother  of  the  foregoing,  b.  1851.  He  studied 
at  Harrow  and  Trinity  College,  Cambridge. 
Articles  on  his  special  study  gained  him  a  high 
reputation  while  still  an  undergraduate,  and 
after  further  work  at  Naples  he  published  in 
1874,  in  conjunction  with  Dr.  M.  Foster.  'Ele- 
ments of  Embryology,  a  valuable  contribution 
to  the  literature  of  biology.  He  was  elected  a 
fellow  of  his  college;  fellow  and  member  of 
council  of  the  Royal  Society ;  lecturer  on,  and 
finally,  in  1882,  professor  of,  animal  morphology 
at  Cambridge,  a  chair  specially  instituted  for 
him.  The  promise  of  his  chief  work,  'Com- 
parative Embryology'  (1880-1)  was- unfulfilled, 
as  19  July  1882  he  was  killed  by  a  fall  on  Mont 
Blanc. 

Balfour,  Right  Hon.  Gerald  William,  Eng- 
lish statesman :  b.  1853  (brother  to  the  two  pre- 
ceding). He  was  educated  at  Eton  and 
Trinity  College,  Cambridge,  entered  Parliament 
in  1885,  and  was  chief  secretary  for  Ireland  in 
the  Unionist  ministry  from  1895-1900;  and 
President  of  the  Board  of  Trade,  1900-1905. 
He  piloted  the  Irish  Local  Government  Bill  o£ 
1898  through  the  House  of  Commons. 


ARTHUR  T.  BALFOUR. 


BALFOUR  —  BALILING 


Balfour,  Isaac  Bayley,  Scottish  botanist: 
b.  Edinburgh,  31  March  1853.  He  was  profes- 
sor of  botany  in  the  University  of  Glasgow 
1879-84.  at  Oxford  University  1884-88,  and 
since  1888  at  the  University  of  Edinburgh.  He 
explored  the  island  of  Socotra  in  1880,  in  behalf 
of  the  British  Association  and  of  the  Royal 
Society  of  Edinburgh.  He  is  Kiag's  botanist 
in  Scotland  and  keeper  of  the  Royal  Botanic 
Garden   in   Edinburgh. 

Balfour,  Sir  James,  Scottish  lawyer,  ana 
a  conspicuous  actor  in  the  civil  wars  which 
■ended  in  the  dethronement  of  Mary,  Queen  of 
Scots :  b.  Fifeshire,  Scotland,  about  the  begin- 
ning of  the  i6th  century;  d.  1583.  Originally 
brought  up  in  the  Roman  Catholic  Church,  he 
had  espoused  the  Protestant  cause,  and  in  1547, 
for  his  share  in  the  conspiracy  against  Cardinal 
Beaton,  he  was,  with  Knox  and  other  reformers 
condemned  to  the  galleys.  After  his  escape 
and  return  to  Scotland,  the  cause  of  Protestant- 
ism was  apparently  declining,  and  Balfour  ab- 
jured his  heresies  and  returned  to  his  former 
faith.  His  abilities  and  tact  gained  him  ap- 
pointments and  he  was  high  in  office  on  the 
arrival  of  Mary  in  Scotland,  and  was  with  the 
queen  at  Holyrood  on  the  night  of  Rizzio's 
assassination.  Popular  rumor  assigned  to  Bal- 
four a  prominent  share  in  the  murder  of  Lord 
Darnley,  Mary's  husband,  but  he  contrived  to 
outlive  all  suspicion.  In  1567  he  was  appointed 
captain  of  Edinburgh  castle.  A  change  in  Bal- 
four's convictions  was  forced  upon  him,  for  he 
saw  that  a  powerful  party  had  been  formed 
against  Mary  and  the  policy  of  an  alliance 
with  them  overcame  all  scruples.  He  held  the 
castle  of  Edinburgh  against  the  queen,  and  was 
the  means  of  delivering  up  Mary's  letters  into 
the  hands  of  her  enemies.  He  afterward  sur- 
rendered the  castle  for  various  considerations. 
On  the  breaking  out  of  the  civil  war  Balfour 
sided  with  the  regent  Murray,  but  after  Mary's 
imprisonment  in  England  he  took  part  in  con- 
spiracies for  her  restoration,  although  at  the 
time  professing  adherence  to  the  regents  Mur- 
ray and  Morton.  His  last  public  act  was  fur- 
nishing the  evidence  of  Morton's  guilt  in  the 
murder  of  Darnley,  for  which  Morton  was  con- 
demned and  executed.  The  ^Practicks  of 
Scots  Law^  attributed  to  him,  continued  to  be 
used  and  consulted  in  manuscript  for  nearly  a 
century  until  it  was  supplanted  by  the  ^Insti- 
tutes of  Lord  Stair.* 

Balfour,  James,  Canadian  architect:  b. 
Hamilton,  Ont.,  1852.  He  acquired  his  educa- 
tion in  Canada  and  Edinburgh  and  began  the 
practice  of  his  profession  in  his  native  city. 
Among  notable  buildings  of  his  designing  are 
the  Boys'  Home  and  City  Hall,  in  Hamilton; 
Alma  Ladies'  College,  St.  Thomas ;  and  the 
Museum  of  Art,  Detroit,  Mich. 

Balfour,  John  (of  Kinlock,  or  of  Bur- 
ley),  one  of  the  chief  actors  in  the  assassination 
•of  Archbishop  Sharp  in  1679,  for  which  his  es- 
tate was  forfeited  and  a  price  set  on  his  head. 
He  fought  at  Drumclog  and  Both  well  Bridge, 
and  is  said  afterward  to  have  escaped  to  Hol- 
land. According  to  one  account  he  died  on  a 
homeward  voyage  to  Scotland ;  by  another  he 
never  left  the  country,  but  settled  in  the  parish 
of  Roseneath,  Dumbartonshire.  He  is  described 
by  Scott  in  <OId  Mortality. >  Balfour  of  Kin- 
lock  is  quite  a  difterent  personage  from  Lord 


Balfour  of  Burleigh,  who  succeeded  to  the  title 
in  1663,  spent  his  youth  in  France,  and  died  in 
1C88. 

Balfour,  John  Hutton,  Scotch  botanist:  b. 
Edinburgh,  15  Sept.  1808;  d.  11  Feb.  1884.  He 
graduated  at  Edinburgh  University  in  arts  and 
in  medicine;  in  1841-5  was  professor  of  botany 
in  Glasgow  University ;  and  in  the  latter  year 
removed  to  Edinburgh  to  occupy  a  similar  post, 
resigning  his  chair  in  1879.  He  wrote  valuable 
botanical  text-books,  including  'Elements,* 
'Outlines,*  'Manual,*  and  'Class-book,*  beside 
various   other   works. 

Balfour,  Nesbit,  British  military  officer: 
b.  Dunbog,  Scotland,  1743;  d.  same  place,  Oc- 
tober 1823.  He  was  promoted  lieutenant-gen- 
eral 1798  and  general  1803;  distinguished  him- 
self during  the  American  Revolution ;  was 
wounded  in  the  battle  of  Bunker  Hill;  fought 
at  the  battles  of  Elizabethtown,  Brandywine, 
Germantown,  and  Long  Island ;  and  was  pres- 
ent at  the  capture  of  New  York.  He  was  ap- 
pointed commandant  at  Charlestown  in  1779. 

Balfrush,  bal-froosh',  or  Barfurush  ("mart 
of  burdens"),  a  town  in  the  Persian  province  of 
Mazanderan,  on  the  river  Bhawal,  12  miles 
from  the  Caspian  Sea.  Balfrush  is  a  centre  of 
trade  between  Russia  and  Persia,  exporting 
large  quantities  of  silk,  rice,  and  cotton,  while 
the  Russians  supply  iron  and  naphtha.  It  has 
excellent  bazaars,  numerous  caravanserais,  and 
several  Mohammedan  colleges.  Pop.  about 
50,000. 

Balg,  balg,  Gerhard  Hubert,  philologist:  b. 
Scandinavia,  about  1850.  He  graduated  at  the 
University  of  Wisconsin,  and  resides  at  May- 
ville,  in  that  State.  He  has  translated  W. 
Braune's  'Gothic  Grammar,  with  Selections  and 
Glossary*  (1883)  ;  edited  'The  First  Germanic 
Bible,  and  Other  Remains  of  the  Gothic  Lan- 
guage with  Introduction  and  Glossary*  (1891); 
and  compiled  'A  Comparative  Glossary  of  the 
Gothic  Language,  with  Especial  Reference  to 
English  and  German*   (1887-9). 

Bali,  ba'le,  or  Bally,  an  island  of  the  Indian 
Archipelago,  belonging  to  Holland,  and  lying 
east  of  Java.  Its  greatest  length  is  85  miles ; 
breadth,  55  miles ;  area,  about  2,260  square 
miles.  It  consists  chiefly  of  a  series  of  volcanic 
mountains,  of  which  the  loftiest,  Agoong 
(11,326  feet),  became  active  in  1843  after  a  long 
period  of  quiescence.  Principal  products,  rice, 
cocoa,  coffee,  indigo,  cotton,  etc.  The  people 
are  akin  to  those  of  Java  and  are  mostly 
Brahmins  in  religion.  It  is  divided  into  eight 
provinces  under  native  rajahs,  and  forms  one 
colony  with  Lombok,  the  united  population 
being  estimated,  in  1807.  at  1.044,757. 

Balikesri,  ba-le-kes're,  Balu-kissar,  or 
Balik-Shehr,  a  town  of  Anatolia,  75  miles 
southwest  from  Brusa.  It  is  built  of  unburnt 
bricks  and  contains  the  tomb  of  a  celebrated 
Mohammedan  saint  and  a  manufactory  of  felt 
cloth  for  military  clothing.  It  has  considerable 
trade  in  silk  fabrics.     Pop.  over  12,000. 

Ba'liling,  a  principality  of  the  island  of 
Bali ;  pop.  130.000.  The  exports  are  rice  and 
bullocks,  and  the  chief  trade  is  with  the  Bughis 
of  Celebes.  In  1847  the  Dutch  were  signally 
defeated  in  an  attack  upon  the  fort  of  Djaga 
Raga  in  this  principality. 


BALINAG  — BALKAN  PENINSULA 


Balinag,  ba-le-nag',  Philippines,  a  town  of 
the  province  of  Bulacan,  Luzon.  Pop.  (i8g8) 
14,122. 

Baliol,  ba'li-61,  Edward,  a  king  of  Scot- 
land, son  of  John  Baliol  of  Scotland ;  d.  Don- 
caster,  1363.  In  1322  he  made  a  successful  in- 
vasion of  Scotland  and  on  24  September  of  that 
year  was  crowned  king  of  Scotland  at  Scone. 
Having  privately  rendered  homage  to  Edward 
III.  of  England,  he  was  routed  by  a  party  of 
Scottish  nobles  and  dispossessed  of  his  crown 
after  a  reign  of  three  months.  He  regained  it 
the  next  year,  but  was  henceforth  an  instrument 
of  Edward. 

Baliol,  or  Balliol,  John,  king  of  Scot- 
land: b.  about  1249;  d.  1315.  On  the  death  of 
Princess  Margaret  of  N.)rway,  grandchild  of 
Alexander  III.,  in  1290,  Baliol  claimed  the 
vacant  throne  by  virtue  of  his  descent  from 
David,  Earl  of  Huntington,  brother  to  William 
the  Lion,  king  of  Scotland.  Robert  Bruce 
(grandfather  of  the  king)  opposed  Baliol ;  but 
Edward  I.'s  decision  was  in  favor  of  Baliol, 
who  did  homage  to  him  for  the  kingdom,  20 
Nov.  1292.  Irritated  by  Edward's  harsh  exer- 
cise of  authority,  Baliol  concluded  a  treaty  with 
France,  then  at  war  with  England ;  but,  after 
the  defeat  at  Dunbar,  he  surrendered  his  crown 
into  the  hands  of  the  English  monarch.  He 
was  sent  with  his  son  to  the  Tower,  but,  by 
the  intercession  of  the  Pope  in  1297,  obtained 
liberty  to  retire  to  his  Norman  estates,  where 
he  died. 

Baliol,  or  Balliol,  John,  father  of  King 
John  Baliol,  an  English  baron  in  the  reign  of 
Henry  III. :  d.  1269.  In  1263  he  laid  the  foun- 
dation of  Balliol  College  (q.v.),  Oxford,  which 
was  completed  by  his  widow,  Devorguila  or 
Devorgilla.  She  was  daughter  and  co-heiress 
of  Allan  of  Galloway,  a  great  baron  of  Scot- 
land, by  Margaret,  eldest  daughter  of  David, 
Earl  of  Huntington,  brother  of  William  the 
Lion.  It  was  on  the  strength  of  this  genealogy 
that  his  son,  John  Baliol,  became  temporary 
king  of  Scotland. 

Baliol,  Martha  Bethune,  the  imaginary 
narrator  of  several  of  Sir  Walter  Scott's 
*  Chronicles  of  the  Canongate.^ 

Baliol  College.     See  Balliol  College. 

Balisarda,  ba-le-sar'da,  a  magic  sword  in 
Ariosto's  ^Orlando  Furio'so,'  stolen  from  Or- 
lando by  Brunello,  and  afterward  given  to 
Rogero. 

Balisaur,  bal-T-sa'oor  (Hindu,  halloo- 
soor),  the  sand-badger  of  India,  called  by  Hin- 
dus the  pig-like  badger  or  «sand-hog,»  on  ac- 
count of  its  long  snout.    See  Sand-Badger. 

Balis'ta,  or  Ballista,  a  machine  used  in 
military  operations  by  the  ancients  for  hurling 
heavy  missiles,  thus  serving  in  some  degree 
the  purpose  of  the  modern  cannon.  The  motive 
power  appears  to  have  been  obtained  bv  the 
torsion_  of  ropes,  fibres,  catgut,  or  hair.  They 
are  said  to  have  sometimes  had  an  effective 
range  of  a  quarter  of  a  mile,  and  to  have  thrown 
stones  weighing  as  much  as  300  pounds.  Balis- 
tce  differed  from  catapults,  m  that  the  latter 
were  used  for  throwing  darts. 

Balize,  ba-lez'.      See  Belize. 


Balkan  bfil-kiin',  or  bal'kan,  Mountains, 
(anciently  called  Hccmus),  a  lofty  and  rugged 
mountain  range,  extending  from  Cape  Em- 
ineh  Burum  on  the  Black  Sea.  in  eastern 
Roumelia,  in  a  westerly  direction  to  the 
borders  of  Servia,  and  forming  the  south- 
ern boundary  of  the  basin  of  the  Dan- 
ube. In  the  west  it  is  connected  with  the 
much  ramified  mountain-system  of  the  south- 
eastern peninsula  of  Europe.  Its  length  is  over 
200  miles ;  the  average  elevation  is  about  3,000 
feet,  but  the  group  of  the  Khoja  Balkans  in 
the  west  have  a  mean  height  of  6,500  feet. 
The  highest  summit  is  Jumrukchal,  7,786  feet. 
The  Balkan  forms  the  watershed  between  the 
streams  flowing  northward  into  the  Danube,  and 
these  flowing  southward  to  the  ^Egean.  The 
chief  of  the  latter  is  the  Maritza.  The  range, 
which  has  a  gradual  descent  on  the  north,  pre- 
sents on  the  south  a  somewhat  steep  escarp- 
ment, and  has  always  been  considered  the  great- 
est natural  bulwark  of  the  Ottoman  empire 
against  enemies  on  the  European  frontiers. 
Yet  in  the  Russo-Turkish  war  of  1877-8  the 
Russian  troops  managed  to  cross  it  without 
any  great  difficulty,  although  they  had  to  en- 
counter a  stubborn  resistance  at  Shipka  Pass 
(4,370  feet).  Here  a  Turkish  army  of  32,000 
men  surrendered  to  the  Russians.  The  range 
now  forms  the  southern  frontier  of  Bulgaria, 
dividing  it  from  eastern  Rumelia.  The  whole 
of  the  southeastern  peninsula  of  Europe  is 
known  as  the  Balkan   Peninsula. 

Balkan  Peninsula,  a  region  thus  named 
after  the  Balkan  (Turkish  "high  ridge"),  the 
ancient  Hasnius  (Greek  6  AI/jlos)  an  import- 
ant mountain  range  in  southeastern  Europe.  It 
is  the  southeasternmost  of  the  three  great 
southern  peninsulas  of  Europe,  each  of  which  is 
named  after  the  central  mountain  system  form- 
ing its  backbone ;  namely,  the  Tyrenean,  the 
Apennine,  and  the  Balkan  peninsulas.  The 
northern  boundary  of  the  latter  is  not  as  clearly 
defined  as  that  of  the  other  two  great  peninsulas 
separated  from  central  Europe  by  the  gigantic 
mountain  barriers  of  the  Pyrenees  and  the  Alps. 
Assuming  that  rivers  also  form  a  natural  bound- 
ary, the  Balkan  Peninsula  ends  on  the  right 
bank  of  the  Danube  and  her  tributaries,  the 
Save  and  the  Una ;  it  is  bounded  on  the  west  by 
the  Adriatic  and  the  Ionian  seas,  on  the  east 
by  the  Black  or  Euxine  and  the  ^^igean.  In  a 
broader  designation,  however,  the  northern 
boundary  is  assumed  to  be  the  parallel  of  45°  N., 
adding  to  the  peninsula  more  than  one  half  of 
Rumania  (Wallachia  and  Dobrudja)  and  a  part 
of  Austria  (Dalmatia  and  a  section  of  Croatia). 
Excluding  the  territory  between  45°  N.  and 
the  Danube,  the  peninsula  comprises  an  area  of 
about  175,000  square  miles,  which  contains  Eu- 
ropean Turkey  proper  with  Novibazar,  a  Turk- 
ish district  under  Austrian  military  control.  Bos- 
nia, and  Herzegovina  (temporarily  occupied  by 
Austria ;  Montenegro,  Servia,  Bulgaria,  an  au- 
tonomous and  tributary  principality,  with  east- 
ern Rumelia,  under  the  suzerainty  of  Turkey 
and  Greece.  No  other  country  in  Europe  is  so 
richly  provided  with  gulfs  and  excellent  har- 
bors of  commercial  and  naval  strategic  value. 
An  archipelago  of  numberless  islands,  the  Cy- 
clades  and  Sporades  of  ancient  fame,  forms  a 
continuous  bridge  between  the  Balkan  Peninsula 
and  Asia  Minor.  The  Black  Sea  is  connected 
with  the  Sea  of  Marmora  through  the  Bosporus, 


BALKH 


a  channel  about  20  miles  long,  and  so  narrow 
that  Constantinople,  at  the  southwest  extremity 
of  the  Thracian  Bosporus,  is  but  one  mile  dis- 
tant from  the  Asiatic  city  of  Scutari,  eastward 
across  the  Bosporus.  The  Sea  of  Marmora  is 
linked  with  the  yEgean  by  the  Dardanelles  with 
an  average  width  between  three  and  four  miles. 
The  Balkan  Mountains,  a  continuation  of  the 
Carpathian  Mountain  system,  extend  in  a  varied 
formation  from  the  Adriatic  to  the  Euxine, 
breaking  up  in  their  advance  eastward  into  sev- 
eral parallel  chains  with  many  more  or  less, 
strong  spurs  north  and  south ;  several  ranges 
extend  southward  almost  to  the  ^gean :  the 
Perim  Dagh  and  the  ancient  Rhodope  Moun- 
tains or  Despoto  Dagh.  They  are  frequently 
broken  by  defiles  or  passes  of  a  different  de- 
grees of  serviceableness  as  routes.  The  princi- 
pal passes  are  the  Nadir-Derbend,  Karnabad, 
the  Basardshik-Sophia,  the  Trajan,  Rosalitha, 
and  Shipka,  the  latter  famed  by  the  heroic 
struggles  between  the  Russians  and  Turks  in 
1877.  The  principal  range  of  the  Balkans  is 
thus  divided  into  several  sections,  like  the 
Etropol,  Kodja,  and  Shipka  Balkans,  and  forms 
the  boundary  between  Bulgaria  and  Rumelia. 
The  main  elevation  of  the  chain  is  from  4,000  to 
5,000  feet,  but  it  rises  much  higher  in  various 
parts,  the  loftiest  elevation  of  9,700  feet  above 
sea-level  being  reached  by  Mount  Scargus  in  the 
Char  Dagh.  The  Balkans  are  rich  in  minerals, 
especially  rock  salt,  lead,  iron-ore,  copper,  sil- 
ver, but  the  treasures  of  the  soil  are  yet  very 
imperfectly  known  in  spite  of  the  geological  re- 
searches, undertaken  by  German,  French,  and 
other  travelers  and  scientists.  The  mountains 
are  mostly  of  a  granite  formation,  but  the 
mountain  system  is  very  complicated,  and  its 
geologic  and  geostratic  connections  are  hard  to 
determine.  There  are  numerous  thermal  and 
sulphurous  springs,  some  of  which  are  renowned 
and  utilized  as  sanitary  watering  places.  The 
mountains  form  the  watershed  separating  the 
tributaries  of  the  lower  Danube  and  those  of  the 
Vardar  and  Maritza  rivers,  or,  in  other  words, 
the  watershed  between  the  Black  Sea  and  the 
./Egean.  On  account  of  the  broken  and  irregu- 
lar character  of  the  peninsula  the  rivers  are 
short  and  little  navigable.  The  westernmost 
section  of  Turkey,  Albania,  separated  from 
Montenegro  and  Novibazar  by  the  North  Al- 
banian Alps,  is  a  mass  of  parallel  mountain 
ranges,  irregularly  traversed  by  the  winding 
rivers,  Boyana,  Drin,  Loum,  Vo'iutza,  and  Arta, 
which  flow  into  the  Adriatic  and  Ionian  seas. 
In  the  Turkish  provinces  of  Scutari,  Monastir. 
and  Saloniki,  there  are  a  number  of  large  and 
deep  lakes,  pre-eminently  those  of  Scutari, 
Ochrida,  Janina,  Prespa,  and  Kastoria.  The 
climate  of  the  peninsula  is  exceedingly  varied ; 
it  is  rigorous  with  heavy  snowfalls  in  the  north 
and  in  the  central  plateau  between  Serajevo 
(Bosnia)  and  Sofia  (Bulgaria),  and  the  table- 
land of  Janina,  but  becomes  mild  and  sunny 
toward  the  south  and  east,  tempered  by  the 
breezes  of  the  ^gean.  There  is  hardly  any 
country  in  the  world  inhabited  by  such  a  num- 
ber of  different  peoples  as  the  Balkan  Peninsula. 
Surviving  there  are  all  the  races  recorded  at  the 
beginning  of  history,  with  their  national  lan- 
guages and  distinct  racial  consciousness.  They 
do  not  form,  however,  the  whole  people  or  even 
the  great  majority  of  their  particular  race  in  any 
one  district,  but  are  intermingled  and  live  side 


by  side,  without  ever  blending  together,  so  that 
the  process  of  disentangling  their  various  and 
conflicting  aspirations,  tendencies,  and  racial  as 
well  as  religious  distinction.s,  is  well-nigh  im- 
possible. In  eastern  Rumelia  (ancient  Tlirace) 
and  Macedonia,  there  may  be  found  a  Greek,  a 
Bulgarian,  a  Turkish,  an  Albanian  village  side 
by  side.  The  Greeks  or  Byzantines,  the  Daco- 
Rumanians,  who  speak  a  distinctly  Romance 
or  neo-Latin  language,  and  proudly  derive  their 
origin  from  the  legionaries  of  Emperor  Tra- 
janus  stationed  in  Dacia,  yet  undoubtedly  from 
Dacian  or  Thracian  mothers, —  and  the  Al- 
banians of  Illyrian  stock  are  the  most  ancient 
historic  races  of  the  Balkans.  The  Slavs 
are  late-comers  by  migration  and  conquest. 
They  became  neither  Greek  nor  Roman  in 
speech  or  customs,  political  character  or  na- 
tional proclivities,  but  remained  distinctive  in 
language  and  racial  characteristics.  At  periods 
historically  well  determined,  after  the  Gothic 
invaders  in  those  regions  had  been  defeated  or 
absorbed  or  started  on  their  world-stirring  ca- 
reer, after  the  Turanian  Avars  had  lost  their 
overwhelming  power,  the  Slavic  tribes  moved  in 
great  numbers  into  central  and  southeastern 
Europe.  About  630  a.d.  the  Croats  began  to 
occupy  the  present  Croatia,  Slavonia,  northern 
Bosnia.  In  640  the  Servians  of  the  same  race 
and  language  conquered  the  Avars  and  peopled 
Servia,  South  Bosnia,  Dalmatia,  Montenegro, 
v/hose  inhabitants  are  pure  Serbs  in  blood  and 
language,  only  deriving  their  name  from  their 
national  hero,  Ivo  the  Black  (Tsernoi),  who 
gave  the  name  of  Tsernogora  (Montenegro)  to 
those  desert  rocks,  a  safe  retreat  to  the  Servians, 
after  their  defeat  at  Kossovo  in  1389  inflicted  by 
the  Turks.  The  ethnic  situation  of  to-day 
dates  from  that  epoch.  The  origin  of  the  Bul- 
garians is  not  quite  clear.  They  appear  to  be  of 
Finnish-Ugrian  stock,  and  therefore  related  to 
the  Turks  and  the  Hungarians,  but  were  Slavic- 
ized  early  in  history.  The  great  apostles  of  the 
Slavs,  Methodius  and  Cyrillus,  themselves  Bul- 
garians, even  brought  Byzantine  culture  and 
the  Greek-orthodox  religion  to  the  other  Slavic 
races  on  the  peninsula.  The  battle  of  Kossovo, 
already  mentioned,  made  an  end  to  the  independ- 
ence of  the  highly  developed  Slavic  States,  and 
with  the  fall  of  Constantinople  in  1453,  the  last 
bulwark  of  the  crumbling  Byzantine  empire,  the 
Turkish  sway  over  the  entire  Balkan  Peninsula 
became  a  reality.  Four  centuries  of  racial  strife 
between  the  Turkish  conquerors  and  the  various 
Greek,  Rumanian,  and  Slavic  races  under  their 
sway  ended  in  the  formation  of  the  Danube 
States  and  the  Hellenic  kingdom,  more  or  less 
according  to  races  and  nationalities,  so  far  as 
this  was  possible  at  all  in  the  case  of  peoples 
which  are  at  least  as  far  removed  in  sympathy 
and  political  aspirations  from  one  another  as 
they  are  from  the  Turks.  The  racial  antago- 
nisms are  grievously  accentuated  in  the  at- 
tempted solutions  of  racial,  political,  and  re- 
ligious problems.  Herm.a.nn  Schoenfeld, 
Columbian  University,  IVasliington,  D.  C. 
Balkh,  brilkh,  a  district  of  Afghan  Turke- 
stan. It  corresponds  to  ancient  Bactria,  and  is 
bounded  on  the  north  by  the  river  Oxus,  on  the 
east  by  Badakhshan.  on  the  south  by  the  Hindu 
Kush,  and  west  by  the  desert.  Its  length  is  250 
miles ;  its  breadth,  120.  Its  situation  was  once 
important  during  the  overland  commerce  be- 
tween   Indian    and    eastern    Europe   before    the 


BALKH  — BALL  BEARING 


sea  route  by  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  was  fol- 
lowed. The  soil  has  the  general  characteristics 
of  a  desert  land  ;  only  a  few  parts  are  made  fer- 
tile by  artificial  irrigation ;  and  such  are  the 
vicissitudes  of  climate  that  where  grapes  and 
apricots  ripen  in  summer,  and  the  mulberry- 
tree  permits  the  cultivation  of  silk,  in  winter 
the  frost  is  intense  and  the  snow  lies  deep  on 
the  ground.  The  natives  are  Uzbegs,  whose 
character  differs  in  different  districts. 

Balkh,  the  capital  of  the  district  of  the  same 
name,  situated  in  a  district  intersected  by  canals 
and  ditches.  It  is  surrounded  by  a  mud  wall ; 
but  though  bearing  the  imposing  title  of 
^Mother  of  Cities,"  it  has  not  in  recent  times 
had  any  of  the  grandeur  of  ancient  Bactra,  on 
the  site  of  which  it  is  built.  It  was  twice  de- 
stroyed by  Genghis  Khan  and  Timur.  A  ter- 
rible outbreak  of  cholera  in  1877  caused  the 
capital  of  Afghanistan  Turkestan  to  be  trans- 
ferred to  Mazar,  west  of  Balkh ;  since  which 
Balkh  has  been  an  insignificant  village. 

Balkhash,  bal-kash',  a  great  inland  lake, 
near  the  eastern  border  of  Russian  Central 
Asia.  Lying  about  780  feet  above  sea-level,  it 
extends  323  miles  west-southwest ;  its  breadth 
at  the  west  end  is  50  miles ;  at  the  east  from 
9  to  4  miles ;  the  area  is  8.400  square  miles. 
The  water  is  clear  but  intensely  salt.  Its  prin- 
cipal feeder  is  the  river  Hi.  It  has  no  outlet. 
The  northern  edge  is  well  defined ;  but  the  south 
shores  of  the  lake  are  labyrinths  of  islands, 
peninsulas,  low  sandhills,  and  strips  of  shallow 
water.  Here  grow  masses  of  enormously  tall 
reeds  in  which  wild  swine  shelter.  To  the 
south,  stretching  toward  the  base  of  the  Ala- 
tau  Mountains,  is  a  vast  steppe  almost  devoid 
of  vegetation.  Balkhash  seems  to  have  at  one 
time  included  in  its  immense  area  the  smaller 
lakes  Sossik-kul  and  Ala-kul,  now  far  to  the 
southeast. 

Bal'kis,  the  Arabian  name  of  the  queen  of 
Sheba  who  visited  Solomon.  She  is  the  central 
figure  of  innumerable  Eastern  legends  and  tales. 

Ball,  Ephraim,  American  inventor :  b. 
Greentown,  O.,  12  Aug.  1812;  d.  Canton,  O.,  i 
Jan.  1872.  He  was  brought  up  as  a  carpenter, 
but  in  1840  he  established  a  foundry  for  making 
plow  castings ;  invented  a  plow,  a  turn-top 
stove,  the  Ohio  mower,  the  World  mower  and 
reaper,  and  the  New  American  harvester ;  and 
for  many  years  before  his  death  was  president 
of  an  extensive  manufacturing  plant  at  Canton, 
Ohio. 

Ball,  John,  English  priest  of  the  14th 
century.  He  was  a  disciple  of  Wycliffe.  upon 
whose  religious  doctrines  he  engrafted  some 
political  theories  resembling  the  ^'liberty,  equal- 
ity, and  fraternity"  of  later  ages.  He  was  inti- 
rnately  concerned  in  the  Wat  Tyler  insurrec- 
tion of  1381.  and  for  his  part  in  the  affair  was 
executed  at  St.  Albans,  15  July  1381.  See  Mor- 
ns, *The  Dream  of  John  Ball.' 

Ball,  Sir  Robert  Stawell,  distinguished 
English  astronomer:  b.  Dublin,  i  July  1840.  In 
1865  he  was  appointed  Lord  Rosse's  astrono- 
mer at  Parsonstown.  He  has  held  many  posts 
in  connection  with  astronomy  and  mathematics, 
including  those  of  professor  of  applied  mathe- 
matics and  mechanism  at  the  Royal  College  of 
Science   for  Ireland;  Andrews  professor  of  as- 


tronomy in  the  University  of  Dublin  ;  astrono- 
mer-royal of  Ireland ;  and  Lowdean  professor 
of  astronomy  and  geometry  in  the  University  of 
Cambridge,  and  director  of  the  Cambridge  ob- 
servatory since  1892.  The  Royal  Society  elected 
him  a  Fellow  in  1873,  and  in  1886  he  was 
knighted.  His  numerous  works  include :  'The 
Story  of  the  Heavens'  (1885)  ;  *Time  and  Tide* 
(1889)  ;  'Star- Land'  (1889)  ;  'The  Story  of  the 
Sun'  (1893);  'Great  Astronomers'  (1895);  'A 
Treatise  on  the  Theory  of  Screws'  (1900)  ; 
'The  Earth's  Beginning'  (1901)  ;  'Popular  Guide 
to  the  Heavens'   (1905)  ;  etc. 

Ball,  Thomas,  American  sculptor :  b. 
Charlestown,  Mass.,  3  June  1819.  He  studied  in 
Italy;  engaged  in  painting,  1840-52;  adopted 
sculpture  exclusively  in  185 1  ;  resided  in  Flor- 
ence, Italy,  1865-97 ;  and  afterward  in  Montclair, 
N.  J.  His  best-known  works  are  the  equestrian 
statue  of  Washington  in  Boston ;  the  Web- 
.ster  statue  in  Central  Park,  New  York;  and 
'Emancipation'  in  Washington,  D.  C.  He  pub- 
lished 'My  Threescore  Years  and  Ten,  an 
Autobiography'    (1891). 

Ball,  as  an  article  of  ammunition,  see  Gun- 
nery ;  Ordnance;  Projectiles;  Shot. 

In  connection  with  sports  and  games  the  ball 
in  various  sizes  has  been  in  universal  usage 
since  ancient  times.  The  Greeks  regarded  ball- 
games  as  of  much  value  in  adding  grace  to  the 
figure  and  giving  elasticity  to  the  muscles  of 
the  body,  and  the  Romans  also  played  a  game  of 
ball  in  connection  with  their  baths  for  the  same 
purpose.  Several  of  the  games  then  played 
resembled  modern  handball,  football,  and  polo. 
Modern  tennis  and  rackets  undoubtedly  had 
their  beginnings  in  the  jeu-de-paume  of  the 
Middle  Ages,  and  lacrosse  was  originally  played 
by  the  North  American  Indians,  though  the 
historical  data  concerning  these  and  other  games 
are  meagre  and  new  customs  and  rules  have  so 
changed  games  that  their  true  history  cannot 
be  told  with  exactness.  Of  varieties  of  balls 
for  use  in  the  different  sports  there  are  many. 
The  baseball  is  made  of  a  sphere  of  rubber,  2^2 
ounces  in  weight,  which  is  wound  with  yarn  and 
covered  with  leather.  The  basket-ball  is  an  in- 
flated rubber  ball,  enclosed  in  leather  and  from 
30  to  32  inches  in  diameter.  The  tennis  ball  is 
of  rubber  covered  with  white  flannel,  about  2V2 
inches  in  diameter  and  2  ounces  in  weight.  The 
lacrosse  ball  is  made  of  india-rubber  and  is  8 
or  9  inches  in  diameter.  The  polo  ball  is  of 
wood  and  4  or  5  inches  in  diameter.  The  foot- 
ball is  a  prolate  spheroid  in  shape  and  consists 
of  a  rubber  bladder  encased  in  a  leather  cover. 
Billiard  balls  are  of  ivory  and  from  2yV  to  2f^ 
inches  in  size.  See  Baseball  ;  Football  ; 
Basket-ball;  Lawn  Tennis;  Rackets; 
Cricket  ;  Handball  ;  Lacrosse  ;  Polo  ;  Bil- 
liards ;  etc. 

Ball  and  Socket,  a  joint  used  in  machinery 
and  piping.  It  consists  of  a  spherical  end  of  a 
rod  or  pipe  fitting  into  a  hollow  sphere  of  the 
same  size  on  a  like  piece.  The  object  of  this 
joint  is  to  provide  a  close,  movable  connection, 
and  to  prevent  leakage  in  pipes. 

Ball  Bearing,  a  mechanical  bearing,  con- 
sisting of  a  cup  against  the  inner  circumference 
of  which  steel  balls  are  placed.  A  cone  fitted 
to  the  steel  bears  against  these  balls.     It  is  used 


BALL  CLAY  — BALLAD 


to  a  great  extent  in  bicycles  and  light  carriage 
wheels,  and  to  a  less  extent  in  light  machinery 
and  wagon  bearings.  Its  object  is  to  reduce 
friction  and  the  use  of  lubricants. 

Ball  Clay.     See  Clay. 

Ball  Cock,  a  self-acting  stop-cock,  opened 
and  shut  by  means  of  a  hollow  metallic  sphere 
attached  to  the  end  of  a  lever  connected  with 
the  cock.  Its  use  is  principally  to  regulate  the 
supply  of  water  to  cisterns.  The  ball  floats 
by  reason  of  its  buoyancy,  and  rising  and  sink- 
ing as  the  water  rises  and  sinks,  shuts  off  the 
water  in  the  one  case  and  lets  it  on  in  the  other. 

Ball  Flower,  an  architectural  ornament 
resembling  a  ball  placed  in  a  circular  flower, 
the  three  petals  of  which  form  a  cup  around  it ; 
usually  inserted  in  a  hollow  molding,  and  gen- 
erally characteristic  of  the  Decorated  Gothic 
style  of  the  14th  century. 

Ball  Nozzle.     See  Hydrodynamics. 

Ballad,  a  short  narrative  poem  in  stanzas, 
originally  intended  for  singing.  The  name, 
which  is  derived  from  the  Latin  ballarc,  to 
dance,  is  frequently  used  very  loosely,  and  ap- 
plied to  a  variety  of  songs  and  verse-tales  with 
no  real  bond  of  association.  But  in  the  stricter 
sense  it  belongs  to  a  comparatively  small  body 
of  anonymous  traditional  poetry,  the  production 
of  which  has  practically  ceased  in  English- 
speaking  countries,  though  literary  imitations  of 
the  type  are  still  composed.  Its  most  character- 
istic quality  is  impersonality.  Not  only  is  the 
author  unknown,  but  in  the  pure  ballad  there  is 
no  trace  of  his  individuality.  The  material  of 
the  poem  is  usually  popular  in  origin,  and  the 
sentiment  and  point  of  view  are  those,  not  of  a 
single  person,  but  of  the  whole  people.  ^'Peo- 
ple.'' in  the  sense  here  used,  has  reference  not  to 
the  lower  classes  but  to  society  in  a  period  when 
in  the  matter  of  culture  the  community  was 
homogeneous.  Thus  the  origins  of  the  kind  of 
poetry  of  which  the  ballad  is  a  survival  are  to 
be  looked  for  in  a  comparatively  primitive  stage 
of  society,  before  the  ^'poetry  of  art*^  came  into 
existence,  when  the  tribal  community  could  still 
express  itself  in  simultaneous  utterances  ac- 
companying the  rhythmic  movements  of  dance 
or  march. 

This  view  of  the  origin  of  ballad  poetry  is 
not  universally  accepted.  Over  against  it  there 
is  placed  the  apparently  simpler  theory  that  the 
ballads  are  the  production  of  minstrels,  from  the 
fifteenth  century  down,  who  derived  from 
romances  and  other  sources  in  artificial  litera- 
ture stories  which  they  threw  into  crude  stanzas, 
to  chant  sometimes  in  the  houses  of  the  great, 
sometimes  at  fairs  and  other  popular  gatherings. 
But  the  objections  to  this  view  are  serious. 
First,  minstrel  ballads  such  as  are  here  described 
were  manufactured  and  still  exist  in  abundant 
broadsides  and  chap-books,  but  they  are  uni- 
versally lacking  in  precisely  those  qualities  of 
impersonality  and  unconsciousness  which  con- 
stitute at  once  the  mark  and  the  charm  of  the 
true  popular  ballad.  Second,  the  minstrel  theory 
ignores  the  existence  of  a  large  mass  of 
ethnological  evidence,  showing  the  indubitable 
and  well-nigh  universal  existence  of  the  prac- 
tice of  communal  song,  and  the  development  in 
this  song  of  a  narrative  element.  Third,  it  is  a 
matter  of  definite  proof  that  the  genuine  ballads 

Vol.    2 — IS. 


which  have  been  collected  during  the  last  two 
centuries  have  come,  with  rare  exceptions,  not 
from  the  mouths  or  wallets  of  minstrels,  but 
from  humble  unprofessional  people,  "the  spin- 
sters and  the  knitters  in  the  sun,"  who  have  in 
so  many  branches  of  folk-lore  proved  the  best 
conservators  of  the  heritage  of  the  people.  A 
minstrel's  addition  to  his  stock  of  an  occasional 
piece  of  more  or  less  degraded  popular  verse  in 
no  wise  overthrows  the  significance  of  this  fact. 
There  is  no  reason  to  believe  that,  in  the  cen- 
turies before  ballad-collecting  began,  the  medium 
of  transmission   was  substantially  different. 

The  argument  on  the  other  side  has  already 
been  partly  indicated.  First,  there  exists  the 
evidence  of  the  wide-spread  practice  of  accom- 
panying communal  activity — in  labor,  ceremonial, 
or  festal  dance — with  rhythmic  utterances ;  the 
gradual  growth  of  these  utterances  in  definite- 
ness  of  form ;  the  practice  of  making  them  the 
medium  of  narrating  some  episode  known  to 
all — e.  g.,  the  story  of  some  great  deed  accom- 
plished by  the  hero  whose  death  is  being  la- 
mented, or  the  manner  of  the  victory  which  is 
being  celebrated,  or  some  ludicrous  incident  in 
the  season's  labor  happily  finished, — the  contri- 
bution of  a  new  line  or  stanza  now  by  this,  now 
by  that  member  of  the  dancing  throng ;  the 
recurrent  refrain  sung  by  all ;  the  final  creation 
of  a  narrative  song  for  which  no  one  individual 
is  responsible,  but  which  is  the  expression  of  the 
thought  and  feeling  of  all.  Second,  the  un- 
individual  element  is  intensified  by  the  method 
of  transmission.  Before  any  extant  ballad  came 
into  the  form  in  which  we  find  it,  it  had  been 
handed  down  from  mouth  to  mouth  through 
many  generations,  modified  endlessly  in  detail, 
but  by  this  very  process  losing  whatever  indi- 
vidual elements  might  at  any  stage  appear  in  it, 
and  keeping,  with  whatever  change  of  matter  or 
modernization  of  dialect,  just  those  qualities  of 
impersonality  and  unconsciousness  of  literary 
effect  which  have  been  noted  as  its  characteristic 
traits.  Third,  the  theory  suggested  by  these 
facts  receives  corroboration  from  the  refrain  and 
from  the  characteristic  narrative  method  of  the 
ballad,  the  so-called  "incremental  repetition. '> 
The  phrase  is  used  to  describe  the  method  of 
telling  a  story  by  the  repetition  in  a  set  of 
stanzas  of  the  same  words  with  just  enough 
change  to  advance  the  narration  one  step.  Thus 
the  motive  for  the  murder  of  the  Bonnie  Earl 
of  Murray  is  gradually  insinuated  by  this  method 
in  these  stanzas : 

He  was  a  braw  gallant. 

And  he  rid  at  the  ring; 
And  the  bonny  Earl  of  Murray, 

Oh  he  might  have  been  a  king! 

He  was  a  braw  gallant, 

And  he  played  at  the  ba; 
And  the  bonny  Earl  of  Murray 

Was  the  flower  amang  them  a'. 

He  was  a  braw  gallant. 

And  he  played  at  the  glove: 
And  the  bonny  Earl  of  Murray, 

Oh  he  was  the  Queen's  love! 

A  moment's  reflection  will  show  how  suitable 
such  a  device  is  to  communal  improvisation,  and 
how  naturally  it  is  derived  from  it.  As  for  the 
refrain,  the  part  played  by  the  crowd  in  the 
singing  of  it  does  not  need  to  be  argued. 

It  is  not  implied  that  all  ballads  showing 
incremental  repetition  and  preserving  refrains 
were   thus   composed  by   a   throng.     For   most, 


BALLAD 


perhaps  for  all,  of  our  extant  ballads  it  is 
probably  safe  to  assume  a  single  original  author, 
whose  name  and  circumstances  are  now  hope- 
lessly lost,  but  who  first  gave  each  ballad  a 
definite  form.  But  even  when  making  this  as- 
sumption, we  must  bear  in  mind  the  fact  that  he 
worked  after  models  which  went  back  ultimately 
to  communal  products,  that  he  worked  in  a 
period  when  it  was  still  possible  to  compose  in 
the  communal  spirit,  that  he  used  for  the  most 
part  popular  material,  and,  finally,  that  his 
product  has  been  transmitted  orally  through 
generations  who  altered  and  modified  till  what- 
ever of  personal  existed  in  the  first  form  has 
been  obliterated.  Thus  if  the  famous  phrase, 
"das  Volk  dichtet,*  can  not  be  used  of  the 
ballads  we  read  to-day  in  the  sense  in  which  it 
was  true  of  the  earliest  communal  chants,  it  still 
holds  to  this  extent  that,  in  so  far  as  a  given 
specimen  approaches  the  pure  ballad  type,  it  fails 
to  exhibit  the  marks  of  any  handiwork  but  that 
of  the  folk. 

The  ballad  thus  stands  at  the  remote  end  of 
that  line  of  development  at  the  hither  end  of 
which  we  find  the  modern  subjective  lyric  such 
as  the  sonnet.  The  curve  which  lies  between 
shows  the  tendency  running  through  the  history 
of  poetry  to  have  been  to  emphasize  more  and 
more  the  individuality  of  the  author,  to  relegate 
the  people  more  and  more  to  the  place  of  mere 
audience.  We  are  prepared  to  find,  then,  many 
features  in  the  history  of  ballads  highly  dis- 
similar and  even  contradictory  to  those  of 
modern  literature.  Thus  the  life  of  a  modern 
poem  begins  when  it  is  committed  to  paper:  a 
ballad  then  begins  to  die.  It  lives  only  while  it 
is  still  being  transmitted  orally  from  generation 
to  generation,  receiving  from  each  its  stamp.  A 
modern  poem  has  one  authentic  text :  a  ballad 
may  have  many  texts,  varying  in  number  with 
the  extent  of  territory  over  which  it  was  sung, 
but  no  single  authoritative  text.  A  modern 
poem  avoids  explicit  borrowing:  the  ballad  ab- 
sorbs and  assimilates  freely  numbers  of  **com- 
monplaces,'' — phrases,  lines,  and  even  sets  of 
stanzas  that  appear  with  equal  appropriateness 
in  half  a  dozen  different  ballads,  and  are  the 
exclusive  property  of  none.  Such  are  the 
formulas  for  sending  a  messenger, 

O  whaur  will  I  get  a  bonny  boy,  etc.; 
for  ordering  a  horse, 

O  saddle  me  the  black,  the  black, 
O  saddle  me  the  brown; 

for  describing  a  journey, 

They  hadna'  gaen  a  mile,  a  mile, 
A  mile  but  barely  three; 

for  concluding  a  romantic  tragedy. 

The  tane  was  buried  in  .Mary's  kirk, 

The  tither  in  Mary's  quire, 
And  out  of  the  ane  there  grew  a  birk, 

And  out  of  the  ither  a  brier,  etc. 

A  modern  poet  seeks  novelty  of  epithet :  the 
ballad  clings  to  the  traditional  description ;  the 
gold  is  red,  the  lady  is  fair,  her  dress  is  grass- 
green,  her  hair  is  yellow,  her  tears  are  salt,  the 
moon's  light  is  clear,  the  porter  is  proud, 
brothers  are  bold,  a  bower  is  «bigly,»  and  so  on. 
Equally  characteristic  is  the  treatment  of 
incident  and  plot  in  the  ballad.  There  is  seldom 
any  introduction :  we  plunge  at  once  into  the 
midst  of  the  action.  The  stanzas  leap  from  peak 
to  peak  of  the  narrative,  with  no  attempt  to 
supply  the  less  important  links,  yet  seldom  with 


any  real  sacrifice  of  clearness.  The  events  in 
the  imcontaminated  ballad  are  unmoralized  and 
imsentimentalized ;  the  bald  fact  is  left  without 
comment  or  criticism  from  the  singer.  Con- 
scious figures  of  speech  are  rare,  and  the  back- 
ground is  seldom  filled  in.  Thus  the  general 
result  is  that  of  rapidity  of  motion,  directness 
and  unconsciousness  of  effect,  an  absence  of 
artistic  suggestion.  Whenever  we  find  a  moral 
drawn,  or  a  dwelling  on  the  pathetic,  interpola- 
tion by  a  modern  would-be  artist  is  to  be  sus- 
pected. 

From  what  has  been  said  of  origins,  it  is  clear 
that  little  can  be  guessed  as  to  the  date  of  com- 
position of  ballads.  Some,  notably  those  simple, 
highly  typical  stories  like  'The  Twa  Sisters,' 
written  in  a  two-line  stanza  with  a  refrain,  with 
stress  upon  situation  rather  than  upon  succes- 
sion of  events,  may  in  some  form  be  of  almost 
any  age.  Others  have  an  upper  limit  of  date 
fixed  by  the  historical  event  which  occasionally 
forms  the  basis  of  the  plot.  The  dates  of  ballad 
manuscripts,  which  are,  of  course,  an  entirely  dif- 
ferent thing,  and  a  date  of  death  rather  than  of 
birth,  are  more  easily  fixed.  The  earliest  is 
'Judas'  (No.  23  in  Child's  collection)  from  a 
13th  century  MS.;  the  next,  'Riddles  Wisely 
Expounded'  (Child,  i)  about  1445;  a  little  later, 
'Robin  Hood  and  the  Monk'  (Child,  119), 
'St.  Stephen  and  Herod'  (Child,  22),  and 
'Robyn  and  Gandelyn'  (Child,  115)  ;  two  exist 
in  copies  of  about  1500;  two  others  about  1550. 
Less  than  a  dozen  are  preserved  in  MSS.  before 
1600.  The  most  important  single  MS.  is  the 
Folio  which  Bishop  Percy  used  as  a  basis  for 
his  famous  "Reliques  of  Ancient  English 
Poetry,"  and  it  is  in  a  handwriting  of  about  1650. 
A  few  appear  in  early  printed  forms.  *A  Lytell 
Geste  of  Robyn  Hode'  was  printed  about  1500, 
and  broadside  versions,  usually  in  very  degraded 
form,  appeared  frequently  in  the  17th  and  i8th 
centuries.  The  most  important  sources  after 
the  Percy  Folio  are  the  collections  made  directly 
from  the  mouths  of  the  people,  such  as  those  of 
David  Herd  (1776),  Mrs.  Brown  of  Falkland 
(1783-1801),  Sir  Walter  Scott  (1783-1830),  C.  K. 
Sharpe  (c.  1823).  Motherwell  (1825-7),  Kin- 
loch  (1826),  Buchan  (1828),  MacMath  and 
Child  (second  half  of  the  igth  century). 

Ballads  on  historical  occurrences  apart,  most 
of  the  plots  belong  to  the  mass  of  folk-tale 
which  is  the  exclusive  possession  of  no  one 
nation  or  language.  Many  ballads  tell  stories 
versions  of  which  are  found  in  almost  every 
known  tongue.  The  explanation  of  this  world- 
wide diffusion  of  story-material  is  one  of  the 
standing  problems  of  folk-lore ;  but  whatever 
theory  of  its  cause  be  adopted,  the  fact  that  it  is 
largely  from  this  international  treasury  that  the 
ballads  derive  their  plots,  is  a  strong  reason  for 
regarding  them  as  essentially  "popular"  in  mat- 
ter as  well  as  in  manner. 

Turning  now  to  the  nature  of  these  stories, 
we  find  that  by  far  the  largest  class  is  concerned 
with  romantic  love  and  its  consequences.  Many 
are  tragic,  the  interference  of  fathers,  mothers, 
or  brothers  being  perhaps  the  commonest  cause 
of  the  fatal  issue.  Both  in  these  and  in  the 
romantic  ballads  with  happy  endings  the 
.sympathy  of  the  audience  with  the  lovers  is  in 
general  assumed,  and  in  cases  of  illicit  love  no 
moral  judgment  is  passed  or  suggested.  Some 
of  the  best  are  ballads  of  war  by  land  or  sea ; 


BALLADE  —  BALLANTINE 


and  the  irregular  warfare  of  the  Borderland 
between  England  and  Scotland  has  given  birth 
to  a  number  justly  famous.  The  largest  group 
connected  with  a  single  personality  is  that  of 
the  Robin  Hood  ballads.  Of  these,  some  like  *A 
Lytell  Geste'  and  'Robin  Hood  and  the  Monk' 
represent  not  only  the  finest  of  the  outlaw 
group,  but  rank  with  the  best  of  all  ballads. 
The  later  members  of  this  group,  however,  show 
serious  deterioration,  and  they  finally  sink  into 
the  degradation  of  broadsides  manufactured  by 
printers'  hacks.  The  'Geste'  itself  is  of  especial 
interest  as  showing  a  significant  stage  in  the 
process  by  which  ballads  are  combined  in  the 
formation  of  the  popular  epic.  In  it  four  or 
more  distinguishable  ballad  plots  are  woven  to- 
gether to  form  a  miniature  epic,  the  interweav- 
ing being  clearly  the  work  of  a  conscious  artist 
who  at  the  same  time  was  in  full  sympathy  with 
the  popular  .spirit.  The  supernatural  also  plays 
an  important  part  in  the  ballads,  and  it  is  possi- 
ble to  gather  from  them  much  information  as  to 
popular  belief  on  such  themes  as  fairies,  witches, 
the  return  of  the  dead,  transformation  by  en- 
chantment, and  the  like. 

The  number  of  extant  ballads  in  English  may 
be  gathered  from  the  great  final  collection  of 
Professor  Child.  Here,  ignoring  variants,  we 
have  three  hundred  and  five,  most  of  which  are 
popular  in  the  sense  which  has  been  defined, 
i.  e.  they  fulfil  these  conditions,  that  even  if 
written  each  by  an  individual  author,  that  author 
belonged  to  the  people,  drew  his  material  from 
the  common  stock  of  folk-tales,  wrote  in  the 
popular  spirit,  and  used  the  traditional  method, 
had  his  product  accepted  by  the  folk  and  passed 
on  and  modified  by  them  through  centuries  of 
oral  transmission.  Some  few  such  as  'The  Boy 
and  the  Mantle,'  'King  Arthur  and  King  Corn- 
wall,' and  'The  Marriage  of  Sir  Gawain,'  are 
closely  associated  with  metrical  romances,  and 
are  usually  regarded  as  written  by  minstrels  for 
more  courtly  audiences,  but  are  yet  enough  in 
the  popular  style  to  justify  their  inclusion  as 
ballads.  More  are  traditional  ballads  corrupted 
for  the  printing  press  and  represented  by  broad- 
side versions  because  no  purer  form  has  sur- 
vived. And  in  the  case  of  almost  every  ballad 
surviving  in  several  versions,  some  versions 
show  a  higher  degree  of  purity  from  literary 
editing  than  others. 

The  localities  from  which  the  ballads  have 
been  gathered  are  widely  scattered,  versions  of 
several  having  been  picked  up  in  America.  But 
Scotland  claims  about  two-thirds  of  the  whole. 

Bibliography. — The  completion  of  F.  J. 
Child's  exhaustive  'English  and  Scottish  Popular 
Ballads'  {5  vols.,  Boston  1882-98),  with  its 
bibliographies  and  full  account  of  the  sources, 
makes  unnecessary  a  list  of  previous  less  com- 
prehensive collections.  Every  known  version  of 
every  extant  ballad  in  any  English  dialect  was 
intended  to  be  included  by  the  editor,  and  little 
or  nothing  has  escaped  him.  The  introductions 
give  an  account  of  parallels  and  analogues 
throughout  the  world.  An  abridged  collection 
has  been  edited  by  H.  C.  Sargent  and  G.  L. 
Kittredge  (i  vol.,  Boston  1904).  On  the  ques- 
tion of  origins,  consult  F.  B.  Gummere.  'Old 
English  Ballads'  (Boston  1894),  'The  Begin- 
nings of  Poetry'  (New  York  1904),  'The 
Popular  Ballad'  (Boston  1907)  ;  T.  F.  Hender- 
son's   edition    of     Scott's     'Minstrelsy    of    the 


Scottish  Border*  (Edinburgh  1902),  and  his 
*  Scottish  Vernacular  Literature,'  chap,  xi 
(London  1898)  ;  and  vol.  i  of  Courthope's  'His- 
tory of  English  Poetry.'  An  excellent  con- 
densed statement  of  the  whole  matter  by  G.  L. 
Kittredge  forms  the  introduction  to  the  one- 
volume  edition  of  Child's  collection. 

William  A.  Neilson, 

Professor  of  English,  Harvard  University. 

Ballade,  ba-lad'  the  earlier  and  modern 
French  spelling  of  "ballad,"  but  now  limited  in 
its  use  to  a  distinct  verse-form  introduced  into 
English  literature  of  late  years  from  the  French 
and  chiefly  used  by  writers  of  vers  de  societe. 
It  consists  of  three  stanzas  of  eight  lines  each, 
with  an  "envoy"  or  closing  stanza  of  four  lines. 
The  rhymes,  which  are  not  more  than  three, 
follow  each  other  in  the  stanzas,  thus :  a,  b,  a, 
b ;  b,  c,  b,  c,  and  in  the  envoy,  b,  c,  b,  c ;  and 
the  same  line  serves  as  a  refrain  to  each  of  the 
stanzas  and  to  the  envoy.  There  are  other  va- 
rieties, but  this  may  be  regarded  as  the  strictest, 
according  to  the  precedent  of  Villon  and  IMarot. 

Ballagi,  bol'lo-ge,  Maurice,  or  Moritz, 
Bloch,  a  Hungarian  philologist  and  Protestant 
theological  author,  most  widely  known  for  his 
grammars  and  dictionaries  of  the  Hungarian 
language :  b.  Inocz,  of  Jewish  parents.  18  March 
1815;  d.  I  Sept.  1891.  He  was  educated  at 
Budapest  and  Paris ;  was  converted  to  Protes- 
tantism in  1843 ;  studied  theology  at  Tiibingen ; 
and  was  professor  of  theology  at  Szarvas  from 
1844  to  1848  and  from  1851  to  1855,  and  at  Buda- 
pest from  1855  to  1878.  His  first  large  work  was 
the  translation  of  the  Bible  into  the  Hungarian 
language  for  the  purpose  of  Magyarizing  the 
Jews,  but  of  this  work  only  the  Pentateuch  and 
the  Book  of  Joshua  were  published  (Budapest 
1840-43).  The  most  important  of  his  philo- 
logical works  are :  'Ausfiihrliche  theoretisch- 
praktische  Grammatik  der  ungarischen  Sprache' 
(1843;  8th  ed.  1881);  'VoUstandiges  Worter- 
buch  der  ungarischen  und  deulschen  Sprache' 
(2  vols.,  1854-7;  6th  ed.  1890);  'Sammlung  der 
magvarischen  Sprichworter'  (2  vols.,  1850;  2d 
ed.  i855). 

Ballanche,  ba-lansh',  Pierre  Simon,  French 
philosopher:  b.  Lyons,  4  Aug.  1776;  d.  12  June 
1847.  His  great  work  is  the  'Palingenesie 
Sociale'  (1828),  in  which  he  seeks  to  illustrate 
the  workings  of  God  in  history  and  sketch  how 
human  society  may  and  will  be  reconstructed 
so  as  to  attain  its  highest  development.  His 
works  are  a  strange  mi.xture  of  mysticisrn, 
socialism,  and  the  philosophy  of  history.  His 
'Vision  d'Hebal*  (1832)  is  a  prophetic  forecast 
of  the  world's  history,  Hebel  being  a  second- 
sighted  chief  of  a  Scottish  clan.  He  also  wrote 
'Le  vieillard  et  le  jeune  homme'    (1819)  ;  etc. 

Bal'lantine,  James,  Scottish  artist  and  poet : 
b.  Edinburgh.  11  June  1808;  d.  18  Dec.  1877. 
He  was  brought  up  as  a  house-painter,  but 
afterward  learned  drawing  under  Sir  William 
Allen  and  was  one  of  the  first  to  revive  the 
art  of  glass-painting.  He  was  commissioned 
to  execute  the  stained-glass  windows  for  the 
House  of  Lords,  and  in  1845  published  a  treatise 
on  glass-staining,  which  was  translated  into 
German.  Two  prose  volumes,  'The  Gaberlun- 
zie's  Wallet'  (1843).  and  'The  IMiller  of  Dean- 
haugh'  (1845),  contain  some  of  his  best-known 
songs  and  ballads.     He  was  author  of  'Poems' 


BALLANTINE  —  BALLESTEROS 


(1856  and  1865)  ;  ^One  Hundred  Songs  with 
Music*  (1865)  ;  <Life  of  David  Roberts,  R.  A.> 
(1866)  ;  and  <LiIias  Lee*    (1871). 

Ballantine,  William  Gay,  American  edu- 
cator :  b.  Washington,  D.  C,  7  Dec.  1848.  He 
was  graduated  at  Marietta  College  1868,  and  at 
the  Union  Theological  Seminary  1872;  spent  a 
year  in  study  in  Leipsic ;  was  attached  to  the 
American  Palestine  Exploring  Expedition  of 
1873 ;  professor  of  chemistry  and  natural  science 
in  Ripon  College  1874-6 ;  professor  of  Greek 
and  Hebrew  in  the  University  of  Indiana  1878- 
81 ;  professor  of  Old  Testament  language  and 
literature  at  Oberlin  Theological  Seminary 
1881-^1 ;  and  president  of  Oberlin  College 
1891-6.  Dr.  Ballantine  was  one  of  the  editors 
of  the  ^Bibliotheca  Sacra*    (1884-91). 

Bal'lantyne,  James,  Scottish  printer:  b. 
Kelso,  1772;  d.  Edinburgh,  1833.  Successively 
a  solicitor  and  a  printer  in  his  native  town,  at  the 
suggestion  of  Sir  Walter  Scott  he  removed  to 
Edinburgh,  where  the  high  perfection  to  which 
he  had  brought  the  art  of  printing,  and  his  con- 
nection with  Scott,  whose  works  he  printed,  se- 
cured him  a  large  trade.  The  firm  of  James  Bal- 
lantyne  &  Company  included  Scott,  James  Ballan- 
tyne,  and  his  brother  John  (who  died  in  1821). 
For  many  years  he  conducted  the  Edinburgh 
Weekly  Journal.  His  firm  was  involved  in  the 
bankruptcy  of  Constable  &  Company,  by  which 
Scott's  fortunes  were  wrecked,  but  Ballantyne 
was  continued  by  the  creditors'  trustee  in  the 
literary  management  of  the  printing-house.  He 
survived  Scott  only  about  four  months. 

Ballantyne,  James  Robert,  Scottish  Ori- 
entalist: b.  Kelso,  Scotland,  1813;  d.  1864. 
After  receiving  an  education  at  Hailey  Tury 
College  he  was  sent  to  India,  where  he  was 
placed  in  charge  of  the  Sanskrit  College  at 
Benares.  On  his  return  to  England  he  was 
made  librarian  of  the  East  India  office.  Among 
his  writings  are  "^The  Practical  Oriental  Inter- 
preter* (1843)  ;  'Catechism  of  Sanskrit  Gram- 
mar* ;  'Synopsis  of  Science  in  Sanskrit  and  Eng- 
lish, reconciled  with  the  Truths  to  be  found 
in  the  N3'aya  Philosophy*  (1856)  ;  'Christianity 
Contrasted  with  Hindu  Philosophy*    (1859). 

Ballantyne,  Robert  Michael,  Scotch  writer: 
b.  Edinburgh,  1825  ;  d.  Rome,  Italy,  8  Feb.  1894. 
He  spent  his  youth  in  Canada  in  the  service  of 
the  Hudson  Bay  Company,  but  in  1856  adopted 
literature  as  a  profession.  He  became  very 
popular  in  England  as  a  writer  of  stories  for 
iDoys.  Among  the  best  known  are  'Deep  Down,* 
'The  Coral  Island,*  'The  World  of  Ice,*  'Un- 
gava,*    'The  Dog  Crusoe,*  and  others. 

Ballarat',  or  Ballaarat,  an  Australian  town 
in  the  colony  of  Victoria,  the  chief  centre  of 
the  gold-mining  industry  of  the  colony,  and  the 
place  next  in  importance  to  Melbourne,  from 
which  it  is  distant  west-northwest  74  miles  by 
rail.  It  owes  its  present  importance  and  pros- 
perity to  its  being  the  centre  of  one  of  the  rich- 
est gold-yielding  districts  of  the  world.  It  con- 
sists of  two  distinct  municipalities,  Ballarat 
West  and  Ballarat  East,  which  are  separated  by 
Yarrowee  Creek.  The  town  is  well  lighted  with 
gas,  abundantly  supplied  with  water,  and  con- 
tains many  handsome  public  edifices,  among 
which  may  be  mentioned  the  city  hall,  council- 
chamber,  two  town  halls,  a  spacious  hospital, 
an  orphan  asylum,  a  benevolent  asylum,  a  lying- 


in  hospital  and  refuge,  public  baths,  a  jail,  me- 
chanics' institute  (with  22,500  volumes),  a  free 
library  (with  15,000  volumes),  a  theatre,  and 
several  other  places  of  amusement,  post-office, 
extensive  railway  premises,  forty  churches,  two 
cathedrals,  the  palaces  of  the  Anglican  and 
Roman  Catholic  bishops,  two  colleges,  four 
grammar  and  various  other  schools,  a  school  of 
mines,  many  banks,  numerous  fine  hotels,  etc. 
There  are  several  iron-foundries,  breweries  and 
distilleries,  flour-mills,  woolen-mills,  and  other 
factories.  Gold  was  first  discovered  at  Ballarat 
in  June  1851,  and  the  extraordinary  richness  of 
the  field  soon  attracted  hosts  of  miners.  When 
the  surface  diggings  became  exhausted  it  was 
discovered  that  richer  deposits  of  the  precious 
metal  lay  at  greater  depths,  and  now  there  are 
mines  as  deep  as  some  coal-pits.  They  are 
worked  by  steam-pumping  and  other  machinery, 
and  give  employment  to  over  6,000  men,  about 
1,000  of  whom  are  Chinese.  One  of  the  largest 
nuggets  ever  found  anywhere  was  discovered 
here,  and  was  sold  for  $52,000.  The  surrounding 
district  is  also  eminently  suitable  for  farming 
and  sheep-breeding.  In  addition  to  the  line  to 
Melbourne,  Ballarat  has  railway  connection 
with  Geelong,  Ararat,  Maryborough,  Castle- 
maine,  etc.     Pop.    (1897)   46,137. 

Ballast,  (i)  Heavy  matter,  as  stone, 
sand,  iron,  or  water  placed  in  the  bottom  of  a  ship 
or  other  vessel,  to  sink  it  in  the  water  to  such  a 
depth  as  to  enable  it  to  carry  sufficient  sail 
without  oversetting.  (2)  The  sand  placed  in 
bags  in  the  car  of  a  balloon  to  steady  it  and  to 
enable  the  aeronaut  to  lighten  the  balloon  by 
throwing  part  of  it  out.  (3)  The  material  used 
to  fill  up  the  space  between  the  rails  on  a  rail- 
waj'  in  order  to  make  it  firm  and  solid. 

Bal'lentyne,  or  Bal'lenden,  John,  Scot- 
tish poet,  and  translator  of  Boece's  'Latin  His- 
tory,* and  of  the  first  five  books  of  Livy  into  the 
vernacular  language  of  his  time:  b.  Lothian 
toward  the  close  of  the  15th  century;  said  to 
have  died  at  Rome,  1550.  He  was  in  the  service 
of  James  V.  from  the  king's  earliest  years,  and 
at  his  request  he  translated  Boece's  'History,* 
which  had  been  published  at  Paris  in  1526,  the 
translation  being  printed  in  1536.  As  a  reward 
he  was  made  archdeacon  of  Moray  and  a  canon 
of  Ross.  He  was  a  bitter  opponent  of  the  Ref- 
ormation. 

Balleny  (bal'la'ne)  Islands,  a  group  of  five 
small  volcanic  islands,  discovered  by  Balleny,  in 
the  Antarctic  Ocean  in  1839,  nearly  on  the  Ant- 
arctic Circle,  and  in  Ion.  164°  E.  One  of  the 
islands,  Young  Island,  contains  a  very  lofty 
mountain,  about  12,000  feet  high. 

Ballesteros,  biil-yes-ta'ros,  Francisco, 
Spanish  general:  b.  Saragossa,  1770;  d.  Paris, 
22  June  1832.  He  first  served  in  Catalonia 
against  the  French  during  the  campaigns  of 
1792  and  1795,  and  was  appointed  to  a-  captaincy. 
Discharged  in  1804  on  account  of  embezzlement, 
he  was  nevertheless  entrusted  by  the  all-powerful 
Godoy,  "prince  of  the  peace,**  with  one  of  the 
most  productive  offices  in  the  custom-house,  the 
direction  of  the  resgnardo  at  Oviedo.  When 
the  French  army  invaded  Spain  in  1808,  Balles- 
teros was  promoted  to  a  colonelcy  by  the  pro- 
vincial junta  of  Asturia,  and  joined  the  Castilian 
army  under  Castanos  and  Black.  The  regency 
of  Cadiz  promoted  him  to  the  rank  of  lieutenant- 
general  and  put  him  in  command  of  the  army  of 


BALLESTREM  —  BALLISTIC  GALVANOMETER 


Andalusia.  He  had  then  to  fight  against  some 
of  the  most  skilful  chiefs  of  the  French  army, 
and  succeeded  in  avoiding  their  pursuit  by  pe- 
culiar tactics.  When  Wellington  was  entrusted 
in  1812  with  the  general  command  of  all  the 
armies  in  the  Peninsula,  Ballesteros  showed  such 
violent  opposition  that  he  was  arrested  as  guilty 
of  treason  and  sent  as  a  prisoner  to  Ceuta.  A 
few  months  later  he  was  restored  to  liberty,  but 
was  not  allowed  to  re-enter  the  military  ser- 
vice. On  the  return  of  Ferdinand  VII.  to  Spain 
Ballesteros  made  such  a  show  of  devotion  to 
monarchical  principles  that  he  was  appointed  sec- 
retary of  war,  but  was  soon  dismissed  and  sent 
to  Valladolid,  where  he  was  placed  under  the 
strictest  surveillance.  When  the  struggle  be- 
tween the  royalists  and  the  constitutionalists 
commenced,  he  managed  so  artfully  that  each 
party  thought  Ballesteros  was  acting  in  con- 
cert with  them.  Commissioned  by  the  chiefs 
of  the  latter  to  obtain  the  assent  of  the  king  to 
the  constitution,  he  succeeded  beyond  their  an- 
ticipations and  became  a  member  of  the  council 
of  state,  while  he  was  at  the  same  time  admit- 
ted in  the  ccmmuncros  association.  This 
double-dealing  seemed  to  be  perfectly  successful, 
for  in  1823,  on  the  entry  of  the  French  into 
Spain  he  was  appointed  to  the  command  of  the 
army ;  but  instead  of  showing  fight  he  concluded 
a  capitulation  with  the  Duke  of  Angouleme, 
which  became  the  occasion  of  accusations  of 
such  a  character  that  Ballesteros  thought  it  im- 
prudent to  stay  any  longer  in  his  own  country, 
and  took  refuge  in  France,  where  he  died  a 
forgotten  exile. 

Ballestrem,  bal'les-stram,  Franz  Xaver, 
Count  von,  German  statesman:  b.  Plawnio- 
witz,  in  Upper  Silesia,  1834.  Entering  the  Prus- 
sian army  he  served  during  the  Austro-Prussian 
campaign  of  1866  and  the  Franco-Prussian  war 
of  1870-1.  At  the  close  of  the  latter  he  was 
elected  to  the  Reichstag,  where  he  soon  became 
prominent  in  the  Centre  party.  Pius  IX.  ap- 
pointed him  a  papal  chamberlain  for  his  activity 
in  the  Culturkampf,  and  he  was  first  vice-presi- 
dent of  the  lower  House,  1890-3. 

Ballet,  bal'la,  or  bal'let,  (from  hal;  from  the 
French  bailer,  and  the  Italian  ballare,  to  dance), 
a  kind  of  dance  now  usually  constituting  an 
interlude  in  a  theatrical  performance.  In  its 
widest  sense  a  ballet  is  the  representation  of  a 
series  of  passionate  actions  and  feelings  by 
means  of  gestures  and  dancing.  In  a  more  con- 
fined sense  we  call  ballets  musical  pieces,  the 
object  of  which  is  to  represent  by  mimic  move- 
ments and  dances,  actions,  characters,  senti- 
ments, passions,  and  feelings,  in  which  several 
dancers  perform  together.  According  to  the 
analogy  of  lyrical  poetry  those  which  rather 
represent  feelings  may  be  called  lyrical  ballets ; 
those  which  imitate  actions,  dramatic  ballets. 
The  lyrical  and  dramatic  ballets,  together,  con- 
stitute the  higher  art  of  dancing,  in  opposition 
to  the  lower,  the  aim  of  which  is  only  social 
pleasure.  Dramatic  ballets  are  classed  as  his- 
torical, the  subject  of  which  is  a  real  event; 
mythological,  in  which  the  subject  is  some  fa- 
bulous action ;  and  poetical,  founded  on  poetical 
fiction,  to  which  belong  also  the  allegorical,  ne- 
cessarily the  most  imperfect.  A  ballet  is  usu- 
ally divided  into  several  acts,  each  of  which 
has  several  entrees.  An  entree,  m  a  ballet,  con- 
sists of   one   or   several   quadrilles   of  dancers, 


who,  by  their  steps,  gestures,  and  attitudes,  rep- 
resent a  certain  part  of  the  action.  In  criticising 
a  ballet  we  must  consider,  first,  the  choice  of  the 
subject,  which  must  have  unity  of  action  or 
of  passion,  and  be  capable  of  being  represented 
in  an  intelligible  manner  by  means  of  mimic 
movements  and  dancing;  secondly,  the  plan 
and  execution  of  the  single  parts,  which  must 
have  due  proportion  to  each  other;  and,  finally, 
the  music  and  decorations,  which  must  supply 
whatever  dancing  cannot  bring  before  the  eye. 
The  ballet  is  an  invention  of  modern  times. 
Baltazarini,  director  of  music  to  Catherine  de' 
Medici,  probably  gave  its  form  to  the  regular 
ballet,  though  pantomimic  dances  were  not  un- 
known to  the  ancients.  The  ballet  owes  much 
to  the  French,  and  particularly  to  Noverre. 

Balliet,  Thomas  M.,  American  edu- 
cator :  b.  I  IMarch  1852.  He  was  educated  at 
Franklin  and  Marshal  College  (Lancaster,  Pa.) 
and  at  Yale,  was  appointed  superintendent  of 
public  schools  in  Springfield,  Mass.,  and  also 
became  associate  editor  of  the  *  Pedagogical 
Seminary.^  His  writings  include  'Some  New 
Phases  of  Educational  Thought  * 

Balliol  (bal'yol)  College,  Oxford,  an  im- 
portant college  founded  between  1263  and  1268 
by  John  Balliol  (q.v.).  The  original  founda- 
tion consisted  of  16  poor  scholars,  and  the  rev- 
enue for  their  maintenance  amounted  for  many 
years  to  only  8d.  per  week  for  each.  From  1340 
to  1830  the  college  was  greatly  enriched  by 
various  benefactions.  The  society  consists  of 
a  master,  13  fellows,  and  24  scholars.  The  num- 
ber of  members  on  the  books  is  about  600.  The 
master  and  fellows  enjoy  the  privilege  of  elect- 
ing their  own  visitor.  John  Wyclif  was  master 
of  this  college  in  1361 ;  among  its  scholars  have 
been  John  Evelyn,  Bradley  the  astronomer, 
Mathew  Arnold  Swinburne,  and  the  late  Arch- 
bishop Temple.  The  Snell  exhibitions  for  stu- 
dents of  Glasgow  University  attract  annually 
to  this  college  a  few  distinguished  Scottish  stu- 
dents. 

Ballis'tic  Galvano'meter,  a  galvanometer 
(q.v.)  designed  or  used  for  the  measurement 
of  electric  currents  of  very  short  duration.  It 
does  not  necessarily  differ  in  any  essential  par- 
ticular from  other  galvanometers,  except  that 
the  natural  period  of  oscillation  of  its  needle 
must  be  long  in  comparison  with  the  duration 
of  the  transient  currents  that  are  to  be  mea- 
sured. If  C  is  the  intensity  of  the  current  that 
is  to  be  measured,  and  ;  is  the  time  during 
which  it  passes,  the  general  theory  of  the  instru- 
ment is  as  follows :  The  magnetic  moment 
tending  to  deflect  the  needle  is  proportional  to 
C,  and  the  angular  velocity  that  such  a  mag- 
netic moment  can  produce  when  acting  upon  a 
freely  suspended  body  like  the  needle  is  pro- 
portional to  t.  Hence  the  angular  velocity  ac- 
tually communicated  to  the  needle  is  propor- 
tional both  to  C  and  to  t;  or,  in  other  words, 
it  is  proportional  to  the  product  Ct.  But  an 
electric  ^'current*  (such  as  is  here  denoted  by 
C)  is  defined  as  the  quantity  of  electricity  pass- 
ing per  second ;  and  hence  Ct  is  the  quantity  of 
electricity  passing  in  the  time  t.  The  angular 
velocity  actually  communicated  to  the  needle 
(which  is  inferred  by  observing  the  extent  of 
the  swing)  is  therefore  proportional  to  the  total 
quantity  of  electricity  passed  through  the  gal- 
vanometer during  the  short  time  t,  and  not  to 


BALLISTICS  —  BALLOON 


the  intensity  of  the  current.  This  constitutes 
the  chief  peculiarity  of  the  instrument.  The 
ballistic  galvanometer  measures  the  total  quan- 
tity of  electricity  passed  through  the  instrument, 
and  its  readings  are  in  coulombs ;  while  other 
galvanometers  measure  the  intensity  of  the  cur- 
rent passing,  and  their  readings  are  in  amperes. 
If  the  needle  of  the  instrument  moves  sensibly 
during  the  passage  of  the  current,  the  magnetic 
movement  exerted  upon  the  needle  will  also 
vary,  even  though  the  current  itself  remains 
constant.  It  is  for  this  reason  that  the  period 
of  free  swing  of  the  needle  must  be  long  if  the 
instrument   is  to  be   used  ballistically. 

Ballis'tics.       See  Ordnance. 

Bal'listite.        See  Explosives. 

Balloon',  a  bag-like  receptacle  filled  with 
hydrogen,  coal-gas,  or  other  light  gaseous  mat- 
ter, and  designed  to  rise  in  the  air.  The  first 
balloon  was  constructed  by  Stephen  and  Joseph 
Montgolfier,  sons  of  Peter  Montgolfier,  a  well- 
known  paper-maker  of  Annonay,  France.  Ob- 
serving the  suspension  of  clouds  in  the  air,  they 
conceived  the  idea  of  filling  a  light  bag  with 
some  substance  of  a  cloud-like  nature,  and  try- 
ing it  to  see  if  it  would  not  ascend.  After  experi- 
menting on  a  small  scale  with  paper  bags  filled 
with  smoke,  they  constructed  a  linen  bag  about 
30  feet  in  diameter  and  inflated  it  with  hot  air 
from  a  fire  fed  with  chopped  straw.  The  at- 
tempt was  entirely  successful,  and  on  5  June 
1783,  the  balloon  rose  to  a  height  of  about  a  mile 
and  a  half  in  the  presence  of  a  considerable 
number  of  amazed  spectators. 

As  might  be  expected,  an  experiment  of  so 
novel  a  nature  attracted  a  great  deal  of  atten- 
tion, and  only  two  months  later  a  balloon  was 
constructed  on  more  scientific  principles  by  M. 
Charles,  of  Paris.  The  bag  used  by  M.  Charles 
was  made  of  thin  varnished  silk,  and  inflated 
with  hydrogen  gas  generated  by  the  action  of 
sulphuric  acid  upon  iron  filings.  Some  difficulty 
was  found  in  filling  the  bag  satisfactorily,  but 
the  task  was  completed  at  the  end  of  four  days, 
and  on  27  Aug.  1783,  the  balloon  rose  from  the 
Champ  de  Mars  to  a  height  of  3,000  feet,  re- 
maining in  the  air  for  about  three  quarters  of 
an  hour  and  eventually  falling  in  a  field  about 
15  miles  away,  where  it  was  torn  to  shreds  by 
terrified  peasants.  The  excitement  in  Paris  was 
very  great,  and  plans  were  laid  to  build  balloons 
large  enough  to  sustain  human  beings.  After 
several  trials  with  a  captive  balloon  of  the  hot- 
air  or  Montgolfier  type,  M.  Frangois  Pilatre  de 
Rozier,  satisfied  that  there  would  be  no  difficulty 
in  maintaining  a  fire  under  the  balloon  while 
in  the  air,  made  an  ascension  from  the  Bois  de 
Boulogne  on  21  Nov.  1783,  accompanied  by  the 
Marquis  d'Arlandes.  They  remained  in  the  air 
about  25  minutes,  during  which  time  they  rose 
to  a  height  of  500  feet  and  traversed  a  horizontal 
distance  of  over  five  miles.  Ten  daj^s  later,  on 
I  Dec.  1783,  MM.  Charles  and  Robert  made  a 
similar  ascension  in  a  balloon  filled  with  hydro- 
gen. They  rose  to  a  height  of  2,000  feet,  and 
returned  to  the  earth,  after  about  two  hours,  at 
Nesle,  about  t."]  miles  from  their  starting-point 
at  Paris.  M.  Robert  then  left  the  car,  and  M. 
Charles  made  a  second  ascent  alone.  Owing 
to  an  error  in  the  amount  of  ballast  taken  in  to 
compensate  for  the  weight  of  M.  Robert,  the 
balloon,  when  freed,  rose  rapidly  to  a  height  of 


about  two  miles,  but  no  accident  resulted,  and 
M.  Charles  returned  to  the  earth  safely. 

One  of  the  most  famous  balloon  ascents  was 
that  made  by  Glaisher  and  Coxwell  on  5  Sept. 
1862,  its  avowed  object  being  to  ascend  to  as 
great  a  height  as  possible.  The  balloon  left  the 
ground  at  1.03  p.m.  and  at  1.49  it  had  attained 
an  altitude  of  no  less  than  five  miles.  The 
temperature  then  observed  was  2°  F.,  the  tem- 
perature at  the  earth's  surface  being  59°  F. 
Mr.  Glaisher's  own  account  is  as  follows : 

Up  to  this  time  I  had  taken  observations  with  com- 
fort. I  had  experienced  no  difficulty  in  breathing,  wliile 
jMr.  Coxwell,  in  consequence  of  the  necessary  exertions 
he  had  to  make,  had  breathed  with  difficulty  for  some 
time.  At  1.5 1  the  barometer  reading  was  10.80  inches 
...  I  could  not  see  the  column  of  mercury  in  the  wet- 
bulb  thermometer;  nor  afterward  the  hands  of  the 
watch,  nor  the  fine  divisions  on  any  instrument.  I 
asked  Mr.  Coxwell  to  help  me  read  the  instruments,  as 
I  experienced  a  difficulty  in  seeing.  In  consequence, 
however,  of  the  rotatory  motion  of  the  balloon,  which 
had  continued  without  ceasing  since  the  earth  had  been 
left,  the  valve-line  had  become  twisted,  and  he  had  to 
leave  the  car  and  mount  into  the  ring  above  to  adjust 
it.  At  this  time  I  looked  at  the  barometer  and  found 
it  to  read  9^4  inches,  implying  a  height  of  29,000  feet, 
and  it  was  still  falling  fast.  Shortly  afterward  I  laid 
my  arm  upon  the  table,  possessed  of  its  full  vigor,  and 
on  being  desirous  of  using  it  I  found  it  powerless.  I 
tried  to  move  the  other  arm  and  found  it  powerless 
also.  I  then  tried  to  shake  myself  and  succeeded  in 
shaking  my  body.  I  seemd  to  have  no  limbs.  I  then 
looked  at  the  barometer,  and  while  doing  so  my  head 
fell  on  my  left  shoulder.  I  struggled  and  shook  my 
body  again,  but  could  not  move  my  arms.  I  got  my 
head  upright,  but  for  an  instant  only,  when  it  fell  on 
my  riglit  shoulder,  and  then  I  fell  backward,  my  back 
resting  against  the  back  of  the  car,  and  my  head  on 
its  edge;  in  this  position  my  eyes  were  directed  toward 
Mr.  Coxwell  in  the  ring.  When  I  shook  my  body  I 
seemed  to  have  full  power  over  the  muscles  of  the 
back,  and  considerable  power  over  those  of  the  neck, 
but  none  over  either  my  arms  or  my  legs;  in  fact,  I 
seemed  to  have  no  arms  or  legs.  As  in  the  case  of  the 
arms,  all  muscular  power  was  lost  in  an  instant  from 
my  back  and  neck.  I  dimly  saw  Mr.  Coxwell  in  the 
ring  and  endeavored  to  speak,  but  could  not; 
and  in  another  instant  intense  black  darkness  came;  the 
optic  nerve  finally  lost  power  suddenly.  I  was  still 
conscious,  with  as  active  a  brain  as  at  the  present 
moment  while  writing  this.  I  thought  I  had  been 
seized  with  asphyxia,  and  that  I  should  experience  no 
more,  as  death  would  come  unless  we  speedily  de- 
scended ;  other  tho'.ights  were  actively  entering  my 
mind  when  I  suddenly  became  unconscious  as  on  going 
to  sleep.  I  cannot  tell  anything  of  the  sense  of 
hearing;  the  perfect  stillness  and  silence  of  the  regions 
six  miles  from  the  earth  (and  at  this  time  we  were 
between  six  and  seven  miles  high)  is  such  that  no 
sound  reaches  the  ear.  My  last  observations  were 
made  at  1.54,  at  29,000  feet.  I  suppose  two  or  three 
minutes,  fully,  were  occupied  between  my  eyes  becom- 
ing insensible  to  seeing  fine  divisions  and  1.54,  and 
then  that  two  or  three  minutes  more  passed  till  I  was 
insensible;  therefore  I  think  this  took  place  at  about 
1.56  or  1.57.  While  powerless  I  heard  the  words 
"temperature"  and  "observation,"  and  I  knew  Mr. 
Coxwell  was  in  the  car  speaking  to  me  and  endeavor- 
ing to  arouse  me;  therefore  consciousness  and  hearing 
had  returned.  I  then  heard  him  speak  more  em- 
phatically, but  I  could  not  see,  speak,  or  move.  I 
heard  him  again  say,  "Do  try  —  now  do."  Then  I  saw 
the  instruments  dimly,  then  Mr.  Coxwell;  and  very 
shortly  I  saw  clearly.  I  rose  in  my  seat  and  looked 
around,  as  though  waking  from  sleep  but  not  refreshed 
by  sleep,  and  said  to  Mr.  Coxwell,  "I  have  been 
insensible."  He  said,  "You  have;  and  I  too,  very 
nearly."  I  then  drew  up  my  legs,  which  had  been 
extended  before  me,  and  took  a  pencil  in  my  hands 
to  begin  observations.  _  Mr.  Coxwell  told  me  that  he 
had  lost  the  use  of  his  hands,  which  were  black,  and 
I  poured  brandy  over  them.  I  resumed  my  observa- 
tions at  2.07,  recording  the  barometer  reading  at  11. 2S 
inches  and  temperature  —  2°  F.  I  supposed  that  three 
or  four  minutes  were  occupied  from  the  time  of  my 
hearing  the  words  "  temperature  "  and  "  observation  " 
till  I  began  to  observe.  If  so,  then  returning  con- 
sciousness came  at  2.04,  and  this  gives  seven  minutes 
for  total  insensibility.  Mr.  Coxwell  told  me  that 
while  in  the  ring  he  felt  it  piercingly  cold;  that  hoar 
frost  was  all  around  the  neck  of  the  balloon;  that  on 
attempting  to  leave  the  ring  he  found  his  hands 
frozen,   so  that  he  had  to  place   his  arms  on  the   ring 


BALLOON 


and  drop  down;  that  he  thought  for  a  moment  I  had 
lain  back  to  rest  myself;  that  he  spoke  to  me  without 
eliciting  a  reply;  that  he  then  noticed  my  legs  pro- 
jected and  my  arms  hung  down  by  my  side;  that  my 
countenance  was  serene  and  placid,  without  the  earnest- 
ness and  anxiety  he  had  noticed  Ijefore  going  into 
the  ring,  and  then  it  struck  him  I  was  insensible.  He 
wished  to  approach  me,  but  could  not,  and  he  felt  in- 
sensibility coming  over  himself;  that  he  became  anxious 
to  open  the  valve,  but  in  consequence  of  his  having 
lost  the  use  of  his  hands  he  could  not,  and  ulti- 
mately did  so  by  seizing  the  cord  with  his  teeth  and 
dipping  his  heaci  two  or  three  times  until  the  balloon 
took  a  decided  turn  downward.  Xo  inconvenience 
followed  this  insensibility,  and  when  we  dropped  it 
was  in  a  country  where  no  conveyance  of  any  kind 
could  be  obtained,  so  that  I  had  to  walk  between 
seven  and  eight  miles.  The  descent  was  at  first 
very  rapid;  we  passed  downward  three  miles  in  nine 
minutes;  the  balloon's  career  was  then  checked,  and 
it  finally  descended  in  the  centre  of  a  large  grass 
field    at    Cold    Weston. 

Another  extremely  high  ascension  was  made 
on  4  Dec.  1894,  by  Prof.  Berson,  from  Berlin. 
Germany.  His  last  reading  showed  a  barometric 
height  of  9.12  inches,  and  a  temperature  of 
— 54°  F.  The  temperature  at  the  surface  of  the 
earth  was  2)7°  F-)  ^"d  the  barometric  height 
30.02  inches.  The  calculated  height  attained 
was  28.750  feet. 

The  balloon,  strictly  speaking,  is  not  a  flying- 
machine,  nor  is  it  ordinarily  under  control,  so 
far  as  its  horizontal  direction  is  concerned.  It 
moves  with  the  wind,  and  (to  the  aeronaut)  is 
in  a  calm  at  all  times.  The  first  step  in  advance 
of  the  drifting  balloon  is  to  be  found  in  one 
fitted  with  soine  form  of  propelling  machinery, 
by  which  the  movement  is  controlled  and  the 
balloon  navigated  and  made  to  move  to  a  cer- 
tain extent  independently  of  the  direction  and 
velocity  of  the  wind.  The  difficulties  lying  in 
the  w-^y  of  a  satisfactory  solution  of  the  prob- 
lem of  controlling  the  motion  of  a  balloon  are 
very  great.  The  bulk  of  the  balloon  is  neces- 
sarily vast,  and  a  correspondingly  large  area  is 
exposed  to  the  action  of  the  wind.  Also,  the 
motor  that  is  used  must  combine  great  power 
with  extreme   lightness. 

In  working  this  problem  out,  France  has 
maintained  the  lead  that  her  early  experiments 
gave  her.  A  regular  balloon  corps  is  attached 
to  the  army,  both  in  France  and  in  Germany ; 
and  for  many  years  special  attention  has  been 
directed  to  the  design  and  construction  of 
■dirigible  balloons.  The  details  of  the  mechan- 
isms employed,  as  well  as  of  the  exact  con- 
tour of  the  gas  envelope,  are  guarded  as  mili- 
tary secrets,  but  enough  is  known  about  them 
to  give  a  general  idea  of  what  has  been  done. 
Attention  was  first  publicly  directed  to  the  suc- 
cess attained  with  the  dirigible  balloons  of  the 
French  army  in  1893,  by  an  article  in  the  Me- 
vioircs  dc  la  Socicte  des  [nffcnirttrs  Civils.  The 
true  progenitor  of  the  dirigible  balloon  was  Gen. 
Meusnier,  who,  in  a  series  of  papers  published 
in  1783,  set  forth  a  scheme  for  a  balloon  of  this 
sort.  It  was  not  until  1852,  however,  that 
Henri  Giffard  made  a  rational  attempt  to  con- 
struct one.  His  balloon  was  spindle-shaped 
and  measured  about  144  feet  from  point  to  point. 
His  motor  was,  however,  too  weak  to  permit 
of  making  any  headway  against  even  a  moderate 
breeze,  though  the  balloon  could  be  steered  and 
made  to  describe  circles  while  drifting.  His 
general  form  of  envelope-construction  has  been 
followed  by  all  experimenters  since  that  time. 

In  1870  M.  Dupuy  de  Lome  undertook  the 
task  of  constructing  a  dirigible  balloon.  The 
propeller  used   was  two-armed,  19  feet  8  inches 


in  diameter  and  was  turned  by  eight  men.  The 
spindle  shape  was  used  for  the  envelope.  A 
trial  was  made  at  Vincennes  in  1S72,  where  in 
a  breeze  of  39  feet  per  second  a  deviation  of 
12°  was  obtained.  The  .stability  was  perfect 
despite  the  exertions  of  the  eight  men  at  the 
crab ;  still  the  balloon  was  a  drifting  one,  and 
was  dirigible  only  in  the  sense  that  it  could  be 
made  to  deviate  to  a  slight  extent  from  the  true 
course  of  the  wind.  To  an  outside  observer 
the  problem  seemed  as  far  from  solution  as 
ever ;  but  when  taking  into  consideration  the 
insufficiency  of  the  motor,  the  committee  ap- 
pointed to  be  present  at  the  trial  said:  "It 
serves  as  a  starting-point  for  all  who  wish  to 
continue  in  this  direction.^* 

Others  have  endeavored  to  continue  the  im- 
provement, and  the  first  to  achieve  resuhs  that 
even  approached  success  was  M.  Gaston  Tis- 
sandier,  who,  with  his  brother  Albert,  in  1884, 
constructed  a  balloon  that  was  fitted  with  a 
Siemens  motor  driven  by  a  bichromate  of  soda 
battery,  very  ingeniously  arranged  so  as  to  min- 
imize the  weight  and  at  the  same  time  produce 
the  greatest  possible  effect.  The  motor  weighed 
121  pounds  and  the  cells  weighed  496  pounds, 
and  contained  liquid  enough  to  work  for 
2^4  hours,  generating  during  that  interval 
lYi  horse-power.  The  screw  had  two  arms 
and  was  a  little  over  nine  feet  in  diame- 
ter. Several  ascensions  were  made  with  this 
balloon.  In  one,  undertaken  in  1884,  the  motor 
developed  lYz  horse-power  and  was  sufficient 
to  propel  the  structure  through  the  air  at  a  rate 
of  13  feet  per  second.  After  having  practically 
followed  the  direction  of  the  wind,  which  had  a 
velocity  of  about  10  feet  per  second,  during  which 
the  rudder  turned  it  aside  a  little,  the  balloon 
was  made  to  describe  a  semi-circle,  and  brought 
up  with  its  head  into  the  wind,  where  it  was 
navigated  for  about  10  minutes  directly  above 
Grenelle,  and  the  same  evolution  was  repeated 
above  the  observatory.  Through  the  exhaustion 
of  the  battery  it  became  impossible  to  return  to 
Paris.  These  experiments  were  quickly  fol- 
lowed by  the  work  of  Commandant  Renard  of 
the  French  balloon  corps.  With  a  spindle- 
shaped  balloon,  but  with  a  more  powerful  motor, 
and  the  screw  placed  at  the  front  instead  of  at 
the  rear,  he  succeeded  in  making  several  ascents 
and  returning  to  the  point  of  departure.  The 
motor  developed  8.5  horse-power,  with  a  weight 
of  220.5  pounds.  In  an  ascension  made  on  2^ 
Sept.  1885,  the  balloon  started  from  Chalais- 
Meudon  against  the  wind,  and  went  to  Paris, 
where  it  was  easily  handled,  afterward  return- 
ing to  Chalais. 

This  work  has  been  continued  by  the  French 
balloon  corps  until  now  the  army  is  pos- 
sessed of  a  dirigible  balloon  that  may  be 
considered  controllable  in  light  airs.  The 
problem  has  not  been  left  solely  to  the  mili- 
tary departments  of  the  several  nations  of  the 
the  earth  for  solution,  however,  for  private  in- 
vestigators have  been  constantly  at  work  upon 
it.  In  1901  a  young  Brazilian  named  Santos 
Dumont  made  a  series  of  brilliant  experiments 
in  France,  constructing  several  balloons,  one 
after  another,  each  being  an  improvement  on 
its  predecessor.  In  striving  for  a  prize  of 
$20,000  offered  by  M.  Deutsch  for  the  first  dirigi- 
ble balloon  that  should  start  from  the  Pare  d' 
.Aerostation  at  St.  Cloud  and  be  sailed  around 
the  Eiffel  Tower  in  Paris  and  brought  back  to 


BALLOON  VINE;     BALLOT 


the  starting-point  in  thirty  minutes,  Santos  Du- 
mont  succeeded  in  covering  the  ground  in  but 
40  seconds  above  the  stipulated  time.  The  total 
distance  is  a  little  less  than  nine  miles.  This 
balloon  (his  sixth)  had  a  length  of  108  feet 
and  a  diameter  of  19  feet  6  inches,  and  was 
driven  bj'  a  4-cylinder  petroleum  motor  weigh- 
ing 216  pounds  and  developing  20  horse-power. 
The  screw  was  a  little  more  than  13  feet  in 
diameter,  and  was  turned  at  a  speed  of  300  rev- 
olutions per  minute.  Instead  of  the  old-fash- 
ioned network,  the  basket  and  machinery  were 
suspended  directly  from  the  envelope  by  strong 
piano  wire.  Japanese  silk  was  used  for  the  en- 
velope itself,  and  was  made  impervious  to  the 
gas  by  four  coats  of  linseed  oil.  See  also 
Aerial  Locomotion  ;  Flying-machine. 

Balloon  Vine  (Cardiospeniium  Helicaca- 
butn),  a  tropical  American  and  East  Indian 
climbing  annual  herb  of  the  natural  order  Sapin- 
dacece,  with  racemes  of  small  white  flowers  fol- 
lowed by  bladder-like  seed-vessels  from  which 
the  plant  is  named.  It  is  a  general  favorite  of 
easy  garden  culture. 

Ballot  ("little  balP') :  essentially,  a  secret 
as  distinguished  from  an  open  vote,  to  secure  the 
voter  from  previous  intimidation  or  subsequent 
revenge.  Recent  methods  of  ballot-reform, 
therefore,  are  only  devices  to  obtain  the  re- 
sult inherent  in  its  very  nature,  a  non-secret 
ballot  being  a  contradiction  in  terms  and 
the  same  as  viva  voce  voting.  The  various 
forms  of  ballot  reduce  to  two  in  essence:  bal- 
lots themselves  indicating  choice, —  as  colored 
balls,  printed  tickets,  or  mechanical  devices 
showing  names, —  and  depositories  indicating  the 
choice.  The  former  is  universal  in  modern 
times  and  most  general  in  ancient. 

The  ballot  must  be  nearly  as  old  as  the  prac- 
tice of  voting  by  unprotected  bodies  of  citizens ; 
but  our  first  knowledge  of  it  is  in  classic 
Greece,  where  the  dikasfs  (popular  courts  and 
juries)  voted  "yes"  or  "no"  by  balls  of  stone  or 
metal  (white  or  unpierced  meaning  acquittal, 
black  or  pierced  indicating  condemnation),  by 
marked  shells  (ostrakoi,  whence  "ostracism"  or 
banishment  of  an  unpopular  leader),  or  by  olive 
leaves  ("petalism").  In  the  assemblies  the 
common  voting  was  by  show  of  hands,  to  se- 
cure public  responsibility ;  in  cases  of  privilege 
or  ostracism  it  was  by  ballot.  In  Rome  the  first 
ballot  law  (though  far  from  the  first  balloting) 
was  the  Gabinian,  139  b.c.^  and  the  machinery  is 
Very  modern :  tabellce,  or  tickets,  with  candi- 
dates' names,  or  "yes^'  and  "no"  ballots  for 
changes  in  the  laws ;  boxes,  inspectors,  and 
check-lists ;  but  in  case  of  a  tie  the  candidates 
drew  lots.  In  the  mediaeval  republics  the  ballot 
was  a  regular  machinery ;  but  it  has  been  bitterly 
fought  and  slow  of  introduction  in  all  non- 
republican  countries,  the  governments  and  the 
privileged  classes  being  loth  to  weaken  their 
power  of  dragooning  their  officials  or  the  lower 
classes  into  obedience.  In  Scotland  it  was  used 
in  1662  under  the  name  of  "billeting,*  to  banish 
political  opponents  (ostracism)  ;  but  the  Eng- 
lish government  disallowed  the  act.  In  England 
it  was  first  put  forward  to  protect  members  of 
parliament  against  government  revenge  for  vot- 
ing against  its  bills,  not  the  electors  against 
the  classes  which  furnished  the  members  of 
parliament;  in  1710  the  House  of  Commons 
passed  a  ballot  law,  but  the  Lords  threw  it  out. 


In  the  modern  world  the  American  colonies 
of  England  were  by  far  the  first  to  make  the 
ballot  (voting  "by  papers")  the  foundation  of 
the  governmental  system :  they  used  it  from  the 
first,  and  it  was  made  obligatory  in  several  of 
the  State  constitutions  adopted  in  1776.  New 
York,  with  its  great  landed  aristocracy,  was 
slower,  using  it  only  for  the  governor  and  lieu- 
tenant-governor in  1778,  and  not  extending  it 
to  the  legislature  till  1787.  The  southern  States 
held  to  the  viva  voce  system  for  many  years 
after,  and  Kentucky  till  1891,  its  constitution 
providing  for  it,  though  the  United  States  stat- 
utes compelled  it  to  use  written  or  printed  bal- 
lots for  Congressional  elections.  All  the  State 
constitutions  now  provide  for  elections  by  bal- 
lot 

In  Great  Britain  it  was  not  only  fought  by 
the  privileged  classes  as  overthrowing  their  lead- 
ership of  the  tenants  and  artisans,  but  by  a  large 
part  even  of  the  Liberals  as  undermining  th** 
manliness  of  the  English  character.  The  van- 
guard of  the  movement  were  the  Benthamites, 
and  it  stood  foremost  in  the  programme  of  re- 
form put  forward  by  the  more  radical  Whigs 
early  in  the  19th  century.  It  was  in  the  first 
draft  of  the  Reform  Bill  of  1832;  in  1833 
Grote  the  historian  introduced  it,  and  repeated 
the  attempt  every  year  till  1839  with  a  fresh 
speech  of  immense  force  and  learning.  It  was 
supported  by  Macaulay  with  his  usual  effective- 
ness, but  was  sneered  at  by  so  good  a  Liberal 
as  Sydney  Smith,  and  heartily  supported  by  none 
but  the  Chartists,  whose  support  alone  would 
have  killed  it.  They  made  it  one  of  the  "six 
points"  of  their  "People's  Charter."  In  18.SI 
it  was  carried  in  the  Commons  by  51  majority 
against  Lord  John  Russell  and  his  Liberal  gov- 
ernment, but  went  no  further.  In  1869  it  was 
tried  at  Manchester  as  a  test,  and  worked  well ; 
was  adopted  at  school-board  elections  in  1870; 
and  the  same  year  a  select  committee  of  the 
House,  headed  by  Lord  Hartington,  reported  in 
its  favor  as  a  means  of  lessening  corruption, 
"treating,"  and  intimidation.  In  1872  Mr.  W. 
E.  Forster's  ballot  act  made  printed  ballots  com- 
pulsory at  all  national  and  municipal  elections 
except  those  of  university  candidates  for  parlia- 
ment. This  put  an  end  to  the  drunken  riots  at- 
tending the  previous  public  nominations  at  the 
hustings,  so  keenly  satirized  by  Dickens  and 
others. 

In  France,  Spain,  Belgium,  Switzerland,  and 
Cisleithan  Austria  the  ballot  is  now  used ;  in 
Hungary  it  was  formerly  employed  in  all  elec- 
tions, but  in  1874  was  restricted  to  municipal 
councils. 

The  interest  of  governments  and  privileged 
classes  in  aristocratic  countries  to  defeat  the  se- 
crecy of  the  ballot  is  replaced  in  democratic 
ones,  of  which  the  United  States  is  chief,  by  the 
interest  of  party  managers,  who  wish  either  to 
prevent  independent  voting  through  fear  of  loss 
of  employment  or  favor,  or  to  make  sure  of 
purchased  votes  being  given  as  promised ;  they 
have  therefore  devised  various  methods  of 
evading  the  nominal  secrecy  of  the  vote,  such 
as  ordering  the  voter  to  write  his  name  or  some 
understood  sign  on  the  ballot  before  depositing 
it,  holding  it  in  sight  of  the  party  watcher  while 
casting  it,  having  a  "friend"  accompany  him  to 
the  polls  on  pretense  of  his  illiteracy  and  inabil- 
ity to  go  through  the  legal  forms  without  help, 
etc.     These  enforce  as  constant  a  struggle  from 


BALLOU 


the  guardians  of  political  honesty  to  circumvent 
them  :  the  first  has  been  stopped  by  throwing  out 
as  illegal  all  ballots  with  distinguishing  marks 
on  them ;  the  second  by  compelling  them  to  be 
cast  in  sealed  official  envelopes ,  and  by  forbid- 
ding any  but  the  official  registrars  to  come  with- 
in a  certain  distance  of  the  polls  for  any  purpose 
but  to  vote,  and  later  by  providing  booths  in 
which  each  voter  prepares  his  ballot  in  privacy ; 
the  third  is  practically  confined  to  certain  States 
and  cities  with  a  large  percentage  of  real  illit- 
eracy under  which  the  feigned  article  can  cover 
itself  and  cannot  well  be  directly  reached  by 
law,  but  on'iy  by  the  vigilance  of  each  party  in 
exposing  the  fraudulent  practices  of  the  other. 
The  ballot  itself  also  has  brought  in  many 
frauds  for  which  the  viva  voce  system  gave  no 
opportunity,  which  are  reducible  to  three  kinds : 
(i)  counterfeiting,  either  by  printing  the  name 
of  one  party  over  the  candidates  of  another,  or 
by  substituting  one  or  more  names  on  the  oppo- 
site party's  ticket;  (2)  ^'stuffing"  the  ballot-box 
by  folding  two  or  more  ballots,  all  but  one  being 
sometimes  of  tissue  paper,  to  look  like  one;  (2) 
^'repeating,''  one  man  voting  at  different  polling- 
places  more  than  once  or  at  the  same  one 
under  different  names.  The  first  must  be  de- 
feated bj'  partj^  vigilance ;  the  second  is  used 
only  where  one  party  has  the  control  of  ballot 
inspection,  though  the  law  usually  provides  that 
both  the  chief  parties  shall  have  a  share  in  this ; 
the  third  and  second  are  punishable  by  law. 

Another  evil,  as  diminishing  individual  re- 
sponsibility for  votes  and  building  up  unprin- 
cipled and  corruot  party  dominance,  though  not 
direct  fraud  like  the  others,  is  the  "party  ballot." 
This  is  due  to  the  great  multiplication  of  candi- 
dates to  be  voted  for  at  one  time,  and  the 
consequent  cost  of  printing  and  distributing  the 
ballots  to  voters,  which  has  led  to  the  aban- 
donment of  the  candidates  themselves  doing  this 
work,  and  the  forming  of  party  organizations 
for  it,  which,  in  return  for  their  efforts  insist  on 
subservience  and  are  apt  to  have  slight  scruples 
about  gaining  their  ends.  All  these  evils  to- 
gether—  the  misuse  of  ballot  methods  to  per- 
vert their  intent,  the  only  partial  secrecy,  and 
the  supremacy  of  party  in  the  voting  —  have 
latterly  built  up  a  great  body  of  opinion  that 
some  better  methods  should  be  devised,  the  gen- 
eral movement  being  known  as  "ballot  reform.® 

The  party  ballot  has  in  many  States  been 
set  aside  by  some  form  of  the  so-called  "Aus- 
tralian ballot**  (from  its  first  use  in  South  Aus- 
tralia), or  oflficial  ballot,  furnished  by  the  State. 
The  essential  feature  of  the  plan  is  that  all 
candidates  in  the  field  for  any  office  shall  be 
placed  on  one  ballot,  and  the  voter  compelled 
to  indicate  his  preference  by  a  mark  against 
one ;  thus  forcing  him  to  think  personally  con- 
cerning each  one,  inviting  to  independence  of 
judgment,  breaking  down  the  tyranny  of  the 
party  vote,  and  putting  some  intelligence  into 
the  "brute  vote  *^  even  though  the  name  of  the 
party  of  each  candidate  is  added.  The  first 
States  to  adopt  the  system  were  Massachusetts 
for  the  whole  State,  and  Kentucky  for  Louisville, 
in  1888;  and  in  1895  every  State  in  the  Union 
except  Georgia,  Louisiana,  ^nd  North  and  South 
Carolina  had  adopted  some  modification  of  the 
system.  But  the  modifications  were  important; 
they  were  due  to  struggles  of  the  local  party 
organizations  for  one  of  two  objects,  or  both, — 
to  defeat  the  secrecy  of  the  new  regime  and  keep 


track  of  the  purchased  votes,  or  to  prevent 
"scratching**  and  ensure  that  their  voters  should 
cast  "straight  tickets*' ;  in  other  words,  to 
emasculate  the  system  of  its  vital  principle. 
The  ideal  and  typical  form  is  the  "blanket  bal- 
lot,** wherein  all  candidates  are  given  in  the 
alphabetical  order  of  the  offices  without  regard 
to  party;  but  this  is  strongly  opposed  on  the 
nominal  ground  that  the  illiterate  voters,  and  a 
large  part  of  those  not  technically  such,  do  not 
wisTi  to  vote  an>i:hing  but  the  straight  party 
ticket,  and  should  not  be  hindered  in  their 
choice,  much  less  deprived  of  it.  In  concession 
to  this  useful  element  of  citizenship,  most  of  the 
States  group  the  names  and  offices  by  parties. 
In  general  there  is  a  blanket  ballot  with  all 
parties  on  it,  but  each  party  given  a  column 
by  itself,  with  some  conspicuous  device,  like  an 
eagle  or  a  star,  at  its  head,  which  the  illiterate 
can  be  taught  to  recognize;  the  voter,  in  order  to 
vote  the  straight  ticket,  making  a  cross  in  the 
circle  under  the  emblem,  while  for  a  scattered 
or  split  vote  he  makes  the  cross  in  the  space 
before  the  desired  name.  In  New  York  and 
New  Jersey  this  is  carried  further  still,  each 
party  having  a  separate  ticket  and  pasters  being 
allowed ;  which  is  in  fact  the  old-fashioned 
sort,  the  modifications  having  taken  all  the  dis- 
tinctive features  out  of  the  system,  except  the 
State  supply. 

A  newer  feature  of  ballot  reforrn  is  the  sub- 
stitution for  the  ballot  paper,  which  is  folded  and 
deposited  by  hand,  of  voting-machines,  which 
are  contrivances  that  both  record  the  votes  and 
count  them,  enabling  the  inspectors  to  see  at 
any  moment  how  many  votes  have  been  cast, 
and  for  whom.  Several  States  have  authorized 
the  use  of  machines,  and  others  are  consider- 
ing the  matter.  Three  varieties  of  the  voting- 
machine  have  been  legally  sanctioned:  (i)  The 
Myers,  in  which  the  single  ballot  is  placed  in  a 
frame  having  a  push-knob  for  each  candidate, 
the  voter  indicating  his  choice  by  pushing  the 
knob  opposite  his  candidate's  name,  when  the 
machine  indicates  the  vote  on  a  dial  at  the  back 
of  the  frame,  and  locks  the  knobs  of  all  other 
candidates  for  the  same  office  (before  a  second 
voter  is  ready,  all  knobs  are  unlocked)  ;  (2) 
the  McTammany,  which  contains  on  its  face  a 
slot  for  each  office,  beneath  which  is  a  card 
bearing  the  names  of  the  candidates  for  the 
office  seen  through  the  slot,  the  voter's  choice 
being  indicated  by  turning  a  wheel  till  the  name 
of  his  candidate  appears,  when  he  pushes  a 
knob  which  punctures  the  tally-sheet;  and  (3) 
the  Rhines,  in  which  the  names  are  arranged  as 
in  the  Myers,  by  parties  and  offices.  Slip  names 
are  inserted  in  the  push  buttons;  and  separate 
tally-sheets  for  each  candidate,  with  vertical 
serial  numbers,  are  placed  beneath  the  face,  the 
voter  pushing  a  button  which  places  a  punch 
in  such  a  position  for  each  name  that  when  the 
lid  of  the  machine  is  closed  the  next  number  on 
each  tally-sheet  is  punctured.  See  United 
St.\tes,   Beginnings   of   P.\rty   Organiz.\tion 

IN    THE. 

Ballou',  Hosea,  American  clergyman  and 
author:  b.  Richmond.  N.  H.,  30  April  1771  ;  d. 
Boston,  Mass.,  7  June  1852.  His  boyhood  was 
spent  in  the  greatest  poverty,  but  at  21  he 
began  to  preach,  having  adopted  the  Universalist 
doctrines.  He  was  successively  pastor  of  con- 
gregations in  Dana,  Mass. ;  Barnard,  Vt. ;  Ports- 


BALLOU  —  BALMEZ 


mouth.  N.  H.,  and  Boston,  Mass.,  in  which  lat- 
ter place  he  held  his  pastorate  for  more  than 
35  years.  He  founded  the  ^Universalist  Maga- 
zine,^ subsequently  called  ^The  Universalist 
Expositor,'  and  again  the  <Universalist  Quar- 
terly Review.'  A  voluminous  writer,  his  chief 
works  are:  <Notes  on  the  Parables'  (1804); 
'Lecture  Sermons'  (1831);  ^Examination  of 
the  Doctrine  of  Future  Retribution'  (1834),  his 
most  important  contribution  to  theological  lit- 
erature. His  published  works  would  make  more 
than  a  hundred  i2mo  volumes. 

Ballou',  Maturin  Murray,  American  jour- 
nalist, son  of  Hosea  Ballou :  b.  Boston,  14  April 
1820;  d.  27  March  1895.  Besides  editing  <Bal- 
lou's  Pictorial,'  'The  Flag  of  Our  Union.'  'Bal- 
lou's  Monthly,'  etc.,  and  making  a  valuable  com- 
pilation of  quotations,  he  wrote  'History  of 
Cuba'  (1854)  ;  'Biography  of  Hosea  Ballou,' 
<Life  Work  of  Hosea  Ballou.'  Becoming  in  la- 
ter life  an  extensive  traveler,  he  wrote  a  num- 
ber of  books  of  travel,  including  *Due  West,' 
'Due  South'  (1885)  ;  'Due  North,'  'Under  the 
Southern  Cross,'  'Footprints  of  Travel,'  etc. 
In  1872  he  became  one  of  the  founders  and  the 
editor-in-chief  of  the  Boston  Globe. 

Ball's  Bluff,  Va.,  a  point  on  the  Potomac 
River,  about  33  miles  above  Washington,  where 
the  bank  rises  about  150  feet  above  the  level  of 
the  river.  It  is  noted  as  the  scene  of  a  battle 
between  a  Union  force  under  Col.  Edward  D. 
Baker,  and  a  Confederate  force  under  the  com- 
mand of  Gen.  Evans,  21  Oct.  1861.  The  battle 
resulted  in  the  serious  defeat  of  the  Union  force 
and  the  instantaneous  death  of  Col.  Baker. 

Ballston  Spa,  N.  Y.,  county-seat  of  Sara- 
toga County,  on  the  Delaware  &  Hudson  R.R., 
seven  miles  south  of  Saratoga  Springs.  It  is 
noted  for  its  mineral  springs,  which  rank 
among  the  best  acidulous  chalybeate  springs 
in  the  country,  and  was  formerly  a  popular  sum- 
mer resort,  but  is  now  most  important  for  its 
manufactories,  which  include  one  of  the  largest 
tanneries  in  the  world ;  extensive  pulp  and  paper 
mills,  and  agricultural  implement  factories.  It 
has  two  national  banks,  several  churches,  public 
high  school,  and  daily  and  weekly  newspapers. 
Pop.   (1900)  3,923. 

Ballyme'na,  a  market  town  in  County  An- 
trim, Ireland,  on  the  River  Braid,  25  miles 
northwest  of  Carrickfergus.  It  has  a  cotton- 
spinning  mill,  a  distillery,  numerous  bleaching- 
grounds,  a  church,  chapels,  large  public  schools, 
several  branch  banks,  and  a  United  States  con- 
sular agency.    Pop.  (1900)  g,ooo. 

Balm  (Melissa  officinalis),  a  perennial  herb 
of  the  natural  order  Labiatcc,  native  of  southern 
Europe,  cultivated  for  culinary  use  and  found 
wild  as  an  escape  in  many  countries.  It  at- 
tains a  height  of  about  18  inches,  is  much 
branched,  has  ovate  leaves  and  whorls  of  white 
or  yellowish  axillary  flowers  rich  in  nectar,  for 
which  the  plant  is  sometimes  cultivated  as  bee- 
forage.  Its  foliage,  which  has  a  lemon-like 
odor  and  slightly  aromatic  taste,  is  used  to  fla- 
vor wine  and  to  a  small  extent  in  domestic  medi- 
cine. Some  other  members  of  the  Labiata  are 
called  balm  —  for  instance :  Bastard  balm  {Me- 
httis  melissophylhitn),  a  handsome  member  of 
the  same  family,  often  dried  for  its  long-endur- 
ing fragrance.  Moldavian  balm  (Dracocepha- 
ium  moldavica) ,  a  Siberian  annual  of  less  pleas- 


ant qualities  than  true  balm,  largely  used  in 
Germany  for  flavoring.  Horse  balm  (Collin- 
sonia  canadensis)  and  tea  balm  {Monarda  didy- 
ma)  are  American  species  of  little  importance. 
A  variety  of  catnip  {Nepeta  cataria)  so  closely 
resembles  true  balm  as  often  to  be  mistaken  for 
it.     For  cultivation  see  Herbs  {Culinary). 

Balm  of  Gilead,  a  liquid  resinous  balsam 
highly  reputed  in  the  East  since  Bible  times  for 
its  fragrance  and  supposed  medicinal  properties, 
believed  to  be  derived  from  Cominipliora  opo- 
balsanium,  a  small  Abyssinian  and  Arabian  tree. 
Balm  of  Mecca,  or  opobalsam,  is  a  specially  high 
grade  of  balm  of  Gilead  obtained  from  incisions 
in  the  bark.  The  wood  and  fruit  are  boiled  to 
obtain  the  inferior  grades.  The  balm  of  Gilead 
of  the  United  States  is  a  variety  of  poplar  (Pop- 
ulus  balsannfera,  var.  candicans).     See  Poplar. 

Balmaceda,  bal-ma-sa'da,  Jose  Manuel, 
Chilean  statesman:  b.  Santiago,  1840;  d.  18  Sept. 
1891.  He  was  educated  at  the  Seminario  Con- 
ciliar  in  Santiago ;  early  became  noted  as  an  ora- 
tor, urging  radical  reforms  in  the  Constitution 
of  1833 ;  and  was  a  founder  of  the  Reform 
Club  in  1868.  As  deputy  for  five  terms.  1870- 
85,  he  urged  the  separation  of  Church  and  State 
and  became  the  leader  of  the  Progressives.  He 
was  Chilean  minister  at  Buenos  Ayres  in  the 
early  part  of  the  Chile-Peru  war,  1879-83,  and 
secured  the  neutrality  of  Argentina.  In  1882 
he  was  made  minister  of  the  interior,  and  intro- 
duced liberalizing  bills,  as  for  civil  marriage, 
etc.  In  1885  he  was  elected  senator  and  ap- 
pointed minister  of  foreign  aflfairs.  Elected 
president  in  1886,  he  carried  out  large  schemes 
of  reform  and  democratization ;  popular  educa- 
tion was  extended,  civil  marriage  carried  in 
1888,  railroads  and  other  internal  improvements 
forwarded.  But  both  his  measures  and  men  in- 
volved war  against  the  clerico-oligarchy  which 
not  only  ruled  the  state  but  monopolized  the 
offices,  and  comprised  the  bulk  of  the  property 
and  influence ;  and  when  he  tried  to  prevent  the 
ruin  of  his  work  by  "influencing"  the  election  of 
a  like  successor,  his  opponents  blocked  the  ad- 
ministration. He  appointed  a  ministry  of  his 
own  stripe  and  dissolved  Congress,  virtually 
making  himself  dictator ;  but  the  Congressional- 
ists,  having  the  naval  officers  on  their  side,  be- 
gan war  7  Jan.  1891,  secured  the  nitrate  prov- 
inces, and,  using  their  revenues  to  buy  the 
best  arms  and  munitions,  utterly  routed  Balma- 
ceda's. forces  in  a  decisive  battle  near  Valparai- 
so, 7  August.  He  took  refuge  in  the  Argentine 
legation  at  Santiago,  and  committed  suicide  there 
a  few  weeks  later. 

Balme,  bam.  Col  de,  an  Alpine  pass,  form- 
ing the  boundary  between  Savoy  and  the  Valais, 
7.218  feet  above  sea-level.  It  is  much  visited, 
and  has  a  travelers'  refuge. 

Balmerino,  bal-mer-e'no,  Arthur  Elphin- 
stone,  Lord,  Scottish  Jacobite:  b.  1688;  d.  1746. 
He  took  part  in  the  rebellion  of  1715,  and  fought 
at  Sheriffmuir.  Having  joined  the  Young  Pre- 
tender in  1745,  he  was  taken  prisoner  at  Cullo- 
den,  tried  at  Westminster,  found  guilty  and 
beheaded.  His  title  was  from  Balmerino,  in 
Fife, 

Balmez,  bal'meth,  or  Balmes,  bal'mes, 
Jaime  Luciano,  Spanish  priest  and  author:  b. 
Catalonia,  28  Aug.  1810:  d.  9  July  1848,  His 
works    include    'Protestantism    Compared    with 


BALMORAL  —  BALSAMS 


Catholicism  in  Its  Relation  to  European  Civili- 
zation^ (3  vols.  1848)  ;  ^Filosofia  Fundamental/ 
*  Letters  to  a  Sceptic* 

Balmoral  (bal-mor'al)  Castle,  the  favorite 
Highland  residence  of  the  late  Queen  Victoria, 
beautifully  situated  on  the  south  bank  of  the 
Dee,  48  miles  west  of  Aberdeen,  and  in  the 
county  of  the  same  name.  The  site  on  which  it 
stands  is  almost  completely  hemmed  in  by  ma- 
jestic mountains,  and  the  views  from  the  castle 
are  magnificent.  Balmoral  was  originally  a 
shooting-lodge  of  the  Earl  of  Fife,  but  was 
leased  to,  and  greatly  enlarged  by.  a  brother  of 
the  Earl  of  Aberdeen,  and  in  1848  the  reversion 
of  the  lease  was  purchased  by  Prince  Albert. 
The  accommodation  furnished  by  the  old  build- 
ing was  very  inadequate,  and  accordingly,  the 
property  having  been  purchased  in  1852,  the 
present  mansion  was  erected  shortly  afterward. 
It  underwent  some  enlargement  in  1888.  It  is 
tuilt  of  gray  granite,  in  the  Scottish  baronial 
style,  and  has  a  massive  and  imposing  appear- 
ance in  the  distance.  It  consists  of  two  blocks 
connected  by  wings,  and  has  a  massive  tower  80 
feet  high,  with  a  turret  of  20  feet  high.  The 
estate,  which  was  the  queen's  private  property, 
comprises  some  40,000  acres,  three  fourths  being 
deer-forest. 

Balnaves,  bal-nav'es,  Henry,  Scottish  re- 
former: b.  Kirkcaldy,  1520;  d.  1579.  He  was 
educated  at  St.  Andrews,  and  though  at  first 
a  Roman  Catholic  he  became  a  Protestant  and 
made  open  profession  of  his  faith  in  1542;  join- 
ing the  English  against  Gov.  Arran.  He  was 
accused  of  connection  with  the  conspiracy  to 
murder  Cardinal  Beaton,  and  was  declared  a 
traitor  and  excommunicated.  In  1547  he  was 
one  of  the  prisoners  taken  in  the  Castle  of  St. 
Andrews  and  exiled  to  France,  where  he  wrote 
his  'Confession  of  Faith. ^  Recalled  in  1559, 
he  busily  engaged  in  the  establishment  of  the 
reformed  faith,  assisted  in  revising  the  'Book 
of  Discipline.^  and  accompanied  Murray  to  Eng- 
land in  connection  with  Darnley's  murder. 

Balneorogy.  See  Baths  ;  Hydropathy  ; 
Hydrotherapy. 

Balolo,  ba-l6'l6,  a  large  Bantu  nation  in 
the  Equatorial  Province  of  the  Congo  Free 
State,  inhabiting  the  forests  on  the  banks  of 
the  Chuapa,  Bussera,  and  Lomami.  Its  settle- 
ments are  interspersed  with  the  villages  of  the 
Batwa  dwarfs.  The  principal  tribes  of  the  Ba- 
lolo are  the  Boruki,  Bangombe,  Dulingo,  Im- 
balla,  and  Kimoma.  Agriculture  exists  among 
them  to  a  certain  extent,  but  they  follow  no 
pastoral  pursuits.  According  to  V.  Frangois  all 
Balolo  tribes  are  addicted  to  cannibalism.  The 
territories  inhabited  by  the  Balolo  belong  to  the 
most  promising  of  Equatorial  Africa,  especially 
as  the  climate  is  more  favorable  to  Europeans 
than  it  is  in  many  other  parts  of  the  Congo 
Free  State. 

Balsa,  bal'sa,  a  kind  of  raft  or  float,  of  the 
nature  of  a  catamaran  (q.v.),  used  on  the  coasts 
and  rivers  of  Peru  and  other  parts  of  South 
America  for  fishing,  for  landing  goods  and 
passengers  through  a  heavy  surf,  and  for  other 
purposes  where  buoj'ancy  is  chiefly  wanted.  It 
is  sometimes  formed  of  two  inflated  hides  con- 
nected by  a  sort  of  platform  on  which  the  fish- 
erman, passengers,  or  goods  are  placed ;  and 
sometimes  of  a  very  light  wood. 


Balsam  {Impatiens  balsamina) ,  an  East  In- 
dian herb  of  the  natural  order  Gcraniaccce,  cul- 
tivated in  gardens  for  more  than  300  years. 
The  plant  is  an  erect  free-branching  annual 
sometimes  30  inches  tall ;  bears  axillary,  diverse- 
ly tinted  yellow,  white,  or  red  single  or  often 
double  flowers,  the  latter  of  which  are  called 
camellia-flowered  varieties.  The  plant  is  a  gen- 
eral favorite  of  easiest  culture. 

Balsamo,  Joseph.     See  Cagliostro. 

Balsamodendron,  bal-sa-mo-den'dron,  a 
genus  of  trees  or  bushes  of  the  order  Amyrida- 
ccce,  species  of  which  yield  such  balsamic  or  res- 
inous substances  as  balm  of  Gilead,  bdellium, 
myrrh,  etc.     See  Balsam. 

Balsams,  mixtures  of  resins  in  volatile 
oils,  the  term,  however,  being  popularly  applied 
to  any  aromatic  compound  with  volatile  oils. 
Balsams  are  very  widely  distributed  through- 
out the  plant  kingdom.  They  are  particularly 
abundant  in  the  members  of  the  pine  family. 
The  araucarias  yield  a  copal  that  is  almost  a 
pure  resin ;  many  species  of  pine  yield  turpentine 
and  resin;  Canada  balsam  is  derived  from  Abies 
balsamea;  the  balsam-like  sandarach  is  from  a 
cypress.  The  Hamamelis  family  gives  balsam 
of  styrax,  and  balsam  of  copaiba  is  derived  from 
a  large  number  of  the  legumes  and  from  the 
Dipterocarpecc.  Styrax  benzoin  is  from  the  Sto- 
rax  family.  The  resins  and  balsams  of  com- 
merce are  very  closely  allied.  They  may  be  di- 
vided into  three  groups:  gum  resins,  such  as 
asafoetida  and  ammoniacum  ;  balsams,  and  resins, 
such  as  turpentine,  resin,  copaiba,  mastic,  elemi, 
copal,  dammar,  and  sandarach  ;  and  the  balsams 
and  resins  that  contain  cinnamic  or  benzoic  acids, 
from  which  they  derive  their  aromatic  odor. 
It  is  to  this  latter  group  that  the  word  balsam  is 
popularly  applied.  These  are  balsam  of  toiu, 
balsam  of  Peru,  storax,  benzoin,  dragon's-blood 
and  xanthorrhea  resin. 

These  various  bodies  are  for  the  most  part 
secreted  in  special  passages  in  the  plants.  Some- 
times they  are  formed  in  the  leaves,  but  for  the 
most  part  the  resinous  solution  collects  in  soe- 
cially  designed  portions  of  the  stem,  usuallv  in 
the  woody  portion.  It  is  obtained  in  a  variety 
of  ways  from  simple  incision  to  boiling  chips 
of  the  wood  with  water. 

In  medicine  most  of  these  bodies  are  active. 
They  are  energetic  oxidizers, —  hence  the  tradi- 
tions about  ozone  and  pure  air  in  pine-clad  hills, 
—  and  several  of  the  hydrocarbons  in  the  vola- 
tile oils  are  stimulating  to  the  skin  and  mucous 
membranes,  turpentine  being  an  excellent  exam- 
ple. It  is  an  excellent  external  antiseptic,  and 
manifests  similar  properties  on  the  respiratory, 
intestinal,  and  genito-urinary  tracts.  Those  res- 
inous or  balsamic  mixtures  containing  cinnamic 
and  benzoic  acids  —  notably  balsam  of  tolu 
(from  Toluifera  pereircc)  and  balsam  of  Peru 
(from  Toluifera  balsamum)  possess  similar  an- 
tiseptic and  stimulating  properties.  They  are 
more  powerful  in  proportion  to  the  aromatic 
acids  contained.  Balsam  of  storax  is  derived 
from  a  tree,  Liquidainbar  styraciflua.  It  has 
similar  properties  to  the  balsam  of  Peru. 

The  chrism  (see  Sacramexts)  used  for  con- 
secration and  sacramental  services  should  be 
made  of  balsam  from  Syria  or  Mecca  ;  when  this 
is  difficult  to  obtain,  balsams  from  Brazil  or 
Peru  may  be  used. 


BALTA  — BALTIC  SEA 


Balta,  bal'ta,  Jose,  Peruvian  statesman:  b. 
Lima,  1816;  d.  26  July  1872.  He  retired  from 
the  army  with  the  rank  of  colonel  in  1855 ;  was 
minister  of  war  in  1865 ;  one  of  the  leaders  in 
the  insurrection  which  overthrew  the  unconsti- 
tutional president,  Prado,  in  1868;  and  was 
president  of  Peru,  1868-72.  He  was  murdered 
in  a  military  mutiny  in  Lima. 

Balta,  a  town  of  Russian  Poland,  on  the 
Kodema,  one  of  the  tributaries  of  the  Bug,  in 
the  government  of  Podolia,  132  miles  east-south- 
east of  Kamieniec.     Pop.  about  32,000. 

Baltard,  bal-tar,  Louis  Pierre,  French 
architect  and  engraver :  b.  Paris,  9  July  1765 ;  d. 
22  Jan.  1846.  He  was  appointed  architect  of  the 
Pantheon  and  of  the  Paris  prisons,  and  de- 
signed the  chapels  of  the  houses  of  detention  of 
St.  Lazare  and  St.  Pelagic.  The  great  hall  of 
justice  in  Lyons,  founded  in  1834,  was  devised 
and  almost  completed  by  him.  He  also  acquired 
fame  as  an  engraver  and  as  the  author  of  many 
superb  works  descriptive  of  monuments  and 
illustrated  by  his  own  plates.  Among  his  most 
notable  works  in  this  line  are  ^ Paris  and  Its 
Monuments'  ;  *^La  Colonne  de  la  Grande  Ar- 
mee'  ;  and  illustrations  in  Denon's  ^Egypt.-* 

Baltard,  Victor,  French  architect:  b.  Paris, 
19  June  1805 ;  d.  14  Jan.  1874.  He  was  son  of 
Louis  Pierre  Baltard,  and  became  government 
architect  of  France  and  a  member  of  the  Acad- 
emy of  Fine  Arts.  He  built  the  church  of  St. 
Augustine  and  other  beautiful  edifices,  and  was 
author  of  *^  Monographic  de  la  Villa  Medius^ 
(1847),  etc. 

Balthazar,  bal-tha'zar,  (i)  one  of  the  wise 
men  of  the  East  who  came  to  worship 
Jesus  at  Bethlehem.  (2)  A  character  in  Eich- 
berg's  opera,  ^The  Doctor  of  Alcantara.'  (3) 
Chaucer's  name  for  Belshazzar  in  ^'The  Monk's 
Tale."  (4)  The  name  assumed  by  Portia  in 
Shakespeare's  *^ Merchant  of  Venice'  ;  also  the 
name  of  minor  characters  in  several  of  Shake- 
speare's plays. 

Baltic  (bal'tic)  and  North  Sea  Canal,  or 
Kaiser  Wilheim  Canal.     See    Canals. 

Baltic,  Battle  of  the,  a  poem  by  Thomas 

Campbell,  celebrating  the  victory  of  Lord  Nel- 
son over  the  Danish  fleet,  2  April  1801.  In  his- 
tory this  action  is  generally  known  as  the  battle 
of  Copenhagen. 

Baltic  Lake  Plateau,  a  low  plateau  extend- 
ing from  East  Prussia  to  Schleswig-Holstein 
and  Jutland,  parallel  to  the  south  coast  of  the 
Baltic  Sea;  750  miles  long.  In  its  eastern  part 
the  highest  points  are  the  Thurmberg,  near  Dant- 
zig  (1,086  feet),  and  the  Kernsdorf  Mountain 
(1,027  feet)  ;  more  to  the  west,  in  Mecklenburg 
and  Schleswig-Holstein,  the  altitudes  decrease 
and  the  elevations  become  less  defined,  but  even 
the  last  offshoots  of  the  plateau  in  Schleswig 
and  Jutland  are  of  importance,  as  they  form  the 
watershed  between  the  basins  of  the  Baltic  and 
North  Sea.  A  characteristic  feature  of  the  re- 
gion is  the  large  number  of  lakes  and  ponds, 
some  with  very  irregular  outlines,  others  occupy- 
mg  wide  basins  or  narrow  river-like  channels. 
The  largest  of  these  lakes  are  the  Miiritz-See 
(93  square  miles)  in  Mecklenburg,  and  the  Spir- 
ding-See  (46  square  miles)  in  East  Prussia. 
Many  of  these  lakes  (mostly  very  small)  in  the 
eastern  section  (Pomerania  and  West  Prussia) 
are    without    visible    outlet.    According   to    the 


most  recent  investigations  the  lake  basins  date 
from  the  glacial  period,  when  a  massive  sheet  of 
ice  covered  North  Germany,  the  ridges  and 
hollows  of  this  plateau  being  due  to  the  action  of 
the  ice. 

Baltic  Provinces  (in  Russia),  a  term  gen- 
erally given  to  the  five  Russian  govern- 
ments bordering  on  the  Baltic,  namely, 
Courland,  Livonia,  Esthonia,  Petersburg,  and 
Finland ;  in  a  restricted  sense  it  often 
designates  the  first  three.  The  Baltic  prov- 
inces once  belonged  to  Sweden,  except 
Courland,  which  was  a  dependency  of  Poland. 
They  came  into  the  possession  of  Russia  partly 
in  the  beginning  of  the  i8th  century,  through 
the  conquests  of  Peter  the  Great,  partly  under 
Alexander  in  1809.  No  pains  have  been  spared 
to  Russianize  them,  and  since  1876-7  they  have 
lost  their  remaining  privileges  and  been  thor- 
oughly  incorporated  in  the  Russian  empire. 
They  form,  however,  a  borderland  between  the 
Germanic  and  Slavonic  areas,  and  have  been  a 
frequent  cause  of  difficulty  between  Germany 
and  Russia.  The  bulk  of  the  population  is 
composed  of  Esths  and  Letts ;  the  Germans 
number  above  200,000,  the  Russians  only  65,000. 
The  five  provinces  combined  have  an  area  of 
191,526  square  miles,  and  a  population  (1897) 
of  7,015,126. 

Baltic  Sea,  an  inlet  or  gulf  of  the  North 
Sea,  with  which  it  is  connected  by  the  Skager- 
rack and  Kattegat.  It  washes  the  coasts  of 
Denmark,  Germany,  Courland,  Livonia,  and 
other  parts  of  Russia  and  of  Sweden,  and  ex- 
tends to  lat.  65°  30'  N.  It  is  nearly  900  miles 
long,  from  40  to  200  broad,  and  its  superficial 
extent,  together  with  the  contents  of  the  gulfs 
of  Bothnia  and  Finland,  amounts  to  160,000 
square  miles.  Its  small  breadth;  its  depth, 
amounting  on  an  average  to  from  40  to  50  fath- 
oms, but  in  many  places  hardly  half  so  much ; 
its  shallowness  toward  the  Prussian  shores, 
and  the  rugged  nature  of  the  Swedish  coasts; 
but  above  all,  the  sudden  and  frequent  changes 
of  the  wind,  accompanied  by  violent  storms,  ren- 
der this  sea  dangerous  for  navigators,  although 
its  waves  are  less  powerful  than  those  of  the 
North  Sea.  A  chain  of  islands  separates  the 
southern  part  from  the  northern,  or  the  Gulf  of 
Bothnia.  In  the  northeast  the  Gulf  of  Fin- 
land stretches  eastward  and  separates  the  prov- 
ince of  Finland  from  Esthonia.  A  third  gulf 
is  that  of  Riga  or  Livonia.  The  Kurisches  Haff 
and  the  Frisches  Haff  are  inlets  or  lagoons  on 
the  Prussian  coast.  The  water  of  the  Baltic  is 
colder  and  clearer  than  that  of  the  ocean ;  it 
contains  a  smaller  proportion  of  salt,  and  ice 
obstructs  the  navigation  three  or  four  months 
in  the  year.  The  ebb  and  flow  of  the  tide  are 
inconsiderable,  as  is  the  case  in  other  inland 
seas,  the  difference  between  high-water  and  low- 
water  mark  being  only  about  a  foot ;  yet  the 
water  rises  and  falls  from  time  to  time,  prob- 
ably owing  to  the  varying  rainfall  and  evapora- 
tion. In  stormy  weather  amber  is  often  found 
on  the  coasts  of  Prussia  and  Courland,  which 
the  waves  wash  upon  the  shore.  Many  streams 
empty  themselves  into  the  Baltic ;  among  them 
are  the  Neva,  Dwina,  Oder,  Vistula,  Niemen, 
and  a  number  of  Swedish  rivers.  Between  the 
Kattegat  and  Baltic  are  the  large  Danish  is- 
lands Zealand  and  Funen :  others  in  the  sea  it- 
self are  Samsoe,   Moen,   Bornholm,   Langeland, 


BALTIMORE;  BALTIMORE  FAMILY 


Laaland,  which  belong  to  Denmark ;  the  Swedish 
islands  —  Gottland  and  Oeland  (besides  Hveen 
in  the  sound,  with  the  ruins  of  Oranienburg,  the 
observatory  built  by  Tycho  Brahe)  ;  Riigen,  be- 
longing to  Prussia ;  the  Aland  Islands  at  the  en- 
trance of  the  Gulf  of  Bothnia,  and  Dagoe,  to- 
gether with  Oesel,  on  the  coast  of  Livonia,  all 
of  which  belong  to  Russia.  The  sound,  the 
Great  and  the  Little  Belt  lead  from  the  Katte- 
gat into  the  Baltic.  The  Baltic  and  North  Sea 
are  now  connected  by  the  great  ship  canal  con- 
structed between  the  Elbe,  near  its  mouth,  and 
Kiel  Bay,  and  opened  in  1895.  The  canal  is  a 
work  of  the  German  government,  and  is  intend- 
ed for  the  use  of  war-vessels  as  well  as  trad- 
ing-ships, many  of  which,  bound  to  or  from 
Baltic  ports,  will  be  able  to  effect  a  great  sav- 
ing by  means  of  this  water-way.  The  chief  sea- 
ports of  the  Baltic  are  St.  Petersburg,  Kron- 
stadt.  Riga,  Revel,  Narva,  Libau,  in  Russia ; 
Stockholm,  Gefle,  Karlskrona,  in  Sweden; 
Memel,  Konigsberg,  Danzig,  Stettin,  Liibeck, 
and  Kiel,  in  Germany;  Copenhagen,  in  Den- 
mark. 

Bartimore,  Barons  of,  or  Lords  Balti- 
more.     See  Baltimore  Family. 

Baltimore  Family,  founders  and  proprie- 
tors of  Maryland,  consists  of  seven  successive 
lords  of  the  barony  of  Baltimore  in  the  Irish 
peerage,  and  a  cadet  who  was  governor  has 
been  added. 

George  Calvert,  the  first  lord:  b.  1580,  Kip- 
ling, near  Bolton  Castle,  Yorkshire;  d.  15  April 
1632.  He  graduated  from  Trinity  College,  Ox- 
ford, 1597;  traveled  abroad,  and  after  his  re- 
turn became  secretary  to  Sir  Robert  Cecil 
(afterward  Lord  Salisbury),  clerk  of  the  Crown 
in  Ireland,  1606,  and  clerk  of  the  Council,  1608. 
He  assisted  James  in  his  controversial  writings, 
had  charge  of  the  Spanish  and  Italian  corre- 
spondence during  the  secretary  of  state's  ab- 
sence in  1613,  was  on  a  committee  to  investigate 
Irish  Catholic  grievances  the  same  year,  was 
knighted  1617,  and  in  1619  was  made  secretary 
of  state  by  Buckingham's  favor.  He  repre- 
sented Yorkshire  jointly  with  Sir  Thomas 
Wentworth  (afterward  Lord  Strafford)  in  the 
parliament  of  1621,  and  in  the  stormy  times  that 
followed  was  a  mediator  between  Parliament 
and  king,  with  the  usual  fate  of  being  thought 
a  spy  by  the  one  and  lukewarm  by  the  other. 
The  French  ambassador  styled  him  an  honest, 
sensible,  well-intentioned  man  and  zealous  pa- 
triot, and  therefore  without  influence.  He  had 
principal  charge  of  the  foreign  negotiations 
while  James  was  chasing  the  will-o'-the-wisp  of 
the  Spanish  marriage  and  making  England  a 
nullity  in  the  Thirty  Years'  war;  Calvert's 
later  Catholicism  made  him  suspected  as  favor- 
ing the  latter  policy,  but  in  fact  he  wished  a 
more  energetic  one.  On  14  Jan.  1624  he  was 
one  of  the  nine  councilors  who  opposed  a 
breach  with  Spain.  In  January  1625  he  an- 
nounced himself  a  Roman  Catholic;  his  con- 
version is  credited  to  Gondomar,  the  famous 
Spanish  ambassador,  and  Lord  Arundel  of 
Wardour,  his  son's  father-in-law.  On  12  Feb- 
ruary he  resigned  his  office  and  was  given  the 
barony  of  Baltimore ;  which,  as  James  hated 
"apostasy,^^  measures  his  esteem  for  Calvert. 
On  the  accession  of  Charles  I.,  in  1625,  Balti- 
more refused,  from  conscientious  scruples,  to 
take  the  oath  of  supremacy  and  abjuration,  and 


Charles  gave  him  a  handsome  letter  to  the  Lord 
Deputy  of  Ireland.  In  1627  he  was  summoned 
to  court  to  consult  on  the  peace  with  Spain,  but 
thenceforth  took  no  part  in  public  business,  de- 
voting himself  to  colonization.  Already  in 
1621-2  he  had  planted  a  colony  in  Newfound- 
land, chartered  in  1623  as  Avalon ;  in  1627  and 
i628-;9  he  visited  it,  but  the  severe  climate  dis- 
appointed him  and  he  begged  for  a  grant  in  a 
milder  one.  Without  waiting  for  a  reply  he  at- 
tempted to  explore  Virginia  for  a  settlement ; 
but  the  Jamestown  officials  of  the  old  Virginia 
Company  refused  permission  unless  he  would 
take  the  oath  above.  The  region  satisfied  his 
ideal,  however,  and  he  persisted  in  asking  a 
grant  there  against  the  dissuasions  of  Charles, 
who  finally  assigned  him  a  northeastern  tract, 
now  the  States  of  Maryland  and  Delaware ; 
but  the  same  interests  delayed  the  proceedings, 
and  before  the  charter  was  signed.  20  June,  Bal- 
timore died.  The  usual  assumption  that  he 
intended  the  colony  for  a  Roman  Catholic  es- 
tablishment is  not  only  absurd  in  itself,  as  pub- 
lic feeling  would  not  have  allowed  it  to  be 
thought  of,  but  is  answered  by  the  fact  that 
the  charter  established  the  Church  of  England 
and  did  not  even  specify  toleration  for  other 
creeds,  which  was  not  made  a  provision  of  law 
till  1649,  though  of  course  intended,  and  pro- 
claimed at  once  on  the  establishment  of  the 
colony.  Baltimore  thought  —  wrongly,  as  it 
turned  out  —  that  the  proprietary's  power  and 
the  religion  of  the  chosen  colonists  would  pre- 
vent the  persecution  of  his  own  faith,  and  had 
neither  wish  nor  power  to  persecute  others. 
That  he  meant  it  as  an  asylum  and  breeding- 
ground  for  his  religion  is  a  matter  of  course. 
It  was  also  to  be  a  feudal  aristocracy,  but  with 
an  assembly  of  freemen  whose  consent  was 
necessary  to  the  validity  of  laws.  In  a  word, 
Baltimore  was  a  conservative  of  high  princi- 
ples and  moderate  temper. 

Cecilius,  or  Cecil  Calvert,  the  second 
lord :  b.  about  1605 ;  d.  30  Nov.  1675.  He  mar- 
ried Anne  Howard,  daughter  of  Lord  Arundel 
of  Wardour  (after  whom  Anne  Arundel  Coun- 
ty of  Maryland  is  named),  about  1623.  The 
charter  of  Maryland  granted  to  his  father  was 
transferred  to  him  as  heritor ;  but  he  never 
visited  it  during  the  43  years  of  his  life  there- 
after, sending  deputies  in  his  place,  and  manag- 
ing its  business  and  political  affairs  judiciously 
from  England,  settling  disputes  of  natives  or 
colonists  sensibly  and  placably,  and  esteemed 
a  worthy  successor  to  his  father.  Down  to  the 
civil  war  of  1642  he  had  little  to  do  but  sup- 
port his  brother,  Leonard,  as  governor ;  but  his 
policy  then  became  difficult.  He  tried  to  steer 
a  middle  course,  and  avoid  either  for  himself 
or  the  colony  any  pronounced  declaration  of 
sympathies  or  allegiance  which  might  expose 
it  to  confiscation;  but  Ingle's  upset  of  the  co- 
lonial government  (see  Leon.\rd  Calvert), 
and  the  parliamentary  triumphs  at  horne, 
showed  him  at  last  that  this  could  not  be  main- 
tained, and  that  with  the  Puritans  at  the  head, 
the  Roman  Catholic  supremacy,  though  used 
only  to  preserve  themselves  from  persecution, 
must  be  given  up.  On  9  June  1647  Leonard 
died,  after  appointing  as  his  provisional  suc- 
cessor an  ardent  Churchman  and  loyalist, 
Thomas  Green;  but  Lord  Baltimore  in  1648 
appointed  Capt.  William  Stone  and  had  him 
settle  some  500  Puritans,   harried  by  the  Vir- 


BALTIMORE 

ginia  Cavaliers,  in  Maryland.  When  the  news  lieutenants,  who  was  put  to  death  for  piracy 
of  the  king's  death  arrived,  Green,  in  Stone's  and  murder  in  the  former  troubles.  Calvert 
absence,  proclaimed  Charles  II.  king,  as  did  now  undertook  to  introduce  the  feudal  system 
Virginia ;  on  which  William  Claiborne  (q.v.,  contemplated  by  his  father's  charter ;  but  as  the 
and  below),  the  treasurer  of  Virginia,  joined  freemen's  consent  was  necessary  to  this,  and 
the  Parliamentary  party,  obtained  a  commis-  they  refused  to  give  it  their  own  abasement,  the 
sion  to  reduce  the  two  rebellious  provinces,  scheme  was  blocked  and  in  fact  never  was  car- 
and,  after  overthrowing  the  Virginia  govern-  ried  out.  The  civil  war  of  1642  having  bro- 
ment,  forced  Gov.  Stone  to  renounce  his  al-  ken  out,  cautious  steering  was  needed  to  avoid 
legiance  to  Lord  Baltimore  and  give  it  to  the  risking  confiscation  from  one  side  or  the  other, 
"keepers  of  the  liberties  of  England."  When  and  Calvert  went  to  England  to  consult  his 
Cromwell  dispersed  the  Long  Parliament  Stone  brother,  leaving  one  Brent  as  deputy ;  who 
repudiated  the  agreement ;  Claiborne  marched  brought  on  the  verj^  catastrophe  dreaded,  by 
against  him,  deposed  him,  and  appointed  a  Puri-  seizing  a  Parliamentary  vessel  and  imprisoning 
tan  government  which  at  once  most  ungrate-  the  captain,  Richard  Ingle.  Ingle  escaped,  ob- 
fully  disfranchised  all  Catholics  and  repealed  tained  letters  of  marque  from  Parliament,  allied 
the  colonial  toleration  act  of  1649.  In  January  himself  with  Claiborne,  who  had  been  made 
1654  Cromwell  himself  intervened,  and  forbade  the  treasurer  of  Virginia  for  life  by  the  king, 
the  Virginia  authorities  to  molest  Lord  Balti-  but  had  no  politics  except  for  his  own  hand, 
more  or  his  officers  in  Maryland.  Baltimore  and  bj''  the  time  Calvert  returned  with  a  new 
thereupon  ordered  Stone  to  overturn  the  Puri  commission  in  1644  had  possession  of  the  colony 
tan  government,  but  Stone's  force  was  defeated  and  was  plundering  right  and  left.  Calvert,  in 
and  himself  captured.  Baltimore,  however,  an  attempt  at  repossession,  was  defeated  and 
kept  his  favor  with  the  Puritan  administration  ;  fled  to  Virginia,  which  had  remained  loyal  to 
the  commissioners  of  plantation  decided  that  the  the  king,  and  appealed  to  the  colonial  govern- 
province  was  his,  and  in  1658  it  was  restored  ment  for  help;  they  refused  to  give  it;  finally 
to  him.  Claiborne's  influence  was  at  an  end,  he  got  a  force  together,  and  in  December  1646 
and  Baltimore  had  no  further  troubles  over  returned  and  drove  Ingle  out  —  one  of  the  fly- 
Maryland,  ing   rebels,   however,   carrying  off   all   the   early 

Leonard  Calvert,  younger  brother  of  Ce-  records  of  the  colony,  which  have  never  re- 
cilius,  was  sent  out  by  the  latter  as  first  gov-  appeared.  He  died  the  next  j'ear,  leaving  an 
ernor  of  the  new  colony:  b.  about  1606;  d.  June  unfortunate  provisional  appointment  of  a  suc- 
1647.  He  set  sail  22  Nov.  1633,  in  the  Ark  and  cessor,  which  made  even  worse  trouble  for  the 
the  Dove,  with  about  200  Roman  Catholic  set-  colony  than  the  last  deputy, 
tiers  of  good  families ;  arrived  24  Feb.  1634,  at  John,  the  third  lord ;  Charles,  the  fourth ; 
Point  Comfort,  landed  25  March  on  an  island  Benedict,  the  fifth ;  Charles,  the  sixth ;  and 
in  the  Potomac,  which  they  named  St.  Clem-  Frederick,  the  seventh  and  last,  complete  the 
ent's,  and  founded  on  the  site  of  an  abandoned  roll.  Frederick  was  a  foolish  and  worthless 
Indian  village  a  town.  St.  Mary's,  long  since  rake,  and  perhaps  worse.  Born  in  1731,  he  died 
deserted.  He  met  an  Englishman,  Capt.  Henry  14  Sept.  1771,  leaving  no  legitimate  heirs,  but 
Fleet,  who  had  lived  some  years  among  the  apparently  a  natural  brood  of  some  ability. 
Indians,  and  helped  him  to  gain  their  consent  The  proprietary^  rights  in  Maryland  were  be- 
to  the  settlement.  But  he  found  Kent  Island  in  queathed  to  a  child,  Henry  Harford,  but  four 
the  Chesapeake,  the  great  island  opposite  An-  years  later  were  rendered  worthless  by  the 
napolis,  settled  by  one  William  Claiborne  (q.v.),  Revolution. 
under  a  grant  from  the  dissolved  Virginia  Com- 
pany, effectively  enough  to  have  a  representative  Baltimore,  ]Md.,  the  chief  city  of  the  State, 
in  the  Virgmia  legislature.  Calvert  claimed  the  sixth  in  population  of  the  United  States, 
right  of  property  and  political  jurisdiction  over  and  the  commercial  head  of  the  Atlantic  sca- 
the island.  Claiborne  denied  both,  and  Virginia  board  south  of  New  York:  on  the  Pennsvl- 
upheld  him:  and  the  warfare  that  ensued  em-  vania  (P..  W.  &  B.),  Baltimore  &  O.,  W.  Marv- 
broiled  the  two  colonies  for  many  years,  com-  land,  Baltimore  &  P.,  Northern  Cent.,  and  other 
phcating  itselt  with  the  issue  of  Churchmen  r.r/s.  ;  ^8  miles  n.e.  of  Washington,  97  s.w.  of 
against  Catholics,  then   (by  the  oddest  irony  of  Philadelphia 

fate)    with    Cavaliers    in    Virginia    against 'the  Totograplix.—  The    citv    is    most    admirably 

Funtans   who   had   overborne    the   Catholics   in  situated  at  the  head  of  t'ide-water   on  an  arm 

Maryland^  and  finally  with  a  rankling  boundary  of   the    great    Chesapeake   Bav,    of   most   ample 

dispute,   ^laiborne  poisoned  the   Indians    mmds  proportions    and    in    former 'times    known    as 

against  the  Marylanders  as  a  set  of  treacherous  «Patapsco   Bay,»    and   that   designation   is   fullv 

Spaniards:    Calvert   sent   an   expedition    against  justified  bv  its  dimensions;   12  miles  long  bv  an 

him,    which    captured   two    boats     with    mutual  averaee  of  3  miles  wide,  forking  at  the  peninsula 

oss  of  life,  in  April  and  May  1635.  ,  Claiborne  on   which    Fort    McHenry    stands,    and    therebv 

had    further   losses     and    became   bankrupt,   but  creating  the   land-locked   harbor   known   as   the 

A      I  .u   "u"    ^     ,  ^'^    Indians    Palmer  s    Is-  Northwest    Branch.     This    celebrated   harbor    is 

^.nd.  at  the  head  of  Chesapeake  Bay,  as  beyond  noted   for  the   ease  with  which   ships   of  great 

Baltimore  s  grant,  and  petitioned  for  an  injunc-  burden  may  be  docked  or  moored  at  anv  stage 

tion   agamst    Baltimore  s    interfering   with    him.  of  the  tide,  the  tidal  movement  being  onl'v  from 

ine   commissioners    of  plantation   refused    him  i    foot   to    i    foot   6  inches.     The   ship   channel 

the   grant,  despite  his  purchase,   on  the  ground  from  this  inner  harbor  to  the  sea  has  been  for 

tnat  he  had  only_  a  trading  license.     IMeantime  manv  vears    of    sufficient    depth   to   permit   the 

Kent  Island   continued  insubordinate,  and  Cal-  passage  of  ships  drawing  31  feet  of  water  and 

vert   had   to   make   an   expedition    against   it   in  over  •'to   the   docks   and   elevators   of  the   Balti- 

person,  reducing  it  and  occupying  Palmer's   Is-  more  &  Ohio  Railroad  on  the  western  side  as 

land    also,    and    capturing    one    of    Claiborne's  you  enter,  and  the   Pennsylvania  Railroad  sys- 


BALTIMORE 


tem  on  the  eastern  side  of  the  harbor.  South 
of  the  above  mentioned  peninsula  is  another 
wide  fork  of  the  greater  harbor,  known  as  the 
Middle  Branch,  on  which  are  located  the  great 
terminals  of  the  Wabash  Railroad  system;  this 
again  forks,  receiving  the  waters  of  the  small 
Patapsco  River  and  Gwynn's  Falls,  on  either 
hand. 

Through  the  centre  of  the  city  flows  a 
stream  which,  rising  some  distance  north  of 
the  inner  harbor,  has  its  fountain-head  at  springs 
which  flow  500,000  gallons  per  day.  It  is  known 
as  "Jones'  Falls, '^  after  David  Jones,  who  built 
himself  a  house  on  its  banks  about  1680.  .  Over 
this  stream  in  the  city  proper  have  been  erected 
23  bridges,  of  which  may  be  mentioned  those 
over  Eager,  Calvert,  North,  and  Saint  Paul 
streets  and  Cedar  avenue,  as  beautiful  and 
costly.  But  the  great  white  marble  bridge  which 
spans  not  only  the  stream  and  its  valley  but 
crosses  over  three  railroads  and  carries  the 
roadbed  of  North  avenue  is  one  of  the  great 
engineering  triumphs  of  the  times,  its  western 
abutment  embracing  the  entrance  of  the  Balti- 
more Railroad  to  Washington  and  the  South. 
Massive  walls  of  white  marble  confine  the  water 
of  this  small  Tiber  in  its  passage  through  the 
city.  On  its  banks  are  located  the  union  station 
of  the  Pennsylvania  Railroad  Company,  whose 
grounds  bordering  on  the  stream  are  embellished 
with  tasteful  gardens,  and  the  city  has  beauti- 
fied the  other  shore  by  constructing  "sunken'* 
gardens. 

The  land  area  of  the  city  in  1888  was  13,202 
square  acres,  of  property  annexed  in  1888  was 
16,939  square  acres,  of  the  harbor  1,507  square 
acres,  making  the  total  area  of  the  present  city 
31,648  square  acres. 

The  total  mileage  of  streets  and  alleys  in  the 
city  is  546.7,  of  which  495.8  miles  are  paved  and 
50.9  unpaved ;  of  the  total  miles  of  paved  streets 
71.9  miles  are  paved  with  cobblestone,  43  with 
belgian  block,  9  with  sheet  asphalt,  13.5  with 
asphalt  block,  6.1  with  vitrified  block,  1.8  with 
mosaic  block,  0.6  with  wooden  block  and  49.9 
with   macadam. 

Monuments  and  Statues. — The  first  monu- 
ment erected  in  Baltimore  was  in  memory  of 
Christopher  Columbus  and  was  dedicated  12 
Oct.  1792,  the  300th  anniversary  of  his  landing. 
It  stands  in  the  grounds  of  the  Ready  Asylum, 
on  Boundary  avenue.  One  of  the  grandest  mon- 
uments in  the  world  stands  at  the  intersection 
of  Mount  Vernon  and  Monument  squares — the 
Washington  monument,  the  erection  of  which 
was  conceived  in  the  year  1809,  the  design  fur- 
nished by  Robert  Mills,  and  the  cornerstone 
laid  on  4  July  1815.  It  rises  above  these  squares 
about  200  feet,  and  is  of  the  Greek  Doric  inspi- 
ration. The  figure  of  Washington  is  by  Causici. 
The  next  in  importance  is  the  "Baltimore 
Monument,"  known  as  the  "Battle  Monument." 
It  was  erected  to  the  memory  of  those  who  fell 
at  the  battle  of  North  Point  in  1814,  and  is  the 
w^ork  of  Maximilian  Godefroy.  It  is  52^  feet 
high.  The  principal  column  represents  a  fasces, 
upon  the  bands  of  which  are  placed  in  bronze 
letters  the  names  of  those  who  fell,  the  whole 
being  crowned  by  a  female  representing  the  city, 
holding  in  her  hand  a  wreath  of  laurels,  capel- 
lano. 

The    Thomas    Wildey   monument    on    North 


Broadway  is  dedicated  to  him  as  the  founder 
of  the  Order  of  Odd  Fellows,  and  may  be  de- 
scribed as  a  Grecian  Doric  column  52  feet 
high,  on  which  stands  a  figure  of  Charity. 
Other  monuments  are  the  Wells  and  McComas 
monument  at  Ashland  square;  that  on  Federal 
Hill  erected  to  the  gallant  soldier  Armistead 
who  defended  Fort  Mcllenry  at  the  same  time, 
1814;  the  monument  to  the  Marylanders  who 
fell  in  Mexico,  located  in  Mount  Royal  avenue; 
the  monument  at  the  intersection  of  Mount 
Royal  avenue  and  Cathedral  street,  recording 
the  deeds  of  the  Maryland  Line,  the  only  troops 
who  fought  from  Bunker  Hill  to  Savannah  dur- 
ing the  Revolution ;  and  the  monument,  by 
Ruckstuhl,  erected  by  the  Daughters  of  the  Con- 
federacy, to  the  Confederate  soldiers  of  the 
state. 

Mr.  William  T.  W^alters  has  given  the  city 
the  famous  bronzes  of  Barye  including  the  great 
lion,  and  the  masterful  bronze  by  Dubois,  "Mili- 
tary Courage'* ;  the  sitting  statue  of  Chief  Jus- 
tice of  the  United  States,  Roger  Brooke  Taney 
(q.v.)  in  his  official  robes;  and  the  equestrian 
statue  of  John  Eager  Howard  (qv.). 

Public  Buildings. — Fi''st  in  municipal  im- 
portance, though  possibly  not  in  the  cost  or 
beauty  of  design,  is  the  city  hall,  built  of  Mary- 
land white  marble,  the  style  of  architecture  be- 
ing the  Renaissance.  Cost  of  construction  $2,- 
271,135.64;  cost  of  furnishing  $104,264.79.  The 
new  court-house  is  200  feet  front  by  325  feet 
depth.  The  material  is  white  Maryland  marble, 
and  the  architectural  style  is  a  free  Renaissance 
treatment  of  the  Ionic  order.  The  cost  of  this 
building  completed  was  $2,753,003.18.  The  post- 
office,  located  opposite  the  court-house,  is  also 
a  recent  erection,  Italian  in  general  treatment. 
The  building  contains  the  United  States  and 
District  courts.  The  cost  was  $2,011,835.  The 
new  custom-house  is  not  yet  completed,  but  will 
be  a  most  beautiful  addition  to  the  great  public 
buildings.  Its  cost  will  be  several  millions  dol- 
lars. 

Educational  Institutions^  Art  Galleries,  Li- 
braries, etc. — The  Maryland  Institute  of  Ar: 
and  Design,  which  was  for  many  years  in  the 
heart  of  the  commercial  centre  of  the  city,  was- 
incorporated  in  1826.  The  library  contains  20,- 
000  volumes,  relating  to  the  arts  and  sciences. 
The  new  home  of  this  school  is  located  or> 
Mount  Royal  avenue.  It  has  been  most  liber- 
ally endowed  by  the  Jenkins  family  of  Balti- 
more, and  Andrew  Carnegie.  The  Academy  of 
Sciences,  located  in  the  fine  old  mansion  of  ex- 
Governor  and  ex-Senator  Thomas  Swann,  on 
West  Franklin  street,  contains  a  large  collection 
of  the  bird  life  of  this  country,  and  a  large  col- 
lection of  Indian  remains.  The  Peabody  Insti- 
tute (q.v.),  a  white  marble  building  standing 
within  the  shadow  of  the  Washington  monu- 
ment, is  a  donation  from  the  philanthropist 
George  Peabody  (q.v.).  It  contains  a  large 
reference  library,  an  academy  of  music  and  a 
gallery  of  art.  The  entire  building  is  170  by 
150  feet.  The  library  room  accommodates  about 
300,000  volumes. 

The  Walters  Art  Gallery,  located  within  100 
yards  of  the  last  named  institution,  contains  the 
finest  private  collection  of  paintings  and  cerain- 
ics  in  the  United  States,  and  also  a  special  col- 
lection of  ancient  arms  and  armor  and  lacqr.er 


BALTIMORE 


work  of  the  Japanese.  In  the  same  block,  south- 
east of  the  original  gallery  and  on  the  corner 
of  Centre  street  and  Washington  place,  is  now- 
being  erected  an  art  gallery  for  the  Walters 
Collection  of  Old  Masters,  recently  purchased 
by  Air.  Harry  Walters,  at  a  cost  of  $1,000,000. 

The  Enoch  Pratt  Free  Libraries,  of  which 
the  city  has  six,  were  the  free  gift  of  Enoch 
Pratt  (q.v.).  The  central  library  is  located  on 
West  Mulberry  street,  near  the  centre  of  the 
city.  It  has  six  branch  libraries  and  some  sub- 
stations. Other  libraries  are  the  Maryland  His- 
torical, the  Peabody  reference  library,  those  of 
the  Maryland  Institute,  the  Maryland  Episcopal 
Diocese,  the  Bar  Association,  the  Archbishop's, 
Odd  Fellows,  New  Mercantile,  Baltimore  & 
Ohio  Employees'  Free  Circulating,  and  others. 

The  Johns  Hopkins  University  (q.v.)  makes 
no  pretensions  in  the  way  of  architecture,  Mc- 
Coy hall  being  possibly  the  most  imposing  edi- 
fice so  far  erected.  The  new  home  of  this  great 
school  will  leave  nothing  to  be  desired.  Placed 
at  an  elevation  of  some  300  feet  and  occupying 
the  estate  of  one  of  the  Carroll  family,  known 
as  *'Homewood  Park,*^  it  overlooks  the  city  and 
harbor.  On  North  Broadway,  facing  the  west, 
stands  the  group  of  buildings  known  as  the 
Johns  Hopkins  Hospital.  The  architectural  ap- 
pearance of  the  central  group  of  buildings  is  ma- 
jestic, standing  114  feet  above  tide.  The  cost  of 
the  original  buildings  was  $2,250,000,  which  has 
been  very  largely  added  to  since  the  founding. 
Other  medical  schools  are  those  of  the  Univer- 
sity of  Maryland  (1807),  the  College  of  Physi- 
cians and  Surgeons,  and  the  Baltimore  Medical 
College.  The  oldest  dental  college  in  the  world 
is  the  Baltimore  College  of  Dentistry  and  Sur- 
gery, chartered  1839.  The  chief  law  school  is 
that   of   the   University  of   Maryland. 

The  W^ Oman's  College  (Methodist  Episcopal, 
1888)  is  another  institution  of  which  the  citizens 
are  proud.  The  buildings  are  throughout  in  the 
Romanesque  style,  of  the  Lombard  variety,  with 
adaptations  from  that  order  to  which  Vitruvius 
gave  the  name  Tuscan.  They  are  built  of  dark 
undressed  granite  and  are  surmounted  by  roofs 
of  Roman-red  tiles.  The  church  is  the  most 
southern  member  of  the  group  of  buildings,  its 
massive  tower  the  most  conspicuous  object  in 
the  northern  part  of  the  city.  This  tower  is  al- 
most an  exact  counterpart  of  a  campanile  to  be 
seen  just  outside  of  the  city  of  Ravenna,  Italy. 
There  are  also  many  other  colleges  and  prepar- 
atory schools  of  good  rank,  making  the  city  a 
leading  educational  centre.  Among  these  are 
Morgan  College  (Methodist  Episcopal,  1876)  ; 
Baltimore  City  College;  Bryn  Mawr  School 
{1885)  ;  and  four  Roman  Catholic  institutions— 
St.  Mary's  (Seminary  of  St.  Sulpice,  1791); 
Loyola  (1852),  under  Jesuit  management;  Notre 
Dame  of  Maryland  (1873)  ;  St.  Joseph's  (1888). 
The  public  school  system  has  about  118  schools, 
1.750  teachers,  and  75,000  pupils,  and  about  $1,- 
200.000  is  annually  expended  in  its  support.  The 
first  manual-training  schools  for  white  or  col- 
ored pupils  were  established  here.  There  is  also 
a  State  Normal  School  and  an  institution  for 
training  colored  teachers. 

Parks  and  Cemeteries. — The  beautiful  Druid 
Hill  Park  consists  of  671.2  acres.  Other  parks 
are:  Clifton  Park,  252.07  acres;  Clifton  Lake, 
44    acres;     Patterson    Park,    106    acres;     Car- 


roll Park,  83  acres;  Riverside  Park,  17.02 
acres;  Federal  Hill  Park,  8.02  acres;  Wyman 
Park,  132.08  acres;  Swann  Park,  11.03  acres; 
Latrobe  Park,  10.05  acres;  Gwynn's  Falls,  57 
acres,  besides  32  small  squares  dispersed  all 
over  the  city,  containing  58.12  acres,  making  a 
grand  total  of  about  1,450  acres.  In  natural 
beauty  Druid  Hill  Park  is  unsurpassed  by  any 
in  the  world.  It  is  filled  with  springs  of  pure 
water,  some  of  which  are  medicnial.  A  great 
artificial  lake,  a  part  of  the  city's  waterworks, 
with  a  depth  of  more  than  80  feet,  occupies 
many  acres,  and  around  it  has  been  constructed 
a  fine  drive.  Near  the  head  of  this  lake  on  the 
driveway  stands  the  colossal  statue  of  the  Scot- 
tish hero.  Sir  William  Wallace.  In  the  rear  of 
this  is  the  full-length  marble  statue  of  W^ash- 
ington,  executed  by  Bartholomew.  A  short  dis- 
tance from  the  latter  is  a  costly  and  graceful 
pedestal  surmounted  by  a  life-size  figure  of 
Christopher  Columbus,  by  Achille  Canessa. 

Patterson  Park,  on  the  eastern  rim  of  the 
city,  contains  106  acres,  overlooks  the  harbor 
and  still  retains  some  of  the  earthworks  thrown 
up  by  the  American  Army  in  the  defence  of  the 
city  1812-14,  some  of  the  guns  being  still  in  po- 
sition. 

The  various  churches  maintain  62  cemeteries, 
many  of  them  on  the  outskirts  of  the  city 
proper,  but  on  various  lines  of  electric  car  serv- 
ice. Nine  of  these  cemeteries  are  Hebrew  and 
four  negro.  The  largest  is  Baltimore  cemetery, 
in  the  extreme  northeast  near  Clifton  Park;  the 
most  beautiful  are  Greenmount  in  the  north 
centre,  containing  the  McDonough  monument, 
and  Loudon  Park  in  the  extreme  west.  Near 
the  latter  is  Mount  Olivet.  Saint  Peter's  (Ro- 
man Catholic)  is  on  the  northwest. 

Churches. — There  are  some  489  church  build- 
ings in  the  city,  many  of  great  beauty  both  ex- 
ternally and  internally ;  notably  the  First  Pres- 
byterian church  on  Madison  street,  with  its 
wonderful  Gothic  spire  300  feet  high ;  the  Mount 
Vernon  Alethodist  Episcopal  church  within  the 
shadow  of  the  Washington  monument,  and  the 
Roman  Catholic  cathedral  commenced  in  1800. 
The  style  and  decorations  of  the  last  named 
are  of  the  Grecian-Ionic  order.  The  great  dome 
is  207  feet  in  circumference  internally,  and  231 
feet  externally.  The  side  aisles  in  the  church 
are  terminated  by  two  pictures.  That  on  the 
right  is  the  "Descent  from  the  Cross, ^^  painted 
by  Pauline  Guerin — a  present  from  Louis  XVI. 
to  the  archbishop — and  that  on  the  left,  *'St. 
Louis  Burying  his  Officers  and  Soldiers  Slain 
Before  Acre,^'  the  work  of  Steuben,  and  pre- 
sented by  King  Charles  X.  of  France.  There 
are  also  the  stately  Methodist  church  described 
with  the  Woman's  College ;  the  beautiful  white 
marble  synagogue,  Oheb  Shalom,  on  Eutaw 
Place,  oriental  in  style,  and  a  short  distance 
away  the  great  Har  Sinai  temple  on  Bolton 
street,  and  the  Byzantine  temple  on  Madison 
avenue.  The  Episcopalians  have  many  fine 
churches,  among  them  Saint  Paul's  on  (Zharles 
street,  and   Grace  church   on   Monument   street. 

The  following  is  a  list  of  the  churches  of 
the  various  denominations:  Baptist,  59;  Chris- 
tian Science,  2;  Congregational,  4;  Disciples  of 
Christ.  7;  Evangelical  Ass'n,  4;  Evangelical 
Lutheran,  57;  Friends,  2;  Orthodox,  2;  Inde- 
pendent Roman  Catholics,  i ;  Independent  Ger- 


BALTIMORE. 


BALTIMORE 


man,  i ;  Jewish  Synagogues,  22 ;  Methodists  of 
various  kinds  and  color.  119;  New  Jerusalem, 
I  ;  Ark  of  the  Covenant,  i  ;  Presbyterian,  ^,2) ; 
Protestant  Episcopal,  45;  Reformed  Church,  14; 
Reformed  Episcopal,  43 ;  Roman  Catholic,  55 ; 
Seventh  Day  Adventists,  2 ;  Swedenborgian,  3 ; 
Union  Evangelical,  3 ;  Unitarian,  i ;  United 
Brethren  in  Christ,  7;  Universalist,  i;  total  489. 

Clubs. — Baltimore  cannot  be  called  a  club 
city;  however,  the  time-honored  Maryland  Club 
is  a  great  social  organization  occupying  a  su- 
perb new  building  on  Charles  and  Eager  streets. 
There  are  also  the  younger  Baltimore  Club,  on 
Charles  street,  opposite,  composed  largely  of 
the  sons  of  members  of  the  Maryland  Club ; 
the  Catholic  Club;  the  Charcoal  Club;  Ger- 
mania  Club,  for  German  merchants ;  the  Mer- 
chants' Club  and  the  Phoenix  Club,  a  refined 
Jewish   organization. 

Charitable  Institutions. — The  city  has  a  body 
of  gentlemen,  known  as  Supervisors  of  City 
Charities,  who  serve  without  pay,  and  who  look 
into  every  form  of  charity  and  direct  to  a  large 
extent  its  distribution.  There  is  also  a  State 
Board  of  Charities,  non-paid.  Among  the  insti- 
tutions to  aid  suffering  humanity  are  Johns 
Hopkins  Hospital  (alreadj^  mentioned).  Mary- 
land Hospital  for  the  Insane ;  Female  House  of 
Refuge;  Springfield  State  Hospital;  House  of 
Refuge  (male)  ;  Aged  Men's  Home;  All  Saints 
Home  for  Children ;  Augusburg  Home ;  Balti- 
more Association  for  the  Improvement  of  the 
Condition  of  the  Children  of  the  Poor;  Balti- 
more Orphan  Asylum  (more  than  100  years 
old);  Boys'  Home  Society;  Briska  Help  Asso- 
ciation; Charity  Organization  Society;  Chris- 
tian Tribune  Home  for  Young  Ladies ;  Dolan 
Children's  Aid  Society ;  Egenton  Female  Or- 
phan Asylum  and  School ;  Female  Christian 
Home ;  and  Free  Summer  Excursion  Society. 
The  various  charitable  institutions  are  too 
numerous  to  mention  all  by  name,  but  among 
them  are  the  blind  asylum,  a  fine  white  marble 
building;  and  the  city  almshouse,  accommo- 
dating 1.300  inmates. 

Water  and  Fire  Departments. — The  city  owns 
its  waterworks  system,  which  is  self-sustain- 
ing. There  are  645  miles  of  water  mains  in  the 
city.  The  water  comes  from  two  sources:  (i) 
the  Big  Gunpowder  River,  average  daily  flow 
170.000.000  gallons;  (2)  Jones'  Falls,  35,000,000 
gallons.  The  service  has  two  impounding  reser- 
voirs— Loch  Raven  on  the  Gunpowder  River, 
capacity  410.000,000  gallons,  and  Lake  Roland 
in  the  bed  of  Jones'  Falls,  capacity  400.000,000 
gallons.  The  department  has  two  stand  pipes 
with  a  maximum  capacity  of  300.000  gallons. 
The  expenses  of  the  fire  department  are  about 
$600,000  per  annum.  Equipment :  29  engine 
companies,  14  hook  and  ladder  companies  (one 
of  the  engine  companies  is  double — two  engines 
and  one  tower;   one  is  a  powerful  fireboat). 

Transportation.-T-'Ediitimort  has  a  very  mod- 
ern and  excellent  street  car  service;  it  can 
boast  of  the  fact  that  it  had  the  first  electric 
sreet  railway  and  the  first  electric  elevated 
railway  in  the  world.  The  street  railways  have 
about  400  miles  of  rails  now  being  operated  on 
the  streets  and  suburban  points  within  the  ra- 
dius of  its  operations.  More  are  contemplated. 
The  Delaware  and  Chesapeake  ship  canal,  across 
the  narrow  strip  of  Delaware,  gives  it  a  direct 
Vol.  2—16. 


water  outlet  to  Philadelphia.  The  Baltimore  & 
Ohio  Railroad  system  (q.v.)  follows  almost 
without  change  the  route  of  the  old  national 
pike,  which  extended  from  Baltimore  to  Saint 
Louis;  it  was  the  first  road  to  the  Atlantic  sea- 
coast  and  the  corner  stone  was  laid  4  July  1828. 
The  facilities  provided  by  this  road  are  the 
great  terminals  located  at  Locust  Point,  consist- 
mg  of  freight  sheds,  elevators,  and  the  proper 
loading  docks  with  a  depth  of  30  feet  in  1906 
but  now  being  enlarged  to  35  feet,  connecting 
with  the  ship  channel  to  the  sea  of  the  same 
depth  Within  the  last  two  years  they  have 
erected  an  emigration  pier  and  necessary  build- 
ings. 

The  terminals  of  the  Pennsylvania  Railroad 
?/"^  °n  the  opposite  side  of  the  harbor  from  the 
B.  &  O.  terminals,  or,  in  other  words,  the  east- 
ern side.  They  have  the  same  depth  of  water 
in  the  freight  shps  and  have  direct  communica- 
tion with  the  35-foot  channel.  The  principal 
road  of  this  system  passing  through  this  city  is 
the  Philadelphia,  Baltimore  &  Washington  Rail- 
road, and  Its  branches.  Running  a  little  west 
of  south  from  this  city  is  still  another  import- 
ant feeder,  the  Baltimore  &  Potomac  Railroad, 
which  passes  through  Washington,  terminates 
at  Quantico,  Va.,  branching  at  Bowie,  Md.  The 
Board  of  Trade  had  much  to  do  with  the  intro- 
duction of  another  great  railway  svstem  into 
this  city,  in  the  matter  of  the  sale  of  the  city's 
interest  in  the  Western  Maryland  Railroad  to 
what  was  known  as  the  "Fuller  Syndicate"  to- 
gether with  the  purchase  of  the  Pittsburg  and 
West  Virginia  Central  and  the  acquisition  of  the 
Wabash  system.  The  Baltimore  &  Potomac 
has  a  tunnel  7.400  feet  long  through  the  west 
side  of  the  city ;  the  Northern  Central  one  3,500 
feet  long  through  the  northeast;  the  Baltimore 
&  Ohio  one  i  2-3  miles  long  through  the  city 
north  to  south.  The  Baltimore  &  Ohio  road 
draws  its  trains  through  by  electric  motors. 
Twentj'-one  steamship  lines  use  the  docks  and 
piers  of  the  Baltimore  &  Ohio  Railroad  or  the 
Pennsylvania  Railroad  Co.  These  lines  run 
to  Europe  and  South  America  and  other  ports. 
Besides  these  there  are  steamship  lines  to  Bos- 
ton, Halifax,  Providence,  New  York,  Wilming- 
ton, N.  C,  Charleston,  Savannah,  New  Orleans, 
etc. ;  and  steamboat  lines  to  Philadelphia,  W'ash- 
ington,  Norfolk,  Richmond,  and  other  points  on 
the  "bay  and  its  tributaries.  There  are  8  or  10 
coasting  lines  on  the  bay  alone,  chief  of  them 
the  Old  Bay  Line  to  Norfolk. 

Commerce. — The  report  of  R.  L.  Hoxie, 
L'nited  States  engineer  in  charge  of  the  harbor 
improvements,  speaking  of  the  year  1905,  says 
that  there  was  an  increase  of  imports  over  the 
year  previous  of  $852,440,  and  that  249,376  tons 
of  grain,  266,109  tons  of  coal,  272.421  tons  of 
iron  and  steel,  and  120,000  tons  of  oils  were  ex- 
ported. Exports  from  the  port  of  Baltimore 
during  the  fiscal  year  from  i  July  1904  to  30 
June  1905,  were  valued  at  $91,172,888;  during 
the  fiscal  year  from  i  July  1905  to  30  June  1906. 
$109,801,118.  Imports  for  the  same  period  1905, 
free,  $12,488,992;  dutiable  $8,692,247;  total  $21,- 
181,239;  1906,  free  $14,318,075;  dutiable  $16,336,- 
942;  total  $30,655,017;  total  increase  $9.473-778. 

Baltimore  is  the  foremost  corn-exporting 
port  in  the  country,  handling  an  average  of  40,- 
000,000  bushels  a  year,  with  20,000,000  of  other 


BALTIMORE 


grain;  one  of  the  first  in  flour,  handling  about 
3,500,000  barrels ;  it  also  sends  out  enormous 
amounts  of  other  provisions,  live  stock,  tobacco, 
boots  and  shoes,  coal,  naphtha,  drain-pipe,  cop- 
per, etc.  Its  imports  are  copper  (mainly  to  be 
re-exported),  iron  and  manganese  ores,  cotton, 
coffee.  West  India  products,   etc. 

During  the  year  1905  there  were  80  sailing 
vessels  of  42,502  tons,  and  638  steam  vessels  of 
1,182,458  tons  entered  at  the  port,  and  the  clear- 
ances comprised  63  sailing  vessels  of  27,228  tons 
and  627  steam  vessels  of  1,222,470  tons. 

Manufactures. —  The  ofilicial  figures  for  Bal- 
timore in  1905  were  as  follows :  total  number  of 
establishments,  2,162;  capital,  $148,106,726;  num- 
ber of  salaried  officials,  clerks,  etc.,  6,766;  sal- 
aries, $7,001,232;  number  of  wage-earners,  65,- 
013 ;  wages,  $25,548,343  ;  miscellaneous  expenses, 
$18,855,372;  cost  of  materials  used,  $80,184,704; 
value  of  products,  including  custom  work  and 
repairing,  $150,248,021.  Among  the  numerous 
industries  in  which  the  city  stands  in  the  front 
line  of  the  big  cities  of  the  United  States,  the 
ready-made  clothing  business  shows  one  of  the 
greatest  increases  since  the  big  fire  of  1904. 
The  business  has  increased,  according  to  promi- 
nent manufacturers,  at  least  25  per  cent,  and  is 
now  worth  about  $18,000,000  to  the  city.  There 
are  about  40  factories  in  Baltimore  manufacturing 
men  and  youth's  clothing.  They  employ  from 
10,000  to  12,000  hands,  and  pay  out  in  salaries 
j'early  from  $5,000,000  to  $6,coo,ooo.  Other  im- 
portant industries  are  besides  bread,  shirts,  car- 
penter and  mason  work,  etc.,  tobacco  products, 
canning  of  fruits  and  vegetables,  canning  of 
oysters,  foundry  and  machine-shop  work,  slaugh- 
tering and  meat-packing,  fertilizers,  malt 
liquors,  furniture,  confectionery,  lumber  and 
planing-mill  products,   etc. 

Finances,  Ba>iking,  etc. —  The  estimated  basis 
of  taxation  for  1906  was  $548,522,063;  addi- 
tional real  estate  assessments  involving  ease- 
ments, $23,350,000.  The  funded  debt  of  the 
city  I  Jan.  1906  was  $43,313,182.95;  productive 
assets,  $25.^86,690.45;  unproductive  assets,  $20,- 
000,000.  T!ie  clearing  house  transactions  aver- 
age about  $1,200,000,000,  the  total  for  1905  being 
$1,249,411,909.  On  18  June  1906  there  were  18 
National  banks,  with  a  capital  of  $12,590,700, 
surplus  $6,510,800,  undivided  profits  $2,204,- 
426.85,  and  total  deposits  of  $74,404,338.37. 
There  are  also  a  large  number  of  state  and  pri- 
vate banks  and  loan  and  trust  companies.  Bal- 
timore is  the  great  United  States  centre  of  the 
fidelity  and  security  business ;  its  trust,  bond- 
ing and  surety  companies  have  an  aggregate 
capital  of  $15,531,250,  surplus  and  undivided 
profits  of  nearly  $25,000,000  and  deposits  of 
about  the  same  amount. 

Government. —  The  charter  provides  that  "the 
executive  power  of  the  mayor  and  city  council 
of  Baltimore  shall  be  vested  in  the  mayor,  the 
departments,  sub-departments,  and  municipal 
officers  not  embraced  in  a  department  herein 
provided  for,  and  such  special  commissioners 
or  boards  as  may  hereafter  be  provided  for  by 
laws,  or  ordinances  not  inconsistent  with  this 
article. ^^  The  mayor  holds  office  for  four  years ; 
he  has  a  veto  which  can  be  overridden  by  a 
three-fourths  vote  of  the  council,  which  is  com- 
posed of  two  branches ;  the  lower,  of  22  mem- 
bers,   one    from    each   ward;    the    upper,    of    11 


members,  each  from  two  contiguous  wards. 
The  bulk  of  the  city  officers  are  appointed  by 
the  mayor  with  the  consent  of  the  higher  branch. 
The  council  has  the  right  to  appoint  the  city 
register  and  public  printer ;  and  the  comptroller 
and  surveyor  are  elected  by  popular  vote. 

The  principal  city  officials  are  the  comptrol- 
ler (head  of  department  of  finance)  ;  city  regis- 
ter ;  board  of  estimates ;  commissioners  of 
finance ;  city  collector ;  collector  of  water  rents 
and  licenses.  The  chief  departments  are  public 
safety  (fire,  health,  buildings,  and  street  clean- 
ing), public  improvements,  parks,  and  squares, 
education,  charities,  and  corrections,  and  review 
and  assessments. 

Population. —  The  city  stands  sixth  in  popula- 
tion among  the  cities  of  the  United  States,  the 
growth  being  as  follows:  (1775)  5,934;  (1790 
first  U.  S.  census)  15,530;  (1800)  26,514; 
(1810)  46,454;  (1820)  62,738;  (1830)  80,620; 
(1840)  102,513;  (1850)  169,054;  (i860)  212,- 
418;  (1870)  262,854;  (1880)  332,313;  (1890) 
434,439;  (1900)  508,957.  The  police  census  of 
March  1906  makes  the  population  543,034,  with 
two  large  cities  only  separated  by  a  curb  line 
on  the  eastern  boundary,  containing  about  50,- 
000  inhabitants.  They  cannot,  however,  be 
counted  because  they  are  part  of  Baltimore 
county. 

History. —  The  first  settlement  of  land  in- 
cluded in  the  present  site  of  Baltimore  was 
made  in  1662.  Charles  II.  was  King  of  Eng- 
land, and  Charles  Calvert  Governor  of  the 
province.  The  English  people  had  been  making 
history  very  fast,  and  among  their  most  bril- 
liant achievements  was  the  planting  of  success- 
ful colonies  in  various  parts  of  the  world,  no- 
tably the  Virginia  colony,  the  Massachusetts 
plantations  and  the  province  of  Maryland, 
founded  in  1634.  So  that  the  first  actual  settle- 
ment on  land,  within  the  present  city  limits, 
was  made  only  28  years  after  the  landing  of  the 
first  colonists  at  Saint  Mary's. 

During  the  17th  century  we  find  statute  books 
burdened  with  many  laws  creating  town  after 
town  on  paper,  as  many  as  33  having  been  cre- 
ated, three  of  them  being  within  the  boundary 
of  what  was  then  called  Baltimore  county.  By 
the  act  of  the  General  Assembly  of  1706  a  town 
was  to  be  established  on  Whetstone  Neck  on 
the  Patapsco  river.  No  name  was  given  to 
the  town  in  the  act.  Another  town,  called  Bal- 
timore, was  located  near  the  mouth  of  Bnsh 
river  on  its  eastern  side.  This  town  is  shown 
in  the  map  made  by  Augustus  Herrman,  the  Bo- 
hemian, in  1670,  and  some  14  years  after  the 
actual  founding  of  the  present  city,  the  Gen- 
eral Assembly  ordered  another  Baltimore  to  be 
laid  out  on  Indian  river  in  Worcester  county. 
Nothing  was  ever  done  in  regard  to  this  last 
town,  the  county  surveyor  refusing  to  proceed 
with  the  work. 

Then  came  the  true  founding  of  the  city  of 
Baltimore,  by  the  passage  of  an  act  entitled 
"An  act  for  erecting  a  town  on  the  north  side 
of  Patapsco,  in  Baltimore  county,  and  for  lay- 
ing out  in  lots  of  60  acres  of  land  in  and  about 
the  place  where  one  John  Flemming  now  lives.* 
(1729,  chapter  12.)  About  two  years  after  the 
founding  of  Baltimore  town  an  act  was  passed 
entitled  ".\n  act  for  erecting  a  town  on  a 
creek,  divided  on  the  east  from  the  town  lately 


BALTIMORE. 


1.  Washington  Monument. 

2.  Johns  Hopkins  Hospital. 


BALTIMORE 


laid  out  in  Baltimore  county,  called  ^Baltimore 
Town/  on  the  land  whereon  Edward  Fell  keeps 
a  store. >^     (1732,  c.  14.) 

The  next  step  for  the  enlargement  of  the 
original  town  was  the  passage  by  the  General 
Assembly  of  the  act  of  1745,  c.  9,  15  years  after 
the  founding.  This  act  was  passed  on  the  joint 
petition  of  the  inhabitants  of  Baltimore  and 
Jones's  Town,  that  the  two  towns  be  incorpo- 
rated into  one  entire  town,  and  for  the  future  to 
be  called  and  known  by  the  name  Baltimore 
Town  and  by  no  other  name.  The  town  was 
again  enlarged  two  years  later  by  the  act  of 
1747,  c.  21,  on  petition  of  the  inhabitants  by 
the  addition  of  18  acres,  which  were  not  in- 
cluded in  Jones's  Town  nor  in  Baltimore  Town. 
In  1765  another  addition  to  the  town  was  made 
on  petition  of  Cornelius  Howard  and  other  per- 
sons, consisting  of  35  acres  on  the  west  and 
south  sides  of  the  town.  The  town  was  again 
enlarged  by  the  act  of  June  1773,  by  the  addi- 
tion of  80  acres  on  the  east  and  southeast. 

The  Revolution  brought  it  prosperity  by 
crippling  its  rivals,  and  it  was  a  great  seat  of 
privateering.  For  a  couple  of  months  in  1776-7 
Congress  held  session  in  one  of  its  taverns, 
having  fled  from  Philadelphia  in  fear  of  the 
English.  About  this  period  the  energy  and  re- 
sources of  a  couple  of  immigrant  Scotch-Irish- 
men, the  brothers  John  and  Henry  Stevenson, 
began  to  push  the  place  forward ;  new  stage  and 
packet  lines  were  established,  the  roads  im- 
proved and  turnpikes  laid  out,  and  Jones's  Falls 
diked  and  part  of  its  course  filled  in.  The  Eu- 
ropean wars  of  the  French  Revolution  and  later 
threw  a  large  part  of  the  world's  carrying-trade, 
till  Napoleon's  downfall,  into  American  hands ; 
the  "Baltimore  clippers"  were  famous  every- 
where. In  1792  a  large  body  of  French  refu- 
gees from  Haiti  came  in.  On  31  Dec.  1796  the 
old  settlement  of  Fells'  Point  w-as  united  with 
it,  and  it  received  a  city  charter,  it  having 
previously  been  governed  from  Annapolis.  In 
the  War  of  1812  it  again  became  a  seat  of  pri- 
vateers, in  revenge  for  which  the  British  at- 
tempted its  capture  in  1814.  but  the  attack  was 
repulsed  12  Sept.  To  it  we  ow^e  the  "Star- 
Spangled  Banner'^  (see  Key,  Francis  Scott) 
and  the  Battle  Monument.  The  end  of  the 
Napoleonic  wars  in  1815,  restoring  to  England 
her  old  carrving  trade,  was  a  heavy  blow^  to 
Baltimore.  In  1828  the  public-school  system 
was  established.  In  i860  all  three  anti-Republi- 
can parties  held  their  national  conventions 
there:  and  on  the  outbreak  of  the  Civil  War 
the  Union  troops  passing  through  there  were 
mobbed  by  the  citizens,  and  the  first  blood  of 
the  war  was  shed  in  its  streets,  19  April  1861. 
On  23  May  Federal  Hill  was  occupied  by  a 
Union  force,  and  the  city  remained  under  mar- 
tial law  till  the  end  of  the  war.  The  conven- 
tion of  1864,  which  renominated  Lincoln,  was 
held  here.  In  1888  "The  Annex*  was  annexed 
to  the  city,  extending  its  limits  two  rniles  north 
and  west,  and  nearly  doubling  its  size.  Since 
1890  Roland  Park  and  Walbrook  have  also 
been  annexed. 

The  greatest  disaster  which  Baltirnore  has 
experienced  was  the  conflagration  which  com- 
menced on  Sunday  7  Feb.  1904.  and  continued 
to  burn  until  the  9th.  Some  fire  was  not  ex- 
tinguished   for   a   year.      It   commenced   in   the 


largest  wholesale  dry  goods  establishment  in 
the  city— Messrs.  John  E.  Hurst  &  Co.— the 
buildnig  having  three  fronts.  According  to  the 
statement  of  the  Baltimore  Sun  "A  strong  wind 
was  blowing  from  the  southwest,  and  within 
about  an  hour,  eight  or  ten  buildmgs  on  Hop- 
kins Place  in  the  neighborhood  were  in  flames. 
Ihe  fire  spread  to  the  north  and  east,  rapidly 
devourmg  block  after  block  of  buildings.  As 
many  as  ten  blocks  were  in  flames  by  nightfafl, 
notwithstanding  the  extreme  exertions  of  the 
firemen.  By  8  o'clock  the  wind  shifted  and 
blew  the  fire,  which  had  at  that  time  acquired  a 
volume  of  its  own,  straight  down  Lombard, 
German,  Baltimore,  and  Fayette  streets.  In  the 
effort  to  stay  the  progress  of  the  flames,  dyna- 
mite was  used  in  ten  places,  or  more,  but  the 
blowing  up  of  houses  had  no  good  effect.  Land- 
mark after  landmark  went  down.  The  lofty 
^sky-scrapers'  on  Charles,  Saint  Paul,  Calvert, 
and  Baltimore  streets  and  the  solid  brick  struc- 
ture, the  B.  &  O.  Central  building,  and  the 
Equitable  and  Calvert  buildings  burned  like 
great  torches  high  up  in  the  air.  A  fortunate 
change  of  the  wind  about  midnight,  helped  to 
save  the  magnificent  row  of  public  buildings  on 
the  north  side  of  Fayette  street,  from  Saint 
Paul  street  to  Holliday  street — the  court-house, 
the  post-office  and  the  city  hall,  but  before  the 
change  occurred  flying  embers  set  fire  to  blocks 
on  the  south  side  of  Baltimore  street  below  Gay 
street,  and  to  the  Maryland  Institute  and  the 
Marsh  Market.  The  change  carried  the  flames 
towards  the  water  and  the  docks  on  the  south, 
while  on  Baltimore  street  the  fire  stopped  at 
Jones'  Falls."  The  loss  was  estimated  at  about 
$70,000,000. 

Throughout  the  whole  period  of  acute  dis- 
tress there  was  no  looting  and  no  undue  excite- 
ment ;  perfect  order  was  maintained  and  the 
business  firms  and  companies  resumed  opera- 
tions in  temporary  quarters  with  comparatively 
little  or  no  interruption,  while  the  city  and 
State  governments  addressed  themselves,  active- 
ly and  intelligently,  to  the  ways  and  means  of 
speedy  rehabilitation. 

In  addition  to  the  local  fire-fighting  force, 
companies  from  other  cities  came  to  their  aid 
as  follows :  Washington,  D.  C,  5 ;  Baltimore 
Co.,  4;  Sparrows  Point,  i;  Annapolis,  i;  Phila- 
delphia, 7;  York,  Pa.,  2;  Harrisburg,  Pa.,  i; 
Chester  Pa.,  i ;  Altoona,  Pa.,  i ;  New  York 
City  10;  Wilmington,  Del.,  4.  There  was  thus 
engaged  in  fighting  the  Baltimore  fire  an  aver- 
age of  62  well  equipped  modern  fire  organiza- 
tions and  they  all  had  abundant  water  from  the 
city's  sources  of  supply. 

In  the  banking  and  financial  centres  of  the 
fire-swept  area  the  greatest  anxiety  prevailed 
for  several  days  in  regard  to  the  safety  of  the 
securities  and  books  in  the  vaults  of  these  in- 
stitutions. Time  locks  prevented  the  opening  of 
the  vault  doors  on  Sunday  night  and  the  next 
morning  when  the  bank  buildings  were  in  ruins 
it  was  known  that  in  ten  of  the  National  banks 
and  in  one  other,  there  were  values  of  $53,000,- 
000  including  loans  and  discounts,  securities, 
clearing-house  exchanges,  and  cash.  These 
banks  represented  about  $50,000,000  of  deposits. 
In  addition  to  this,  the  Savings  Bank  of  Balti- 
more, at  the  corner  of  Gay  and  Second  streets, 
had  in  its  vaults  in  jeopardy  about  $25,000,000; 


BALTIMORE  AND  OHIO  RAILROAD 


The  Hopkins  Savings  Bank  $6,000,000,  and  others 
equally  large  sums.  But  the  vaults  stood  the 
fire  te'st  for  which  in  part  they  were  designed. 
As  one  by  one  they  were  opened  it  was  found 
that  their  contents  were  preserved  and  this  fortu- 
nate circumstance  encouraged  them  all  around, 
and  enabled  them  to  give  the  necessary  aid  in 
the  great  work  of  rehabilitation  plans  which 
were  immediately  begun.  There  were  also  a 
number  of  private  banking  houses  and  many 
brokers  involved  in  the  fire,  but  in  all  cases  it 
is  believed  the  fire  did  not  reach  their  valuables. 
There  were  thousands  of  depositors  in  the  sav- 
ings banks,  and  financial  anxiety  extended  to 
nearly  every  home  in  the  city  until  the  glad 
news  was  spread  abroad  that  the  bank  vaults 
held  good.  This  was  also  the  case  with  many 
safes  in  commercial  and  business  houses,  though 
for  weeks  after  the  fire  the  streets  were  strewn 
with  wrecks  that  failed  in  the  fire  and  were 
valueless  even  as  scrap-iron.  Consult  Love, 
'Baltimore:  The  Old  Town  and  the  Modern 
City^  (Baltimore  1895)  ;  Scharf,  'The  Chroni- 
cles of  Baltimore^  (Baltimore  1874)  ;  Thomas, 
'The  City  Government  of  Baltimore,)  in  'Johns 
Hopkins  University  Studies,  Historical  and  Po- 
litical Science )    (1896). 

William  H.  Love, 
Secretary  of  the  Board  of  Trade. 

Baltimore  Councils.  See  Catholic  Church. 

Baltimore  and  Ohio  Railroad,  The.  His- 
tory. —  The  fact  that  the  only  use  of  rails  for 
locomotion  in  1827  on  either  side  of  the  Atlan- 
tic was  for  coal  carrying,  renders  the  more 
remarkable  the  action  of  the  coterie  of  merchants 
and  bankers  of  Baltimore,  gathering  at  Philip 
Thomas'  house  on  the  evening  of  18  February 
of  that  year,  in  deciding  to  proceed  forthwith 
to  build  a  railroad  for  general  purposes.  The 
Ohio,  at  Wheeling,  was  made  the  objective 
point;  the  intervening  Blue  Ridge  and  Alleghany 
mountains  evidently  suggesting  no  difficulties 
that  could  not  be  surmounted.  But  a  week 
elapsed  from  the  time  of  the  initial  meeting  to 
the  second,  at  which  the  committee  appointed 
at  the  first  reported  the  resolution,  namely : 
"That  immediate  application  be  made  to  the 
Legislature  of  Maryland  for  an  act  incorporating 
a  joint  stock  company,  to  be  styled  the  Baltimore 
and  Ohio  Railroad  Company,  and  clothing  such 
company  with  all  powers  necessary  for  the  con- 
struction of  a  railroad  with  two  or  more  sets 
of  rails  from  the  City  of  Baltimore  to  the  Ohio 
River.))    The  capital  stock  was  fixed  at  $5,000,000. 

The  Baltimore  and  Ohio's  charter,  granted 
of  date  28  Feb.  1827,  was  the  first  anywhere 
coming  into  existence  defining  and  authorizing 
procedure  to  completion.  Under  it  the  Balti- 
more and  Ohio  Railroad  Company  is  still  acting, 
being  the  only  enactment  of  the  character  of 
the  pioneer  days  of  the  railroad  in  this  country 
or  Europe  remaining  fully  operative ;  the  B.  &  O. 
being  the  single  railroad  company  of  those 
times  yet  retaining,  unchanged,  its  original  name 
and  organization. 

On  23  April  1827  the  Baltimore  and  Ohio 
Railroad  Company  was  formally  organized, 
Philip  E.  Thomas  elected  president,  and 
George  Brown  treasurer.  Preparations  were 
immediately  inaugurated  to  secure  a  survey  of 
the  proposed  line,  the  measures  to   which  end 


were  begun  on  2  July.  In  this  the  United 
States  governmental  authorities  were  induced 
to  co-operate  to  the  extent  of  relieving  Colonel 
Stephen  H.  Long,  of  the  Topographical  Corps, 
from  his  regular  duties,  who,  with  Jonathan 
Knight,  a  Quaker  civil  engineer  of  repute,  forth- 
with proceeded  with  the  actual  work,  the  date 
of  its  formal  commencement  being  20  Novem- 
ber. On  5  April  1828  they  submitted  the  result 
of  their  labor  to  that  period  ;  and  the  line  west 
to  the  Patapsco  and  thence  via  its  valley  to 
Point  of  Rocks  on  the  Potomac  was  decided 
upon  as  the  first  section  to  be  undertaken. 

But  persistent,  bitter,  and  vehement  opposi- 
tion by  the  canal  authorities  was  encountered 
and  this  was  even  carried  to  legislative  cham- 
bers and  the  courts,  but  despite  this  trouble 
and  a  few  adverse  decisions  by  the  courts,  the 
Baltimore  and  Ohio  pushed  on  from  Baltimore 
west,  and  three  miles  were  completed  and  ex- 
perimented upon  early  in  1829.  On  22  May 
1830  the  first  section  of  the  Baltimore  and  Ohio 
• —  that  from  Baltimore  to  Ellicott  City,  a  dis- 
tance of  14  males  —  was  formally  opened  for 
public  use.  Horse-power  was  the  standard 
means  of  locomotion  pending  development  of 
the  locomotive  to  a  more  assuring  stage  than 
then  reached  anywhere  from  whence  reliable 
information  could  be  obtained.  (See  Locomo- 
tive, The.)  "Brigades  of  cars')  were  an- 
nounced to  run  three  times  each  way  daily,  the 
fare  named  at  25  cents  and  business  commenced 
in  earnest.  This  was  four  months  in  advance 
of  the  formal  opening  of  the  Liverpool  and 
Manchester,  the  first  railway  abroad  for  general 
purposes,  its  date  being  15  Sept.  1830. 

Many  difficult  problems  in  the  mechanics  of 
railroading  were  decisively  solved.  Car  wheels 
were  first  made  with  the  flange  on  the  inside 
edge,  but  their  causing  so  many  derailments 
and  so  frequently  breaking  led  to  the  change 
of  the  flange  to  the  outer  edge.  But  this  in- 
creased the  difficulty  on  the  curves  and  the 
conical  flange  was  invented.  The  anti-friction 
box  on  the  axles  and  the  practice  of  placing 
on  the  outside  instead  of  the  inside  of  the  wheels 
were  both  first  introduced  by  Winans ;  as  was 
also  the  eight-wheel  car.  When  the  main  line 
of  the  Baltimore  and  Ohio  was  completed  its 
roadbed  embodied  the  highest  engineering  skill 
of  the  period  in  the  traversing  of  mountain 
ranges ;  was  the  longest  continuous  railroad  in 
the  world,  with  the  greatest  bridges,  trestles  and 
tunnels.  Its  track  construction  throughout,  and 
especially  its  manner  of  meeting  the  curvature 
and  providing  against  slides  from  the  environing 
mountain  sides  were  lessons  in  line  construction 
and  operation  the  whole  world  availed   oi. 

The  Baltimore  and  Ohio  was  completed  to 
Frederick,  61  miles,  i  Dec.  1831  ;  to  Point  of 
Rocks,  69  miles,  i  April  1832;  and  to  Harper's 
Ferry,  81  miles,  i  Dec.  1834.  The  initial  move 
toward  Washington  was  the  letting  of  the  con- 
tract in  May  1833,  for  the  construction  of  the 
Thomas  Viaduct  spanning  the  Patapsco  at  Relay. 
This  remarkable  granite  structure,  designed  and 
erected  under  the  personal  supervision  of  Ben- 
jamin H.  Latrobe.  was  built  for  the  carrying 
of  six  to  seven  ton  engines  drawing  from  15 
to  20  ton  trains,  and  meets  with  equal  safety 
the  demand  of  170  ton  locomotives  at  the  head 
of  12  to  15  hundred  ton  trains.  It  was  the 
marvel  in  the  world's  railway  circles  when  con- 


BALTIMORE  AND  OHIO  RAILROAD 


structed.  The  longest,  higliest,  and  generally 
rnost  imposing  railroad  crossing  known,  it  was 
the  first  on  a  curve  and  regarded,  therefore,  as 
the   boldest  of  departures   from  the  rule. 

Two  years  were  required  to  complete  the 
Washington  branch,  and  it  was  not  until  25 
Aug.  1835  that  the  echoes  of  the  national  cap- 
ital resounded  back  the  locomotive's  shrill 
awakening.  With  the  opening  of  the  branch, 
the  railway  postal  service  came  into  being,  its 
earliest  form  the  boardcd-up  end  of  a  baggage 
car,  the  two  keys  to  which  were  held  by  the 
postmasters  of  Washington  and  Baltimore. 
The  declaration  of  the  first  railroad  dividend  in 
history,  a  semi-annual  of  the  Baltimore  and 
Ohio,  was  made  simultaneously  with  the  open- 
ing of  the  Washington  branch,  and  the  securities 
of  the  latter  were  the  first  of  American  railway 
issue  marketed  abroad. 

The  greatest  of  eventualities,  however,  with 
which  the  Washington  branch's  history  is  linked 
was  the  birth  of  the  telegraph.  "What  Hath 
God  Wrought,"  the  first  four  words  transmitted 
by  wire  over  a  public  line,  were  sent  from  Bal- 
timore to  Washington  via  the  roadbed  of  the 
Baltimore  and  Ohio  branch. 

Hancock,  123  miles  from  Baltimore,  was 
reached  by  the  Baltimore  and  Ohio  on  i  June 
1842;  Cumberland,  178  miles,  on  5  Nov.  1842; 
Piedmont,  206  miles,  on  21  July  1851  ;  Fairmont, 
302  miles,  on  22  June  1852;  and  the  last  spike, 
finishing  the  great  undertaking  from  Baltimore 
to  Wlieeling,  379  miles,  was  driven  on  24  Dec. 
1852.  The  formal  opening  of  the  road  was 
marked  by  a  notable  demonstration  10  Jan.  1853. 
There  being  no  rail  connection  beyond,  and  the 
prospects  bright  for  Cincinnati  and  Louisville 
business  in  the  one  direction  and  Pittsburg  in  the 
other,  a  company  was  organized  and  a  daily 
steamboat  service  established,  "superior  to  any- 
thing floating   upon   western   waters.^^ 

With  the  completion  of  the  Parkersburg 
branch  from  Grafton  —  or  the  mouth  of  Three 
Forks,  as  it  was  then  known  —  to  Parkersburg, 
I  May  1857,  the  Ohio  was  reached  at  another 
point,  and  a  very  important  one,  as  through  rail 
connection  had  been  perfected  thence  to  Cin- 
cinnati, 10  days  before,  20  April.  The  opening, 
of  the  Parkersburg  bridge,  7  Jan.  1871,  was 
the  last  link  in  the  continuous  rail  from  the 
Chesapeake  to  the   Mississippi. 

The  old  Marietta  and  Cincinnati,  the  Ohio 
and  Mississippi  and  other  railways,  jonce  sep- 
arately conducted  companies,  long  since  became 
component  parts  of  the  Baltimore  and  Ohio 
System,  which,  with  the  finishing  of  the  Chicago 
division,  10  Nov.  1874,  has  been  of  the  foremost 
in  the  metropolis  of  the  northwest,  as,  through 
being  the  pioneer  into  Cincinnati  and  Saint 
Louis  from  the  east,  it  has  ever  been  in  those 
centres  of  the  southwest. 

At  Pittsburg,  as  well,  the  Baltimore  and 
Ohio's  position  is  a  commanding  one.  Reaching 
the  great  central  point  from  Cumberland  in  July 
i860,  later  building  and  acquisitions  led  to  radi- 
ating lines  to  Cleveland,  Chicag'o,  Cincinnati, 
Wheeling,  and  other  points  of  traffic  concentra- 
tion. Eastward  from  Baltimore  the  construction 
of  the  extension  to  Philadelphia  and  its  opening, 
19  Sept.  1886,  together  with  security  holdings  in 
lines  through  to  New  York,  assured  important 
place  among  the  railways  centring  in  the  coun- 
try's leading  city. 


Mileage— On  30  June  1905  the  Baltimore 
and  Ohio  Railroad  proper  consisted  of  the  fol- 
lowing' lines: 

DIVISION  MILES 

Baltimore    and     New  York 5.34 

Main   Line   System    (excluding  Valley  Railroad 

of    Virginia) 1,052.18 

Wheeling  System  (excluding  Wheeling  Termi- 
nal and  Valley  and  Branches;  Cleveland, 
Lorain  _&  Wheeling  and  I?ranchcs;  Ohio  & 
Little  Kanawha;    and  Ravenswood,   Spencer 

&    Glenville) 75::. 60 

Pittsburg     System 947-73 

Chicago    Division 282.47 

Baltimore   &   Ohio    Southwestern    System 985.66 

4,025.98 

The  lines  controlled  by  or  affiliated  in  interest 
with  the  Baltimore  and  Ohio  System  were  as 
follows  : 

MILES. 

Valley    Railroad    of   Virginia 62.12 

Ravenswood,    Spencer  &   Glenville   Railway 32-40 

Cleveland    Terminal    &   Valley    Railroad 92.72 

Cleveland,    Lorain    &    Wheeling    Railway 194.28 

Ohio   &   Little   Kanawha   Railroad 74-26 

455-78 

Making  a  total  of  4,481.76  miles  for  the  en- 
tire S3'stem.  By  divisions  this  mileage  is  as 
follows : 

miles      total 

Grand  Division  —  New  York 5.34 

New    York    Division 5.34 

Main    Lixe    System 1,114.3a 

Philadelphia    Division 125.14 

Baltimore     Division 227.98 

Cumberland    Division 257.42 

Shenandoah    Division 1 12.55 

Monogah     Division 391.21 

Wheeling     System 1,146.3^ 

W'heeling    Division 143.39 

Ohio    River    Division 326.14 

Cleveland    Division 244.68 

Newark    Division 432.05 

Pittsburg    System 947-2-^ 

Connellsville     Division 308.01 

Pittsburg     Division 356.93 

New    Castle    Division 282.79 

Grand     Division  —  Chicago 282.47 

Chicago    Division 282.47 

B.  &  O.   Southwestern   System 985.66 

Ohio     Division 336.40 

Indiana    Division 254.53 

Illinois     Division 394-73 

Grand  total  for  entire  B.  &  O.  System..  4,481.76 

Equipment. —  The  total  equipment  for  the 
entire  system,  valued  at  $50,662,723.98,  as  of 
30  June   1905  was  as  follows: 

rolling  stock 

Locomotives    and    Spare    Tenders 1,798 

Passenger    Cars 1,206 

Freight     Cars 80,338 

Service     Cars i,950 

marine 

Steam    Lighters   and    Tugs 12 

Barges,    Floats    and    Scows 106 

Pile    Drivers 3 

Wharf    Boat i 

Traffic  Statistics. —  For  the  year  ending  30 
June  1905  the  total  number  of  tons  of  freight 
carried  by  the  B.  &  O.  System  was  56,322,085, 
divided  as  follows:  B.  &  O.  lines,  47,285,183, 
and  affiliated  lines  9,036,902.  The  total  ton 
mileage  was  9,637,865,455.  The  number  of 
passengers  carried  was  16,581,666,  or  728,748,125 
passengers  one  mile,  divided  as  follows :  B.  & 
O.  lines,  15,518,372,  and  affiliated  lines  1,063,294. 
The  freight  earnings  for  the  B.  &  O.  lines  were 
$50,607,087.44  and  the  passenger  earnings  were 
$i3.8i7,i4i-.38. 

Finances. —  The  general  income  account  of 
the   B.  &  O.   Railroad   Company    (including  the 


BALTIMORE  ORIOLE  —  BALUCKI 


B.   &  O.   S.   W.   R.R.)    for  the  year  ending  30 
June  1905,  was  as  follows : 

Gross     earnings $67,689,997.13 

Operating     expenses 44,710,603.58 

Net    earnings    from    operations $22>979. 393-55 

Other  income 2,976,998.44 

$25,956,391-99 
Total    payments 20,289,197.74 

Surplus $  5,667,194.25 

The  operating  results  of  the  lines  controlled 
or  affiliated  in  interest  with  the  B.  &  O.  Sys- 
tem   were    as    follows : 

Gross  earnings $4,849,449-03 

Operating     expenses 3,729,191.43 

Net   earnings $1,120,257.60 

The  capital  stock  (preferred  and  common) 
outstanding  on  30  June  1905  was  $184,258,524.31 ; 
the  funded  debt  was  $234,395,430;  and  the  capital 
liabilities  assumed  were  $11,211,043.83;  making 
the  total  capital  liabilities  $429,864,998.14.  The 
capital  assets  of  the  company  were  $373,325,909.03, 
consisting  of  the  following:  Cost  of  road, 
$144,974,687.40;  bonds  and  stocks  held  by  trus- 
tees, $164,662,516.29;  real  estate,  $12,315,832.78; 
gas  and  electric  plants,  $710,148.58;  equipment, 
$50,662,723.98.  The  company  also  owned  bonds 
and  stocks  of  railroad  and  other  corporations 
to  the  value  of  $43,548,658.87. 

Baltimore  Oriole.    See  Oriole. 
Baltimore,     Woman's     College     of.      See 
Woman's  College  of  Baltimore. 

Baltistan,  bal-te-stan',  or  Little  Tibet,  an 
elevated  plateau  through  which  the  upper  Indus 
flows.  It  lies  below  the  Kara-Korum  Moun- 
tains and  the  Himalayas,  with  a  mean  elevation 
of  11,000  feet,  and  contains  the  nameless  peak 
marked  K",  28,278  feet  high,  next  to  Everest, 
the  highest  on  the  globe.  It  is  politically  a  part 
of  Kashmir. 

Baluchi,  ba-loo'che,  the  language  of  Balu- 
chistan, one  of  the  Iranian  group  of  languages. 
There  are  two  dialects,  the  North  Baluchi,  and 
the  South  Baluchi,  or  Maprani  •  the  latter  shows 
more  ancient  features. 

Baluchistan,  ba-loo'che-stan',  a  country  in 
the  south  of  Asia,  lying  between  Persia  and  the 
valley  of  the  Indus,  having  the  former  on  the 
west,  Afghanistan  on  the  north,  Scinde  on  the 
east,  and  the  Arabian  Sea  on  the  south ;  area, 
about  134.000  square  miles.  It  is  wholly  under 
British  influence  and  partly  under  British  rule, 
while  the  Khan  of  Kelat  is  ruler  of  a  consider- 
able portion,  and  certain  tribes  are  independent. 
The  general  surface  of  Baluchistan  is  rugged 
and  mountainous,  with  some  extensive  intervals 
of  barren  sandy  deserts.  In  the  case  of  the 
principal  ranges,  the  general  parallelism  and 
uniformity  of  their  formation  are  somewhat  re- 
markable, one  system  having  an  inclination 
from  north  to  south,  another  from  east  to  west. 
]\Ta.ny  of  these  mountains  are  of  great  height 
and  are  covered  with  snow.  There  are  several 
broad  and  high  table-lands,  extremely  cold  in 
winter  and  extremely  hot  in  summer.  Mekran 
in  the  south,  the  ancient  Gedrosia,  is  one  of  the 
hottest  regions  of  the  globe.  Some  of  the 
mountain  chains  are  of  compact  limestone,  en- 
closing marine  shells  and  corals  identical  with 
similar  objects  picked   up  on  the   sea-shores  at 


this  day.  Excepting  fragments  of  quartz  fourd 
in  Lus,  primary  formations  have  not  been  ob- 
served in  any  part  of  the  Baluchistan  Moun- 
tains. The  mineral  wealth  of  the  country  is 
believed  to  be  considerable,  including  gold,  sil- 
ver, lead,  iron,  copper,  many  kinds  of  mineral 
salts,  and  saltpetre.  Throughout  Baluchistan 
there  is  a  great  deficiency  of  water,  particularly 
in  summer.  In  the  northeast  part  are  the  rivers 
Bolan  and  IMula,  the  courses  of  which  form 
the  celebrated  passes  bearing  their  names,  lead- 
ing from  the  valley  of  the  Indus  to  Baluchistan 
and  Afghanistan.  The  soil  js  not  in  general 
fertile,  but  by  patient  industry  the  plains  and 
valleys  can  be  made  productive  in  wheat,  bar- 
ley, and  millet.  The  other  chief  crops  are  mad- 
der, cotton,  particularly  in  Cutch  Gundava,  rice, 
indigo,  and  tobacco.  Vegetables  are  abundant, 
and  excellent  fruits  are  produced  in  the  gardens 
and  orchards  in  the  neighborhood  of  the  towns. 
Fine  camels  are  bred  in  large  numbers. 

The  inhabitants  are  divided  into  two  great 
branches,  the  Baluchis  and  the  Brahuis,  differ- 
ent in  their  languages,  figures,  and  manners, 
and  each  subdivided  into  a  number  of  minor 
tribes.  The  Brahuis  have  greater  physical 
strength  than  the  Baluchis,  and  are  less  addicted 
to  predatory  violence.  Both  races  are  hospita- 
ble, brave,  and  capable  of  enduring  much  fa- 
tigue. Many  of  them  live  in  rude  tents  made  of 
black  felt  or  coarse  cloth  of  goat's  or  camel's 
hair  stretched  over  a  frame  of  wickerwork. 
Both  Baluchis  and  Brahuis  are  very  ignorant 
but  zealous  Mohammedans.  The  Baluchi  lan- 
guage resembles  the  modern  Persian,  the  Bra- 
hui  presents  many  points  of  agreement  with  the 
Hindu.  The  manufactures  are  mostly  confined 
to  coarse  fabrics  and  a  few  matchlocks  and 
other  weapons,  and  the  trade  is  unimportant. 
The  khan,  so  far  as  his  rule  extends,  has  unlim- 
ited power  over  life,  person.,  and  property.  He 
usually  resides  at  Kelat,  and  his  rule  is  almost 
confined  to  the  country  around  it.  Quetta  is 
the  largest  town.  It  is  occupied  by  a  British 
garrison  and  strongly  fortified. 

About  the  middle  of  the  i8th  century  Balu- 
chistan was  made  tributary  by  Nadir  Shah,  who 
bestowed  it,  with  the  title  of  bcglerbeg,  or  com- 
mander-in-chief, on  Nasir  Khan,  who  proved 
himself  the  ablest  ruler  that  ever  governed  the 
country.  On  his  death  in  1795  he  left  the  coun- 
try in  a  comparatively  prosperous  condition,  but 
it  has  since  suffered  greatly  from  intestine  wars, 
and  its  boundaries  have  been  curtailed.  During 
the  Afghan  war  in  1839  a  British  force  was 
detached  to  assault  Kelat,  which  was  taken  by 
storm  after  a  siege  of  a  few  hours,  13  Novem- 
ber the  same  year.  The  British  again  occupied 
it  in  1840,  but  in  the  following  year  they  left  the 
country.  Latterly  a  British  protectorate  over 
the  whole  of  Baluchistan  has  been  established, 
and  the  town  of  Quetta  (which  is  now  reached 
by  railway  from  India)  and  a  part  of  the  coun- 
try have  been  absolutely  annexed.  The  khan 
receives  an  annual  subsidy  from  India.  The 
population  is  estimated  at  about  800,000. 

Balucki,  ba-loots'ke,  Michael.  Polish  au- 
thor, known  under  the  pseudonym  Elipiron  : 
b.  Cracow,  29  Sept.  1837.  He  is  most  popular 
as  a  story-teller  of  satirical  tendency,  ridiculing 
the  shortcomings  and  prejudices  of  Polish  so- 
ciety Of  his  novels  may  be  mentioned  *^The 
Awakened'    (1864;)    <The  Old  and  the  Young' 


BALUSTER  —  BALZA( 


(1866);  <Life  Among  Ruins>  (1870);  <The 
Jewess'  (1871)  ;  4- or  Sins  Not  Committed' 
(1879);  <250,ooo'  (1883).  The  best  among  his 
comedies  are:  <lhe  Chase  After  a  Man' 
(1869)  ;  <The  Emancipated'  (1873)  ;  'Ama- 
teur Theatre'  (1879);  'The  Open  House' 
V1883).  He  also  wrote  lyric  poetry  and  essays 
on  Polish  literature. 

Bal'uster,  or  Ballister,  a  kind  of  short 
column,  sometimes  in  the  form  of  an  ancient 
bow,  sometimes  made  after  the  model  of  Greek 
and  Roman  columns,  employed  in  the  construc- 
tion of  balustrades. 

Balustrade,  a  series  of  balusters  sur- 
mounted by  a  rail,  and  placed  as  an  ornament 
on  large  buildings,  above  the  cornice,  or  as  a 
protection  to  enclose  bridges,  stairs,  balconies, 
altars,  and  the  like. 

Baluze,  bii-liiz,  Etienne,  French  scholar 
and  historian:  b.  Tulle,  24  Dec.  1630;  d.  Paris, 
28  July  1718.  He  early  acquired  distinction  by 
his  varied  and  thorough  knowledge,  and  was 
called  to  Paris  by  the  celebrated  Colbert,  who 
commissioned  him  to  make  up  his  private  li- 
brary. In  1707  he  was  appointed  to  the  super- 
visorship  of  the  royal  college,  and  dismissed 
from  that  office  in  1709,  being  suspected  of 
having  in  his  'Histoire  Genealogique  de  la  Mai- 
son  d'  Auvergne,'  designedly  established,  by 
documentary  evidence,  that  the  princes  of  Bouil- 
lon were  descended  from  the  ancient  dukes  of 
Guienne,  counts  of  Auvergne,  and  therefore 
owed  no  allegiance  to  the  king  of  France.  Such 
an  offense  could  not  be  forgiven ;  and  Baluze, 
deprived  of  nearly  all  his  income,  was  compelled 
to  reside  successively  at  Rouen,  Blois,  Tours, 
and  Orleans,  and  not  until  after  the  conclusion 
of  the  Peace  of  Utrecht  was  he  permitted  to 
return  to  Paris.  He  was  of  the  most  amiable 
temper,  and  his  wit  was  equal  to  his  cheerful- 
ness. 

Balvany,  the  Magyar  name  for  idol,  found 
in  mediaeval  Latin  documents  of  Hungary,  and 
also  in  Hungarian  geography,  applied  to  vari- 
ous heights  which  were  the  last  strongholds  of 
paganism   in  the   nth  century. 

Balvas,  Antonio,  Spanish  poet :  b.  Segovia 
in  the  middle  of  the  i6th  c. ;  died  1629.  He 
wrote  <Elpoeta  Castellano'  (1627),  a  work 
highly  praised  by  Lopez  de  Vega. 

Baly,  William,  English  physician :  b.  King's 
Lynn,  1814;  killed  in  a  railway  accident  near 
Wimbledon,  28  Jan.  i86r.  He  studied  at  Uni- 
versity College  and  Saint  Bartholomew's  Hos- 
pital, London,  in  Paris,  Berlin,  and  at  Heidel- 
berg, where  he  received  his  M.D.  degree  in 
1836.  He  commenced  practice  in  London,  and 
in  1841  was  appointed  physician  to  ]\Iillbank 
penitentiary,  where  he  attained  a  reputation  as 
an  expert  in  the  hygiene  of  prisons,  on  dysen- 
tery and  cholera.  He  was  appointed  lecturer  at 
Saint  Bartholomew's  Hospital ;  became  a  fellow 
of  the  Royal  Society  in  1847;  in  1859,  was 
chosen  as  one  of  the  physicians  to  the  royal 
familj-,  and  later,  became  censor  to  the  College 
of  Physicians;  and  crown  representative  in  the 
Medical  Council.  He  wrote:  <  Diseases  of 
Prisons* :  'Gulstonian  Lectures  on  Dysentery' 
Ct847)  ;  .tran'^lated  from  the  German  Miiller's 
'Elements  of  Physiology,*  and  'Recent  Ad- 
vances in  the  Phj'siology  of  Motion,  the  Senses, 


Generation  and   Development'  ;   and  with   Gull, 
wrote   'Epidemic  Cholera'    (.1854). 

Balzac,  Honore  de,  French  novelist:  b. 
Tours,  16  May  1799;  d.  Paris,  17  Aug.  1850. 
His  famdy  was  of  no  account,  and  the  aristo- 
cratic «de"  (adopted  perhaps  in  good  faith), 
dates  from  1830  or  thereabouts.  The  surname 
Itself  seems  to  have  been  properly  spelled  Balsa, 
or  Balsas,  the  first  to  alter  it  being  the  novelist's 
father,  whose  parents  were  peasants  in  Lan- 
guedoc.  Little  is  known  of  the  elder  Balzac's 
career,  except  that  he  was  at  one  time  a  lawver 
and  later  an  officer  in  the  commissariat ; 'he 
married  past  middle  age,  and  at  the  time  of 
Honore's  birth  filled  certain  municipal  offices  in 
the  city  of  Tours.  He  is  represented  as  a  man 
of  whimsical  character,  caustic  but  indulgent, 
with  a  wonderful  memory,  and  full  of  schemes 
for  making  millions  and  reaching  the  age  of 
100.  His  wife,  whose  name  was  Sallambier, 
had  good  looks  and  a  fortune;  she  is  said  to 
have  been  pious  and  imaginative,  and  devoted 
to  her  children's  welfare,  but  by  no  means  out- 
wardly tender  to  them.  At  any  rate  Honore 
and  his  favorite  sister  Laure  (afterward  Mmc. 
Surville).  if  not  her  two  younger  children  also, 
were  brought  up  very  strictly. 

He  was  sent  to  school  early  with  the  Ora- 
torians  of  Vendome  and  was  as  miserable  there 
as  his  Louis  Lambert.  All  he  learned  was  by 
desultory  reading,  and  that  in  books  too  deep 
for  his  age.  His  masters  thought  him  dull  and 
lazy,  and  his  absent-mindedness  having  devel- 
oped into  a  sort  of  daze,  he  was  withdrawn  by 
his  parents  and  became  a  day-scholar  for  a  time 
at  the  College  de  Tours.  Neither  there  nor  at 
a  boarding-school  in  Paris,  to  which  city  the 
family  removed  in  1814,  was  he  bv  any  means  a 
brilliant  pupil ;  and  at  home  not  only  his  talents 
but  the  ambition  to  write  which  had  already 
seized  upon  him  remained  quite  unsuspected. 
In  1816  he  was  put  into  a  lawyer's  office  and  18 
months  later  began  to  work  with  a  notary,  both 
his  chiefs  being  intimate  friends  of  the  family; 
at  the  same  time  he  attended  various  lectures  at 
the  Sorbonne,  and  was  becoming  familiar  with 
the  great  writers  of  his  country.  His  mind  was 
made  up  to  devote  himself  to  literature,  when  in 
1819,  M.  de  Balzac,  who  had  recently  lost  money 
in  speculation  and  was  about  to  retire,  an- 
nounced to  Honore  that  his  friend  the  notary 
cfifered  to  take  him  into  partnership  with  the 
prospect  of  succeeding  to  his  practice.  Honore 
resisted,  and  begged  for  a  chance  to  show  his 
literary  gift;  after  some  discussion  his  father 
gave  him  his  way  and,  while  the  family  made 
its  own  home  at  Villeparisis,  he  was  installed  in 
an  attic  near  the  Arsenal  Librarv  on  a  two  vears' 
trial  of  his  powers,  with  an  allowance  barely 
sufficient  to  keep  him  from  starving.  Here  in 
cold  and  hunger  and  solitude,  but  supported  by 
his  unconquerable  gaiety  and  self-confidence,  he 
set  to  work  first  on  two  tales  which  were  soon 
to  be  finished,  then  a  comedy,  lastly  a  tragedv 
in  verse,  'Cromwell,'  which  he  firmly  believed 
to  be  a  masterpiece.  He  brought  it  home  with 
him  in  the  spring  of  1820:  the  family  yawned 
when  he  read  it,  and  a  friend  to  whose  judgment 
this  first  comnosition  was  submitted.  Andricux 
the  academician  and  professor,  recommended 
the  young  man  to  try  his  hand  at  an^nhing  in 
the  world  but  literature.  He  had  only  spent  15 
months  of  his  probation,  but  his  mother  insisted 


BALZAC 


that  he  should  now  live  at  home ;  privations  had 
already  told  upon  his  vigor,  and  he  was  obliged 
to  recruit  in  Touraine  before  settling  down  at 
Villeparisis.  There,  nothing  discouraged,  in  the 
next  five  years  he  wrote,  with  different  collabo- 
rators, no  less  than  31  volumes  of  fiction,  and 
found  publishers  for  them.  Of  the  entire  worth- 
lessness  of  this  early  work  he  was  perfectly 
aware;  it  appeared  under  various  pseudonyms 
(^Horace  de  Saint- Aubin^  was  the  favorite), 
and  when  long  afterward  in  great  distress  for 
money  he  allowed  it  to  be  republished,  he  would 
never  acknowledge  the  paternity. 

It  was  at  this  time  that  he  became  acquainted 
with  the  Berny  family,  then  resident  at  Ville- 
parisis, and  formed  with  Madame  de  Berny  —  a 
woman  more  than  20  years  older  than  himself  — 
a  close  friendship  which  lasted  until  her  death 
in  1836,  and  to  which  he  owed,  perhaos  the 
most  generous  and  disinterested  sympathy  that 
he  ever  received  from  man  or  woman. 

In  1824,  determined  to  win  his  independ- 
ence, young  Balzac  returned  to  Paris  and  set 
up  business  as  a  publisher  on  borrowed  capital. 
He  had  a  great  scheme  —  the  first  of  many  — 
for  making  a  fortune  by  bringing  out  one-vol- 
ume editions  of  the  French  classics,  and  began 
with  Moliere  and  La  Fontaine;  but  chiefly  for 
want  of  proper  advertising  the  venture  failed. 
He  next  became  a  printer,  having  induced  his 
father  to  advance  him  the  sum  necessary  to  buy 
the  stock  and  a  printer's  license,  and  seeing  a 
type-foundry  offered  at  a  bargain  he  presently 
acquired  that  also.  It  was  a  mosc  disastrous 
speculation ;  bankruptcy  was  only  averted  by  the 
help  of  his  mother  and  of  Mme.  de  Berny,  and 
this  was  the  beginning  of  his  life-long  indebt- 
edness. 

Before  his  business  was  wound  up  Balzac 
was  already  at  work,  in  a  room  in  the  Rue  de 
Tournon,  upon  the  first  novel  to  which  he  signed 
his  name.  *^Les  Chouans^  was  finished  during 
a  visit  to  Fourgeres,  in  the  district  which  is  the 
scene  of  the  historical  events  it  describes,  and 
published  in  1829  with  some  success.  The 
rather  cynical  manual  called  ^La  Physiologic  d'u 
Mariage'  followed;  then  a  number  of  shorter 
stories,  and,  in  1831,  <La  Peau  de  Chagrin^ — with 
which  book  his  reputation  became  fairly  estab- 
lished. Publishers  and  editors  now  sought  for 
his  work,  and  the  curiosity  and  interest  his 
writings  already  excited  are  attested  by  the 
anonymous  correspondence  which  began  at  this 
time  to  pour  in  upon  him.  It  was  in  this  way 
that  in  1830,  he  made  the  acquaintance  of  two 
women,  the  Marchioness  de  Castries  and  Mme. 
Hanska,  whose  names  cannot  be  omitted  from 
any  account  of  his  life.  For  Mme.  de  Castries 
Balzac  conceived  a  transient,  but  certainly  strong 
passion,  which  seems  to  have  only  gratified  the 
vanity  of  a  rather  heartless  but  very  intelligent 
great  lady ;  she  made  a  plaything  of  him ;  but 
he  owed  to  her  his  most  genuine  insight  into 
the  manners,  traditions,  and  ideals  of  the  close 
society  of  the  Faubourg  Saint-Germain.  Her 
portrait,  it  is  conjectured,  may  be  found  in  <La 
Duchesse  de  Langeais.^  Mme.  Hanska,  a  Polish 
lady  of  birth,  married  to  a  Russian  in  the 
Ukraine,  was  the  object  of  his  deepest  and 
most  enduring  affection,  and  eventually  became 
his  wife.  His  letters  to  this  *Etrangere"  have 
in  recent  years  been  published;  they  are  discreet, 
frequent,  and  voluminous,  for  these  friends  or 


lovers  were  seldom  together,  even  after  the 
death  of  M.  Hanska,  until  the  last  two  years  of 
Balzac's  life.  His  biographers  have  little  tender- 
ness for  Mme.  Hanska;  hers  was  certainly  an 
inexpansive  nature ;  her  love  for  her  only  child, 
the  Countess  Anna  (afterward  Mme.  Mniszech), 
seems  to  have  almost  excluded  other  affections ; 
she  cared  excessively  for  her  rank  and  her  com- 
fort; tortured  the  great  man  by  long  deferring 
to  fulfil  her  secret  engagement  with  him,  and  in 
his  last  illness  appears  to  have  shown  herself 
incredibly  callous.  Mme.  Honore  de  Balzac 
lived  until   1882. 

Balzac's  story,  from  1830  onward,  is  mainly 
the  story  of  his  herculean  industry ;  and  the  most 
memorable  dates  in  his  life  are  doubtless  those 
of  the  production  of  such  masterpieces  as  ^  Louis 
Lambert^  (1832),  ^Le  Medecin  de  Campagne* 
and  'Eugenie  Grandet'  (1833),  'La  Recherche 
de  I'Absolu,^  and  'Le  Pere  Goriot^  (1834), 
'Cesar  Birotteau^  (1837),  'Illusions  Perdues* 
(1835-1841),  'Les  Paysans>  (1844-1845).  'La 
Cousine  Bette  (1846),  'Le  Cousin  Pons'  (1847). 
Between  1830  and  1842  he  wrote  no  less  than  79 
novels,  besides  much  other  literar}'-  work.  After 
that  date  his  literary  activity  slackened  some- 
what as  his  health  began  to  fail.  But  during 
a  considerable  number  of  years,  for  long  inter- 
vals together,  he  never  worked  less  than  12 
hours  each  day,  often  worked  for  15  hours,  or 
even  for  20  at  a  stretch,  supporting  himself  on 
a  lean  diet  in  which  fruit  was  always  an  import- 
ant element,  and  drinking  as  much  coffee  as  the 
philosopher  Kant.  But  he  was  never  out  of 
harness,  even  during  his  frequent  absences  from 
Paris  —  whether  staying  with  friends  in  the 
French  provinces,  or  art  collecting  in  the  north 
of  Italy,  or  mine-prospecting  in  Sardinia  (one 
of  his  most  extraordinary  ventures),  or  visiting 
Mme.  Hanska  at  Geneva,  Vienna,  Berlin,  or 
Saint  Petersburg.  These  travels,  a  short-lived 
journalistic  enterprise — 'La  Chronique  de  Pa- 
ris'—  several  excursions  into  drama,  more  than 
one  attempt  to  force  the  doors  of  the  French 
Academy,  and  many  quarrels  with  the  press  —  a 
lawsuit  with  the  'Revue  de  Paris'  made  some 
stir  in  1836  —  are  the  chief  outward  events  of 
Balzac's  maturity.  Throughout  his  career  the 
money  question  is  distressingly  prominent,  and 
the  history  of  Balzac's  liabilities  is  long  and 
queer  and  complicated.  The  sums  he  made  by 
his  pen  were  very  considerable ;  but  his  op- 
timism was  at  least  as  great  as  his  acquisitive 
faculty.  No  man  was  more  capable  of  penuri- 
ous living;  none  loved  luxury  better;  but  decent 
comfort  and  regularity  were  beneath  or  beyond 
him.  Spells  of  asceticism  were  succeeded  by 
fits  of  extravagance ;  the  story  of  his  suburban 
property  Les  Jardies,  of  his  famous  walking- 
stick,  of  the  financier  Goujon's  house  in 
the  Rue  Fortunee  (now  the  Rue  Balzac),  which 
he  bought  for  his  future  wife  and  spent  half  a 
million  in  filling  with  works  of  art  —  the  very 
works  described  in  'Le  Cousin  Pons' — balances 
the  story  of  his  sacrifices,  privations,  and  his 
games  of  hide-and-seek  with  creditors.  He  was 
a  born  speculator;  he  was  also  the  most  gener- 
ous of  men,  and  sometimes  unfortimate  in  the 
objects  of  his  generosity. 

The  strain  entailed  by  Balzac's  way  of  living 
and  by  his  constant  mental  agitation  was  such 
as  no  constitution  —  and  his  was  extraordinarily 
robust  —  could  resist  very  long.     From  1842,  or 


HONORE    DE    BALZAC. 


BALZAC 


thereabouts,  he  began  to  suffer  from  time  to 
time  with  heart  and  lung  troubles,  and  from 
1845  onward  he  was  rarely  well.  It  was  during 
his  second  stay  at  Vierzschovnian,  Mme.  Han- 
ska's  property  in  the  Ukraine,  that  his  health  be- 
gan to  give  serious  anxiety.  For  a  time  he  im- 
proved ;  but  the  climate,  the  uncertainty  in  which 
he  was  kept  as  to  the  reward  of  his  long  devo- 
tion, certain  material  obstacles  to  his  marriage, 
the  necessity  of  conducting  his  literary  and  other 
transactions  by  proxy,  the  anxieties  of  the  politi- 
cal situation  in  France,  misunderstandings  with 
members  of  his  own  family,  and  the  effort  to 
force  himself  to  work  when  work  was  beyond 
his  failing  physical  powers,  all  hastened  his  end 
His  marriage  was  solemnized  at  last  in  March 
1850,  at  Berditchef,  in  Poland ;  rather  more  than 
two  months  later,  Balzac  arrived  in  Paris  with 
his  bride.  He  was  a  dying  man,  though  he 
clung  almost  to  the  last  to  the  hope  of  living  to 
finish  *^The  Human  Comedy, >  and  extinguish 
what  was  left  of  his  debts.  Victor  Hugo  was 
among  those  who  visited  his  deathbed,  and  the 
same  great  poet  it  was  who  paid  a  splendid 
tribute  to  his  friend  and  peer  at  the  graveside 
in  Pere  Lachaise.  Occurring  in  the  midst  of  a 
grave  political  crisis,  his  death  was  less  noticed 
than  might  have  been  expected ;  but  though 
widely  read  and  fervently  admired  among  his 
contemporaries  —  more  especially  perhaps  in 
foreign  countries  —  it  wanted  at  least  another 
generation  to  assure  his  fame;  nor  (thanks  to 
a  combative  spirit  and  an  ingenuous  vanity)  did 
he  lack  enemies ;  though  the  mere  dedications  of 
his  novels  are  enough  to  show  that  his  friends 
were  among  the  elect  of  his  age,  and  it  is  im- 
possible to  read  his  correspondence  without  a 
feeling  of  respect,  and  even  of  affection,  for  a 
personality  so  rich,  so  valiant,  so  tenacious,  and 
so  kindly. 

It  is  best,  in  so  slight  an  estimate  of  Balzac's 
colossal  achievement  as  can  be  attempted  here, 
to  leave  out  of  account  not  only  the  worthless 
fiction  of  his  nonage  but  also  his  plays,  of 
which  only  one,  *Mercadet,^  first  called  ^Le 
Faiseur,*  and  produced  with  considerable 
changes  after  its  author's  death,  can  be  said  to 
have  won  or  deserved  success.  An  exceptional 
place  belongs  to  the  ^Alerry  Tales,  >  not  so 
much  in  virtue  of  .their  notorious,  guileless,  and 
jovial  salacity  as  because,  while  the  form  is 
more  essential  there  than  in  anything  else  he 
wrote,  they  are  among  the  very  few  skilful 
pastiches  in  literature  —  for  the  lapses  they  con- 
tain from  either  the  language  or  the  atmosphere 
of  the  early  French  Renaissance  are  astonish- 
ingly few  —  in  which  the  mere  erudition  does 
not  replace  or  overshadow  other  merits.  They 
are  memorable  for  their  genuine  zest,  inventive 
vigor,  and  shrewd  humanitv. 

Balzac's  glory,  of  course,  is  that  unfinished 
series  of  masterpieces  called  'The  Human 
Comedy,'  which  it  is  necessary  to  consider  as 
one  work  in  order  to  appreciate  the  audacity 
and  breadth  and  steadiness  of  aim  which  are 
essential  titles  to  his  rank,  not  merely  as  the 
father  of  the  modern  novel  and  the  supreme 
master  of  the  craft,  but  as  a  genius  of  the  uni- 
versal order.  In  its  most  obvious  bearing,  it  is 
an  imaginative  reconstruction  of  French  society 
in  every  part  and  aspect,  with  all  the  vicissitudes 
and  variations  that  afifected  it  between  the 
Revolution  and  the  middle  of  Louis  Philippe's 


reign :  an  heroical  design,  less  comprehensive 
in  regard  to  time  and  space  than  that  of  the 
Waverley  novels,  but  more  consistently  and  co- 
herently executed  out  of  more  copious  material. 
The  picturesque,  however,  was  subordinate  to 
the  philosophical  interest,  as  he  conceived  it,  of 
Balzac's  undertaking.  He  intended  his  work  for 
nothing  less  than  a  natural  history  of  civilized 
man,  which  should  illustrate  the  war  between 
the  passions  of  the  individual  and  the  social 
instinct  or  the  common  interest,  the  differentia- 
tion of  types  by  the  action  of  gregarious  life,  the 
reflection  of  personality  in  matter,  and  the  stamp 
of  habits  and  calling  upon  character.  The 
theory  outlined  by  Buffon  and  bequeathed  by 
Geoffroy  Saint  Hilaie  to  the  first  evolutionists, 
which  supposes  a  single  original  pattern  of 
organic  creation  varied  by  the  mere  effects  of 
environment,  fascinated  Balzac  by  a  partly 
chimerical  but,  at  any  rate,  suggestive  analogy, 
with  human  existence.  "Does  not  society,"  he 
asked  in  his  general  preface  of  1842,  "make  of 
man,  according  to  the  sphere  in  which  his  activ- 
ity develops,  as  many  different  men  as  there 
are  species  in  zoology?**  This  conception  is 
enough  to  explain  one  great  characteristic  of 
his  novels  —  the  importance  attributed  in  them 
to  atmosphere,  to  local  influences,  to  material 
conditions,  to  all  that  the  elder  novelists  had  re- 
garded as  accidental  and  accessory.  It  is  Balzac 
who  set  the  example  of  bestowing  as  much  care 
upon  things  as  upon  moi  in  works  of  fiction. 
The  description  of  streets,  houses,  furniture  and 
works  of  art,  of  implements  and  equipages,  of 
dress  and  pastimes,  of  customs  and  offices,  busi- 
ness and  procedure  and,  in  particular,  of  all 
that  pertains  to  money,  is,  throughout  'The 
Human  Comedy,*  not  only  exact  and  elaborate 
(sometimes  to  the  point  of  tediousness  and  dis- 
proportion), but  above  all  significant.  Sechard's 
printing-press  and  Gaudissart's  advertisements, 
the  laboratory  of  Balthazar  Claes,  the  aroma  of 
Maman  Vauquer's  dining-room,  ar°  part  and 
parcel  of  those  famous  personages. 

The  French  imagination  had  tended  for  some 
time  to  desert  that  psychology  in  abstracto  which 
had  been  at  once  the  glory  and  the  limitation  of 
the  great  classical  authors,  and  to  pay  more  at- 
tention to  the  setting  and  the  background  of 
fictitious  characters.  Diderot  particularly,  who 
on  several  grounds  might  be  called  a  herald  of 
Balzac  (and  resembled  him  in  vitality,  variety 
of  knowledge,  fertility,  hasty  and  unequal  exe- 
cution), had  done  much  to  carry  into  pure  litera- 
ture a  spirit  of  curiosity  about  the  common 
things  of  life,  a  new  multiplicity  of  interests  and 
concern  for  reality,  and  some  of  the  results  of 
natural  science.  But  the  romantic  contempor- 
aries of  Balzac,  most  of  whom  were  irresistibly 
allured  by  the  prestige  of  the  old  and  the  dis- 
tant, used  the  extension  of  imaginative  matter 
to  enhance  the  picturesque  value  of  descriptions, 
rather  than  to  enrich  the  definition  of  human 
types  ;  for  their  interest  in  characters  is  gener- 
ally insuflficient.  being  dependent  upon  an  intro- 
spection distorted  as  often  as  not  by  a  morbid 
vanity.  Balzac  is  unique  in  this,  that  with  a 
searching  modernity  of  outlook  which  omits 
none  of  the  sensible  elements  of  life  from  his 
imaginary  world,  he  is  yet  essentially  the  re- 
storer of  the  old.  patient,  constructive  psychol- 
ogy and  of  the  drama  of  internal  action.  It  is 
remarkable    how    much    of    the    spirit    of    the 


BALZAC 


grand  siccie  survives  in  his  work;  how  much 
of  La  Bruyere  in  the  brilliant  pages  of  moral 
analysis,  of  Corneille  in  some  of  his  heroes  of 
the  will  of  Moliere  in  the  smiling  sanity  of  his 
attitude  toward  a  necessarily  imperfect  society, 
of  Racine  in  the  sympathetic  presentment  of 
absolute  passions  and  their  victims !  Balzac's 
personages  —  even  the  secondary  figures  — are 
at  once  individuals  and  types.  They  live  with 
the  intense  life  of  living  men  and  women;  and 
we  accept  them  as  great  moral  symbols.  They 
are  highly  differentiated,  particularized  with  an 
unsurpassable  sureness  of  detail ;  but  they  are 
also,  one  and  all,  informed  by  an  idea  —  so  that, 
though  there  is  only  one  Goriot,  he  sums  up 
all  the  tragedy  of  a  primal  affection  run  to  seed 
and  despitefully  entreated ;  and  there  is  only 
one  Baron  Hulot,  but  he  contains  all  the  shame 
of  elderly  profligacy,  bringing  disaster  on  whole 
families  ;  and  Cesar  Birotteau  is  inimitable,  but 
lie  stands  for  all  that  is  sterling  as  well  as  all 
that  is  ridiculous  in  the  middle  class. 

In  the  vitality  of  his  creatures  Balzac  is  not 
inferior  to  Shakespeare  himself.  But  we  be- 
lieve not  only  in  the  people  he  made,  but  in  the 
whole  world  of  'The  Human  Comedy,^  and  ac- 
cept it  as  a  rival  of  reality.  This  mastery  of 
illusion,  the  very  highest  virtue  in  a  writer  of 
fiction,  does  not  depend  upon  veracity  or  exacti- 
tude of  detail  (a  test  which  upon  the  whole  he 
sustains  triumphantly),  but  is  simply  the  power 
to  imagine  strongly.  It  is  true  that  in  this  case 
a  system  of  composition  which  discarded  chap- 
ters, or  rather  made  of  each  novel  (by  the  con- 
tinual reappearance  of  old  friends  among  the 
characters)  a  chapter  in  the  whole  work,  is  a 
powerful  help  to  illusion ;  so  of  course  are  the 
accumulation  of  circumstances,  and  especially 
perhaps  the  variety  and  distribution  of  interests, 
in  which  Balzac's  astonishing  invention  seems 
to  play  the  part  of  chance. 

The  work  of  Balzac  displays  at  one  view  the 
whole  capacity  of  the  form  of  literature  called 
fiction,  its  scope  and  possibility  of  content.  The 
ordinary  tone  of  the  French  novel  had  once 
been  heroic  and  pastoral ;  then  it  had  tended  to 
caricature  and  to  the  parodying  of  court  mem- 
oirs ;  and  later  the  ideal  had  been  to  amuse 
one  class  by  showing  the  manners  of  another. 
The  picturesque  romance  had  been  succeeded 
by  ^'realistic"  satires  upon  society  and,  with  the 
advent  of  the  philosophes,  the  novel  became  a 
pamphlet,  a  vehicle  of  moral  or  political  doc- 
trines. Perhaps  all  these  phases  are  repre- 
sented in  <La  Comedie  Humaine' :  the  novel 
according  to  Balzac  is  simply  a  universal  instru- 
ment like  Homer's  epic  or  Shakespeare's 
drama.  The  ineffaceable  mark  of  his  achieve- 
ment upon  his  successors  is  that,  since  Balzac, 
the  novel  in  France  is  not  a  toy  but  a  serious 
art.  Balzac  indeed  would  not  have  been  con- 
tent with  the  qualification;  half  the  preface 
already  referred  to  is  an  apology  for  the  novel 
considered  as  a  work  of  science  and  a  means  of 
propaganda,  and  to  him  —  to  his  precept  rather 
than  to  his  practice  —  must  be  traced  the  arro- 
gant pretensions  of  some  modern  writers  of  fic- 
tion, their  sermons  and  sociology  and  what 
Flaubert  so  disdainfnilv  called  their  manic  de 
conclure.  A  work  of  imagination  does  not  need 
the  protection  of  a  political  creed  or  a  scientific 
■h->-r)othesis :  it  is  Balzac's  weakest  side  that, 
while  he  sinks  what  we  call  his  personality  al- 


most always,  he  frequently  obtrudes  fallible 
opinions  —  matter  for  argument  —  into  the  do- 
main of  the  imagination.  His  royalism  is  an 
interesting  fact,  but  in  his  novels  it  is  irrele- 
vant; the  same  is  true  of.  many  of  his  political 
prophecies.  It  should  be  added  that  he  seldom 
intervenes  directly  in  the  discussion  of  scien- 
tific theories  (which  hold  a  somewhat  important 
place  in  his  novels),  though  with  characteristic 
credulity  he  identifies  himself  expressly  with  the 
speculations  of  the  phrenologists !  There  was  a 
mj'Stic  in  Balzac,  and  that  section  of  his  work, 
'Philosophical  Studies, >  which  deals  with  the 
solitary  adventures  of  the  mind  in  regions  be- 
yond the  world  of  sense,  is  strangely  original 
and  fascinating. 

He  was,  in  some  degree  reluctantly,  an 
artist  —  a  prodigious  though  an  imperfect 
artist.  His  defects  of  form  have  been  exagger- 
ated. His  style,  like  Saint-Simon's,  is  vigorous 
and  vivid  in  default  of  correctness,  and  full  of 
fortunate  phrases ;  but  he  was  wanting  in  the 
sense  of  idiom,  and  the  effort  to  condense  his 
thought  often  produced  a  clumsy  syntax  and 
obscurity.  Haste  no  doubt  accounts  for  some 
base  coinage,  repetition,  and  inadequate  expres- 
sions. As  of  other  writers  of  his  stature  it  may 
be  said  of  him  that  his  fecundity  was  necessarily 
wasteful,  so  that  a  part  of  his  work  is  greater 
than  the  whole.  This  exuberance,  a  certain  w-or- 
ship  of  the  excessive,  a  stupendous  confidence 
for  which  no  design  is  too  large,  and  a  prefer- 
ence for  the  expressive  over  the  symmetrical,  for 
colour  over  draughtsmanship,  are  character- 
istics which  he  shares  with  several  great  French- 
men of  his  generation  —  the  generation  con- 
ceived in  camps  and  lulled  by  the  guns  of  Aus- 
terlitz,  which  grew  up  haunted  by  a  vision  of 
heroical  accomplishment.  Honore  de  Balzac 
stands  beside  Victor  Hugo  and  Jules  Michelet 
and  Hector  Berlioz  and  Eugene  Delacroix  —  a 
giant  among  giants,  a  perennial  force  among 
the  intellectual  forces  of  the  world. 

Bib'iography. — The  best  edition  of  the  com- 
plete works  of  H.  de  Balzac  is  the  'Edition  Di- 
finitive^  in  24  volumes  (Paris,  \SCg-76).  TJni- 
form  with  it  are  the  letters  to  Mme.  Hanska, 
'Lettres  a  I'Etrangere,'  posthumously  published 
in  1899.  There  exist  numerous  English  trans- 
lations of  insulated  novels.  Prof.  G.  Saints- 
bury  in  the  general  edition  of  a  complete  Eng- 
lish translation  of  a  'Human  Comedy,^  by  vari- 
ous hands,  in  JO  volumes  (London,  1895-98). 
The  letters  to  Mme.  Hanska  have  been  trans- 
lated by  D.  F.  Hannigan — 'Love  Letters  of 
Balzac^  (London,  1901).  Among  biographical 
and  critical  studies  of  Balzac  the  more  valuable 
are  the  following:  L.  Gozlau.  'Balzac  chez  lui^ 
(1862);  E.  Bire,  'Balzac'  (1897);  Le  Breton, 
'Balzac,  I'homme  et  I'oeuvre'  (1905)  ;  F.  Bru- 
netiere,  'H.  de  Balzac'  ;  Vicomte  Spoelberch 
de  Lovenjoul,  'Histoire  de3  oeuvres  de  Balzac' 
(1880)  ;  'La  Genese  d'un  roman  de  Bal- 
zac'—  'Les  Pavsans'  (1901)  ;  'Un  pays  per- 
du d'H.  de  Balzac'  (1003).  The  short  life  of 
her  brother  by  Mme.  Surville  (Laure  de  Bal- 
zac), first  published  in  1858.  is  included  in  the 
volume  of  the  'Edition  definitive'  containing 
Balzac's  general  correspondence.  In  English 
Mr.  Frederick  Wadmore  has  written  a  'Life  of 
Balzac'  ;  and  a  better-informed  study  by  Miss 
M.  F.  Sandars  appeared  in  1904. 

F.  Y.  EccLES. 


BALZAC  —  BAMBOO 


Balzac,  Jean  Louis  Guez  de,  French  essay- 
ist and  letter  writer :  b.  Angouleme,  1597 ;  d.  18 
Feb.  1654.  In  his  youth  he  was  secretary  to 
Cardinal  La  Valette  at  Rome.  He  returned  to 
Paris,  devoted  himself  to  literature,  and  under 
Richelieu  became  councilor,  and  historiographer 
of  France,  and  was  one  of  the  most  influential 
members  of  the  Academy  from  its  foundation, 
likewise  a  sort  of  oracle  of  the  Hotel  Rambouil- 
let.  Flis  influence  on  French  prose  is  ranked 
with  that  of  Malherbe  on  poetry.  Besides  his 
<Letters^  (1624),  which  are  elaborate  epistles' 
with  a  definite  attempt  at  style,  he  wrote  <The 
Prince'  (1631),  a  glorification  of  absolute  mon- 
archy; <The  Dotard'  (1648);  -The  Christian 
Socrates'  (1652);  and  <Aristippus'  (1658),  the 
latter  intended  to  portray  the  ideal  statesman. 
His   "^Letters'  were  edited  by  Larroque   (1874). 

Balzico,  bal-tse'ko,  Alfonso,  Italian  sculp- 
tor: b.  1825.  He  was  educated  at  the  Academy 
of  Naples,  and  in  Rome.  Among  his  works  are : 
'John  the  Baptist'  ;  'Cleopatra'  ;  'The  Free'  ; 
'Vincenzo  Bellini'  ;  'Duke  Ferdinand  of  Ge- 
noa' ;  and   'Victor  Emmanuel.' 

Bambarra,  biim-bar'ra,  a  negro  kingdom 
of  western  Africa,  lying  at  the  point  where  5° 
W.  Ion.  and  12°  N.  lat.  cross.  It  was  first  vis- 
ited by  Mungo  Park.  In  the  east  the  country  is 
flat  and  swampy ;  but  in  the  west  there  are  low 
chains  of  granite  hills.  The  climate  in  some 
parts  is  intensely  hot,  but  is  generally  healthy. 
The  land  is  well  watered  and  fertile.  The 
rainy  season  is  from  Tune  to  November.  Cot- 
ton, maize,  and  yams  are  raised.  The  inhabi- 
tants, a  branch  of  the  Mandigoes,  number  about 
2,000,000  and  are  superior  to  their  neighbors  in 
intelligence.  The  principal  towns  are  Sego, 
Sansandin,  Yamina,  and  Bammako.  Many  local 
merchants  are  very  wealthy,  and  a  quite  exten- 
sive trade  is  carried  on,  the  natives  working 
articles  in  gold,  ivory,  and  iron.  In  1881  a 
treaty  with  the  sultan  of  Sego  opened  up  the 
country  to  French  traders. 

Bamberg,  bam'berg,  a  town  of  Bavaria,  in 
Upper  Franconia,  on  the  navigable  Regnitz 
(which  here  divides  into  two),  three  miles  above 
its  junction  with  the  Main,  partly  on  a  plain, 
partly  on  hills,  amid  vineyards  and  gardens. 
Its  chief  edifice  is  the  Roman  Catholic  Cathe- 
dral, built  in  the  12th  century,  and  forming  one 
of  the  finest  examples  of  the  transition  from 
the  Romanesque  to  the  Gothic  style,  with  four 
towers,  a  noteworthy  portal,  and  interesting 
sculptures  and  monuments.  Other  buildings  in- 
clude the,  old  palace  or  residence ;  another 
palace,  formerly  occupied  by  King  Otto  of 
Greece ;  the  former  castle  of  the  prince-bishops 
of  Bamberg,  etc.  The  educational  institutions 
include  a  college  or  lyceum,  an  old  and  a  new 
gymnasium,  a  Roman  Catholic  seminary,  an 
observatory,  etc.  There  is  a  library  containing 
300.000  volumes,  with  valuable  ]\IMS.  and  early 
printed  books.  There  are  manufactures  of  cot- 
ton and  woolens,  besides  other  industries,  such 
as  market-gardening  and  seed-growing,  brewing, 
etc  The  United  States  is  represented  by  a  resi- 
dent consul.     Pop.  (1902)   42,300. 

Bamberger,  bam'berg-er,  Heinrich  von, 
Austrian  pathologist :  b.  Prague,  1822 ;  d.  1888. 
He  was  graduated  in  medicine  in  1847,  and  be- 
came professor  of  special  pathology  and  thera- 
peutics, first  in  the  University  of  Wiirzburg, 
and   in   1872  in  the   University  of  Vienna.     Of 


his  numerous  publications,  two  have  been  held 
in  particularly  high  esteem,  'On  the  Diseases 
of  the  Chylopoietic  System'  (1855),  and  'Trea- 
tise on  Diseases  of  the  Heart'   (1857). 

Bamberger,  Ludwig,  German  statesman: 
b.  Mainz,  1823;  d.  1899.  He  was  educated  at 
Giessen,  Heidelberg,  and  Gottingen ;  took  part 
in  the  revolution  of  1849;  and  was  a  member 
of  the  German  Reichstag  1873-80.  He  was  an 
advocate  of  free  trade,  and  on  account  of  his 
opposition  to  Bismarck's  economic  policy,  he  left 
the  National  Liberal  party  and  joined  the  "Se- 
cessionists," a  group  which  later  became  part 
of  the  German  Liberal  party.  His  publications 
include  'Monsieur  de  Bismarck'  (of  which 
there  is  an  English  translation  ;  'The  Five  Mil- 
liards' ;  'Germany  and  Socialism'  ;  etc. 

Bambino,  bam-be'no,  the  figure  of  our 
Saviour  represented  as  an  infant  in  swaddling 
clothes.  The  'Santissimo  Bambino'  in  the 
Church  of  Ara  Cojli  at  Rome,  a  richly  decorated 
figure  carved  in  wood,  is  specially  venerated, 
and  is  often  the  object  of  impressive  religious 
demonstrations. 

Bambocciades,  bam-boch-i-adz',  paintings 
generally  grotesque,  of  common,  rustic,  or  low 
life.  The  name  is  derived  from  the  nickname 
of  Peter  Van  Laer,  a  Dutch  painter  of  the  17th 
century,  who,  on  account  of  his  deformity,  was 
called  bamboccio  (cripple).  Teniers  is  the 
great  master  of  this  style. 

Bamboo,  the  common  name  of  more  than 
200  species  of  about  20  genera  of  perennial, 
mostly  tree-like,  tropical  and  sub-tropical  grasses 
unevenly  distributed  throughout  the  world,  but 
miost  abundant  in  southern  Asia,  where  160  or 
more  species  are  found  from  sea-level  to  alti- 
tudes of  10,000  feet  or  slightly  more  in  the 
Himalayas;  and  next  most  plentiful  in  America, 
where  there  are  about  70  species,  some  of  which 
reach  elevations  of  15,000  feet  in  the  Andes.  Oc- 
casional specimens  of  the  larger  species  attain 
a  height  of  120  feet  and  a  girth  of  3  feet.  From 
the  jointed  root-stock  the  numerous  jointed, 
usually  straight  and  erect,  but  sometimes 
crooked  or  creeping  stems  grow  without 
branches  until  the  full  height  is  reached,  when 
a  more  or  less  dense  thicket  of  horizontal  limbs 
is  developed,  and  the  great  panicles  of  flowers 
appear. 

The  number  of  uses  to  which  these  plants 
are  put  rivals  that  of  the  palms.  In  fact  the 
various  species  can  be  utilized  for  man's  everj 
purpose.  The  light,  elastic  hard  stems,  hollow 
or  slightly  pithy,  except  at  the  joints,  which 
are  strong  partitions,  are  used  for  bridges, 
masts,  poles,  joists,  fishing-rods,  etc. ;  when  the 
partitions  are  removed,  for  waterpipes ;  when 
sawed  in  sections,  for  pails  (the  natural  parti- 
tions serving  as  bottoms),  cooking-utensils,  life- 
preservers,  bows,  arrows,  quivers,  walking- 
canes,  flutes,  and  smoking-pipes ;  when  split,  for 
nets,  hats,  fishing-rods,  wicker-work,  and  um- 
brellas. Parts  of  the  leaves  of  some  species  are 
used  for  paper-making,  thatch,  and  hats ;  the 
young  shoots  of  some  are  used  as  food,  either 
boiled  or  pickled ;  the  seeds,  for  food  and  for 
making  a  kind  of  beer ;  some  of  the  spiny  spe- 
cies are  planted  as  hedges  for  defense  against 
foes,  animal  and  human. 

Some  species  yield  "Indian  honey"  (so  called 
by  the  Greeks),  the  air-dried  saccharine  exuda- 
tions   from    the    nodes.     Sometimes    this    sub- 


BAMBOO  RAT  — BANANA 


stance  is  called  tabaris  or  tahashcer  (q.v.), 
•which  is  properly  a  phosphorescent  substance  ob- 
tained from  other  species  and  from  related 
grasses.  Many  of  the  species  are  of  exceed- 
ingly rapid  growth ;  even  in  greenhouses  speci- 
mens have  been  known  to  attain  a  height  of  20 
feet  in  two  months  or  even  less  time.  In  arid 
climates  the  bamboos  are  often  of  great  value, 
since  they  are  among  the  few  plants  that  will 
grow  in  such  places.  Many  species  are  culti- 
vated for  ornament,  not  only  in  warm  countries, 
but  in  greenhouses.  Some  species  are  hardy  in 
climates  where  the  thermometer  does  not  fall 
much  below  the  freezing-point.  In  general  the 
hardy  species  do  best  in  deep,  rich  soil,  and 
warm  situations  protected  from  severe  winter 
winds.  The  roots  should  be  given  a  protective 
mulch  of  litter  in  autumn,  and  this  should  be 
allowed  to  remain  during  the  summer  as  a 
moisture  conserver.  For  an  account  of  orna- 
mental bamboo  culture  in  greenhouse  and  out  of 
doors,  and  of  the  ornamental  species  grown  in 
America,  consult  Bailey  &  Miller,  <  Cyclopedia 
of  American  Horticulture.^ 

Bamboo  Rat,  a  name  given  to  several 
species  of  mole-rats,,  of  the  genus  Rhisomys, 
found  in  the  bamboo  jungles  of  India. 

Bamborough  (bam'biir-6)  Castle,  an  an- 
cient English  castle  on  the  coast  of  Northum- 
berland, formerly  with  its  connected  estate  the 
property  of  the  Forsters,  and  forfeited  to  the 
Crown  in  1715,  both  being  purchased  by  Lord 
Crewe,  Bishop  of  Durham,  and  bequeathed  by 
him  for  charitable  purposes. 

Bam'bouk,  or  Bambuk,  a  region  in  west 
Africa,  in  the  French  colony  of  Senegal,  be- 
tween the  Faleme  and  Senegal  rivers,  between 
lat.  12°  30'  and  14°  30'  N. ;  Ion.  10°  30'  to  12° 
15'  W.,  and  estimated  to  be  about  140  miles  in 
length  by  80  to  100  in  breadth.  Besides  the 
Senegal,  its  tributaries,  the  Faleme  and  the  Baf- 
ing  (or  Upper  Senegal),  form  its  natural  boun- 
daries. A  considerable  part  is  somewhat  rug- 
ged, though  not  very  elevated,  the  highest  points 
seldom  exceeding  600  feet.  The  valleys  and 
plains  are  remarkably  fertile.  The  baobab,  cala- 
bash, tamarind,  with  a  variety  of  acacias  and 
palms,  reach  the  utmost  limit  of  their  fruitful- 
ness ;  maize,  millet,  cotton,  and  a  multitude  of 
leguminous  plants  grow  almost  without  culture, 
and  rice  is  produced  in  the  lowlands,  which  are 
subject  to  inundation.  Its  unhealthiness,  how- 
ever, makes  it  almost  uninhabitable  by  Euro- 
peans. The  animals  comprise  lions  and  ele- 
phants, _  wild  cattle,  crocodiles,  etc.  Gold  is 
found  in  abundance.  It  is  carelessly  worked, 
and  is  given  to  traders  in  exchange  for  salt, 
an  article  in  great  demand,  and  various  other 
goods.  Bambouk  is  more  sparsely  inhabited 
than  formerly.  The  natives  are  Mandingoes 
and  form  a  considerable  number  of  communities 
or  confederations  more  or  less  hostile  to  each 
other.  The  country  has  latterly  been  fully  ex- 
plored by  the  French,  who  are  developing  its 
resources  and  have  constructed  a  railway  along 
the  Senegal  from  Kayes  to  Bafulabe.  In  the 
iSth  century  the  Portuguese,  allured  by  the 
fame  of  its  gold,  invaded  Bambouk,  but  ultimate- 
ly perished  almost  to  a  man,  partly  through  in- 
testine dissensions  and  debauchery,  and  partly 
by  the  weapons  of  the  natives. 

Bamian,  ba-me-iin',  a  valley  and  pass  of 
Afghanistan,  the  latter  at  an  elevation  of  8,496 


feet,  the  only  known  pass  over  the  Hindu  Kush 
for  artillery  and  heavy  transport.  The  valley 
is  one  of  the  chief  centres  of  Buddhist  wor- 
ship and  contains  two  remarkable  colossal 
statues  and  other  ancient  monuments. 

Bammako,  ba-ma'ko.     See  Bambarra. 

Bampton  Lectures,  a  course  of  lectures 
established  by  John  Bampton,  canon  of  Salis- 
bury, who  bequeathed  certain  property  to  the 
University  of  Oxford  for  the  endowment  of 
eight  annual  divinity  lectures  to  be  annually 
delivered.  The  subjects  prescribed  are,  the  Con- 
firmation of  the  Christian  faith  and  the  confuta- 
tion of  all  heretics  and  schismatics ;  The  divine 
authority  of  the  Scriptures ;  The  authority  of  the 
primitive  Fathers  in  matters  of  Christian  faith 
and  practice ;  The  divinity  of  Christ ;  The  divin- 
ity of  the  Holy  Ghost ;  The  Apostles'  and  Nicene 
creeds.  The  lecturer  must  have  taken  the  degree 
of  M.A.  at  Oxford  or  Cambridge,  and  the  same 
person  may  not  lecture  twice.  The  first  course 
of  lectures  was  delivered  in  1780,  and  they  have 
been  delivered  every  year  since,  with  the  excep- 
tions of  1834,  1835,  and  1841.  A  list  of  the  lec- 
tures will  be  found  in  the  yearly  ^Historical 
Register  of  the  University  of  Oxford.-* 

Ban,  the  title  of  the  governors  of  certain 
military  districts  in  the  eastern  part  of  Hun- 
gary, corresponding  to  the  German  title  of  mar- 
grave. The  ban  is  nominated  by  the  king,  ren- 
ders an  oath  to  the  Diet,  and  formerly  had  very 
extensive  powers,  exercising  an  almost  absolute 
authoritjr  in  the  political,  judicial,  and  military 
affairs  of  his  district.  The  progress  of  Turkish 
conquest  after  the  unfortunate  battle  of  Mohacs 
in  the  i6th  century  extinguished  the  most  of 
the  banats,  and  there  remains  now  only  the  banat 
of  Temesvar,  the  ban  of  which  is  the  third  great 
dignitary  of  the  Hungarian  kingdom  and  has 
the  title  of  ban  of  Croatia. 

In  Teutonic  history  the  ban  was  an  edict  of 
interdiction  or  proscription  :  thus,  to  put  a  prince 
under  the  ban  of  the  empire  was  to  divest  him 
of  his  dignities  and  to  interdict  all  intercourse 
and  all  offices  of  humanity  with  the  offender. 
Sometimes  whole  cities  have  been  put  under  the 
ban;  that  is,  deprived  of  their  rights  and  priv- 
ileges. 

Bana,  ba'na,  in  Hindu  mythology,  a  thou- 
sand-armed demon  or  giant  who  was  the  enemy 
of  Vishnu,  but  the  friend  of  Siva. 

Ban'ak,  or  Ban'nock,  an  Indian  tribe  of 
Idaho.  Its  territory  formerly  extended  over 
southern  Idaho  and  eastern  Oregon ;  but  the 
tribe  is  now  concentrated  on  the  Fort  Hall  and 
Lemhi  reservations,  Idaho.  Those  of  the  latter 
reservation  are  confederated  with  the  Shoshoni. 

Banana,  ba-na'na,  an  island  in  west  Africa, 
north  of  the  mouth  of  the  Kongo ;  also  a  seaport 
of  the  Kongo  Free  State,  situated  on  the  island. 
A  few  years  ago  the  town  was  an  important 
commercial  station,  but  after  the  building  of  the 
railroad  from  Matadi,  and  the  establishment  of 
an  ocean  steamship  line  direct  to  that  place, 
Banana  began  to  declirt^e,  and,  at  last  lost  all  its 
trading  importance  when  the  extensive  Dutch 
firms  formerly  established  there  removed  their 
headquarters  to  Kabinda  and  Kisanga,  in  Portu- 
guese territory. 

Banana  (Mtisa  sapientium) ,  a  tropical  herb 
of  the  natural  order  Scitaminacea,  apparently 
native  of  India,  but  unknown  in  a  wild  state; 


BAMBOO  GROVE   IX   JAVA. 


BANANA-BIRDS  —  BANCROFT 


valued  somewhat  for  its  fibre  and  decorative  ap- 
pearance, but  n)ostly  on  account  of  its  fruit,  for 
which  it  is  widely  cultivated  in  warm  climates. 
For  a  large  part  of  the  human  race  it  ranks 
as  high  as  cereal  grains  among  northern  peoples. 
Though  considered  less  nutritious  than  an  equal 
weight  of  potatoes,  the  banana  is  said  to  produce 
more  food  upon  a  given  area  and  to  be  capable 
of  sustaining  a  larger  number  of  persons  than 
wheat.  From  its  perennial  rootstocks  suckers 
are  thrown  up  to  a  height  of  from  8  to  40  feet 
or  more.  They  bear  a  whorl  of  paddle-like 
leaves,  from  among  the  bases  of  which,  in  about 
two  years,  a  large  heart-shaped  scaly  bud  ap- 
pears. As  the  bud  grows  it  becomes  pendant, 
the  scales  separate  and  disclose  groups  of 
upward-pointing  flowers  sometimes  to  the  num- 
ber of  150.  The  fruit  is  gathered  while  still 
green,  the  stem  being  cut  at  the  same  time.  Of 
the  suckers  that  quickly  appear,  one,  two,  or 
three  are  allowed  to  remain  for  the  succeeding 
crop.  When  once  established  the  plants  should 
bear  a  bunch  every  year.  Since  the  plants  rarely 
or  never  bear  seeds,  suckers  are  usually  relied 
upon  for  propagation.  Propagation  by  means 
of  root-cuttings  is  a  more  rapid  means  of  mul- 
tiplying the  number  of  plants,  but  is  used  only 
when  large  numbers  are  desired.  The  plants 
are  set  in  the  field  8  to  12  feet  apart  when  two 
or  three  feet  high ;  when  full  grown  they  com- 
pietel)'-  shade  the  ground.  Since  1870,  when  only 
a  few  hundred  bunches  were  imported  into  the 
United  States,  the  banana  has  become  increas- 
ingly popular :  in  1899  $5,600,000  wprth  was  im- 
ported, mainly  from  the  West  Indies  and  Cen- 
tral America.  California,  Florida,  and  Louisiana 
produce  a  small  quantity,  but  these  States  can- 
not be  expected  to  compete  with  warmer  cli- 
mates. Banana  flour,  produced  in  the  tropics 
from  ripe  bananas,  is  growing  in  popularity 
wherever  introduced,  and  dried  bananas  seem 
to  promise  an  outlet  for  excessively  heavy  crops. 
The  botanical  name,  Miisa  sapientium,  which 
means  ^^of  the  wise  muse,^'  alludes  to  Theo- 
phrastus'  statement  that  the  wise  men  of  India 
used  a  certain  fruit  for  food,  which  seems  to 
have  been  the  banana  or  the  plantain. 

Banana-birds,  any  of  several  small  West 
Indian  insect,  and  honey-eating  birds  that  fre- 
quent the  banana  groves,  especially  the  banana- 
quit  {Certhiola  Aavcola)  of  Jamaica,  whose 
pretty  ways  are  described  at  length  by  Gosse 
in  his  books  on  the  natural  history  of  that 
island.  One  species '(C.  hahamcnsis)  occasion- 
ally visits  Florida.  All  these  birds  are  bril- 
liantly plumaged,  usually  rich  blue  with  yellow 
markings,  and  represent  the  sun-birds  (q.v.)  of 
the  Eastern  tropics. 

Banana-fish.     See  Lady-fish. 

Bananal,  ba-na-nal',  also  called  Santa 
Anna,  an  island  in  Brazil,  formed  by  the  River 
Araguaya,  in  the  province  of  Goyaz.  Its  length 
is  200  miles;  breadth  35  miles.  It  is  covered 
with  dense  forests,  and  has  in  its  middle  an  ex- 
tensive lake.  Soil,  fertile.  Also  the  name  of 
several   small  villages  in  Brazil. 

Banas,  ba-nas',  a  common  name  for  rivers 
in  India.  The  most  important  are:  (i)  a 
river  of  Shutia  Nagpur,  Bengal,  having  a  north- 
west course  of  about  70  miles,  and  falling  into 
the  Sone,  near  Rampur;  (2)  a  river  which 
rises  in  the  Aravulli  Mountains,  and,  after  a 
southwest  course  of    180  miles,    is    lost   in   the 


Runn  of  Cutch;  (3)  a  river  of  Rajputana,  also 
rising  in  the  Aravulli  Mountains,  flowing  north- 
east through  Mewar  for  120  miles,  then  south- 
east, and  falling  into  the  Chambal,  after  a  total 
course  of  300  miles. 

Ban'at,  a  term  applied  to  any  district  ruled 
by  a  ban  (q.v.).  Specifically  a  large  and  fertile 
region  in  Hungary,  consisting  of  the  counties 
of  Temesvar,  Torontal,  and  Krisso;  principal 
town,  Temesvar.  The  region  originally  be- 
longed to  Hungary;  was  occupied  by  the  Turks 
in  1652-1716;  and  was  reunited  to  Hungary  in 
1779.     The  population  exceeds  1,500,000. 

Ban'bridge,  Ireland,  a  market  town  in 
County  Down,  22  miles  southwest  of  Belfast, 
situated  on  the  Bann.  It  has  an  Episcopal 
church  in  the  Gothic  style,  and  several  other 
churches.  _  The  principal  manufacture  is  that  of 
linen,  which  is  carried  on  to  a  great  extent. 
Pop.   (1901)   5.376. 

Ban'bury,  England,  a  municipal  borough 
and  market  town  of  Oxfordshire,  on  the  Oxford 
Canal,  23  miles  'north  of  Oxford,  and  78 
northwest  of  London  by  rail.  Its  strong  cas- 
tle, built  about  1125,  was  demolished  during  the 
Great  Rebellion,  when  Banbury  was  noted  for 
Puritanical  zeal.  In  1469  the  Yorkists  were  de- 
feated in  the  vicinity.  The  town  is  still  fa- 
mous for  its  cakes  and  ale,  as  in  Ben  Jonson's 
day ;  and  it  manufactures  webbing  and  agricul- 
tural implements.  Among  the  buildings  are  the 
parish  church  (1797)  and  the  town  hall  (1854). 
Pop.    (1901)    12,967. 

Banc  (Lat.  Bancus,  Ger.  Bank,  a  bench), 
legally  a  seat  or  bench  of  justice,  and  in  this 
sense  has  given  rise  to  the  expression  in  courts 
of  common  law,  "  sitting  in  banc,**  or  in  banco 
—  that  is,  sitting  together  on  the  bench  of  the 
respective  courts. 

Banca,  ban'ka,  Banka,  or  Bamgka,  an  is- 
land of  the  Malay  Archipelago,  belonging  to 
the  Netherlands,  between  Sumatra  and  Borneo ; 
area,  5,000  square  miles.  It  possesses  several 
considerable  bays  and  is  hilly.  It  is  celebrated 
for  its  excellent  tin,  obtained  in  black  alluvium 
in  the  north  end  of  the  island,  about  25  feet 
below  the  surface,  and  of  which  the  annual 
yield  is  about  4,000  tons.  Banca  likewise  yields 
iron,  copper,  lead,  timber,  sago,  nutmegs,  ben- 
zoin, etc.  Trie  population  is  about  100,000,  of 
which  a  large  proportion  are  Chinese. 

Banca,  a  boat  used  in  the  Philippines, 
made  from  a  single  log  and  furnished  with  an 
out-rigger. 

Ban'co,  a  term  designating  the  money  in 
which  the  banks  of  some  countries  keep  or  kept 
their  accounts  in  contradistinction  to  the  current 
money  of  the  place,  which  might  vary  in  value 
or  consist  of  light  and  foreign  coins.  The  term 
was  applied  to  the  Hamburg  bank  accounts  be- 
fore the  adoption  (in  1873)  of  the  new  German 
coinage.  The  mark  banco  had  a  value  of  35.43 
cents ;  but  there  was  no  corresponding  coin.       : 

Ban'croft,  Aaron,  Unitarian  clergyman: 
b.  Reading,  Mass.,  10  Nov.  1755;  d.  19  Aug. 
1839.  He  was  graduated  at  Harvard  in  1778; 
became  pastor  in  Worcester  in  1785,  where  he 
remained  nearly  50  years.  Besides  a  great  num- 
ber of  sermons,  his  works  include  a  'Life  of 
George  Washington^  (1807).  He  was  the 
father  of  the  historian, .  George  Bancroft. 


BANCROFT 


Bancroft,  Cecil  Franklin  Patch,  educator: 
b.  New  Ipswich,  N.  H.,  25  Nov.  1839.  He 
graduated  from  Dartmouth  in  i860;  at  Andover 
Theological  Seminary  in  1867;  and  at  the  Uni- 
versity of  Halle,  Germany.  He  was  ordained  to 
the  Congregational  ministry  in  1867,  but  has 
never  held  a  pastorate.  In  1873  he  was  made 
principal  of  Phillips  Academy,  Andover,  Mass., 
and  since  then  has  sent  more  boys  to  colleges  and 
scientific  schools  than  any  other  American  sec- 
ondary school  teacher.  He  has  frequently  con- 
tributed religious  and  educational  articles  to 
periodicals. 

Bancroft,  Edward,  American  physician: 
b.  Westfield,  Mass.,  9  Jan.  1744;  d.  8  Sept.  1820. 
Early  in  life  he  ran  away  from  home ;  became 
a  practising  physician  in  Guiana ;  and  passed 
the  latter  part  of  his  life  in  England.  During 
the  Revolutionary  war  he  is  believed  to  have 
been  a  spy  for  the  British.  His  publications  in- 
clude a  ^Natural  History  of  Guiana^  (1769) 
and  ^Researches  Concerning  the  Philosophy  of 
Permanent  Colors'    (2  vols.  1794-1813). 

Bancroft,  George,  American  historian:  b. 
Worcester,  Mass.,  3  Oct.  1800;  d.  Washington, 
D.  C,  17  Jan.  1891.  He  was  the  son  of  Rev. 
Aaron  Bancroft  (q.v.),  a  Unitarian  clergyman, 
and  Lucretia  Chandler  Bancroft.  He  fitted  for 
college  at  Phillips  Academj',  Exeter,  N.  H.,  en- 
tered Harvard  College  at  the  age  of  13,  and  was 
graduated  before  reaching  his  17th  birthday. 
Edward  Everett,  then  professor  of  Greek,  hav- 
ing proposed  that  some  young  graduate  of  prom- 
ise be  sent  to  Germany  for  purposes  of  study 
in  order  that  he  might  afterward  become  one 
of  the  corps  of  instructors,  Bancroft  was  chosen, 
and  in  the  summer  of  1818  went  to  Gottingen, 
where  two  years  later  he  received  his  degree  of 
Ph.D.  At  Gottingen  he  studied  German  litera- 
ture under  Benecke ;  Italian  and  French  lit- 
erature under  Artaud  and  Bunsen ;  Oriental 
languages  and  New  Testament  Greek  under  Eich- 
horn ;  natural  history  under  Blumenbach ;  and 
the  antiquities  and  literature  of  Greece  and 
Rome  under  Dissen,  an  enthusiastic  admirer  of 
Plato,  with  whom  he  went  through  a  thorough 
course  of  Greek  philosophy.  But  his  chief  at- 
tention was  given  to  history,  which  he  studied 
under  Heeren.  the  greatest  historical  critic  of 
that  day,  and  one  of  the  most  scientific  of  all 
historians.  In  choosing  this  special  branch,  Ban- 
croft gave  as  a  reason  his  desire  to  see  if  facts 
would  not  clear  up  theories  and  assist  in  get- 
ting out  the  true  one.  For  a  time  he  also 
studied  at  Berlin,  where  he  was  warmly  re- 
ceived by  the  leaders  in  the  academic  world, 
notably,  Wolf,  the  editor  of  Homer;  Schleier- 
macher,  and  Hegel,  to  whom  he  brought  tidings 
of  their  fame  in  the  New  World.  In  an  extend- 
ed tour  through  Germany  and  other  countries 
he  met  Goethe  at  Jena,  studied  for  a  time  with 
Schlosser  at  Heidelberg,  formed  an  acquaint- 
ance with  Manzoni  at  Milan  and  a  life  friend- 
ship with  Chevalier  Bunsen  at  Rome,  where  he 
also  met  Niebuhr.  At  Paris  he  was  kindly  re- 
ceived by  Cousin,  Benjamin  Constant,  and  Alex- 
ander von  Humboldt.  Returning  to  America  in 
1822  he  served  for  a  year  as  tutor  in  Greek  at 
Harvard.  In  1823,  in  conjunction  with  J.  G. 
Cogswell,  he  established  the  famous  Round  Hill 
School  at  Northampton,  Mass.,  a  preparatory 
school  far  in  advance  of  its  time  as  to  systems 
of   studv   and   class-books.     The  teachers    were 


good,  the  instruction  inspiring,  and  the  students 
led  a  happy,  healthy  life,  but  the  undertaking 
proved  a  failure  financially.  Bancroft  withdrew 
in  1830,  and  Cogswell  two  years  later.  Many 
of  their  students  afterward  became  men  of  na- 
tional reputation  or  prominence,  among  them 
being  J.  L.  Motley,  Ellery  Channing,  G.  E.  Ellis, 
and  Theodore  Sedgwick.  Henceforward  his 
career  is  best  separated  into  political  and  lit- 
erary. During  the  Round  Hill  years  he  had 
cut  loose  from  the  political  traditions  of  the 
Harvard  circle.  In  a  public  speech  in  1826  he 
had  avowed  his  principles  to  be  for  universal 
suffrage  and  uncompromising  democracy,  and  at 
once  became  foremost  in  the  councils  of  the 
Democratic  party,  though  twice  declining  nom- 
ination or  election  to  the  State  legislature.  Van 
Buren  appointed  him  collector  of  the  port  of 
Boston  (1838-41),  and  his  administration  of  the 
office  won  the  praise  of  his  political  opponents. 
While  collector  he  appointed  Nathaniel  Haw- 
thorne and  Orestes  Brownson  to  offices  within 
his  jurisdiction.  In  1844  he  was  defeated  as  the 
Democratic  candidate  for  governor  of  Massa- 
chusetts, although  he  received  more  votes  than 
any  previous  candidate  of  his  party.  In  1845 
he  became  secretary  of  the  navy  under  Polk. 
It  was  he  who  planned  and  established  the  Naval 
Academy  at  Annapolis,  Md. ;  he  gave  the  first 
order  te  take  possession  of  California ;  and 
while  acting  secretary  of  war  ordered  Gen. 
Taylor  to  march  into  Texas,  thus  ultimately 
leading  to  the  annexation  of  that  State.  During 
1846-9  he  was  minister-plenipotentiary  to  Great 
Britain,  and  there  successfully  urged  upon  the 
British  ministry  the  necessity  of  adopting  more 
liberal  navigation  laws.  His  reputation  as  a 
man  of  letters  put  the  manuscript  treasures  of 
the  great  English  families  at  his  disposal,  and 
he  combined  his  public  duties  with  ardent  his- 
torical researches.  From  1849  to  1867  he  lived 
in  New  York  city,  absorbed  in  literary  work. 
During  the  Civil  War  he  was  a  patriotic  War 
Democrat,  and  delivered  a  powerful  speech  ef- 
fectually demolishing  the  Constitutional  plea 
for  slavery.  Before  both  Houses  of  Congress 
he  delivered  a  masterly  eulogy  on  Lincoln.  Ap- 
pointed minister  to  Prussia  in  1867  he  achieved 
a  diplomatic  triumph  in  bringing  about  the 
adoption  of  treaties  in  which  England  and  Ger- 
many finally  recognized  the  right  of  expatriation 
and  abandoned  their  doctrine  of  ^'once  a  citizen, 
always  a  citizen.''  In  the  northwest  boundary 
treaty,  negotiated  by  Polk",  there  was  an  am- 
biguity concerning  a  portion  of  the  line.  It 
was  decided  to  submit  the  point  to  the  German 
emperor  for  arbitration.  Bancroft  prepared  the 
whole  American  argument  and  the  reply  to  the 
case  of  the  British.  The  decision  was  unre- 
servedly in  favor  of  the  United  States. 

His  first  publication  was  a  volume  of 
^Poems^  (1823),  all  European  in  theme.  This 
was  followed  by  books  for  the  use  of  his  stu- 
dents, translations  of  Heeren's  ^Politics  of  An- 
cient Greece'  (1824),  and  Jacobs'  ^  Latin  Read- 
er' (1825).  His  first  article  in  the  < North 
American  Review'  appeared  in  October  1823, 
and  was  a  notice  of  Schiller's  ^Minor  Poems' 
with  numerous  translations.  Thenceforward  he 
wrote  in  almost  every  volume,  but  always  on 
classical  or  German  themes,  until  in  January 
1831,  he  took  up  <The  Bank  of  the  United 
States',  and  in  October  1835  ^The  Documentary- 
History  of  the  American  Revolution.'     The  two 


GEORGE  BAXCROFT, 


BANCROFT 


latter  indicate  the  direction  his  historical  studies 
had  taken.  Then  came  the  beginnings  of  his 
great  "^History  of  the  United  States/  the  work 
which  gave  him  his  greatest  fame.  The  first 
volume  appeared  in  1834,  the  second  in  1837,  the 
third  in  1840,  the  fourth  in  1852,  the  fifth  in 
1853  and  so  onward  to  the  tenth  in  1874.  The 
earher  volumes  were  received  with  enthusiasm 
in  America,  pirated  in  England,  translated  into 
Danish,  Italian,  German,  and  French,  both  with 
and  without  the  author's  permission.  The  15th 
editions  of  Vols.  I-III  was  issued  in  1853.  The 
design  of  the  work  was  as  deliberate  as  Gib- 
bon's, and  almost  as  vast,  and,  like  Gibbon,  Ban- 
croft lived  to  see  his  work  accomplished.  The 
history  of  the  United  States  from  1492  to  1789 
is  treated  in  three  parts.  The  first  deals  with 
'Colonial  History,  1492-1748.^  The  second 
part,  'The  American  Revolution,  1748-82,'  is 
divided  into  four  epochs  called  respectively : 
'Overthrow  of  the  European  Colonial  System, 
1748-63'  ;  'How  Great  Britain  Estranged  Amer- 
ica, 1763-74'  ;  'America  Declares  Itself  Inde- 
pendent, I774~5-*  ;  and  'The  Independence  of 
America  Acknowledged,  1776-82.-'  The  last 
part,  though  published  as  a  separate  work,  en- 
titled 'History  of  the  Formation  of  the  Consti- 
tution, 1782-9,'  is  really  a  continuation  of  the 
'History.'  The  work  is  still  the  most  popular 
and  widely  read  of  the  larger  American  histories. 
Bancroft's  materials  and  facilities  for  writing  it 
were  better  and  more  extensive  than  any  other 
writer  on  our  Anglo-American  history  has  en- 
joyed. His  private  collection  of  manuscripts 
and  documents,  original  and  copies  (now  in  the 
Lenox  Library,  New  York),  was  by  far  the 
finest  of  his  day  in  private  hands,  and  superior 
to  most  institutional  collections.  His  merits  as 
a  historian  are  positive  and  incontestable.  For 
his  subject  he  had  a  boundless  and  untiring 
enthusiasm,  and  he  was  permeated  with  that 
democratic  spirit  without  which  the  history  of 
the  United  States  cannot  be  adequately  written. 
Though  his  early  style  is  justly  open  to  the 
charge  of  being  pompous,  inflated,  and  over- 
ornamented,  it  is  essentially  picturesque,  and  the 
earlier  defects  were  greatly  remedied  by  his  suc- 
cessive revisions  of  the  work.  His  command  of 
his  resources  was  masterly,  and  a  far  from 
favorable  critic  candidly  admits  that  "one  must 
follow  him  minutely  through  the  history  of  the 
war  for  independence  to  appreciate  in  full  the 
consummate  grasp  of  a  mind  which  can  deploy 
military  events  in  a  narrative  as  a  general  de- 
ploys brigades  in  a  field.  Add  to  this  the  ca- 
pacity for  occasional  maxims  in  the  highest  de- 
gree profound  and  lucid,  and  you  certainly 
combine  in  one  man  some  of  the  greatest  quali- 
ties of  the  historian."  It  has  been  said  that  he 
made  no  effort  to  avail  himself  of  the  materials 
and  results  of  other  investigators,  but  nowhere 
does  he  claim  finality  for  his  work,  and  his  later 
years  were  chiefly  occupied  in  weaving  into  his 
narrative  what  he  and  no  one  else  had.  In  1876 
he  issued  a  Centenar>'  edition  in  six  volumes, 
upon  which  he  had  spent  a  solid  year  in  re- 
vision. Again  in  1883-5  he  published  what  he 
termed  the  "author's  last  revision"  in  six  vol- 
umes large  octavo.  In  this  he  made  consider- 
able changes  in  arrangement  and  the  subdivi- 
sions, all  tending  to  a  better  ordering  of  the 
narrative.  There  were  frequent  omissions  and 
condensations,  and  many  repetitions  and  re- 
dundancies were  cast  out.     These  final  changes 


have,  in  the  judgment  of  good  scholars,  better 
fitted  the  work  for  permanent  favor.  It  will 
remain  necessary  to  the  student  until  another 
historian,  with  equal  or  better  facilities,  shall 
rewrite  the  story  in  a  way  to  gain  wider  sym- 
pathy. Present  tendencies  and  methods  in  his- 
torical study  and  writing  give  little  evidence 
that  such  another  will  soon  arise.  His  lesser 
w-orks  include  'Poems'  (1823);  'Literary  and 
Historical  Miscellanies'  (1855)  ;  'Memorial  Ad- 
dress on  the  Life  of  Lincoln'  (1866)  ;  'Joseph 
Reed:  a  Historical  Essay'  (1867);  'A  Plea  for 
the  Constitution  of  the  United  States  Wounded 
in  the  House  of  Its  Guardians'  (1886)  ;  'Ne- 
cessity, Reality,  and  Promise  of  the  Progress  of 
the  Human  Race'  (1854)  ;  'Oration,  4  July 
1826,  Northampton,  Mass.'  ;  'Oration  Before  the 
Democracy  of  Springfield,  Mass.,  4  July  1836'  ; 
'Address  at  Hartford,  Conn.,  18  Feb.  1840'  ; 
'History  of  the  Formation  of  the  Constitutioa 
of  the  United  States'  (1882)  ;  'Oration  Deliv- 
ered at  the  Commemoration,  in  Washington,  of 
the  Death  of  Andrew  Jackson,  27  June  1845.^ 
To  the  American  Encyclopaedia  he  contributed 
the  article  on  Jonathan  Edwards.  See  Green, 
'George  Bancroft'  (1891)  ;  Wallis,  'Mr.  Ban- 
croft as  a  Historian'  (1896)  ;  West,  'George- 
Bancroft'   (1900). 

Bancroft,  Hubert  Howe,  American  histo- 
rian :  b.  Granville,  Ohio,  5  May  1832.  In  1852 
he  went  to  California  to  establish  a  book  busi- 
ness, and  began  to  collect  documents,  maps, 
books  and  MSS.  for  a  complete  'History  of  the 
Pacific  States'  from  Mexico  to  Alaska.  Ir> 
1893  this  library  num.bered  60,000  volumes,  to- 
which  many  additions  have  been  made.  His  his- 
tories are  still  in  preparation.  'Literary  In- 
dustries' (Vol.  XL.,  San  Francisco,  1890)  de- 
scribes his  work. 

Bancroft,  Marie  Effie  Wilton,  English  ac- 
tress, wife  of  Sir  Squire  Bancroft  fq.v.).  She 
appeared  on  the  stage  when  a  child,  and  acted 
in  several  places  before  making  her  London  de- 
but. In  London  she  won  great  popularity  in 
several  plays,  particularly  in  'The  Maid  and 
the  Magpie'  at  the  Strand.  In  1865  she  became 
a  partner  in  the  management  of  the  Prince  of 
Wales'  Theatre,  and  obtained  Squire  Bancroft 
(afterward  her  husband)  as  leading  man.  Since 
then  she  has  been  associated  with  him  as  man- 
ager and  actress. 

Bancroft,  Richard,  English  archbishop:  b. 
Farnworth,  Lancashire,  1544;  d.  1610.  He 
studied  at  Cambridge,  entered  the  Church,  and 
rose  rapidly  during  the  reign  of  Elizabeth  till 
he  obtained  the  see  of  London  in  1597.  After 
her  death  James  I.  made  him  archbishop  of  ^ 
Canterbury  on  the  death  of  Whitgift.  He  pos-  * 
sessed  good  talents,  and  was  distinguished  as  a. 
controversialist,  a  preacher,  and  a  politician. 
The  greatest  blot  on  his  memory  is  the  rigor 
with  which  he  treated  the  Puritans. 

Bancroft,  Sir  Squire,  English  actor:  b. 
1841.  He  began  his  career  in  Birmingham  in 
1861,  and  played  at  Dublin  and  Liverpool.  In 
186;  he  made  his  first  appearance  at  the  Prince 
of  \Vales'  Theatre,  and  continued  there  several 
years  as  leading  man  in  a  series  of  comedies  de- 
picting modern  life,  among  which  are:  'So- 
cietv'  :  'Caste'  ;  'Play'  ;  'School'  ;  and  'M.  P.> 
In  "1880  he  moved  with  his  wife  to  the  Hay- 
market  Theatre,  where  he  continued  presenting^ 
the  same  line  of  plays.     Since  1885  he  has  ap- 


BANCROFT  — BAND  SAW  BLADES 


peared  but  little,  though  he  took  part  in  '  Diplo- 
macy >  at  the  Garrick  Theatre  in  1893. 

Bancroft,  Wilder  Dwight,  American  chem- 
ist: b.  1867.  He  was  educated  at  Harvard  and 
abroad,  and  obtained  the  degree  of  Ph.D.  at 
Leipsic.  He  was  instructor  of  chemistry  at 
Harvard  1894-5;  '^^'as  appointed  assistant  pro- 
fessor of  chemistry  at  Cornell  in  1895.  In  the 
same  year  he  founded  the  ^Journal  of  Physical 
Chemistry'  and  became  its  editor. 

Bancroft,  William  Amos,  American  rail- 
way president:  b.  Groton,  Mass.,  26  April  1865. 
He  was  graduated  from  Harvard  University 
1878,  Harvard  Law  School  1881,  and  was  ad- 
mitted to  the  Suffolk  bar  1881.  He  was  elected 
mayor  of  Cambridge  in  1893  and  has  occupied 
many  positions  of  political  importance.  He  is 
also  director  in  many  educational  and  financial 
institutions. 

Band,  in  music,  a  number  of  trained  mu- 
sicians in  a  regiment,  intended  to  march  in  front 
of  the  soldiers  and  play  instruments,  so  as  to 
enable  them  to  keep  step  as  they  move  forward; 
also  any  similarly  organized  company  of  musi- 
cians, though  unconnected  with  the  army;  an 
orchestra.  The  word  is  also  applied  to  the 
subdivisions  of  an  orchestra,  as  string-band, 
wind-band,  etc. 

In  architecture,  any  flat  fascia  or  ornament 
which  is  continued  horizontally  along  a  wall,  or 
by  which  a  building  is  encircled.  Bands  often 
consist  of  foliage,  quatrefoils,  or  of  simple 
bricks.  Band  of  a  shaft  is  the  molding  or  suits 
of  moldings  by  which  the  pillars  and  shafts  are 
encircled  in  Gothic  architecture.  Several  bands 
are  often  placed  at  equal  distances  on  the  body 
of  the  shaft,  when  it  is  long,  in  which  case  they 
are  known  as  shaft-rings. 

As  vestment,  bands  are  linen  pendants  from 
the  neck,  forming  part  of  clerical,  legal,  and 
academic  costume.  It  is  a  moot  question 
whether  they  are  a  survival  of  the  amice,  or 
immediate  descendants  of  the  wide  falling  collar 
which  was  a  part  of  the  ordinary  civilian  dress 
in  the  reign  of  James  I.  In  the  Anglican  Church 
they  are  seldom  worn,  except  by  ultra-low 
Churchmen ;  but  they  are  in  common  use  with 
Presbyterian  ministers  (ordained  ministers  as 
distinguished  from  licentiates).  Foreign  Cath- 
olic ecclesiastics  wear  black  bands  with  a  nar- 
row white  border. 

Band-fish,  a  genus  in  the  family 
Cepolidce,  having  the  body  much  elongated  and 
compressed,  and  is  covered  by  very  small  scales. 
The  dorsal  fin  is  very  long,  and  consists  like  the 
anal  of  soft  rays.  The  tail  vertebrae  are  very 
numerous,  and  the  whole  structure  of  the  body 
exhibits  unusual  delicacy,  so  that  specimens  are 
seldom  obtained  in  an  uninjured  state.  All  the 
species  inhabit  quiet  depths,  and  are  unable  to 
contend  with  waves  and  currents.  The  snake- 
like form  and  the  beauty  of  their  colors  make 
them  objects  of  great  interest.  One  species,  the 
red  band-fish  (C.  rubescens) ,  not  uncommon  in 
the  Mediterranean,  is  occasionally  cast  ashore 
by  storms  on  the  British  coasts.  It  is  about  15 
inches  long.  Its  brilliant  appearance,  when  seen 
moving  in  the  water,  has  suggested  the  names 
of  fire-flame  and  red  ribbon,  by  which  it  is 
known  at  Nice.  The  home  of  the  genus  is  in 
Japanese  waters.     See  Oar-fish. 


Band  of  Hope  Union,  an  association  of 
the  children's  temperance  societies  of  Great 
Britain,  having  upward  of  15,000  allied  associa- 
tions, with  a  membership  of  2,000,000. 

Band  Saw  Blades.  Owing  to  the  increased 
value  of  timber  in  America  more  and  more  at- 
tention has  been  paid  to  the  economical  conver- 
sion thereof  into  the  sawn  product  ready  for 
market.  The  methods  in  use  a  few  years  ago 
were  found  to  be  wasteful  and  usually  crude, 
and  the  product  turned  out  of  but  an  indifferent 
quality  so  far  as  sawing  was  concerned. 

The  attention  of  the  operator  being  directed 
to  band  saw  blades,  these  have  come  into  quite 
general  use  for  various  purposes.  A  test  of  the 
band  saw  blade  has  proven  its  advantages  to  be 
so  great  that  it  has  displaced  not  only  the  small 
scroll  or  ^"^jig*  saws  for  bracket  sawing  and 
ornamental  scroll  and  curved  work,  but  has  also 
displaced  reciprocating  saws  and  circular  saws 
for  heavier  work. 

A  band  saw  consists  of  a  thin  band  or  ribbon 
of  steel  with  teeth  cut  in  one  edge,  and  when  in 
use  it  is  mounted  on  two  wheels  like  a  belt  and 
made  to  travel  at  a  rapid  rate  of  speed  by  re- 
volving the  wheels.  For  scroll  work  its  advan- 
tage over  the  reciprocating  and  jig  saw  lies 
mainly  in  the  increased  and  uniform  speed  at 
which  the  saw  blade  travels  which  enables  the 
operator  to  better  control  the  work  in  hand  and 
to  feed  the  material  toward  the  saw  constantly, 
and  thus  to  turn  out  more  and  better  work  than 
would  be  possible  with  a  reciprocating  saw 
cutting  on  the  downward  stroke  only. 

In  sawing  logs  the  advantage  of  a  band  saw 
as  compared  with  a  reciprocating  saw  may  be 
judged  when  we  state  that  the  band  saw  blade 
travels  at  a  rate  of  from  8,000  to  10,000  feet  per 
minute,  whereas,  a  reciprocating  saw  making 
200  strokes  of  18  inches  to  the  minute,  would 
only  have  a  cutting  speed  of  300  feet  per  minute. 
The  band  saw  traveling  more  than  20  times  as 
fast  as  the  reciprocating  saw,  will  naturally  per- 
form nearly  or  quite  as  much  work  as  20  recip- 
rocating saws.  The  single  reciprocating  saw, 
which  evidently  was  the  primitive  saw  mill, 
because  of  its  limited  capacity  was  succeeded  by 
what  is  termed  in  the  United  States  a  gang,  in 
Europe,  a  log  frame,  and  in  Canada  a  gate. 
The  gang  saw  mill  for  log  sawing  consists  of 
a  sufficient  number  of  reciprocating  saws  placed 
side  by  side  in  a  frame  to  saw  completely  at  the 
one  operation  an  entire  log.  The  advantage  of 
the  band  log  mill  over  the  gang  lies  in  its  adapt- 
ability to  the  sawing  of  each  log  to  the  best  ad- 
vantage ;  as  but  one  cut  is  made  at  a  time,  and 
as  the  face  of  the  log  is  exposed  to  the  view  of 
the  sawyer,  he  can  judge  through  what  portion 
of  the  log  the  next  cut  should  be  made  to  yield 
the  best   results. 

Another  form  of  saw  mill  is  that  known  as 
the  rotary  mill  or  circular  saw  mill.  Both  the 
circular  and  band  log  mills  are  provided  with 
traveling  carriages  on  which  the  log  is  placed, 
secured  and  fed  past  the  saw.  The  circular 
saw  has  possibly  as  great  a  capacity  as  the  band, 
but  it  is  very  wasteful,  because  a  circular  saw 
large  enough  to  saw  plank  from  the  side  of  a 
log  of  medium  size  needs  be  of  such  large  diam- 
eter that  in  order  to  support  it  in  the  cut  the 
saw  is  made  very  thick,  and  thus  removes  an 
immense  saw  kerf.  Not  only  this,  but  it  has 
been  found  impossible  to  saw  with  this  kind 
of  mill  with  sufficient  accuracy  to  meet  the  pres- 


BANDA  —  BANDAGE 


^nt  market  requirements.  The  circular  saw 
while  popular  in  the  past  is  known  to  have 
wasted  nearly  or  quite  25  per  cent  of  the  product 
of  the  log  in  saw  kerf  and  poorly  sawn  timber. 
The  band  saw,  on  the  other  hand,  combines 
the  accuracy  of  the  reciprocating  saw  with  the 
capacity  of  the  circular  saw.  The  success  of  the 
band  saw  is  due :  first,  to  the  acquired  skill  of 
the  saw  maker  in  turning  out  saw  blades  of  suit- 
able temper  to  retain  a  good  cutting  edge  and  at 
the  same  time  flexible  enough  to  pass  over  the 
wheels  without  cracking;  second,  to  the  skill  of 
the  saw  filer  in  fitting  his  saws.  Band  saws  re- 
quire to  be  ^^tensioned"  from  time  to  time  when 
in  use.  By  the  word  tension  is  meant  the  ex- 
panding of  the  central  portion  of  the  saw  blade 
either  by  the  use  of  a  hammer  and  anvil  or  by 
the  use  of  what  is  termed  stretching  rolls. 

The  use  of  the  band  saw  has  also  brought 
forth  an  extensive  line  of  saw  fitting  tools  such 
as  saw  "swages"  which  are  designed  to  expand 
the  points  of  the  teeth,  "pressure  side  dressers*^ 
or  "tooth  formers"  or  "shapers"  which  are  in- 
tended to  give  form  to  the  swaged  points  of  the 
teeth,  automatic  saw  sharpeners,  etc.  With 
the  use  of  these  improved  appliances  it  was  found 
that  thinner  and  thinner  banci  saw  blades  could 
be  used,  and  hence  the  band  saw  has  come  into 
general  use  for  "resawing  purposes,"  that  is,  the 
sawing  of  planks  and  boards  into  two  or  more 
thinner  pieces.  For  this  purpose  it  is  well 
adapted.  The  plank  or  boards  to  be  resawn  are 
fed  to  the  saw  by  means  of  rollers.  Saws  as 
thin  as  .02  of  an  inch  in  thickness  are  success- 
fully used.  Such  saws  remove  a  saw  kerf  of 
practically  one  thirty-secondth  of  an  inch.  The 
advantage  of  the  band  resaw  lies  in  the  fact  that 
it  is  practical  to  use  the  thinnest  and  most  deli- 
cate saw  of  this  type  and  still  have  it  of  prac- 
tical use  and  service  as  a  tool. 

Edward  C.  IMershon', 
Of  JV.  B.  Mershon  &  Company,  Saginaw,  Mich. 

Ban'da,  a  town  of  India,  in  the  northwest 
provinces,  capital  of  a  district  of  the  same  name, 
on  an  undulating  plain  near  the  Ken  River,  95 
miles  southwest  of  Allahabad.  It  is  a  strag- 
gling, ill-built  place,  but  with  clean  streets,  and 
contains  a  large  number  of  mosques  and  temples. 
It  was  formerly  an  important  cotton  market. 
There  are  cantonments  about  a  mile  distant 
from  the  town.    Pop.  (1900)  29,000. 

Banda  Islands,  a  group  belonging  to  Hol- 
land, in  the  Indian  Archipelago,  south  of  Ceram ; 
the  largest,  Great  Banda,  being  12  miles  long 
by  2  broad,  while  Goenong  Api  is  an  active 
volcano  nearly  8,000  feet  high.  They  have  a 
rich  soil  admirably  adapted  for  the  cultivation 
of  the  nutmeg,  which  is  their  chief  product, 
others  being  cocoanuts  and  sago.  The  total  area 
)f  the  group  is  about  19  square  miles  and  the 
:apital  of  the  group  is  Banda,  the  seat  of  the 
assistant  resident.  Tatti  wood  is  grown  on  the 
island  of  Rosingen.  Pop.  about  8,000,  of  whom 
less  than  600  are  Europeans. 

Banda  Oriental,  a  state  of  South  America, 
originally  settled  by  Spaniards  from  Buenos 
Ayres,  claimed  by  Brazil,  but,  after  a  war,  made 
in  1825  into  the  independent  State  of  Banda 
Oriental  del  Uruguay  —  that  is  Eastern  Bank  of 
the  Uruguay,  now  usually  called  simply  Uru- 
guav  (q.v.). 

\'ol.     2 17. 


Bandage,  a  surgical  wrapper  applied  to 
some  part  of  the  body.  Bandages  are  employed 
for  a  variety  of  purposes.  One  of  their  chief 
uses  is  to  secure  dressings  or  splints.  Another 
is  to  give  support  to  a  limb  or  to  restrain  its 
movements,  or  to  e'xert  pressure  upon  it  so  as 
to  aid  in  restraining  bleeding  at  some  point;  or  a 
bandage  may  be  used  to  promote  healing,  as  in 
the  case  of  ulcers,  or  to  aid  in  the  removal  of 
swelling.  In  these  latter  cases  the  bandage  must 
be  applied  with  a  considerable  degree  of  tight- 
ness, and  great  care  must  be  exercised  that  it 
be  evenly  put  on,  and  that  the  tightness  with 
which  it  is  drawn  does  not  give  rise  to  disturb- 
ances of  the  circulation  by  undue  and  irregular 
pressure.  Suppose,  for  instance,  the  arm  is 
being  bandaged  from  the  hand  well  up  over  the 
upper  arm.  The  arteries  which  carry  the  blood 
down  the  limb  are  for  the  most  part  deeply 
seated  and  well  protected  by  muscles,  so  that 
they  are  practically  unaffected  by  any  ordinary 
degree  of  pressure  on  the  surface.  But  many 
of  the  veins  which  carry  the  blood  back  to  the 
heart  up  the  limb  run  immediately  under  the 
skin,  and  will  be  pressed  upon  considerably  by 
a  bandage  applied  round  the  arm.  If  the  ban- 
dage is  made  too  tight  at  the  elbow,  say,  the 
veins  will  be  compressed  and  the  blood  will  flow 
less  easily  along  them  at  that  point  than  it  does 
lower  down  where  the  pressure  is  less.  The 
consequence  will  be  that  the  blood  will  be  hin- 
dered in  passing  up  from  the  hand ;  and  as 
blood  is  all  the  time  being  carried  down  to  the 
hand  in  the  arteries,  which  are  unaffected,  the 
veins  in  the  forearm  and  hand  will  become 
swollen  and  gorged  with  blood.  The  pressure 
of  blood  in  the  veins  will  become  so  great  that 
fluid  will  be  pressed  out  of  the  finer  vessels  into 
the  surrounding  tissues,  and  the  hand  will  be- 
come swollen,  puffy,  and  dropsical,  while  much 
pain  will  be  experienced.  If  the  tight  turns  of 
the  bandage  are  now  loosened,  the  veins  will 
again  offer  a  free  passage  to  the  blood,  and 
the  swelling  and  pain  will  gradually  subside. 
The  proper  method  in  such  a  case  is  not  neces- 
sarily to  bandage  loosely,  but  to  bandage  uni- 
formly, beginning  with  "the  requisite  degree  of 
tightness  at  the  ■very  extremity  of  the  limb,  and 
continuing  evenly  and  regularly  upward.  A 
general  rule  in  bandaging  a  limb,  then,  is :  never 
let  the  bandage  be  tighter  up  the  limb  than  it  is 
at  the  extremity ;  apply  it  firmly  and  evenly  at 
the  extremity  and  carry  it  up  uniformly.  To 
this  may  be  added,  as  a  second  rule,  that  if  a 
bandage  requires  to  be  tightly  applied  in  the 
course  of  a  limb  it  must  be  begun  at  the  extrem- 
ity. It  is  specially  necessary  to  follow  these 
rules  when  the  oandage  is  applied  to  secure  a 
splint,  since  it  must  be  tight  enough  to  keep 
the  splint  in  accurate  position,  or  to  keep  a  pad 
firmly  applied  over  a  wound  for  the  arrest  of 
bleeding.  Bandages  usually  consist  of  strips  of 
unbleached  or  bleached  calico,  linen,  flannel, 
muslin,  etc.  Elastic  bandages  and  india-rubber 
bandages  are  also  in  use  for  particular  cases. 
The  material  should  be  torn  into  strips  of  the 
requisite  breadth,  and  the  bandages  should  have 
no  hem  or  edging,  as  this  would  prevent  them 
stretching  equally  in  all  directions.  The  strips 
should  be  rolled  up  for  use  into  firm  rollers,  a 
roller  bandage  being  usually  6  yards  long,  though 
often  more.  They  are  of  different  breadth,  most 
commonly  2i/4  or  3!/^  inches.  For  the  chest  and 
abdomen  the  breadth  should  be  4^  inches;  for 


BANDAI-SAN  —  BANDICOOT 


the  fingers  three-quarters  of  an  inch.  The  tri- 
angular bandage  is  of  all  others  the  one  made 
use  of  for  rendering  temporary  aid  in  cases  of 
accident,  and,  through  the  training  aiforded  by 
"first  aid  to  the  injured*^  .associations,  is  now 
familiar  to  almost  everyone.  The  bandage  is 
made  of  a  square  yard  of  linen  or  calico  halved 
diagonally,  each  half  having  of  course  two  sides 
36  inches  each  in  length,  with  a  base  of  fully 
50  inches.  When  it  is  desired  to  exert  very  con- 
siderable pressure  upon  a  part  for  a  length  of 
time,  or  when  it  is  desired  to  keep  a  limb  or  a 
joint  motionless  for  some  time,  this  may  be  done 
without  the  use  of  splints  by  stiffening  the  ban- 
dage with  starch  or  plaster  of  Paris. 

Bandai-San,  ban'di-san',  Japan,  a  volcano 
on  the  island  of  Nippon,  140  miles  north  of  To- 
kio.  Its  summit  consists  of  several  peaks,  the 
highest  of  which  is  6,035  feet  above  the  ocean 
and  4,000  feet  above  the  surrounding  plain.  On 
15  July  1888  there  was  a  terrible  explosion  of 
steam  which  blew  out  a  side  of  the  mountain, 
making  a  crater  more  than  a  mile  in  width,  and 
having  precipitous  walls  on  three  sides.  The 
debris  of  broken  rock  and  dust  poured  down 
the  slope  and  over  an  area  of  27  square  miles, 
killing  461  persons  and  covering  a  number  of 
villages. 

Bandajan',  a  pass  over  a  range  of  the 
Himalayas,  in  Cashmere,  14,854  feet  above  sea- 
level. 

Bandan'a,  a  cotton  handkerchief,  having 
a  dark  ground  of  Turkey-red,  blue,  or  purple, 
variegated  with  simple  patterns  of  white  or 
bright  yellow,  their  bright  colors  making  them 
a  favorite  head-covering  for  southern  negro 
women.  These  handkerchiefs  were  originally 
manufactured  in  the  East  Indies ;  but  the  beauty 
and  durability  of  their  colors  caused  such  a 
demand  that  the  manufacture  of  them  was  es- 
tablished elsewhere.  The  process  is  first  to  dye 
the  cloth  of  a  dark  color,  commonly  Turkey-red, 
which  serves  as  a  ground.  The  white  spots  con- 
stituting the  pattern  are  afterward  produced 
by  discharging  the  color  with  a  solution  of  chlo- 
rine. In  order  to  confine  the  discharging  fluid 
to  the  exact  points  to  be  operated  upon,  the 
pattern  is  cut  out  in  leaden  plates,  upon  which 
the  fluid  will  not  act,  and  as  many  handker- 
chiefs or  pieces  of  cloth  as  are  to  be  operated 
upon  are  enclosed  between  pairs  of  these  pat- 
terns, and  subjected  to  enormous  pressure,  the 
discharging  fluid  being  run  in  at  the  top  and 
prevented  by  the  pressure  from  spreading,  so 
that  the  pattern  is  brought  out  clean  on  the 
spots  subjected  to  the  action  of  the  fluid. 

Bande  Noire,  baiid  nwar,  an  appellation 
given  during  the  French  Revolution  to  com- 
panies of  capitalists  and  speculators  who  bought 
up  the  forfeited  estates  of  the  Church  and  no- 
bility. They  were  considered  by  many  as 
hordes  of  Vandals  bound  to  destroy  the  monu- 
ments which  kings,  nobles,  and  religious  orders 
had  erected  all  over  France ;  and  thence  the 
scornful  denomination,  which  was  continued 
nearly  up  to  1830.  But  while  the  Bande  Noire 
removed  some  castles  and  monasteries  which 
ought  to  have  been  preserved  as  relics  of  art  and 
religion,  they  did  much  toward  the  prosperity 
of  the  country  by  improving  unproductive  lands 
and  disseminating  among  the  people  landed 
property  which  previously  was  concentrated  in 
'.he  hands  of  privileged  classes.     The  term  was 


originally  applied  to  a  body  of  German  soldiers 
who  were  employed  in  the  Italian  wars  by  Louis 
XII.  of  France,  and  who  received  the  name 
from  carrying  black  colors  after  the  death  of  a 
favorite  commander.  The  appellation  was  also 
assumed  for  the  same  cause  by  different  Italian 
and  French  troops  in  the  i6th  century. 

Ban'ded  Peak,  or  Mt.  Hesperus,  a  summit 
of  the  San  Juan  Mountains,  in  southern  Colo- 
rado ;   altitude,    12,860   feet. 

Bandel,  ban'del,  Ernst  von,  Bavarian 
sculptor:  b.  Ansbach,  1800;  d.  near  Donaworth, 
25  Sept.  1876.  He  studied  art  at  Munich,  Nur- 
emberg, and  Rome;  and  from  1834  lived  chiefly 
at  Hanover,  engaged  off  "and  on,  for  40  years,  on 
his  great  monument  of  Arminius,  near  Detmold, 
90  feet  high,  which  was  unveiled  by  the  Emperor 
Wilhelm  16  Aug.  1875. 

Bandelier,  ban-de-ler,  Adolph  Francis  Al- 
phonse,  Swiss-American  archaeologist:  b. 
Berne,  6  Aug.  1840 ;  settled  early  in  the  United 
States,  where  he  has  done  important  work  under 
the  direction  of  the  Arch?eological  Institute  of 
America.  His  studies  have  been  chiefly  among 
the  Indians  of  New  Mexico  and  Arizona,  Cen- 
tral America,  and  Mexico.  He  has  published 
many  papers  on  the  subject.  He  is  also  the  au- 
thor of  *Art  of  War  and  Mode  of  Warfare' 
(1877)  ;  ^Social  Organization  and  Government 
of  Ancient  Mexicans*  (1878)  ;  ^Tenure  of  Lands 
and  Inheritances  of  Ancient  Mexicans*  (1878)  ; 
^An  Archaeological  Tour  into  Mexico*  (1885)  ;  a 
novel  of  Pueblo  Indian  life,  ^The  Delight  Mak- 
ers* ;  etc. 

Bandello,  ban-del'o,  Matteo,  Italian  novel- 
ist: b.  about  1480;  d.  1561.  He  studied  at  Rome 
and  Naples  and  applied  himself  almost  exclu- 
sively to  polite  literature.  In  his  youth,  he  was 
a  Dominican  monk,  and  was  entrusted  with  the 
education  of  the  celebrated  Lucrezia  Gonzaga. 
After  the  battle  of  Pavia  he  was  banished  from 
Italy  as  a  partisan  of  the  French,  and  Henry  II. 
of  France  gave  him  in  1550  the  bishopric  of 
Agen.  He  left  the  administration  of  his  diocese 
to  the  Bishop  of  Grasse,  and  employed  himself, 
at  the  advanced  age  of  70,  in  the  completion  of 
his  novels,  of  which  he  published  three  volumes 
in  1554;  a  fourth  was  published  in  1573,  after 
his  death,  which  took  place  in  1561.  He  also 
published  some  poems.  His  novels  are  in  the 
style  of  Boccaccio  and  are  characterized  by  even 
greater  license. 

Ban'deras,  Rio  de,  a  river  of  Mexico,  on 
the  east  coast;  so  called  (river  of  flags)  because, 
when  discovered  in  1518  by  Juan  de  Grijalva, 
the  natives  waved  white  flags  at  the  end  of  their 
spears  in  token  of  friendship. 

Bandettini,  ban-det-te'ne,  Teresa,  Italian 
poet:  b.  Lucca,  12  Aug.  1763;  d.  1837.  Begin- 
ning life  as  a  danseuse,  she  discovered  her  poetic 
talent  as  if  by  accident,  and  came  to  be  known 
and  honored  in  most  parts  of  her  country.  She 
was  especially  gifted  in  improvising  verse.  She 
was  called  the  Amarilla  Etrusca.  Of  her  fin- 
ished poems  there  remain  *La  Morte  de  Ada- 
noide*  ;  'II  Polidoro*  ;  'La  Rosmunda*  ;  and 
some  shorter  pieces. 

Ban'dicoot.  i.  A  large  dark-colored  rat 
(Nesokia  bandicota)  of  southern  India  and  Cey- 
lon, where  it  is  known  as  the  "pig-rat'*_  on  ac- 
count of  the  taste  of  its  flesh,  which  is  a  fa- 
vorite article  of  food  among  the  natives  of  the 


BANDIERA  —  BANFFSHIRE 


dry,  hilly  districts  it  frequents.  As  its  food  is 
chiefly  grain  and  roots  it  does  much  harm  to 
gardens ;  and  it  is  also  destructive  to  poultry. 
It  has  the  habit  of  storing  rice  in  its  under- 
ground nests  against  the  famine  of  the  dry  sea- 
son. 

2.  In  Australia,  a  small  marsupial  with  a 
long,  narrow  head  and  muzzle  belonging  to  the 
family  PcramclidcE.  Many  species  are  scattered 
throughout  Australasia.  They  live  in  warm 
nests  underground,  and  feed  upon  insects, 
worms,  and  vegetable  food.  The  hare-like 
marsupials  ot  the  closely  allied  genus  Perogale 
are  known  as  rabbit-bandicoots,  and.  like  the 
other,  frequently  injure  vegetable  gardens.  Con- 
sult Gould,  ^Mammals  of  Australia*  (London 
1863). 

Bandiera,  ban-di-a'ra,  Attilio  and  Emilio, 
two  brothers  of  a  Venetian  family,  lieutenants 
in  the  Austrian  navy,  who  attempted  a  rising  in 
favor  of  Italian  independence  in  1843.  The  at- 
tempt was  a  failure,  and  they  fled  to  Corfu ;  but, 
misled  by  false  information,  they  ventured  to 
land  in  Calabria  with  20  companions,  believing 
that  their  appearance  would  be  the  signal  for  a 
general  insurrection.  One  of  their  accomplices 
had  betrayed  them,  and  the  party  was  captured 
at  once  by  the  Neapolitan  police.  Attilio  and 
Emilio  were  shot, along  with  seven  of  their  com- 
rades, in  the  public  square  of  Cosenza,  25  July 
1844. 

Bandinelli,  ban-de-nel'-le,  Baccio,  Italian 
sculptor :  b.  Florence,  1493,  the  son  of  a 
goldsmith;  d.  1560.  He  learned  his  art  under 
the  sculptor  Rustici,  but  modeled  his  style 
after  that  of  Michael  Angelo,  whom  he  vainly  at- 
tempted to  rival  and  whom  he  hated  with  life- 
long hatred.  He  was  patronized  by  the  Medici, 
and  in  honor  of  the  presence  of  Leo  X.  in  Flor- 
ence he  executed  the  model  of  a  colossal  statue 
of  Hercules  which  was  intended  to  surpass  the 
David  of  Michael  Angelo.  Another  work  of  his 
was  an  inferior  copy  of  the  Laocoon  group  for 
Francis  I.  He  produced  also  Hercules  and 
Cacus  (at  Florence),  a  somewhat  heavy  work,  88 
figures  of  apostles,  prophets,  and  saints  in  the 
choir  of  the  cathedral  at  Florence,  a  Bacchus, 
an  Adam  and  Eve,  etc. 

Ban'dit  (It.  bandito),  originally  an  exile, 
banished  man,  or  outlaw ;  and  hence,  as  persons 
outlawed  frequently  adopted  the  profession  of 
brigand  or  highwayman,  the  word  came  to  be 
synonymous  with  brigand.  Of  all  European 
countries  Italy  has  perhaps  been  most  infested 
with  banditti.  They  used  to  form  a  kind  of  so- 
ciety of  themselves,  subjected  to  strict  laws,  and 
living  in  open  or  secret  war  with  the  civil  au- 
thorities. Peter  the  Calabrian,  the  most  terrible 
among  these  robbers,  in  1812  named  himself,  in 
imitation  of  the  titles  of  Napoleon,  "emperor  of 
the  mountains,**  *'  king  of  the  woods,**  "protector 
of  the  conscribed,**  and  "mediator  of  the  high- 
ways from  Florence  to  Naples.**,  The  govern- 
ment of  Ferdinand  I.  was  compelled  to  make  a 
compact  with  this  bandit.  One  of  the  robbers 
entered  the  royal  service  as  a  captain  in  1818 
and  engaged  to  take  captive  his  former  comrades. 
Subsequently  adventurers  of  all  kinds  united 
with  them.  The  Austrian  troops  which  occupied 
Naples  were  obliged  to  send  large  detachments 
to  repress  them.  The  bandits  used  to  exact 
from  strangers  and  natives  a  sum  of  money  for 
protection,  and  give  them  in  return  a  letter  of 


security.  In  Sicily  the  Prince  of  Villa  Franca 
declared  himself,  from  political  and  other  views, 
the  protector  of  bandits;  he  gave  them  a  livery 
and  treated  them  with  much  confidence,  which 
they  never  abused.  Banditti  are  still  active  in 
Italy,  Sicily,  Turkey,  and  elsewhere. 

Bandolier',  a  large  leathern  belt  or  bald- 
rick,  to  which  were  attached  a  bag  for  balls 
and  a  number  of  pipes  or  cases  of  wood  or  metal 
covered  with  leather,  each  containing  a  charge 
of  gunpowder.  It  was  worn  by  ancient  musket- 
eers, and  hung  from  the  left  shoulder  under 
the  right  arm  with  the  ball  bag  at  the  lower 
extremity,  and  the  pipes  suspended  on  either 
side.  The  name  is  now  given  to  a  similar  belt 
by  which  a  number  of  cartridges  are  convenient- 
ly carried. 

Bandon,  a  river  of  Ireland  which  rises  in 
the  Carberry  Mountains,  and  at  its  mouth  forms 
the  harbor  of  Kinsale.  Spenser  describes  it  as 
"the  pleasant  Bandon,  crowned  by  many  a 
wood.**  It  has  a  course  of  40  miles,  for  15  of 
which  it  is  navigable  to  Innishannon,  four  miles 
below  Bandon. 

Bandtke,  bant-ke,  or  Bandtkie,  Jerzy  Sam- 
uel, Polish  historian:  b.  Lublin,  24  Nov.  1768; 
d.  Cracow  11  June  1835.  He  was  author  of 
< History  of  the  Polish  Nation>  (1820),  and  pro- 
fessor in  the  University  of  Cracow,  181 1-35. 

Bane'berry.     See  Act.t£a. 

Baner,  ba-nar',  Johan  Gustafsson,  Swed- 
ish general  in  the  Thirty  Years'  war:  b.  1596; 
d.  1641.  He  made  his  first  campaigns  in  Poland 
and  Russia,  and  accompanied  Gustavus  Adol- 
phus,  who  held  him  in  high  esteem,  to  Germany. 
After  the  death  of  Gustavus  in  1632  he  had  the 
chief  command  of  the  Swedish  army,  and  in 
1634  invaded  Bohemia,  defeated  the  Saxons  at 
Wittstock,  24  Sept.  1636,  and  took  Torgau.  He 
ravaged  Saxony  again  in  1639,  gained  another 
victory  at  Chemnitz,  and  in  1640  defeated  Pic- 
colomini.  In  January  1641  he  very  nearly  took 
Ratisbon  by  surprise. 

Banez,  Dominic,  theologian:  b.  1528  in  the 
Spanish  province  of  Biscaya ;  d.  1604  at  Medina 
del  Campo.  He  made  rapid  progress  in  philos- 
ophy and  theology  at  the  University  of  Sala- 
manca, where  he  had  as  teachers  the  famous 
Melchior  Cano  and  Peter  and  Dominic  Soto. 
In  1 581  he  was  appointed  professor  in  this  uni- 
versity, which  was  then  dividing  the  honors 
and  prestige  of  the  Sorbonne.  He  was  recog- 
nized as  one  of  the  clearest  and  most  acute  in- 
terpreters of  the  'Summa*  of  Saint  Thomas, 
and  his  chief  works  were  commentaries  on  the 
same.  He  took  a  prominent  part  in  the  contro- 
versy on  Divine  Grace,  predestination,  etc.,  in 
which  he  opposed  the  theories  of  Molina.  For 
several  years  he  acted  as  confessor  to  Saint 
Theresa,  and  at  his  command  she  wrote  her 
spiritual   treatise,    ^Camino  de  Perfeccion.^ 

Banffshire,  Scotland,  a  county  in  the 
north,  bounded  on  the  north  by  the  Moray 
Firth,  on  the  west  by  the  county  of  Moray  and 
part  of  Inverness,  on  the  south  and  east  by  the 
county  of  Aberdeen.  The  soil  is  for  the  rnost 
part  a  rich  loam  or  deep  clay.  The  principal 
rivers  are  the  Spey  and  Deveron,  with  the  Isla, 
a  tributary  of  the  former,  and  the  Avon  and 
Fiddich  of  the  latter :  besides  which  there  are 
many   other  main   and  tributary   streams.     Ihe 


BANG  — BANGKOK 


mountains  rise  in  altitude  as  they  recede  from 
the  sea,  the  most  celebrated  being  Cairngorm, 
which  is  4,095  feet  high.  The  principal  crops 
are  barley,  oats,  turnips,  and  potatoes,  little 
wheat  being  raised.  Special  attention  is  paid  to 
the  cultivation  of  turnips,  the  chief  object  of  the 
farmer  being  the  rearing  and  feeding  of  cattle. 
The  total  area  of  Banffshire  is  410,000  acres. 
Nearly  two  fifths  of  the  total  surface  is  under 
cultivation,  and  about  one  fifth  is  occupied  by 
woods  and  plantations.  Since  about  the  middle 
of  the  19th  century  large  tracts  of  formerly 
waste  land  have  been  reclaimed.  Fishing  is  a 
staple  industry.  The  salmon  caught  in  the  Spey 
and  Deveron  constitute  an  important  article  of 
traffic,  the  valued  rental  of  the  Duke  of  Rich- 
mond's salmon  fishings  in  the  former  being  over 
$60,000  a  year.  Banffshire  possesses  several 
woolen  factories,  tanneries,  rope  and  sail  works, 
ship-building  yards,  breweries,  lime-works,  and 
many  distilleries,  the  whiskey  being  generally 
known  under  the  name  of  Glenlivet,  after  a  glen 
in  the  county.  Among  the  natural  productions 
limestone  is  the  most  prevalent.  Serpentine 
also  abounds  in  several  places,  especially  at 
Portsoy,  where  it  is  known  as  ^^Portsoy  mar- 
ble*^ ;  it  is  wrought  into  vases  and  other  orna- 
ments. Ironstone  and  manganese  also  occur, 
and  Scotch  topazes  or  cairngorm  stones  are 
found  on  the  mountains  in  the  south  of  the 
county.     Pop.   (1901)  61,439. 

Bang,  bang,  Hermann  Joachim,  Danish 
novelist :  b.  1857.  He  came  into  notice  about 
1879,  since  which  time  he  has  published  a  num- 
ber of  novels  and  some  poems.  'Hopeless  Gen- 
erations^ (Haablose  Sloegter)  ;  'Eccentric 
Tales^  (Excentriske  Noveller)  ;  ^Under  the 
Yoke>  (Under  Aaget)  ;  ^Ten  Years^  (Ti  Aar)  ; 
and  'By  the  Roadside^  (Ved  Veien),  are  the 
titles  of  some  of  them.  The  last  named  is  con- 
sidered the  masterpiece. 

Bang,  a  drink.        See  Bangue. 

Bangalore,  ban-ga-lor',  a  town  of  Hindu- 
stan, capital  of  Mysoer,  70  miles  northeast  of 
Seringapatam.  It  stands  on  a  plateau  3,000  feet 
above  sea-level,  and  is  divided  into  two  parts, 
the  old  native  town  and  the  cantonments.  The 
chief  buildings  are  the  government  house  (where 
the  British  resident  lives),  the  new  public  offices, 
the  palace  of  the  maharajah,  the  central  jail,  etc. 
There  is  a  fine  public  pleasure-garden.  In  the 
old  town  stands  the  fort,  reconstructed  by  Hy- 
der  Ali  in  1761,  and  captured  by  Lord  Corn- 
wallis  in  1791.  Latterly  the  town  has  greatly 
prospered.  There  are  manufactures  of  silks, 
cotton  cloth,  carpets,  etc.  Bangalore  is  noted 
for  its   salubrity.     Pop.    (1901)   about   160,000. 

Bange,  banzh,  Valerand  de,  French  artil- 
lery colonel :  b.  Balignicourt,  1833.  In  1873  he 
reconstructed  both  the  light  and  heavy  field 
pieces  of  the  day,  and  his  models  were  adopted 
by  the  French  army  in  1879.  In  1884  he  was  the 
successful  competitor  with  Krupp  for  the  con- 
tract to  supply  field  pieces  to  the  Servian  gov- 
ernment. His  gun  has  been  preferred  also  by 
England,  Sweden,  and  Italy.  He  was  the  first 
to  employ  effectively  the  screw  principle  in  the 
mechanism  of  the  breech  block.  See  Hennebert, 
<L'Artillerie  Krupp  et  I'Artillerie  de  Bange^ 
(1886). 

Bangkok',  or  Bankok,  the  capital  of  the 
kingdom  of  Siam,  extending  for  3  or  4  miles 


on  both  sides  of  the  Menam,  which  falls 
into  the  Gulf  of  Siam  about  15  miles  below.  It 
consists  of  three  parts  —  the  town  proper,  the 
floating  town,  and  the  royal  palace.  The  town 
proper  occupies  an  island  7  or  8  miles  in 
circuit,  and  is  surrounded  with  walls  and  bas- 
tions ;  situated  in  the  midst  of  gardens  and  lux- 
uriant foliage  it  presents  a  very  picturesque  ap- 
pearance. The  floating  town  consists  of  wooden 
houses  erected  on  bamboo  rafts  moored  to  the 
bank  in  rows  eight  or  more  deep.  The  pal- 
ace, occupying  an  island  in  the  river,  is  sur- 
rounded by  high  walls.  Though  the  general 
character  of  the  buildings  is  not  irnposing,  nu- 
merous temples,  glittering  with  gilding  and  ter- 
minating in  lofty  spires,  are  seen  in  many  quar- 
ters. The  trade,  both  inland  and  foreign,  is 
very  extensive.  The  population  is  about  800.000, 
nearly  half  of  whom  are  Chinese,  the  others 
including  Burmese,  Annamese,  Cambodians,  Ma- 
lays, Eurasians,  and  Europeans.  The  foreign 
trade  of  Siam  centres  in  Bangkok  and  is 
mainly  in  the  hands  of  the  Europeans  and 
Chinese.  The  approach  to  Bangkok  by  the  Me- 
nam, which  can  be  navigated  by  ships  of  350 
tons'  burden  (large  sea-going  ships  anchor  at 
Paknam,  below  the  bar  at  the  mouth  of  the 
river),  is  exceedingly  beautiful.  As  the  town 
is  neared,  numerous  temples  present  themselves, 
and  floating  houses  become  common ;  and  finally 
the  whole  city,  with  its  rich  gardens  and  shining 
temples  and  palaces,  bursts  full  upon  the  view. 
Stone  buildings  are  used  only  for  the  royal  pal- 
aces, some  noblemen's  houses,  monasteries,  and 
the  dwellings  of  Europeans.  A  large  number 
of  the  houses  float  on  rafts  fastened  by  ropes 
to  poles ;  most  of  the  trade  of  the  city  is  carried 
on  upon  the  river.  The  internal  traffic  of  Bang- 
kok is  chiefly  carried  on  by  means  of  canals, 
there  being  only  a  few  passable  streets  in  the 
whole  city.  Horses  and  carriages  are  rarely 
seen,  except  in  the  neighborhood  of  the  palaces. 
The  native  houses  on  land, —  of  bamboo  or 
other  wood,  like  the  floating  houses, —  are  raised 
upon  piles,  six  or  eight  feet  from  the  ground, 
and  are  reached  by  ladders.  The  circumference 
of  the  walls  of  Bangkok,  which  are  15  to  30 
feet  high  and  12  broad,  is  about  6  miles. 
Bangkok  is  the  constant  residence  of  the  king. 
The  palace  is  surrounded  by  high  w^alls  and  is 
nearly  a  mile  in  circumference.  It  includes  tem- 
ples, public  offices,  accommodation  for  officials 
and  for  some  thousand  soldiers,  with  their  nec- 
essary equipments,  a  theatre,  apartments  for  a 
crowd  of  female  attendants,  and  several  Bud- 
dhist temples  or  chapels.  Several  of  the  fa- 
mous white  elephants  are  kept  in  the  courtyard 
of  the  palace.  Throughout  the  interior  are  dis- 
tributed the  most  costly  articles  in  gold,  silver, 
and  precious  stones.  The  temples  of  Bangkok 
are  innumerable,  and  decorated  in  the  most  gor- 
geous style,  the  Siamese  taking  a  pride  in  lav- 
ishing their  wealth  on  them.  In  the  neighbor- 
hood of  Bangkok  are  iron  mines  and  forests  of 
teakwood.  Tne  chief  exports  are  rice,  sugar, 
pepper,  cardamoms,  sesame,  hides,  fine  woods, 
ivory,  feathers,  and  edible  birds'  nests.  The  im- 
ports are  tea,  manufactured  silks,  and  piece 
goods,  opium,  hardware,  machinery,  and  glass- 
wares. The  United  States  has  a  resident  con- 
sular agent.  Among  recent  evidences  of  pro- 
gress may  be  mentioned  the  erection  of  steam 
mills,  the  introduction  of  gas  into  the  royal  pal- 
aces and  many  no'olemen's  houses,  and  the  estab- 


BANGOR 


lishment  of  a  regular  mail  to  Bangkok  in  1884. 
Siam  joined  the  International  Postal  Union  in 
\  1885,  and  in  1890  a  parcel  post  service  (with 
Singapore  and  Europe)  was  established.  Bang- 
kok is  now  connected  with  Burma  and  Cam- 
bodia by  telegraph,  and  is  the  centre  of  a  local 
system  of  (in  1893)  1. 780  miles.  A  short  rail- 
way at  Paknam  (on  the  coast)  was  opened  in 
1893;  another  line  of  165  miles  is  being  made; 
and  others  to  the  northern  provinces  have  been 
surveyed  and  sanctioned.  In  1893  a  treaty  was 
concluded  at  Bangkok,  by  which  Siam  made 
large  cessions  to  France,  two  French  gunboats 
having  forced  their  way  to  the  capital  after  an 
ineffective  defense. 

Ban'gor,  Ireland,  a  seaport  town,  county 
Down,  situated  on  an  acclivity  on  the  south  side 
of  Belfast  Lough,  four  miles  northwest  of  Don- 
aghadee.  It  consists  of  three  principal  and  sev- 
eral smaller  streets,  and  has  an  Episcopal 
church,  a  Methodist  and  a  Roman  Catholic 
chapel,  and  two  Presbyterian  churches ;  an  en- 
dowed school,  six  national  schools,  a  Protestant 
hall,  and  a  branch  of  the  Belfast  Bank.  The 
male  population  is  chiefly  employed  in  seafaring 
pursuits,  the  females  in  hand-sewing  in  all  its 
branches.  Bangor  is  a  favorite  bathing  resort. 
Bangor  Abbey  was  founded  by  Saint  Congall 
in  555  A.D.,  and  was  destroyed  by  the  Danes  in 
the  9th  century.  The  parish  church  now  occu- 
pies the  site.     Pop.  in  1891,  3,834. 

Bangor,  Maine,  the  chief  city  of  eastern 
Maine,  is  a  port  of  entry  and  the  seat  of  Penob- 
scot County.  The  city  is  on  the  west  bank  of 
the  Penobscot  River,  across  its  affluent  the  Ken- 
duskeag,  and  at  the  head  of  navigation,  about 
28  miles  from  Penobscot  Bay.  It  is  on  the 
Maine  Central,  Bangor  &  Aroostook  and  several 
other  railroads,  with  steam  and  electric  lines 
radiating  in  all  directions  ;  is  on  the  main  line 
from  Boston  to  Saint  John  and  Halifax,  and 
also  has  direct  steamship  connection  with  Bos- 
ton, being  the  terminus  of  the  Bangor  Division 
of  the  Eastern  Steamship  Company.  Bangor  is 
76  miles  northeast  of  Augusta,  137  miles  north- 
east of  Portland  and  246  miles  from  Boston. 

Trade  and  Commerce. —  Situated  near  the 
geographical  centre  of  Maine  and  at  the  head 
of  navigation  on  the  largest  river  of  the  State, 
Bangor  occupies  a  highly  favored  position  and 
one  destined  to  be  even  more  commanding  with 
the  growth  and  development  of  the  expansive 
territory  north  and  east  and  tributary  to  her. 
As  the  shire  town  of  a  county  embracing  some 
7S,ooo  inhabitants,  as  the  trade  centre  and 
shipping  point  of  a  large  and  rich  agricultural 
section  and  for  many  thriving  industrial  com- 
munities ;  as  a  point  of  convergence  for  numer- 
ous important  railway  and  steamship  lines,  and  a 
consequent  tarrying  place  for  great  numbers  of 
tourists,  sportsmen  and  commercial  travelers ; 
these  together  with  the  busy  commerce  of  its 
port,  the  metropolitan  character  of  its  hotels 
and  the  compactness  of  its  business  section,  give 
to  the  city  a  much  more  populous  appearance 
than  the  above  figures  would  indicate.  Bangor 
has  a  fine  harbor,  easily  accessible  for  vessels 
of  large  size ;  and  the  scene  in  the  open  season 
along  the  docks,  where  crafts  of  varying  rig  are 
loaded  with  lumber,  ice  and  the  diversified  prod- 
ucts of  this  region,  is  an  animated  one.  Al- 
though nearly  30  miles  from  the  bay  and  60 
miles   from  the  ocean,   the  tide   rises   about    17 


feet,  and  there  is  a  sufficient  depth  of  water 
to  float  the  largest  of  ocean  steamships.  The 
Penobscot  River,  whose  waters  unite  with 
those  of  the  bay  of  the  same  name,  is  a  noble 
water  highway,  rising  300  miles  away  amid  the 
mountains  and  forests  of  northwestern  Maine. 
In  the  8,200  square  miles  drained  by  the  Penob- 
scot there  are  1,604  tributary  streams  indicated 
on  the  State  map,  and  467  lakes  and  ponds. 
Bangor  is  one  of  the  greatest  lumber  markets 
in  the  north,  there  being  tributary  to  the  city 
the  great  forests  of  spruce  traversed  by  the 
Penobscot  and  down  which  the  logs  are  floated ; 
and  has  every  sort  of  manufactory  of  wood  and 
allied  products, —  saw,  planing,  woodpulp,  and 
molding  mills;  factories  of  furniture,  carriages, 
trunks,  valises,  agricultural  implements,  boots, 
shoes  and  moccasins,  clothing,  dairy  products, 
etc.,  with  iron  foundries,  machine  shops,  ship- 
yards, flour  mills  and  pork-packing  establish- 
ments. Ice-cutting  is  also  an  important  indus- 
try, Penobscot  ice  being  exceptionally  pure. 

Manufactures  and  Industries. — Bangor's  man- 
ufacturing establishments  number  in  the  vicin- 
ity of  three  hundred,  embracing  about  one 
hundred  different  kinds  of  industries  and  em- 
ploying several  thousand  hands.  These  figures 
are,  however,  inadequate  to  correctly  portray  the 
city's  manufacturing  interests,  as  many  of 
the  most  important  establishments,  including  all 
the  large  saw  mills  but  one,  are  outside  the  city's 
limits.  Therefore,  while  the  manufactures  of 
these  mills  are  purely  Bangor  products,  the 
plants  themselves  and  most  of  the  employees 
belong  properly  to  other  towns.  Among  Maine's 
many  industries  the  lumber  trade  still  holds  a 
foremost  place.  From  1816,  in  which  year  about 
a  million  feet  were  cut,  down  to  the  present 
time,  there  have  been  cut  on  the  Penobscot 
waters  in  the  vicinity  of  11,000,000,000  feet. 
The  lumber  cut  on  the  Penobscot  and  its  tribu- 
taries during  the  winter  of  1903-4  aggregated 
about  210,000,000  feet.  Lumber  shipments  from 
the  port  of  Bangor  during  1903  were  156,509,108 
feet  against  124,767,646  feet  in  1902,  and 
120,954,897  feet  in  1901.  In  recent  years  pulp 
and  paper  manufacturing  has  made  great  ad- 
vance and  numerous  pulp  and  paper  mills  are 
now  in  operation  along  the  Penobscot,  from 
those  of  the  Eastern  Manufacturing  Company 
at  South  Brewer  to  the  immense  plant  of  the 
Great  Northern  Paper  Company  at  Millinocket. 
In  recent  years  diversified  manufactures  have 
been  multiplying  and  many  and  varied  are  the 
products  of  these  establishments.  Bangor  has 
one  of  the  largest  and  most  prosperous  shoe 
factories  in  the  State.  Here  is  located  a  trunk 
manufacturing  establishment  which  shipped  re- 
cently a  whole  trainload  of  trunks,  the  largest 
shipment  of  trunks  ever  made  by  one  manufac- 
turer in  this  country  or  the  world.  There  are 
located  here  great  wood-working  plants  from 
whence  go  all  over  the  country  the  finest  de- 
signs in  interior  decorations  and  architectural 
wood-working. 

Bangor  is  a  trade  centre  for  eight  counties, 
and  is  connected  with  their  principal  places  by 
steam  or  electric  roads,  or  by  water  communica- 
tion. As  indicative  of  the  volume  of  the  city's 
commerce  the  Bangor  Customs  District  reports 
the  exports  for  the  fiscal  year  ending  30  June 
1903  as  $5,372,939,  against  $4,248,430  in  1902,  and 
$4,170,982   in    1901.     The   imports   for   the   fiscal 


BANGOR 


year  ending  30  June  1903  were  $1,341,880.  In 
1903  for  the  first  time  in  its  history  the  United 
States  Bureau  of  Statistics  reports  a  shipment 
to  the  Midway  Islands,  located  in  the  distant 
Pacific,  midway  between  Honolulu  and  Guam, 
and  it  is  interesting  to  note  that  these  goods 
were  shipped  from  the  Bangor  Customs  Dis- 
trict. Exports  by  vessel  from  the  port  of 
Bangor  consist  chiefly  of  fruit  box  shocks  to 
the  Mediterranean,  spool  bars  to  Scotland  and 
deals  to  South  America  and  the  United  King- 
dom. The  coal  receipts  in  the  port  of  Bangor 
aggregated  365,720  tons  in  1903  and  there  were 
273  cargoes. 

Banks,  etc. —  Bangor  has  five  national  banks, 
two  savings  banks,  two  trust  and  banking  com- 
panies, two  loa;i  and  building  associations  and 
two  marine  insurance  companies.  There  are 
two  daily  papers  and  several  weekly  and  monthly 
publications.  There  is  a  board  of  trade  with 
attractive  rooms  at  the  city  hall.  The  Kendus- 
keag,  flowing  through  the  centre  of  the  city,  is 
spanned  by  several  bridges,  and  the  city  is  con- 
nected with  Brewer  across  the  Penobscot  by  a 
bridge  1,300  feet  long.  A  dam  across  the  Penob- 
scot just  above  the  city  furnishes  water  supply 
and  power,  the  city  owning  both  its  waterworks 
and  municipal  lighting  plant.  The  assessed 
property  valuation  of  Bangor  is  $16,345,000,  with 
a  total  debt  of  less  than  $1,000,000. 

Buildings,  etc. — The  city  has  a  fine  granite 
custom  house  and  post-office  and  the  recently 
completed  county  court-house  is  a  handsome 
and  commodious  edifice,  a  credit  to  the  great 
county  of  Penobscot,  of  which  Bangor  is  the 
shire  town.  Bangor's  city  hall  —  the  Hersey 
memorial  building  —  is  an  imposing  edifice 
which  reflects  credit  upon  the  city.  The  Bangor 
public  library  is  one  of  the  foremost  institutions 
of  its  kind  and  contains  on  its  shelves  upwards 
of  50,000  volumes.  The  Bangor  opera  house  is 
unsurpassed  for  its  beauty  and  appointments  by 
any  outside  the  largest  cities.  The  Bangor 
Auditorium  Association  has  erected  the  largest 
building  of  its  kind  in  the  State,  and  here  each 
fall  are  held  the  eastern  Maine  musical  festi- 
vals. The  Eastern  Maine  General  Hospital  is 
one  of  the  important  institutions  here  and  Ban- 
gor is  also  the  home  of  the  Eastern  Maine  In- 
sane Hospital.  The  Bangor  Theological  Sem- 
inary is  a  time-honored  institution  of  learning, 
and  only  nine  miles  away,  in  the  town  of  Orono, 
is  the  flourishing  University  of  Maine. 

Government. —  Bangor  received  a  city  char- 
ter 12  Feb.  1834.  The  city  seal  is  typical,  the 
rising  sun  in  the  background  illustrating  the 
Sunrise  State,  and  the  spruce  tree  in  the  centre 
portraying  the  great  lumber  interests,  while  in 
the  immediate  foreground  are  gear  wheel, 
anchor  and  plow,  emblematic  of  manufactures, 
commerce  and  agriculture.  The  government  is 
vested  in  a  mayor,  who  is  elected  annually,  and 
a  council  divided  into  two  chambers.  The  city 
has  seven  wards,  and  one  alderman  and  three 
councilmen  are  chosen  annually  from  each 
ward,  the  city  government  comprising  the 
mayor,  seven  aldermen  and  twenty-one  council- 
men.  Most  of  the  appointments  and  adminis- 
tration offices  are  subject  to  the  control  of  the 
mayor  and  city  council. 

History. —  Bangor's  present  site  was  in  the 
early  days  the  camping-ground  of  the  Tarra- 
tines,  a  famous  tribe  of  Indians.     It  was  in  1769 


that  Jacob  Buswell,  Bangor's  first  white  settler, 
came  here  from  Massachusetts.  He  was  a 
hunter  and  boatbuilder,  and  established  his  home 
near  the  site  of  Saint  John's  Roman  Catholic 
Church.  The  place  was  for  a  time  known  as 
Kadesquit,  afterwards  as  Condeskeag,  and  later 
as  Kenduskeag.  The  locality  had  been  visited 
by  the  French  as  early  as  1605,  and  was  one  of 
the  many  places  identified  with  the  mythical 
Norumbega.  Kenduskeag  plantation  was  only 
a  small  hamlet  at  the  time  of  the  devolution 
and  during  the  time  when  the  British  had  con- 
trol of  the  river  the  hardships  were  severe.  At 
the  instigation  of  Rev.  Seth  Noble,  Bangor's 
first  clergyman,  the  name  of  Kenduskeag  was 
finally  abandoned  and  Sunbury  adopted.  With 
the  growth  of  the  place  the  people  became  im- 
patient of  the  plantation  organization  and  dele- 
gated Parson  Noble  to  proceed  to  the  General 
Court  at  Boston  and  secure  an  act  of  incorpora- 
tion. Minister  Noble  was  a  great  lover  of 
music,  and  the  hymn  tune  of  Bangor  was  such 
a  favorite  with  him  that  that  name  was  substi- 
tuted for  Sunbury  and  the  act  incorporating  the 
town  of  Bangor  was  passed  25  Feb.  1791. 

Bangor  early  gave  attention  to  the  matter 
of  improving  her  transportation  facilities,  and 
she  had  her  railroad  when  most  of  the  proud 
cities  of  to-day  knew  nothing  of  such  things. 
As  early  as  1836  her  enterprising  citizens  built 
a  railroad  to  Old  Town,  a  dozen  miles  up  the 
river,  with  a  view  of  aiding  the  development  of 
her  natural  resources ;  and  this,  one  of  the  ear- 
liest railroads  in  America,  prospered  for  nearly 
a  third  of  a  century.  Not  only  did  the  city 
have  one  of  the  first  railroads  in  the  country, 
but  the  pioneer  iron  steamship  constructed  in 
America  was  built  to  run  to  this  port  and  bore 
the  name  Bangor.  She  was  built  in  1845  on 
the  Delaware,  her  owners  being  the  Bangor 
Steam  Navigation  Company  of  Maine,  and  she 
was  designed  for  passenger  and  freight  service 
between  Boston  and  Bangor.  Within  recent 
years,  through  the  enterprise  of  some  of 
Bangor's  public  spirited  men,  Aroostook  County 
has  been  brought  into  direct  railroad  commu- 
nication with  Bangor  through  the  construction 
of  the  Bangor  &  Aroostook  railroad,  this  sys- 
tem having  numerous  branches  to  important 
points  in  northern  Maine,  it  having  also  ab- 
sorbed the  Bangor  &  Piscataquis  railroad.  In 
recent  years  there  has  been  no  more  important 
railroad  enterprise  inaugurated  in  New  England 
than  that  of  the  Bangor  &  Aroostook,  and  under 
its  enterprising  and  progressive  management  it 
has  become  a  potential  factor  in  the  development 
of  Bangor  and  the  immense  territory  stretch- 
ing to  the  northward.  Bangor  business  men, 
ever  alert  to  adopt  the  newest  methods,  in- 
augurated in  this  city  the  first  electric  railroad 
in  Maine  and  more  recently  electric  roads  have 
been  constructed  reaching  Hampden  and  South 
Brewer  on  the  south  and  Old  Town  and 
Charleston  on  the  north.  These  electric  lines 
bring  Bangor  and  the  territory  immediately  con- 
tiguous into  close  touch,  and  the  benefits  accru- 
ing therefrom  are  far-reaching. 

Located  as  the  city  is,  on  the  west  bank  of 
the  imperial  Penobscot,  at  its  junction  with  the 
less  pretentious  Kenduskeag,  the  business  is 
largely  in  the  valley,  while  the  surrounding 
heights  afford  picturesque  sites  for  residences. 
The    diversified    aspect    is    heightened    by    the 


BANGOR  — BANGS 


wealth  of  trees  along  the  residential  streets,  and 
few  localities  are  to  be  found  with  greater 
scenic  attractions.  From  the  highlands  over- 
looking the  city  the  view  is  particularly  fine, 
the  mountains  which  fill  the  eastern  horizon 
making  a  fitting  background  to  the  picture.  The 
Kenduskeag  has,  through  much  of  its  course, 
very  precipitous  banks,  a  notable  illustration 
being  the  historic  Lover's  Leap,  a  mile  above 
the  city ;  and  along  this  picturesque  stream  are 
mnumerable  gems  of  scenic  beauty. 

Bangor  enjoys  the  unique  distinction  of 
being  the  only  place  of  its  size  on  the  globe 
where  salmon  fly-fishing  can  be  successfully 
practised  within  the  city's  limits,  and  in  one 
season  a  Bangor  lumber  manufacturer  brought 
to  the  gaff  and  successfully  landed  twenty-seven 
salmon,  aggregating  500  pounds  in  weight.  The 
Bangor  salmon  pool,  whence  are  taken  all  the 
salmon  caught  with  a  fly  on  the  Penobscot,  is 
situated  about  a  mile  above  the  city  and  just 
below  the  falls  that  span  the  river  at  the  Bangor 
waterworks  dam. 

Bangor  is  the  home  of  many  sportsmen  and 
is  the  headquarters  in  this  section  for  sports- 
men's supplies  of  all  descriptions.  Nearly  all 
the  parties  of  sportsmen  who  in  the  season  visit 
the  great  wilderness  of  northern  and  eastern 
Maine  make  this  their  rendezvous  and  procure 
their  outfits  here.  Moose  and  deer  are  multi- 
plying rapidly  as  the  result  of  wise  game  laws, 
and  Maine  is  truly  the  sportsmen's  paradise. 
The  records  kept  by  the  wardens  at  Bangor 
show  that  during  the  fall  months  of  1903  there 
were  shipped  to  and  through  the  city  from  the 
Maine  game  regions  4,679  deer,  217  moose  and 
26  bears,  the  biggest  shipment  in  a  smgle  day 
havirig  been  202  deer  and  14  moose. 

Population. —  In  the  year  1800  the  population 
of  Bangor  was  277.  From  1830  to  1834  Bangor 
expanded  rapidly  and  when  in  the  latter  year  a 
city  charter  was  adopted  the  population  was 
about  8,coo.  The  census  for  1900  gave  Bangor 
a  population  of  21,850;  the  population  in  1904  is 
about  25,000,  and  with  the  towns  immediately 
environing,  including  the  city  of  Brewer  across 
the  river,  about  40,000. 

Edward  M.  Blanding, 
Secretary  Bang,or  Board  of  Trade. 

Bangor,  North  Wales,  an  episcopal  city 
and  parliamentary  borough,  in  Carnarvonshire, 
near  the  northern  entrance  of  the  Menai  Strait. 
It  consists  chiefly  of  one  principal  street  about 
a  mile  in  length,  nestling  i  na  narrow  valley, 
but  there  is  also  a  higher  and  more  modern 
quarter  called  Upper  Bangor,  overlooking  the 
strait.  The  principal  public  buildings  are  the 
cathedral,  the  bishop's  palace,  deanery  house, 
University  College  of  North  Wales,  train- 
ing college  for  teachers,  etc.  Bangor  is 
the  oldest  bishopric  of  Wales,  having  been 
founded  by  Saint  Deiniol  in  550  a.d.  He 
built  a  cathedral,  which  the  Saxons  demolished 
in  1071,  and  the  new  edifice,  completed  in  1102, 
was  destroyed  by  fire  in  1402.  The  present 
structure  was  in  building  in  1496-1532;  it  is  of 
cruciforni  design,  214  by  60  feet,  and  has  a  tower 
60  feet  in  height.  Modern  improvements  have 
been  freely  introduced.  There  are  plants  for 
gas  and  electric  lighting,  and  a  free  public 
library.  The  municipality  was  incorporated  in 
1883.     The  chief  local  trade  is  through  the  Pen- 


rhyn  slate  quarries,  in  which  3,000  wage-earners 
are  employed.  The  annual  fairs  are  thronged 
with  buyers  and  sellers.  The  fact  that  the  har. 
bor  is  not  suited  to  large  vessels  makes  the 
trade  by  sea  of  small  proportions.  Pop.  (1901) 
1 1,500. 

Bangor,  Pa.,  a  borough  of  Northampton 
County,  15  miles  north  of  Easton;  on  the 
Bangor  and  Portland  and  New  Jersey  Central 
railways.  There  are  numerous  slate-quarries, 
and  the  products  of  the  slate-mills,  etc.,  find 
an  extensive  market.  Pop.  (1890)  2,509;  (1900) 
4,106. 

Bangor  Theological  Seminary  (Congrega- 
tional). It  sprang  frc^n  the  Society  for  Pro- 
moting Theological  Education,  organized  in 
1810,  and  chartered  in  1812  (for  the  need  at  thi% 
time  see  Andover  Theological  Seminary).  The 
seminary  was  chartered  by  the  legislature  of 
Massachusetts  (of  which  Maine  was  then  a 
part)  February  1814;  was  opened  at  Hampden, 
Me.,  October  1816;  but  in  1819  was  removed  to 
Bangor  and  graduated  its  first  class  2  Aug.  1820. 
In  that  year  the  province  of  Maine  was  sepa- 
rated from  Massachusetts ;  and  the  Seminary 
was  conducted  as  a  means  for  supplying  the 
need  in  Maine  for  pastors  and  teachers. 
It  was  at  first  conducted  on  the  English  plan, 
but  a  few  years  later  remodeled  its  courses  to 
suit  American  needs.  Organized  to  supply  the 
churches  of  Maine  with  educated  pastors,  it  has 
furnished  over  half  tneir  number  ever  since  and 
does  so  still.  Up  to  1903  it  had  graduated  808 
students  and  given  partial  course  to  255  others. 
It  has  endowments  which  furnish  aid  to  all 
needy  students,  and  a  library  of  23,500  volumes ; 
and  in  1903  had  six  professors  and  23  students. 
The  course  is  one  of  three  years,  and  the  Sem- 
inary is  open  to  Christians  of  every  denomina- 
tion. There  is  an  endowment  of  $10,000  for  the 
Bond  lectureship,  which  is  not  limited  to  the 
subjects  common  to  such  lectureships,  but  in- 
cludes also  instruction  in  scientific  directions. 
In  recognition  of  the  close  connection  between 
the  Seminary  and  the  Maine  churches,  the  Sem- 
inary trustees,  in  1827,  invited  the  general  con- 
ference of  the  Congregational  Churches  to  send 
yearly  a  committee  to  the  institution,  and  a 
board  of  visitors  has  since  been  annually  ap- 
pointed by  the  State  conference. 

Bango'rian  Controversy,  a  controversy 
stirred  up  by  a  sermon  preached  before  George 
I.  in  1717,  by  Dr.  Hoadly,  bishop  of  Bangor, 
from  the  text  ''My  kingdom  is  not  of  this 
world,*' —  in  which  the  bishop  contended  in  the 
most  pronounced  manner  for  the  spiritual  na- 
ture of  Christ's  kingdom.  The  controversy  was 
carried  on  with  great  heat  for  many  years,  and 
resulted  in  an  enormous  collection  of  pamphlets. 
See  Hoadly,  Benjamin. 

Bangs,  Heman,  Methodist  Episcopal 
clergyman:  b.  Fairfield,  Conn.,  April  1790;  d. 
New  Haven,  Conn.,  2  Nov.  1869.  He  became  a 
member  of  the  New  York  Annual  Conference  in 
1815;  preached  in  pulpits  in  New  York  and 
Connecticut ;  was  one  of  the  founders  of  Wes- 
leyan  LTniversity,  Middletown,  Conn.,  and  one 
of  the  most  effective  preachers  in  his  Church. 

Bangs,  Isaac  Sparrow,  American  soldier: 
b.  Canaan,  Me.,  17  March  1831;  d.  1903.  He 
entered  the  Union  service  9  Aug.  1862;  became 


BANGS  —  BANISHMENT 


captain  in  the  20th  Maine  infantry,  August  1862 ; 
lieutenant-colonel  of  colored  troops,  February 
1863 ;  colonel  of  the  loth  U.  S.  colored  heavy  ar- 
tillery, November  1863,  until  honorably  dis- 
charged 19  July  1864.  He  took  part  in  the 
Maryland  campaign  of  September  and  October 
1862,  and  was  present  at  the  battles  of  Antietam, 
Shepardstown  Ford,  and  Fredericksburg;  was 
with  the  expedition  to  Ellis  and  Richard's  fords, 
and  served  through  Burnside's  second  cam- 
paign. Later  he  was  at  the  siege  of  Port  Hud- 
son, La.,  and  commanded  the  defense  of  New 
Orleans.  For  his  meritorious  services  he  was 
brevetted  brigadier-general  of  volunteers,  13 
March  1865. 

Bangs,  John  Kendrick,  American  humorist 
and  editor:  b.  Yonkers,  N.  Y.,  27  May  1862. 
He  was  one  of  the  founders  of  ^Life,'  and  has 
long  been  famed  for  his  light  verse  and  humor- 
ous stories,  among  which  may  be  mentioned 
<  Coffee  and  Repartee^  (1886)  ;  <New  Waggings 
of  Old  Tales.>  with  F.  D.  Sherman  (1887); 
<The  Idiot^  (1895)  ;  <Mr.  Bonaparte  of  Corsi- 
ca^ (1895)  ;  ^Water  Ghost,  and  Other  Stories,^ 
<The  Mantel-Piece  Minstrels.^  <The  Bicyclers 
and  Other  Farces,^  ^A  Houseboat  on  the  Styx,' 
and  ^A  Rebellious  Heroine'  (1896)  ;  <The  Pur- 
suit of  the  Houseboat'  (1897)  ;  ^Enchanted 
Typewriter'  (1899)  ;  and  ^Uncle  Sam,  Trustee' 
(1902).  He  became  editor  of  'Harper's  Week- 
ly' in  1900,  of  the  'Metropolitan  Magazine'  in 
1903,  and  of  'Puck'  in  1904. 

Bangs,  Lemuel  Bolton,  American  physi- 
cian :  b.  New  York,  9  Aug.  1842.  He  was 
graduated  at  the  College  of  Physicians  and 
Surgeons  in  1872;  was  professor  of  genito-urin- 
ary  diseases  in  the  Post-Graduate  Medical 
School  and  Hospital  of  New  York,  and  later  at 
Bellevue  Hospital  Medical  College;  and  was 
consulting  surgeon  to  a  number  of  hospitals 
in  New  York.  He  was  president  of  the  Ameri- 
can Association  of  Genito-Urinary  Surgeons 
(1895),  and  the  editor  of  the  'American  Text- 
Book  of  Genito-Urinary  Diseases,'  etc. 

Bangs,  Nathan,  clergyman  and  author:  b. 
Stratford,  Conn.,  2  May  1778;  d.  New  York, 
3  May  1862.  He  ent'^red  the  Methodist  min- 
istry in  1801.  In  1820  he  became  head  of  the 
Methodist  Book  Concern,  which  he  reorganized 
thoroughly,  paying  off  its  debts,  extending  its 
business,  and  putting  it  on  a  paying  basis.  He 
was  also  charged  with  the  censorship  of  all  its 
publications.  He  edited  the  'Christian  Advo- 
cate' and  the  'Methodist  Magazine'  ;  was  a 
founder  and  secretary  of  the  Methodist  Mis- 
sionary Society ;  president  of  Wesleyan  Univer- 
sity, Middletown,  Conn.,  in  1841  ;  and  in  pastoral 
work  from  1842  until  his  retirement  in  1852. 
His  chief  work  was  'A  History  of  the  Metho- 
dist Episcopal  Church,  1776-1840'  (4  vols. 
1830-42)  ;  others  are:  ^Errors  of  Hopkinsianism' 
(1815)  ;  'Predestination  Examined'  (1817)  ; 
< Original  Church  of  Christ'  ("1836)  ;  'State  and 
Responsibilities  of  the  Methodist  Episcopal 
Church'  (1850).  Compare  his  life  by  A.  Stev- 
ens  (1863). 

Bangue,  or  Bang,  a  drink  much  used 
throughout  the  East  as  a  means  of  intoxication, 
prepared  from  the  dried  leaves  of  the  Indian 
hemp,  which  are  also  called  by  this  name.  See 
Hashish. 


Bangued,  ban-gad',  Philippines,  the  capital 
of  the  province  of  Abra,  Luzon,  236  miles  north 
of  Manila.     Pop.  (1898)   13,417. 

Bangweolo,  bang'we-o'lo  (also  called 
Bemba),  a  great  Central  African  lake,  discov- 
ered by  Livingstone  in  1868,  which  is  150  miles 
long  by  75  wide,  and  3,700  feet  above  the 
sea.  The  Chambeze,  which  flows  into  it,  and 
the  Luapula,  which  issues  from  it,  constitute 
the  head-stream  of  the  Kongo.  The  shores  are 
flat,  and  parts  of  the  lake  are  mere  marsh.  In 
the  northwestern  part  are  four  large  islands 
inhabited  by  the  Mboghwa,  a  race  of  fishermen 
and  herdsmen.  On  its  southern  shore  Living- 
stone died. 

Ban'ian,  or  Ban'yan  (from  Sanskrit  baiiij, 
a  merchant),  the  name  commonly  given  by  Euro- 
peans to  Hindu  merchants,  brokers,  etc.,  in 
Bengal  and  western  Hindustan.  They  are  often 
men  of  great  wealth,  and  carry  on  most  exten- 
sive dealings,  their  operations  extending  as  far 
as  the  borders  of  the  Russian  and  Chinese  terri- 
tories, the  Persian  Gulf,  and  Eastern  Africa. 
They  are  great  travelers,  and  have  counting- 
houses  in  almost  every  trading  town  of  impor- 
tance in  Asia.  English  sailors  call  banian  days 
those  days  on  which  they  have  no  flesh  meat. 
Probably  the  name  has  a  reference  to  the  habits 
of  this  class ;  because,  before  people  were  ac- 
quainted with  the  abstinence  of  all  the  Hindus, 
it  was  thought  to  be  confined  to  the  Banians. 

Banian  Tree.   See  Banyan. 

Banim,  ba'nim,  John,  Irish  w^riter:  b.  1800; 
d.  1842.  He  early  exhibited  a  taste  for  litera- 
ture, and  before  his  20th  year  wrote  a  play 
called  'Damon  and  Pythias,'  which  was  after- 
ward performed  at  Drury  Lane.  His  fame  rests 
on  his  novels,  particularly  the  'O'Hara  Tales,* 
in  which  Irish  life  in  all  its  features  is  admir- 
ably portrayed. 

Banim,  Michael,  Irish  novelist:  b.  Kil- 
kenny, 5  Aug.  1796;  d.  Booterstown,  30  Aug. 
1874.  He  claimed  to  have  written  13  out  of 
the  24  books  of  fiction  confusedly  associated 
with  the  names  of  John  and  Michael  Banim, 
and  called  himself  the  author  of  'Crohoore  of 
the  Bill  Hook,'  one  of  the  most  popular  of  the 
'O'Hara  Tales';  'The  Ghost  Hunter'  (1833); 
'Father  Connell'  (1842),  and  'The  Town  of  the 
Cascades'   (2  vols.,  1864). 

Banishment  (the  act  of  putting  under  ban, 
proclamation,  as  an  outlaw),  a  technical  term  in 
Scotch  criminal  law  for  the  punishment  of  send- 
ing out  of  the  country  under  penalties  against 
return.  This  punishment  was  formerly  much 
used  in  various  forms, —  for  example,  banish- 
ment to  the  plantations  or  colonies ;  to  Eng- 
land (even  after  the  Union)  ;  from  a  par- 
ticular county  in  Scotland,  etc.  Sometimes  cap- 
ital punishment  was  commuted  to  banishment 
for  service  in  a  foreign  war.  The  old  Scotch 
doom  of  deportation  was  gradually  merged  in 
transportation  under  various  British  statutes.  At 
present,  banishment  is  still  the  statutory  sen- 
tence in  cases  of  celebrating  clandestine  mar- 
riages. 

"Banishment  is  sometimes  used  in  the  sense 
of  expulsion  or  deportation  by  the  political  au- 
thority on  the  ground  of  expediency,  as  well 
as  in  the  sense  of  transportation  or  exile  by 
way  of  punishment  for  crime.*'  3  Atn.  &  Eng. 
Enc.   Law    (2d    Ed.)    770.    The   United   States 


BANISTER  — BANK  HOLIDAYS 


supreme  court  decided  in  the  case  of  Fong  Yue 
Ting  V.  United  States,  149  U.  S.  698,  that  the 
right  to  exclude  or  to  compel  aliens,  or  any  class 
of  aliens,  absolutely  or  upon  certain  conditions, 
in  war  or  in  peace,  is  an  inherent  and  inalien- 
able right  of  every  sovereign  and  independent 
nation.  The  idea  of  banishment  occurs  in  the 
ostracism  and  petalism  of  Greece,  and  the  rele- 
gation, exile,  and  deportation  of  Rome.  It  was 
generally  accompanied  by  forfeiture  of  civil 
rights.  In  England,  voluntary  banishment  was 
called  abjuration. 

Ban'ister,  John,  Anglo-American  scien- 
tist :  b.  England ;  d.  1692.  He  settled  in  the 
West  Indies,  and  later  in  Virginia,  in  the  vicin- 
ity of  Jamesburg.  where  he  devoted  himself  to 
the  study  of  botany.  He  was  a  contributor  of 
a  catalogue  of  Virginia  plants  to  Ray's  ^History 
of  Plants,^  in  1660.  The  genus  Banistcna  was 
named  in  his  honor.  His  publications  include 
<  Observations  on  the  Natural  Productions  of 
Jamaica^  ;  ^The  Insects  of  Virginia-"  ;  'Curiosi- 
ties in  Virginia,'   etc. 

Banister,  John,  son  of  the  preceding:  b. 
Virginia;  d.  1787.  He  was  educated  in  England 
and  studied  law  there;  became  colonel  in  the 
Virginia  militia ;  was  a  member  of  the  Vir- 
ginia Assembly,  and  prominent  in  the  patriotic 
conventions  of  the  Revolutionary  period ;  was 
a  representative  from  Virginia  in  the  Conti- 
nental Congress  in  1778-9,  and  one  of  the  sign- 
ers of  the  Articles  of  Confederation. 

Banjarmassin,  ban-yarmas'-sen,  Borneo,  a 
town  near  the  southeastern  angle  of  the  island, 
under  the  government  of  the  Dutch,  on  an  arm 
of  the  Banjar,  about  14  miles  above  its  mouth. 
Owing  to  the  marshy  ground  and  frequent 
inundations  of  the  river  the  houses  are  built 
on  piles,  and  many  of  them  on  rafts,  the  front 
next  the  river  being  used  as  a  shop  or  stall  on 
v.'hich  wares  are  exposed  for  sale.  On  market 
days  the  water  is  covered  with  skiffs,  having 
a  single  individual  in  each,  moving  about  sell- 
ing vegetables,  etc.  The  people  are  continually 
on  the  river,  all  necessaries  being  purchased  at 
these  floating  markets,  and  all  business  being 
done  on  the  water.  In  every  respect  it  is  a 
floating  town,  possessing  neither  carriages  nor 
horses;  the  only  animals  kept  being  pigs,  goats, 
ducks,  geese,  and  fowls.  The  houses  of  the 
European  functionaries,  the  government  build- 
ings, and  the  fort,  are  built  partly  of  stone  and 
partly  of  wood.  The  fort  Tatas  is  surrounded 
with  palisades,  and  contains  the  resident's 
house,  the  magazines,  and  barracks.  Exports 
are  pepper,  benzoin,  bezoar,  ratans,  dragon's 
blood,  birds'  nests,  iron,  and  straw  mats  very 
artistically  made ;  and  imports  rice,  salt,  sugar, 
opium,  coral,  Chinese  porcelain,  silk,  cutlery, 
gunpowder,  etc.     Pop.  about  35,000. 

Ban'jo  (a  negro  corruption  of  bandore, 
Italian,  pandora,  from  Greek  pandoura,  a  three- 
stringed  instrument),  the  favorite  musical  in- 
strument of  the  negroes  of  the  southern  States, 
and  now  widely  popular  elsewhere.  It  is  five- 
stringed,  has  a  body  like  a  tambourine,  and  a 
neck  like  a  guitar,  and  is  played  by  stopping  the 
strings  with  the  fingers  of  the  left  hand  and 
twitching  or  striking  them  with  the  fingers  of 
the  right.  The  upper  or  octave  string,  however, 
is  never  stopped. 


Bank,  primarily  an  establishment  for  the 
deposit,  custody  and  repayment  on  demand,  of 
money;  and  obtaining  the  bulk  of  its  profits  from 
the  investment  of  sums  thus  derived  and  not 
in  immediate  demand.  The  term  is  a  derivative 
of  the  banco  or  bench  of  the  early  Italian 
money  dealers,  being  analogous  in  origin  to  the 
terrns  trapccitai  (trapeca,  a  bench  or  table) 
applied  to  the  ancient  Greek  money-changers, 
and  mensarii  (mensa,  a  table)  applied  to  the 
public  bankers  of  Rome.  See  B.-vnks  and 
Banking. 

Bank  Bills,  or  Notes,  promissory  notes  is- 
sued by  a  bank  or  banker  and  representing  their 
face  value  in  specie.  In  the  production  of  bank 
notes  the  principal  purpose  is  to  render  their 
forgery  impossible,  or  at  least  easy  of  detec- 
tion. This  is  sought  to  be  effected  by  peculi- 
arity of  paper,  design,  and  printing.  Bank  of 
England  notes  -are  printed  in  one  of  the  black- 
est and  most  indelible  of  inks,  on  paper  ex- 
pressly made  for  the  purpose  by  one  firm  only. 
It  is  a  hand-made  paper,  remarkable  for 
strength,  lightness,  and  difficulty  of  imitation, 
and  its  peculiar  watermark  con.stitutes  one  of 
the  chief  safeguards  against  forgery.  No  Bank 
of  England  notes  are  issued  twice,  so  that  this 
mark  is  rarely  indistinct  and  the  paper  does  not 
lose  its  peculiar  crispness.  Some  years  ago  a 
self-registering  machine  was  invented  for  im- 
pressing on  each  note  a  distinctive  mark  known 
only  to  the  bank  authorities.  Owing  to  some 
of  the  notes  of  the  Scotch  banks,  printed  simply 
in  black  ink,  having  been  successfully  forged 
by  photography,  those  issued  by  them  have 
since  1858  been  printed  in  colored  inks,  at  least 
two  colors  being  used  for  each  note. 

Since  1855  the  notes  of  the  Bank  of  England 
have  been  all  produced  by  surface  printing  from 
an  electrotype.  The  number  of  notes  produced 
and  issued  by  this  bank  sometimes  amounts  to 
300,000  per  week.  There  are  70  or  80  kinds  of 
Bank  of  England  notes,  differing  in  their  de- 
nominations or  values,  but  similar  in  the  mode 
of  printing. 

In  the  United  States  the  bank  notes  at  pres- 
ent in  circulation  are  manufactured  by  the  Gov- 
ernment Bureau  of  Engraving  and  Printing,  the 
paper  being  made  by  a  private  concern  under 
a  patented  process,  the  chief  ingredients  being 
a  mixture  of  linen  and  cotton  fibre,  into  which 
are  introduced  threads  of  silk  so  arranged  as  to 
be  perceptible  after  the  notes  are  printed.  This 
style  of  paper  is  furnished  only  to  the  govern- 
ment. The  highest  skill  is  exercised  in  engrav- 
ing the  plates,  nearly  all  parts  of  them  being 
executed  by  the  geometrical  lathe  and  the  ruling- 
machine  the  work  of  which  it  is  impossible  to 
imitate  successfully  by  hand.  The  printing  of 
the  notes  is  done  in  colored  inks  of  the  best 
quality,  sometimes  as  many  as  four  shades  be- 
ing used.  The  great  expense  of  the  machines 
used  in  the  engraving,  and  the  superior  quality 
of  the  work  generally,  renders  successful  coun- 
terfeiting almost  impossible.  The  notes,  when 
badly  worn,  are  returned  to  the  United  States 
Treasury,  and  other  notes  are  issued  in  their 
stead.    See  Money,  Paper. 

Bank  Holidays,  daj'S  during  which  banks 
are  legally  closed.  In  the"  United  States  they 
are:  i  January,  or  New  Year's  Day,  a  legal  or 
bank  holiday  in  all  the  States  except  Arkansas, 
Delaware,    Georgia.    Kentucky,    Maine,    Massa- 


BANK-SWALLOW—  BANKING  INSTITUTIONS 


chusetts,  New  Hampshire,  Rhode  Island,  and 
North  and  South  Carolina.  4  July,  Independ- 
ence Day,  and  25  December,  Christmas  Day, 
are  bank  holidays  in  all  the  States  and  Terri- 
tories of  the  Union.  Thanksgiving  Day  and 
public  fast  days  appointed  by  the  President  of 
the  United  States  are  also  legal,  or  bank,  holi- 
days. 12  February,  the  anniversary  of  the  birth 
of  Abraham  Lincoln,  is  a  legal  holiday  in  nine 
States.  22  February,  the  anniversary  of  the 
birth  of  Washington,  is  a  legal  holiday  in  all 
the  States  save  Arkansas,  Iowa,  and  Mississippi. 
The  first  Monday  in  September,  Labor  Day,  is 
a  holiday  in  nearly  all  the  States.  8  January, 
anniversary  of  the  battle  of  New  Orleans,  and 
Firemen's  Day,  4  March,  are  legal  holidays  in 
Louisiana.  Good  Friday  is  a  legal  holiday  in 
Florida,  Louisiana,  Minnesota,  and  Pennsyl- 
vania ;  and  Shrove  Tuesday  in  Louisiana  and 
Alabama.  Decoration  Day  (North)  and  ]\Ie- 
morial  Day  (South)  is  observed  in  the  several 
States. 

In  England  and  Ireland  the  bank  holidays 
are:  (i)  Easter  Monday;  (2)  the  Monday  in 
Whitsun  week,  generally  called  Whit  Monday; 

(3)  the  first  Monday  in  August;  (4)  26  De- 
cember, popularly  called  Boxing  Day.  In  Scot- 
land:  (i)  New  Year's  Day;  (2)  the  first  Mon- 
day in  May;    (3)    the  first  Monday  in  August; 

(4)  Christmas  Day. 

When  one  of  these  holidays  falls  on  Sunday 
it  is  observed  on  the  following  day,  and  a  note 
or  check  becoming  due  on  a  holiday  or  a  Sun- 
day is  payable  on  the  first  business  day  follow- 
ing. 

Bank-swallow,  a  small  swallow,  familiar 
not  only  in  all  parts  of  America,  but  in  most 
other  countries,  for  its  habit  of  breeding  in 
colonies  in  holes  in  sand-banks.  It  is  sooty 
black  above,  and  white  on  the  under  surface  of 
the  body,  with  a  dusky  band  across  the  breast. 
This  swallow  comes  from  its  winter  home  in 
the  tropics,  among  the  earliest  birds  of  spring, 
and  spreads  northward  even  to  the  borders  of 
the  Arctic  Ocean.  Many,  however,  remain 
within  the  United  States,  where  companies  of 
them  seek  the  banks  of  streams  or  exposed 
cliffs  of  sand,  and  bore  in  close  proximity  a 
great  number  of  tunnels,  which  may  be  seven 
or  eight  feet  deep.  The  bill  and  feet  are 
both  exceedingly  weak,  yet  with  these  feeble 
tools  each  pair,  working  alternately  and  with 
great  diligence,  complete  their  excavation  in  a 
surprisingly  short  time.  The  same  bank  will 
be  occupied  year  after  year.  The  inner  ex- 
tremity of  the  tunnel  is  furnished  with  a  nest 
of  dry  grass  and  feathers,  and  there  are  laid  in 
June  four  or  five  pure  white  eggs.  The  tun- 
nels are  used  as  roosting  places  at  night  by  both 
sexes,  and  when  the  young  are  hatched  they  will 
scramble  to  the  mouth  of  the  burrow  and  may 
be  seen  sitting  there  some  days  before  they  ob- 
tain strength  and  courage  to  launch  forth 
upon  their  wings.  These  swallows,  like  oth- 
ers, feed  entirely  upon  small  insects  caught  in 
the  air,  and  the  sight  of  a  crowd  of  them  dart- 
ing about  the  neighborhood  of  their  homes, 
with  a  constant  twittering,  is  one  of  the  most 
familiar  and  pleasing  sights  of  our  country  dis- 
tricts. The  English  sparrows  trouble  them 
greatly  by  seizing  upon  their  burrows  and  drag- 
ging out  the  furniture ;  and  snakes  and  mice 
sometimes  enter  the  holes,  but  against  most  ene- 


m.ies  these  swallows  are  well  protected.  Our 
common  species  {Clivicola  riparia)  is  also  nu- 
merous throughout  Europe  and  Asia.  Very 
similar  species  inhabit  the  Oriental  region  and 
Africa.  These  birds  are  well  described  in  all 
standard  works  of  ornithology,  and  some  spe- 
cial information  may  be  obtained  in  the  ^Mono- 
graph of  the  Hirundinidas^  by  Sharpe  and 
Wyatt  (1885-94)  ;  and  in  ^Bird  Watching,^  by 
Edmund   Selous    (1901).     See   Swallow. 

Bank  of  England.  See  Banks  and  Bank- 
ing. 

Bank  of  France.  See  Banks  and  Bank- 
ing. 

Bank  of  North  America.  See  Banks  and 
Banking. 

Banking  Institutions,  the  Examination  of. 
Since  the  beginning  of  the  Civil  War,  corpora- 
tions have  materially  multiplied  in  number  in 
the  United  States.  As  their  scope  has  broad- 
ened and  their  responsibilities  have  grown  with 
their  increase,  it  has  been  found  necessary  to 
the  inspiring  of  public  confidence,  to  the  pro- 
tection of  vested  interests,  and  the  prevention 
of  abuse,  to  prescribe  certain  limitations  be- 
yond which  they  may  not  go.  On  the  other 
hand,  extraordinary  powers  have  been  shown 
to  be  absolutely  necessary  to  the  success- 
ful prosecution  of  enterprises  which  must 
otherwise  be  undertaken  by  the  State  or  munici- 
pality or  else  remain  unaccomplished,  not  only 
to  the  detriment  of  the  public  interests  but  to 
the  impoverishment  of  a  whole  country.  The 
wisdom  of  such  legislation,  permissive  yet  re- 
strictive, which  has  brought  the  great  cor- 
porations of  the  day  into  being  has  been 
fully  justified  by  experience.  This  is  espe- 
cially true  of  the  great  financial  institutions 
which  supply  the  funds  for  gigantic  under- 
takings. In  fact,  in  this  connection  we  find 
that  of  all  the  large  corporations  those  pertain- 
ing to  banking  are  the  most  important,  the  most 
necessary  of  all.  These  it  is  that  make  great 
nations  and  render  possible  the  living  in  com- 
fort of  millions  within  a  prescribed  area ;  for 
it  is  the  financial  institutions  that  supply  the 
means  for  building  railways,  installing  the 
prominent  manufacturing  industries,  rebuilding 
cities  —  as  the  city  of  New  York  is  now  being 
rebuilt  —  and  even  furnishing  the  means,  at  a 
time  of  national  peril,  of  successfully  main- 
taining a  war  of  defense  against  aggression  and 
aggrandizement.  Let  us  glance  at  a  few  of  the 
benefits  which  our  national  and  State  banks 
and  trust  companies  and  banks  for  savings  con- 
fer. 

Benefits  of  Banking  Institutions. —  These  in- 
stitutions afford  a  permanently  safe  place  where 
the  individual  may  deposit  his  moneys.  And 
this  is  much  more  of  a  privilege  than  may 
appear  on  the  surface.  For  not  only  is  the 
secure  place  of  deposit  supplied,  which  other- 
wise would  be  wanting,  but  the  bank  practically 
insures  the  safety  of  the  funds  committed  to 
it :  if  in  any  way  loss  is  sustained  by  robbery 
or  fire  or  by  some  other  cause,  the  bank  is 
bound  to  make  good  the  loss,  and  this  regard- 
less of  the  fact  that  the  depositor  may  not  be  a 
profitable  customer,  as  many  dealers  are  not. 
In  fact,  the  number  of  depositors  who  simply 
use  a  bank  as  a  convenience,  whose  deposits  are 
not  large  and  whose  multiplicity  of  small  checks 


BANKING  INSTITUTIONS 


are  a  trouble,  as  they  are  the  despair  of  the 
individual  bookkeeper,  is  legion.  Nevertheless 
the  bank  takes  such  accounts,  holds  the  money 
subject  to  innumerable  little  drafts  which  are 
made  good  by  new  deposits  equally  numerous 
and  small ;  and  thus  the  active  little  account 
is  maintained  from  year  to  year,  often  only  a 
source  of  trouble  and  expense  to  the  bank, 
which  actually  receives  no  adequate  return  for 
its  services  as  warden  and  agent.  It  is  to  be 
noted,  too,  that  in  this  country  the  services 
rendered  the  individual  by  the  banks  dififer 
greatly  from  those  afforded  by  like  corporations 
in  some  other  countries,  notably  in  France. 
To  cite  one  instance :  In  that  country  every 
note  when  due  must  be  paid  to  the  bank  officer 
in  hard  cash ;  a  check  on  that  or  some  other 
bank,  duly  certified,  would  not  be  received.  In 
fact,  the  bank's  messenger  visits  the  payer  of 
the  note  and  demands  the  payments  of  the 
exact  amount  in  cash,  or  protest  and  legal 
proceedings  follow. 

Relation  of  Banks  to  the  Community. — 
But  leaving  this  phase  of  the  subject,  a 
glance  will  show  how  vital  is  the  relation  of  a 
bank  to  the  community  doing  business  with  it. 
In  a  word,  it  may  be  said  to  receive  all  the 
money  that  comes  to  that  community  and  to 
disburse  it  as  desired  by  the  customer.  Not 
only  so,  but  when  he  cannot  command  the 
money  required  to  transact  his  business, 
the  bank  may  supply  the  desired  amount. 
Thus  it  is,  estates  are  cared  for,  income 
in  the  shape  of  interest  is  paid,  vast  sums 
are  committed  to  its  keeping,  while  by  its 
loans  made  at  times  of  emergency  the  bank 
enables  the  business  of  the  community  to 
be  transacted ;  and  this  principle  extended 
stands  for  the  business  of  the  world.  It 
is  easy  to  see  that  a  misfortune  to  such  an 
institution  means  a  calamity  to  a  community, 
and  a  series  of  them  means  panic,  with  its  con- 
sequences of  impoverishment  and  distress,  and 
sometimes  ruin  to  countless  thousands.  How 
disaster  in  this  direction  has  been  wrought  in 
the  past  those  familiar  with  the  history  of 
banking  in  the  earlier  days,  when  banks  were 
not  subject  to  the  restrictions  of  the  present 
time,  and  when  the  failure  of  a  bank  often 
meant  irreparable  loss  to  innocent  holders  of 
their  circulating  notes,  are  fully  aware.  But 
when  we  go  farther  and  take  the  most  superficial 
glance  at  the  great  industries  of  the  country, 
we  obtain  some  conception  of  what  banks  and 
banking  mean.  Is  it  too  much  to  say  that 
without  credit  and  banking  facilities  the  unpar- 
alelled  facilities  of  our  gigantic  railway  systems, 
stretching  from  ocean  to  ocean  and  conveying 
the  enormous  crops  of  the  country  by  which  we 
are  enabled  to  feed  the  world,  would  be  in  vain  ? 
In  the  last  analysis  we  shall  find  that  it  is  not 
car  wheels,  but  it  is  money,  that  moves  the 
great  harvests  of  a  continent  —  as  for  that  mat- 
ter, of  the  world.  And  the  money  would  be 
lacking  but  for  the  banks  ;  these,  and  not  steam 
or  electricity,  stand  between  the  nations  and 
starvation. 

Saf'^guarding  Depositors. —  It  would  seem  that 
under  the  circumstances  no  argument  was  re- 
quired to  establish  not  only  the  necessity  for  ade- 
quate safeguards  in  the  shape  of  stringent  stat- 
utes, but  that  measures  should  be  provided  to 
insure  strict  conformity  on  the  part  of  the  bank 


officers  and  directors  to  the  requirements  of  the 
banking   laws,   thus   safeguarding  the   depositor 
agamst  abuse  of  privilege  or  criminal  carelessness. 
The  attamment  of  this  object  is  sought  by  the 
provision   in   national   and   State   legislation,   as 
the  case   may  be,   requiring  official   examination 
and  the  publishing  of  a  statement  of  a   bank's 
condition  from  time  to  time  as  the  authorities 
may  deem  expedient.     There  is  but  one  proper 
bank    supervision,     and    this     includes     mental 
alertness    to    discover    the    very    best    methods 
for     despatching     business     with     celerity,     for 
msuring    correctness,     for    guarding    most    ef- 
fectually against   errors,  and  to   render  tamper- 
ing   with    the    books    most     difficult    and    de- 
tection  most   easy.     It  means,  too,  economy   in 
the   use    of   time  —  the   article   which    so    many 
squander  lavishly  as  if,  like  the  waters  that  pass 
out    from    between    the   mute    lion    lips    of    the 
Nile  fountains,  it  was  to  flow  on  forever.    Super- 
vision means,  also,  such  oversight  as  makes  the 
manager   thoroughly   familiar  with   the  business 
of  the  bank,  so  that  he  can  upon  occasion  com- 
mand  the   fullest   information   regarding  a   new 
department  of  the  business  at  a  moment's  no- 
tice.    The  years  of  a  banker's  work  in  the  dis- 
charge   of    his    heavy    responsibilities    are    not 
many  at  the  most.     From  the  time  he  assumes 
the  direction  of  the  affairs  of  a  bank  to  the  time 
when  his  own  ledger  must  be  closed,  a  very  few 
decades    intervene.     When   that  time   has  come 
and    he   either    passes    from    all    work   or    puts 
down    his    pen    and    vacates    his    chair    for    a 
younger  man,  it  becomes  evident  that  the  super- 
vising  banker  —  be   he    president,    or   cashier  — 
whoever  he   may  be   and   whatever  his   official 
designation  —  should     be     able    to     hand     over 
to    his    successor    not    only    the    assets    of    the 
bank    unimpaired,    but    an    intelligible    working 
system  such  as  will  enable  the  new  manager  to 
familiarize  himself  with  the  details  of  the  busi- 
ness and   discover  the  exact  situation   with   the 
least  dela}^     But  this  can  only  be  accomplished 
by  the  inauguration  of  a  system  as  nearly  perfect 
as     may    be,     which,     with     its    comprehensive 
method  of  safeguarding  checks,  will  require  of 
him   less  devotion   to   such   details  as   it  is  the 
province  of  his  subordinates  to  supervise.     That 
is  to  say,  the  more  perfect  the  system  in  prac- 
tice the  more  time  will  the  manager  have  for 
the   exercise    of   his   judgment    upon    the    most 
important   questions   coming  before   him.     It    is 
here   that   the    test    of   the    most    efficient   bank 
official  lies.     Take,  for  an  illustration,  the  work 
of  supervising  the   loans   made   on   real   estate. 
Expert  Examinations. —  It  has  been  held,  and 
is  indeed  held  by  many  knowing  no  other  method, 
that  to  ascertain   the   value  of  properties   sub- 
mitted as  collateral  for  loans  recourse  must  be 
had  to  some  qualified  expert,  generally  some  one 
engaged  in  buying  and  selling  real  estate.     The 
judgment  of  such  an  authority  has  been,  and  is, 
accepted   as   conclusive  on   the   security  offered, 
and  determinative  as  to  whether  the  report  shall 
be  favorable  or  adverse  to  the  loan.     But  here 
the    question    arises.    Who    shall    gunrantee    the 
expert?  —  for  experience  has  too   often    shown 
that  his   judgment  may  fail,  or  it  may  be  dis- 
covered that  the  expert  was  consciously  or  un- 
consciously interested  in  advising  the  loan :  the 
applicant  may  have  been  a  friend   of  his,  or  — 
and  such  cases  have  been  —  it  may  be  his  own 
device  for  getting  a  loan  by  applying  through 


BANKING  INSTITUTIONS 


the  concealed  interest  of  another  party.  But 
suppose  a  more  excellent  way  is  to  be  found  by 
which  the  bank  can  be  rendered  reasonably  cer- 
tain as  to  the  value  of  the  property,  that 
a  clear  title  can  be  given,  that  it  has  real 
existence  as  described,  both  as  to  environ- 
ment and  prospective  value;  if  he  be  a 
wise  banker,  will  he  not  take  advantage  of 
that  safer  and  saner  method?  And  let  us  sup- 
pose, further,  that  in  this  way  our  banker  is 
kept  informed  regarding  specific  localities,  as  to 
whether  they  are  advancing  or  retrograding  in 
value,  whether  the  interest  is  kept  up  —  is  it  not 
clear  that  a  banker  who  has  such  expert  advice  is 
not  only  freed  from  duties  that  would  otherwise 
needlessly  weigh  upon  him,  but  that  his  services 
are  to  just  this  extent  made  more  valuable  in 
that  with  less  time  expended  in  searching  for 
details  and  technicalities  he  has  more  time  to 
devote  to  other  important  duties?  Needless  to 
say,  I  am  not  pleading  for  a  title  guarantee 
company  or  other  corporation ;  I  only  say  this  — 
that  where  the  services  of  these  or  kindred  in- 
stitutions are  warranted  by  the  business  of  the 
bank  —  and  it  must  be  small  institutions  where 
the  volume  of  business  does  not  warrant  them  — 
such  facilities  carrying  guarantee  of  perfect 
safety  should  be  utilized  by  the  prudent  banker. 
Illustrations  pf  the  principle  that  the  more 
responsible  officer  should  not  be  troubled 
with  detail  that  can  be  as  well  looked  after 
by  capable  subordinates  are  supplied  at  every 
turn.  They  obtain  recognition  in  the  man- 
agement of  our  great  industrial  corporations 
where  reports  of  details  are  placed  before 
responsible  heads  and  action  based  on  them  is 
taken  accordingly.  In  fact  the  principle  finds 
expression  in  every  phase  of  activity,  being 
adopted  by  the  captains  of  industry  as  well  as 
by  the  captains  of  great  armies.  Assuredly, 
great  as  Napoleon  was,  and  past  master  in  the 
art  of  war,  had  he  attempted  to  perform  the 
duties  of  subsistence  commissary,  quartermaster, 
adjutant,  and  inspector,  the  story  of  Wagram 
would  in  all  probability  still  be  unwritten,  and 
the  history  of  Austerlitz  would  only  be  that  of 
an  inconsequential  village  in  the  outskirts  of 
Vienna. 

Systematic  Examinations  Essential. —  But 
be  supervision  ever  so  thorough,  it  can- 
not serve  its  proper  purpose  without  a  system 
of  right  examination  —  rather  of  examinations. 
Unceasing  watchfulness  can  only  be  maintained 
through  proper  investigations,  not  only  to  detect 
fraud  but  errors  of  judgment.  The  usual  exam- 
inations of  books  are  of  but  two  kinds, 
those  of  the  directors,  and  those  of  the  official 
examiners  of  the  general  or  State  government, 
as  the  case  may  be.  Of  these  two  methods,  that 
of  the  directors,  when  rightly  conducted,  is 
most  important,  and  for  the  obvious  reason  that 
the  directors  are  better  informed  as  to  the  value 
of  paper  and  local  securities  than  the  official 
bank  examiner,  as  a  rule,  can  be.  That  the 
examinations  made  by  directors  are  too  ^  often 
superficial  and  perfunctory,  goes  without  say- 
ing. Were  it  otherwise  we  should  hardly  have 
the  record  of  the  year  last  past,  which  showed 
26  national  banks  placed  in  charge  of  receivers. 
Six,  however,  have  resumed  business.  Eight  of 
these  failures  were  due  to  fraudulent  manage- 
ment, or  to  dishonesty  of  cashiers.  Besides  this, 
during  the   year   ending  June    1904,   50  private 


banks,  37  state  banks,  8  trust  companies,  and  7 
savings  institutions  became  insolvent.  Of  course, 
in  the  examinations  by  the  directors  the  revision 
of  loans  is  most  important,  enabling  the  board, 
as  it  does,  when  conducted  in  a  business  spirit, 
to  detect  improper  advances  on  an  insufficient 
collateral  or  inadequate  endorsement.  It  is  here 
the  examination  should  be  most  thorough,  so  that 
the  presence  of  '*weak"  paper,  which  often  be- 
comes such  after  the  loan  has  been  made,  may  be 
discovered  and  remedied.  Obviously  in  such 
an  examination  every  piece  of  paper  must  be 
gone  over  as  to  time  of  maturity  and  collateral, 
which  latter  should  invariably  be  produced. 
Collaterals  should  all  be  carefully  examined 
with  reference  to  their  proper  assignments  to 
the  bank,  so  that  there  may  be  no  question  about 
its  ability  to  exercise  a  legal  ownership,  if 
necessary.  The  ticklers,  the  discount  book,  and 
all  books  pertaining  to  this  most  important 
branch  of  bank,  should  be  carefully  investigated, 
and  the  precise  facts  ascertained.  The  liabilities 
of  the  bank,  its  deposits  and  cash  on  hand,  the 
character  of  the  depositors  and  borrowers,  the 
condition  of  the  individual  and  general  ledgers, 
the  bad  debts  of  the  bank,  including  especially 
notes  past  due,  over-drafts  when  permitted  —  all 
these  and  more  should  be  investigated  by  the 
board,  and  this  without  bias  to  any  officer 
or  employe  of  the  bank :  all  of  them  who  dis- 
charge their  duties  faithfully  will  be  glad  of 
an  examination  which  will  result  in  enhancing 
the  appreciation  and  increasing  the  confidence 
of  the  board  as  to  the  value  of  their  services. 

To  insure  the  correctness  of  balances  on  the 
individual  ledgers  it  would  be  well  to  render 
a  monthly  statement  to  depositors  having  active 
accounts,  and  to  others  at  short  intervals.  A 
reconcilement  blank,  stating  that  the  balance  is 
correct,  should  accompany  the  same,  to  be  signed 
by  the  depositor,  and  an  envelope  addressed  to 
the  cashier.  If  there  are  errors,  the  depositor 
may  note  them,  to  the  end  that  they  may  receive 
official  attention  immediately ;  these  reconcile- 
ments to  be  filed  by  the  auditor  and  checked 
back  by  the  examining  committee. 

Surplus  Nominal  and  Real. —  In  some 
instances  it  would  be  advisable  for  the 
directors,  when  making  an  examination,  to 
employ  a  trustworthy  expert  accountant  to  aid 
them  in  their  investigations,  because  such  an 
expert  may  be  able  to  make  a  more  complete 
analysis  of  the  condition  of  the  bank  than  can 
the  directors.  Here  I  venture,  in  the  interests  of 
justice  to  all,  to  express  the  conviction  that 
while  banks  may  continue  to  fail,  shortly  after 
they  have  secured  a  certificate  of  soundness  from 
the  national  or  State  bank  examiner  —  as  they 
have  failed  in  the  past  —  no  such  failure  should 
take  place  following  a  like  verdict  of  a  board 
of  directors  of  a  bank,  though  there  have  been 
such  cases.  The  official  examiner  of  the  national 
or  State  government  may  not  be  presumed  to 
know  the  standing  of  many  of  the  promisors  or 
endorsers  of  notes.  It  may  be  impossible  for 
him  to  detect  worthless  paper,  though  it 
is  supposed  to  represent  thousands  upon 
thousands  in  value.  But  no  such  plea  can 
be  accepted  for  the  directors  of  a  bank, 
some,  if  not  all,  of  whom  should  have 
knowledge  of  the  value  of  the  paper  upon 
which  they  lend  their  depositors'  money.  And 
what  are  the  directors  but  trustees  of  the  monevs 


BANKING  INSTITUTIONS 


of  others,  committed  to  them  in  perfect  con- 
fidence, and  to  whom  no  language  can  too 
severely  be  applied,  who  fail  to  direct?  Here 
it  seems  proper  to  emphasize  a  practice  which 
is  becoming  far  too  common  in  the  management 
of  banking  institutions,  namely,  the  practice  of 
carrying  on  the  general  ledger  a  large  surplus 
fund,  or  undivided  profits,  through  the  failure 
to  charge  off  bad  paper  which  is  known  to  be 
such.  This  is  a  matter  to  which,  in  their  ex- 
amination, directors  should  give  their  attention, 
that  their  bank  statement  may  represent  the  ex- 
act condition  of  the  institution;  just  such  a 
statement,  in  fact,  as  every  right-minded  di- 
rector would  furnish  were  the  bank  his  own 
property.  But  let  me  be  just  to  the  directors, 
many  of  whom  are  prominent  business  men, 
some  of  them  directors  in  several  other  insti- 
tutions and  otherwise  engaged  in  business  oc- 
cupations which  take  all  their  time,  and  which 
make  it  impossible  always  for  the  director  to 
direct  and  examine,  as  he  would  be  glad  to  do. 
This  fact  has  obtained  recognition  among  lead- 
ing bankers,  who  have  inaugurated  another  sys- 
tem of  examination,  nameh',  the  practice  of  hav- 
ing the  books  of  the  bank  examined  as  often  as 
may  be  deemed  expedient  by  a  committee 
appointed  by  the  president  from  the  competent 
clerks,  including  a  chairman  of  considerable 
experience.  Tlie  committee  being  notified  as- 
semble immediately.  Without  a  moment's  warn- 
ing all  the  affairs  of  the  bank  are  put  in  their 
hands.  They  count  the  cash  on  hand,  ex- 
amine balances,  count  all  securities,  examine 
and  compare  the  sum  total  of  all  discounted 
bills  and  their  collaterals,  verify  all  accounts 
in  the  ledgers  —  in  short,  they  rigidly  scru- 
tinize the  condition  of  the  bank.  No  one  — 
no  officer  even  —  is  allowed  to  make  any 
transaction  without  the  knowledge  of  the 
committee,  who  take  due  account  of  it.  Where, 
as  in  the  large  cities,  branch  banks  exist,  the 
affairs  of  each  branch  are  also  examined  in  the 
same  manner  and  at  the  same  moment,  that 
there  may  be  no  collusion  by  shifting  of  bal- 
ances, borrowing  money  or  securities  to  make 
good  a  deficiency. 

Hozi'  Some  Banks  Examine  Themselves. — 
The  following  from  a  circular  letter,  convening 
a  committee  of  examination,  will  give  some  idea 
of  the  character  of  the  work  performed.  Jhe 
first  line  of  the  instructions  to  the  committee 
may  read  as  follows : 

On  presentation  of  this  order  you  will  at 
once  take  charge  of  the  bank,  and  will  not  allow 
any  officer  or  clerk  to  do  anything  without  your 
knowledge. 

Then  follow  specific  instructions  to  the  com- 
mittee :  First,  count  the  cash  in  detail.  Exam- 
ine the  cash  items,  and  all  items  composing  ex- 
changes, and  see  if  any  are  irregular,  and  make 
full  returns  to  the  president.  Test  all  dis- 
counted bills,  their  endorsements  and  collaterals, 
and  prove  the  amounts  and  accompanying  se- 
curities. Check  up  all  the  loans.  Verify  all 
extensions  and  balances  of  ledgers.  Prove  all 
certificates  of  deposit  and  certified  checks  as 
well  as  all  outstanding  vouchers.  Prove  the 
cashier's  account ;  make  a  record  of  all  out- 
standing vouchers  and  see  that  all  checks  drawn 
by  the  bank  have  two  signatures.  Verify 
the  expense  account.  Ascertain  whether  all 
charges   are    initialed  by  an   officer.     Prove  the 


tellers'  difference  and  submit  all  items  to  the 
president.  List  all  amounts  due  from  banks  and 
verify  them,  noting  any  irregularity.  Report  on 
amount  due  from  each  concern.  Scrutinize  and 
report  upon  clearing  house  accounts  and  margin 
accounts  of  the  Consolidated,  Produce,  and  Cot- 
ton exchanges.  List  all  dividend  checks  un- 
paid. Check  off  all  stocks,  bonds,  and  mort- 
gages. Describe  all  overdrafts,  and  see  whether 
the  books  are  properly  kept.  ^  eport  all  suspended 
debts  and  balances  due.  Check  off,  a  month 
back,  the  discount  book  and  see  if  all  amounts  are 
duly  entered.  Examine  exchange  account :  see  if 
the  entries  appear  suspiciouslv  low  and  if  there 
are  any  debits.  Investigate  interest  account  ;  see 
It  all  charges  are  initialed  by  an  officer.  All  in- 
surance policies  and  bonds  should  be  scrutinized 
and  a  complete  record  made  of  the  same.  Report 
on  all  differences  called  for  on  general  led^-er 
and  whether  they  are  all  known  to  the  officers! 
State  at  length  your  views  as  to  the  con- 
dition of  the  bank;  report  anv  departure  from 
the  method  of  our  system  as  you  understand  it. 
Report  any  suggestions  that  mav  occur  in  con- 
nection with  the  method  of  bookkeeping  looking 
towards  their  improvement.  Finally  state  errors 
made  in  the  methods  pursued  in  the  handling 
of  bills  discounted,  loans,  or  any  other  detail 
of  the  business. 

In  view  of  the  facts  which  have  been  given 
concerning  these  examinations  made  by  bank 
clerks  themselves  as  to  the  condition  of  their 
own  institution,  is  it  not  true  that  while  a  great 
deal  of  importance  is  attached,  and  rightlv  so,  to 
the  report  of  the  official  bank  examiner,  'it  must 
be  obvious  that  the  examination  by  the  com- 
mittee as  stated  is  exceedingly  desirable.  The 
fact  that  the  bank's  investigating  committee  en- 
ter into  possession  and  assume  entire  control 
of  the  bank's  affairs,  which  they  retain  without 
interference  or  interruption  until  they  have 
thoroughly  satisfied  themselves  that  the  books  of 
the  bank  are  correct  and  its  afifairs  precisely  as 
represented,  affords  the  best  possible  guarantee 
against  fraud  and  clerical  errors.  It  would 
seem  _  wise  that  all  banks  should  cause  such 
examinations  to  be  held;  where  this  is 
not  expedient  the  same  methods  should  be 
pursued  by  the  directors.  If  any  illustration 
were  desired  showing  the  necessity  for  rigid 
supervision^  and  thorough  examination  it  may 
be  found  in  the  astonishing  story  which  ap- 
peared in  the  public  journals  in  December 
1904.  The  fact  is  disclosed  that  a  woman  not 
engaged  in  business,  and  not  known  to  possess 
tangible  assets,  was  able  to  obtain  from  at  least 
one  bank,  with  a  reputation  for  conservatism, 
loans  of  four  times  the  capital  stock  of  the  insti- 
tution. 

It  is  a  good  plan,  when  an  investigation  is 
being  made  by  national  or  State  bank  examiners, 
to  appoint  a  committee  of  the  clerks  to  co-op- 
erate with  such  officials  for  the  purpose  of 
verifying  the  investigation. 

A  theft  which  had  wide  newspaper  publicitv, 
both  because  of  the  very  large  sum  stolen  and 
the  prominence  of  the  bank  in  the  citv  of  New 
York,  was  where  a  receiving  teller  was  found 
to  be  a  thief,  although  the  directors  had  abso- 
lute confidence  in  his  integrity.  He  used  part 
of  the  receipts  of  one  day  to  cover  the  shortage 
of  the  day  preceding. 

In  one  bank  two  individual  bookkeepers  were 


BANKING  INSTITUTIONS 


in  conspiracy  with  a  dealer.  They  allowed  the 
depositors  to  draw  out  more  money  than  they 
had  deposited  by  covering  up  the  defalcations 
by   false   entries. 

The  officer  in  charge  of  the  exchange  depart- 
ment in  one  case  entered  drafts  issued  by  him 
for  a  less  amount  than  the  face.  To  illustrate : 
A  $5,000  draft  was  entered  by  him  as  $1,000, 
and,  as  he  had  charge  of  the  "reconcilement,^^ 
the  difference  was  transferred  from  one  account 
to  another.  If  a  ledger  is  manipulated,  or  a 
certificate  of  deposit  register  falsified,  it  is 
difficult  to  discover  the  fraud. 

It  is  true  that  in  the  larger  cities  the 
national  bank  examiners  receive  pay  whereby, 
perhaps,  they  may  receive  sufficient  to  enable 
them  to  make  a  proper  examination,  but 
the  law  is  such  that  it  is  alleged  a  premium  is 
placed  upon  incomplete  work  by  the  provision 
contained  in  the  statute  for  the  pay  of  examiners 
outside  of  the  central  reserve  cities.  There 
are,  at  the  present  time,  only  78  examiners 
to  investigate  5.536  national  banks,  and  but  a 
short  time  can  be  given  by  the  examiner  to  his 
work. 

It  is  a  wise  proceeding  to  compel  all  em- 
ployes to  take  a  vacation  without  notice  each 
year,  so  that  others  may  become  acquainted  with 
their  duties.  In  this  way,  sometimes,  defalca- 
tions have  been  discovered. 

In  my  experience,  there  has  been  found  no 
more  satisfactory  preventive  against  fraud  than 
the  changing  of  employes,  without  previous 
notice,  for  a  short  time,  from  one  department  to 
another,  at  least  once  a  year.  A  constant 
inquiry  should  be  made  as  to  the  conduct  and 
habits  of  all  persons  employed  by  the  bank. 
Such  inquiry  may  not  make  a  weak  man  strong, 
but  good  resolutions  may  be  strengthened  by 
the  knowledge  that  the  penalty  for  wrongdoing 
will  be  surely  and  promptly  inflicted. 

It  is  only  a  truism  to  say  that  good  bank 
management  and  thorough  examination  are 
wholly  impossible  in  the  absence  of  a  definite 
system,  which  enters  into  every  phase  of  in- 
dustry. We  find  it  everywhere.  The  manufac- 
turer who  does  not  know  in  detail  his  stock 
on  hand  at  any  time  is  in  as  dangerous  a 
position  as  an  engineer  without  a  steam  gauge. 
His  steam  may  be  low  —  the  machinery  of  his 
business  will  suddenly  stop.  His  pressure  per- 
haps is  high  —  all  his  capital  tied  up  in  stocks 
means  an  explosion  —  and  the  receiver  gets  the 
pieces. 

Necessity  of  Method. —  To  a  right  and  safe 
banking  system  method  is  a  necessary  protec- 
tion. Unsystematic  banking  is  not  only  a 
paradox,  it  is  a  contradiction  in  terms.  Sys- 
tem economizes  time,  excites  invention,  ex- 
pands energy,  concentrates  power  and  acceler- 
ates results.  Without  system,  determination 
weakens,  purpose  crumbles,  failure  is  sure. 
Subtract  system  from  banking  and  chaos  is 
left.  In  banking  there  is  no  middle  ground  be- 
tween order  and  confusion,  between  cosmos  and 
chaos.  System,  applied  to  banking,  should  make 
it  easy  for  the  manager  to  have  its  condition 
constantly  before  him.  Emphasis  has  been 
placed  upon  the  value  of  examinations  conducted 
by  bank  clerks.  But  in  view  of  the  close  rela- 
tionship of  these  institutions  to  the  public  wel- 
fare, and  the  further  fact  that  they  are  virtually 
the  creation  of  the  Federal  and  State  laws,  it  is 


evident,  not  only  that  banks  should  be  examined 
by  officials  of  the  respective  governments,  but 
that  the  examinations  should  be  of  the  most 
searching  character.  A  good  bank  will  court 
investigation.  Whether  it  is  true  or  not,  as 
a  recent  writer  has  said,  that  "bank  exam- 
iners are  not  called  upon  to  play  the  de- 
tectives," it  is  assuredly  true  that  they  should 
discharge  their  duties  with  thoroughness,  and 
with  a  realizing  sense  of  their  duty  to  the  pub- 
lic. So  far  as  practicable  they  must  see  to  it  that 
collusion  at  the  time  of  examination,  between 
teller  and  discount  clerk  or  other  officers  is  made 
impossible,  and  that  neither  cash  nor  vouchers 
are  made  to  do  double  duty  in  the  hands  of  the 
dishonest,  as  has  been  done.  It  may  not  be 
assumed  that  either  national  or  State  or  direct- 
ors' examinations  will  form  an  infallible  guar- 
antee _  against  dishonest  practices.  But  what 
may  justly  be  expected  of  these  examinations, 
together  with  such  as  the  bank  officials  may 
themselves  institute,  is  that  they  will  reduce 
losses  through  error  or  fraud  to  a  minimum. 
No  known  system  affords  any  guarantee  of 
faultless  management ;  but  the  best  system  rig- 
idly applied  will  produce  the  best  results  pos- 
sible ;  and  for  this  the  public  have  a  right  to 
look. 

The  Pre-eminence  of  Neiu  York. —  Some 
years  ago  I  made  the  statement  that  the  banking 
law  ^  of  the  State  of  New  York  not  only 
furnished  the  model  for  the  National  Bank 
Act  but  that  it  had  affected  the  manage- 
ment of  the  Bank  of  England,  so  that  New  York 
may  be  said  to  have  furnished  banking  law  for 
two  worlds.  Gradually  but  surely  the  larger 
financial  institutions  of  this  country,  following 
the  law  of  concentration,  are  developing  in  cap- 
ital and  other  resources  until  at  a  time  not  dis- 
tant, unless  all  signs  fail,  the  Bank  of  England 
will  yield  to  this  country  the  possession  of  the 
world's  greatest  financial  institutions.  And  it 
may  not  be  wholly  irrelevant  to  remark  here 
that  the  lessons  America  has  taught  Great  Brit- 
ain, as  certified  to  by  Daniel  O'Connell,  John 
Bright,  and  other  British  statesmen,  are  neither 
few  nor  unimportant  —  only  to  mention  the  les- 
son of  local  self-government  as  seen  in  the 
several  States  and  counties  of  the  Union,  the 
lesson  of  religious  liberty  as  seen  in  a  nation 
without  a  Church,  witnessed,  too,  in  free  com- 
mercial intercourse  as  exemplified  in  the  free- 
dom of  intercourse  between  the  several  States 
and  Territories.  Can  it  be  doubted  that  in  the 
management  of  the  great  financial  institutions 
this  country  will  exert  a  more  powerful  influ- 
ence upon  the  other  nations  of  the  world  than 
she  does  even  now?  When  it  is  stated  that 
enough  money  lies  to-day  in  the  savings  banks 
of  the  State  of  New  York  alone  to  pay  off  our 
entire  national  debt  on  demand,  and  leave  a  sub- 
stantial balance,  is  it  not  made  clear  that  if  we 
are  a  spending  nation  we  are  also  a  saving  peo- 
ple? And  let  it  be  said  that  should  the  worst 
ever  come  to  this  country  through  the  horrors 
of  war,  it  may  not  for  a  moment  be  doubted  that 
the  financial  resources  of  America  will  serve  her 
even  more  effectively  than  the  Bank  of  England 
served  Great  Britain  through  the  Napoleonic 
wars,  when  she  was  obliged  to  send  large  sums 
of  gold  and  silver  out  of  the  country. 

When  we  regard  our  financial  resources  in  the 
plentitude  of  their  full    significance   it   scarcely 


BANKRUPT  — BANKRUPTCY  LAWS 


seems  possible  to  exaggerate  the  significance  or 
importance  of  anything  and  everything  that 
bears  upon  our  financial  institutions.  And 
what  can  be  of  greater  importance  than 
the  thorough,  systematic,  exhaustive  and  reg- 
ular examination  of  our  great  financial 
institutions  —  our  national  and  State  banks, 
trust  companies  and  institutions  for  sav- 
ings whose  capital  and  deposits  are  ex- 
pressed by  billions?  What  can  be  more  essential 
to  the  welfare  of  a  community  of  bread- 
winners and  dependents  upon  them  than  the 
assurance  that  those  institutions,  with  which 
are  lodged  the  means  for  conducting  the  vast 
enterprises  of  the  country  and  the  earnings 
which  have  been  won  by  hard  labor,  are  con- 
ducted in  an  honest,  businesslike  way,  pre- 
pared to  meet  the  demands  that  may  at  any  time 
be  made  upon  them?  And  the  key  to  such  a  situ- 
ation —  what  is  it  but  such  thorough  supervision, 
with  rigid  examinations,  as  shall  inspire  confi- 
dence and  dissipate  alarm  in  hours  of  financial 
stringency  and  tendency  to  distrust?  A  mercan- 
tile house  may  fall,  and  the  adverse  results  may 
be  partial  and  remediable ;  but  when  a  great 
banking  institution  goes  down,  credit  goes,  for- 
tunes disappear,  the  poor  are  left  helpless,  and 
the  tale  of  suffering  is  long  and  grievous. 

No  banking  institution  to-day  is  of  the  right 
kind  which  is  conducted  as  such  institutions 
were  50  years  ago.  In  like  manner  we  may  be- 
lieve that  in  future  years  new  methods,  new 
safeguards,  enforced  by  an  impartial,  effective 
system  of  promotion  of  the  personnel,  will  give 
increased  efficiency  in  bank  management,  result- 
ing in  a  greater  volume  of  business,  fewer  bank 
failures,  and  heavier  balances  on  the  right  side 
of  the  ledger. 

No  institution  can  run  itself  —  except  to 
ruin  —  least  of  all  a  bank.  Eternal  vigilance  is 
no  less  the  price  of  liberty  than  of  safe  banking; 
and  only  those  institutions  can  gain  and  deserve 
the  public  confidence  and  justify  the  powers  con- 
ferred upon  them  which  are  managed  under  a 
supervision  that  is  searching  and  thorough,  in- 
cluding examinations  which  are  rigid  and  relent- 
less. 

Willis  S.  Paine,  LL.D., 
Ex-Superintendent    New    York    State    Banking 

Department,  President  Consolidated  National 

Bank. 

Bank'rupt,  a  term  derived  generally  from 
Italian,  banco,  a  bench,  and  Latin,  rnptus,  bro- 
ken, in  allusion  to  the  benches  formerly  used  by 
the  money-lenders  in  Italy,  which  were  broken 
in  case  of  their  failure.  The  word  in  its  most 
general  sense  signifies  an  insolvent  person,  but 
more  strictly  an  insolvent  merchant. 

There  is  perhaps  no  branch  of  legislation 
more  difficult,  and  at  the  same  time  more  im- 
portant, than  that  which  defines  the  rela- 
tions of  debtors  and  creditors.  One  of  the 
first  objects  of  all  laws,  after  the  protec- 
tion of  the  person,  is  the  enforcement  of  the 
obligation  of  contracts,  and  among  all  the 
contracts  made  in  a  community  those  imposing 
the  obligation  to  pay  money  constitute  the  most 
numerous  class.  Some  of  the  first  questions  in 
legislation  are :  By  what  measures  shall  this 
obligation  be  enforced?  and  by  what  penalties 
shall  the  breach  of  it  be  punished?  In  many 
communities,   especially   in  the  earlier  stages  of 


civilization,  the  breach  of  such  a  contract  or 
obligation  is  regarded  as  a  crime,  and  the  in- 
solvent debtor  is  treated  as  a  criminal.  The  an- 
cient laws  upon  this  subject  in  England  so  re- 
gard the  insolvent  trader.  The  early  laws  of 
the  Romans  and  Athenians  authorized  the  most 
rigorous  measures  for  procuring  satisfaction  of 
a  debt,  even  permitting  the  sale  of  the  debtor 
into  slavery  for  this  purpose.  The  Battas  of 
Sumatra  still,  it  is  reported,  sell  not  only  the 
debtor,  but  also  his  family  for  the  benefit  of  the 
creditor.  But  as  civilization  advances  the  laws 
put  a  more  mild  construction  upon  the  debtor's 
failure  to  fulfil  his  contract,  and,  with  certain 
qualifications,  and  under  certain  restrictions, 
attribute  it  to  misfortune,  and,  on  giving  up  his 
property  to  be  divided  among  his  creditors,  dis- 
charge him  from  all  further  liability. 

The  power  of  making  bankrupt  laws  in  the 
United  States  was,  by  the  Constitution,  con- 
ferred on  Congress,  which  alone  had  the  power 
to  make  a  bankrupt  law  applicable  to,  and  bind- 
ing upon,  all  creditors  in  the  United  States,  and 
for  all  descriptions  of  debts.  This  power  was 
first  exercised  by  Congress  in  1800,  by  the  enact- 
ment of  a  bankrupt  law  limited  to  five  years, 
and  which  expired  by  its  own  limitation.  This 
act  was  modeled  upon  the  English  statutes  of 
bankruptcy  existing  at  the  time,  and,  like  them, 
was  applicable  to  no  debtors  except  merchants. 
Both  by  the  English  statutes  and  the  French 
code,  persons  capable  of  becoming  bankrupts 
are  such  as  fall  under  the  general  description  of 
merchants,  which  the  French  describe  as  com 
mercants. 

A  statute  of  the  reign  of  George  III.,  re- 
lating to  bankrupts  in  Scotland,  describes  a 
person  capable  of  becoming  such  to  be  one  who 
^'either  for  himself,  or  as  an  agent  for  others, 
seeks  his  living  by  buying  and  selling,  or  by  the 
workmanship  of  goods  or  commodities*' ;  an 
English  statute  of  the  reign  of  George  IV., 
embodying  the  previous  acts  and  judicial  de- 
cisions on  this  subject,  enumerates  particularly 
the  descriptions  of  persons  who  are  to  be  con- 
sidered merchants,  and  capable  of  becoming 
bankrupts.     See  Bankruptcy  Laws. 

Bank'ruptcy  Laws.  When  a  person  is  un- 
able to  pay  his  debts  in  full,  the  law  of  civilized 
countries  adopts  some  means  of  satisfying  the 
creditors,  as  far  as  they  can  be  satisfied,  out  of 
the  debtor's  estate,  and  relieving  the  debtor  him- 
self from  pressure  which,  by  his  own  efforts,  he 
would  riot  be  likely  to  overcome.  The  debtor 
having  been  declared  a  bankrupt,  his  property 
vests  in  his  creditors  for  the  purpose  of  being 
divided  ratably  among  them,  and  consequently 
he  starts  anew,  entirely  relieved  from  the  obli- 
gations thus  partially  satisfied.  In  general 
terms  this  is  the  process  of  bankruptcy  as  ob- 
served in  modern  societies.  The  law  of  bank- 
ruptcy is,  in  fact,  a  modern  creation  slowly 
evolved  out  of  the  criminal  code  in  answer  to 
the    necessities    of    a    widely    spread    industrial 

life.  ,  .,  .  . 

The  early  law  of  Rome,  while  prohibiting  con- 
tracts of  usury,  gave  the  legal  creditors  the 
savage  remedy  of  dividing  the  carcass  of  their 
debtor  or  selling  him  and  his  family  into  slav- 
ery. The  Lex  Poetclia  (about  326  B.C.)  enabled 
a  debtor  who  could  swear  to  being  worth  as> 
much   as  he  owed  to  save  his  freedom  by  re- 


BANKRUPTCY  LAWS 


signing  his  property;  and  many  years  afterward 
the  legislation  of  Julius  Caesar  established  the 
cessio  bonorum  as  an  available  remedy  for  all 
honest  insolvents.  The  bankrupt  law  was  slow- 
ly developed  in  England.  The  first  English 
statute  on  bankruptcy  (34  and  35  Henry  VIII., 
c.  4.)  was  directed  against  fraudulent  debtors, 
and  gave  power  to  the  lord  chancellor  and  oth- 
er high  officers  to  seize  their  estates  and  divide 
them  among  their  creditors.  In  England,  before 
1841,  only  a  tradesman  could  be  a  bankrupt. 
This  distinction  was  then  abolished.  It  was 
abolished  in  the  United  States  in  i86g.  In  the 
United  States,  Congress  alone  has  power  to  pass 
a  bankrupt  law  which  shall  have  authority 
throughout  the  countr)\  The  several  States 
may  enact  such  statutes  when  there  is  no  law  of 
Congress  in  operation.  The  first  general  bank- 
rupt act  in  the  United  States  was  passed  in 
1800  and  was  repealed  in  1803.  In  1841  an- 
other law  was  put  in  operation,  with  a  special 
view  of  meeting  the  urgent  needs  of  debtors 
who  had  been  ruined  by  the  commercial  revul- 
sion of  1837-8,  and  who  could  receive  no  ef- 
fectual relief  from  local  laws.  This  act  was 
repealed  in  13  months,  but  in  the  meantime  a 
large  number  of  cases  had  been  disposed  of, 
amounting  to  3,250  in  Massachusetts  alone.  An- 
other bankrupt  law  was  passed  which  took  ef- 
fect I  June  1867.  It  was  framed  with  great 
care  by  a  committee  of  the  House  of  Represen- 
tatives, of  which  Mr.  Jenckes  was  the  chairman 
and  chief  working  member.  Its  authors  hoped 
that  it  would  form  a  permanent  addition  to  the 
jurisprudence  of  the  country,  but  it  was  re- 
pealed within   a  few  years. 

An  act  ^'to  establish  a  uniform  system  of 
bankruptcy  throughout  the  United  States,''  was 
passed  by  both  Houses  of  the  55th  Congress, 
and  by  the  approval  of  President  McKinley  be- 
came a  law  on  i  July  1898.  The  question  had 
been  brought  before  Congress  for  several  years, 
the  issue  not  being  between  the  political  par- 
ties, but  on  the  method  of  legislation,  one  side 
favoring  the  creditor  and  the  other  the  debtor 
class.  The  Nelson  bankruptcy  bill,  which  at  the 
first,  or  special,  session  of  the  55th  Congress, 
passed  the  Senate,  failed  to  receive  the  consent 
of  the  House.  The  new  law  was  a  compromise 
jetween  the  Nelson  bill,  calculated  chiefly  to 
benefit  debtors,  and  the  Torrey  bill,  designed 
to  guard  the  interests  of  both  creditors  and 
debtors.  The  adoption  of  the  bill  which  be- 
came a  law  was  mainly  through  the  long-con- 
tinued efforts  of  Senator  Hoar  (Rep.,  Mass.), 
aided  especially  by  Senator  Nelson  (Rep., 
Minn.),  and  Representative  George  W.  Ray 
(Rep.,  N.  Y.).  A  conference  between  the  two 
Houses  was  held,  which  reached  an  agreement 
on  15  June,  the  report  being  adopted  by  the 
House,  28  June,  by  a  vote  of  133  to  53 ;  present 
and  not  voting,  24.  All  the  votes  against  the 
bill  came  from  the  South  and  the  far  West. 

The  provisions  under  which  a  man  can  be 
thrown  into  bankruptcy  against  his  will  are  as 
follows:  (i)  where  a  man  has  disposed  of  his 
property  with  intent  to  defraud ;  (2)  where 
he  has  disposed  of  his  property  to  one  or  more 
creditors  tc  give  a  preference  to  them;  (3) 
where  he  has  given  a  preference  through  legal 
proceedings;  (4)  where  a  man  has  made  a 
voluntary  assignment  for  the  benefit  of  his 
creditors  generally:  (5)  where  a  man  admits 
\n  vritinj?  that  he  is  a  bankrupt.    The  last  two 


provisions  are  practically  voluntary  proceed- 
ings. Under  the  common  law  a  man  is  con- 
sidered insolvent  when  he  cannot  pay  his  debts 
when  they  are  due ;  under  the  new  law  he  is 
deemed  insolvent  only  when  his  property,  fairly 
valued,  is  insufficient  to  pay  his  debts.  Only  two 
offenses  are  cited  under  the  new  law ;  one  when 
property  is  hidden  away  after  proceedings  in 
bankruptcy  have  been  begun,  and  the  other 
when  perjury  is  discovered.  Discharges  are 
to  be  denied  in  only  two  cases ;  one,  in  which 
either  of  the  offenses  detailed  has  been  com- 
mitted, and  the  other,  when  it  is  shown  that 
fraudulent  books  have  been  kept.  The  term  of 
imprisonment  for  either  of  these  offenses  is  not 
to  exceed  two  years. 

The  law  provides  a  complete  system  through- 
out the  United  States,  and  for  its  administra- 
tion by  the  United  States  covirts  in  place  of  the 
different  systems  formerly  in  existence  in  the 
various  States  administered  by  State  courts.  In 
bankruptcy  proceedings  a  bankrupt  debtor  may 
turn  over  all  his  property  to  the  court,  to  be 
administered  for  the  benefit  of  his  creditors, 
and  then  get  a  complete  discharge  from  his 
debts.  A  bankrupt  may  of  his  own  motion  offer 
to  surrender  his  property  to  the  administration 
of  the  United  States  court  and  ask  for  his 
discharge  in  voluntary  bankruptcy,  or  creditors 
may  apply  to  the  court  to  compel  a  bankrupt 
to  turn  over  his  property  to  be  administered  un- 
der the  act  for  the  benefit  of  the  creditors  in  in- 
voluntary bankruptcy.  The  bankrupt  who  has 
turned  over  all  his  property  and  conformed 
to  the  provisions  of  the  acts  is  entitled  to  a 
judgment  of  court  discharging  him  from  any 
future  liability  to  his  creditors. 

Extended  powers  are  given  by  the  law  for 
the  taking  possession  and  the  administration 
of  the  assets,  among  others,  to  allow  and  dis- 
allow all  claims  against  bankrupt  estates ;  ap- 
point receivers  and  take  the  necessary  measures 
for  the  preservation  and  charge  of  the  property 
of  a  bankrupt ;  to  arraign,  try,  and  punish  bank- 
rupts, officers,  and  other  persons,  and  the  agents, 
officers,  and  members  of  the  board  of  directors 
or  trustee,  or  other  similar  bodies  or  corpo- 
rations for  violation  of  the  act ;  to  authorize  the 
business  of  the  bankrupt  to  be  conducted  for 
limited  periods ;  to  cause  the  assets  to  be  col- 
lected and  reduced  to  money  and  distributed, 
and  substantially  determine  all  controversies  in 
relation  thereto ;  to  enforce  obedience  to  lawful 
orders  by  fine  or  imprisonment ;  and  to  extra- 
dite bankrupts  from  one  district  to  another. 
As  all  questions,  both  of  law  and  fact,  in  rela- 
tion to  the  property  of  the  rights  of  the  various 
parties,  must  be  decided  in  the  bankruptcy  pro- 
ceeding, it  is  provided  that  referees  be  appoint- 
ed, who  are  charged  with  the  duty  of  hearing 
the  allegations  and  testimony  of  all  parties,  and 
deciding  all  such  questions  as  may  arise.  Each 
case,  as  it  comes  up,  is  assigned  to  some  ref- 
eree, whose  duty  it  is  to  adjudicate  and  pass  upon 
all  such  questions  arising  therein  m  the  first 
instance,  the  right  being  reserved  to  any  par- 
ties to  appeal  from  the  decision  of  the  referee 
to  the  United  States  district  court.  The  duties 
of  the  referee  are  substantially  of  a  judicial 
character,  and  he  occupies  much  the  position 
of  a  judge  of  primary  resort,  subject  to  an  ap- 
peal to  the  court,  and  is  required  to  take  the 
same  oath  of  office  as  that  prescribed  for  judges 
of  the  United   States  courts. 


BANKS 


Provision  is  made  in  the  act  for  allowing 
bankrupts  to  compromise  or  settle  with  their 
creditors  by  a  proceeding  known  as  composi- 
tion proceedings,  whereby,  if  a  bankrupt  and 
a  majority  of  his  creditors  agree  upon  some 
basis  of  settlement,  the  same,  if  approved  by  the 
court,  shall  become  binding  upon  all  creditors. 
The  decision  of  the  question  as  to  the  approval 
of  compositions  and  granting  discharges  to  a 
bankrupt  from  his  debts  is  specifically  reserved 
by  the  act  to  the  judges  of  the  United  States 
courts ;  but  the  court,  by  virtue  of  its  general 
powers,  may  refer  such  matters  to  the  referee 
to  take  testimony  and  report  to  the  court  his 
opinion  thereon.  The  aim  of  the  act  has  been 
to  make  the  expense  of  the  proceedings  depend 
largely  upon  the  amount  of  the  property  in- 
volved, and  the  compensation  of  the  referee  is 
fixed  substantially  at  one  per  cent  on  the 
amount  distributed  to  the  creditors  in  ordi- 
nary cases,  where  the  assets  are  distributed 
by  the  court,  and  one  half  of  one  per  cent  in 
composition  cases,  and  the  trustees  who  have 
charge  of  the  actual  management  of  the  bank- 
rupt's property  receive  as  compensation  such 
■commissions  on  accounts  paid  out  by  them  as 
dividends  as  the  court  may  allow,  not  to  ex- 
ceed, however,  three  per  cent  on  the  first  $5,000, 
two  per  cent  on  the  second  $5,000,  and  one  per 
cent  on  all  sums  in  excess  of  $10,000. 

Banks,  Mrs.  Isabella  (Varlev),  English 
poet  and  novelist :  b.  Manchester,  England.  25 
March  1821  ;  d.  London,  5  May  1897.  After 
teaching  school  for  some  years  in  Manchester, 
she  married  the  journalist.  George  Linnaeus 
Banks  in  1846  and  with  him  published  a  volume 
of  verse,  *  Daisies  in  the  Grass*  (1865).  Her 
first  novel,  'God's  Providence  House*  (1865), 
made  her  widely  known,  and  among  other  popu- 
lar novels  by  her  are:  'Stung  to  the  Quick' 
(1867);  'The  Manchester  Man*  (1872); 
■* Wooers  and  Winners*  (1880)  ;  'Forbidden  to 
Wed*  (1883)  :  'In  His  Own  Hand*  (1885)  ; 
-Geoffrey  Oliphant's  Folly*  (1886).  She  pub- 
lished several  volumes  of  poems  also  and  she 
and  her  husband  were  the  authors  of  many  pop- 
ular songs. 

Banks,  Sir  Joseph,  English  naturalist:  b. 
London,  4  Jan.  1743;  d.  Islesworth,  19  June 
1820.  While  in  Oxford  he  began  to  manifest  a 
strong  love  of  botany  and  other  branches  of 
natural  history,  to  which  his  attention  had  al- 
ready been  turned  from  about  the  age  of  14. 
He  formed  a  volunteer  class  in  the  university 
and  brought  Mr.  Lyons  from  Cambridge  to 
teach  it.  In  May  1766  he  was  chosen  a  mem- 
ber of  the  Royal  Society,  and  in  the  following 
summer  he  went  to  Newfoundland  and  pro- 
ceeded to  Hudson  Bay  to  collect  plants.  In 
1768  he.  with  Dr.  Solander.  a  pupil  of  Linnaeus 
and  assistant  librarian  at  the  British  Museum, 
accompanied  Cook  on  his  voyage  of  discovery, 
Banks  being  appointed  naturalist  to  the  expedi- 
tion. In  an  expedition  into  the  interior  of  the 
desolate  Tierra  del  Fuego,  for  the  purpose  of 
■examining  the  country,  the  two  naturalists  nar- 
rowlj'  escaped  perishing  with  cold.  Banks  pro- 
cured the  introduction  of  the  bread-fruit  tree 
into  the  West  Indies,  and  he  wrote  the  botani- 
cal observations  in  the  account  of  Cook's  voy- 
ages. In  1772  he  visited  Iceland  with  Dr.  Solan- 
der, in  order  to  make  himself  acquainted  with 
its  natural  productions.  During  this  voyage  the 
Vol.   2 — 18. 


Hebrides  were  examined,  and  the  columnar 
stratification  of  the  rocks  surrounding  the  caves 
of  Staffa  was  made  known  to  naturalists  for 
the  first  time.  After  the  resignation  of  Sir 
John  Pringle  in  1777  Banks  was  chosen  presi- 
dent of  the  Royal  Society.  In  1781  he  was 
made  a  baronet.  The  French  chose  him  a  mem- 
ber  of  the  National  Institute  in  1802,  because  to 
his  intercession  they  owed  the  recovery  of  the 
papers  of  La  Peyrouse  relating  to  his  voyage, 
which  had  fallen  into  the  hands  of  the  British. 
His  library  and  his  collections  in  natural  his- 
tory are  celebrated.  Besides  some  essays,  peri- 
odical publications,  and  some  contributions  to 
the  transactions  of  learned  societies,  he  wrote 
nothing  but  'A  Short  Account  of  the  Causes  of 
the  Blight,  the  Mildew,  and  the  Rust  in  Corn* 
(1805).  In  accordance  with  a  contingent  be- 
quest his  collections  were  added  to  the  British 
Museum.  The  genus  Banksia,  of  the  natural 
order  Protcacea,  was  named  in  honor  of  him 
by  the  younger  Linnaeus. 

Banks,  Nathaniel  Prentiss,  American  sol- 
dier and  statesman  :  b.  Waltham,  Mass.,  30  Jan, 
1816;  d.  there  i  Sept.  1894.  Entirely  self- 
taught,  he  worked  himself  up  from  the  position 
of  bobbin-boy  in  a  cotton  factory  to  the  editor- 
ship of  a  weekly  newspaper.  He  read  law,  was 
admitted  to  the  bar,  and  began  to  practise,  but 
soon  became  active  in  politics.  Elected  to  the 
Massachusetts  legislature  in  1849,  he  became 
speaker  in  1851-2.  In  1853  he  was  president 
of  the  Massachusetts  Constitutional  Convention, 
and  the  same  year  was  elected  to  Congress  as  a 
Coalition  Democrat.  The  session  which  be- 
gan 3  Dec.  1855,  was  memorable  for  its  bitter 
speakership  contest,  the  candidates  being  Banks 
and  William  Aiken,  a  large  slaveholder  of 
South  Carolina.  The  contest  lasted  two 
months,  the  President's  message  being  withheld, 
and  all  legislative  business  blocked.  The  ser- 
geant-at-arms  borrowed  $20,000  from  a  Phila- 
delphia bank  in  order  to  make  advances  to 
needy  members  of  both  parties.  On  the  133d 
ballot,  2  Feb.  1856,  Mr.  Banks  was  elected. 
None  of  his  decisions  while  speaker  were  ever 
reversed  by  the  House.  He  was  governor  of 
Massachusetts,  1857-9.  In  1861  President  Lin- 
coln appointed  him  major-general  of  volunteers. 
He  conducted  active  operations  in  the  Shenan- 
doah valley  and  fought  with  credit  at  Win- 
chester and  Cedar  Mountain.  In  co-operation 
with  Admirals  Farragut  and  Porter  he  in- 
vested Port  Hudson  and  unsuccessfully  at- 
tempted to  carry  it  by  assault.  In  1864,  much 
against  his  judgment,  he  was  placed  in  com- 
mand of  the  Red  River  Expedition,  which  re- 
sulted most  disastrously  for  the  Federal  forces. 
Banks  was  widely  censured  and  soon  relieved 
of  his  command.  Gen.  Grant,  years  later,  in 
his  'Memoirs*  furnished  a  full  vindication  of 
Banks  by  giving  the  name  of  the  superior  officer 
responsible  for  the  expedition.  From  1866  to 
1876  Gen.  Banks  represented  his  old  district  in 
Congress,  and  was  prominent  as  chairman  of 
the  Committee  on  Foreign  Relations.  He  was 
United  States  marshal  for  Massachusetts, 
1879-88.  In  i8gi  Congress  bestowed  on  him 
an  annual  pension  of  $1,200.  a  severe  mentai 
disorder  having  come   upon   him. 

Banks,  Thomas,  English  sculptor:  b.  Lam« 
beth,  29  Dec.  1735  :  d.  2  Feb.  1805.  He  studied 
sculpture  in  the  Royal  Academy,  and  was  sent, 


BANKS  — BANKS  AND  BANKING 


as  one  of  its  students,  to  Italy.  Here  he  exe- 
cuted several  excellent  pieces,  particularly  a 
bas-relief  representing  Caractacus  and  his  fam- 
ily before  Claudius,  and  a  Cupid  catching  a  but- 
terfly. Among  other  works  executed  by  him 
was  a  colossal  statue  showing  Achilles  enraged 
for  the  loss  of  Briseis,  now  in  the  entrance 
hall  of  the  Royal  Academy.  He  was  also  the 
sculptor  of  the  admired  monument  of  Sir  Eyre 
Coote  in  Westminster  Abbey,  and  of  those  of 
Dr.  Watts  and  Woollett.  He  was  elected  a 
member  of  the  Royal  Academy  in  1785. 

Banks,  a  nautical  term  applied  to  shelving 
elevations  in  the  sea  or  the  bed  of  a  river,  ris- 
ing to  or  near  the  surface,  composed  of  sand, 
mud,  or  gravel.  When  tolerably  smooth  at  the 
top  they  constitute  shallows,  shoals,  and  flats ; 
but  when  rocky  become  reefs,  ridges,  keys,  etc. 
A  good  chart  always  defines  them,  indicating 
whether  they  are  sands  or  rocky. 

Banks  Land,  an  island  in  the  Arctic 
Ocean,  discovered  by  Parry  in  1819,  explored 
by  AlcClure  in  1850,  and  named  by  him  Baring 
Island.  It  is  separated  by  Banks  Strait  from 
Melville  Island,  lying  to  the  northwest,  and  by 
Prince  of  Wales  Strait  from  Prince  Albert 
Land,  lying  eastward. 

Banks  and  Banking.  In  specific  relation 
to  his  customer  the  banker  occupies  the  position 
of  debtor  to  creditor,  holding  money  which  the 
customer  may  demand  at  any  time  in  whole  or  in 
part  by  means  of  a  check  payable  at  sight  on 
presentation  during  banking  hours.  For  the 
refusal  to  cash  a  check  from  the  erroneous  sup- 
position that  he  has  no  funds  of  his  customer's 
in  his  hands,  or  for  misleading  statements  re- 
specting the  position  in  which  the  bank  stands, 
the  banker  is  legally  responsible.  Moreover,  the 
law  regards  him  as  bound  to  know  his  cus- 
tomer's signature,  and  the  loss  falls  upon  him 
in  event  of  his  cashing  a  forged  check.  In 
their  relations  to  the  community,  the  chief 
services  rendered  by  banks  are  the  following: 
By  receiving  deposits  of  money,  and  massing 
in  sums  efficient  for  extensive  enterprises  the 
smaller  savings  of  individuals,  they  are  the  means 
of  keeping  fully  and  constantly  employed  a 
large  portion  of  the  capital  of  the  community 
which,  but  for  their  agency,  would  be  unpro- 
ductive; they  are  the  means  by  which  the 
surplus  capital  of  one  part  of  a  country  is 
transferred  to  another;  where  it  may  be  ad- 
vantageously employed  in  stimulating  industry; 
they  enable  vast  and  numerous  money  transac- 
tions to  be  carried  on  without  the  intervention 
of  coin  or  notes  at  all,  thus  obviating  trouble, 
risk  and  expense.  The  mechanism  by  which  the 
last  of  these  benefits  is  secured  is  to  be  found 
in   perfection   in  the  clearing-house  system. 

History. — Although  banking  operations  on  a 
considerable  scale  appear  to  have  been  conduct- 
ed by  the  ancients,  modern  banking  must  be 
regarded  as  having  had  an  independent  origin 
in  the  reviving  civilization  of  the  Middle  Ages. 
In  the  I2th  century  almost  the  whole  trade  of 
Europe  was  in  the  hands  of  the  Italian  cities, 
and  in  these  the  need  of  bankers  was 
first  ^  felt.  The  earliest  public  bank,  that  of 
Venice,  established  in  1171,  and  existing  down 
to    the    dissolution    of    the    republic    in    1797, 


was  for  some  time  a  bank  of  deposit  only, 
the  government  being  responsible  for  the  de- 
posits, and  the  whole  capital  being  in  effect  a 
public  loan.  In  the  early  periods  of  the  opera- 
tions of  this  bank  deposits  could  not  be  with- 
drawn, but  the  depositor  had  a  credit  at  the 
bank  to  the  amount  deposited,  this  credit  being 
transferable  to  another  person  in  place  of 
money  payment.  Subsequently  deposits  were 
allowed  to  be  withdrawn,  the  original  system 
proving  inconvenient  outside  the  Venetian 
Ijoundaries.  It  was,  however,  less  from  the 
Bank  of  Venice  than  from  the  Florentine  bank- 
ers of  the  13th  and  14th  centuries  that  modern 
banking  especially  dates,  the  magnitude  of  their 
operations  being  indicated  by  the  fact  that  be- 
tween 1430  and  1433,  76  bankers  of  Florence 
issued  on  loan  nearly  5,000,000  gold  florins. 
The  Bank  of  St.  George  at  Genoa  also  furnished 
a  striking  chapter  in  financial  history.  The  im- 
portant Bank  of  Amsterdam,  taken  by  Adam 
Smith  as  a  type  of  the  older  banks,  was  estab- 
lished in  1609,  and  owed  its  origin  to  the  fluc- 
tuation and  uncertainty  induced  by  the  clipped 
and  worn  currency.  The  object  of  the  insti- 
tution (established  under  guarantee  of  the 
city)  was  to  give  a  certain  and  unquestionable 
value  to  a  bill  on  Amsterdam ;  and  for  this 
purpose  the  various  coins  were  received  in 
deposit  at  the  bank  at  their  real  value  in 
standard  coin,  less  a  small  charge  for  recoinage 
and  expense  of  management.  For  the  amount 
deposited  a  credit  was  opened  on  the  books  of 
the  bank,  by  the  transfer  of  which  payments 
could  be  made,  this  so-called  bank  money  being 
of  uniform  value  as  representing  money  at  the 
mint  standard.  It  bore,  therefore,  an  agio  or 
premium  above  the  worn  coin  currency,  and  it 
was  legally  compulsory  to  make  all  payments 
of  600  guilders  and  upward  in  bank  money. 
The  deposits  were  supposed  to  remain  in  the 
coffers  of  the  bank,  but  were  secretly  traded 
with  in  the  i8th  century  till  the  collapse  of  the 
bank  in  1790.  Banks  of  similar  character  were 
established  at  Nuremberg  and  other  towns,  the 
most  important  being  the  Bank  of  Hamburg, 
founded  in  1619.  In  England  there  was  no 
corresponding  institution,  the  London  mer- 
chants being  in  the  habit  of  lodging  their  money 
at  the  Mint  in  the  Tower,  until  Charles  I.  ap- 
propriated the  whole  of  it  (£200,000)  in  1640. 
Thenceforth  they  lodged  it  with  the  goldsmiths, 
who  began  to  do  banking  business  in  a  small 
way,  encouraging  deposits  by  allowing  interest 
(4d.  a  day)  for  their  use,  lending  money  for 
short  periods,  discounting  bills,  etc.  The  bank- 
note was  first  invented  and  issued  in  1690  by 
the  Bank  of  Sweden,  founded  by  Palmstruck 
in  1688,  and  one  of  the  most  successful  of  bank- 
ing establishments.  About  the  same  time  the 
banks  of  England  and  Scotland  began  to  take 
shape,  opening  up  a  new  era  in  the  financing  of 
commerce   and   industry. 

Bank  of  England. — The  Bank  of  England, 
the  most  important  banking  establishment  in 
the  world,  was  projected  by  William  Paterson, 
afterward  the  promoter  of  the  disastrous  Darien 
scheme.  It  was  the  first  public  bank  in  the 
United  Kingdom,  and  was  chartered  in  1694 
by  an  act  which,  among  other  things,  secured 
certain  recompenses  to  such  persons  as  should 
advance  the  sum  of  £1,500,000  toward  carrying 


BANKS  AND  BANKING 


on  the  war  against  France.  Subscribers  to  the 
loan  became,  under  the  act,  stockholders,  to 
the  amount  of  their  respective  subscriptions,  in 
the  capital  stock  of  a  corporation  denominated 
the  Governor  and  Company  of  the  Bank  of 
England.  The  company  thus  formed  advanced 
to  the  government  i  1,200,000  at  an  interest  of  8 
per  cent  —  the  government  making  an  additional 
bonus  or  allowance  to  the  bank  of  £4,000  annual- 
ly for  the  management  of  this  loan  (which,  in 
fact,  constituted  the  capital  of  the  bank),  and 
for  settling  the  interest  and  making  transfers, 
etc.,  among  the  various  stockholders.  This 
bank,  like  that  of  Venice,  was  thus  originally 
an  engine  of  the  government,  and  not  a  mere 
commercial  establishment.  Its  capital  has  been 
added  to  from  time  to  time,  the  original  capital 
of  ii,200,ooo  having  increased  to  £14,553,000,  in 
1816,  since  which  no  further  augmentation  has 
taken  place.  There  exists  besides,  however, 
a  variable  **rest'^  of  over  £3,000,000.  The  char- 
ter of  the  bank  was  originally  granted  for  11 
years  certain,  or  till  a  j-ear's  notice  after  i  Aug. 
1705.  It  was  subsequently  renewed  for  various 
periods  in  1697,  1708,  1713,  1742,  1764,  1781, 
1800,  1833,  and  1844,  certain  conditions  which 
the  bank  had  to  fulfill  being  specified  at  each 
renewal.  On  this  last  occasion  it  was  continued 
till  12  months'  notice  from  1855.  At  the  same 
time  the  issue  department  of  the  bank  was 
established  as  distinct  from  the  general  banking 
department,  the  sole  business  entrusted  to  the 
former  being  the  issue  of  notes.  By  this  ar- 
rangement the  bank  was  authorized  to  issue 
notes  to  the  value  of  £14,000,000  upon  securities 
especially  set  apart,  the  most  important  of  the 
securities  being  the  sum  of  £11,015,100  due  to 
the  bank  by  the  government,  together  with  so 
much  of  the  coin  and  bullion  then  held  by  the 
bank  as  was  not  required  by  the  banking  de- 
partment. The  bank  has  since  been  permitted 
to  increase  its  issue  on  securities  to  £15,750,000, 
but  for  every  note  that  the  issue  department 
may  issue  beyond  the  total  sum  of  £15,750,000 
an  equivalent  amount  of  coin  or  bullion  must 
be  paid  into  the  coffers  of  the  bank.  The  Bank 
of  England  notes  are,  therefore,  really  equiva- 
lent to,  and  at  any  time  convertible  into,  gold, 
IS  it  is  in  the  utmost  degree  improbable  that 
my  drain  on  the  treasure  in  the  bank  will 
reduce  the  outstanding  notes  below  £15,750,000. 
They  are  (like  all  English  bank-notes)  of  the 
value  of  £5  and  upward,  and  are  legal  tender 
throughout  England.  Notes  once  issued  by  the 
bank  and  returned  to  it  are  not  reissued  but 
destroyed  —  a  system  adopted  in  order  to  fa- 
cilitate the  keeping  of  an  account  of  the  num- 
bers of  the  notes  in  circulation,  and  so  prevent 
forgery. 

In  compliance  also  with  the  act  of  1844  the 
bank  is  compelled  to  publish  a  weekly  account. 
The  following  shows  the  condition  of  the  bank 
on  21  Jan.  1903 :  Issue  department :  notes  is- 
sued, £49,666.245;  securities,  £18,175,000;  gold, 
coin,  and  bullion,  £31,491,245.  Banking  depart- 
ment: capital  and  "rest,*^  £18,103,048;  deposits 
and  post  bills,  £50,670,747  ;  securities,  £45,438,969; 
notes  in  the  reserve,  £21,314,325 ;  and  gold  and 
silver  coin,   £2,020,501. 

The  total  of  the  notes  given  out  by  the  issue 
department  is  called  the  issue  circulation,  the 
portion  of  it  in  the  hands  of  the  public  being 
the  active  circulation,  and  that  still  in  the 
banking    department    being    the    note    reserve. 


This  note  reserve  represents  really  the  amount 
of  bullion  in  the  issue  department  available 
for  the  use  of  the  banking  department.  Of  the 
other  iterns  in  the  account  it  may  be  noted  that 
the  proprietors'  "rest"  is  a  varying  surplus  in- 
creased always  by  accumulated  profits  up  to 
5  April  and  10  October,  when  the  bank  divi- 
dends are  paid  to  the  shareholders ;  and  that 
the  public  deposits,  which  include  sums  lodged 
on  account  of  the  customs,  inland  revenue,  etc., 
increase  through  revenue  receipts  until  the  divi- 
dend terms  in  January,  April,  July,  and  Octo- 
ber. The  other  or  private  deposits  comprise 
those  of  bankers,  merchants,  and  other  persons. 
An  increase  in  these  private  deposits  indicates 
an  increase  of  monetary  ease,  while  a  decrease 
informs  us  that  bankers,  merchants,  and  traders 
have  calls  upon  them  for  money.  A  better  in- 
dication of  the  demand  for  money  is  furnished, 
however,  by  the  advances  on  commercial  se- 
curities, and  it  is  by  this  and  the  condition  of 
the  reserve  that  the  bank  rate  of  discount  is 
regulated.  When  the  reserve  is  high  and  the 
advances  moderate  the  discount  rate  is  lov.-, 
and  it  is  raised  according  as  the  reserve  falls 
and  advances  are  more  in  request,  especially 
during  an  adverse  foreign  exchange  and  drain 
of  gold.  Gold  is  thus  restrained  from  going 
abroad,  and  its  influx  into  the  country  is  en- 
couraged. In  addition  to  the  profits  which  the 
bank  may  make  by  ordinary  banking  business, 
it  receives  an  allowance  for  the  management 
of  the  national  debt,  etc.,  at  the  rate  of  £300 
per  million  on  £6,000,000,  and  £150  per  million 
on  all  debt  above  that  sum.  It  also  derives  a 
profit  from  the  foreign  coin  and  bullion  brought 
to  it,  for  which  it  pays  £3  17s.  9d.,  or  ij/2d.  per 
ounce  less  than  the  real  value. 

The  management  of  the  bank  is  in  the  hands 
of  a  governor,  deputy-governor  and  24  directors, 
elected  by  stockholders  who  have  held  £500  of 
stock  for  six  months  previous  to  the  election. 
A  director  is  required  to  hold  £2,000,  a  deputy- 
governor  £3,000,  and  a  governor  £4,000  of  the 
stock.  The  court  or  board  of  directors  meets 
every  Thursday,  when  the  weekly  account  is 
presented. 

Bank  of  France. — The  Bank  of  France  is 
second  in  importance  only  to  the  Bank  of  Eng- 
land. It  was  established  in  1800,  at  first  with  a 
capital  of  45,000,000  francs,  and  with  the  ex- 
clusive privilege  in  Paris  of  issuing  notes  pay- 
able to  bearer,  a  privilege  which  was  extended 
in  1848  to  cover  the  whole  of  France.  It  has 
numerous  branches  in  the  larger  towns,  a  num- 
ber of  these  having  been  acquired  in  1848,  when 
certain  joint-stock  banks  of  issue  were  by  gov- 
ernment decree  incorporated  with  the  Bank  of 
France,  the  capital  of  which  was  then  increased 
to  91,250,000  francs,  in  91,250  shares  of  i.ooo 
francs  each.  In  1857  the  capital  was  doubled, 
and,  besides  this,  it  has  a  large  surplus  capital 
or  <'rest.*^  Like  the  Bank  of  England,  it  is  a 
bank  of  deposit,  discount,  and  circulation,  and 
is  a  large  creditor  of  the  stafe.  The  govern- 
ment appoints  the  governor  and  two  deputy 
governors,  who  are  all  required  to  be  stock- 
holders. There  is  also  a  body  of  15  directors 
and  3  censors,  nominated   by  the  shareholders. 

The  capital  stock  of  the  Bank  of  France 
is  182,500,000  francs.  As  shown  by  statement  of 
resources  and  liabilities  dated  22  Jan.  1903  the 
surplus  and  other  profits  of  the  bank  amounted 
to  42,515,000  francs,  and  its  outstanding  circula- 


BA'NKS  AND  BANKING 


tion  to  4,431,801.910.  The  total  assets  of  the 
bank  were  5,262.099,592.  of  which  3,601,126,067 
consisted  of  specie  divided  as  follows :  Gold, 
2,508,805,839;  silver,  1,092,320,228. 

National  Banks  of  the  United  States. — The 
table  below,  compiled  from  the  report  of  the 
comptroller  of  the  currency  (30  Jan.  1905), 
gives  a  comprehensive  view  of  the  development 
of  the  national  banking  sj'stem  in  recent  years. 

On  II  Jan.  1905,  5,528  national  banking  asso- 
ciations filed  reports  of  condition  with  the  comp- 
troller of  the  currency.  The  paid-in  capital 
stock  of  the  reporting  banks  was  $776,916,147; 
surplus  funds  and  other  undivided  profits,  $406,- 
177-675  and  $183,994,737,  respectively.  The  out- 
standing circulating  notes  of  the  reporting  banks 
amounted  to  $424,345,433  and  their  individual 
deposits  to  $3,612,499,599.  The  aggregate  re- 
sources of  the  associations  were  $7,117,800,553, 
an  increase  since  22  Jan.  1904  of  $540,922,390. 
Against  deposit  liabilities  of  $4,416,877,711,  a 
reserve  was  held  aggregating  $1,008,064,321. 

The  volume  of  the  exchanges  of  the  98 
clearing  houses  of  the  United  States  for  the 
year  ended  30  Sept.  1904  amounted  to  $102,150,- 
313,982,  against  $113,963,298,913  for  the  year 
ended  30  Sept.  1903,  the  net  decrease  being 
$11,812,984,931.  See  Banks  and  Banking, 
American,  and  Banks,  United  States  Na- 
tional. 

Recent  Rapid  Grozvth. — From  14  March 
1900  to  31  March  1903  —  3  years  and  17  days 
—  1,442  new  banks  were  organized.  They  were 
capitalized  and  distributed  as  follows : 


State 


State 

No. 

Capital 

Bonds 
Deposited 

16 

6 

5 

19 

20 

3 

2 

6 

22 

2 

9 

80 

49 

$    777,500 

205,000 

200,000 

4,205,000 

1,065,000 

100,000 

50,000 

410,000 

1,365,000 

525,000 

250,000 

5,710,000 

3,030,000 

$    205,000 

549,000 

286,750 

35,500 

25,000 

117,500 

319,250 

56,500 

62,550 

1,544,050 

839,300 

Connecticut     

Delaware   

Florida  

Indiana    

Indian    Territory. 

Iowa   

Kansas     

Kentucky   

Louisiana     

Maine    

Maryland    

Massachusetts    .  .. 

Michigan    

Minnesota    

Mississippi   

Missouri     

Montana    

Nebraska   

New   Hampshire.  . 

New  Jersey 

New    Mexico 

New   York 

North  Carolina. .  . 
North    Dakota... 

Ohio    

Oklahoma   

Oregon    

Pennsylvania    .  .  . 

Porto    Rico 

Rhode  Island.  . .  . 
South  Carolina.  .. 
South    Dakota.  .  .. 

Tennessee    

Texas    

Utah   

Vermont    

Virginia    

Washington 

West    Virginia.  . . 

Wisconsin    

Wyoming    


No. 


64 
73 
38 

24 


3 
35 

3 
23 


43 
85 


7 
169 


5 

30 

13 

166 

3 

I 
26 

7 
31 
28 

5 


Capital 


1,970.000 

2,445,000 

1,490,000 

2,620,000 

875,000 

250,000 

1,107.000 

2,150,000 

2,565,000 

3,406,000 

725,000 

1,855,000 

305,000 

960,000 

225,000 

1,070,000 

225,000 

6,570,000 

330,000 

5,945,000 

2,065,000 

175.000 

14,407,000 

100,000 

500,000 

260,000 

800,000 

480,000 

6,318,000 

105,000 

25,000 

1,130,000 

380,000 

1,335,000 

1,795,000 

175,000 


Bonds 
Deposited 


524,40a 
807,250 
479.750 
498,300 
194,000 

69,500 
286,450 
175,000 
242,300 
988,900 
235,000 
385,250 

64,000 
295,800 

60,000 
299,800 

67,550 

1,205,300 

106,250 

367,500 

1,573,450 

644,300 

51,750 
2,830,350 

50,000 

50,000 

70,750 

242,300 

139,500 

1,778,450 

30,000 

25,000 
343,000 
101,250 
420,000 
462,200 

68,750 


Number    of   new    banks i  ,442 

Capital     $86,135,500 

Bonds  deposited   20,375,500 

Nine  hundred  and  fifty-seven  of  these  took 
advantage  of  the  law  of  14  March  1900,  permit- 
ting the  establishment  of  $25,000  banks.  The 
remaining  485  were  banks  of  $50,000  and  over 
capital.  These  figures  include  622  converted 
State  and  private  banks.  During  March  1903,  56 
banks  were  organized,  distributed  as  follows : 


Middle    States 

Western    States 

Southern     States.... 

Eastern  States 

Pacific  Territories.  .  . 


22  banks 

13  banks, 

12  banks, 

8  banks, 

I  bank, 


Number  of  new  banks   in  one  month. 
Capital     


$700,000   capital 

405,000  capital 

640,000  capital 

400,000  capital 

25,000  capital 

S6 

$2,170,000 


THE    NATIONAL   BANKS    OF   THE    UNITED    STATES. 


Year 
Ending 
Sept.     1 


1882. 
1883. 
1884. 


1890. 
1891. 
1892. 

1893- 
1894. 
1895. 
1896. 
1897. 
1898. 
1S99. 
1900. 
1901 . 
1902. 
1903. 
1904. 


No.    of 
Banks 


2,197 
2,350 
.^,582 
2,665 
2,784 
3,049 
3,093 
3,170 
3,353 
3,577 
3,701 
3,759 
3,755 
3,716 
3,682 
3,620 
3,581 
3,561 
3,632 
4,030 
4,306 
4,805 
5.244 


Capital 


473,947,715 
494,640,140 
518,605,725 
524,599,602 
532,459,921 
578,462,765 
583,539,145 
596,302,518 
625,089,645 
660,108.261 
679.076,650 
684,342,024 
672,951,450 
660,287,065 
652,725.750 
638,173.805 
6i=i,8i8,725 
608,674,895 
613,053,69s 
639.043,080 
667.354,275 
735.314.217 
765.948,330 


Surplus 


133,570 
131,232 
147,721 
146,903 
155,030 
173.913 
184.416 
194.818 
208.707 
222,766 
237.761 
246,918 
246,001 
247,466 
248,235 
249,044 
244,281 
247.930 
250,914 
271,432 
305.21 1 
362,497 
398,299 


931.00 
187.00 
475.00 
495.00 
884.00 
440.97 
990.92 
192.19 
786.00 
668.00 
865.23 
.673-11 
328.00 
002.00 
.323-00 
948.00 
.S79.00 
970.00 
856.00 
304.00 
716.00 
,812.00 
071.00 


Total 
Dividends 


40,791 
40,678 
41,254 
40,656 
42,412 
44,152 
46,531 
46,618 
51,158 
50,795 
50,400 
49.633 
45,333 
45,969 
45,525 
42,394 
44,291 
46,691 
47.995 
52,616 
68,199 
63.565 
75.588 


,928.00 
678.00 
473.00 
,121.00 
,803.00 
407.92 
,657-89 
060.27 
883.33 
,01 1. 00 
713-93 
195-99 
270.00 
,663.00 
947.00 
,241.00 
,971.00 
,502.00 
,024.00 
.778.00 
.494-00 
,847.00 
890.00 


Total 
Net   Earnings 


53-321 
54.007 
52,362 
43,6  _ 
55.165 
64,506, 
65,360 
69,618 
72,055 
75.763 
66,658 
68,750 
41.955 
46.866 
49.742 
44.273 
50.03 
54.346 
87.293 
81.853 
106,581 
109. S81 
112,936 


,234-00 
,148.00 
:, 783-00 
,497-00 
.385.00 
,869.66 
,486.73 
,265.07 
.563-52 
.614.00 
1O15.27 
1952-09 
.248.00 
.557-00 
,318.00 
,314-00 
.972.00 
1,692.00 
.485.00 
,795.00 
,477-00 
,530-00 
,427.00 


Ratio 

Ratio 
of  Divi- 

of Divi- 

dends 

dends 

to  Cap- 

to 

ital  and 

Capital 

Surplus 

8.73 

6.81 

8.30 

6.50 

8.00 

6.20 

7.80 

6.00 

7.96 

6.17 

7.98 

6.12 

8.02 

6.10 

7.82 

5-89 

8.19 

6.14 

7-70 

5.76 

7.42 

5-50 

7-25 

S-33 

6.07 

4-09 

6.96 

5-06 

6.97 

S-05 

6.64 

4.78 

7.17 

5.1s 

7-67 

5-45 

7.89 

5-5  7 

8.28 

5-82 

10.10 

6.98 

8.80 

5-91 

9-93 

6.57 

Ratio 

ofEarn- 
ings  to 
Capital 

and 
Surplus 


8.00 
8.00 
6.50 
8.02 
8.95 
8.57 
8.80 
8.6s 
8.60 
7.27 
7.38 
4- 05 
5-15 
5-52 
4-99 
5.82 
6.34 

10.14 
9.06 

10.92 

10.21 
9.81 


BANKS  AND  BANKING 


The  number  of  new  banks  in  the  manufactur- 
ing States  is  very  marked.  Ohio,  85  ;  Indiana, 
49;  Illinois,  80;  Pennsylvania,  169;  New  York, 
55.  The  agricultural  States  also  show  up  well, 
with  166  for  Texas,  95  for  i^linnesota,  69  for 
Oklahoma,  and  64  for  Indian  Territory. 

By  groups  of  States  the  showing  is : 


New    England    States 
Eastern     States.  . .  . 
Southern    States... 

Middle    States 

Western    States.  .  .  . 

Pacific    States 

Islands 


Xo. 


269 
346 
440 
315 
51 
3 


Capital 


$  3,250,000 
23,204,000 
16,825,500 
26,751,000 
io,:6o,ooo 
5,320,000 
625,000 


Bonds 
Deposited 


$  415.500 
4,646,900 
4.477,250 
6,842,700 
3,041,100 
846,050 
106,500 


The  $20,375,500  of  bonds  deposited  against 
circulation  is  a  fraction  less  than  24  per  cent  of 
the  capital,  the  latter  being  the  measure  of  the 
maximum  amount  of  circulation  issu?ble.  Our 
total  national  bank  figures  for  31  March  1903 
were : 


Number  of  banks. . .  . 
Capital    

Bonds  on  deposit.... 
Circulation   secured  by 

bonds 

Circulation   secured  by 

lawful  money 


4,869 

$739,178,695 

342,160,770 

338,349.814 

44,169,444 


Increase  since 
14  March,   1900 


1,252 

$122,870,600 

97.549.200 


128,116,528 


UNITED   STATES   CURRENCY  CIRCULATION. 


Fiscal  Year 


1870. 
1872. 
1873. 
1874. 
1875- 
1876. 
1877. 
1878. 
1879- 
1880. 
1881. 
1882. 
1883. 
1884. 
1885. 
1886, 
1887, 
1888, 
1889 
1890. 
1891 
1892 
1893 
1894 
1895 
1896 
1897 
1898 
1899 
1900 
1901 
1902 
1903 
1904 


Amount  in 
circulation 


675 
738 
751 
776 
754, 
727 

T22 
729 
81S, 

973. 
,114 
.174 
,230 
,243 
,292 
,252 
,317, 
.372, 
,380, 
.429. 
.497, 
.601, 
.596, 
,660, 
,601. 
,506, 
,640, 
.837. 
.904, 
.055. 
.I75. 
,249. 
.367, 
.519 


212,704 
309.549 
881,809 
083,031 
947 
609,338 
314.883 
132,634 
631.793 
382,228 
238,419 
290,419 
305.696 
925.969 
568,615 
700,525 
539.143 
170,870 
361,649 
251,270 
440,707 
347,187 
701,245 
808,708 
968.473 
631,026 
808,946 
859.89 
071,881 
150,998 
.387.277 
390,551 
692,169 
,142,860 


Circulation 
per  capita 


17-50 
18.19 
18.04 
18.13 
18.16 
16.12 
15-58 
15-32 
16.7s 
19.41 
21.70 

22.90 
22.65 
23.02 
21.82 
22.45 
22.88 
22.52 
22.82 

23-41 
24.44 
23-85 
24.28 
22.93 
21.10 
22.49 
24.66 
25-45 
26.94 
27.98 
28.43 
29.42 
30.77 


Currency  Act  of  1900. — On  14  ^larch  1900 
President  McKinley  approved  a  new  currency 
act,  which,  among  other  things,  established  the 
gold  dollar  as  the  standard  unit  of  value,  and 
placed  at  a  parity  with  that  standard  all  forms 
of  money  issued  or  coined  by  the  United  States. 
The  bill  also  made  a  number  of  important 
changes  in  the  regulations  governing  national 
banks.  The  new  law  permits  national  banks 
with   $25,000   capital   to   be   organized   in   places 


of  3,000  inhabitants  or  less,  whereas  the  mini- 
mum capital  previously  was  $50,000.  It  also 
permits  banks  to  issue  circulation  on  all  classes 
of  bonds  deposited  up  to  the  par  value  of  the 
bonds,  instead  of  90  per  cent  of  their  face,  as 
before.  This  act  also  reduces  the  semi-annual 
duty  on  national  bank  circulation  secured  by  2 
per  cent  consols  of  1930  to  one  fourth  of  i 
per  cent.  As  a  result  of  this  legislation  the  out- 
standing circulation  of  national  banks  increased 
over  $100,000,000  between  the  date  of  passage  of 
the  act  and  31  Oct.  1901. 

From  14  March  1900  to  31  Oct.  1904  there 
v;ere  organized  2,196  national  banking  associa- 
tions, with  an  authorized  capital  aggregating 
$125,512,300,  and  with  bonds  as  security  for  cir- 
culation of  $31,331,250.  Of  this  total  number, 
there  were  1,437  banks  with  an  aggregate  cap- 
ital of  $37,459,500,  whose  individual  capital  was 
less  than  $50,000,  the  average  but  slightly  in 
excess  of  the  minimum,  namely,  $25,000.  The 
number  of  banking  institutions  in  the  country, 
by  reason  of  these  organizations,  was  only  in- 
creased to  the  number  of  1,230,  as  250  of  the 
associations  were  conversions  of  State  banks, 
and  716  reorganizations  of  State  or  private 
banks  liquidated  for  the  purpose. 

During  the  existence  of  the  national  banking 
system,  up  to  31  Oct.  1904,  there  were  organized 
7,460  national  banking  associations,  of  which 
number  1,548  were  placed  in  liquidation  either 
by  vote  of  stockholders  or  by  expiration  of 
charters,  and  417  in  charge  of  receivers,  leaving 
in  active  operation  on  the  date  mentioned  5.495 
banks,  with  capital  stock  of  $781,126,335.  These 
associations  had  on  deposit  with  the  treasurer 
of  the  United  States,  in  trust,  as  security  for 
circulation,  bonds  to  the  amount  of  $426,544,790, 
on  which  circulation  had  been  issued  (on  that 
date)  to  the  amount  of  $424,530,581.  In  addi- 
tion to  circulation  secured  by  bonds  there  were 
outstanding  notes  to  the  amount  of  $32,750,919, 
secured  by  the  deposits  of  lawful  money.  The 
increase  of  national  bank  circulation  from  14 
March  1900  to  31  Oct.  1904  was,  in  round  num- 
bers, 202.9  million  dollars. 

On  12  April  1902  the  act  was  approved,  au- 
thorizing the  extension,  for  a  period  of  20  years, 
of  the  charter  of  national  banking  associations 
which  had  been  extended  under  the  act  of  12 
July  1882.  From  the  date  of  the  passage  of  the 
extension  act  of  1902  to  31  Oct.  1904  the  cor- 
porate existence  of  315  banks,  with  a  capital  of 
$88,310,300,  was  extended  for  a  second  time. 

O.  P.  Austin, 
United  States  Treasury  Department. 

Banks  and  Banking,  American.  The  his- 
tory of  banking  in  America  opens  in 
those  trying  days  of  the  Revolutionary 
War,  when  the  new  republic,  trembling  on  the 
verge  of  disaster,  groped  out  so  blindly  in 
search  of  some  adequate  means  of  financial 
relief.  At  that  moment,  however,  there  were 
some  master  minds  that  were  found  capable 
of  meeting  such  an  emergency,  and  it  requires 
no  stretch  of  the  imagination  to  discover 
that  the  aid  given  by  their  advice  was  of  in- 
calculable importance  at  this  critical  period 
in   the  nation's   history. 

Of  course,  it  is  true  that  banking  methods 
in  America  have  undergone  many  radical 
changes     since     the     days     of     the     country's 


BANKS  AND  BANKING 


infancy,  and  yet,  as  we  review  the  past,  it  is 
impossible  not  to  admit  that  the  systems  in 
vogue  in  tht  United  States  have  always  been 
more  or  less  sound.  They  have  changed  be- 
cause conditions  have  changed,  and  not  so 
much  because  they  were  based  upon  mis- 
taken ideas.  Adapted  to  the  needs  of  the 
times  they  served,  they  remained  in  opera- 
tion until  altered  conditions  had  made  them 
obsolete,  but  then,  just  as  promptly  as  neces- 
sity required,  they  were  altered  to  meet  the 
ef^<wCt  of  the  new  conditions.  See  United 
States  Finances  of  1775-1789. 

In  the  beginning  of  the  financial  history 
of  the  Republic  —  a  little  more  than  a  century 
ago  —  the  fiscal  afifairs  of  the  United  States 
were  in  the  hands  of  the  **Bank  of  the  United 
States,^'  a  national  institution  which  had 
been  modelled  quite  closely  upon  the  lines  of 
the  old  Bank  of  England.  With  the  excep- 
tion of  a  brief  period  just  prior  to  and 
including  the  War  of  1812,  this  institution 
remained  as  the  great  American  financial 
power,  and  its  final  abandonment  was  the 
occasion  of  one  of  the  most  bitter  political 
struggles  of  which  we  have  any  record. 

It  was  through  the  efforts  of  Andrew 
Jackson  and  his  successor,  Martin  Van  Buren, 
that  the  State  bank  system  came  into  exist- 
ence as  a  substitute  for  the  former  single 
dominant  power,  and  for  more  than  a  quar- 
ter of  a  century  this  system  represented  the 
American  method  of  banking.  That  it  had 
its  good  points  there  can  be  no  doubt.  That 
many  of  the  State  banks  were  as  sound  and 
solvent  as  any  banking  institution  in  the 
world  to-day  is  not  a  matter  for  question. 
Unfortunately,  however,  there  were  some  of 
them  that  could  not  be  classified  as  ^'sound® 
banks,  and  as  there  was  no  uniform  basis 
."or  their  government,  no  power  that  should 
say  at  what  point  their  operations  became 
dangerous  or  unwise,  the  weakness  of  the 
system  exhibited  itself  in  the  discounting  of 
a  currency  that  became  more  and  more  de- 
moralized in  proportion  to  its  distance  from 
the  bank  which  was  responsible  for  its 
issuance. 

When  the  Civil  War  came,  with  all  its 
insistant  demands  upon  the  resources  of 
the  country,  it  was  found  that  this  method 
of  banking  was  utterly  unable  to  respond 
to  the  requirements  of  the  new  conditions. 
It  was  to  meet  this  emergency  that  an- 
other new  system  was  devised,  and  It  is 
this  system  that  is  in  use  to-day.  Around 
it  some  of  the  greatest  financial  institutions 
of  the  world  have  been  developed,  for  it 
would  be  almost  impossible  to  imagine  a  sys- 
tem that  could  be  more  conducive  to  natural 
growth  and  expansion.  By  avoiding  any 
great  centralization  of  power  it  distributes 
its  beneficent  influence  throughout  the  coun- 
try. By  placing  the  pledge  of  the  Federal 
Government  upon  every  banknote  issued  it 
makes  the  contingency  of  a  discounted  and 
demoralized  currency  impossible. 

To  trace  in  detail  the  history  of  American 
banking  it  is  necessary  to  go  back  to  1780, 
when  the  first  bank  established  in  the  United 
States  was  opened  in  Carpenters'  Hall,  Phila- 


delphia. It  was  known  as  the  Pennsylvania 
Bank,  and  was  organized,  upon  personal 
credit  alone,  by  Robert  Morris,  George 
Clymer  and  a  few  other  gentleman,  who  took 
as  their  only  security,  the  bills  that  a  desperate 
Congress  had  drawn  upon  John  Jay,  who  was 
then  employed  in  negotiating  a  loan  in  Spain. 
Its  object,  therefore,  was  mainly  a  patriotic 
one,  for  practically  all  its  efforts  were  de- 
voted to  the  aid  of  the  government  in  its 
work  of  transporting  troops  and  maintaining 
an  army  which  was  then  in  desperate  need 
of  every  kind  of  assistance.  Later,  when  Mr. 
Morris  had  been  appointed  superintendent  of 
finance,  and  the  bank  which  he  had  founded 
had  gone  out  of  existence,  it  was  at  his  re- 
quest that  Congress  issued  to  him  and  his 
associates  the  charter  for  the  new  Bank  of 
North  America.  In  January,  1781,  this  new 
institution  began  its  business  operation  in 
Philadelphia,  with  Thomas  Willing  as  its  first 
president,  and  a  board  of  12  directors.  With  a 
capital  of  $400,000  it  conducted  its  business  on  a 
specie  basis,  its  notes  having  the  weight  of  legal 
tender.  In  addition  to  its  national  charter, 
it  received  a  similar  authorization  from  the 
State  of  Pennsylvania,  and,  as  it  was  then 
the  only  banking  institution  in  the  country, 
its  profits  began  to  accumulate  so  rapidly 
that,  in  the  years  1783  and  1784,  it  was  able 
to  declare  dividends  of  14  per  cent.  Natu- 
rally enough  such  evidences  of  prosperity 
attracted  attention,  and  it  was  not  long  before 
another  coterie  of  wealthy  merchants  formed 
a  project  to  open  a  rival  bank.  They  even 
went  so  far  as  to  apply  for  a  charter,  but, 
before  the  necessary  act  was  passed,  the  Bank 
of  North  America  squelched  the  threatening 
opposition  by  permitting  its  projectors  to 
participate  freely  in  the  old  bank's  new  issue 
of  $500,000  worth  of  stock.  In  1787  it  was  re- 
chartered  as  a  State  bank  by  an  act  of  the 
Pennsylvania  legislature,  and  with  several  legis- 
lative changes  it  has  continued  to  exist  as  a 
prosperous   financial   institution. 

It  was  not  until  1784  that  a  similar  bankmg 
house  was  established  in  the  city  of  New 
York.  During  the  several  years  that  had 
elapsed  since  the  formation  of  the  Bank  of 
Pennsylvania  the  merchants  of  New  York 
had  been  appropriately  interested  in  the  Phila- 
delphia experiment.  At  one  time  a  num- 
ber of  the  prominent  business  men  of  the 
city  assembled  and  discussed  the  possibil- 
ity of  creating  a  bank  upon  a  plan  which 
was  later  dubbed  by  its  opponents  as  the 
^'land"  bank  scheme.  According  to  this  pro- 
ject only  a  small  part  of  the  capital  of  this 
institution  was  required  to  be  paid  in  specie, 
the  balance  being  issued  against  sight  notes, 
themselves  payable  in  specie  and  secured  by 
land  accepted  at  one-third  of  its  value.  As 
this  plan  met  with  the  influential  support  of 
Chancellor  Livingston  it  was  nearly  carried 
through  the  legislature  to  which  it  had  ap- 
plied for  a  charter,  but  finally,  and  chiefly 
through  the  personal  efforts  of  Alexander 
Hamilton,  the  passage  of  the  act  was  defeated. 

As  the  demand  for  the  establishment  of 
a  local  banking  institution  became  more  in- 
sistent, however,  several  of  the  most  promi- 
nent  business    men    of   New    York   responded 


BANKS  AND  BANKING 


to  a  call  for  a  meeting  which  was  held  at  the 
Merchants'  Coffee  Ixouse,  on  22  Feb.  1784. 
Gen.  Alexander  MacDougal  presided,  and 
when,  after  a  long  discussion  of  the  subject, 
it  was  decided  to  start  the  bank,  he  was 
further  honored  by  election  as  its  first  presi- 
dent. It  was  determined  that  the  bank  should 
begin  operations  with  a  capital  of  $500,000, 
either  gold  or  silver,  divided  into  1,000  shares 
and,  when,  on  15  March,  the  first  500  shares 
had  been  taken,  the  corporation  was  organ- 
ized with  Samuel  Franklin,  Robert  Bowne, 
Comfort  Sands.  Alexander  Hamilton,  Joshua 
Waddington,  Thomas  Randall,  William  Max- 
well, Nicholas  Low,  Daniel  McCormick,  Isaac 
Roosevelt,  Joshua  Vanderbilt  and  Thomas  B. 
Stoughton,  as  its  directors.  William  Seton 
was  elected  cashier,  but  the  New  York  busi- 
ness men  of  that  day  were  so  ignorant  of 
everything  associated  with  the  organization 
of  a  bank  and  with  methods  of  banking  in 
general,  that  the  new  cashier  was  obliged  to 
go  to  Philadelphia  in  search  of  necessary 
instruction  respecting  the  nature  of  his  duties. 
During  his  absence  the  directors  perfected 
their  arrangements,  and,  as  they  had  not 
secured  their  charter,  they  decided  to  operate 
without  one.  Accordingly  the  doors  were 
opened  to  the  public.  9  June  1784,  the  insti- 
tution, which  was  know  as  the  Bank  of  New 
York,  being  located  in  a  three-story,  yellow 
brick  house  at  No.  67  St.  George's  (now 
Franklin)   Square. 

Slight  as  their  experience  with  banking 
institutions  had  been  there  were  many  per- 
sons in  those  days  who  believed  that  banks 
were  antagonistic  to  the  best  interests  of  the 
community.  During  the  years  1785  and  1786, 
therefore,  when  the  evils  due  to  the  scarcity 
of  currency  began  to  make  themselves  felt, 
popular  opinion  became  very  strongly  op- 
posed to  the  entire  system,  it  being  held 
that  the  banks  were  hoarding  the  specie 
v.-hich  was  so  badly  needed  in  the  commercial 
v'orld.  To  meet  the  exigencies  of  the  oc- 
casion, several  of  the  States  in  which  the 
feeling  rose  highest,  proceeded  to  issue  paper 
money  by  vote  of  the  legislature,  but  as  this 
action  accomplished  no  other  purpose  than 
to  temporarily  allay  the  demand  for  currency, 
this  same  lack  of  confidence  in  the  banks  and 
their  purpose  prevailed  when,  imder  the 
newly  adopted  Constitution,  Gen.  Washington 
was  elected  to  the  Presidency,  and  Alexander 
Hamilton  took  his  seat  as  the  first  secretary 
of  the  treasury.  Under  his  famous  financial 
policy  the  national  Government  not  only  as- 
sumed and  bonded  the  debts  contracted  by 
the  Continental  Congress,  as  well  as  those 
contracted  by  the  several  colonies  during  the 
progress  of  the  war,  but  it  went  a  step 
further  by  establishing,  in  1791,  the  Bank  of 
the   United   States. 

Established  under  a  20-year  charter,  this 
institution  was  devised  to  act  as  the  fiscal 
agent  of  the  Government  and  to  serve  as  the 
depository  of  all  public  moneys.  Its  capital 
was  fixed  at  $10,000,000.  divided  into  25.000 
shares  of  $400  each,  payable  one-fourth  in 
specie  and  three-fourths  in  six  per  cent,  stocks 
of  the  United  States.     It  was  further  author- 


ized to  hold  property  of  all  kinds  to  an 
amount  not  exceeding  $15,000,000.  inclusive 
of  its  capital  stock;  was  permitted  to  issue 
its  notes,  payable  in  specie,  and  could  estab- 
lish branch  banks,  in  various  cities  through- 
out the  country.  Accepted  as  the  direct  agent 
of  the  United  States  Government  in  every 
important  particular,  it  is  not  strange  that 
the  institution  should  have  prospered  and 
tliat,  during  its  entire  career,  its  annual  divi- 
dends ranged  from  8  to  10  per  cent.  The 
first  branch  bank  opened  by  the  Bank  of  the 
United  States  was  an  ofifice  of  deposit  and 
discount  in  New  York. 

As  prosperity  soon  returned  under  the 
beneficent  influence  of  Hamilton's  wise  finan- 
cial policy  the  confidence  in  the  American 
institutions  was  again  quite  generally  restored, 
and,  while  it  is  true  that  the  spirit  of  specula- 
tion, which  was  eventually  let  loose  in  the 
land,  resulted  in  a  stringency  in  the  currency 
that  would  undoubtedly  have  resulted  seri- 
ously if  Alexander  Hamilton  and  the  United 
States  Treasury  had  not  come  to  the  relief 
of  the  business  community,  not  once,  but 
three  times,  business  continued  to  improve. 

In  New  York,  however,  the  sentiment  of 
opposition  to  the  banking  system  was  still 
so  strong  that  every  political  influence  was 
exerted  to  prevent  the  granting  of  any  new 
charters.  As  the  banking  field,  despite  this 
sentiment,  was  by  no  means  overcrowded, 
several  ineffectual  efforts  had  been  made  to 
establish  new  institutions,  and  finally,  a  com- 
pany headed  by  Aaron  Burr  found  a  means 
to  overcome  the  difficulties.  In  1799,  they 
applied  to  the  legislature  and  by  it  were 
granted  a  charter  for  a  company  which  os- 
tensibly proposed  to  provide  pure  water  for 
the  city  of  New  York.  The  capital  of  this 
corporation,  which  was  known  as  the  Man- 
hattan Company,  was  fixed  at  $2,000,000,  but, 
unnoticed  by  the  politicians  who  had  been 
so  active  in  their  opposition  to  the  banking 
interests,  there  was  a  clause  in  this  charter 
which,  after  specifying  that  the  capital  of  the 
company  was  to  be  devoted  to  the  establishment 
of  a  water  supply,  also  provided  that  the  sur- 
plus might  be  "employed  in  the  purchase  of 
public  or  other  stocks  or  other  moneyed 
transactions  or  operations  not  inconsistent 
with  the  laws  and  constitution  of  the  State 
of  New  York.» 

It  is,  of  course,  unnecessary  to  add  that 
a  corporation  with  such  a  clause  in  its  charter 
found  little  difficulty  in  securing  the  funds 
requisite  to  the  opening  of  a  new  bank.  By 
1803,  however,  the  establishment  of  banks 
had  become  so  general  that  there  were  no 
less  than  40  in  operation  in  various  parts  of 
the  country. 

As  Congress  failed  to  renew  the  charter 
of  the  Bank  of  the  United  States,  and  as  the 
expiration  of  this  act,  in  i8ri.  was  almost 
immediately  followed  by  war  with  Great 
Britain,  the  financial  position  of  the  country 
was  a  most  unsatisfac'rory  one.  Having  de- 
pended upon  the  Bank  of  the  United  States 
for  its  credit,  the  Government  had  little  of  its 
own,  and  it  was.  therefor,  compelled  to 
depend  to  a  large  degree  upon  the  already 
established  banks.     There  were  many  of  these 


BANKS  AND  BANKING 


institucions,  all  under  State  charter,  and  no 
less  than  123  new  ones  were  created  during 
the  four  years  following  the  closure  of  the 
Bank  of  the  United  States.  The  aggregate 
capital  of  all  these  banks  was  in  excess  of 
$40,000,000,  and  the  face  value  of  the  notes 
which  they  had  issued  represented  fully 
$200,000,000.  Of  this  sum  a  large  portion  had 
been  issued  in  the  form  of  loans  to  the  Gov- 
ernment, and,  at  such  a  time  as  this,  when 
public  credit  was  prostrated,  the  strain  upon 
the  banks  was  too  great  for  them  to  bear. 
On  I  Sept.  1814,  therefore,  specie  paymct 
was  suspended. 

It  was  during  this  critical  stage  i.i  t'le 
financial  history  of  the  nation  that  the  p-.iv:;  c 
bank  began  to  assume  a  position  of  i.^ipcrl- 
ance  in  the  commercial  world.  In  iSii.  as 
soon  as  it  had  been  found  that  it  would  be 
impossible  for  the  Bank  of  the  United  States 
to  continue  its  operations,  the  buiiuing  and 
stock  of  the  institution  were  purchased  by 
Stephen  Girard,  a  Philadelphia  merchant, 
who  proceeded  to  carry  on  the  business  upon 
his  own  responsibility.  In  the  beginning  liis 
capital  was  but  $1,200,000,  but  this  was  eventu- 
ally  increased  to   $4,000,000. 

Moreover,  if  anything  further  was  necessary 
to  call  the  attention  of  the  public  to  this  great 
private  institution,  Girard's  exhibition  of 
patriotism  soon  made  his  name  known  from 
one  end  of  the  land  to  the  other.  It  was 
during  the  last  year  of  the  war,  at  a  time 
when  money  was  the  one  factor  that  was 
necessary  to  assure  a  renewal  of  peace,  that 
the  United  States  Treasury,  devoid  of  funds, 
discovered  that  the  money  it  needed  was  not 
forthcoming.  In  desperation  the  Treasury 
offlcials  attempted  to  float  a  loan  tor  $5,000- 
000,  but,  of  this  amount  scarcely  $20,000  had 
I^een  subscribed  when  Girard,  acting  solely 
upon  his  own  faith  in  the  stability  of  the 
Government,  volunteered  to  subscribe  for  the 
■entire  loan. 

Taught  by  experience  that  it  would  be 
unwise  to  remain  longer  without  an  accredited 
fiscal  agent  one  of  the  first  acts  of  Congress 
was  to  grant  a  new  20-year  charter  to  the 
Bank  of  the  United  States.  In  accordance 
with  the  provisions  of  this  act  of  incorpora- 
tion the  capital  of  the  new  institution  was 
fixed  at  $35,000,000,  divided  into  350,000 
shares  of  $1,000  each.  Of  this  amount  $7,000- 
coo  was  held  by  the  United  States  Govern- 
m.ent,  while  the  remainder  of  the  stock  was 
easily  disposed  of.  The  bank  issued  its  notes,  in 
amount  not  less  than  $5,  payable  in  specie  on 
demand,  and  transacted  a  general  banking  busi- 
ness so  successfully  that  its  stock  was  quoted  at 
50  per  cent,  above  par.  By  the  provisions  of 
the  act  of  incorporation  the  operations  of 
the  institution  were  placed  in  the  hands  of  r 
board  of  directors  composed  of  25  members, 
five  of  whom  were  stockholders  selected  by 
the  President  of  the  United  States.  The 
active  direction  of  affairs,  however,  was  left 
to  a  special  board  of  seven  directors,  chosen 
by  the  general  board,  and  headed  by  the 
President.  In  January,  1817,  therefore,  this 
new  institution  began  its  operations,  and  its 
efforts  were  regarded  so  favorably  that  it 
soon   established  branch   banks   in   all  the   im- 


portant cities  throughout  the  country.  In 
1830,  there  were  no  less  than  27  of  these 
branch  banks,  all  engaged  in  doing  a  thriving 
business. 

With  such  a  reliable  institution  at  their 
command  it  is  not  surprising  that  the  people 
should  have  looked  with  no  little  mistrust 
upon  the  unsatisfactory  methods  pursued  by 
the  State  banks.  As  soon  as  the  new  charter 
liad  been  issued  to  the  Bank  of  the  United 
States  it  was  apparent  to  everybody  that  the 
State  institutions  would  either  be  compelled 
to  resume  specie  payment,  or,  as  the  only 
a:ternative,  pass  out  of  existence.  As  the  re- 
sult m.any  of  them  closed  their  doors,  so  many, 
i:i  fact,  that,  of  the  446  State  banks  then  in 
operation,  only  165  remained.  At  the  same 
t'.ir.c  the  a:Tgregate  State  banking  capital  of 
t!ic  v/ho!e  country  for  the  year  1814,  $90,000,- 
rco,  showed  a  withdrawal  of  only  $30,000,000 
by  reason  of  these  suspensions.  Of  this  sum 
o^'i'y  $5,cco,ooo  was  an  actual  loss,  this  amount 
bri"g  apportioned  between  the  Government 
and  tlie  individual  holders.  At  the  same  time 
such  institutions  continued  in  existence  and 
precautionary  laws  to  govern  their  operation 
were  enacted  by  the  legislatures  of  many  States. 
In  April,  1829,  for  example,  the  New  York 
legislature  adopted  a  general  banking  law 
which  was  known  as  the  "Safety  Fund  Act.'* 
According  to  its  provisions  banks  were  per- 
mitted to  issue  notes  for  general  circulation 
to  an  amount  not  in  excess  of  twice  their 
capital,  while  the  amount  of  possible  loans 
was  restricted  to  two  and  a  half  times  their 
capital.  To  make  good  the  payment  of  the  cir- 
culation and  other  debts  of  banks  that  might 
become  insolvent  a  guarantee  fund  was  created 
by  means  of  which  the  banks  made  an  annual 
payment  of  one-half  of  one  per  cent,  on  their 
capital  stock  to  the  State  treasury  until  a  total 
of  three  per  cent,  had  been  paid. 

During  the  period  in  which  so  many  of 
the  prominent  financial  leaders  of  the  country 
were  engaged  in  the  work  of  reconstructing 
the  Bank  of  the  United  States,  several  Phila- 
delphia business  men  determined  to  establish 
an  institution  in  which  persons  of  meagre  in- 
come might  find  it  possible  to  deposit  their 
small  savings.  In  1816,  therefore,  the  first  sav- 
ings bank  was  opened  in  America.  It  was 
known  as  the  Philadelphia  Saving  Fund  So- 
ciety. During  the  same  year  a  bank  of  similar 
character  was  established  in  Boston,  a  third 
was  opened  in  New  York  in  1819,  and,  by  the 
close  of  1820,  the  idea  had  extended  so  far 
that  there  were  no  less  than  10  savings  banks 
engaged  in  business  in  the  country,  with  8,635 
depositors  and  deposits  amounting  to  more 
than  $1,000,000.    See  Bank.s,  Banking. 

During  the  many  years  of  its  existence 
the  Bank  of  the  United  States  continued 
to  increase  in  prosperity  and  influence. 
On  I  Nov.  1832  it  reported  that  its  total 
liabilities,  including  such  of  its  notes  as 
were  in  circulation,  its  deposits  and  all 
other  debts,  aggregated  $37,296,950.20.  At 
the  same  time,  its  assets,  including  specie,  cash 
in  Europe,  and  debts  from  reliable  industrial 
and  banking  corporations,  were  $79,593,870.97. 
As  this  left  a  surplus  of  $42,296,920.77.  the 
bank    was    then    unquestionably    one    of    the 


BANKS  AND  BANKING 


richest  institutions  in  the  world.  In  1832, 
there  was  no  reason  to  doubt  the  stabiHty  of 
such  a  financial  establishment. 

Strange  as  it  may  seem,  however,  it  was 
nothing  less  than  this  continued  prosperity 
that  brought  about  the  downfall  of  the  Bank  of 
the  United  States.  At  the  time  of  Jackson's 
election  to  the  Presidency  the  opposition  to  it 
was  so  strong  that  he  declared  that  it  should 
not  be  rechartered,  and,  when  he  had  taken 
his  seat,  he  made  this  promise  good  by  an- 
nouncing that  he  should  refuse  to  sign  any  act 
that  might  have  a  tendency  to  extend  the  life 
of  the  institution,  explaining  his  position  on 
the  ground  that  such  a  financial  system  as 
that  which  it  renresented  was  not  only  un- 
constitutional but  was  also  extremely  dan- 
gerous to  the  liberties  of  the  nation.  In 
spite  of  the  fact  that  the  prosperity  of  the 
country  had  been  so  great  Ouring  the  20  years 
of  this  bank's  operations  that  the  Government 
not  only  had  been  able  to  pay  its  war  debt 
but  actually  had  a  surplus  of  $40,000,000  on 
hand,  the  public  funds  vv'cre  withdrawn  from 
the  institution  at  the  earliest  possible  moment, 
and  the  surplus,  by  vote  of  Congress,  was 
distributed  among  the  States. 

It  is  not  difficult  to  understand  that  this 
blow  was  one  from  which  no  financial  estab- 
lishment covdd  easily  recover.  Its  charter 
threatened,  its  deposits  withdrawn  and  scat- 
tered to  the  four  winds,  and  with  all  its  opera- 
tions the  object  of  the  enmity  of  an  unrelent- 
ingly adverse  administration,  there  seemed  to 
be  no  alternative  but  to  cease  the  transaction 
of  business.  Determined  that  he  would  not 
give  President  Tackson  the  satisfaction  of  clos- 
ing its  doors,  its  president,  Nicholas  Biddle, 
persuaded  the  State  legislature  of  Pennsylvania 
to  pass  an  act  incorporating  it  as  the  Penn- 
sylvania Bank  of  the  United  States,  but,  while 
he  thus  had  the  satisfaction  of  stealing  a  march 
on  the  administration,  his  efiforts  to  save  the 
life  of  the  bank  were  useless  and  four  years 
later,  in  1840,  it  finally  retired  from  business. 

Such  a  mishap  to  such  an  institution  as  the 
Bank  of  the  United  States  gave  the  State 
banks  the  chance  for  which  they  had  long 
been  waiting  and  they  proceeded  to  make  the 
most  of  it.  The  demise  of  the  national  in- 
stitution had  left  the  field  open  to  them,  and 
just  at  the  moment  when  such  aid  was  most 
needed,  the  distribution  of  the  public  moneys 
among  the  several  States  had  come  to  give 
an  impetus  to  their  deposits.  As  the  result 
of  this  favorable  combination  of  circumstances 
the  State  legislatures  were  kept  busy  granting 
charters  to  new  State  banks,  and,  by  1837, 
their  number  had  increased  to  such  an  extent 
that  there  was  no  less  than  634  of  them  in 
the  country,  their  aggregate  capital  being 
more  than  $290,000,000. 

In  disrupting  the  established  financial 
system  of  the  country,  however,  President 
Jackson  liad  not  looked  sufficiently  far  ahead 
to  be  able  to  anticipate  the  possible  troubles 
that  might  arise  as  the  result  of  his  action. 
He  had  closed  the  Bank  of  the  United  States, 
but  he  had  provided  for  no  other  responsible 
authority  to  take  its  place.  Wnen  the  finan- 
cial   affairs    of   the    country   were   turned    over 


to  the  State  banks,  therefore,  the  temporary 
prosperity  which  followed  the  appearance  of 
the  new  issues  of  State  bank-notes  assumed 
the  form  of  the  wildest  kind  of  speculation. 
For  a  time  public  lands  were  chosen  as  the 
field  for  the  speculator's  operations,  and  the. 
dealings  represented  many  millions  of  dollars. 
As  everything  was  based  upon  the  currency 
notes,  however,  and  as  many  of  tliese  were 
worthless,  because  issued  by  insolvent,  or 
"wild-cat"  banks,  it  did  not  take  long  for 
men  acquainted  with  the  principles  of  finance 
to  recognize  the  fact  that  trouble  was  in- 
evitable. It  was  at  this  time  that  President 
Jsckson  determined  to  make  an  effort  to  es- 
tablish the  finances  of  the  country  upon  a 
more  sound  basis,  and,  in  the  hope  of  assisting 
in  the  accomplishment  of  this  purpose,  he 
issued  his  famous  "Specie  Circular,"  in  which 
he  notified  all  agents  of  public-lands  that  they 
must  accept  nothing  but  specie  in  payment. 

It  was  this  command  that  precipitated 
matters,  for  the  banks,  being  called  upon  to 
redeem  all  their  circulation  in  specie,  were  un- 
able to  respond,  and  so,  on  9  May  1837,  they 
again  suspended  payment.  Months  passed, 
but  no  relief  came.  Accordingly,  in  the  fol- 
lowing November,  a  conference  was  held  in 
New  York  to  see  if  some  means  could  not  be 
devised  by  which  the  banks  would  be  able 
to  resume  payment.  No  less  than  136  banks 
were  represented  in  this  gathering,  but,  in 
spite  of  the  fact  that  many  suggestions  were 
made,  no  plan  of  relief  was  deemed  practicable. 
Compelled  to  take  cognizance  of  a  situation 
which  had  been  so  directly  the  result  of  the 
administration's  financial  policy.  President 
Van  Buren,  1837,  proposed  the  sub-treasury 
plan  as  a  measure  which  would  tend  to  pre- 
vent the  loss  of  public  moneys  through  the 
failure  of  banks.  Wise  as  the  suggestion  was 
from  the  governmental  point  of  view,  the 
fact  that  it  presented  no  remedy  to  the  present 
difficulties  made  it  an  extremely  unpopular 
measure.  As  the  result  it  was  defeated,  and, 
three  years  later,  when  it  was  passed,  it  was 
piomptly  repealed  again  in  the  succeeding 
year.  Not  until  five  years  later  was  it  finally 
re-enacted.  United  St.\tes  :  Finances  of  the, 
1816-1861. 

During  all  this  time  the  State  banks  were 
increasing  in  number.  It  is  true  that  they  were 
constantly  in  trouble.  The  New  York  banks 
did  not  resume  payment  until  May,  1838,  and, 
although  they  were  followed  by  the  Philadel- 
phia and  Southern  banks  in  August,  the  latter 
were  able  to  hold  out  much  more  than  a  year, 
suspending  payment  again  on  9  Sept.  1839.  In 
spite  of  the  lack  of  confidence  which  such  un- 
certainty necessarily  engendered,  however,  the 
growth  of  the  country  and  the  exigencies  of 
business  resulting  from  such  widening  of  in- 
terests created  a  demand  for  more  banking 
houses.  In  1840,  the  number  of  such  banks  had 
increased  to  901,  and  their  total  capital  to 
$358,000,000. 

Of  course,  during  all  this  period  the  de- 
mand for  a  national  banking  system  had  been 
constantly  increasing,  and  one  of  the  great  is- 
sues upon  which  Gen.  Harrison's  presidential 
campaign  was  fought  and  won  provided  that  a 


BANKS  AND  BANKING 


new  bank  should  be  incorporated  at  the  first 
possible  moment  after  his  inauguration.  Fully 
in  sympathy  with  this  project.  President 
Harrison  called  a  special  session  of  Congress 
to  devise  the  best  means  of  fulfilHng  his 
promise,  but  when  he  died,  before  Congress 
had  convened,  those  who  fought  so  strenously 
for  a  return  of  the  old  national  banking 
system  lost  their  most  influential  supporter. 
President  Harrison's  successor.  President 
Tyler,  was  so  unalterably  opposed  to  the 
movement  that  he  twice  vetoed  the  measure 
to  "establish  a  financial  agent  of  the  govern- 
ment" <*to  act  for  it  in  all  fiscal  matters,  and 
to  facilitate  mercantile  exchanges  throughout 
the  country",  even  when  the  matter  had  been 
passed  by  Congress  and  was  presented  in  the 
form  of  a  bill  awaiting  his  signature.  Among 
all  the  banks,  at  this  period,  none  stood  so 
high  in  public  estimation  as  those  which  were 
located  in  the  New  England  States.  During 
the  periods  of  uncertainty  the  New  England 
banks  had  been  less  afifected  than  those  of 
any  other  section,  a  situation  which  was 
largely  due  to  the  fact  that  they  had  adopted 
what  was  then  known  as  the  "Suffolk  Bank 
System."  In  other  words,  they  had  bound 
themselves  to  an  agreement  by  which  the 
Suffolk  Bank  of  Boston  was  chaiged  with  the 
duty  of  redemption  and  collection  for  all  the 
banks  in  the  New  England  territory.  To 
facilitate  such  operations  each  bank  maintained 
a  stipulated  deposit  w'ith  the  Suffolk  Bank. 

The  stringency  of  1840-43  represents  an- 
other critical  period  in  the  financial  history  of 
the  United  States,  but  the  better  times  which 
followed  had  succeeded  in  doing  little  more 
than  to  ease  the  situation  when  a  great  im- 
petus was  given  to  national  prosperity  by  the 
discovery  of  gold  in  California.  For  several 
years  this  influence  was  paramount  in  American 
affairs,  and,  under  these  new  conditions,  the 
bank  system,  for  a  time,  ceased  to  trouble. 

It  was  during  this  period  in  the  financial 
history  of  the  country  that  the  first  clearing- 
house project  was  devised  and  carried  into 
effect.  For  several  years  American  bankers 
had  felt  that  they  were  in  need  of  better  facili- 
ties in  their  work  of  transacting  the  business 
of  the  country,  and  it  was  to  meet  this  demand 
that  the  New  York  Clearing  House  Associa- 
tion was  formed,  on  11  Oct.  1853.  It  origi- 
nally consisted  of  a  membership  of  52  banks, 
and  the  system  which  it  adopted  was  so 
simple,  and  yet  so  effective  that  it  is  difficult 
to  imagine  why  its  establishment  should  have 
been  delayed  for  so  long  a  time.  Under  the 
old  system  each  bank  was  compelled  to  send 
to  all  other  banks  seoarately  such  of  their 
checks  as  it  might  hold,  for  payrrent,  and 
stood  ready,  in  its  turn,  to  pay  cash  to  the 
other  banks  for  such  of  its  checks  as  they 
might  have  in  their  possession.  When  the 
clearing-house  was  established,  however,  a 
very  different  system  was  adopted,  for,  at  a 
specified  hour,  each  bank  holding  a  member- 
ship in  the  association  sent  cne  of  its  clerks 
to  the  general  office  with  all  the  checks  that 
it  held  for  collection.  Here  they  were  as- 
sorted, and  the  sum  total  of  the  checks  held 
by    each    was    compared    with    the    sum    total 


of  the  checks  presented  against  it.  If  the  re- 
sult showed  a  balance  in  favor  of  the  other 
banks,  each  bank  paid  to  the  clearing-house 
a  sum  equal  to  the  amount  due  whereas,  if  the 
balance  stood  in  favor  of  the  bank,  the  clear- 
ing-house promptly  drew  its  check  for  that 
amount.  Thus,  transactions  that  several  clerks 
and  messengers  could  not  have  completed 
within  many  hours  were  finished  in  a  compar- 
atively  short   soace   of  time. 

It  was  not  only  as  a  matter  of  convenience 
that  the  new  clearing-house  association  made 
its  influence  felt,  however,  for  its  effect  was 
beneficial  both  in  the  matter  of  economizing 
currency  and  in  giving  security  to  the  great 
banking  interests  of  the  country.  It  is  only 
necessary  to  remember  that  the  clearing-house 
transactions  often  involve  daily  exchanges  of 
more  than  $2,000,000  for  one  to  realize  what 
a  tremendous  amount  of  idle  money  would  be 
required  to  transact  this  aggregate  of  business 
under  the  old  system  of  separate  clearance 
payments.  Under  the  new  clearance  system, 
with  its  convenient  method  of  balances,  this 
business  is  transacted  wi*-h  the  use  of  not  more 
than  four  per  cent,  of  the  total  amount  of  cur- 
rency involved.  Moreover,  this  system  is  not 
only  an  assurance  of  protection  to  its  members 
in  the  matter  of  individual  transactions,  but 
it  has,  by  its  more  extended  operations  of 
issuing  loan  certificates  at  critical  times, 
proved  a  great  bulwark  of  safety  to  the  entire 
banking  world.  During  these  years  the  average 
daily  exchanges  of  the  clearing-house  were 
$105,964,277,  and  the  average  daily  balances, 
$3,939,265. 

The  New  York  Clearing  House  Associa- 
tion consists  of  54  members,  53  of  the 
members  being  representative  banks,  and  the 
fifty-fourth  member  the  assistant  treasurer  of 
the  United  States  stationed  at  the  sub-treasury 
in  New  York  City.  In  addition  to  these  active 
members,  all  other  New  York  banks  and  trust 
companies  are  permitted  to  clear  through  the 
institutions  which  hold  membership  in  the  as- 
sociation. According  to  the  last  annual  re- 
port, the  transactions  of  the  New  York  Clear- 
ing House  for  the  year  ending  30  Sept.  1905, 
were  as  follows :  Total  transactions^  $95,833,- 
194,343.80;  average  daily  transactions,  $315,- 
240,770.86 ;  total  balances  for  the  year.  $3,953,- 
875.974.80;  average  daily  balances.  $13,006,170.97. 
The  total  transactions  of  the  association  since 
its  organization  in  1853  have  attained  the  al- 
most incalculable  aggregate  of  $1,657,547,640.- 
106.75.  As  the  advantages  of  such  a  system 
were  too  great  to  escape  recognition  other  cities 
followed  New  York's  example,  and  the  exchange 
of  the  clearing  houses  of  the  country  for  1905 
aggregated  $140,501,841,957. 

No  sketch  of  the  history  of  the  banking 
interests  of  the  United  States  would  be  com- 
plete without  a  more  or  less  detailed  reference 
to  the  two  disastrous  periods  that  are  now  re- 
membered as  the  panics  of  1853  and  1873. 
Overspeculation,  which  w'as  the  cause  of  the 
former,  had  been  going  on  for  some  time 
and  the  most  conservative  minds  in  the  finan- 
cial world  had  begun  to  look  with  considerable 
dread  into  the  future,  when  the  storm  suddenly 
broke,    on    24   August,    when    the    Ohio    Life 


BANKS  AND  BANKING 


and  Trust  Company  announced  its  suspension 
with  liabilities  in  excess  of  $7,000,000.  As 
the  result  of  that  failure  the  Philadelphia 
banks  were  compelled  to  suspend  on  25-26 
September,  and  this  general  suspension  ex- 
tended through  Virginia,  Maryland,  the  Dis- 
trict of  Columbia  and  even  into  Rhode 
Island.  In  New  York  the  spirit  of  dis- 
trust became  so  general  that  runs  on  all 
the  banks  threatened  most  serious  conse- 
quences, and,  on  14  October,  to  prevent  the 
utter  demoralization  of  the  bankmg  system, 
the  State  legislature  passed  an  act  authorizing 
the  suspension  of  specie  payment  for  a  term 
of  one  year.  As  the  result  the  banks  closed 
their  doors,  but  the  trouble  was  so  largely 
a  temporary  one  that  the  city  banks  were 
able  to  resume  business  again  on  24  Decem- 
ber. In  New  England,  the  panic  which  had 
first  been  felt  chiefly  in  Rhode  Island,  rapidly 
extended  until  it  finally  became  general 
throughout  the  entire  section  of  the  country. 
The  banks  not  only  suspended,  but  factories 
and  large  workshops  shut  down.  In  fact,  in 
some  places  it  was  found  necessary  to  call 
upon  the  State  troops  that  they  might  be  in 
readiness  to  put  down  the  riots  that  were 
threatened  by  the  vast  army  of  hungry  work- 
ingmen.  Fortunately  for  the  individual  as 
well  as  for  the  nation  the  panic  was  of  brief 
duration.  By  the  beginning  of  1854,  business 
had  renewed  its  activities  and  the  banks  had 
resumed  operations,  but,  brief  as  the  struggle 
was,  it  resulted  in  no  less  than  5,123  failures, 
with  total  liabilities  amounting  to  $291,750,000. 
The  next  few  years,  however,  saw  a  return  to 
conditions  that  were  not  so  foreign  to  the  old 
time  prosperity,  and,  in  i860,  just  one  year 
prior  to  the  long  suspension  of  specie  payment 
which  was  the  direct  result  of  conditions  due 
to  the  war,  there  were  in  the  United  States  no 
less  than  1,562  banks,  with  an  aggregate  capital 
of  $422,000,000,  a  circulation  of  about  $207,000- 
000,  deposits  of  $254,000,000,  and  specie  in 
hand  to  the  amount  of  more  than  $83,500,000. 

The  four  years  during  which  the  war  was  in 
progress  gave  the  banks  of  the  country  an 
opportunity  to  give  unquestionable  proof  of 
their  loyalty  and  patriotism,  and  yet  the  story 
of  these  times,  with  the  Government's  issues 
of  its  "legal  tenders,'*  is  more  properly  a 
matter  of  discussion  imder  the  head  of  national 
finance.  (See  Banks,  N.a.tional.)  Thus,  the 
national  banking  law,  the  legislative  enactment 
which  regulates  the  operation  of  banks  to-day, 
was  passed  3  June  1864.  Simple  as  its  pro- 
visions were,  they  were  drafted  with  such  a 
clear  view  as  to  the  security  of  the  banking 
system,  that  little  reason  for  dissatisfaction 
has  been  found  with  them.  According  to 
these  provisions,  the  establishment  of  a  bank 
requires  the  association  of  not  less  than  five 
persons,  and  a  fully  paid-up  capital.  To  secure 
its  notes  of  issue  it  is  compelled  to  hold  the 
Government's  pledge  in  the  form  of  United 
States  bonds,  on  which  the  comptroller  of  the 
currency  authorizes  it  to  circulate  such  notes  to 
an  amount  equal  to  the  par  value  of  the  securi- 
ties not  exceeding  the  authorized  capital  stock. 
Wise  and  secure  as  these  conditions  were, 
they  would  have  been  of  little  value  in  improv- 


ing the  currency  situation  if  the  State  banks  had 
been  permitted  to  continue  to  issue  their  notes 
under  the  system  that  had  existed  since  1836.  To 
meet  this  difticulty,  therefore.  Congress  passed 
a  law  placing  a  prohibitive  tax  of  10  per  cent. 
on    the    circulating    notes    of    the    State    banks. 

Realizing  that  the  circulation  of  their  notes 
would  be  impossible  under  the  new  conditions, 
many  of  the  old  State  banks  changed  their 
organization  to  meet  the  requirements  of  the 
new  national  bank  law,  and,  at  the  close  of 
the  war,  there  were  not  more  than  500  of  these 
institutions  that  had  neither  complied  with 
the  provisions  of  the  new  statutes  nor  gone 
out  of  existence.  Those  that  remained  con- 
tinued to  do  what  they  are  still  doing.  They 
transacted  a  general  banking  business  of  loan, 
discount  and  deposit,  and  left  the  circulation 
of  notes  to  the  national  banks.  At  the  time 
of  the  institution  of  the  national  banking 
system,  however,  it  was  specified  that  the 
comptroller  of  the  currency  should  not  permit 
the  total  circulation  of  the  country  to  exceed 
$300,000,000.  As  more  and  more  banks  became 
established,  however,  the  demand  for  a  larger 
circulation  became  so  insistent  that  Congress 
was  at  last  compelled  to  take  recognition  of  it 
by  making  an  extra  issue  of  $54,000,000.  This 
was  also  almost  immediately  taken  up. 

The  next  critical  period  in  the  financial 
history  of  the  United  States  was  the  disastrous 
panic  of  1873.  Serious  as  this  ordeal  was, 
however,  it  was  not  entirely  unanticipated, 
for  it  was  almost  inevitable  that  the  nation 
should  pass  through  such  a  trying  period  in 
its  transition  from  the  season  of  inflation  re- 
sulting from  the  great  war  loans  to  the  normal 
basis  of  more  peaceful  times. 

In  1875,  Congress  again  resumed  its  serious 
consideration  of  the  financial  question,  and,  as 
the  result  of  its  discussions,  several  important 
reforms  were  instituted.  One  act-  removed 
all  restrictions  upon  the  total  amount  of  notes 
which  might  be  issued  by  the  national  banks. 
Another  ordered  the  resumption  of  specie  pay- 
ment, which  had  been  suspended  since  the 
beginning  of  the  war,  and  this  resumption, 
which,  as  it  was  decreed,  took  place  i  Jan. 
1879,  was  accomplished  without  the  slightest 
disturbance  of  business  conditions,  a  fact 
which  redounds  greatly  to  the  credit  of 
America  as  a  nation.  From  the  day  when 
Congress  withdrew  its  restriction  upon  cir- 
culation the  number  of  national  banks  have  in- 
creased steadily  from  year  to  year.  In  1875, 
there  were  2.047  banks  in  the  country,  with 
a  total  capital  of  $497,864,833.  and  an  aggre- 
gate surplus  of  $134,123,649.  By  1885,  only 
10  years  later,  the  number  of  banks  had  in- 
creased to  2,665,  while  their  capital  amounted 
to  $524,599,602,  and  their  total  surplus  to  $146,- 
903.495.  making  an  increase  of  618  banks,  a 
total  gain  of  $26,734,769  in  capital,  and  an  in- 
crease of  $12,779,846  in  the  matter  of  surplus. 
Even  such  an  increase  did  not  meet  the  re- 
quirements of  the  ever-growing  and  pros- 
perous country.  Steadily,  therefore,  the  work 
of  the  national  banks  widened,  until,  at  last,  in 
1905,  the  report  of  the  comptroller  of  the  cur- 
rency showed  that  there  were  no  less  than  5,757, 
such   banks   in   the   country,   with   an   aggregate 


BANKS  AND  BANKING  —  BANKS,  SAVINGS 


capital  of  $799,870,229,  a  total  surplus  of  $417,- 
757,591,  and  undivided  profits  amounting  to 
$202,536,366.  Total  resources^  $7,472,350,878. 
Loans  and  discounts,  $4,028,414,785.  See  United 
States  —  Finances  of  the.  1861-1903. 

Of  course,  in  the  meantime,  the  country 
has  passed  through  another  period  of  busi- 
ness depression  and  financial  stringency. 
Coming  more  gradually  than  such  crises 
usually  come,  it  made  itself  most  generally 
felt  about  1892,  and,  for  several  years,  it  con- 
tuiued  to  exert  its  baneful  influence  more 
persistently  than  had  been  the  case  during 
any  previous  period  of  commercial  misfor- 
tune. Although  there  was  no  actual  panic 
there  was  a  time  when  the  nation  stood  peril- 
ously near  the  verge  of  disaster,  and,  while 
this  condition  of  affairs  was  largely  the  effect 
of  lack  of  confidence  on  behalf  of  the  people 
it  operated  so  conclusively  as  a  check  upon 
business  enterprise,  that  its  industrial  reac- 
tions, which  affected  all  classes,  was  the  means 
cf  causing  much  suffering  in  all  parts  of  the 
land.  For  the  first  time  since  the  close  of 
the  Civil  War  the  money  broker  reappeared 
to  take  his  profits  in  the  premiums  he  placed 
upon  all  sorts  of  currency,  for  the  banks, 
having  all  too  little  money,  were  compelled  to 
transact  their  business  largely  by  means  of 
certified  checks. 

One  result  of  this  hoarding  of  the  nation's 
money  was  seen  in  the  runs  upon  the  insti- 
tutions for  savings.  In  the  West  these  became 
so  frequent,  and  were  usually  so  persistent, 
that  many  of  the  perfectly  solvent  savings 
banks,  being  unable  to  realize  upon  their 
securities  quickly  enough  to  save  themselves, 
were  compelled  to  go  to  the  wall.  In  New 
York,  when  the  troubles  became  so  threaten- 
ing that  it  was  impossible  to  judge  how  long 
il  would  -be  before  the  storm  would  break  in 
an  excited  mob  of  depositors  all  eager  to 
recover  their  savings,  the  bank  officials  held 
a  hurried  conference  at  which  they  deter- 
mined that  their  only  hope  lay  in  the  law 
that  permitted  them  to  refuse  to  pay  an  ac- 
count except  upon  three  months'  previous 
notice.  As  they  did  take  advantage  of  this 
clause,  they  succeeded  in  averting  the  disaster. 

However  important  a  factor  the  savings 
bank  has  become  it  is  the  national  bank  that 
has  been  the  foundation  of  America's  finan- 
cial prosperity.  During  the  past  30  years  its 
stimulating  influence  has  extended  to  almost 
every  town  and  hamlet  in  which  business  is 
transacted.  Well-organized,  and  carefully  sup- 
ervised, its  uniform  system  of  banking  has 
rnade  it  of  as  great  importance  to  the  indi- 
vidual as  it  is  to  the  Government.  In  fact,  if 
any  argument  was  needed  to  testify  to  the 
solvency  of  the  system,  it  would  only  be  neces- 
sary to  remember  that,  since  the  establish- 
ment of  the  system,  onlv  439  failures  have 
occurred  in  a  total  of  7,966  banks  that  have 
been  organized.  See  Banking  Institutions, 
THE  Examination  of. 

Among  the  banks  proper  the  State  bank 
still  holds  an  important  position.  At  the 
close  of  the  fiscal  year,  1904-5,  there  were 
m  the  United  States,  according  to  the  report 
of    the    Treasury    Department,    no    less    than 


7,794  State  banks,  while,  at  this  time,  their 
aggregate  resources  were  $3,190,911,378;  their 
capital  was  $379,756,040;  their  surplus  was 
$154,439,841  ;  their  undivided  profits  were  $63,- 
164,608;  their  aggregate  deposits  were  $2,365,- 
209,630^  and  their  loans  and  discounts  were 
$1,906,914,878,  an  amount  which  included  the 
sum  of  $251,814,768,  which  represented  the  loans 
on  real  estate  and  collateral  securities. 

According  to  the  Treasury  report  for 
1904-5  the  savings  banks  in  existence  num- 
bered 1,237.  Their  total  resources  were 
$3,368,279,857;  capital  stock,  $26,191,294;  sur- 
plus, $197,582,867 ;  undivided  profits,  $35,708,852  ; 
their  aggregate  deposits,  $3,093>077-357,  while 
the  aggregate  of  their  loans  was  $i,534.- 
114,618,  of  which  sum  all  but  a  very  small 
amount  was  secured  by  real  estate. 

In  1905  there  were  1,028  private  banks  in 
operation  throughout  the  country.  At  this 
time  their  total  resources  were  $165,233,295 ; 
capital  stock,  $22,518,193;  surplus,  $6,872^18; 
undivided  profits,  $2,958,278;  their  individual 
deposits  were  $127,937,098,  and  their  loans  and 
discounts  were  $107,098,805. 

The  number  of  loan  and  trust  companies 
in  existence  at  the  close  of  this  fiscal  year, 
1904-5,  was  683.  In  spite  of  the  fact  that 
this  is  the  smallest  branch  of  the  banking 
system,  considered  from  a  numerical  point  of 
view,  the  total  resources  of  these  institutions 
showed  an  aggregate  of  $2,865,976,479;  capital 
stock,  $243,133,622;  their  surplus  was  $281,289,- 
339;  undivided  profits,  $82,226,383;  their  loans 
and  discounts  amounted  to  $1,549,633,063,  of 
which  sum  only  $144,394,593  was  on  real  estate, 
and  their  total  deposits  were  $1^980,856,737. 

From  this  array  of  figures  it  may  easily 
be  computed  that  there  were  no  less  than 
16,499  banks  of  all  descriptions  engaged  in 
business  operations  throughout  the  United 
States  in  1905.  The  total  amount  of  their 
capital  was  $1,471,469,378;  their  surplus 
amounted  to  $1,057,942,556,  and  undivided 
profits,  $386,594,467,  certainly  a  record  of 
a  stupendous  achievement  when  we  re- 
member that  it  was  not  more  than  125  years 
ago  that  the  American  banking  system  had  its 
origin  in  a  little  Philadelphia  bank  which 
Robert  Morris  established  upon  a  capital  of 
only  $400,000.  See  Bank  Bills  ;  Banks  and 
Banking;  Finance;  Trust  Companies;  Coin- 
age; Money;  Monetary  Systems  of  the 
World;  Canada,  Financial  System. 

The  grand  aggregate  of  resources  of  all  these 
banks  reached  the  stupendous  sum  of  $17,062,- 
751.887;  the  individual  deposits,  $11,387,762,535, 
and  loans  and  discounts,  $9,126,176,149. 

Levi  Parsons  Morton. 

Banks,  Savings,  in  their  inception,  were 
primarily  benevolent  institutions,  organized  for 
the  benefit  of  the  working,  thrifty  citizen,  who 
desirous  of  safeguarding  the  future  of  himself, 
and  of  those  dependent  upon  him,  saved  small 
sums  from  his  daily  or  weekly  earnings  ;  com- 
mercial and  financial  banks  could  not  and  would 
not  attend  to  these  small  accounts,  and  there- 
fore, the  lawmakers,  urged  by  public-spirited 
citizens,  incorporated  institutions,  wherein  the 
savings  of  the  frugal-minded,  industrious  and 
thrifty,  whose  savings  were  too  small  to  invest 


BANKS,  SAVINGS 


in  public  or  private  securities,  or  who  were  not 
educated  to  make  such  investments,  could  be 
deposited  with  absolute  safety,  and  at  the  same 
time   earn   some   interest   for  them. 

They  may  rightly  be  considered  as  a  benevo- 
lence from  the  State,  who  thus  endeavors  to 
protect  itself  against  the  carelessness  of  its 
citizens,  and  to  minimize  mendicity,  destitution, 
and  pauperism,  by  offering  to  its  people  safe 
depositaries  for  their  surplus  earnings;  the 
theory  is  that  many  will  prefer  independence 
from  honest  industry  to  beggarly  dependence, 
the  result  of  idleness  OT  self-indulgence,  and 
that  the  poor  should  be  helped  to  help  them- 
selves, and  to  receive  the  reward  for  their 
industry  and  self-denial.  To  further  foster  this 
spirit,  the  savings  banks  are  in  many  communi- 
ties practically  freed  from  taxation,  in  the  same 
manner  as  churches,  schools,  hospitals,  etc. ;  this 
enables  them  to  return  to  their  depositors  all 
their  earnings,  save  onl}-  the  necessary  expenses 
of  conducting  the  business.  Savings  institutions 
are  the  outgrowth  of  a  better  social  structure, 
making  for  order,  temperance,  virtue,  industry, 
and  thrift,  as  well  as  upholding  pul)lic  credit 
and  fostering  good  citizenship;  they  create  self- 
respect  and  independence,  and  may  well  be 
considered  as  among  the  greatest  civilized  forces 
working  for  the  betterment  of  the  condition  of 
mankind. 

Savings  banks,  however,  are  by  no  means 
charitable  institutions.  He  who  by  careful  liv- 
ing has  a  surplus,  however  small,  over  and  above 
his  daily  needs,  is  in  no  sense  a  subject  for 
charity;  as  a  matter  of  fact,  he  is  a  small 
capitalist ;  he,  together  with  many  others,  by 
depositing  their  savings  in  the  savings  banks, 
not  only  help  themselves  and  encourage  thrift 
in  others,  but  these  savings,  amounting  in  the 
aggregate  to  enormous  sums,  instead  of  being 
locked  up  and  hidden  away,  as  in  the  past, 
are  employed  to  further  public  and  private  enter- 
prises, furnishing  capital  for  building  water- 
works, railroads,  State  and  city  and  private 
institutions,  and  thus  this  money  finds  its  way 
back  into  the  pockets  of  the  laborer  and  ine- 
chanic,  in  the  shape  of  work  and  wages,  a 
true  endless  chain. 

They  are  of  comparatively  modern  origin, 
and  it  is  only  towards  the  end  of  the  eighteenth 
century  that  we  find  any  mention  of  them. 
Small  beginnings  were  made  in  1778  in  Ham- 
burg, Germany,  and  1787  in  Berne,  Switzerland ; 
these  associations,  however,  simply  cared  for 
the  spare  cash  of  servants,  mechanics,  and  la- 
borers, and  as  a  rule  did  not  allow  withdrawals, 
but  granted  annuities  ;  being  different  from  the 
English  idea  of  savings  banks.  In  England  the 
matter  was  suggested,  it  is  said,  by  Jeremy 
Bentham,  in  1797,  in  his  system  of  frugality 
banks,  but  the  first  known  attempt  in  that  direc- 
tion was  made  in  1798  by  the  Rev.  Joseph 
Smith  of  Wendover.  who  offered  his  parishion- 
ers to  take  care  of  their  savings  during  the  sum- 
mer months  and  to  repay  them  at  Christmas 
with  a  bounty  of  one  third  additional :  about 
the  same  time  the  "Friendly  Society  for  the 
Benefit  of  Womtn  and  Children*  was  estab- 
lished at  Tottenham  High  Cross,  by  Mrs.  Pris- 
cilla  Wakefield,  and  this  society  became  regu- 
larly organized  in  1804 ;  Malthus  also  suggested, 
in  1803,  the  idea  of  county  banks  for  the  labor- 
ing classes.  The  first  regular  organization 
brought   before   the   public   was    in    1810,    when 


the  Rev.  Henry  Dunkin  of  Ruthwell,  Dumfrie- 
shire,  Scotland,  started  a  self-sustaining  insti- 
tution, receiving  deposits  from  the  general  pub- 
lic;  during  the  first  year  of  this  ^'Parish  Bank" 
the  receipts  amounted  to  ii5i,  and  in  four 
years  increased  to  £922.  In  1814  the  Edinburgh 
Savings  Bank  was  established  on  the  basis 
of  Mr.  Dunkin's  plan.  In  London  the  first  sav- 
ings bank  was  opened  in  1816  and  was  recog- 
nized by  Act  of  Parliament  in   181 7. 

Generally  speaking  it  may  be  said  that  be- 
cause of  the  fact  that  the  paternal  governments 
of  Europe  have  large  functions,  thereby  exerting 
a  powerful  influence  in  the  economic  life  of 
the  nation,  and  also  partly  owing  to  the  lack 
of  initiative  in  private  benevolent  enterprises, 
savings  banks  were  started  there  as  national 
enterprises,  usually  managed  through  the  post- 
office  department ;  the  investments  of  such  banks 
being  mainly  confined  to  government  securities. 

In  the  United  States  the  functions  of  the 
government  are  more  limited,  and  are  usually 
restricted  to  formulating  general  legislation,  or 
granting  charters  to  savings  institutions  under 
the  laws  of  the  different  States,  and  also  exert- 
ing some  supervision  over  them,  by  means  of 
periodical  examinations  by  the  State  bank  su- 
perintendent or  commissioner.  Under  our  system 
of  government  we  are  apt  to  consider  that  our 
citizens  are  fully  able  to  attend  themselves 
to  their  banking  business,  in  the  same  manner 
as  the  banks  of  deposit  and  discount,  and  it 
is  a  good  American  practice,  that  does  not 
allow  the  State  to  interfere  with  the  private 
business  of  its  citizens,  and  restricts  it  to  its 
own  functions,  as  well  defined  in  the  Constitu- 
tion. In  the  United  States  there  is  no  permanent 
or  perpetual  debt,  thus  making  this  form  of 
investment  impracticable,  as  it  certainly  would 
be  injudicious  for  our  savings  banks,  who  are 
usually  looked  upon  as  local  institutions,  the 
money  which  they  receive  on  deposit  being 
loaned  out,  whenever  practicable,  in  the  vicinity 
of  the  bank  itself.  We  may  trace  the  first 
savings  bank  in  the  United  States  to  the 
organization  in  1816  of  the  Philadelphia  Savings 
Fund  Society,  in  Philadelphia,  Pa.,  a  private 
association  which  was  afterwards  incorporated 
by  the  legislature  of  Pennsylvania  in  1819.  The 
Provident  Institution  for  Savings  in  the  town 
of  Boston,  Mass.,  was  incorporated  in  1816, 
and  the  Savings.  Bank  of  Baltimore,  Md..  in 
1818.  In  New  York  the  first  organized  savings 
bank  was  the  Bank  for  Savings.  Efforts  had 
been  made  for  several  years  by  public-spirited 
citizens  of  that  city,  to  get  a  charter  from  the 
legislature  for  such  bank,  acting  on  a  sugges- 
tion received  from  Patrick  Colquhoun,  a  magis- 
trate in  London,  by  his  correspondent  in  New 
York.  Thomas  Eddy:  but  the  then  existing 
hostility  to  banks  rendered  this  very  difficult, 
and  it  was  not  without  much  work  and  con- 
siderable delay  that  at  last,  in  1819.  a  bill 
incorporating  the  Bank  for  Savings  was  passed 
by  the  legislature  and  approved  by  the  council 
of  revision.  The  organizers  named  in  the  cer- 
tificate were  nearly  all  members  of  the  Society 
for  the  Prevention  of  Pauperism,  founded  in 
1817.  The  trustees  (three  in  rotation)  attended 
for  one  month  each,  as  a  committee,  doing  the 
work  of  the  bank:  they  received  no  compensa- 
tion for  their  services,  and  were  restricted  in 
investing  their  deposits  to  government  securi- 
ties  and   public   stocks,   issued   under   the   lawf 


BANKS,  SAVINGS 


of  the  United  States  and  of  this  State.  Since 
then  many  savings  institutions  have  been  organ- 
ized both  in  New  York  and  in  the  other  States 
of  the  Union. 

The  primary  savings  bank  being  wholly 
philanthropic,  the  services  of  the  trustees  are 
usually  gratuitous,  and  on  this  basis  there  have 
been  built,  in  the  Eastern  States  of  the  United 
States,  a  large  number  of  flourishing  institu- 
tions, answering  perfectly  to  the  demands  that 
gave  them  birth.  Criticisms  have  been  made 
at  times,  and  were  echoed  in  the  legislature, 
disapproving  of  the  requirement  of  the  gratuity 
of  the  trustee's  services,  and  arguing  that  men 
are  sure  to  become  careless  in  their  supervision 
when  not  paid  for  their  services ;  partly  because 
of  this  contention,  the  plan  of  mutual  savings 
banks  has  not  been  adopted  in  the  Western 
and  Southern  States,  where  the  savings  bank 
business  is  done  by  financial  institutions  furnish- 
ing their  capital  and  surplus  as  a  guarantee  for 
the  reoayment  of  deposits,  and  where  the  direc- 
tors and  stockholders  are  directly  and  financially 
interested  in  the  success  of  the  bank.  Another 
reason  to  be  considered  also,  was  that  condi- 
t\ons  in  these  States  differ  vastly  from  those 
existing  in  the  Eastern  States.  It  was  generally 
believed  that  purely  mutual  savings  banks  would 
not  receive  sufficient  support,  and  could  not 
succeed  in  the  more  sparsely  settled  parts  of 
our  country,  and  therefore  they  were  instituted 
as  adjuncts,  or  departments,  of  regular  com- 
mercial banks  of  deposit.  A  few  large  and 
successful  mutual  savings  banks,  based  on  the 
eastern  idea,  and  flourishing  in  the  Western 
and  far  Western  States,  seem,  however,  to  prove 
that  this  reason  does  not  always  apply.  There  is 
no  doubt  that  mutual  savings  institutions,  pro- 
tected by  wise  legislation,  strictly  restricted 
as  to  first  class  investments  and  practically  freed 
from  taxation,  are  as  safe  depositaries  of  the 
savings  of  the  nation,  as  may  well  be  devised ; 
and  no  institutions  created  with  that  object  in 
view  can  possibly  be  made  too  safe.  A  pro- 
posal for  postal  savings  banks  has  been  fre- 
quently before  the  public,  but  has  never  met 
with  success.  The  main  arguments  against  them 
consist  in  the  difficulty  which  would  be  found 
in  investing  these  large  amounts  by  a  body 
of  constantly  changing  officeholders,  and  also 
that  the  functions  of  the  State  should  not  be 
increased,    but    rather    diminished. 

The  average  rate  of  interest  paid  to  savings 
bank  depositors  in  the  United  States  is  about 
3/^  per  cent  per  annum. 

In  England  the  savings  banks  are  both 
governmental  and  trustee  banks.  Tlie  trustee 
banks  are  based  on  a  plan  somewhat  similar  to 
our  mutual  banks  in  the  United  States.  They 
have  some  2.300,000  depositors,  with  about  $300,- 
000,000,  to  their  credit.  The  governmental 
banks  are  called  postal  savings  banks.  Deposits 
and  withdrawals  are  made  through  the  numerous 
post-offices  in  Great  Britain,  and  the  deposits, 
as  is  mainly  the  case  with  trustee  banks,  are 
invested  in  government  securities  through  the 
commissioners  of  the  public  debt.  These  post- 
office  savings  banks  have  about  8,800,000  deposi- 
tors, with  aggregate  deposits  of  about  $700,- 
000,000.  The  interest  paid  is  about  2-14  per 
cent  per  annum. 

A  short  summary  of  the  law  of  the  State 
of  New  York,  which  is  considered  by  many  the 


best  savings  bank  law  in  the  United  State.s,  is 
as  follows : 

Trustees. —  Thirteen  or  more,  to  receive  no 
remuneration  as  such,  nor  to  borrow  money 
from  the  bank. 

Investments. —  Government  bonds,  bonds  of 
States  not  having  deraulted  for  10  years,  munici- 
pal bonds  in  New  York  State  and  several 
other  named  cities,  railroad  bonds  as  named, 
bonds  and  mortgages  on  real  estate  in  the  State 
for  not  over  65  per  cent  of  deposits,  nor  for 
above  60  per  cent  of  value,  if  improved,  or 
40  per  cent  if  unimproved. 

No  loans  on  personal  security. 

To  hold  no  real  property,  except  banking 
house,  and  that  acquired  under  foreclosure, 
which  is  to  be  sold  within  five  years. 

Deposits  limited  to  $3,000  for  each  depositor; 
interest  not  over  5  per  cent  per  annum;  surplus 
fund,  not  over  15  per  cent  of  deposits  ;  examina- 
tion every  two  years  by  bank  superintendent. 

Savings  bank  statistics  form  a  very  uncertain 
basis  for  comparisons  and  for  drawing  conclu- 
sions, as  conditions  dift'er  vastly  in  different 
countries.  In  the  United  States,  in  addition  to  the 
deposits  in  the  savings  banks,  there  is  a  large  ac- 
cumulation of  savings  in  the  life  insurance  com- 
panies ($2,000,000,000),  in  the  building  and  loan 
associations  ($600,000,000),  and  in  school  sav- 
ings banks  ($500,000),  not  to  speak  of  the  sav- 
ings invested  in  homesteads  and  land.  In  Eng- 
land, where  landlordism  prevails,  nearly  all  the 
savings  are  in  the  savings  banks  and  life  insur- 
ance companies.  In  France,  where  the  land  is  di- 
vided into  small  holdings,  some  of  the  savings 
of  its  people  are  in  the  savings  banks,  but  they 
are  mainly  invested  in  stocks  and  in  the  irre- 
deemable government  bonds  held  by  its  people 
direct.  In  Germany  and  Switzerland,  many 
communes  and  cantons  have  established  munici- 
pal institutions,  doing  much  the  same  work 
as  our  own  savings  banks  in  the  United  States. 
In  Russia  the  government  takes  charge  of  all 
savings.  In  Austria  both  government  postal 
banks  and  private  banks  are  organized.  In 
Sweden  the  post-office  banks  invest  their  funds 
in  government  bonds,  bank  stocks,  and  municipal 
public  stocks. 

The  following  table  shows  the  number  of 
depositors  and  amount  of  deposits  in  savings 
banks  in  the  different  countries  of  the  world, 
where  statistics  are  obtainable. 


Countries 

Number    of 
Depositors 

Total   deposits 

Austria-Hungary     

British     Colonies 

6,663,822 

2,782,572 

2,088,448 

1,203,120 

11,298,474 

15,432,211 

11,093,469 

1,330,275 

6,740.138 

7.467.452 

718,823 

145.507 

5. 177. 501 

1,892,586 

1,300,000 

7.305.433 

$1,309,752,448 
330,858,520 
141,851,419 

236,170,057 

847,224,910 

2,273,406,226 

966.854,253 

Holland           

72,738,817 

Italy         

482,263,472 

40.887.186 

89,633.481 

7.426,031 

466,1  59,229 

151,480,442 

193,000,000 

3,060,178,611 

Total            

82,639-831 

$10,669,885,102 

The  above  figures   show  average  deposits  in 
the   savings  banks  in  the  world   of  $101.01   for 


BANKS,  UNITED  STATES  NATIONAL  — BANNERET 


each  depositor,  or  $ii.oo  per  capita.  The  de- 
posits in  the  United  States  average  $418.89  for 
each  depositor,  or  $37.38  per  capita  of  popula- 
tion. 

The    following    table    shows    the    growth    of 
the  savings  banks  in  the  United  States  : 


Year 


1820 
1830 
1840 
1850 
i860 
1870 
1880 
1890 
1900 
1904 


Total    deposits 


$1,138,576 

6,973,304 

14,051,520 

43,431,130 

149,277,504 

549,874.358 

819,106,973 

1,524,844,506 

2,449,547,88s 

3,060,178,611 


In  several  States  of  the  Union  associations 
of  savings  banks  have  been  formed  for  mutual 
benefit,  and  for  the  purpose  of  watching  over 
proposed  legislation  in  regard  to  savings  banks 
so  as  to  protect  the  interests  of  their  depositors. 
In  1901  a  national  union  of  savings  banks  was 
organized  as  the  savings  bank  section  of  the 
American  Bankers'  Association.  This  section 
includes  in  its  membership  a  majority  of  the 
savings  banks  in  the  United  States,  and  conven- 
tions are  held  yearly  where  members  from  all 
parts  of  the  United  States  meet  to  discuss  the 
many  subjects  of  particular  interest  to  savings 
banks  and  to  their  depositors. 

William  Han  hart, 
Secretary  '^^Saz'ings  Bank  Section''^  The  Ameri- 
can Bankers'  Association,  New  York. 
Banks,  United  States  National.  The  na- 
tional Bank  of  the  United  States  owes  its  ex- 
istence to  the  necessities  that  were  occasioned  as 
the  direct  result  of  the  outbreak  of  the  Civil 
War.  Prior  to  1861  the  paper  currency  of  the 
country  had  been  furnished  by  some  1,600  pri- 
vate corporations,  each  organized  under  its  re- 
spective State  laws.  When  Congress  met  in 
extraordinary  session  on  4  July  1861,  it  was 
confronted  by  a  serious  financial  situation.  With 
estimates  showing  a  probable  expenditure  of 
$1,000,000  a  day,  the  treasury  was  empty  and  the 
nation  was  already  deeply  in  debt.  At  the  sug- 
gestion of  Secretary  Chase,  therefore,  the  govern- 
ment was  empowered  to  raise  $320,000,000,  all 
but  $80,000,000  of  which  should  be  by  loan,  and, 
in  anticipation  of  the  revenue,  to  issue 
$50,000,000  of  treasury  notes,  redeemable  on  de- 
mand. At  the  invitation  of  Secretary  Chase  the 
banks  in  the  larger  cities  soon  negotiated  the 
requisite  loan,  but,  while  this  relieved  the  tem- 
porary necessities  of  the  treasury,  the  secretary 
realized  that  a  safer  financial  policy  must  be 
adopted  if  the  nation  was  to  remain  upon  a 
secure  foundation.  When  Congress  reassembled 
in  December,  therefore,  Mr.  Chase  was  pre- 
pared to  suggest  a  plan  to  meet  these  require- 
ments. He  explained  that  while  the  ordinary 
revenues  of  the  country  might  be  sufficient  to 
meet  the  ordinary  expenditures,  for  the  extra- 
ordinary expenses  of  the  war  it  was  necessary 
to  depend  upon  loans,  and  he  suggested  that  the 
time  had  come  when  the  government  might 
properly  claim  a  part,  at  least,  of  the  advan- 
tage of  the  paper  circulation  then  constituting 
a  loan  without  interest  from  the  people  to  the 
banks.     He  believed  that  the  best  way  to  accom- 


plish this  result  was  to  provide  a  national  cur- 
rency, to  be  issued  by  the  banks,  but  secured  by 
the  pledge  of  United  States  bonds. 

Before  Congress  could  consider  the  secre- 
tary's recommendations  the  suspension  of  specie 
payment,  28  Dec.  1861,  completely  changed  the 
aspect  of  the  situation.  To  provide  for  the 
pressing  needs  for  cash,  Congress  was  com- 
pelled to  authorize  the  issue  of  more  demand 
notes  and  so  matters  continued  until  December 
1862,  by  which  time  the  war  had  reached  such  a 
magnitude  as  to  exhaust  even  the  enormous  re- 
sources provided  by  Congress.  The  disburse- 
ments in  November  had  amounted  to  nearly  two 
million  dollars  a  day,  while  unpaid  requisitions 
had  reached  the  extent  of  $46,000,000,  and  the 
annual  statement  of  receipts  and  expenditures 
showed  a  deficit  of  $277,000,000  to  be  provided 
for.  To  meet  this  situation  Secretary  Chase 
recommended  an  increase  in  the  amount  author- 
ized to  be  borrowed  on  the  last  5-20  bonds,  but, 
in  order  to  create  a  market  for  these  bonds,  he 
again  advised  the  creation  of  a  series  of  banking 
associations  under  a  national  law  that  should 
require  them  to  secure  their  circulation  by  a 
deposit  of  government  securities.  Although 
strongly  advocated  and  introduced  in  a  bill  by 
Mr.  Hooper,  7  Jan.  1863,  the  suggestion  met 
with  so  little  favor  that  the  bill  was  adversely 
reported  by  the  Committee  on  Ways  and  Means, 
but  on  25  January,  after  President  Lincoln  had 
sent  a  special  message  to  the  House  warning 
Congress  that  its  present  financial  policy  would 
soon  produce  disastrous  consequences,  Senator 
Sherman  introduced  another  bill  providing  for 
a  national  currency.  This  measure  differed 
somewhat  from  Mr.  Hooper's  bill,  which  had 
failed  in  the  committee  room,  and,  as  some  of 
the  features  which  had  proved  objectionable  in 
the  former  measure  had  been  eliminated  in  the 
Senate  bill,  it  met  with  less  opposition,  although- 
it  was  so  closely  contested  that  it  passed  the 
Senate,  12  Feb.  1863,  by  a  vote  of  23  to  21  only. 
The  House  concurred  in  its  passage  on  the  20th 
by  a  vote  of  78  to  64,  and,  on  the  25th,  the 
measure  received  the  signature  of  the  Presi- 
dent, and  it  was  this  act  which  has  been  pro- 
ductive of  the  magnificent  national  bank  system 
of  the  United  States  of  to-day.  See  Sumner, 
< History  of  American  Currency'  :  Richardson, 
<The  National  Banks';  Bolles,  ^Financial  His- 
tory of  the  United  States.' 

Bannatyne  Club,  a  literary  club,  named 
after  George  Bannatyne,  the  Scotch  literateur, 
founded  in  1823  by  Sir  Walter  Scott,  its  pur- 
pose being  to  publish  works  on  Scottish  history 
and  literature.  It  was  dissolved  in  1859.  The 
society  when  founded  had  31  members,  but  when 
dissolved  there  were  100,  the  membership  being 
limited  to   that  number. 

Ban'neker,  Benjamin,  American  negro 
mathematician:  b.  ^Maryland  9  Nov.  1731  ;  d. 
1806.  At  the  age  of  50  he  began  the  study  of 
mathematics  for  astronomical  purposes.  He 
published  annually  after  1792  an  almanac  de- 
vised by  himself,  and  aided  in  determining  the 
boundaries  of  the  District  of  Columbia. 

Ban'neret,  an  abbreviation  of  knight  ban- 
neret ;  a  member  of  an  ancient  order  of  knight- 
hood which  had  the  privilege  of  leading  their 
retainers  to  battle  under  their  own  flag.  A 
banneret  was  entitled  to  display  a  banner  in- 
stead  of   a   pennon.     They   ranked   as   the   next 


BANNOCK  —  BANQUETS 


order  below  the  Knights  of  the  Garter,  only  a 
few  official  dignitaries  intervening.  This  was 
not,  however,  unless  they  were  created  by  the 
king  on  the  field  of  battle,  else  they  ranked 
after  baronets.  The  order  is  now  extinct,  the 
last  banneret  created  having  been  at  the  battle 
of  Edgehill,  in  1642,  for  his  gallantry  in  res- 
cuing the  standard  of  Charles  I. 

Bannock,  a  cake  once  much  eaten  in  Scot- 
land. It  was  made  of  oatmeal,  barley-meal,  or 
peasemeal  baked  on  an  iron  plate  or  griddle 
over  the  fire.  From  a  supposed  resemblance  the 
turbot  is  sometimes  called  in  Scotland  the 
bannock-fluke. 

Ban'nock.      See  Baxak. 

Ban'nockburn,  Scotland,  a  village  in  Stir- 
lingshire, two  miles  southeast  of  Stirling,  fa- 
mous for  the  decisive  battle  fought  near  it, 
24  June  1314,  between  King  Robert  Bruce  of 
Scotland  and'  Edward  11.  of  England,  in  which 
the  EngHsh,  though  greatly  superior  in  numbers 
and  equipment,  were  defeated.  The  Scots  owed 
their  signal  success  partly  to  their  position  and 
partly  to  the  use  of  covered  pits  which  rend- 
ered the  English  cavalry  useless.  The  Bore- 
stone,  where  Bruce  is  said  to  have  planted  his 
standard,  is  still  shown  near  a  flagstaff  erected 
in  1870.  The  village  has  manufactures  of  wool- 
ens, such  as  tartans,  carpets,  etc.  Pop.  (1900) 
2,600. 

Banns,  the  announcement  of  intended 
marriage,  requiring  the  hearers  to  make  known 
any  cause  why  the  parties  should  not  be  united 
in  matrimony.  By  the  publication  of  these 
banns  is  meant  the  legal  proclamation  or  notifi- 
cation within  the  parish,  district,  or  chapelry,  of 
the  names  and  descriptions  of  the  persons  who 
intend  to  be  there  married;  the  object  being  to 
secure  public  knowledge  of  intended  marriages, 
and  that  all  who  have  objections  to  the  marriage 
may  be  enabled  to  state  them  in  time.  If  the 
bridegroom  live  in  a  different  parish  from  the 
bride,  the  banns  must  be  proclaimed  also  in 
that  parish,  and  a  certificate  of  such  proclama- 
tion must  be  produced  before  the  celebration  of 
the  marriage.  According  to  the  old  English 
canon  law,  the  publication  of  banns  might  be 
made  on  holidays ;  but  a  change  was  made  to 
Sundays  by  Lord  Hardwicke's  Marriage  Act  in 
1753,  and  although  that  act  was  afterward  su- 
perseded by  the  4  Geo.  IV.  chap.  76,  the  regu- 
lation as  to  Sundays  has  been  since  continued. 
Seven  days'  notice  at  least  must  be  given  to  the 
clergyman  before  publication  of  banns.  Banns 
were  customary  in  various  places  before 
they  were  prescribed  by  the  entire  Church 
in  the  Fourth  Council  of  Lateran.  The 
Council  of  Trent  ordered  pastors  to  pub- 
lish them  at  the  principal  mass  in  the  parish 
church,  or  churches,  of  the  parties,  on  three 
successive  Sundays  or  festivals.  This  publica- 
tion should  be  made  within  two  months 
preceding  the  marriage.  For  grave  reasons  the 
bishop  can  dispense  from  this  obligation.  By 
the  English  Prayer  Book  the  announcement  is 
required  to  be  made  in  the  words  of  the  rubric 
on  each  of  the  three  Sundays  preceding  the  cere- 
mony. If  objections  are  offered  by  anyone 
present,  the  clergyman  cannot  proceed  further. 
Except  in  the  Roman  Catholic  Church  the  cus- 
tom of  thus  publishing  the  banns  of  marriage  is 
practically  obsolete  in  the  United  States. 


Banquets.  It  was  the  famous  Mr.  Boswell 
who  first  defined  man  as  a  cooking  animal,  and 
yet,  appropriate  as  the  definition  still  is,  neither 
mythology  nor  tradition  offer  any  clue  to  aid  the 
student  in  discovering  when  it  was  that  the  hu- 
man animal  first  learned  to  cook.  Of  course, 
it  is  highly  improbable  that  this  secret  was 
known  to  prehistoric  man.  Instead  of  knowing 
how  to  cook  he  undoubtedly  ate  his  food  raw, 
washing  it  down  with  pure  cold  water  from  the 
springs  and  brooks,  and  many  years  must  have 
elapsed  before  he  made  the  surprising  discovery 
that  the  foods  that  satisfied  his  hunger  could  be 
vastly  improved  in  taste  if  subjected  to  the  in- 
fluence of  heat.  All  this,  however,  is  little  more 
than  mere  surmise  for  our  only  knowledge  re- 
garding the  customs  of  eating  in  vogue  during 
the  remote  past  has  been  obtained  from  the 
relics  unearthed  by  archseology.  On  walls  now 
ruined  and  decayed  the  hand  of  the  ancient 
painter  and  sculptor  left  a  record  of  the  cus- 
toms of  his  time  and  from  this  source  the  stu- 
dent has  been  able  to  gather  some  little  informa- 
tion regarding  the  gastronomic  progress  of  the 
human  race. 

Such  records,  however  valuable  they  may  be 
in  the  absence  of  other  facts,  are  vague  and 
unsatisfactory  at  best,  and  so,  turning  to  ancient 
literature,  one  finds  that  the  earliest  references  to 
food  preparation  are  contained  in  the  Bible. 
In  Genesis,  when  Abraham  bade  Sarah  make 
ready  Miree  measures  of  fine  meal  that  he  might 
be  prepared  to  entertain  the  angel,  the  student 
finds  his  first  direct  reference  to  breadstuffs, 
and,  from  that  time,  the  Scriptures  often  make 
mention  of  some  foods  by  means  of  which  the 
reader  may  obtain  a  more  or  less  correct  idea 
of  the  slow  stages  by  which  this  branch  of  the 
human  race  progressed  from  its  habits  of  prim- 
itive simplicity  to  the  stately  banquets  of  King 
Solomon  and  the  extravagant  feasts  of  Belshaz- 
zar. 

As  our  meagre  records  show  that  the  art  of 
feasting  was  practically  contemporaneous  with 
the  Egyptians  and  the  Hebrews  it  is  not  im- 
probable that  the  latter  race  may  have  learned 
the  secrets  of  good  living  from  the  former  dur- 
ing the  time  of  the  captivity,  for  at  the  period 
when  both  Greek  and  Roman  were  still  content 
with  the  simplest  fare  the  Hebrews  had  been 
initiated  into  the  pleasures  of  the  table,  a  fact 
which  explains  the  many  quaint  Biblical  warn- 
ings against  the  sin  of  glutton}'-,  as  in  Esdras, 
where  it  is  said  that  ^^the  faces  of  them  that 
have  used  abstinence  shall  shine  above  the 
stars.'' 

Among  the  ancient  Jews  all  festive  repasts 
were  held  toward  the  close  of  the  day,  after 
all  matters  of  business  had  been  concluded.  If 
the  feast  was  to  be  one  of  great  ceremony  guests 
were  not  only  invited  long  before  the  occasion, 
but  again,  on  the  day  and  as  near  as  possible  to 
the  hour  appointed,  servants  were  sent  to  their 
houses  to  deliver  orally  the  second,  or  ^'express'' 
invitation,  which  announced  that  the  host  was 
now  prepared  to  receive  his  guests.  As  this 
"express''  invitation  was  sent  to  none  but  those 
who  had  already  declared  their  acceptance, 
honor  and  propriety  required  that  they  answer 
the  summons  at  once  and  in  person,  a  fact 
which  explains  and  justifies  the  feelings  of  re- 
sentment which  were  entertained  by  the  master 
of  the  house  in  the  parable  of  the  great  supper, 
on  which  occasion,  as  will  be  remembered,  each 


BANQUETS 


perscn  invited  met  the  bearer  of  the/^express^^ 
with  a  frivolous  apology  for  his  inabilitj-  to  be 
present  at  the  feast  to  which  he  had  already 
accepted  an  invitation. 

Guests  at  Hebrew  banquets  were  required 
to  bring  their  cards  of  invitation  and  these  were 
presented  to  servants  stationed  at  the  entrance 
door.  Upon  being  admitted  the  guests  were 
conducted  to  the  receiving-room  v.here  water, 
oils  and  perfumes  awaited  them.  If  the  host 
desired  to  exhibit  a  great  mark  of  courtesy  he 
provided  each  guest  with  a  richly  embroidered 
garment,  light  and  showy  and  cut  in  a  flowing 
fashion,  which  all  were  required  to  wear  during 
the  feast. 

If  the  banquet  was  of  a  private  character  the 
master  of  the  house  presided,  but  on  occasions 
of  public  festivity  a  governor  of  the  feast  was 
selected  and  it  was  his  duty  to  see  that  the 
banquet  was  not  only  properly  conducted  but 
that  the  company  present  preserved  at  least  a 
semblance  to  order.  Appointment  to  this  office 
was  always  regarded  as  a  great  honor,  and, 
among  the  Greeks  and  Romans,  the  position  was 
prized  so  highly  that  the  choice  of  the  individual 
to  fill  it  was  often  decided  by  chance,  as  by  the 
throw  of  the  dice. 

The  positions  of  the  guests  at  the  tables  were 
not  fixed  by  inviolable  rule.  Sometimes  they 
selected  their  own  places,  while,  at  other  times, 
thej-  were  arranged  by  seniority  of  family,  or 
even  according  to  the  whim  of  the  host  who 
might  desire  to  assign  the  most  distinguished 
guests  to  places  near  his  own  person.  In  the 
earliest  daj^s,  as  is  shown  by  the  habits  of  the  an- 
cient Israelites,  guests  sat  cross-legged  around 
a  low  table  and  the  custom  of  reclining  while 
<?ating  was  not  introduced  until  about  the  last 
of  the  Old  Testament  days.  At  least,  it  was 
.about  this  time  that  the  Jews  adopted  this  cus- 
tom, as  well  as  the  habit  of  having  but  two 
thirds  of  the  table  spread  with  a  cloth,  the 
portion  where  the  food  was  to  stand  being  left 
bare.  In  ancient  Egypt  and  Persia  the  tables 
were  arranged  along  the  sides  of  the  room  and 
guests  faced  the  wall. 

At  this  time  such  articles  as  spoons,  knives 
and  forks  were  unknown  and  those  who  ate 
obtained  the  morsel  they  desired  by  dipping  their 
slices  of  bread  in  the  dish  before  them,  folding 
the  piece  of  meat  or  other  food  substance  within 
it  by  the  use  of  the  thumb  and  two  fingers. 
Later  centuries  saw  the  invention  of  the  spoon 
but  many  hundred  years  elapsed  before  any 
other  substitute  for  the  fingers  was  suggested. 
Naturally  the  hands  became  besmeared  with 
grease  but  they  were  cleaned  by  being  rubbed  on 
slices  of  bread,  kept  for  that  purpose.  This 
bread  was  then  thrown  to  the  dogs  who  waited 
beneath  the  tables  for  just  such  morsels  from 
the  feast.  If  the  fingers  became  too  badly 
soiled,  however,  servants  appeared  with  water 
and  assisted  the  guests  to  wash  by  pouring  a 
stream  over  the  hands  into  a  basin. 

^^'hen  the  party  was  a  large  one  it  was  the 
custom  for  two  persons  to  eat  from  one  dish 
and  the  host  often  showed  the  height  of  hos- 
pitality by  dipping  his  hand  into  his  own  dish, 
lifting  a  portion  of  the  food,  and  offering  sop 
to  his  guest.  To  decline  such  an  attention  was 
a  breach  of  etiquette  that  stamped  one  as  being 
extremely  ill-bred.  In  order  that  the  hands 
should  be  always  clean  from  dirt,  however,  the 
rabbis  enjoined  the  "first  water'*  and  the   "last 

\'0l.    2 — 19. 


water,**  or  the  washing  before  and  after  eating, 
and,  in  the  case  of  travelers  at  least,  the  "first 
water**  included  the  washing  of  the  feet.  After 
the  adoption  of  the  reclining  posture  guests 
lay  with  their  faces  toward  the  table,  the  left 
arm  resting  upon  a  cushion  and  the  feet 
stretched  out  behind,  while  during  the  progress 
of  the  banquet  both  head  and  feet  were  fre- 
quently sprinkled  with  perfume  to  overcome 
any  unpleasant  odor  that  might  arise  from  too 
copious  perspiration. 

The  foods  served  at  these  ancient  banquets 
consisted  of  flesh,  fish,  fowl,  melted  butter, 
bread,  honey  and  fruit,  all  of  which  were 
brought  to  the  table  at  one  time,  the  service 
being  accomplished  by  the  use  of  trays,  the  num- 
ber and  quality  of  the  dishes  varying  under 
different  circumstances.  In  ordinary  cases  the 
portion  of  each  guest  consisted  of  four  or  five 
dishes,  but  if  the  guest  was  a  person  of  great 
distinction  this  portion  was  increased  until  the 
dishes  became  so  numerous  that  they  were  piled 
one  upon  another,  completely  covering  the  table. 
All  this  food,  which  was  usually  prepared  in 
liquid  or  with  a  sauce,  as  in  a  stew,  had  been 
cut  into  conveniently  small  pieces  before  it  was 
served. 

From  the  earliest  days  within  the  recollec- 
tion of  history  sacrificial  occasions  have  always 
included  a  banquet,  however  crude  a  festival  it 
may  have  been,  and  it  was  the  adoption  of  this 
custom  that  gave  a  religious  as  well  as  a  social 
significance  to  so  manj'  of  the  Hebrew  feasts. 
As  the  Lord's  Supper  of  the  Christians  was  de- 
rived from  the  Passover,  so  all  the  great  reli- 
gious festivals  had.  as  their  accompaniment,  a 
domestic  feast.  On  the  occasion  of  the  religious 
banquets,  however,  the  wine  was  mixed  accord- 
ing to  rabbinical  regulation,  or  with  three  parts 
water ;  four  brief  benedictions  being  pronounced 
over  the  cup  before  it  was  passed  by  the  master 
of  the   feast. 

The  Greeks,  like  the  Persians,  began  and 
ended  their  feasts  with  libations  of  wine,  and 
some  idea  of  the  nature  of  an  ancient  Greek 
banquet  may  be  obtained  from  the  following 
curious  account  of  a  dinner  given  by  Achilles 
in  honor  of  Ulysses : 

He  cast  down  a  great  fleshing  block  in  the  firelight, 
and  laid  thereon  a  sheep's  back  and  a  fat  goat's  and  a 
great  hog's  chine,  rich  with  fat.  And  Automedon  held 
them  for  him  while  Achilles  carved.  Then  he  sliced 
well  the  meat,  and  pierced  it  through  with  spits.  Then, 
when  the  fire  was  burned  down  and  the  flames  waned, 
he  scattered  the  embers  and  laid  the  spits  thereupon, 
after  he  had  sprinkled  them  with  holy  salt._  Then  when 
he  had  roasted  the  meat  and  apportioned  it  in  platters, 
Patroklos  took  bread  and  dealt  it  forth  in  fair  baskets, 
and  Achilles  dealt  the  meat;  and  he  sate  himself  over 
against  godlike  Odysseus  and  bade  his  comrade  Patro- 
klos to  sacrifice  to  the  gods,  so  he  cast  the  first  fruits 
into  the  fire.  Then  they  put  their  hands  to  the  good 
cheer   lying   before  them. 

Later,  of  course,  the  Greeks  became  more 
delicate  eaters  and  vied  with  the  Romans  as  to 
the  elaborate  character  of  their  feasts.  Like 
the  Egyptians  and  Hebrews  they  reclined 
at  table  and  their  sumptuous  repasts  were  di- 
vided into  two  courses :  the  first  consisting  of 
fish  and  meat,  accompanied  by  the  vegetables 
and  several  hors  d'ceuvres  or  entrees,  while  the 
second  course  comprised  the  pastry,  fruits  and 
other  kinds  of  dessert. 

As  soon  as  the  regular  meal  was  finished  the 
tables  were  removed  and  the  floor  was  cleaned 
of  all  fragments.  Other  tables  were  then 
brought  in  by  the  servants,  tables  covered  with 


BANQUETS 


salted  cakes,  cheeses  and  other  foods  provocative 
of  thirst,  as  well  as  the  great  mixing  bowls,  the 
pitchers  of  water  cooled  in  snow,  and  the  jugs 
of  unmixed  wine,  for  the  Greeks  loved  to  drink 
heavily  after  eating,  and  as  they  drank,  to  an 
accompaniment  of  music,  song  and  dances,  young 
and  handsome  slaves  garlanded  their  heads  and 
breasts  with  twining  vines  and  flowers,  not,_as 
has  sometimes  been  said,  as  a  sign  of  festivity, 
but  because  the  garlands  were  supposed  to 
cool  the  forehead  and  counteract  the  heady 
effect  of  the  wines. 

Like  the  Hebrews  the  Greeks  obtained  their 
first  lessons  in  cookery  from  the  Egj-ptians  and 
they  soon  put  them  to  good  account._  The 
Athenians  vi^ere  particularly  apt  pupils  in  the 
kitchen  science  and  they  finallj'  came  to  excel 
the  rest  of  Greece  in  gastronomic  achievements 
just  as  the  modern  French  excel  the  rest  of 
Europe  in  this  day.  An  excellent  proof  of  this 
assertion  is  to  be  found  in  the  circumstance  that 
what  is  regarded  as  one  of  the  most  valuable 
of  the  lost  works  of  antiquity  is  a  didactic  poem 
on  gastronomj',  written  by  Archestratus,  tlie  inti- 
mate friend  of  one  of  the  sons  of  Pericles. 
<<This  great  writer,^'  says  Athenseus,  '<has 
traversed  earth  and  sea  to  render  himself  ac- 
quainted with  the  best  things  which  thej^  pro- 
duced. He  did  not,  during  his  travels,  inquire 
concerning  the  manners  of  nations,  as  to  which 
it  is  useless  to  inform  ourselves,  since  it  is  im- 
possible to  change  them ;  but  he  entered  the 
laboratories  where  the  delicacies  of  the  table 
were  prepared,  and  he  held  intercourse  with  none 
but  those  who  could  advance  his  pleasure.  His 
poem  is  a  treasure  of  science,  every  verse  is  a 
precept.^^ 

Among  the  great  nations  of  ancient  times  the 
Romans  were  the  last  to  learn  the  art  of  cookerj'. 
As  late  as  the  year  174  B.C.  there  were  neither 
cooks  nor  public  bakers  in  Rome,  and  the  people 
were  satisfied  with  and  asked  for  nothing  better 
than  a  kind  of  porridge  made  of  pulse.  This 
in  addition  to  their  vegetables  and  some  legumi- 
nous fruits  formed  their  principle  articles  of  diet. 
The  Asiatic  wars,  however,  introduced  the  Ro- 
mans to  the  luxuries  of  the  table  and,  in  a  day 
as  it  were,  Rome,  discovering  that  it  had  a 
palate,  went  mad  on  the  subject  of  gastronomy. 
Slaves  who  could  cook,  bake,  or  make  sweets 
were  brought  to  Rome  in  large  numbers  but, 
as  everj'  man  of  wealth  was  eager  to  purchase 
them,  they  brought  the  highest  of  prices. 

As  this  was  the  dawning  of  the  day  of 
Rome's  expansion  it  was  not  long  before  her 
agents  began  to  supply  her  capital  with  dainties 
from  all  parts  of  the  world.  From  the  far  East 
to  the  far  West  whatever  seemed  delicate  of 
taste  or  that  might  help  to  tempt  a  nation  of 
palates  already  craving  a  new  flavor  was  brought 
to  the  cooks  in  the  Roman  kitchens.  To  im- 
prove the  quality  of  his  cuisine  the  Emperor 
Vitellius,  one  of  the  most  enormous  eaters  the 
world  has  ever  known,  sent  his  legions  to  every 
part  of  the  empire  to  shoot  game  for  him,  while 
entire  fleets  were  employed  in  doing  nothing  but 
catching_  the  fish  that  were  to  grace  his  table. 
In  fact  it  seemed  as  if  Rome,  so  long  satisfied 
with  the  humblest  of  fare,  could  not  find  a  suffi- 
cient variety  of  foods  to  gratify  its  desire  for 
•jiovelty. 

Even  as  early  as  Caesar's  time,  however,  the 
Roman  table  was  liberally  provided  with  a 
>ariety  of  foods  sufficient  to  satisfy  almost  any 


appetite.  As  an  example  of  a  feast  given  in 
those  days  one  may  take  the  following  menu 
which  was  served  at  a  pontifical  banquet  long 
before  the  advent  of  the  golden  days  of  Im- 
perial Rome : 

The  first  course,  which  was  intended  to 
merely  whet  the  appetite,  consisted  of  conger 
eels,  oysters,  two  kinds  of  mussels,  thrushes 
served  on  asparagus,  fat  fowls,  a  ragout  of 
oysters  and  other  shell  fish,  with  black  and 
white  marrons.  The  second  course  included  a 
variety  of  shell  fish  and  other  marine  animals, 
becaficos,  haunches  of  venison,  a  wild  boar,  and 
a  pasty  of  becaficos  and  other  birds.  The  third, 
and  principal  course,  comprised  the  udder  of 
swine,  boar's  head,  a  fricassee  of  fish,  a  fricassee 
of  sow's  udder,  ducks  of  various  kinds,  roast 
fowl,  with  pastry  and  Picentine  bread. 

As  the  years  passed  Rome  experienced  no 
deterioration  in  its  love  for  the  good  things 
of  the  table.  In  fact,  on  the  other  hand,  this 
pontifical  menu  was  really  a  meagre  bill  of  fare 
as  compared  to  those  which  were  afterward 
prepared  by  the  Roman  cooks  for  the  delectation 
of  the  later  Caesars.  As  an  illustration  the  fol- 
lowing description  of  a  banquet  in  the  time  of 
Nero,  which  is  taken  from  Dean  Farrar's 
^Darkness  and  Dawn,^  is  admitted  by  students 
to  be  a  vivid  but  not  exaggerated  picture  of  a 
feast  in  the  da5'S  of  Imperial  Rome.  At  this 
banquet,  which  was  prepared  under  the  direc- 
tions of  Otho,  Nero  entertained  eight  guests. 
The  walls  of  the  room  ^Svere  inlaid  with  mother- 
of-pearl  and  slabs  of  ivory.  .  .  .  The  table 
was  of  cedar-wood,  and  it  sparkled  with  goblets 
of  gold  and  silver.  .  .  .  among  which  were 
scattered  amber  cups.  .  .  .  Although  it  was 
winter,  garlands  of  exotic  roses  were  provided 
for  every  guest,  and  none  but  the  most  youthful 
and  beautiful  of  Otho's  slaves  were  permitted  to 
wait  upon  them.  The  supper  was  no  supper 
of  Trimalchio,  with  its  coarse  and  heavy  glut- 
tonies. .  .  .  The  oysters  were  from  Rich- 
borough  ;  the  lampreys  were  from  the  fishponds 
of  a  senator  who  was  said  to  have  flung  into 
them  more  than  one  slave  who  had  oft'ended 
him ;  the  mullet  came  from  Tauromenos ;  the 
milk  cheese  from  Sarsina.  There  were  two  tiny 
dishes  which  represented  the  last  and  most  ex- 
travagant devices  of  Roman  gourmets,  the  one 
composed  of  the  tongues  of  nightingales,  the 
other  of  the  brains  of  Samian  peacocks  and 
African  flamingoes,  of  which  the  iridescent  and 
crimson  feathers  adorned  the  silver  plates  on 
which  they  laj-.  Sea  and  land  had  been  swept 
with  mad  prodigality  to  furnish  every  luxury. 
The  wines  were  of  the  rarest  vintages,  and 
whereas  four  kinds  of  wine  were  thought  extrav- 
agant in  the  days  of  Julius  Caesar,  Otho  set  80 
different  sorts  before  his  guests.  .  .  .  Hot 
mushrooms  alternated  with  bits  of  ice.*  Per- 
fumes were  sprinkled  on  the  hair  and  feet  of 
the  guests,  and  the  amusements  that  were  pro- 
vided were  dancing  b}"  Andalusian  girls,  dice 
and  gambling.  Offerings  to  the  gods  were  not 
forgotten,  however,  and  these  were  thrown  into 
the  hearth. 

If  this  was  a  dainty  repast,  however,  Rome 
was  not  always  so  dainty  for  the  wealthy  gour- 
mands were  not  satisfied  with  eating  well.  They 
wanted  to  gluttonize,  to  eat  of  ever>1:hing  im- 
moderately until  they  found  it  impossible  to  eat 
any  more,  when,  by  resorting  to  the  ever-con- 
venient feather,  they  were  able  to  return  to  the 


BANQUETS 


feast  and  stuff  themselves  once  more  to  reple- 
tion. On  such  occasions  the  more  distinguished 
the  company,  the  earlier  began  the  banquet  and 
the  later  it  lasted. 

Nor  did  the  Roman  table  ever  go  dry  for  the 
want  of  rare  and  choice  wines.  In  Greece  the 
juice  of  the  grape  was  almost  invariably  mixed 
with  water,  but  Rome  wanted  no  dilution  of  its 
revelling.  Wildly  extravagant  and  prodigal  in 
everything,  the  Romans  made  no  exception  in 
the  case  of  their  drink.  The  wines  that  they 
used  were  preserved  in  jars  or  bottles  of  baked 
clay,  and,  as  they  were  prized  in  proportion  to 
their  age,  each  receptacle  bore  a  label  on  which 
it  was  distinctly  stated  in  what  consulship  the 
beverage  had  been  made.  Many  of  these  wines 
came  from  Italy,  the  Campania  being  considered 
the  best,  but  the  wines  of  Greece  were  also 
there,  side  by  side  with  all  the  drinks  that  time 
or  money  could  gather  from  every  part  of  the 
world. 

The  fact  that  civilization  and  cookery  go 
hand  in  hand  was  never  more  strikingly  illus- 
trated than  in  the  case  of  the  ancient  Britons, 
for,  in  the  earlier  days  of  their  history  their 
cuisine  was  marked  by  all  the  limitations  of 
primitive  simplicity.  The  Roman  conquest, 
however,  appears  to  have  applied  to  the  kitchens 
of  the  country  as  thoroughly  as  to  the  govern- 
ment, for  as  the  Roman  conquerors  were  un- 
willing to  eat  the  crude  culinary  preparations 
of  the  native  Briton  they  proceeded  to  teach 
the  conquered  how  to  cook  for  them.  Then, 
too,  at  about  the  same  time,  the  appearance  of 
the  German  immigrants,  with  their  own  more 
wholesome  cookery,  was  not  without  its  good 
effect,  and  the  transformation  in  Mme.  Britan- 
nica's  methods  of  cooking  may  be  said  to  have 
been  almost  as  wise  as  it  was  radical. 

The  centuries  which  succeeded  the  fall  of 
the  Roman  Empire,  and  which  comprised  the 
greater  part  of  the  Middle  Ages,  was  as  dark 
a  period  for  gastronomy  as  it  was  for  all  other 
arts.  For  a  time  it  seemed  as  if  man  had 
forgotten  how  to  cook ;  as  if  he  had  lost  his 
taste  for  the  well  seasoned  dishes  which  had 
once  been  his  chief  delight,  and  that  he  had  no 
desire  to  get  it  back  again.  Even  Charlemagne, 
who,  according  to  his  Capitularies,  took  a  warm 
personal  interest  in  his  table,  was  a  novice  both 
in  the  art  of  cooking  and  in  that  of  service, 
for  his  banquets  were  barbaric  affairs  composed 
of  huge  roasts  of  meat  dripping  from  the  spit, 
and  other  crude  features  that  would  have  put 
the  ancient  Roman  gourmets  to  the  blush.  Per- 
sonally, too,  the  great  Emperor  of  the  West 
was  extremely  abstemious  and  seldom,  even  at 
dinner,  permitted  himself  to  be  served  with  more 
than  fo'jr  dishes. 

The  reading  of  the  description  of  Prince 
John's  banquet  in  Sir  Walter  Scott's  <Ivanhoe^ 
certainly  gives  the  impression  that  the  Normans, 
who  appeared  two  or  three  centuries  later,  were 
justified  in  priding  themselves  upon  their  su- 
perior taste  and  discrimination  in  matters  of 
eating,  but  even  such  flashes  of  light  were  but 
faint  illuminations  for  so  black  a  night  for  art 
as  that  of  the  dark  ages. 

Highly  as  the  cuisine  is  esteemed  to-day; 
idolized  as  it  was  before  the  fall  of  Rome  and 
Greece  called  a  halt  upon  civilization  and  placed 
a  check  upon  progress,  it  seems  somewhat 
strange    that    there    was    no    one    chronicler    of 


affairs  bright  enough  to  detect  the  fact  that  the 
revival  in  the  lost  art  of  cookery  had  commenced. 
As  the  historians  of  those  days  dealt  in  facts, 
not  in  manners,  however,  it  is  impossible  to 
state  at  just  what  period  gastronomy  began 
to  be  cultivated  again,  although,  of  course,  it  is 
well  known  that  its  revival,  like  the  revival 
in  learning,  was  brought  about  in  Italy.  Ac- 
cording to  the  best  authorities,  however,  it  was 
the  merchant-princes  of  Florence  who  made 
the  first  attempt  to  improve  the  cuisine  of  the 
country  and  their  experiments  met  with  such 
success  that  their  efforts  were  greeted  with  the 
most  heartfelt  encouragement  by  travelers  from 
foreign  countries  who  were  invited  to  sit  at 
their  tables.  It  was  to  the  Italian  cuisine,  in 
fact,  that  the  French  owed  their  instructions  in 
the  gastronomic  art,  for  when  Catherine  da 
Medicis  returned  to  Paris  she  carried  several 
professors  of  the  new  cookery  in  her  t^rain.  The 
effect  of  their  importation  was  almost  immedi- 
ately noticeable.  They  improved  the  pot-an-feu; 
they  expounded  a  new  theory  of  taste ;  they  ex- 
patiated upon  the  value  of  sauces,  but,  and  this 
was  more  to  the  purpose  so  far  as  the  progress 
of  civilization  was  concerned,  they  introduced 
the  art  of  making  ices.  Even  the  i6th  century 
^Montaigne,  whose  life  was  certainly  cast  in 
pleasant  places,  among  the  people  who  composed 
the  best  French  society,  was  unable  to  appre- 
ciate the  estimate  that  the  Italian  cooks  of  that 
day  had  so  properly  put  upon  their  vocation. 
In  one  of  his  contemporaneous,  if  not  somewhat 
reminiscent  studies,  he  says : 

I  have  seen  amongst  us  one  of  those  artists  who  had 
been  in  the  service  of  Cardinal  Caraffa.  He  discoursed 
to  nie  of  this  science  de  gueule  with  a  gravity  and  a 
magisterial  ?'ir,  as  if  he  was  speaking  of  some  weighty 
point  of  theology.  He  expounded  to  me  a  difference 
of  appetites:  that  which  one  has  fasting;  that  which 
one  has  after  the  second  or  third  course;  the  methods 
now  of  satisfying  and  then  of  exciting  and  piquing  it; 
the  police  of  sauces,  first  in  general,  and  next  in  partic- 
ularising the  qualities  of  the  ingredients  and  their 
effects;  the  differences  of  salads  according  to  their 
seasons;  that  which  should  be  warmed.,  that  which 
should  be  served  cold,  with  the  mode  of  adorning  and 
embellishing  them  to  make  them  pleasant  to  the  view. 
He  then  entered  on  the  order  of  the  service,  full  of 
elevated  and  important  considerations  — 

"  \ec    minimo   sane    discrimine    refert 
Quo  gestu  lepores  et  quo  gallina  secetur." 
And    all    this   expressed   in    rich    and   magnificent   terms, 
in    those    very    terms,    indeed,    which    one     employs    in 
treating   of   the    government   of   an   empire. —  I    well    re- 
member my   man. 

The  period  which  intervened  between  the 
arrival  of  Catherine  de  Medicis  from  Italy 
and  the  accession  of  Louis  XIV.  is  one  concern- 
ing which  there  is  practically  no  authentic  cul- 
inary record,  although  tliere  is  not  the  slightest 
reason  to  doubt  that  prodigious  advances  were 
made  by  the  gastronomic  art  during  that  time. 
In  fact,  one  has  but  to  refer  to  one  of  the  menus 
from  the  table  of  Louis  XIV.  to  realize  that 
cookery  had  ceased  to  be  an  experiment,  and 
it  is  necessary  to  go  but  a  step  further  and 
compare  the  foods  of  Paris  in  Louis'  time  with 
those  in  use  in  other  parts  of  the  world,  to 
realize  the  progress  that  had  been  made  by 
the  French  cooks  by  the  middle  of  the  i6th 
century.  In  Paris,  for  example,  the  foods  were 
not  dissimilar  to  those  of  our  own  day.  to 
which  the  following  menu  of  a  dinner  which 
was  served  to  Emperor  Charles  V.,  by  the  city 
of  Halle,  would  certainly  be  a  contrast: 

(i)  Raisins  in  malt  flour;  (2)  fried  eggs;  (3)  pan- 
cakes;   (4)    steamed   carrots;    (5)    fried   slices  of  bread; 


BANQUETS 


(6)  a  covered  porridge;  (7)  a  high  pasty;  (8)  a  pea- 
soup  with  marrow,  covered  richly  with  peas  and  eggs; 
(9)  yellow  codfish  boiled  in  butter;  (10)  carps,  boiled; 
(11)  fried  fish,  with  bitter  oranges,  spiced;  (12)  sweet 
pikes;  (13)  pulverized  kernels,  with  almonds  (14)  maize 
in  almonds'  milk;  (15)  fried  fish  with  small  olives; 
(16)  cakes;   (17)  pears  and  confect. 

And  during  this  time  England,  too,  had 
made  some  httle  progress  in  the  improvement  of 
its  cuisine,  although  Henry  VIII.  was  one  of  the 
first  monarchs  who  exhibited  any  liberality  in 
rewarding  originality  in  cookery.  Henry,  how- 
ever, seemed  unable  to  do  enough  for  those 
who  ministered  to  the  gratification  of  his  appe- 
tite, and  on  one  occasion,  he  was  so  much 
delighted  with  the  flavor  of  a  new  pudding 
that  he  presented  a  manor  to  its  inventor. 

From  the  early  days  when  the  housewives  of 
Briton  had  adopted  a  cuisine  which  may  quite 
properly  be  termed  an  amalgamation  of  German 
and  Roman  cookery  England  had  maintained  a 
position  of  her  own  in  the  world  of  gastronomy. 
By  no  means  as  ostentatious  as  the  ancient 
disciples  of  the  art ;  less  dainty,  perhaps,  than 
the  more  modern  disciples  in  the  various  Euro- 
pean countries,  their  school  of  the  kitchen  was 
so  largely  their  own  that  it  is  not  strange  that 
Cardinal  Campeggio,  one  of  the  legates  charged 
to  treat  with  Henry  VIII.  concerning  his  di- 
vorce from  Catherine  should  have  been  re- 
quested to  draw  up  a  report  on  the  state  of 
English  cookery  as  compared  with  that  of  Italy 
and  France,  by  the  express  desire  and  for  the 
especial  use  of  his  Holiness  the  Pope. 

There  are  certain  historical  documents  con- 
nected with  the  Seymour  family  still  on  file  in 
London,  which  throw  a  most  interesting  light 
upon  the  culinary  customs  in  vogue  in  England 
during  the  reign  of  the  Eighth  Henry.  They 
show,  for  example,  the  manner  in  which  he  was 
entertained  at  Wulfhall  on  the  occasion  of  his 
marriage  to  Jane  Seymour.  The  facts,  presented 
in  a  paper  prepared  by  the  Duchess  of  Somerset, 
are  as  follows : 

The  king,  with  his  whole  household  and  nobility, 
arrived  at  Wulfhali  on  Saturday,  9  Aug.  1539.  They 
remained  Sunday,  Monday,  and  Tuesday.  How  or 
where  so  many  were  lodged  does  not  appear;  but 
"  covers,"  as  we  should  call  them,  "  messes,"  as  the 
book  calls  them,  were  laid  for  two  hundred  the  first 
day.  There  are  only  two  meals  a  day  accounted  for, 
and  it  appears  that  on  Saturdays,  as  well  as  on  Fridays, 
no  meat  was  eaten,  abstinence  from  flesh  on  those  days 
having  been  ordered  by  a  Royal  proclamation,  not  only 
for  health  and  discipline,  but  for  the  benefit  of  the 
C9mmonwealth  and  the  profit  of  the  fishing-trade.  The 
king's  supper  on  his  arrival,  therefore,  consisted  only 
of   fish. 

Country  places  in  Wiltshire  must  have  been  better 
supplied  with  fish  than  they  are  now,  for  the  bill  of 
fare  included  pikes,  gills,  salmon,  tenches,  lobsters, 
bream,  plaice,  trouts,  congers,  carps,  roach,  ells,  potted 
sea-fish  and  salmon  pasties,  a  sack  of  oysters,  salt  hab- 
erdine  (which  was  cod-fish  salted  at  Aberdeen),  soles, 
and  whitings. 

The  next  day  being  Sunday,  there  were  messes  for 
four  hundred,  and  the  provisions  amounted  to  6  oxen,  2 
muttons,  12  meals,  5  cygnets,  21  great  capons,  7  good 
capons,  10  Kentish  capons.  3  dozen  and  6  coarse 
capons,  70  pullets,  gi  chickens,  38  quails,  9  mews, 
6  grets,  2  shields  of  brawn,  7  swans,  2  cranes,  s  storks, 
3  pheasants,  40  partridges,  2  peachicks,  21  snipe,  besides 
larks  and  brews  —  whatever  they   were. 

It  is  scarcely  necessary  to  trace  the  history 
of  the  banquet  —  which  is,  of  course,  but  an- 
other name  for  the  history  of  eating  —  with 
more  close  attention  to  detail.  In  contrasting 
the  banquets  of  other  days  with  those  of  to-day, 
however,  one  is  struck  by  the  fact  that  the 
modern  peoples  have  also  made  some  consider- 


able improvement  in  the  manner  of  eating  and 
drinking,  for  one  has  but  to  turn  to  the  menus 
of  meals  served  at  the  beginning  of  the  19th 
century  to  find  that  dinners  were  not  infre- 
quently burdened  by  20  or  more  entrees. 

In  the  last  century  before  the  Christian  era 
a  stoic,  Posidonius  of  Rhodes,  in  discussing  the 
methods  of  cookery,  took  advantage  of  the  op- 
portunity to  preach  simplicity.  He  insisted 
that  man,  who  had  been  blessed  with  good  teeth, 
glands,  and  secretions,  a  tongue  and  the  usual 
apparatus  for  digestion  was  independent  of 
the  cuisine,  and  this  ancient  pagan  idea  that  the 
object  of  all  repasts  should  be  to  take  away  the 
desire  of  eating  and  to  maintain  health  and  vigor 
has  become  more  acceptable  to  thoughtful  people 
during  the  past  century.  To-day  our  private 
banquets  at  least  are  simplicity  itself  when  com- 
pared with  those  of  even  a  century  ago,  and 
while  their  somewhat  monotonous  dearth  of 
any  entertainment  except  that  of  eating  and 
drinking,  with  occasional  music,  has  recently 
resulted  in  a  sort  of  mania  for  the  odd  and 
eccentric,  it  is  so  obvious  that  these  banquets 
are  based  upon  the  old  desire  for  notoriety,  the 
wish  to  dazzle  which  has  inspired  so  many  of 
the  world's  great  feasts  since  the  days  of  King 
Solomon's  entertainment  of  the  Queen  of  Sheba, 
that  no  particular  attention  is  paid  to  such 
purile  attempts  to  provide  a  novelty. 

To  obtain  a  correct  idea  of  the  modern  ban- 
quet, however,  the  public  banquet  conceived  and 
executed  in  the  most  perfect  taste,  it  is  only 
necessary  to  recall  the  dinner  recently  given  at 
Compeigne  by  President  Loubet  of  France  in 
honor  of  the  Czar  and  Czarina  of  Russia.  One 
of  the  most  magnificent  and  perfectly  appointed 
affairs  of  modern  times,  its  500  covers  were 
served  at  a  cost  to  the  French  Govermnent  of 
something  more  than  $15,000,  exclusive  of  the 
wines.  And  as  these  were  the  choicest  brands 
and  of  the  most  ancient  lineage  their  cost  must 
have  been  fully  as  great  as  that  of  the  dinner 
itself. 

A  story  is  told  that  upon  this  occasion  the 
correspondent  of  one  of  the  great  foreign  jour- 
nals interviewed  the  chef  for  the  purpose  of 
securing  some  authentic  details  concerning  the 
dinner.  Among  other  questions  he  asked : 
"And  what  was  the  chief  novelty  of  the  menu?^* 
Instantly  the  great  man  stood  upon  his  dignity 
and  his  voice  was  strong  in  its  wrath  as  he 
replied  :  "Novelties  !  I  would  have  you  know 
that  on  the  table  of  the  guests  of  our  country 
we  lay  no  second  editions.''  A  reply  which 
might  have  been  made  by  Vatel,  the  chef  who 
killed  himself,  being  unable  to  survive  the  dis- 
honor of  the  table  for  which  he  was  responsible. 

In  the  various  descriptions  of  President  Lou- 
bet's  banquet  to  the  reigning  sovereigns  of 
Russia  little  is  said  in  regard  to  the  decorations 
or  service,  the  writers  confining  themselves  to 
the  menu,  that  being  the  most  important  feature 
of  the  feast.  Mention  is  made,  however,  that 
the  flags,  flowers,  ribbons,  and  spun-sugar  orna- 
ments united  in  a  decorative  scheme  with  effec- 
tively beautiful  results. 

In  regard  to  the  menu,  ]''ov«:ever,  it  is  ap- 
parent that  it  left  nothing  to  he  desired.  The 
soups  were  clear  turtle  and  Creme  du  Barry, 
which  gave  the  guests  a  choice,  after  which 
"came  a  wonderful  dish  of  soft  roes  called  on 
the  bill  of  fare  'Caisses  de  laitances  Dieppoise,' 


BANQUETTE  —  BANTRY 


and  another,  ^Barbues  dorees  a  la  Vatel,* 
served  with  a  remarkable  sauce  in  which  a 
hundred  elements  harmonized  in  a  perfect  whole. 
Venison  with  an  acid  dressing  and  braised 
quail,  the  most  delicate  bird  of  the  species,  a 
native  of  the  vineyards  of  central  France,  fol- 
lowed the  entrees.  Afterward,  in  turn  came 
sherbets,  granites,  etc.,  succeeded  by  truffled 
pheasants  with  champagne  sauce,  salad  Potel, 
named  for  the  chef  who  invented  it,  and  similar 
delicacies."  The  triumphal  achievement,  how- 
ever, was  a  savory  entremet  which  is  described 
■  as  a  *<small  pudding  of  asparagus  heads  served 
'  with  a  cream  sauce."  Hot-house  fruits,  ices, 
'  cheese,  and  coffee  comprised  the  final  courses 
of  the  feast. 

One  of  the  exhibits  which  attracted  the 
most  attention  at  the  last  Paris  Exposition  was 
a  service  of  Sevres  which  was  admittedly  the 
most  beautiful  and  costly  production  that  the 
famous  potteries  had  ever  attempted.  Upon 
each  piece  of  china  was  pictured  a  danseuse,  but 
no  two  were  the  same  in  either  pose  or  type  of 
loveliness.  Realizing  that  the  one  "hobby"  of 
the  czarina  was  her  love  for  beautiful  china, 
of  which  she  already  had  a  famous  collection, 
including  the  best  specimens  of  the  work  of 
all  the  great  potteries  of  the  world,  it  was 
decided  to  copy  this  magnificent  service  in  every 
detail.  It  was  thus  used  at  the  banquet  and 
was  afterward  presented  to  the  first  lady  of 
Russia  in  the  name  of  President  Loubet. 

The  occasion  upon  which  one  nation  enter- 
tains the  rulers  of  another  nation  is  an  event 
when,  if  at  any  time,  even  the  most  ostentatious 
display  might  be  regarded  as  permissible.  If 
contrasted  with  the  seemly  manner  of  living 
in  vogue  among  modern  diners  at  ordinary 
times  this  banquet  of  the  French  President  may, 
in  some  respects  perhaps,  have  bordered  upon 
ostentation.  When  compared  to  the  extrava- 
gan  feasts  of  other  days,  however,  it  seems 
striking  in  its  simplicity,  for  nothing  could  have 
been  in  greater  contrast  to  the  extravagant 
luxury  of  the  banquets  of  the  ancients,  to  say 
nothing  of  that  of  many  more  modern  rulers, 
that  luxury  which  precedes,  if  it  does  not  lead 
to,  decadence. 

Miles  Bradford, 
Author  of  ^Carlotta  and  I? 

Banquette,  ban-ket',  in  fortification,  the  ele- 
vation of  earth  behind  a  parapet,  on  which  the 
garrison  of  a  fortress  may  stand,  on  the  ap- 
proach of  an  enemy,  in  order  to  fire  upon  them. 
Its  dimensions  vary,  and  it  is  frequently  made 
double ;  that  is,  a  second  is  made  still  lower. 

Banquo,  ban'kwo,  a  famous  Scottish  thane 
of  the  nth  century.  In  conjunction  with  Mac- 
beth, cousin  of  Duncan,  the  king,  he  obtained 
a  victory  over  the  Danes,  who  had  landed  on 
the  Scottish  coast.  Macbeth,  shortly  afterward, 
violently  dethroned  Duncan  and  caused  him  to 
be  secretly  assassinated.  Banquo,  though  not 
an  accomplice,  was  a  witness  of  the  crime ;  and 
being  subsequently  regarded  by  Macbeth  with 
fear  and  suspicion,  the  latter  invited  him  and 
his  son,  Fleance,  to  supper,  and  hired  assassins 
to  attack  them  on  their  return  home  during  the 
darkness  of  night.  Banquo  was  slain,  but  the 
youth  made  his  escape.  Shakespeare  has  inter- 
woven this  occurrence  with  the  theme  of  his 
tragedy  of   < Macbeth.^ 


Ban'shee,  an  imaginary  female  being  sup- 
posed by  some  of  the  peasantry  in  Ireland  and 
the  Scottish  Highlands  to  wail  or  shriek  near  a 
house  when  one  of  the  inmates  is  about  to  die. 

Bantam,  ban-tam',  or  ban'tam,  a  province 
occupying  the  whole  of  the  west  end  of  the 
island  of  Java,  and  containing  a  population  of 
about  520,000.  It  long  formed  an  independent 
kingdom  governed  by  its  own  sultan,  but  at 
the  beginning  of  the  19th  century  was  formally 
incorporated  by  the  Dutch  with  their  other 
possessions.  Rice  is  now  the  staple  product. 
Its  capital,  which  bears  the  same  name,  was 
once  the  principal  mart  of  the  Dutch,  and  was 
surpassed  by  few  towns  of  the  East  in  antiquity 
and  celebrity.  It  is  now  very  much  decayed. 
Bantam  is  be'-cved  to  give  name  to  the  weH- 
known  small  but  spirited  breed  of  domestic 
fowl. 

Ban'tam,  any  one  of  various  breeds  of 
diminutive  fowls  kept  for  pleasure,  and  par- 
taking of  the  characteristics  of  the  several 
breeds  which  they  imitate  in  miniature.  Thus 
the  game-bantams  are  miniatures  of  exhibition 
game-cocks,  and  weigh  about  22  ounces.  The 
golden  and  silver  Sebright  bantams  originated 
in  America  from  a  cross  between  a  Polish 
fowl  and  a  bantam,  and  are  exceedinglj'  beauti- 
ful in  plumage.  The  rose-comb  bantams  are 
little  copies  of  Hamburg  fowls,  and  should  be 
either  lustrous  black  or  pure  white ;  and  the 
cocks  have  a  rose  comb,  square  in  front,  evenly 
corrugated,  and  ending  in  a  spike  with  a  slight 
upward  curve.  Booted  white  bantams  are  those 
which  have  their  shanks  heavily  feathered.  The 
Cochin  fowl  is  imitated  in  all  its  varieties  by  a 
bantam  the  cock  of  which  weighs  about  28 
ounces.  Most  beautiful  of  all  are  the  Japanese 
bantams,  of  which  there  are  several  varieties. 
The  typical  one  is  white  with  the  tail  black, 
and  composed  of  long,  sickle-like,  white  feath- 
ers held  erect  and  edged  with  white.  The 
wing  quills  are  dark  slate  color  edged  with 
wdiite,  so  that  when  the  wing  is  folded  it  shows 
only    white. 

Bantayan,  Philippines,  a  town  in  the  prov- 
ince of  Cebu,  62  miles  north  of  the  town  of 
Cebu,      Pop.    10,000. 

Ban'teng,  a  wild  ox  {Bos  sondaicus)  of  the 
niountain  forests  of  the  Malay  Peninsula  and 
Archipelago  (except  Sumatra),  which  greatly 
resembles  the  gaur  (q.v.),  and  is  by  soine  con- 
sidered a  variety  of  that  animal.  These  cattle 
are  exceedingly  fierce,  and  are  regarded  by 
sportsmen  as  among  the  most  dangerous  of 
game.  Nevertheless  they  have  been  tamed,  and 
when  crossed  with  the  domestic  cattle  of  the 
region  yield  a   serviceable  hybrid. 

Bant'ing,  William,  an  Englishman  of  no- 
table corpulence:  b.  1797;  d.  1878.  By  adopting 
a  diet  he  was  able  to  relieve  himself  of  his 
superfluous  flesh,  and  accordingly  he  wrote  a 
pamphlet  called  <A  Letter  on  Corpulence' 
(1863),  describing  his  system,  which  attracted 
so  much  attention  that  the  term  "to  bant"  has 
been  incorporated  in  the  English  language  to 
express  the  reduction  of  obesity  by  diet.  See 
also  Obesity. 

Ban'try,  Ireland,  a  seaport  town  in  county 
Cork,  56  miles  west-southwest  of  Cork.  It  con- 
sists of  four  principal  streets  and  a  spacious 
square,  but  the  town  generally  has  a  mean  ap- 


BANTRY  BAY  — BANZ 


pearance.  It  has  a  growing  trade,  and  fishing 
is  carried  on  to  some  extent.  Pop.  (1901) 
about  3,000. 

Bantry  Bay,  a  deep  inlet  of  Cork  County, 
Ireland,  remarkable  both  for  its  beauties  and 
for  !ts  natural  advantages,  although  the  latter 
are  turned  to  but  little  account.  It  is  about 
25  miles  long  and  from  3  to  5  miles  wide,  and 
is  safe  and  commodious  for  vessels  of  any  size, 
the  water  being  deep  close  to  both  shores,  with 
few  rocks  or  shoals.  A  French  force  tried  to 
land  here  in  1796.  The  entrance  is  guarded  by 
Crow  Head  on  the  northwest  and  by  Sheep's 
Head  on  the  southeast. 

Bantu,  ban'too,  or  ba-ntoo,  the  ethnologi- 
cal name  of  a  group  of  African  races  dwelling 
below  lat.  6°  N.,  and  including  the  Kaffirs, 
Zulus,  Bechuanas,  the  tribes  of  the  Loango, 
Kongo,  etc.,  but  not  the  Hottentots.  The  term 
is  also  used  to  denote  the  homogeneous  family 
of  languages  spoken  in  Africa  throughout  the 
vast  region  lying  between  Kamerun,  Zanzibar, 
and  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  with  the  exception 
of  the  Hottentot,  Bushmen,  and  Pigmy  en- 
claves. Ba-ntu,  in  almost  all  of  these  languages, 
signifies  "the  people,*  and  hence  is  applied  to 
the  whole  linguistic  family.  The  Bantu  family, 
although  divided  into  hundreds  of  dialects,  is 
evidently  derived  from  one  mother  tongue. 

Banu,  bii'noo,  or  ban'noo,  or  Bannu,  Brit- 
ish India,  a  district  in  the  Punjab;  area  3,868 
square  miles ;  Pop.  over  330,000.  The  district 
is  watered  by  the  Indus,  which  here,  during 
inundations,  becomes  a  vast  body  of  water  many 
miles  wide.  Nearly  all  the  inhabitants  are  Mo- 
hammedans. Agriculture  thrives,  especially  in 
the  cultivation  of  the  ordinary  cereals,  sugar- 
cane, cotton,  and  various  oil  seeds.  The  chief 
towns  are  Trakhel  and  Kalabagh. 

Banvard,  John,  American  artist,  poet  and 
dramatist:  b.  New  York,  about  1820;  d.  1891. 
He  was  best  known  by  his  panorama  of  the 
Mississippi  River,  covering  three  miles  of  can- 
vas, which  was  exhibited  in  the  chief  cities  of 
Europe  and  America.  He  wrote  a  great  number 
of  poems;  several  plays:  ^Banvard,  or  the  Ad- 
ventures of  an  Artist'^  (1849)  ;  <  Pilgrimage  to 
the  Holy  Land^    (1852),  etc. 

Banvard,  Joseph,  an  American  Baptist 
clergyman  and  historical  writer,  brother  of  the 
preceding:  b.  New  York,  1810;  d.  1887.  Among 
his  writings  were  ^Plymouth  and  the  Pilgrims* 
(1851)  ;  'Romance  of  American  History* 
(1852);  ^Memoir  of  Webster*  (1853);  <Pris- 
cilla*  (1854)  a  historical  novel;  'Soldiers  and 
Patriots  of  the  Revolution*    (1876),  etc. 

Banville,  ban-vel,  Theodore  Faullain  de, 
French  poet  and  novelist:  b.  Mouhns,  14  March 
1823;  d.  Paris,  13  March  1891.  He  was  the  son 
of  a  naval  officer,  and  went  early  in  life  to 
Paris,  where  he  devoted  himself  exclusively  to 
literature,  contributed  to  many  journals  and 
reviews,  and  lived  in  close  friendship  with  some 
of  the  foremost  artists  and  men  of  letters  of 
the  day.  First  known  as  a  poet  through  two 
volumes  entitled  ^The  Caryatides*  (1842)  and 
<The  Stalactites*  (1846),  he  established  his  rep- 
utation with  the  'Odes  Funambulesques* 
(1857),  a  sort  of  great  lyrical  parody,  pub- 
lished under  the  pseudonym  Bracquemond, 
which  immediately  found  great  favor  and  was 
followed     by     ^New     Odes     Funambulesques* 


(1868,  afterward  reprinted  as  'Occidentales*)  ; 
'Russian  Idyls*  (1872);  'Thirty-six  Merry 
Ballads'  (1873)  ;  etc.  His  dramatic  efforts  did 
not  meet  with  equal  success,  only  'Gringoire* 
(1866)  holding  the  stage  for  some  time.  As 
a  prose  writer  he  is  favorably  known  by  a  num- 
ber of  humorous  and  highly  finished  tales  and 
sketches,  like  'The  Poor  Mountebanks*  (1853)  ; 
'The  Parisians  of  Paris*  (1866)  ;  'Tales  for 
Women*  (1881)  ;  < The  Soul  of  Paris*  (1890), 
etc.  Of  considerable  literary  interest  is  ^My 
Recollections*    (1882). 

Banxring,  banks'ring,  a  tree-shrew  of 
Java.     See  Tree- Shrew. 

Banyan,  ban'yan,  or  ban-yan',  or  Banian- 
tree  (Ficus  Benghalensis),  an  East  Indian  tree 
of  the  natural  order  Urticacece,  noted  for  the 
roots  which  descend  from  the  branches  and 
become  accessory  trunks,  thus  permitting  the 
original  tree  to  extend  over  a  wide  area.  In 
the  Calcutta  botanical  garden  one  specimen, 
known  to  be  upward  of  100  years  old,  has  more 
than  3,000  small  trunks,  230  that  vary  from  2 
to  3J/2  feet  in  diameter,  and  a  main  trunk 
13  feet  in  diameter.  Among  these  trunks  7,000 
people  could  stand.  The  trees  often  attain  a 
height  of  more  than  70  feet.  The  leaves  are 
cvate  heart-shaped,  five  to  six  inches  long;  the 
inconspicuous  axillary  flowers  are  succeeded  by 
cherry-like  scarlet  fruits  which  are  eaten  by 
monkeys.  The  seeds  seldom  germinate  on  the 
ground,  but  usually  among  the  leaf  bases  of 
palms,  the  roots  descending  the  palm  trunks, 
embracing  and  finally  killing  them.  As  the 
banyan  ages  its  original  trunk  dies  and  decays, 
leaving  the  younger  trunks  to  support  the  life 
of  the  tree.  The  Hindus  ascribe  various  medi- 
cinal virtues  to  this  tree,  which  they  regard  as 
sacred.  Its  light  porous  wood,  its  juice,  and 
its  fruit  have  no  important  economic  uses.  Its 
close  relative,  Ficus  indica,  which  does  not  root 
from  the  branches,  is  sometimes  erroneously 
called  the  banyan-tree. 

Banyumas,  ban-yoo-mas'  (Javanese,  "gol- 
den water**),  a  residency  and  town  of  Java. 
The  area  of  the  residuary  is  2,100  square  miles, 
and  its  population  about  1,300,000.  The  chief 
culture  is  rice;  but  cofifee,  tea,  sugar,  indigo, 
cinnamon,  and  other  exotics  are  produced  by 
corvee  labor,  as  enforced  by  the  Dutch  in  other 
parts  of  Java.  The  town  is  on  the  river  Serajc 
22  miles  inland.     Pop.  about  9,000. 

Banyuwangy,  the  extreme  eastern  district 
of  the  island  of  Java,  noted  for  its  extensive 
cofifee  gardens,  and  for  the  remarkably  pure 
sulphur  obtained  from  the  Goonong-Marapi  vol- 
canic mountain.  This  is  also  the  name  of  the 
capital,  an  important  seaport  and  Dutch  mili- 
tary post,  on  the  Strait  of  Bali,  about  550  Eng- 
lish   miles    east-southeast    from    Batavia. 

Banz,  bants,  once  one  of  the  richest  and 
most  famous  of  the  Benedictine  monasteries, 
on  the  right  bank  of  the  Maine,  three  miles 
below  JLichtenfels,  Bavaria.  Founded  in  1071, 
and  destroyed  in  the  Peasants'  war  in  1525,  it 
was  rebuilt,  and  although  plundered  again  in 
the  Thirty  Years'  war  it  gradually  became  famed 
for  the  scientific  attainments  of  its  monks.  In 
1803  it  was  broken  up.  and  its  library  and  col- 
lections were  divided  between  the  Munich  mu- 
seum and  other  institutions. 


BAOBAB  —  BAPTISM 


Baobab,  ba'6-bab  {Adansonia  digitata), 
a  tree  belonging  to  the  natural  order  (or  sub- 
order) BombacecE,  and  formmg  the  only  known 
species  of  its  genus,  which  was  named  after  the 
naturalist  Adanson.  It  is  also  called  the  mon- 
key-bread tree.  The  leaves  are  deep  green,  and 
are  divided  into  five  unequal  parts  radiating 
from  a  common  centre,  and  each  lanceolate  in 
shape.  This  tree  is  a  native  of  western  Africa 
and  is  likewise  said  to  be  found  in  Egypt  and 
Abyssinia ;  it  is  cultivated  in  many  of  the 
warmer  parts  of  the  world.  It  is  one  of  the 
largest  known  trees,  its  trunk  being  sometimes 
not  less  than  30  feet  in  diameter.  In  Adanson's 
account  of  Senegal  some  calculations  are  made 
regarding  the  growth  of  this  tree,  founded  on 
the  evidence  of  the  annular  layers.  The  height 
of  its  trunk  by  no  means  corresponds  with  the 
thickness  which  it  attains.  Thus,  according  to 
his  calculations,  at  one  year  old  its  diameter  is 
one  inch ;  and  its  height  five  inches ;  at  32  years 
old  it  has  attained  a  diameter  of  two  feet,  while 
its  height  is  only  22  feet,  and  so  on ;  till  at 
1,000  years  old  the  baobab  is  14  feet  broad,  and 
58  feet  high ;  and  at  5,000  years  the  growth 
laterally  has  so  outstripped  its  perpendicular 
height  that  the  trunk  will  be  30  feet  in  diameter 
and  only  j^  feet  high.  The  roots,  again,  are  of 
a  most  extraordinary  length,  so  that  in  a  tree 
with  a  stem  77  feet  in  girth  the  main  branch 
or  tap-root  measures  no  feet  in  length.  It 
often  happens  that  the  profusion  of  leaves  and 
of  drooping  boughs  almost  hide  the  stem,  and 
the  whole  forms  a  hemispherical  mass  of  ver- 
dure 140  to  150  feet  in  diameter,  and  60  to  70 
feet  high.  The  wood  is  pale-colored,  light,  and 
soft,  so  that  in  Abyssinia  the  wild  bees  perforate 
it  and  lodge  their  honey  in  the  hollow,  which 
honey  is  considered  the  best  in  the  country. 
The  negroes  on  the  western  coast  apply  their 
trunks  to  a  very  extraordinary  purpose.  The 
tree  is  liable  to  be  attacked  by  a  fungus  which, 
vegetating  in  the  woody  part  without  changing 
the  color  or  appearance,  destroys  life  and  ren- 
ders the  part  so  attacked  as  soft  as  the  pith 
of  trees  in  general.  Such  trunks  are  then  hol- 
lowed into  chambers,  and  within  these  are  sus- 
pended the  dead  bodies  of  those  to  whom  are 
refused  the  honor  of  burial.  There  they  be- 
come mummies,  perfectly  dry  and  well  pre- 
served, without  further  preparation  or  embalm- 
ing, and  are  known  by  the  name  of  gui riots. 
The  baobab  is  emollient  and  mucilaginous;  the 
pulverized  leaves  constitute  lalo,  a  favorite  arti- 
cle with  the  natives,  which  they  mix  with  their 
daily  food  to  diminish  excessive  perspiration, 
and  which  is  even  used  by  Europeans  in  fevers 
and  diarrhoeas.  The  flowers  are  large,  white,  and 
handsome ;  and  in  their  first  expansion  bear 
some  resemblance  to  the  white  poppy,  having 
snow-white  petals  and  violet-colored  stamens. 
Both  flowers  and  fruit  are  pendant,  and  the 
leaves  drop  off  before  the  periodical  rains  come 
on.  The  friiit  is  of  an  oblong  shape,  of  consid- 
erable size,  and  tastes  like  gingerbread,  with  a 
pleasant  acid  flavor.  The  expressed  juice,  when 
mixed  with  sugar,  forms  a  cooling  drink  much 
used  in  putrid  fevers;  this  juice  is  generally 
used  as  a  seasoning  for  corn  gruel  and  other 
food. 

Baour-Lormian,  ba-oor-lor-myafi,  Louis, 
Pierre  Marie  Francois,  French  poet  and 
dramatist:  b.  Toulouse,  1772;  d.  1854.     He  first 


attracted  wide  notice  through  his  <  Poems  of 
Ossian^  (1801),  an  extremely  clever  imitation 
of  Caledonian  verse;  and  afterward  won  suc- 
cess with  a  tragedy,  *Omasis,  or  Joseph  in 
Egypt^  (1807).  Other  works  of  his  are  *  Politi- 
cal and  Moral  Vigils^  (1811),  in  the  manner 
of  Young ;  <  Duranti  or  The  League  in  the  Prov- 
mce^  (1828),  a  historical  novel;  and  'Legends, 
Ballads,  and  Fabliaux'  (1829).  But  his  best 
work  is  probably  a  poetical  translation  of  the 
book  of  Job,  completed  after  he  had  lost  his 
eyesight. 

Bapaume,  ba-pom,  France,  a  town  in  the 
department  of  Pas-de-Calais,  12  miles  south  of 
Arras.  Here,  on  2  and  3  Jan.  187 1,  took  place 
two  fierce  struggles  between  the  French  Army 
of  the  North  and  the  Prussian  Army  of  Obser- 
vation; the  French  being  defeated  with  a  loss 
of   over   2,000. 

Baph'omet,  the  name  of  a  mysterious 
image  which  the  Knights  Templars  were 
charged  with  worshipping  when  the  order  was 
suppressed  by  Philip  IV.  of  France.  It  is  prob- 
ably a  corruption  of  Mahomet,  and  the  charge 
may  have  arisen  from  the  circumstance  that 
some  of  the  Templars  had  gone  over  to  the 
Moslem    faith. 

Baptan'odon,  an  extinct  ichthyosaur  or 
fish-lizard  of  the  Jurassic  period.  Its  remains 
have  been  found  in  the  marine  Jurassic  shales 
of  Wyoming  and  other  western  States,  which 
have  hence  been  called  ^'Baptenodon  Beds.'*  It 
is  distinguished  from  the  true  ichthyosaurus 
(q.v.)  (found  only  in  the  Old  World)  by  the 
form  of  the  paddle-bones,  which  are  rounded 
instead  of  polygonal,  and  was  incorrectly  sup- 
posed to  be  toothless,  as  its  name  indicates. 
The  skulls  are  two  to  three  feet  long,  so  that 
the  entire  animal  probably  measured  10  to  15 
feet,  and  resembled  the  ichthyosaurus  in  pro- 
portions and  habits. 

Baptism  (from  the  Greek  haptiso,  from 
baptizcin,  to  immerse  or  dip),  the  applica- 
tion of  water  to  a  person  as  a  sacrament  or 
religious  rite.  It  is  generally  thought  to  have 
been  usual  with  the  Jews  even  before  Christ, 
being  administered  to  proselytes,  but  was  prob- 
ably nothing  more  than  a  ceremony  of  purifica- 
tion. From  this  baptism,  however,  that  of  John 
the  Baptist  differed,  because  he  baptized  Jews 
also  as  a  symbol  of  the  necessity  of  perfect  pu- 
rification from  sin.  Christ  himseli  never  bap- 
tized, but  directed  his  disciples  to  administer  this 
rite  to  converts  (Matt,  xxviii.  19)  ;  and  baptism, 
therefore,  became  a  religious  ceremony  among 
Christians,  taking  rank  as  a  sacrament  with  all 
sects  which  acknowledge  sacraments. 

In  the  primitive  Church  the  person  to  be 
baptized  was  immersed  in  a  river  or  in  a  vessel, 
with  the  v/ords  which  Christ  had  ordered,  anc 
a  new  name  was  generally  bestowed  at  this 
time  further  to  express  the  change.  Sprinkling, 
or,  as  it  was  termed,  clinic_  baptism,  was  used 
only  in  the  case  of  the  sick  who  could  not 
leave  their  beds.  The  Greek  Church  and  various 
Eastern  sects  retained  the  custom  of  immersion ; 
but  the  Western  Church  adopted  or  allowedthe 
mode  of  baptism  by  pouring  or  sprinkling,  since 
continued  by  most  Protestants.  This  practice 
can  be  traced  back  certainly  to  the  3rd  century, 
before  which  its  existence  is  disputed.  Since 
the  Reformation  there  have  been  various  Prot- 
estant  sects   called   Baptists,  holding  that  bap- 


BAPTIST  YOUNG  PEOPLE'S  UNION —  BAPTISTS 


tism  should  be  administered  only  by  immersion 
and  to  those  who  can  make  a  personal  profes- 
sion of  faith. 

Tlie  Montanists  in  Africa  baptized  even  the 
dead,  and  in  Roman  Catholic  countries  the  prac- 
tice of  baptizing  church  bells, —  a  custom  of 
lOth  century  origin, —  continues  to  this  day. 
Being  an  initiatory  rite,  baptism  is,  therefore, 
administered  only  once  to  the  same  person.  The 
Roman  and  Greek  Catholics  consecrate  the  wa- 
ter of  baptim,  but  Protestants  do  not.  The  act 
of  baptism  is  accompanied  only  with  the  formula 
that  the  person  is  baptized  in  the  name  of  the 
Father,  Son,  and  Holy  Ghost;  but  among  most 
Christians  it  is  preceded  by  a  confession  of 
faith  made  by  the  person  to  be  baptized,  if  an 
adult,  and  by  his  parents  or  sponsors  if  he  be 
a  child. 

The  Roman  Catholic  form  of  baptism  is  far 
more  elaborate  than  the  Protestant.  This 
Church  holds  that  baptism  is  a  sacrament  which 
has  the  effect  to  remove  in  the  individual  the 
penal  consequences  of  the  sin  of  Adam,  to  re- 
store him  to  a  state  of  supernatural  grace,  and 
to  give  him  a  right  to  the  beatific  vision  of  God, 
remitting  all  actual  sins  committed  by  the  in- 
dividual. It  also  imprints  an  indelible  charac- 
ter, which  is  both  an  ornament  to  the  soul  and 
a  capacity  for  receiving  the  other  sacraments. 
The  effect  of  the  sacrament  is  produced  ex  opere 
opcrato  ;  that  is,  by  an  act  of  the  Holy  Ghost 
infallibly  accompanying  the  performance  of  the 
external  rite.  Bishops,  priests,  and  deacons  are 
the  ordinary  ministers  of  baptism,  and  all  others 
are  forbidden  to  baptize  except  in  case  of  neces- 
sity. Baptism  is,  however,  valid  when  duly  ad- 
ministered by  any  person,  and  any  one  may  law- 
fully baptize  in  case  of  necessity.  On  the  part 
of  children  and  others  who  have  never  attained 
the  use  of  reason  no  dispositions  are  required. 
In  order  to  receive  the  sacrament  validly  a  per- 
son who  has  the  use  of  reason  must  know  what 
he  is  doing  and  intend  to  receive  baptism.  In 
order  to  receive  the  grace  of  the  sacrament  he 
must  have  faith,  and,  if  he  has  committed  mor- 
tal sins,  repentance ;  otherwise  the  grace  of  the 
sacrament  remains  suspended  until  he  acquires 
the  proper  dispositions.  Besides  sacramental 
baptism,  called  baptismum  flurninis,  there  are 
two  substitutes  which  can  supply  its  place, 
called,  in  a  wide  and  improper  sense,  baptis- 
mum sanguinis  and  baptismum  ftaminis.  The 
former  of  these  is  martyrdom,  the  second  is  the 
desire  of  baptism,  accompanied  by  faith  and  per- 
fect contrition  or  the  love  of  God.  These  only 
supply  the  place  of  baptism  when  it  cannot  be 
had,  and  confer  sanctifying  grace,  but  not  an 
indelible  character.  Solemn  baptism  is  accom- 
panied with  the  application  of  chrism  and  holy 
oil,  and  several  other  ceremonies  of  great  an- 
tiquity. 

Baptist  Young  People's  Union  of  America, 
an  association  representing  many  young  peo- 
ple's societies  connected  with  the  Baptist 
churches  in  the  United  States  and  Canada,  or- 
ganized June  1891  in  Chicago,  which  place  has 
since  been  its  headquarters.  Upon  the  forma- 
tion of  the  Union,  as  the  withdrawal  of  the 
Baptist  societies  was  feared  by  the  Christian 
Endeavor  societies,  a  plan  of  federation  was 
adopted  for  the  establishment  of  young  people's 
societies  over  which  no  constitution  should  be 
required.     Conventions  are  held  yearly. 


Baptista,  John,  Carmelite  poet:  b.  JMar.tUa 
1448;  d.  15 16.  His  poetical  writings  weie 
well  known  throughout  Europe  during  his  life- 
time ;  their  correctness  of  form  and  choice 
Latinity  caused  them  to  be  used  as  texts  in  the 
schools.  His  greatest  poem  is  *De  Calamitate 
Temporum'  ('On  the  Evils  of  the  Day^),  and 
is  divided  into  three  parts. 

Baptistery,  that  part  of  the  church,  or  a 
special  building  in  which  is  administered  the 
sacrament  of  Baptism.  In  the  earliest  ages  of 
Christianity  the  solemn  administration  of  this 
sacrament  was  reserved  to  the  bishop,  and  to 
the  episcopal  church  was  generally  annexed  a 
special  building  called  the  baptister\'.  As  the 
converts  to  Christianity  increased  it  became 
necessary  to  set  aside  for  the  baptismal  cere- 
monies a  small  space  within  the  main  builJmg 
of  the  various  parish  churches. 

Baptistines.  (i)  A  religious  order  of 
women  founded  in  1744  in  Genoa  by  Baptista 
Solimani.  Their  rule  enjoined  a  strict  fast 
throughout  the  entire  year,  the  chanting  of  the 
office  at  midnight  and  conversation  with  friends 
or  relatives  restricted  to  three  times  during  the 
year.  (2)  A  congregation  of  secular  priests 
founded  in  1755  by  Dominic  Olivieri  and  placed 
under  the  jurisdiction  of  the  Cardinal  Prefect 
of  the  Propaganda  by  Pope  Benedict  XIV. 
The  congregation  ceased  to  exist  at  the  end  of 
the  18th  century. 

Baptists,  a  religious  body  originating  in 
England  early  in  the  17th  century  as  a  result 
of  the  Separatist  movement.  Among  the  Sepa- 
ratists was  John  Smyth,  who  emigrated  from 
Gainsborough  with  his  people  to  escape  perse^ 
cution,  and  at  Amsterdam  established  a  new 
congregation  upon  the  principle  of  baptism  on 
confession  of  faith.  Some  members  of  this 
Church  returned  to  England  and  in  161 1  formed 
in  London  the  first  of  the  churches  known  as 
General  Baptists,  because  they  held  the  Armin- 
ian  doctrine  of  a  general  atonement.  The  Par- 
ticular Baptists  (holding  the  Calvinistic  doctrine 
of  a  particular  atonement,  that  is,  for  the  elect 
only)  arose  in  1633,  when  a  number  left  a 
Separatist  church  in  London  to  form  a  new 
congregation  and  were  baptized  anew  on  con- 
fession of  faith.  Another  group  withdrew  from 
the  same  church  in  1640,  and  shortly  after  in- 
troduced the  practice  of  immersion,  which  was 
soon  adopted  by  all  the  other  churches  and  gave 
rise  to  the  name  by  which  they  were  known 
from_  1644  onward.  The  Particular  and  General 
Baptists  continued  to  be  separate  bodies  until 
1891,  when  they  united. 

There  are  other  divisions  among  the  general 
body,  but  all  the  churches  agree  in  holding  to 
the  supremacy  of  the  Scriptures  as  the  rule  of 
faith  and  practice ;  the  necessity  of  personal 
faith  and  credible  evidence  of  regeneration  be- 
fore baptism ;  immersion  as  the  only  baptism 
commanded  by  Christ  or  practised  by  his  apos- 
tles ;  the  independence  of  each  church  ;  and  the 
entire  separation  between  civil  and  ecclesiastical 
authority.  On  the  question  of  communion  Eng- 
lish Baptists  have  been  divided  from  the  begin- 
ning. The  earliest  declarations  were  that  only 
the  baptized  are  authorized  to  partake  of  the 
Lord's  Supper,  but  the  practice  of  some  churches 
was  not  in  accord  with  this  principle.    At  pres- 


BAPTISTS  IN  AMERICA 


ent  many  churches  admit  not  only  to  the  com- 
munion but  to  membership  those  who  have  not 
been  baptized.  There  are  at  present  in  Great 
Britain  and  Ireland  2,747  churches  with  372,219 
members.  Baptist  missions  have  established 
churches  in  many  of  the  countries  of  Europe,  as 
well  as  in  Asia  and  Africa,  and  in  the  world 
there  are  now  50,978  Baptist  churches  and 
4>705,953  members.  The  English  Baptists  may 
be  traced  back  through  the  Continental  Anabap- 
tists, the  Waldensians,  Petrobrusians,  and  va- 
rious other  sects,  to  the  nth  century.  None 
of  these  bodies  regularly  practised  immersion, 
so  far  as  we  know,  but  they  agreed  in  holding 
the  fundamental  Baptist  principle  of  a  regen- 
erate Church  and  rejected  the  baptism  of  infants 
as  an   unauthorized  and  post-apostolic  practice. 

Baptists  in  Amer'ica.  (i)  From  the  first 
settlements  to  the  Great  Aivakcning. —  There 
were  a  few  Baptists  (or,  as  they  were  then  usu- 
ally called.  Anabaptists)  among  the  early  settlers 
of  the  colonies,  especially  Massachusetts,  but  the 
first  Baptist  church  was  of  independent  origin. 
Roger  Williams,  a  graduate  of  the  University  of 
Cambridge,  a  Puritan  unable  to  conform  to  the 
Church  of  England,  emigrated  to  the  Massachu- 
setts colony  and  landed  in  Boston  in  1631.  Here 
he  soon  developed  theories  that  made  him  ob- 
noxious, and  he  was  therefore  banished  by  the 
General  Court,  8  Oct.  1635.  The  chief  count 
against  him  was  that  he  denied  the  authority  of 
the  civil  magistrate  to  punish  religious  offenses. 
He  made  his  way  to  Rhode  Island,  purchased 
land  from  the  Narragansett  Indians,  and  founded 
the  colony  of  Providence  on  the  principle  of 
complete  separation  between  civil  and  religious 
affairs.  His  study  of  the  Scriptures  led  him  to 
reject  infant  baptism,  and  others  having  come  to 
his  opinion  a  church  of  12  members  was  consti- 
tuted. Williams  was  baptized  by  one  of  them, 
Ezekiel  Holliman,  and  he  then  baptized  the 
others.  As  there  is  no  indication  of  subsequent 
change  in  the  method  of  baptism,  here  or  else- 
where, it  is  reasonable  to  conclude  that  American 
Baptists  have  practised  immersion  from  the  be- 
ginning. Not  long  after  this  a  church  was  estab- 
lished in  the  colony  at  Newport  under  the  leader- 
ship of  John  Clarke,  an  English  physician.  A 
Welsh  Baptist  church  emigrated  bodily  to  Massa- 
chusetts in  1633  and  ultimately  settled  at  Swan- 
sea in  1667.  This  church  was  not  greatly  dis- 
turbed, but  in  Boston  the  Baptists  experienced 
severe  persecution.  John  Clarke  and  Obadiah 
Holmes,  of  the  Newport  church,  visited  the  col- 
ony to  comfort  and  confirm  in  the  faith  the  few 
scattered  brethren  there,  and  were  arrested  for 
holding  a  religious  service  in  a  private  house  in 
Lynn.  They  were  sentenced  to  be  fined  heavily, 
and  in  default  to  be  *well  whipped.'*  This  sen- 
tence was  executed  upon  Holmes,  in  the  streets 
of  Boston,  6  Sept.  1661.  Clarke's  fine  was  paid 
by  a  friend,  and  he  escaped.  In  1665  a  Baptist 
church  was  formed  in  Boston,  consisting  of  nine 
members.  Thomas  Goold,  its  leading  member 
and  first  minister,  was  so  continuously  impris- 
oned and  ill-treated  that  his  health  was  shat- 
tered, and  he  died  in  1675.  Other  members 
suffered  in  like  manner.  A  small  meeting-house 
was  built  in  1678.  whereupon  the  doors  were 
nailed  up  by  order  of  the  court.  The  new 
charter  of  the  colony,  in  1691,  granted  ''liberty 
of  conscience  to  all  Christians  except  Papists,** 
but    Baptists   were    still   taxed   for   the    support 


of  the  churches  of  the  "standing  order.**  Even 
when  the  heavy  hand  of  the  Puritan  official  was 
restrained,  progress  did  not  become  much  more 
rapid,  for  prior  to  1740  there  were  but  eight 
Baptist  churches  in  Massachusetts.  In  the  other 
New  England  colonics  growth  was  proportion- 
ally slow.  The  first  church  in  Connecticut  was 
that  at  Groton,  established  in  1705,  probably  by 
Baptists  from  Rhode  Island. 

The  most  marked  progress  of  Baptists  was  in 
the  group  of  colonies  afterward  known  as  the 
Middle  States.  The  centre  of  this  growth  was 
the  town  of  Philadelphia.  In  the  near-by  village 
of  Pennepek  or  Lower  Dublin  (now  incorporat- 
ed in  the  city)  a  church  was  founded  in  1688, 
mainly  of  Baptists  from  Great  Britain,  and  a 
preaching-station  was  appointed  in  Philadelphia, 
which  was  not  formally  recognized  as  a  separate 
church  until  1746.  The  Welsh  Tract  Church 
was  formed  in  1701  in  a  place  now  in  the  State 
of  Delaware.  In  the  neighboring  colony  of 
New  Jersey  a  simultaneous  beginning  had  been 
made.  The  church  at  Middietown  had  been 
formed  in  1688,  and  the  following  year  a  church 
that  had  been  organized  at  Dover^  N.  H.,  emi- 
grated in  a  body  and  became  the  Piscataway 
Church.  Churches  at  Cohansey  (1690),  Cape 
May  (1712),  and  Hopewell  (1715)  followed. 

In  the  New  York  colony  the  first  church  was 
established  at  Oyster  Bay,  L.  I.,  about  1700.  and 
in  1714  a  second  church  was  formed  in  New 
York  city  —  both  organized  through  the  labors 
of  some  Rhode  Island  Baptists.  After  1730  the 
New  York  church  ceased  to  exist,  and  it  was  not 
until  1745  that  another  attempt  was  made  to 
found  a  Baptist  church  there ;  and  so  feeble 
was  this  that  it  did  not  attempt  an  independent 
existence  until    1762. 

The  oldest  church  in  the  southern  colonies 
was  first  constituted  in  Maine,  then  a  part  of 
the  Massachusetts  settlement.  A  few  pe'ople  at 
Kittery  were  baptized  in  Boston  and  organized 
a  church,  but  they  were  so  much  disturbed  by 
persecutions  that  they  decided  to  emigrate  to 
Charleston,  S.  C,  and  became  the  First  Baptist 
Church  of  that  city  in  1684.  Some  General 
Baptists  settled  in  the  Virginia  colony  in  17 14. 
and  other  churches  were  rapidly  formed.  From 
1727  onward  Baptist  churches  were  founded  in 
North  Carolina,  and  a  church  was  established 
in  Maryland  in  1772.  The  Carolina  churches 
proved  to  be  especially  fruitful.  From  these 
feeble  and  unpromising  beginnings  there  result- 
ed a  great  growth  during  the  remaining  years 
of  the  i8th  century. 

The  division  that  from  the  first  existed 
among  the  English  Baptists  seemed  likely  to  be 
perpetuated  in  America.  In  New  England  the 
majority  of  the  earliest  churches  were  or  became 
Arminian  in  theolog}'.  and  the  first  churches  in 
the  colony  of  New  York  appear  also  to  have 
been  of  that  order,  together  with  several  of 
the  New  Jersey  congregations.  But  the  Phila- 
delphia group  and  part  of  the  New  Jersey 
churches  were  strongly  Calvinistic,  and  gradu- 
ally they  took  the  lead  and  became  the  control- 
ling force. 

This  result  was  promoted,  if  not  caused,  by 
the  formation  of  the  Philadelphia  Association. 
The  five  oldest  and  nearest  churches  (Pennepek, 
Welsh  Tract.  IMiddletown,  Piscataway,  Cohan- 
sey) from  the  beginning  cultivated  close  rela- 
tions with  one  another,  and  were  accustomed  to 
hold     "general     meetings**     with     the     various 


BAPTISTS  IN  AMERICA 


churches  in  turn,  at  which  members  of  all  the 
others  attended  as  far  as  possible.  These  meet- 
ings were  at  first  annual,  and  then  came  to  be 
held  twice  a  year,  in  IMay  and  September.  As 
the  churches  grew,  such  mass-meetings  became 
less  practicable,  and  m  September  1707,  when 
the  meeting  was  held  in  Philadelphia,  the  other 
churches  sent  delegates.  The  practice  continued 
thenceforth  without  interruption,  and  so  the 
first  association  of  Baptist  churches  was  formed. 
Such  associations  differ  from  the  synods  and 
conferences  of  other  denominations  in  that  they 
have  no  legislative  or  judicial  authority  over 
the  churches,  which  retain  their  complete  in- 
dependence. The  association  has  advisory  pow- 
ers only,  and  considers  questions  of  common 
interest  to  the  churches  composing  it,  especially 
measures  for  the  more  effective  spread  of  the 
gospel.  It  thus  becomes  a  missionary  and  evan- 
gelic institution,  and  as  such  has  been  one  of 
the  most  powerful  agencies  in  the  growth  of 
Baptist  churches  in  America. 

The  Philadelphia  Association  gradually  drew 
to  its  membership  not  only  all  the  Baptist 
churches  of  the  middle  colonies,  but  those  far- 
ther south,  and  at  its  most  flourishing  early 
period  had  31  churches  on  its  roll,  extending 
from  New  York  to  Virginia.  By  1742,  seeming- 
ly before,  this  association  adopted  a  Calvinistic 
confession  of  faith, —  in  large  part  identical 
with  the  Westminster  Confession, —  and  this 
Philadelphia  Confession  soon  became  by  com- 
mon consent  the  standard  of  faith  and  practice 
among  American  Baptist  churches,  and  still 
holds  that  position  over  large  regions.  It  ought 
to  be  added,  however,  that  among  Baptists  no 
confession  has  any  real  authority,  such  docu- 
ments being  regarded  as  only  convenient  state- 
ments of  what  the  Scriptures  are  believed  to 
teach;  and  among  Baptists  it  is  to  the  Scrip- 
tures, and  not  to  any  confession,  that  appeal  is 
always  made. 

2.  From  the  Great  Azvakening  to  the  Found- 
ing of  the  General  Convention. — The  spiritual 
movement  known  as  the  Great  Awakening 
(q.v.),  judged  by  its  results,  was  the  most  im- 
portant single  event  in  the  history  of  American 
Christianity.  On  no  religious  body  did  it  have 
more  happ}%  far-reaching  and  permanent  results 
than  upon  the  Baptists.  The  new  spiritual  life 
into  which  they  were  quickened  is  shown  by  the 
rapid  advance  made  by  them  in  all  the  colonies 
after  1740.  In  40  years  the  churches  increased 
in  Alassachusetts  from  8  to  73,  and  the  mem- 
bers from  about  200  to  over  3,000.  This  means, 
of  coitrse,  that  not  only  were  many  new 
churches  constituted  in  the  colonies  already 
named,  but  that  the  other  colonies  were  entered. 
From  1750,  churches  were  organized  in  New 
Hampshire,  and  from  1780  in  Vermont.  In 
Maine  the  planting  of  churches  began  again  in 
1768.  In  1784  there  were  in  New  England  151 
churches  with  4.783  members  —  an  enormous 
increase,  nearly  10  times  the  number  of  churches 
and  quite  10  times  the  number  of  members  that 
existed  a  generation  before. 

In  the  South  the  increase  was  even  more 
rapid,  especially  in  Virginia  and  the  Carolinas. 
In  Virginia  the  Baptists  were  rigorously  perse- 
cuted, their  preachers  being  imprisoned  and 
fined  with  great  severity,  but  even  in  prison  they 
preached  the  gospel  and  made  converts.  The 
Kehukee  Association,  organized  in  1765  in  Vir- 
ginia, and  the  Ketockton,  in  1766  in  North  Car- 


olina, testify  to  the  rapid  progress  made  in 
these  regions.  By  a  series  of  statutes  passed 
between  1776  and  1798  Virginia  repealed  ail 
her  punitive  and  incorporating  laws,  and  placed 
all  forms  of  religious  behef  on  an  equal  footing 
before  the  law.  The  progress  of  the  Revolution 
so  broadened  men's  ideas  that  the  other  colonies 
followed  her  example,  although  New  England 
lagged  behind,  and  Massachusetts  did  not  fully 
banish  intolerance  from  her  laws  until  1833. 
This  principle  of  separation  of  Church  and 
State,  long  advocated  by  Baptists  and  at  length 
made  the  fundamental  law  of  the  United  States 
and  of  each  several  State,  is  recognized  by  for- 
eign jurists  as  the  most  important  contribution 
to  political  philosophy  and  the  science  of  gov- 
ernment yet  made  by  America. 

The  war  of  the  Revolution  naturally  caused 
a  serious  check  to  religious  progress  in  the 
colonies,  but  less  to  the  Baptists  than  to  most 
other  bodies.  The  Episcopal  Church  was  badly 
disorganized,  and  almost  destroyed,  because  her 
ministers  were  mostly  Tories  and  were  driven 
from  their  parishes ;  but  the  Baptist  ministers 
were  patriots,  with  but  a  single  known  excep- 
tion. The  Methodists  were  greatly  embarrassed 
in  a  similar  way  —  their  preachers  were  nearly 
all  from  England,  and  John  Wesley  was  a  vio- 
lent writer  against  the  cause  of  the  colonies  and 
their  ^'wicked  rebellion.®  Except  where  actual 
hostilities  prevailed,  the  Baptist  churches  suf- 
fered little,  and  as  a  whole  were  stronger  at  the 
close  of  the  war  than  at  the  beginning,  ready  for 
an  immediate  advance  and  a  rapid  growth,  since 
they  could  take  advantage  of  every  favorable 
opportunity. 

And  one  of  the  greatest  opportunities  ever 
offered  any  religious  body  was  theirs  at  the 
close  of  the  war.  The  settlement  of  the  great 
West  began  actively  at  once.  Two  great  tides 
of  immigration  set  westward :  the  one  from 
New  England,  by  the  fertile  valleys  of  central 
New  York  toward  Ohio,  and  Illinois;  the  other 
from  Virginia,  Maryland,  and  Pennsylvania, 
over  the  mountains  by  the  old  Indian  trail  to 
Pittsburg,  and  thence  into  Ohio  or  down  the 
river  to  Kentucky  and  Tennessee.  Among  the 
earh'  settlers  of  these  new  regions  were  not  a 
few  Baptists ;  and  the  churches  and  associations 
in  the  older  regions  sent  out  missionary  preach- 
ers to  visit  the  new  settlements  and  organize 
churches  wherever  possible.  It  thus  came  to 
pass  that  Baptist  churches  were  often  the  first, 
always  among  the  first,  to  be  formed  in  the 
new  communities  of  the  West,  and  their  growth 
was  rapid.  By  the  year  1800  the  denomination 
had  increased  to  1,200  churches,  and  their  mem- 
bers to  more  than  100,000.  The  formation  of 
associations  had  kept  pace  with  the  growth  of 
churches ;  prior  to  1800  there  were  48  such 
bodies  formed,  nearly  all  of  which  carried  on 
active  missionary  operations  for  the  planting 
of  new  churches  and  the  aiding  of  those  newly 
planted  to  sustain  themselves.  This  missionary 
activity  of  the  associations  is  the  distinctive 
feature  of  the  period,  and  more  than  any  other 
thing  explains  that  unexampled  growth,  far  out- 
stripping that  of  the  population. 

3.  From  the  Formation  of  the  General 
Convention  to  Its  Division  in  1845. — The  most 
important  forward  step  of  American  Baptists  was 
their  engaging  in  the  work  of  foreign  missions. 
This  was  done  through  no  plan  of  their  own.  but 
in  obedience  to  the  leadings  of  Divine  Providence. 


BAPTISTS  IN  AMERICA 


Some  young  men  of  New  England  Congrega- 
tional churches,  while  students  at  Williams  Col- 
lege and  later  at  the  Andover  Theological  Sem- 
inary, became  deeply  interested  in  the  giving 
of  the  gospel  to  the  heathen,  and  in  consequence 
the  American  Board  of  Commissioners  for  For- 
eign Missions  was  constituted  in  June  1810. 
Three  of  the  first  missionaries  sent  out, — Adon- 
iram  Judson,  his  wife,  and  Luther  Rice, —  be- 
came convinced  from  independent  study  of  the 
Scriptures  that  only  believers  should  be  baptized, 
and  that  immersion  was  the  sole  apostolic  bap- 
tism. Accordingly  they  were  baptized  by  Eng- 
lish Baptist  missionaries  at  Calcutta  shortly 
after  their  arrival,  and  by  consequence  severed 
their  relations  with  the  Board  that  had  sent 
them  out.  Mr.  Rice  returned  to  America  to  tell 
the  story  and  enlist  the  Baptist  churches  in 
the  support  of  these  missionaries.  This  was  com- 
paratively easy,  but  by  his  tour  among  them 
the  churches  had  become  so  aroused  to  their 
unfulfilled  duty  toward  the  heathen  that  they 
were  not  content  merely  to  support  the  Judsons. 
Local  missionary  societies  were  formed  in  sev- 
eral States,  and  at  length  delegates  from 
churches  throughout  the  country  met  at  Phila- 
delphia in  May  1814,  and  organized  the  "Gen- 
eral Convention  of  the  Baptist  Denomination 
in  the  United  States  for  Foreign  Missions.^* 
This  furnished  the  churches  what  they  greatly 
needed, —  a  common  cause,  a  rallying-point, — 
and  at  once  the  Convention  and  its  work  became 
a  strongly  unifying  influence.  The  missionary 
work  thus  begun  was  prosecuted  with  zeal,  lib- 
erality, and  success.  The  Judsons  went  to 
Rangoon  and  began  a  mission  among  the  Bur- 
mans  in  1813;  the  Karens  were  reached  in  1828; 
and  missions  followed  among  the  Chinese 
(1833),  Telugus  (1836),  and  Assamese  (1836). 

For  a  time  it  seemed  that  all  Baptist  churches 
would  unite  in  the  support  of  this  work,  but 
after  some  years  opposition  began  to  develop 
among  the  churches  that  held  to  an  extreme 
form  of  the  Calvinistic  theology.  This  opposi- 
tion finally  became  directed  against  ministerial 
education,  Sunday-schools,  and  all  organization 
for  evangelic  effort,  as  well  as  against  the  Con- 
vention. The  agitation  of  these  extreme  views 
finally  led  to  a  withdrawal  of  a  part  of  the 
churches  from  all  fellowship  with  the  others, 
and  those  thus  withdrawing  became  known  as 
Old  School,  or  Primitive  Baptists,  since  they 
claimed  to  be  faithful  to  the  original  principles 
of  the  body,  from  which  the  others  had  depart- 
ed. The  agitation  was  most  bitter  in  the  central 
Atlantic  States,  but  the  Primitive  Baptists  be- 
came most  numerous  in  some  of  the  southern 
States,  especially  Tennessee  and  Georgia,  where, 
among  the  mountain  districts,  they  are  still  very 
numerous.  They  are  popularly  known  as  "Hard 
Shells." 

The  Convention,  in  addition  to  its  foreign 
missionarj'  enterprise,  also  for  a  time  conducted 
some  home-mission  operations,  and  local  socie- 
ties in  several  States  were  organized  for  this 
work.  All  of  these  agencies  proved  insufficient, 
and  in  1832  the  American  Baptist  Home  Mis- 
sion Society  was  formed  in  New  York  to  take 
special  charge  of  this  enterprise,  setting  free  the 
General  Convention  to  devote  its  whole  atten- 
tion to  foreign  missions.  But  this  was  not  the 
end  of  organization.  The  efficient  conduct 
of  home  missions  was  found  to  demand  further 
subdivision  of  effort,  and  after  the  second  decade 


of  the  century  State  conventions  were  rapidly 
formed  in  the  various  States  for  the  super- 
vision of  missionary  work  in  the  older  commu- 
nities, leaving  the  national  society  to  overlook 
the  newer  regions  of  the  great  West.  The  rise 
of  Sunday-schools  was  synchronous  with  this 
development  of  missionary  eiTort,  and  called 
into  being  new  forms  of  organization.  Among 
Baptists  It  gave  new  life  to  a  tract  society  that 
had  been  formed  in  1824  in  Washington,  and 
caused  its  removal  to  Philadelphia  and  its 
growth  into  the  American  Baptist  Publication 
Society,  which,  since  1840,  has  given  a  great 
share  of  its  capital  and  effort  to  the  publication 
and  circulation  of  Sunday-school  literature.  The 
work  of  foreign  missions  led  to  the  making  and 
printing  of  versions  in  the  various  languages 
of  the  mission  fields.  Some  of  these  were  print- 
ed by  aid  from  the  American  Bible  Society, 
formed  in  1816  by  representatives  of  the  chief 
evangelical  denominations ;  but  after  a  time  Bap- 
tists were  denied  equal  rights  in  this  body,  and 
in  April  1837  a  convention  held  at  Philadelphia 
formed  the  American  and  Foreign  Bible  Society 
for  doing  this  work. 

This  was  the  period,  not  only  of  perfecting 
organization,  but  of  controversies  that  resulted 
in  great  loss  to  Baptists.  The  rise  of  the  body 
now  known  as  Disciples  of  Christ,  led  by  Alex- 
ander Campbell  and  others,  from  1815  to  1835, 
caused  great  disturbance  and  loss  to  Baptists  in 
the  middle  West  and  South.  Mr.  Campbell  had 
been  a  Baptist  preacher,  and  many  Baptist 
churches  went  bodily  into  the  new  movement. 
In  the  Middle  and  Eastern  States,  during  the 
same  period,  William  Miller  led  many  astray  by 
his  predictions  regarding  the  speedy  "end  of  the 
world,  and  the  ultimate  result  of  his  teaching 
was  the  formation  of  the  Second  Advent  bod}', 
into  which  many  Baptist  churches  and  members 
went.  At  nearly  the  same  time  and  in  the  same 
region  the  famous  anti-Masonry  agitation  (q.v. ) 
also  convulsed  the  churches  and  hindered  their 
progress,  where  it  did  not  actually  deplete  their 
numbers.  But  this  was  also  a  period  of  great 
revivals  and  rapid  numerical  growth,  not  pe- 
culiar to  any  one  part  of  the  country.  Begin- 
ning the  century  with  some  1,200  churches  and 
100,000  members.  Baptists  had  grown  to  8,406 
churches  and  686,807  members  in  1845,  about 
one  Baptist  to  each  32  persons  of  the  population. 

The  greatest  controversy  of  the  period,  and 
that  which  had  most  lasting  results,  was  that 
caused  by  the  institution  of  slavery.  After 
about  1825  anti-slavery  sentiment  rapidly  grew 
strong  in  the  northern  States,  and  among  the 
Baptist  churches  of  that  region  the  opinion  gen- 
erally prevailed  that  a  Christian  man  could  not 
consistently  be  the  owner  of  slaves.  The  Gen- 
eral Convention  had  been  organized  on  the 
principles  of  the  Federal  Constitution  —  of  giv- 
ing equal  rights  to  slaveholders  and  non-slave- 
holders ;  but  as  in  the  State,  so  in  the  Church, 
this  compromise  proved  unworkable  after  a 
time.  For  several  years  fierce  debates  were  held 
on  the  subject  at  the  meetings  of  the  Conven- 
tion, and  the  feelings  of  both  sections  grew 
more  embittered.  At  length  the  Executive 
Board  declared  that  they  could  not  appoint  a 
slaveholder  as  a  missionary,  and  the  southern 
churches  felt  this  to  be  a  denial  of  their  consti- 
tutional rights.  Accordingly  in  May  1845  a  con- 
vention met  at  Augusta,  Ga.,  and  formed  the 
Southern     Baptist     Convention.     The     mission 


BAPTISTS  IN  AMERICA 


work,  home  and  foreign,  of  the  southern  Bap- 
tist churches  has  been  done  since  that  time 
through  this  body,  under  the  supervision  of 
v'arious  boards  appointed  for  the  purpose.  This 
work  was  necessarily  interrupted  by  the  Civil 
War,  but  was  resumed  with  new  vigor  at  the 
conclusion  of  that  struggle,  and  has  been  prose- 
cuted with  increasing  liberality  and  success. 
The  Convention  is  a  strictly  delegated  body. 

4.  The  Last  Half  Century. — The  last  50 
years  have  been  a  time  of  great  increase  in 
numbers  and  wealth.  At  the  close  of  the  19th 
century  there  were  43,959  churches  and 
4,181,686  members,  about  one  person  in  18  of 
the  population.  The  rate  of  progress  has  there- 
fore been  almost  double  that  of  the  population, 
marvelous  as  the  latter  has  been,  and  a  very 
small  percentage  of  this  had  been  gained  by 
immigration.  The  valuation  of  church  property 
in  1900  was  $86,648,982,  the  expenditure  for 
public  worship  $9,622,166,  the  contributions  for 
missions  $1,123,839,  and  for  all  other  purposes 
$12,348,527.  Corresponding  facts  for  i850_  and 
earlier  years  are  not  ascertainable,  but  it  _  is 
certain  that  the  wealth  of  the  churches  has  in- 
creased fully  twice  as  fast  as  the  membership, 
and  within  the  last  15  years  the  contributions 
have  doubled,  showing  a  commensurate  growth 
of  liberality. 

But  in  this  last  half  century  the  most  marked 
feature  of  denominational  progress  has  been  in 
educational  work.  Very  early  in  their  history 
Baptists  began  to  found  colleges  and  other  in- 
stitutions of  higher  learning.  Brown  University 
was  established  in  1764,  and  was  followed  by 
Colby  (1818),  Colgate  (1819),  Columbian 
(1821),  and  Lewisburg  (1846).  Two  theologi- 
cal seminaries  were  early  founded :  Hamilton 
(1817)  and  Newton  (1825).  In  the  West  and 
South  16  other  institutions  that  still  survive 
were  established  before  1850,  not  to  mention  a 
few  academies.  The  combined  endowments  of 
all  these  schools  in  1850  would  probably  not 
have  exceeded  $500,000.  In  1900  there  were  7 
seminaries,  31  colleges,  32  schools  for  women 
only,  46  academies,  and  17  schools  for  negroes 
and  Indians.  These  schools  had  over  38,000 
students  enrolled,  and  in  them  has  been  invest- 
ed over  $44,000,000,  of  which  fully  half  is  pro- 
ductive  endowment. 

Two  thirds  of  the  Baptists  of  the  United 
.States  are  in  the  south,  and  of  these  far  more 
than  half  are  negroes.  The  separate  organiza- 
tion of  the  colored  Baptists  dates,  of  course, 
from  the  Civil  War.  The  first  of  their  State 
conventions  was  formed  in  1866  in  North  Caro- 
lina, and  like  societies  have  been  organized  in 
15  States.  In  the  North  a  large  part  of  their 
churches  are  members  of  the  regular  associa- 
tions. The  National  Baptist  Convention  was 
organized  in  1880,  and  was  expected  to  perform 
an  office  for  their  churches  similar  to  that  of 
the  Southern  Baptist  Convention  for  the  white 
churches.  But  there  have  developed  ambitious 
leaders  among  them,  and  divided  counsels  have 
resulted,  and  there  has  been  in  consequence  a 
multiplying  of  organizations  very  confusing  to 
those  who  attempt  to  follow  their  history  and 
v/ork.  Owing  to  the  lack  of  education  among 
them,  reports  of  meetings  are  defective  and  sta- 
tistics untrustworthy,  and  no  definite  state- 
ments of  their  work  can  be  attempted. 

Besides  what  are  often  called  the  *^regular'* 
Baptists, —  those    in    full    fellowship    with    each 


other  and  enumerated  above, —  there  are  nu- 
merous other  bodies,  aggregating  500.000  mem- 
bers, that  hold  substantially  the  same  princi- 
ples. The  Freewill  Baptists  are  perhaps  the 
largest  of  these.  The  name  describes  two  dif- 
ferent .groups  of  churches :  one  originating  in 
North  Carolina  about  1729,  and  having  its 
representatives  mainly  in  the  South ;  the  other 
arising  in  New  Hampshire  about  1780.  The  for- 
mer are  known  as  Original  Freewill  Baptists,  and 
practise  feet-washing  and  anointing  the  sick 
with  oil  as  gospel  ordinances.  The  latter  have 
of  late  adopted  the  name  Free  Baptists,  are 
Arminian  in  theology,  and  practise  "open"  com- 
munion. They  are  strongest  in  New  England 
and  the  Middle  West.  A  general  conference 
was  organized  in  1827,  a  Foreign  Mission 
Society  in  1834,  a"d  an  Education  Society  m 
1840.  They  now  have  about  85,000  members, 
and  the  southern  churches  may  have  i2,00O' 
more.  The  Six-Principle  and  Seventh-Day 
Baptists  also  originated  in  New  England.  The 
former  began  in  Rhode  Island,  where  several 
of  the  earliest  churches  came  to  be  known  by 
this  name.  The  churches  of  this  order  mostly 
held  Arminian  views,  but  differed  from  other 
Baptist  churches  mainly  in  insisting  on  the  lay- 
ing on  of  hands  immediately  after  baptism, 
believing  this  to  be  one  of  the  six  principles  enu- 
merated in  Heb.  vi.  i,  2.  The  first  Seventh- 
Day  church  was  formed  in  Newport  in  1671  ; 
their  distinctive  principle  is  indicated  by  their 
name.  The  German  Seventh-Day  Baptists  had 
a  separate  origin  in  Pennsylvania  about  1728, 
from  the  Dunkards  or  Tunkers,  who  settled  in 
Germantown  from  1719  and  onward.  They  are- 
sometimes  called  German  Baptists,  but  that 
name  is  more  properly  applied  to  German  con- 
gregations of  the  "regular"  Baptists.  The 
Church  of  God,  or  Winnebrennerians.  the  River 
Brethren,  and  one  branch  of  the  IMennonites. 
also  agree  in  the  main  with  the  principles  and 
practices  of  Baptists. 

Besides  the  United  States,  Baptists  are  rep- 
resented in  all  parts  of  North  America,  es- 
pecially in  Canada.  Since  1778,  Baptist  churches 
have  existed  in  Nova  Scotia  and  New  Bruns- 
wick, and  about  1794  began  a  like  movement  in 
lower  Canada,  near  the  Vermont  line.  The 
organization  of  the  Maritime  churches  came 
first,  beginning  with  an  association  formed  in 
1800,  and  extending  until  a  convention  for  gen- 
eral missionary  purposes  united  several  earlier 
societies  in  1846.  Churches  were  planted  m 
Ontario  after  1803,  and  organization  proceeded 
along  the  usual  lines.  In  1888  all  previously 
existing  societies  were  consolidated  by  act  of 
the  Dominion  Parliament  into  the  Baptist  Con- 
vention of  Ontario  and  Quebec,  which  con- 
ducts its  work  through  five  executive  boards. 
The  Canadian  Baptists  have  now  grown  to  over 
1,000  churches  and   100,000  members. 

In  Mexico  and  the  West  Indies  the  Baptist 
churches  are  of  recent  missionary  origin.  The 
chief  exception  is  in  Jamaica,  where  English 
Baptists  began  operations  nearly  a  century  ago, 
the  first  church  having  been  formed  in  1816. 
The  Southern  Baptist  Convention  has  taken 
Cuba  as  its  special  field,  while  Northern  Bap- 
tists have  established  a  mission  in  Porto  Rico, 
In  the  West  Indies,  Mexico,  and  Central  Amer- 
ica there  are  now  not  far  from  50,000  Baptists.  ^ 
Henry  Cl.w  Vedder, 
Croser  Theological  Seminary. 


BAR  —  BAR-SUR-AUBE 


Bar,  Karl  Ludwig  von,  German  jurist:  b. 
Hanover,  1830.  He  was  trained  in  the  universi- 
ties of  Gottingen  and  Berlin,  and  sat  in  the 
Reichstag  1890-3.  He  has  been  a  strong  advo- 
cate of  publicity  as  well  as  of  more  humane 
procedure  in  all  criminal  trials.  Important 
works  b}"  him  are:  *Das  Internationale  Privat- 
«nd  Strafrecht*  (1862)  ;  ^Die  Redefreiheit  der 
Mitgleider  gezetzgebender  Versammlungen' 
(1868)  ;  'Die  Lehre  vom  Kausalzusammen- 
Tiange  in  Rechte  (.1871)  ;  *Das  Deutsche  Reichs- 
gericht'  (1875);  ^Staat  und  Katholische 
Kirche  in  Preussen'    (1883). 

Bar-Cochba,  Simon,  celebrated  Jewish 
impostor  of  the  2d  century  a.d.,  who  pretended 
to  be  the  Messiah.  He  called  himself,  or  was 
called  by  his  followers,  Bar-Cochba,  meaning 
Son  of  the  Star,  and  applied  to  himself  Balaam's 
prophecy,  "There  shall  come  a  star  out  of 
Jacob,'  etc.  He  obtained  the  support  of  the 
celebrated  Rabbi  Akiba,  and  availing  himself 
of  the  general  dissatisfaction  produced  among 
the  Jews  b}'  Hadrian's  attempt  to  erect  a  tem- 
ple to  Jupiter  on  the  site  of  the  temple  of  Je- 
rusalem, raised  the  standard  of  revolt,  and 
scon  mustered  numerous  followers.  After  car- 
rying on  a  kind  of  guerilla  warfare,  he  made 
"himself  master  of  Jerusalem  about  132,  and 
:gained  possession  of  about  50  fortified  places. 
Hadrian,  who  had  at  first  despised  the  insur- 
rection, now  saw  the  necessity  of  acting  more 
A-igorously,  and  sent  to  Britain  for  Julius 
Severus,  one  of  his  ablest  generals,  who,  avoid- 
ing a  general  engagement,  gradually  made  him- 
self master  of  the  different  forts  which  the 
rebels  possessed,  and  then,  though  not  withotit 
great  loss,  took  and  destroyed  Jerusalem.  Bar- 
cochba  retired  to  a  mountain  fortress,  and 
perished  in  the  assault  of  it  by  the  Romans 
three  years  after,  about  135. 

Bar,  Russia,  a  town  in  the  government  of 
Podolia :  so  called  after  the  birth-place  of  its 
foundress.  Bona  Sforza,  the  wife  of  King  Sigis- 
mund  I.  of  Poland.  It  is  famous  as  the  place 
where  a  confederation  of  the  Polish  people  was 
held  with  a  view  to  combating  the  Russian  influ- 
ence and  the  adherents  of  Russia  in  Poland.  29 
Feb.  1768.  The  Russians  took  Bar  by  storm  on  the 
following  28  May,  together  with  1,400  men  and 
^0  pieces  of  cannon.  Eleven  fairs  are  annually 
held  here.  Leather-dressing,  distillery,  and 
brick-making  are  carried  on.  Pop.  (1900) 
13  000. 

Bar.  In  heraldry,  one  of  the  charges  known 
as  ordinaries.  It  is  formed  by  two  horizontal 
lines  passing  over  the  shield  and  occupying 
one  fifth  of  the  surface. 

In  hydrography,  a  barrier  of  sand  in  the 
channel  of  a  river  or  along  the  seacoa.st.  Riv- 
ers are  constantly  engaged  in  the  transporta- 
tion of  sediment  seaward,  and  whenever  the 
current  is  checked  the  suspended  material  sinks 
and  accumulates  along  the  bottom.  Bars  thus 
formed  may  disappear  during  periods  of  floods 
when  the  water  gains  increased  velocity,  and 
they  frequenth'  change  their  position  with  slight 
alterations  in  the  course  of  the  current.  Sand 
laars  are  also  common  at  the  mouths  of  rivers 
Avhcre  the  flow  of  the  water,  and  therefore  its 
transporting  power,  is  lessened  before  enter- 
ing the  sea.  The  precipitation  of  the  sediment 
is  assisted  in  this  case  bj'  the  mingling  of  the 
fresh    and     saline     water.      The    formation    of 


such  bars  does  not  differ  from  that  of  a  delta 
(q.v.).  The  transporting  action  of  currents 
and  waves  sometimes  builds  up  a  long  line  of 
bars  or  reefs  along  the  seacoast,  as  is  seen  on 
the  Atlantic  and  Gulf  shores  of  the  United 
States.     See  Reef. 

In  law,  a  word  having  several  meanings; 
thus,  it  is  the  term  used  to  signify  an  enclosure 
or  fixed  place  in  a  court  of  justice  where  law- 
years  may  plead.  In  English  superior  courts 
queen's  coun.sel  are  admitted  within  the  bar; 
other  members  of  the  bar  sit  or  stand  outside. 
A  railed-off  space  within  the  Houses  of  Lords 
and  Commons  is  similarly  called  the  bar.  The 
dock,  or  enclosed  space  where  accused  persons 
stand  or  sit  during  their  trial  is  also  called  the 
bar ;  hence  the  expression  "prisoner  at  the  bar." 
It  has  also  a  general  meaning  in  legal  pro- 
cedure, signifying  something  by  way  of  stop- 
page or  prevention.  There  is  also  a  trial  at 
bar  —  that  is,  a  trial  before  the  judges  of  "- 
particular  court,  who  sit  together  for  that  pur- 
pose in  banc  (q.v.).  The  term  is  used  both 
in  England  and  the  United  States  as  a  syno- 
nym for  the  legal  profession. 

In  music,  a  line  drawn  vertically  across  the 
staff,  for  the  purpose  of  dividing  the  music  into 
equal  measures  of  time.  The  term  is  very  often 
improperly  applied  to  measures  themselves. 
The  quantity  of  time  included  between  two 
bars  varies  as  the  time  is  triple  or  common, 
the  former  being  equivalent  to  three  crotchets 
and  the  latter  to  four.  The  thick  bar  at  the 
end  of  a  piece  of  music  is  called  the  double 
bar.  Bars  were  first  used  about  the  middle  of 
the  15th  century.    See  Measure. 

Bar  Har'bor,  ^le.,  a  popular  summer  re- 
sort in  Hancock  County,  Me. ;  on  the  east  shore 
of  Mount  Desert  Island.  It  derives  its  name 
from  a  sandj'  bar  which  connects  Mount  Desert 
with  the  largest  of  the  Porcupine  group.  The 
surrounding  scenery  is  very  pleasing,  and  with- 
in a  short  distance  are  many  points  of  interest 
readily  accessible  to  the  tourist.  Among  these 
are  the  summit  of  Green  Mountain,  Eagle 
Lake,  Mount  Newport.  Kebo,  The  Ovens,  Great 
and  Schooner  Heads,  Spouting  Horn,  Thunder 
Cave,  and  Eagle  Cliff.     Pop.   (1900)   1,600. 

Bar  Shot,  a  double-headed  shot,  made  of 
two  half-balls  connected  by  a  bar,  and  formerly 
used  in  naval  battles  for  cutting  awa}'  the  masts 
and  rigging  of  the  enemy's  ship. 

Bar-le-Duc,  bar-le-diik,  or  Bar-sur-Ornian, 
bar-siir-ornaii.  France,  capital  of  the  depart- 
ment of  Meuse.  125  miles  east  by  south  from 
Paris.  It  consists  of  an  upper  and  a  lower 
town,  the  former  of  which  commands  a  fine 
view.  The  lower  town  extends  into  the  valley 
traversed  by  the  Ornain,  here  crossed  by  three 
stone  bridges.  It  is  a  busy  active  place,  with 
many  shops,  manufactories,  and  w^arehouses. 
The  streets  are  wide  and  well  laid  out.  but  the 
public  buildings  are  inferior.  The  chief  manu- 
factures are  cotton  yarn,  cotton,  and  woolen 
stuffs,  printed  calicoes,  and  colored  handker- 
chiefs. The  preserved  fruits  and  confectionery, 
as  w^ell  as  the  wines  of  Bar-le-duc,  are  in  re- 
pute.    Pop.    (1896)    18,249. 

Bar-sur-Aube,  bar-siir-6b.  France,  a  town 
30  miles  east  of  Troyes,  notable  as  the  scene 
of  a  victory  of  the  allied  forces  commanded  by 
Schwarzenberg  over  the  French,  commanded 
by  Macdonald  and  Oudinot,  27  Feb.  1814.     The 


BAR-SUR-SEINE  —  BARANOFF 


council  which  decided  the  plan  of  campaign 
of  the  allies  was  held  here  the  day  before  the 
battle.     Pop.  (1896)  4,548. 

Bar-sur-Seine,  bar-siir-san,  France,  an  an- 
cient town  in  the  department  of  Aube,  notable 
as  the  scene  of  a  victory  of  the  allied  forces 
over  the  French,  in  March  1814.  Pop.  (1896) 
3.157. 

Bara,  bii'ra,  Jules,  Belgian  statesman:  b. 
Toiirnai,  1835 ;  d.  Brussels,  26  June  1900.  He 
early  displayed  oratorical  gifts,  and  soon  after 
beginning  the  practice  of  law  was  appointed 
professor  of  law  in  the  University  of  Brus- 
sels. He  entered  the  House  of  Deputies  in 
1862  as  a  Liberal,  and  was  appointed  minister  of 
justice  in  1865.  For  the  remainder  of  his  ca- 
reer he  was  prominent  in  the  Liberal  ranks 
whether  in  the  Cabinet  or  as  a  member  of  the 
House  of  Deputies,  his  power  of  scathing  in- 
vective being  instrumental  in  causing  the  resig- 
nation of  the  clerical  ministry  of  d'Anethen  in 
1871   and  the  fall  of  that   of  Malou  in   1878. 

Baraba,  ba-ra-ba',  a  steppe  of  Siberia,  in 
the  government  of  Tomsk,  occupying  more 
than  100,000  square  miles.  Covered  with  salt 
lakes  and  marshes,  it  was  colonized  in  1767  by 
the  Russians,  who  have  since  cultivated  parts 
of  it.     Pop.  250,000. 

Barabas,  ba-rab'as,  the  principal  person- 
age in  Marlowe's  tragedy,  *The  Jew  of  Malta.' 

Barab'bas,  the  robber  released  by  Pilate 
at  the  Passover  when  Jesus  was  condemned  to 
death.  It  was  a  custom  of  the  Roman  govern- 
ment, for  the  sake  of  conciliating  the  Jews,  to 
release  one  Jewish  prisoner,  whom  they  might 
choose,  at  the  j'early  Passover.  Pilate  desired 
thus  to  release  Jesus,  but  the  Jews  demanded 
Barabbas  (Matt,  xxvii.  16-26).  (2)  The  title 
of  a  novel  by  Aiarie  Corelli,  having  him  as  the 
central  figure. 

Barabbas:  A  Dream  of  the  World's 
Tragedy,  a  romance  by  Marie  Corelli.  It  is 
the  story  of  the  last  days  of  Christ,  his  be- 
traj'al,  crucifixion,  and  resurrection.  The  story 
is  dramatically  told,  but  the  style  is  florid  and 
meretricious,  appealing  more  to  the  emotions 
than  to  the  reason. 

Barabins'ki,  a  Tartar  tribe  living  on  the 
banks  of  the  river  Irtish,  and  engaged  in  pas- 
toral and  agricultural  pursuits.  Their  religion 
is  Shamanistic,  but  Christianity  has  made  some 
progress  among  them. 

Baraboo,  bar'a-boo.  Wis.,  a  city  and  coun- 
ty-seat of  Sauk  County,  on  the  Baraboo  River, 
and  the  Chicago  &  N.  W.  R.R. ;  40  miles  north- 
west of  Madison  and  3  miles  from  Devil's  Lake. 
It  is  an  agricultural  region ;  has  important  man- 
ufacturing interests,  which  are  promoted  by  an 
excellent  water  power ;  is  a  noted  fruit  centre ; 
and  has  a  national  bank,  city  hall,  water  works, 
electric  light,  gas  works,  daily,  weekly,  and 
monthly  periodicals.  It  is  governed  by  a  mayor, 
elected  biennially,  and  a  municipal  council.  Pop. 
(1900)   5,751. 

Barabra,  ba-ra'bra,  a  Nubian  people  living 
on  both  sides  of  the  Nile,  from  VVady  Haifa 
to  Assouan.  They  are  about  40,000  in  number, 
and  are  believed  to  belong  to  the  same  stock  as 
the  ancient   Egyptians. 

Baracoa,  ba-ra-ko'a,  Cuba,  a  seaport  near 
the   eastern   end   of  the   island,   and   its   capital, 


1518-22.  The  town  was  founded  in  1512.  Near 
it  is  the  mountain  noted  as  the  "Anvil  of  Bara- 
coa.^'  In  the  vicinity  Maceo  and  his  men  be- 
gan in  1895  the  struggle  for  Cuban  independ- 
ence.    Pop.    (1899)   4,937- 

Barada,  ba-ra'da,  the  Abana  of  the  Bible, 
a  river  of  Syria,  rising  in  the  Anti-Libanus  and. 
flowing  across  the  plain  to  the  east  past  Da- 
mascus. It  loses  itself  in  a  lake  called  Bahret- 
el-Ateibeh.  Around  Damascus  its  waters  are 
used  for  irrigation  by  means  of  canals. 

Baraga,  bar'a-ga,  Frederic,  Austrian  Ro- 
man Catholic  prelate  and  missionary :  b.  Treffen,. 
Carniola,  29  June  1797;  d.  Marquette.  Mich., 
19  Jan.  1868.  He  came  to  the  United  States  in 
1830  and  spent  the  rest  of  his  life  among  the 
Chippewa  and  Ottawa  Indians  in  Michigan. 
His  Chippewa  grammar  (1851)  and  Chippewa 
dictionary  (1851-3)  are  of  philological  impor- 
tance, and  he  was  also  the  author  of  a  work 
in  German  on  the  ^Historj^,  Character,  Man- 
ners, and  Habits  of  the  North  American  In- 
dians'   (1837). 

Baraguay  d'Hilliers,  ba-ra-ga-de-ya,. 
Achille,  Count,  marshal  of  France:  b.  Paris, 
1795;  d.  1878.  He  was  the  son  of  Louis  Para- 
guay d'Hilliers  (q.v.).  In  1830  he  took  part  in 
the  expedition  to  Algeria,  in  which  his  success- 
gained  liim  the  confidence  of  the  government, 
which  created  him  a  lieutenant-general.  In 
1841  he  was  made  governor-general  of  Algeria. 
On  the  fall  of  Louis  Philippe  in  the  revolution 
of  1848  the  provisional  government  appointed 
him  to  the  command  of  the  military  division  of 
Besangon.  He  replaced  Changarnier  in  the 
command  of  the  Army  of  Paris,  and  concurred 
in  the  accomplishment  of  the  coup  d'etat  on  2 
Dec.  1851.  In  the  war  with  Russia  in  1854 
Baraguay  d'Hilliers  was  commander-in-chief  of 
the  Baltic  expedition,  and  for  his  ser^'ices  re- 
ceived the  dignity  of  marshal  of  France,  and 
later  was  nominated  a  senator.  He  took  an 
active  part  in  the  campaign  of  1859,  when 
France  leagued  with  Sardinia  to  free  Italy 
from  Austrian  domination. 

Baraguey  d'Hilliers,  Louis,  French  gen- 
eral: b.  Paris,  1764;  d.  Berlin,  6  Jan.  1813.  Re- 
ceiving an  appointment  in  the  army  of  Italy 
from  Napoleon,  he  shared  all  the  success  of  the 
campaign  of  1796-7.  Made  general  of  division 
and  commandant  of  Venice,  in  1798  he  accom- 
panied the  expedition  to  Egypt ;  and  afterward 
successively  held  appointments  on  the  Rhine,  in 
the  Tyrol,  and  in  Catalonia.  He  commanded 
a  division  in  the  Russian  campaign  of  1812,  but 
during  the  retreat  incurred  the  displeasure  of 
Napoleon  and  appears  to  have  died  from  cha- 
grin and  disappointment. 

Baralt,  ba-ralt',  Rafael  Maria,  Venezuelan 
poet  and  historian :  b.  Maracaibo,  Venezuela, 
2  July  1814;  d.  ]\Iadrid,  Spain,  2  Jan.  i860.  He 
was  educated  in  Bogota  and  at  Caracas ;  served 
in  the  Venezuelan  army,  and  went  to  Spain  in 
1843,  where  he  held  posts  of  honor  and  attained 
literary  fame.  He  wrote  ^Ancient  and  iModern 
History  of  Venezuela'  (1841)  ;  and  ^Odes  to 
Columbus   and    to    Spain.' 

BaranoflF,  ba-ra'nof,  Alexander  Andrevich, 
Russian  trader:  b.  1746;  d.  1819.  He  founded 
a  trading  colony  on  Bering  Strait  (1796)  and 
established  commercial  relations  with  the  Unit- 
ed States,  China,  and  Hawaii.  He  was  the  first 
governor  of   Russian  America. 


BARANOFF  ISLAND —  BARBADOS 

Baranoff   Island,   the   most   important   of  development  of  his  intellectual  faculties  brought 

the  Alexander  Islands,  Alaska.     It  is  about  75  about  a  languid  malady,  and  at  the  age  of  19 

miles    long.      On    its    northwest    coast    is    the  he  died. 

town   of    Sitka.     The    island    derives    its   name  Baratynski,  bii-ra-tin'ske,  Jevgeni  Abramo- 

from  the  Russian  trader,   Baranoff   (q.v.),  who  vich,  Russian  poetr'b.  within  the  government 

m  1799  took  possession  of  it.  of  Tambov,  1800;  d.  Naples,  1844.     He  enlisted 

Barante,    ba-riint,  Aimable  Guillaume  Pros-  as    a    private    soldier    at    18.    and    by    7    years' 

per  Brugiere,  Baron  de,  French  historian  and  service  in  Finland   fought  his  way  to  the  rank 

statesman:   b.   Riom.   Auvergne,    10  June   1782;  of  an  officer,  which,  however,  he  soon  resigned 

d.  23  Nov.  1866.    After  filling  some  subordinate  to  devote  himself  to  a  literary  life.     His  first 

offices  he  was  appointed  in  1809  prefect  of  La  poem,    <Eda,^    is  a  mirror  of  Finnish  life  and 

Vendee.       In     this     year     was     published     his  feeling:  his  greatest,  <The  Gypsy.> 

'Tableau  de  la  Litterature  Francais  au  XVIIIe  Barb,   a  horse   of  the   Barbary  breed,   in- 

Siecle,^     of    which    Goethe     has    said    that    it  troduced  by  the  Moors  into  Spain,  and  of  great 

contains  neither  a  word  too  little  nor  a  word  speed,  endurance,   and    docilitj'.     This  breed   is 

too  much.     In  1815  Louis  XVIII.  made  Barante  said  to  be  a  variety  of  the  Arabian,  and  most 

secretary   of   the    ^linistry   of   the   Interior,   and  of  the  progenitors  of  the  present  thoroughbred 

about   the    same    time   he   took    his   seat   in   the  horse  were  of  the  same  strain. 

Chamber  of  Deputies,  where  he  voted  with  the  Bar'bacan,     or     Barbican,     a     projecting 

Moderate  Liberals.     In   1819  he  \yas   raised   to  ^^.^^ch  tower  or  other  advanced  work  before  the 

the    Chamber    of    Peers.      His    principal    work,  g^^g  of  ^  castle  or   fortified  town.     The   term 

<Histoire  des  Dues  de  Bourgogne  de  la  Maison  ^arbacan    wrs    more    especiallv    applied    to    the 

de    Valois,    1364-1477^     (1824-8),    secured    his  outwork    intended    to    defend'  the    drawbridge, 

election  to  the  Academy  in  1828.     Between  1830  ^^.^ich    in    modern    fortifications    is    called    the 

and   1840  he  represented  France  at  .Turin   and  fc-ta   du  pont.     At  the  castles  of  Warwick  and 

St.  Petersburg,  but  after  the  revolution  of  1848  Alnwick   the   medic-eval   barbacan?    still    remain, 

he  devoted  himself  entirely  to  literary  pursuits,  by^  the  barbican  gate  at  York  is  almost  entirely 

Other  works  of  his  are:   'Histoire  delaConven-  of   modern   construction 

V°«^'^'    cil^T^U    '^''^''''\  ^."     Directoire>  Barbacena,  bar-ba-sa-'na.  a  flourishing  town 

1855);  ^Etudes  Historiques  et  Biographiques>;  ^^    g^^^jj    -^^   ^j^^    gtate   of   Minas    Geraes.    125 

<Etudes     Litteraires     et     Historiques>      (1858).  ^jj^g  northwest  of  Rio  de  Janeiro.    It  is  situat- 

Consult  also  <  Souvenirs  du  Baron  de  Barante>  ^^   -^  ^^e   Mantiqueira   Mountains,   about   3,500 

(1690-9;.  £ggj.  above  the  sea.     Pop.  5.000. 

Baran'ya,  Hungary    a  province  of,  border-  Barba'dos,  an  island  of  the  West  Indies, 

mg  upon  the  Danube  River,  haymg  an  area  9f  ^  ■       jj,  ^he  Atlantic  Ocean  more  than  100  miles 

1,966  square  miles  and  a  population  of  361,743  m  ^^g^   ^f  ^^e   nearest   members   of   the   chain    of 

^900.         ^  Lesser   Antilles.      (See    Antilles.)      No    other 

Barasingha,  bar-a-sin'ga.    See  Swamp-Deer,  country,  with  the  possible  exception  of  some  of 

Barata'ria  Bay,  a  body  of  water  in  the  the  provinces  of  China,  is  more  densely  popu- 
southeastern  part  of  Louisiana,  extending  north  lated,  the  inhabitants  (about  20,000  white  per- 
from  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  between  the  parishes  sons,  and  approximately  169.000  negroes  1  av- 
of  Jefferson  and  Plaquemine.  It  is  about  15  eraging  1.120  to  the  square  mile  The  entire 
miles  long  by  6  wide,  and  it  and  the  lagoons  area  of  the  island  available  for  the  purpose- 
branching  out  of  it  were  rendered  notorious  or  100,000  acres  out  of  a  total  acreage  of 
about  the  years  1810-12  as  being  both  the  head-  106,470.-15  under  cultivation.  Some  of  the 
quarters  and  rendezvous  of  the  celebrated  La-  white  inhabitants  are  of  the  best  English  stock, 
fitte  and  his  buccaneers.  being    descendants   of   early   settlers    who    were 

■n       ^  >  •      -Tf     .         c                           „c  „.,«-  closelv  allied  by  the  bond  of  blood  or  ties  01 

Bara  ana.  Pirates  of,  a  company  of  out-  f^end^hip  with  the  colonists  of  Virginia.  The 
laws  imder  the  eadership  of  a  notorious  bandit  J  ^^^^^  ^^  ^ 
Jean  Lafitte,  who  established  their  rendezvous  ^y^^^^-  ^^^  ,,4  i,,  ^73,.  when  he  visited  this 
in  the  Bay  of  Barataria  40  miles  south  of  New  f  company  with  his  invalid  brother, 
Orleans.  They  committed  great  depredations  Lawrence.  The  rainfall  is  abundant,  and  the 
on  English  and  Spanish  shipping  b"t  heir  agreeable,  thanks  to  trade-winds  blow- 
colony  was  broken  up  in  1814  by  a  United  States  J  ^^^^^^  ^,^^  Atlantic.  Barbados  is 
naval  force.  Lafitte  and  some  of  his  men  subse-  -^j  Jf  England,  with  its  own  governor, 
quently  served  under  Jackson  in  the  battle  of  j^gigiatifre.  etc.  In  addition  to  many  lesser 
New  Orleans.  educational   institutions  the  island  has  Codring- 

Bar'athron,  the  name  of  a  deep  gorge  near  ^on  College,  which  is  affiliated  with  the  Univer- 

Athens,    into    which    criminals    condemned    to  gity   of   Durham.    England.      Its   principal    city, 

death  were  thrown.     It  was  originally  a  quarr>%  Bridgetown,    headquarters    of    the    Royal    Mail 

but  was  enlarged  in  order  to  serve  for  purposes  Steamship    Company,    is   an   attractive   place  of 

of   punishment.     Usually  persons   were   thrown  residence  and  a   favorite  resort   of   tourists.     It 

into   it  after   execution,   but   occasionally   while  jg    also    the    see    of    the    bishop    of    Barbados, 

living.  There    is    one    narrow-gauge    railway,    and    the 

Baratier,  ba-ra-ter',  Johann  Philipp,  Ger-  highways  are  excellent  The  chief  and  almost 
man  litterateur,  remarkable  for  the  precocity  the  sole  industry  is  the  cultivation  of  sugar- 
of  his  intellect:  b.  Schwabach.  1721 ;  d.  Halle,  cane,  to  which  the  soil  ,s  peculiarly  adapted. 
^  Sept.  1740.  At  the  age  of  7  he  understood  Food  supplies  are  imported  largely  from  the 
Greek  and  Hebrew,  and  2  vears  later  he  com-  United  States,  to  which  country-  nearly  the  en- 
piled  a  Hebrew  dictionary.  He  was  13  when  he  tire  sugar  product  is  sent.  The  value  ot  the 
translated  the  qtinerary  of  Beniamin  of  Tu-  annual  exports  is  about  $3.600.000 :  of  the  aver- 
dela.>     Excess  of  work  and  perhaps  a  too  rapid  age    annual    imports    about    $o,ooo,oCK).       Like 


BARBADOS  CEDAR  — BARBAROUX 


Guadeloupe  and  its  dependencies,  and  Desirade 
and  Maria  Gaiante,  Barbados  is  a  coral  island. 
Its  length  is  21  miles,  and  its  width  15  miles.  It 
is  situated  in  lat.  13°  4'  N.,  and  Ion.  59°  2,-'  W. 
Consult  Stark,  <  History  and  Guide  to  Barbados.^ 
IMarrion  Wilcox, 
Authority  on  Latin-America. 

Barba'dos  Cedar,  a  cedar  or  juniper 
(Juiiipcnis  barbadcusis).  It  is  found  in  Florida 
and  the  other  warm  parts  of  America. 

Barbados  Cherry,  a  West  Indian  shrub  or 

small  tree  (MalpigJiia  glabra)  of  the  natural 
order  Malpigliiacca,  with  handsome  crimson  ax- 
illarj'  flowers,  cultivated  to  some  extent  in  warm 
countries  for  its  acid  fruit,  inferior  to  but  re- 
sembling a  white  cherrj'.  M.  nrcns  also  bears 
an  edible  but  smaller  fruit,  and  is  sometimes 
also  called  Barbados  cherrj'. 

Barbados  Flower  Fence,  or  Barbados 
Pride,  the  beautiful  plant  Poinciana  pulclierri- 
nui.  It  belongs  to  the  leguminous  order,  and 
the  sub  order  Cccsalpiiiiccc.  It  is  a  low,  spiny  tree 
with  an  odor  like  savin.  It  is  a  native  of  the 
tropics  of  both  hemispheres,  and  in  Barbados 
especialh-  it  is  used  for  fence  purposes. 

Barbados  Goose'berry,  Blad  Apple,  or 
Lemon  Vine  (Pcrcskia  aciileata),  a  shrubby, 
slender,  tropical  American  cactus  which  bears 
lemon-j^ellow,  smooth,  edible  pear-  or  egg-shaped 
fruits  as  large  as  olives.  The  species  is  widely 
used  in  greenhouses  as  a  stock  on  which  to  graft 
other  species  of  cacti.  Its  more  sturdy  relative, 
P.  blco,  is  similarly  used  for  larger  species  of 
cacti. 

Barbados  Leg,  a  name  frequently  applied 
to  the  disease  called  elephantiasis.  It  is  common 
in  Barbados,  and  is  endemic  in  many  tropical 
and  semi-tropical  countries.  See  Elephan- 
tiasis. 

Barbados  Lil'y,  t\i&  Amaryllis  eqiicstris,r\o\v 
called  Hippeastrum  cqucstre,  an  ornamental 
plant  from  the  West  Indies. 

Bar'bara,  Saint,  virgin  and  martyr  much 
honored  in  the  Greek  and  Roman  Catholic 
Churches  who  is  supposed  to  have  flourished  in 
the  2>^  or  early  part  of  the  4th  century.  Her  his- 
tory has  been  related  by  various  chroniclers, 
but  with  so  many  discrepancies  that  it  is  difH- 
cult  to  ascertain  either  the  events  of  her  life 
or  the  circumstances  of  her  martyrdom.  Ac- 
cording to  Jacobus  de  Voragme,  the  author  of 
the  'Aurea  Legenda,*  she  was  born  at  Heliopo- 
lis,  in  Egypt,  of  pagan  parents.  On  arriving  at 
the  age  of  womanhood  she  was  very  beautiful,  and 
her  father,  fearing  lest  she  should  be  taken  from 
him.,  confined  her  in  a  tower,  and  in  the  pictures 
of  this  saint  the  tower  is  therefore  one  of  her 
most  frequent  attributes.  In  her  seclusion  she 
heard  of  the  preaching  of  Origen,  and  wrote  to 
him  begging  for  instruction,  whereupon  he  sent 
one  of  his  disciples,  who  taught  and  baptized 
her.  On  learning  this  her  father  was  so  in- 
censed that  he  put  her  to  death.  Metaphrastes 
and  Mombritius  inform  us  that  she  was  mar- 
tyred at  Heliopolis  in  the  reign  of  Galerius,  and 
their  account  agrees  with  the  Emperor  Basil's 
Menology  and  with  the  Greek  Synaxary. 
Others  again  hold  that  she  suffered  at  Nico- 
media,  in  235,  under  Maximian  I.  Her  festival 
occurs  4  December, 


Barbara  Allen's  Cruelty,  an  old  English 
ballad  preserved  in  Percy's  "^Reliques.^  While 
Barbara's  lover.  Jemmy  Groves,  was  on  his 
death-bed,  her  only  remark  to  him  was,  "Young 
man,  I  think  j'ou're  dying."  For  this  unnatural 
composure  she  subsequently  endured  the  pangs 
of  remorse. 

Barbara  Frietch'ie,  the  title  of  a  noted 
poem  by  Whittier  (1863)  founded  upon  an  in- 
cident reported  to  have  occurred  in  Frederick, 
Md.,  in  the  Civil  War.  Recent  investigations 
have  thrown  some  doubt  upon  the  authenticity 
of  the  account.  A  play  upon  this  them.e  has 
been  written  by  the  dramatist  Clyde  Fitch. 

Bar'bara's  History,  a  novel  by  Amelia 
Blandford  Edwards,  published  in  1864.  It  is 
the  romance  of  a  pretty  girl,  clever  and  capa- 
ble, who,  passing  through  some  vexations  and 
serious  troubles,  settles  down  to  an  unclouded 
future. 

Barbarelli,  Giorgio.    See  Giorgione. 

Barba'rian,  a  term  used  by  the  Greeks  to 
designate  a  foreigner ;  one  who  could  not  speak 
Greek.  At  first  the  Romans  were  included 
by  the  Greeks  under  the  term  barbarian ; 
but  as  the  inhabitants  of  the  great  Italian 
city  gradually  gained  imperial  power,  and, 
moreover,  began  to  consider  the  Greek  lan- 
guage a  desirable  if  not  even  an  indispen- 
sable part  of  a  liberal  education,  they  were 
no  longer  placed  in  the  category  of  bar- 
barians, nor  was  their  speech  deemed  barba- 
rous. When  the  Greeks  became  the  most  civ- 
ilized people  in  the  world,  the  term  barbarian 
came  to  be  used  with  some  reproach,  but  less  so 
than  among  ourselves  now. 

Barbaros'sa,  Arooj,  or  Horuk,  corsair 
chieftain,  styled  "^'Barbarossa"  from  his  red  beard. 
He  was  the  son  of  a  Greek  at  Alitylene,  and  in 
1516  assisted  Selim,  king  of  Algiers,  in  driving 
the  Spaniards  out  of  that  countr^^  Having 
taken  possession  of  the  capital  he  put  Selim  to 
death  and  mounted  the  throne  himself.  He 
died  in  1518. 

Barbarossa,  Khair-ed-Din,  the  younger 
brother  and  successor  of  the  preceding.  He 
surrendered  the  sovereignty  of  Algiers  to  Selim 
I.,  Sultan  of  Turke}^  in  exchange  for  a  force 
of  2,000  janissaries  and  the  title  of  dey.  He 
was  afterward  appointed  ^'captain  pasha^^  or  high 
admiral  of  the  Turkish  fleet,  conquered  Tunis, 
and  in  1538  gained  a  victory  over  the  imperial 
fleet  luider  the  command  of  Andreas  Doria  in 
the  Bay  of  Ambracia.     He  died  in  1546. 

Barbaros'sa.-     See  Frederick  B.\rb.\rossa. 

Barbaroux,  bar-ba-roo,  Charles  Jean 
Marie,  celebrated  French  revolutionist  of 
the  Girondin  party:  b.  Marseilles.  6  March  1767; 
d.  Bordeaux,  25  June  1794.  At  first  an  advocate 
and  journalist  at  jMarseilles,  he  was  sent  by  that 
city  to  the  Constituent  Assembly  at  Paris. 
There  he  opposed  the  Court  party  and  took 
part  with  the  minister,  Roland,  then  out  of 
favor.  After  the  events  of  10  Aug.  1792  he  re- 
turned to  his  native  town,  where  he  was  received 
with  enthusiasm,  and  was  soon  after  chosen 
delegate  to  the  convention.  In  the  convention 
he  adhered  to  the  Girondists,  and  belonged  to 
the  party  who  at  the  trial  of  the  king  voted  for 
an  appeal  to  the  people.  He  boldly  opposed  the 
party  of  Marat  and  Robespierre,  and  even  di- 
rectlv  accused  the  latter  of  aiming  at  the  dic« 


BARBARY  — BARBARY  APE 


tatorship;  he  was,  consequently,  in  May  1793 
proscribed  as  a  royalist  and  an  enemy  of  the 
republic.  He  fled  to  Calvados,  and  thence  with 
a  few  friends  to  the  Gironde,  where  he  wan- 
dered about  the  country,  hiding  himself  as  best 
he  could  for  about  13  months.  At  last,  on  the 
point  of  being  taken,  he  tried  to  shoot  him- 
self; but  the  shot  miscarried,  and  he  was  guil- 
lotined at  Bordeaux.  He  was  one  of  the  great 
spirits  of  the  Revolution.  There  was  no  loftier- 
minded  dreamer  in  the  Girondist  ranks;  hardly 
a  nobler  head  than  his  fell  in  that  reign  of 
terror. 

Barbary,    a    general    name    for    the    most 
northerly    portion    of    Africa,    extending    about 
2,600  miles  from  Eg>'pt  to  the  Atlantic,  with  a 
breadth  varying  from   about    140  to   550  miles ; 
comprising  Morocco,   Fez,  Algeria,   Tunis,    and 
Tripoli    (including    Barca    and    Fezzan).     Bor- 
dered by  the  Mediterranean  on  the  north,  and 
by  the  Sahara  on  the  south,  the  temperature  of 
this   region  is  generally  moderate  and  remarka- 
bly uniform,  seldom  descending  to  the  freezing- 
point,  and  seldom  coming  up  to  sultry.       From 
March  to  September  is  the  dry  season,  when  the 
ground   is    frequently    so   parched   as   to   render 
walking  upon   it   impracticable.     From   Septem- 
ber to  March  is  the  wet  season,  but  the  rains  are 
moderate,  and  almost  every  day  affords  a  respite 
of   sunshine.     The  soil  is  fertile,  though   sandy 
and  light  on  the  coast,  the  climate  healthy,  and 
agricultural  productions  are  various  and  abun- 
dant.    The   range   of    production   gives    a   com- 
bination  of  both  tropical   and   temperate  fruits. 
Agriculture    is,    nevertheless,    greatly    neglected. 
For  three  centuries  the  inhabitants  of  the   Bar- 
bary states  have   rendered  themselves  the  pest 
of    human    society    by   their   depredations    upon 
the  commerce  of  the  seas.     Anciently,  all  Africa 
was  comprehended  under  two  divisions  —  Egypt 
and    Libya  —  while    Libya   was    subdivided    into 
northern     and     southern     Libya.     North     Libya 
comprised  mainly   what    is   now   known   as   the 
Barbary    states.     Herodotus    says    that    in    his 
day   northern   Libya   was   inhabited   by  the    in- 
digenous  race  of   Libyans   and   by  the   foreign 
Phoenicians    and    Greeks.     These    latter    settled 
at  various  points,  from  Egypt  to  Carthage,  while 
the  indigenous   Libyans  occupied  from  the  east 
to  the   west,  throughout  the   entire  extent.     Of 
the    origin    of    the    Libyans,    whom    Herodotus 
calls    indigenous,    we    have    no    trace.     Arabian 
tradition  says  they  colonized  Libya  from  Yemen. 
The    Phcenicians    early    settled    Carthage     (869 
B.C.)   and  perhaps  the  still   more  western  coasts 
of  Mauritania, —  at  least  it  appears  that  Carthage 
was  a  powerful  state  at  the  invasion  of  Greece 
by  Xerxes.     The  Cyrenians,  who  were  Greeks, 
had  colonized  at  Cyrene,  just  east  of  the  bay  of 
the  Mediterranean  called  Syrtis  Major  (Gulf  of 
Sidra),  in  what  is  now  known  as  Barca.     West 
of  Carthage  lay  Numidia  and  Mauritania,  even 
to  the  Pillars  of  Hercules;  east  of  Cyrene  was 
Egypt ;    while   between   these   two   foreign   col- 
onies stretched  the  narrow  coast  line,  from  the 
Major  to  the  Minor  Syrtis.  known  as  Emporia. 
The  rapidly  growing  Carthaginian  power  soon 
extended   colonies    along  the   entire   coast   from 
the  Pillars  of  Hercules  to  Grecian  Cyrene.     The 
jealousy  of  Rome  was  not  long  in  being  awak- 
ened against  so  threatening  a  rival.     The  history 
of  the'  Punic  wars  is  well  known.     At  the  end 
of  IT7  years  the  Carthaginian  power  was  e.xtin- 
guished.  Carthage  herself  in  ruins,  and  Africa 
Vol.  2 — 20. 


a    Roman   province   from   Mauritania  to   Cyre- 
naica.     The  more  complete  subjugation  of  Nu- 
midia was  accomplished  in  the  Jugurthine  war, 
and  that  of  Mauritania  in  the  reign  of  Claudius. 
Thus  the  territory  of  the  Barbary  states,  from 
independent    native    sovereignties    and    foreign 
colonies,    had   come   into   the    hands   of   Rome. 
About   400    A.D.    several    Teutonic   tribes,   over- 
running Gaul  and  crossing  the  Pyrenees,  settled 
in    Spain.     When,    in    428,    Boniface    revolted 
against  Honorius,  the  Vandals  crossed  the  Fre- 
tum    Gaditanum    into   Africa,    led    by    Genseric, 
drove  out  the  inhabitants,   utterly  e.xpelled  the 
Roman  power   from  upper  Libya,  and   reigned 
100  years.     Then  came  the  struggle  under  Jus- 
tinian   for  the   re-establishment   of   the   Roman 
ascendency.      By    Belisarius    it    was    conducted 
to  a  successful  issue,  and  northern  Africa  w?s 
united    to    the    eastern    empire.     For    over    300 
years    this    relation    continued    until    about   the 
middle  of  the  7th  century ;  the  Saracens  over- 
ran   Numidia   and    Mauritania    to   the   Atlantic, 
and,    notwithstanding    the    disastrous    death    of 
their  leader   Okba,   the   sceptre   of   upper   Libya 
passed  again  from  the  hands  of  Rome  into  that 
of  Arabia.     Fifty  years   later  the  conquests  of 
Musa  and  Tarik  were  pushed  across  the  straits, 
and    a    Saracenic    empire    established    in    Spain. 
But  the  revolution  which  brought  the  Abbasides 
to  the  caliphate  of   Arabia   and  drove  the  only 
surviving  caliph   of  the   Ommiades    into   Spain, 
prepared   the   way   for  the  independence  of  the 
western  colonies,  and  Africa  began  to  throw  oflf 
the  Saracenic  yoke  (788).     A  succession  of  for- 
tunes now  attended  the  states  of  upper  Libya. 
For  eight  centuries  they  were  alternately  trib- 
utary  and    independent,   passing   from   hand    to 
hand,  like  the  stakes  of  a  faro  bank,  till  in  the 
i6th  century  the  two  brothers  Barbarossa  con- 
quered   the    whole    territory    of    Numidia    and 
Carthage,   and  erected   the  regencies  of  Algiers 
and  Tunis.     A  few  years  later  the  Turkish  Sul- 
tan,  whose   supremacy  the  j'ounger   Barbarossa 
had  acknowledged,  erected  the  pashalic  of  Tri- 
poli  over   the   ancient    Cyrenaica,    while    in   the 
west    there    was    a    gradual    consolidation    of 
power  into  the  hands  of  Mohammed  ben  Hamed, 
and  his  son,  who  finally  established  the  dynasty 
of  Sherifs  in  the  empire  of  Morocco,  while  the 
French  erected,  between  Morocco  and  the  pos- 
sessions of  the  Porte,   the   regency  of  Algeria. 
The  religion  of  the  Barbary  states  is  generally 
Islamism.     The  European  settlers  are  of  course 
Christians,  or  Jews,  while  the  blacks,  who  are 
slaves,  are  pagans.     There  seem  to  be  at  pres- 
ent six  races   or  tribes  of  men   inhabiting  the 
Barbary    States:     (i)     The    Moors.     (2)     The 
Arabs.     (3)    The  Berbers,  who  are  indigenous, 
and  from  whom  the  states  probably  received  the 
appellation  Barbary.     (4)   The  Jews.     (5)  The 
Turks,    who    are   the    military    of   the   country. 
(6)    The  Blacks.     The  Arabs  call  the  Barbary 
states  Moghreb    (west).     The  language  of  the 
people  inland  differs  from  that  of  Arabia  and 
Syria,   though    not    so   much    as   on   the    coast. 
See  Algeria;  Barca;  Fezzan;  Morocco;  Tri- 
poli ;  Tunis. 

Bar'bary  Ape,  or  Magot,  a  small  species 
of  ape  of  the  genus  Macacus.  interesting  as  be- 
ing the  only  animal  of  the  monkey  kind  in 
Europe.  It  is  found  on  the  rock  of  Gibraltar, 
where  the  individuals  are  few  in  niimber; 
whence  it  has  been  concluded  by  M.  de  Blain- 
ville  that  they  have  sprung  from  domesticated 


BARBARY  POWERS 


apes  escaped  from  confinement  in  the  houses  of 
Gibraltar.  The  Barbary  magot  is  a  small  tail- 
less monkey  completely  covered  with  greenish- 
brown  hair.  In  its  wild  state  it  is  lively  and 
intelligent,  but  becomes  sullen  and  intractable 
in  captivity. 

Barbary  Powers,  U.  S.  Treaties  and  Wars 
with  the.  The  four  JNIohammedan  states  of 
Morocco,  Algiers,  Tunis,  and  Tripoli,  though 
either  independent  or  nominally  tributary  to 
Turkey,  were  for  some  three  centuries  a  com- 
mon foe  to  Mediterranean  commerce  and  travel. 
Almost  their  entire  subsistence  was  on  the 
produce  of  piracy :  either  the  avails  of  captured 
stores,  the  ransoms  for  prisoners  held  in 
slavery,  or  the  blackmail  paid  by  other  powers 
for  immunity.  The  large  states  paid  them  a 
regular  annual  tribute, —  though  by  joining 
forces  they  could  have  stopped  the  piracy  at 
any  time, —  on  the  express  ground  that  it  gave 
them  the  monopoly  of  Mediterranean  trade 
against  the  small  ones  which  could  not  afford 
it;  and  England,  which  paid  about  $280,000  a 
year,  deliberately  put  the  price  high  to  pre- 
vents others  from  bidding  up  to  it.  Even  these 
sums  bought  only  temporary  truce,  as  the  pirate 
state  lived  on  depredations,  and  the  tribute  had 
to  be  supplemented  with  constant  presents  and 
concessions.  A  part  of  this  tribute  was  always 
demanded  in  armed  vessels,  ammunition  and 
naval  stores,  so  that  the  civilized  powers  fur- 
nished the  means  for  plundering  themselves. 
The  ransom  of  captives  from  them  was  a  lead- 
ing object  of  public  and  private  charity,  and 
collections  were  taken  up  in  churches  for  this 
end.  In  1786  there  were  2,200  Christian  cap- 
tives in  Algiers  alone.  When  the  United  States 
began  to  send  vessels  to  the  Mediterranean  no 
longer  protected  by  tb.e  English  flag,  the  pi- 
rates at  once  assailed  them ;  and  in  July  1785, 
the  Algerines  captured  2  vessels  and  21  men. 
Congress  appropriated  $80,000  in  1784  to  buy 
immunity  after  the  European  model ;  but  it 
seemed  likely  to  cost  nearer  $1,000,000,  and, 
reversing  their  usual  parts,  John  Adams  pre- 
ferred to  pay  as  a  cheaper  resort  than  fighting, 
while  Jefferson  considered  fighting  both  cheaper, 
more  honorable,  and  the  preparation  for  a  bet- 
ter future.  Morocco,  for  some  reason  much 
the  most  amenable,  signed  in  1787  a  50-year s' 
peace  without  tribute,  though  with  the  under- 
standing of  some  presents  to  the  Sultan,  and 
kept  it,  save  for  a  short  time  in  1803.  The 
Dey  of  Algiers  asked  $59,496  for  his  captives,  or 
over  $2,800  each,  though  the  last  French  cap- 
tives ransomed  had  only  cost  $300,  or  with 
costs,  $500;  and  the  matter  hung  fire  for  several 
years,  11  of  the  21  dying  before  the  final  ran- 
som of  1795.  In  1793,  by  the  carelessness  or 
bad  faith  of  an  English  consul,  the  Algerine 
corsairs  gained  entrance  to  the  open  sea  be- 
yond the  Strait  of  Gibraltar,  and  captured  10 
United  States  vessels  at  a  blow,  the  number  of 
our  captives  in  their  hands  in  November  being 
115.  Negotiations  v/ere  set  on  foot,  and  on  5 
Sept.  1795  Congress  paid  Algiers  $992,463.25  for 
peace  and  the  ransom  of  all  our  prisoners  — 
this  sum  including  a  36-gun  frigate  costing 
$99,727,  and  about  $100,000  worth  of  stores  and 
ammunition.  It  also  engaged  to  pay  $21,600  a 
year  thereafter  in  naval  stores,  $20,000  on  pre- 
sentation of  a  consul,  biennial  presents  of 
$17,000,  and  other  regular  and  incidental  gifts. 
In  1798  it  sent  four  armed  vessels  as  arrear."!- 


A  treaty  was  made  with  Tripoli  in  November 
1796,  on  much  the  same  terms  save  that  there 
were  no  ransoms;  and  one  with  Tunis,  in  1799. 
for  $107,000.  The  cost  of  immunities  and  ran- 
soms in  1802  had  been  over  $2,000,000;  and  of 
course  even  this  bought  nothing  permanent.  The 
pasha  of  Tripoli  broke  the  treaty  in  three  years 
and  a  half,  demanding  $225,000  with  $25,000 
annually,  and  on  refusal  declared  war,  14  May 
1801.  A  squadron  under  Commodore  Dale  was 
sent  to  the  Mediterranean  and  blockaded  Tri- 
poli, also  forcing  Algiers  and  Tunis  to  think 
better  of  their  threatened  alliance  with  it  and 
to  renew  their  treaties.  Morris  succeeded  hirn, 
but  was  soon  recalled.  Preble,  who  took  his 
place,  1803-4,  forced  Morocco,  which  had 
joined  Tripoli,  to  withdraw  from  the  alliance 
and  renew  its  treaties ;  carried  on  a  vigorous 
lalockade;  and  bombarded  Tripoli  five  times. 
Barron  succeeded  Preble,  but  in  the  middle  of 
1805  turned  over  the  command  to  Rodgers,  who 
at  once  prepared  for  a  grand  bombardment  and 
assault.  The  scale  was  turned,  however,  by 
William  Eaton  (q.v.),  who  took  up  the  cause 
of  the  pasha's  elder  brother,  Hamet  Caramelli, 
driven  from  the  throne  some  years  before,  or- 
ganized at  Alexandria  a  singular  rabble  of  cos- 
mopolites, and  after  a  desperate  six  weeks' 
march  across  the  desert,  captured,  with  the  aid 
of  the  navy,  the  seaport  of  Derne  in  Barca,  sev- 
eral hundred  miles  east  of  Tripoli.  The  pasha 
feared  an  insurrection  as  well  as  Rodgers'  at- 
tack; and  hastily  signed  on  3  June  1805,  with 
Tobias  Lear,  United  States  consul-general  at 
Algiers,  who  had  come  to  Tripoli  on  purpose, 
a  treaty  by  which  the  United  States  paid  $60,000 
ransom  for  the  prisoners,  left  Hamet's  support- 
ers to  the  pasha's  vengeance  and  Hamet  himself 
to  beg  the  United  States  for  a  pension,  and  al- 
lowed the  pasha  four  years  to  deliver  up 
Hamet's  wife  and  children.  The  need  and 
honor  of  this  abject  surrender  of  our  govern- 
ment belongs  to  historical  polemics.  The  em- 
bargo of  1807  prevented  further  trouble  for 
some  years  by  annihilating  our  commerce;  but 
after  its  removal  in  1810  the  depredations  were 
renewed,  and  in  181 2  Algiers  was  ready  for 
more  gratifications.  The  dey  had  received  from 
us  $378,363,  but  made  out  a  case  for  $27,000 
arrears,  forced  the  United  States  consul  to 
borrow  it  at  usurious  rates,  and  then  ordering 
him  out  of  the  country,  declared  war.  The 
War  of  1812,  however,  having  denuded  the  Med- 
iterranean of  our  trading-vessels,  he  captured 
only  I  brig  and  11  persons;  and  after  the 
war  our  naval  force  under  Decatur  was  turned 
against  Algiers.  He  found  its  entire  fleet  at 
sea ;  captured  two  and  cut  off  the  rest  from  port ; 
entered  the  city  30  June  1815,  41  days  after  sail- 
ing; and  forced  the  dey  to  sign  within  three 
hours,  without  gift  or  present,  on  pain  of 
having  his  city  destroyed  and  his  fleet  cap- 
tured, a  treaty  abolishing  all  tribute  or  presents 
of  any  sort  thereafter  from  the  United  States, 
delivering  up  all  his  captives  and  agreeing  that 
henceforth  prisoners  of  war  should  not  be  made 
slaves,  and  paying  indemnity  for  the  captured 
brig.  Tunis  and  Tripoli  having  allowed  Eng- 
lish ships  to  seize  American  prizes  in  their  har- 
bors, Decatur  proceeded  to  both  places  and 
forced  their  rulers  to  make  similar  treaties,  pay 
indemnities,  and  release  all  their  Christian  pris' 
oners  of  whatever  nations.  This  magnificent  ac- 
tion of  the  United  States  induced  the  English 


BARBASTRO  —BARBEL 


government  to  take  similar  steps  the  next  year, 
but  Tunis  and  Tripoli  did  not  abandon  piracy 
till  1819,  and  Algiers  was  not  finally  reduced  till 
1829  by  France.  It  was  the  United  States  which 
first  lifted  this  incubus  of  "Algerine"  (as  the 
entire  system  was  compendiously  called)  piracy 
and  slavery  from  the  Christian  world.  See 
Schuyler,  ^American  Diplomacy^  (1886)  ; 
Henry  Adsms,  ^History  of  the  United  States,^ 
Vols.  I.,  II..  IX.  (1889-90);  Felton,  <Life  of 
Eaton, >  in  Sparks,  'American  Biography. >  See 
Treaties  ;  United  States  —  Diplomacy  of  the. 
Barbastro,  bar-ba'stro,  Spain,  a  city  of 
Arragon,  30  miles  east-southeast  of  Huesca. 
The  city  has  straight,  well-made,  and  paved 
streets,  a  cathedral  with  paintings  by  Galeran, 
parish  church,  college,  Latin  and  three  other 
schools,  town-house,  session-house,  ecclesiasti- 
cal court-house,  extensive  hospital,  two  prisons, 
several  convents  with  churches  attached,  two 
palaces,  a  theatre,  and  bull-ring.  It  also  pos- 
sesses philosophical,  agricultural,  commercial, 
and  other  literary  and  beneficent  associations. 
The  manufactures  of  Barbastro  have  greatly  de- 
clined, consisting  only  of  hats,  hardware,  cut- 
lery, shoes,  and  ropes  ;  while  a  little  trade  is  car- 
ried on  in  cattle,  horses,  and  mules.  Pop. 
(1901)   8,300. 

Bar'bauld,  Anna  Letitia,  English  writer, 
daughter  of  the  Rev.  John  Aikin:  b.  Kib- 
worth,  Leicestershire,  20  June  1743 ;  d.  9 
March  1825.  She  received  from  her  fa- 
ther a  classical  education,  and  early  showed 
a  disposition  for  poetry.  Her  earliest  pro- 
duction was  a  small  volume  of  miscellaneous 
poems,  printed  in  1772,  which  in  the  year  fol- 
lowing was  succeeded  by  a  collection  of  pieces 
in  prose,  published  in  conjunction  with  her 
brother,  Dr.  John  Aikin,  of  Stoke-Newington. 
In  1774  she  married  the  Rev.  Rochemont 
Barbauld.  Her  *  Early  Lessons  and  Hymns  for 
Children,^  and  various  essays  and  poems,  have 
secured  for  her  a  permanent  reputation.  In 
1812  appeared  the  last  of  her  separate  publica- 
tions, entitled  "^Eighteen  Hundred  and  Eleven,^ 
a  poem  of  considerable  merit;  previous  to  which 
she  had  edited  a  collection  of  English  novels, 
with  critical  and  biographical  notices.  A  simi- 
lar selection  followed  from  the  best  British 
essayists  of  the  reign  of  Anne,  and  another  from 
Richardson's  manuscript  corresponder.ce,  with  a 
memoir  and  critical  essay  on  his  life  and  writ- 
ings. She  will  be  longest  remembered  by  her 
beautiful  and  much  quoted  lyric  beginning: 
'Life,  we  have  been  long  together.^  See  Aikin, 
'Works  of  A.  L.  Barbauld'  ;  Mrs.  Thackery- 
Ritchie,  'Book  of  Sibyls^    (1883). 

Barbazan,  bar-ba-z6h,  Arnauld  Guilhem, 
Sire  de,  French  captain,  distinguished  by 
Charles  VI.  with  the  title  of  "Chevalier  Sans 
Reproche,*'  and  by  Charles  VIII.  with  that  of 
"Restaurateur  du  Royaume  et  de  la  Couronne 
de  France'  :  b.  about  the  end  of  the  14th  cen- 
tury :  killed  at  Bullegneville,  1432.  He  earned 
the  former  of  his  titles,  while  yet  young,  by  his 
successful  defense  of  the  national  honor  in  a 
combat  fought  in  1404  between  six  French  and 
six  English  knights,  before  the  Castle  of  Mon- 
tendre ;  and  the  latter  designation  he  acquired 
by  his  extraordinary  exertions  on  the  side  of 
the  Dauphin,  at  a  time  when  the  cause  of  na- 
tive royalty,  powerless  in  presence  of  the  Anglo- 
Burgundian  league,  boasted  few  adherents. 


Barbe-Marbois,  bar-ba-mar-bwa,  Frangois, 
Marquis  de,  French  statesman:  b.  Metz,  3 
Jan.  1745 ;  d.  14  Jan.  1837.  After  fulfilling  dip- 
lomatic offices  at  several  German  courts  he  was 
sent  to  the  United  States  as  consul-general  of 
France.  He  organized  all  the  French  consulates 
in  this  country,  in  which  he  resided  10  years, 
and  married  the  daughter  of  William  Moore, 
governor  of  Pennsylvania.  In  1785  he  was  ap- 
pomted  by  Louis  XVI.  superintendent  of  St. 
Domingo,  and  introduced  many  reforms  into 
the  administration  of  justice  and  of  finance  in 
that  island.  He  returned  to  France  in  179a 
and  was  again  employed  in  German  diplomacy. 
During  the  excitement  of  the  Revolution  he 
was  exiled  to  Guiana  as  a  friend  of  royalty,  but 
being  recalled  in  1801  he  was  made  director  of 
the  treasury,  a  title  which  he  soon  exchanged  for 
that  of  minister.  In  1803  he  was  appointed  to 
cede  Louisiana  to  the  United  States  for 
$10,000,000,  but  had  the  skill  to  obtain  the  price 
of  $16,000,000,  a  piece  of  diplomacy  for  which  he 
was  liberally  rewarded  by  Napoleon.  In  1813 
he  entered  the  Senate,  and  the  next  year  voted 
for  the  forfeiture  of  the  emperor  and  the  re- 
establishment  of  the  Bourbon  dynasty.  He  was 
well  received  by  Louis  XVIII. ,  appointed  a  peer 
of  France  and  honorary  counsellor  of  the  uni- 
versity, and  confirmed  in  the  office  of  first 
president  of  the  court  of  accounts,  which  he 
had  formerly  held.  He  was  an  object  of  the 
indignation  of  Napoleon  after  his  return  to 
France  from  Elba,  and  was  ordered  to  leave 
Paris.  He  resumed  his  offices  after  the  return 
of  the  Bourbons,  but,  moderate  in  his  prin- 
ciples, and  an  enemy  of  all  reaction,  he  was 
not  in  harmony  with  the  majority  of  those  with 
whom  he  associated ;  and  in  the  Chamber  of 
Peers  he  succeeded  with  difficulty  in  effecting 
the  substitution  of  banishment  for  death  as  a 
penalty  for  political  offenders.  After  the  rev- 
olution of  July  he  exercised  the  same  adulation 
and  took  the  same  oaths  of  fidelity  to  Louis 
Philippe  which  he  had  formerly  given  to  Na- 
poleon and  the  Bourbon  princes.  The  desire  to 
die  first  President,  which  had  been  the  motive 
of  all  his  flexibility,  proved  at  last  a  vain  one, 
and  in  1834  he  was  succeeded  in  his  office,  and 
as  a  consolation  received  the  portrait  of  the 
king,  accompanied  by  an  autograph  letter.  His 
numerous  works  contain  curious  details  concern- 
ing St.  Domingo,  Louisiana,  and  Guiana,  which 
he  studied  in  his  exile,  and  he  wrote  also  upon 
the  treason  of  Arnold. 

Bar'becue,  a  large  gathering  of  people, 
generally  in  the  open  air,  for  a  social  entertain- 
ment or  a  political  rally,  the  leading  feature  of 
which  is  the  roasting  of  animals  whole  to  fur- 
nish the  members  of  the  party  with  food.  The 
word  is  said  to  have  been  employed  in  Virginia 
prior  to  1700,  and  the  institution  of  the  barbecue 
is  of  southern  origin. 

Barbel  (Barbus),  a  genus  of  fresh-water 
abdominal  malacapterygious  fishes,  of  the  family 
Cyprinidce,  or  carps,  distinguished  by  the  short- 
ness of  the  dorsal  and  anal  fins,  a  strong  spine 
replacing  the  second  or  third  ray  of  the  dorsal, 
and  four  fleshy  filaments  growing  from  the  lips, 
two  at  the  nose  and  one  at  each  corner  of  the 
mouth,  and  forming  the  kind  of  beard  to  which 
the  genus  owes  its  name.  Of  the  several  spe- 
cies, generally  named  after  the  country  or  river 
where  they  are  found,  the  European  one,  com' 


BARBER  —  BARBERRY 


mon  in  most  of  the  rivers  of  its  temperate 
climates,  and  hence  called  B.  vulgaris,  is  most 
deserving  of  notice.  _  Its  average  length  is  from 
12  to  i8  inches,  but  individuals  have  been  taken 
measuring  3  feet,  and  weighing  from  15  to  18 
pounds.  The  head  is  smooth  and  oblong,  and 
the  upper  jaw  is  much  longer  than  the  lower. 
Its  dorsal  spine,  which  is  strong  and  serrated, 
often  inflicts  severe  wounds  on  the  fishermen 
and  damages  their  nets.  It  lives  on  small  fishes, 
and  also  on  aquatic  plants,  worms,  and  in- 
sects, which  it  obtains  by  boring  with  its  barbels 
into  the  banks  of  the  stream  and  turning  up  the 
loose  soil.  Its  flesh  is  very  coarse  and  unpala- 
table, and  at  the  time  of  spawning,  the  roe  is 
dangerous  to  eat.  Another  species,  common 
in  the  Nile,  is  described  as  weighing  upward  of 
70  pounds,  and  has  a  flesh  which  is  fine,  delicate, 
and  well-flavored.  When  caught,  the  fisherman 
puts  an  iron  through  its  jaw  and  fastens  it  by  a 
short  cord  to  the  bank  of  the  river,  where  it 
remains    alive    till    required. 

Barber,  Edward  Atlee,  American  archae- 
ologist: b.  Baltimore,  Md.,  13  Aug.  1851.  He 
was  graduated  at  Williston  Seminary  in  1869, 
and  was  assistant  naturalist  in  the  U.  S.  Geo- 
logical Survey  in  1874-5.  Subsequently  he  was 
engaged  in  gold-dredging.  His  writings  include 
a  history  of  the  ancient  Pueblos ;  a  large  num- 
ber of  magazine  articles  on  ceramics;  *  Pottery 
and  Porcelain  of  the  United  States^  ;  ^Manual 
for  Collectors  of  Blue  China^  ;  ^Genealogies  of 
the  Barber  and  Atlee  Families,'  etc. 

Barber,  Francis,  American  soldier:  b. 
Princeton,  N.  J.,  1751 ;  d.  Newburg,  N.  Y..  11 
Feb.  1783.  He  graduated  at  Princeton  in  1767, 
and  became  principal  of  a  school  in  Elizabeth- 
town,  where  Alexander  Hamilton  was  one  of  his 
pupils.  He  was  successively  major  and  lieu- 
tenant-colonel of  the  3d  New  Jersey  artillery, 
and  assistant  inspector-general  under  Baron 
Steuben.  He  took  part  in  the  battles  of  Tren- 
ton, Princeton,  Brandywine,  and  Germantown, 
and  was  severely  wounded  at  Monmouth  and  in 
Sullivan's  Indian  expedition,  1779.  He  was  of 
the  greatest  service  to  Washington  in  securing 
intelligence  of  the  enemy's  movements  and  in 
putting  down  the  mutiny  of  New  Jersey  and 
Pennsylvania  troops.  In  1781  he  commanded  a 
battalion  of  infantry  in  Lafayette's  Virginia 
campaign,  and  was  present  at  Yorktown.  He 
was  killed  by  a  falling  tree  at  the  close  of  the 
war. 

Barber,  John  Warner,  American  author: 
b.  Windsor,  Conn.,  1798;  d.  1885.  He  wrote  a 
^History  of  New  Haven'  (1831)  ;  ^Incidents  of 
American  History'  (1847)  ;  <  Elements  of  Gen- 
eral History'  (1844)  ;  and  ^Our  Whole  Coun- 
try' (1861),  etc.;  and  assisted  in  compiling  the 
historical  collections  of  New  York,  New  Jer- 
sey, Virginia,  and  Ohio. 

Barber,  one  who  shaves  beards  and 
dresses  hair.  The  occupation  of  barber  is  an 
institution  of  civilized  life,  and  is  only  known 
among  those  nations  that  have  made  a  certain 
progress  in  civilization.  It  is  referred  to  by 
the  prophet  Ezekiel :  "And  thou,  son  of  man, 
take  thee  a  barber's  razor,  and  cause  it  to  pass 
upon  thine  head  and  upon  thy  beard."  (Ezek. 
V.  I.)  We  do  not  read  of  a  barber  at  Rome 
till  about  the  year  454  of  the  city;  but  there, 
as  elsewhere,  when  once  introduced,  they  be- 
came men  of   great  notoriety,   and  their   shops 


were  the  resort  of  all  the  loungers  and  news- 
mongers in  the  city.  Hence  they  are  alluded  to 
by  Horace  as  most  accurately  informed  in  all 
the  minute  history,  both  of  families  and  of  the 
state.  But  in  early  times  the  operations  of  the 
barber  were  not  confined,  as  now,  to  shaving, 
hair-dressing,  and  the  making  of  wigs ;  but  in- 
cluded the  dressing  of  wounds,  blood-letting,  and 
other  surgical  operations.  It  seems  that  in  all 
countries  the  art  of  surgerj''  and  the  art  of 
shaving  went  hand  in  hand.  The  title  of  barber- 
chirurgeon,  or  barber-surgeon,  was  generally 
applied  to  barbers.  The  barbers  of  London  were 
first  incorporated  by  Edward  IV.  in  1461,  and  at 
that  time  were  the  only  persons  who  practised 
surgery.  The  barbers  and  the  surgeons  were 
separated,  and  made  two  distinct  corporations  — 
in  France,  in  the  time  of  Louis  XIV.,  and  in 
England  in  1745.  The  sign  of  the  barber-chi- 
rurgeon  consisted  of  a  striped  pole  from  which 
was  suspended  a  basin ;  the  fillet  round  the  pole 
indicating  the  riband  or  bandage  twisted  round 
the  arm  previous  to  blood-letting,  and  the  basin 
the  vessel  for  receiving  the  blood.  This  sign 
has  been  generally  retained  by  the  modern  bar- 
ber. In  the  United  States,  however,  it  is  only 
occasionally  that  the  basin  may  be  seen  hang- 
ing at  the  dogr  of  a  barber's  shop.  The 
character  of  the  barber  is  amusingly  illustrated 
in  one  of  the  tales  of  the  "^Arabian  Nights  En- 
tertainments,' and  has  been  immortalized  by 
Beaumarchais,  Mozart,  and  Rossini,  under  the 
name  of  ^  Figaro.' 

Barber-fish.     See  Surgeon-Fish. 

Bar'ber  Poet,  The.     See  Jasmin,  Jacques. 

Bar'ber  of  Seville,  The,  a  five-act  comedy 
by  Pierre  Augustin^  Caron  (who  later  assumed 
the  noni  de  guerre  'Beaumarchais).  It  is  the 
first  of  the  Figaro  trilogy,  the  later  plays  being 
the  ^Marriage  of  Figaro'  and  the  ^Guilty  Moth- 
er.' Upon  it  have  been  founded  ^11  Barbiere  di 
Liviglia,'  an  opera  by  Paisiello  (1780),  and  ^11 
Barbiere  di  Liviglia,'  an  opera  by  Rossini,  first 
presented  in  1816  and  ever  since  extremely  popu- 
lar. 

Barberini,  bar-bar-re'ne,  celebrated  Flor- 
entine family  which  became  powerful  through 
Cardinal  Maffeo  Barberini,  who  was  elected 
Pope  in  1623  as  Urban  VIII.  Few  of  the 
Popes  have  carried  nepotism  so  far  as  Urban, 
who,  during  his  reign  of  21  years,  seemed  intent 
on  only  one  object,  the  aggrandizement  of  his 
three  nephews.  Two  of  them  were  appointed 
cardinals,  and  the  third  became  Prince  of  Pales- 
trina.  The  principality  of  Palestrina  continued 
in  the  possession  of  the  Colonna  branch  of  the 
family  until  1889,  becoming  extinct  in  the  male 
line  in  that  year. 

Barberini  Faun,  a  famous  piece  of  Greek 
sculpture,  so  called  from  its  having  once  been 
in  the  possession  of  the  Roman  family  of  Bar- 
berini.    It  is  now  in  the  Glyptothek  at  Mimich. 

Barberini  Palace,  the  residence  of  the 
Barberini  family  in  Rome,  begun  by  Pope  Ur- 
ban VIII. ,  its  most  distinguished  member,  but 
not  finished  till  1640.  It  contains  a  famous 
picture-gallery  and  a  library  with  over  10,000 
volumes  and  10,000  MSS. 

Bar'berry  (Berberis),  a  genus  of  about  100 
species  of  low  ornamental  shrubs  of  the  natural 
order  Berheridacece,  natives  of  temperate  cli- 
mates,  sometimes   subdivided   into  species   with 


BARBERRY  BLIGHT  — BARBIE  DU  BOCAGE 


simple  deciduous  leaves  (Bcrberis)  and  species 
with  pinnate  persistent  leaves  (Mahonia,  q.v.). 
The  yellow  flowers  are  succeeded  by  red,  dark- 
blue,  or  black  fruit  which  in  some  species  is  used 
for  making  jellies  of  beautiful  color  and  dis- 
tinct flavor ;  that  of  some  other  species  is  dried 
and  used  like  raisins.  The  yellow  roots  and 
sometimes  the  stems  of  several  species  are  used 
in  dj'eing,  and  the  bark  of  some  in  tanning. 
Many  of  the  species  are  used  for  ornament  and 
for  hedges,  but  in  wheat-growing  sections  they 
should  not  be  planted,  because  they  are  host- 
plants  for  the  ascidium  stage  of  wheat-rust  (Puc- 
cinia  graminis),  which,  however,  has  been  known 
to  develop  in  localities  remote  from  barberry 
bushes.  B.  vulgaris  and  its  varieties  and  B. 
thunbergii  (considered  by  some  botanists  a  form 
of  vulgaris)  are  probably  the  most  common 
and  valuable  simple-leaved  species  planted  in 
America.  The  former,  an  American  species,  is 
a  rather  erect  shrub  about  lo  feet  tall,  with  large 
leaves  and  racemes  of  flowers  which  are  followed 
by  red  fruits  that  persist  during  the  winter  and 
even  well  into  the  second  summer ;  the  latter, 
a  Japanese  species,  is  a  low,  spreading,  graceful 
shrub  with  dainty  little  leaves  which  become 
brilliant  red  in  autumn,  and  with  solitary  yellow 
flowers  followed  by  orange-red  persistent  fruits. 
The  stamens,  which  in  many  if  not  all  species 
are  sensitive,  spring  up  when  touched.  Propa- 
gation is  usually  efifected  by  means  of  seeds 
or  cuttings  of  green  wood,  but  sometimes  by 
grafts  and  layers.  For  description  of  species 
cultivated  for  ornament  in  America,  consult 
Bailey  and  Miller,  'Q^clopedia  of  American 
Horticulture^    (1900-2). 

Barberry  Blight  or  Rust.     See  Rusts. 

Barbers'  Itch.  Two  distinct  diseases  of  the 
skin  are  known  by  this  name  —  one  of  a  parasitic 
nature,  the  other  not  parasitic.  In  the  latter 
there  is  an  inflammation  of  the  hair  follicles 
characterized  by  the  formation  of  papules  and 
pustules  pierced  by  hairs.  It  affects  the  hairy 
part  of  the  face  and  runs  a  chronic  course.  It 
is  more  inclined  to  affect  the  upper  lip  and 
upper  parts  of  the  face.  The  more  important 
disease  is  the  Tinea  barbce,  or  parasitic  disease. 
Here  the  hair  follicles  are  infected  by  a  fungus, 
the  triclwphyton.  It  is  a  form  of  ringworm  of 
the  beard.  It  affects  the  lower  part  of  the  face 
and  neck,  causing  itching,  scaly  eruptions  that 
secrete  a  thick  mucus  and  spread  out  ring-like 
from  the  centre.  The  disease  is  always  con- 
tracted from  another  person  or  sometimes  from 
lower  animals.  Uncleanly  barbers'  implements 
are  the  chief  agents  in  its  spread.  In  the  early 
stages  —  the  parasitic  form  —  it  is  readily  cura- 
ble, but  in  the  chronic  stages  it  may  prove  very 
difficult  to  treat  successfully. 

Bar'berton,  Ohio,  city  in  Summit  County,  7 
miles  from  Akron,  and  39  miles  from  Cleveland; 
on  the  Erie,  the  Baltimore  &  Ohio,  and  the 
Pennsylvania  Railroads.  The  town  was  founded 
in  1893  by  O.  C.  Barber,  president  of  the  Dia- 
mond Match  Company,  whose  works  are  lo- 
cated here.  It  is  known  as  the  "  magic  city  * 
having  acquired  a  population  of  7,000  in  less 
than  10  years.  It  is  a  progressive  manufactur- 
ing centre  having  sewer-pipe  mills,  rubber 
works,  potteries,  iron  works,  paint  mills,  salt 
wells,  strawboard  works,  and  other  industries. 
The  city  is  governed  lay  a  mayor  and  city 
council  elected  biennially. 


Barbes,  Armand,  bar-bes,  ar-mon,  French 
politician  and  revolutionist:  b.  Island  of  Guada- 
loupe,  1810;  d.  1870.  At  an  early  age  he  was 
taken  to  France,  and  in  1830  went  to  Paris  to 
attend  the  law  classes,  where  he  had  an  oppor- 
tunity of  manifesting  his  political  opinions  at 
that  period  of  public  excitement.  During  the 
whole  reign  of  Louis  Philippe  he  was  constantly 
engaged  in  conspiracies.  In  consequence  of  an 
unsuccessful  attempt  to  overthrow  the  govern- 
ment he  was  condemned  to  death,  a  sentence 
which  was  commuted  to  perpetual  confinement. 
The  revolution  of  1848  restored  Barbes  to  lib- 
erty. He  then  founded  a  club,  which  took  his 
name,  in  which  the  doctrines  of  socialism  were 
superadded  to  republicanism.  After  the  insur- 
rection of  May  1849,  Barbes  was  sentenced  to 
deportation.  In  1854  he  was  again  set  at  liberty, 
and  left  France,  a  voluntary  exile. 

Bar'bet,  any  of  the  tropical  South  Ameri- 
can birds  of  the  families  Capitonidce  and  Buc- 
conida,  both  of  which  are  characterized  by 
prominent  bristles  about  the  mouth,  which  as- 
sist them  in  catching  flying  insects.  The  birds 
of  the  former  family  are  more  usually  called 
^^  thickheads,'^  and  those  o\  the  latter  '^  puff- 
birds*'   (qq.v.). 

Barbette,  bar-bet',  the  platform  or  eleva- 
tion of  earth  behind  the  breastwork  of  a  forti- 
fication or  an  intrenchment,  from  which  artillery 
may  be  fired  over  the  parapet.  An  ascent  leads 
from  the  interior  of  the  intrenchment  to  the  bar- 
bette. When  the  garrison  has  much  heavy  ord- 
nance, or  the  enemy  has  opened  his  trenches,  or 
when  it  is  determined  to  cannonade  the  intrench- 
ments  of  a  given  point, —  as,  for  example,  a 
bridge  or  pass, —  and  the  direction  of  the  cannon 
is  not  to  be  materially  changed,  it  is  usual,  in- 
stead of  making  a  barbette,  to  cut  embrasures 
in  the  parapet ;  on  the  contrary,  firing  from  the 
barbette  is  expedient  when  one  expects  to  be  at- 
tacked only  by  infantry,  or  wishes  to  cannonade 
the  whole  surrounding  country.  See  Fortifi- 
cation. 

Barbette  Gun.     See  Ordnance. 

Barbette  Turret.      See  Turret. 

Barbey  d'Aurevilly,  bar-ba-do-re-ve-ye, 
Jules,  French  critic  and  novelist:  b.  Saint- 
Sauveur-le-Vicomte,  Manche,  2  Nov.  1808;  d. 
Paris,  24  April  1889.  As  a  contributor  to  the 
Pays  in  Paris  he  created  a  sensation  by  the  un- 
reserved tone  and  peculiar  style  of  his  literary 
criticisms.  He  wrote  *0n  Dandyism  and  G. 
BrummeP  (1845)  ;  <The  Prophets  of  the  Past' 
(1851)  ;  ^Goethe  and  Diderot'  (1880)  ;  ^Polemics 
of  Yesterday'  (1889)  ;  'Nineteenth  Centurj':  The 
Works  and  the  Men'  (1861-92).  Of  his  novels 
the  best  are  <The  Bewitched'  (1854)  ;  and  'The 
Chevalier  des  Touches'    (1864). 

Barbiano,  bar-bya'no,  Abrechtda,  an  Ital- 
ian military  officer,  who  formed  the  first  regular 
company  of  Italian  troops  organized  to  resist 
foreign  mercenaries,  about  1379.  This  organi- 
zation, named  the  "Company  of  St.  George," 
proved  to  be  an  admirable  school,  as  from  its 
ranks  sprang  many  future  officers  of  renown. 
He  became  grand  constable  of  Naples  in  1384, 
and  died  in  1409. 

Bar'bican.     See  Barb.\can. 

Barbie  du  Bocage,  bar-bya-dii-bo-kazh, 
Jean  Denis,  distinguished  French  geographer: 
b.  Paris,  1760;  d.  there  1825.    He  laid  the  foun- 


BARBIER  —  BARBOUR 


dation  of  his  fame  in  1788  by  the  pubHcation  of 
liis  beautiful  Atlas  to  the  ^Voyage  du  Jeune 
Anacharsis,^  and  was  appointed  in  1792  keeper 
of  the  maps  of  the  Royal  Library,  and  in  1809  pro- 
fessor at  the  Sorbonne.  In  1821  he  founded  the 
Geographical  Society,  of  which  he  became  presi- 
dent. He  was  also  a  member  of  the  Institute. 
His  maps  and  plans  to  the  "^Voyage  Pittoresque 
en  Grece,  de  Choiseul  Gouffier,^  and  to  the  works 
of  Thucydides,  Xenophon,  etc.,  exhibit  much 
erudition.  He  also  prepared  many  modern  maps, 
and  published  excellent  dissertations  in  various 
scientific  collections.  Although  the  progress  of 
time  has  necessarily  deprived  much  of  his  work 
of  its  original  value,  his  labors  have  not  the 
less  given  a  decided  stimulus  to  the  progress 
of  science. 

Barbier,      bar-bya,      Antoine      Alexandre, 

French  bibliographer:  b.  Coulommiers,  1765;  d. 
1825.  In  1794  he  went  to  Paris,  where  he  was 
chosen  a  member  of  the  committee  appointed  to 
collect  works  of  literature  and  art  existing  in 
the  monasteries,  which  were  then  suppressed. 
This  was  the  cause  of  his  being  appointed  in 
1798  keeper  of  the  library  of  the  Conseil  d'fitat, 
collected  by  himself,  and  when  it  was  trans- 
ported to  Fontainebleau  in  1807  Napoleon  ap- 
pointed him  his  librarian.  On  the  return  of  the 
king  he  had  the  care  of  his  private  library.  His 
e:^cellent  *^  Catalogue  de  la  Bibliotheque  du  Con- 
seil d'fitat'  (1801-3)  is  now  very  rare.  His 
<Dictionnaire  des  Ouvrages  anonymes  et  pseu- 
donymes'  (1806-9,  4  vols.,  3d  ed.  1824), 
is,  on  account  of  its  plan,  its  accuracy,  and  its 
fulness  (at  least  in  respect  to  French  literature), 
one  of  the  best  works  in  this  branch  of  bibli- 
ography. 

Barbier,  Henri  Auguste,  French  poet:  b. 
Paris,  39  April  1805 ;  d.  Nice,  12  Feb.  1882. 
Having  written  a  historical  novel  (1830)  with 
Royer,  depicting  French  mediaeval  society,  he  en- 
tered his  proper  sphere,  that  of  poetical  satire, 
in  which  he  obtained  a  brilliant  success  with 
^The  lambes'  (1831  ;  31st  ed.,  1882),  a  series  of 
poignant  satires,  political  and  social,  lashing  the 
moral  depravity  of  the  higher  classes, —  notably 
the  ignoble  scramble  for  office  under  the  new 
government,  the  subject  of  *■  The  Quarry,'  the 
most  famous  among  these  satires.  His  next 
works,  *  Lamentation'  (1833),  bewailing  the 
misfortunes  of  Italy,  and  "^Lazarus'  (1837),  in 
which  he  describes  the  misery  of  the  English  and 
Irish  laborer,  show  a  considerable  falling  off; 
and  in  those  that  followed,  the  poet  of  ^The 
lambes'  is  scarcely  to  be  recognized.  He  was 
elected  to  the  Academy  in  1869. 

Barbier,  Paul  Jules,  a  prolific  French 
dramatist :  b.  Paris,  8  March  1825 ;  d.  1901. 
Having  won  success  with  his  first  effort,  "^A 
Poet'  (1847),  a  drama  in  verse,  he  produced 
*The  Shades  of  Moliere'  (1847)  ;  < Andre  Chen- 
ier'  (1849)  ;  <Willy  Nilly,'  a  comedy  (1849)  ; 
and  thereafter  in  collaboration,  mostly  with 
Michel  Carre,  a  number  of  dramas  and  vaude- 
villes, also  countless  librettos  for  comic  operas. 
After  the  war  of  1870-I  he  published  ^The 
Sharpshooter,  War  Songs'  (1871),  a  collection 
of  patriotic  poems ;  and  later  two  other  volumes 
of  lyrics,  <The  Sheaf  (1882)  and  <Faded  Flow- 
ers' (1890);  besides  < Plays  in  Verse'  (2  vols., 
J879). 

Barbier  de  Seville.     See  Barber  of  Seville. 


Barbiera,  bar-bya'ra,  Raphael,  Italian  poet 
and  journalist:  b.  Venice.  1851.  His  contribu- 
tions to  periodical  literature  are  particularly  val- 
uable, and  he  has  published  also  several  works 
on  Italian  literature  and  numerous  anthologies. 

Barbieri,  Giovanni  Francesco.    See     Guer- 

CINO. 

Barbieri,  Giuseppe,  Italian  poet  and  pulpit 
orator:  b.  Bassano,  1783;  d.  Padua,  1852.  He 
was  distinguished  for  the  tasteful  eloquence  of 
his  sermons. 

Barbizon,  bar-be-zoii,  a  village  on  the 
skirts  of  the  forest  of  Fontainebleau ;  a  favorite 
haunt  of  artists  and  tourists  which  has  given 
its  name  to  a  school  of  French  landscape  paint- 
ers.    See  also  Barbizon  School. 

Barbizon  School,  the  name  applied  to  a 
school  of  French  artists  who  settled  in  the  vil- 
lage of  Barbizon  about  1844.  Theodore  Rous- 
seau was  the  earliest  of  these,  and  after  1849 
Jean  Franqois  Millet  lived  in  Barbizon ;  also 
Corot,  Troyon,  Diaz,  and  Daubigny  were  of 
this  school,  and  the  term  came  presently  to  de- 
note those  artists  who  went  to  nature  for  in- 
spiration. See  Millett,  'The  Painters  of  Barbi- 
zon'  (1890).    Also  see  Corot;  Millet. 

Barbo'sa,  Duarte,  Portuguese  traveler:  b. 
Lisbon,  1480;  d.  1521.  He  traveled  all  through 
India,  visited  the  Molucca  Islands,  and  was  Ma- 
gellan's companion  and  historiographer  in  his 
circumnavigation  of  the  globe.  He  was  mur- 
dered by  the  natives  of  the  island  of  Cebu. 

Barbou,  bar'boo,  the  name  of  a  celebrated 
French  family  of  printers,  the  descendants  of 
John  Barbou,  of  Lyons,  who  lived  in  the  i6th 
century.  From  his  press  issued  the  beautiful 
edition  of  the  works  of  Clement  Marot  in  1539. 
His  son,  Hugh,  removed  from  Lyons  to  Limo- 
ges, where  among  other  works,  his  celebrated 
edition  of  ^Cicero's  Letters  to  Atticus'  appeared 
in  1580.  Joseph  Gerard,  a  descendant  of  the 
same  family,  settled  in  Paris,  and  continued  in 
175s  the  series  of  Latin  classics  in  duodecimo, — 
rivals  to  the  Elzevirs  of  an  earlier  date, — ■ 
which  had  been  begun  in  1743,  by  Coustelier. 
This  series  of  classics  is  much  prized  for  its 
elegance  and  correctness. 

Barbour,  bar'ber,  Erwin  Hinckley,  Ameri- 
can geologist:  b.  near  Oxford,  O.  He  was  as- 
sistant palaeontologist  in  the  United  States  geo- 
logical survey  in  1882-8;  Stone  professor  of 
natural  history  and  geology  in  Iowa  College  in 
1889-91  ;  became  professor  of  geology  in  the  Uni- 
versity of  Nebraska,  and  acting  State  geologist  in 
1891  ;  and  curator  of  the  Nebraska  State  Museum 
in  1892.  In  1893  he  took  charge  of  the  annual 
Morrill  geological  expeditions,  and  since  then 
he  has  also  been  engaged  in  the  United  States 
geological  and  hydrographic  surveys. 

Barbour,  James,  American  statesman:  b. 
Orange  County,  Va..  10  June  1775 ;  d.  8  June 
1842.  He  was  admitted  to  the  bar  when  19  years 
old.  He  served  in  the  Virginia  legislature  1796- 
1812,  becoming  governor  of  the  State  in  the 
latter  year.  Three  years  later  he  was  elected  to 
the  United  States  Senate.  He  was  secretary  of 
war  1825-7,  a"d  minister  to  England  1828-9.  In 
politics  he  was  strongly  anti-Democratic.  He 
was  chairman  of  the  convention  which  nomi- 
nated Harrison  and  Tyler  for  the  presidency  and 
vice-presidency. 


BARBOUR  —  BARCELONA 


Barbour,  John,  Scottish  poet,  of  whose  life 
but  little  is  known.  He  is  supposed  to  have 
been  Dorn  about  1316;  was  educated  at  Oxford 
and  Paris ;  and  was  a  clerk  in  the  king's  house- 
hold. He  died  in  Aberdeen,  13  March  1395. 
His  great  epic,  ^The  Bruce, ^  tells  the  story  of 
Robert  Bruce  and  the  battle  of  Bannockburn. 
It  was  written  in  1375  and  brought  him  favor 
from  the  king.  First  printed  in  Edinburgh  in 
1571  ;  best  modern  edition  by  Skeat  (Early 
English  Text  Society).  He  also  wrote  'Leg- 
ends of  the  Saints,^  of  33,533  verses;  and  a 
fragment  on  the  Trojan  war. 

Barbour,  John  Humphrey,  American  edu- 
cator: b.  Torrington,  Conn.,  29  May  1854;  d.  29 
April  1900.  He  was  graduated  from  Trinity 
College  in  1873,  and  ordained  in  the  Protestant 
Episcopal  Church  in  1878.  He  was  rector  of 
Grace  Church,  Hartford,  till  1889,  and  then  be- 
came professor  of  New  Testament  literature  and 
interpretation  at  the  Berkeley  Divinity  School. 

Barbour,  Oliver  Lorenzo,  American  law- 
yer: b.  Cambridge,  N.  Y.,  12  July  181 1;  d.  17 
Dec.  1889.  He  received  an  academical  educa- 
tion, and  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1832.  Dur- 
ing 1847-76  he  was  reporter  of  the  New  York 
court  of  chancery  and  the  New  York  supreme 
court.  He  compiled  a  large  number  of  legal 
digests,  treatises  on  several  branches  of  prac- 
tice, and  annotated  editions  of  Collyer's,  Chitty's, 
and  Cowen's  works. 

Barbour,  Philip  Pendleton,  American  ju- 
rist :  b.  Orange  County,  Va.,  25  May  1783 ;  d.  24 
Feb.  1841.  He  studied  law  at  William  and 
Mary  College  and  began  to  practise  in  1802. 
He  led  the  war  party  in  the  Virginia  legislature 
1812-14,  when  he  was  elected  to  Congress,  be- 
coming speaker  of  the  House  in  1821.  Four 
years  later  he  was  appointed  a  judge  in  his 
native  State,  returning  to  Congress  in  1827 ; 
but  later  resigning  through  ill-health.  He  was 
subsequently  appointed  a  Federal  judge,  and  in 
1836  was  promoted  to  the  supreme  court  of  the 
United  States.     In  politics  he  was  a  Democrat. 

Barbour,  William  McLeod,  American 
Congregational  clergyman :  b.  Fochabers,  Scot- 
land, 29  May  1827;  d.  Maiden,  Mass.,  5  Dec. 
1899.  He  was  graduated  from  Oberlin  College 
in  1859,  and  from  Andover  Theological  Seminary 
in  1861  ;  was  pastor  in  South  Danvers  (now  Pea- 
body),  Mass.,  1861-8;  professor  in  Bangor  Theo- 
logical Seminary  1868-77 !  professor  of  divinity 
and  college  pastor  in  Yale  1877-87;  and  became 
principal  and  professor  of  theology  in  the  Congre- 
gational College  in  Montreal,  Canada,  in  1887-96. 

Barboursville,  Ky.,  a  town  and  county- 
seat  of  Knox  County,  185  miles  southeast  of 
^.ouisville,  on  the  Cumberland  River,  and  the 
Louisville  &  N.  R.R.  The  chief  industries  are 
mining  and  lumbering,  but  oil  wells  have  re- 
cently been  drilled  and  the  region  is  being  rap- 
idly developed.     Pop.   (1900)   1,010. 

Barboursville,  W.  Va.,  a  town  of  Cabell 
County,  situated  on  the  Guyandotte  River,  and 
on  the  Chesapeake  &  O.  and  Guyandotte  Valley 
R.  R.'s  It  is  the  seat  of  Barboursville  College, 
a  Methodist  institution,  and  is  of  historic  in- 
terest as  the  scene  of  a  Federal  victory  in  the 
Civil  War,  13  July  1861.     Pop.   (1901)  429. 

Barbox  Brothers,  a  short  story  by  Dick- 
ens, with  a  second  part  known  as  < Barbox 
Brothers  &  Co.^ 


Barbuda,  bar-boo'da,  West  Indies,  one  of 
the  Leeward  Islands,  belonging  to  Great  Britain. 
It  has  a  fertile  soil,  and  produces  tobacco,  cot- 
ton, corn,  and  pepper.  There  are  forts  on  the 
west  side  of  the  island,  and  a  roadstead,  but  no 
port.  The  population  is  almost  entirely  negroes, 
and  numbers  less  than  1,000. 

Barbudo,  bjir-boo'do,  or  Barbu,  Spanish 
names  in  the  West  Indian  region  for  the  strange 
fishes  of  the  family  Polynemidce.  See  Mango- 
Fish. 

Bar'by,  Prussia,  a  town  in  the  province  of 
Saxony,  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Elbe,  16  miles 
south-southeast  of  Magdeburg.  It  is  well  built 
and  has  an  old  castle,  and  manufactures  of  linen 
and  cotton,  soap-works,  breweries,  and  distiller- 
ies.    Pop.  (1900)  5,137. 

Bar'ca,  a  province  of  northern  Africa,  ly- 
ing east  of  Tripoli,  and  belonging  to  Turkey, 
about  500  miles  long  by  400  miles  wide.  It 
forms  a  portion  of  tlifi  ancient  Cyrenaica,  in  its 
widest  sense,  where  the  Greeks  had  two  flour- 
ishing colonies.  The  Greeks  were  followed  in 
possession  of  the  country  by  the  Romans,  and 
the  monuments  of  both  peoples  remain  in  the 
ruins  of  their  cities.  The  sides  and  summits 
of  the  hills  in  the  east  and  north  are  fertile,  and 
yield  abundant  crops  and  excellent  pasture.  The 
loftiest  heights  do  not  exceed  1,800  feet.  Flow- 
ering shrubs  occur  in  great  variety,  including 
am.ong  others,  roses,  laurestinas,  honeysuckles, 
etc.  The  Bedouin  inhabitants  have  numerous 
camels  and  other  cattle,  constituting  their  prin- 
cipal wealth.  Among  beasts  of  prey  the  most 
common  are  hyenas  and  jackals;  noxious  in- 
sects also  abound.  There  are  hardly  any  per- 
manent streams,  inost  of  the  water-courses  being 
of  the  nature  of  mountain  torrents,  which  lose 
themselves  in  the  sands  of  the  Libyan  Desert. 
The  eastern  portion,  however,  is  tolerably  well 
supplied  with  water  by  rains  and  springs.  The 
chief  exports  of  the  country  consist  of  grain  and 
cattle,  along  with  ostrich  feathers  and  ivory, 
brought  by  caravans  from  the  interior.  Next  to 
Bengazi,  the  capital,  the  seaport  of  Derna  is  the 
chief  town.  Barca  used  to  form  a  dependency 
of  Tripoli,  but  since  1879  has  been  an  independ- 
ent vilayet  of  the  Turkish  empire.  The  pop- 
ulation is  variously  estimated,  but  probably  does 
not  much  exceed  325,000. 

Barcarolle,  bar'ka-rol,  a  song  of  the  gon- 
doliers at  Venice,  often  composed  by  them- 
selves, to  some  simple  and  pleasing  melody,  such 
as  may  be  timed  to  the  stroke  of  the  oar.  Such 
melodies  are  sometimes  introduced  into  operas, 
and  have  been  written  for  the  piano. 

Barcellona,  bar-chel-lo'na,  Sicilj%  a  town 
in  the  province  of  Messina,  situated  on  the  Son- 
ganto  River,  27  miles  west  of  the  town  of  Mes- 
sina. It  is  noted  for  its  sulphur  baths  which 
are  frequented  from  May  to  September.  It  has 
a  considerable  trade,  mostly  in  oil  and  fish.  Pop. 
(1901)  23,493. 

Barcelo'na,  the  second  largest  city  of 
Spain.  It  is  the  capital  of  the  province  of  the 
same  name  and  of  the  military  department  of 
Catalonia,  and  is  handsomely  built,  in  the  shape 
of  a  half-moon,  on  the  coast  of  the  Mediter- 
ranean, between  the  mouths  of  the  Liobregat 
and  the  Besos.  It  was.  even  in  the  Middle  Ages, 
one  of  the  principal  commercial  places  on  this 
sea;   is   fortified;   and  has   on   the  east   side  a 


BARCELONA  —  BARCLAY 


strong  citadel,  built  in  1715.  On  the  west  lies 
the  hill  of  Monjuich,  with  a  fort  which  protects 
the  harbor.  Barcelona  is  divided  into  an  upper 
and  lower  town,  and  contained,  including  the  ad- 
joining Barcelonetta,  509,589  inhabitants  in  1897. 
Its  manufactures  are  the  most  important  in 
Spain.  The  principal  are  cottons,  silks,  woolens, 
machinery,  iron  castings,  paper,  glass,  mathemat- 
ical instruments,  chemicals,  stoneware,  soap. 
There  are  also  dyeworks,  tanneries,  etc.  The 
harbor  is  spacious,  and  has  an  entrance  300  yards 
wide  between  two  long  piers.  The  entrance  is 
protected  by  a  large  mole,  which  has  been  re- 
cently extended,  and  there  is  a  large  dry-dock. 
The  exports  largely  consist  of  manufactured 
goods,  wine  and  brandy,  fruit,  oil,  etc.  The  so- 
called  Barcelona  (hazel)  nuts  are  not  exported 
from  Barcelona,  but  from  Tarragona.  The  city 
contains  a  university  (in  a  noble  pile  of  buildings 
begun  in  1872),  several  libraries,  a  museum,  a 
school  for  engineers  and  artillery,  an  academy 
of  belles-lettres,  a  foundling  hospital,  a  general 
hospital,  large  enough  to  contain  3,000  sick  per- 
sons, a  deaf-and-dumb  institution,  a  large  ar- 
senal, a  cannon  foundry,  several  large  theatres, 
a  cathedral  dating  from  the  13th  century.  It  is 
altogether  a  beautiful  and  agreeable  town,  with 
various  interesting  features  and  highly  pictur- 
esque surroundings.  Electric  lights  and  electric 
tramways  have  been  introduced.  Barcelona  was 
an  important  city  from  a  very  early  date,  and 
was  from  the  9th  till  the  12th  century  governed 
by  its  own  counts ;  but  afterward  by  the  mar- 
riage of  Raymond  IV.  with  the  daughter  of 
Ramiro  II.,  king  of  Aragon,  it  was  united  with 
that  kingdom.  In  1640  it  withdrew,  with  all 
Catalonia,  from  the  Spanish  government,  and 
submitted  to  the  French  crown  ;  in  1652  it  sub- 
mitted again  to  the  Spanish  government ;  in  1697 
it  was  taken  by  the  French,  but  restored  to 
Spain  at  the  Peace  of  Ryswick.  In  the  war  of 
the  Spanish  Succession  Barcelona  took  the  part 
of  the  Archduke  Charles ;  but  in  1714  was  be- 
sieged by  the  troops  of  Philip  V.,  under  the  com- 
mand of  the  Duke  of  Berwick,  and  taken  after 
an  obstinate  resistance.  The  strong  citadel  on 
the  east  side  of  the  city  was  then  erected  to  over- 
awe the  inhabitants.  On  16  Feb.  1809,  Barcelona 
was  taken  by  surprise  by  the  French  troops 
under  Gen.  Duhesme,  and  remained  in  the  power 
of  the  French  till,  in  1814,  all  their  troops  were 
recalled  from  Catalonia  to  defend  their  own 
country.  In  1821  the  yellow  fever  carried  off 
40,000  of  the  inhabitants.  The  city  has  been  the 
scene  of  many  serious  and  sanguinary  revolts, 
particularly  in  1832,  1836,  1840,  and  1841.  Lat- 
terly, industry  and  commerce  have  rapidly  in- 
creased, the  construction  of  railways  contribut- 
ing to  this  result.  This  city  is  regarded  as  the 
centre  of  anarchist  movements  in  Spain. 

Barcelona,  Venezuela,  the  capital  of  a  dis- 
trict and  of  the  State  of  Bermudez,  near  the 
mouth  of  the  Neveri,  160  miles  east  of  Caracas. 
The  surrounding  country  is  fertile,  but  the  city 
is  very  unhealthy.  Cattle,  jerked  beef,  hides, 
indigo,  cotton,  and  cacao  are  the  chief  exports. 
Pop.  (1900)  aljout  13,000.  The  district,  formerly 
a  separate  state,  has  since  1881  formed  one  of 
the  divisions  of  the  State  of  Bermudez. 

Barchester  Towers,  a  novel  by  Anthony 
TroUope.  It  is  the  second  of  the  eight  volumes 
comprised  in  his  ^Chronicles  of  Barsetshire,' 
and  is  a  study  of  social  life  in  the  clerical  circle 
centring  at  the  episcopal  palace  of  Barchester. 


Barclay,  Alexander,  English,  or  more 
probably  Scottish,  poet:  b.  about  1475;  d.  1552. 
Very  little  is  known  concerning  him  except  from 
his  writings,  which  inform  us  that  he_  was  a 
priest  and  chaplain  at  St.  Mary  Ottery,  in  Dev- 
onshire, and  afterward  a  Benedictine  monk  of 
Ely.  His  principal  work  is  a  satire,  entitled 
<The  Shyp  of  Folys  of  the  Worlde,^  a  free 
translation  of  a  German  composition.  Barclay 
also  wrote  Eclogues,  which  are  curious  and  in- 
teresting for  the  descriptions  they  afford  of  the 
characters  and  manners  of  the  age. 

Barclay,  James,  Canadian  educator:  b. 
Paisley,  Scotland,  19  June  1844.  He  was  li- 
censed by  the  Paisley  Presbytery  in  1870;  arid 
was  called  to  St.  Paul's  Church,  in  Montreal,  in 
1883.  While  in  Scotland  he  was  frequently  sum- 
moned to  Balmoral  to  preach  before  Queen  Vic- 
toria. He  served  through  the  Riel  rebellion  ill 
the  Northwest  Territories,  in  1885,  and,  besides 
being 'connected  with  various  local  institution.^ 
has  been  president  of  Trafalgar  Institute  since 
its  opening. 

Barclay,  John,  Scottish  poet:  b.  Pont-a- 
Mousson,  France,  1582;  d.  1621.  He  accom- 
panied his  father  to  England,  where  he  was 
much  noticed  by  James  I.,  to  whom  he  dedi- 
cated a  politico-satirical  romance,  entitled 
'Satyrikon,^  in  Latin,  directed  against  the  Jes- 
uits. He  wrote  also  several  other  works,  among 
which  is  a  singular  romance,  in  elegant  Latin, 
entitled  ^Argenis,^  which  first  appeared  at 
Paris  in  1621.  It  is  an  allegory,  of  a  character 
similar  to  that  of  Satyrikon,  and  alludes  to  the 
political  state  of  Europe,  and  especially  France, 
during  the  league.  Like  the  earlier  work,  it  has 
been  several  times  reprinted,  and  has  also  been 
translated  into  several  of  the  modern  languages, 
including  English. 

Barclay,  John,  Scottish  anatomist:  b. 
Perthshire,  1760;  d.  Edinburgh,  1826.  He 
studied  divinity  and  was  licensed  as  a  preacher 
at  Dunkeld.  In  1789  he  commenced  the  study 
of  anatomy,  and  graduated  in  1796,  when  he 
visited  London  and  studied  under  Dr.  Marshall. 
On  his  return  to  Edinburgh  in  1797,  he  gave 
lectures  on  anatomy.  He  published  several 
works  on  subjects  connected  with  the  sciences 
of  medicine  and  surgery ;  he  also  made  some  ef- 
forts toward  reforming  the  system  of  nomen- 
clature then  in  use  among  anatomists.  He  be- 
queathed his  valuable  anatomical  collection  to 
the  Royal  College  of  Surgeons  of  Edinburgh, 
where  it  is  known  as  the  Barclayan  Museum. 
He  published  'Description  of  the  Arteries  of  the 
Human  Body'   (1812). 

Barclay,  Robert,  a  distinguished  member 
of  the  Society  of  Friends :  b.  23  Dec.  1648,  at 
Gordonstown,  in  the  County  of  Moray,  of  an 
ancient  and  honorable  family ;  d.  3  Oct.  1690. 
The  troubles  of  the  country  induced  his  father, 
Col.  Barclay,  to  send  him  to  Paris,  to  be  edu- 
cated under  the  care  of  his  uncle,  who  was  prin- 
cipal of  the  Scots  College  in  that  capital.  Un- 
der his  influence  he  was  easily  induced  to 
become  a  convert  to  the  Roman  Catholic  reli- 
gion, upon  which  his  father  sent  for  him  to  return 
home;  and  Col.  Barclay  soon  after  becoming  a 
Quaker,  his  son  followed  his  example.  Uniting 
all  the  advantages  of  solid  learning  to  great 
natural  abilities,  he  soon  distinguished  himself 
by  his  talents  and  zeal  in  the  support  of  his 
new  opinions.     His  first  treatise  in   support  of 


BARCLAY-ALLARDICE  —  BARD 


his  adopted  principles  was  published  at  Aber- 
deen in  the  year  1670,  under  the  title  of  'Truth 
Cleared  of  Calumnies,^  etc.  To  propagate  the 
doctrines,  as  well  as  to  maintain  the  credit  he 
had  gained  for  his  sect,  he  published,  in  1675,  a 
regular  treatise,  in  order  to  explain  and  defend 
the  system  of  the  Quakers,  which  production  was 
also  very  favorably  received.  These  and  simi- 
lar labors  involved  him  in  controversies  with  the 
leading  memljers  of  the  University  of  Aberdeen, 
and  others ;  but  he  was  at  the  same  time  busy 
with  his  great  work  in  Latin,  *^An  Apology  for 
the  True  Christian  Divinity,  as  the  Same  is 
Preached  and  Held  Forth  by  the  People  in  Scorn 
.  Called  Quakers,-*  published  at  Amsterdam  in 
1676;  an  English  translation  appeared  later  in 
the  same  year.  He  traveled  with  William  Penn 
and  George  Foxe  through  the  greater  part  of 
England,  Holland,  and  Germany,  to  spread  the 
opinions  of  the  Quakers.  The  last  of  his  pro- 
ductions, in  defense  of  the  theory  of  the  Quak- 
ers was  a  long  Latin  letter  addressed,  in  1676, 
to  Adrian  de  Pacts,  'On  the  Possibility  and  Ne- 
cessity of  an  Inward  and  Immediate  Revela- 
tion.' It  was  not  published  in  England  until 
1686.  With  few  exceptions,  both  partisans  and 
opponents  unite  in  the  profession  of  great  re- 
spect for  the  character  and  talents  of  Barclay. 
Besides  the  works  already  mentioned  or  alluded 
to,  he  wrote  'Cathechism  and  Confession  of 
Faith'  (1673)  ;  'Theses  Theologize'  (1675),  of 
which  the  Apology  was  a  defense;  'The  Anar- 
chy of  Ranters'  (1676)  ;  'Universal  Love  Con- 
sidered and  Established  Upon  Its  Right  Founda- 
tion' (1677)  ;  and  various  replies  to  the  most 
able  opponents  of  his  Apology.  In  1692  a  col- 
lected edition  of  his  works  appeared  under  the 
title  'Truth  Triumphant.'  It  was  republished 
in  1717-18. 

Barclay-Allardice,  Robert,  known  as  Capt. 
Barclay,  the  pedestrian:  b.  1779;  d.  8  May 
1854.  He  entered  the  army  (1805),  and 
served  in  the  Walcheren  expedition  (1809), 
but  afterward  devoted  himself  to  agri- 
culture, cattle-breeding,  and  the  claiming  of 
earldoms  (Airth,  Strathearn  and  Menteith). 
His  feat  of  walking  1,000  miles  in  1,000  consecu- 
tive hours  took  place  at  Newmarket,  in  June 
and  July,  1809. 

Barclay  de  Tolly,  Michael,  Prince,  dis- 
tinguished Russian  general:  b.  Livonia,  1761; 
d.  Insterburg,  14  May  1818.  He  entered 
the  army  at  an  early  age,  and  his  long  service 
as  a  subordinate  in  campaigns  against  the  Turks, 
Swedes,  and  Poles,  laid  the  basis  of  a  valuable 
experience,  and  served  to  develop  his  great  nat- 
ural capacity  for  command.  In  1810  he  was 
named  minister  of  war.  He  occupied  this  posi- 
tion in  1812,  when  Napoleon  invaded  Russia,  but 
was  soon  appointed  to  the  chief  command  of 
the  army.  He  adopted  a  plan  of  retreat,  which 
was  soon  seen  to  be  a  strict  necessity,  as  the  Rus- 
sian army,  officially  estimated  at  more  than  500,- 
000,  did  not  greatly  exceed  100,000  men.  In  this 
difficult  campaign  Barclay  proved  no  unworthy 
opponent  of  Napoleon  himself.  Notwithstand- 
ing, the  Russians  became  impatient  of  a  policy 
which  seemed  to  show  no  active  results,  while 
jealousy  of  the  Scottish  extraction  of  Barclay 
and  other  causes  completed  his  overthrow,  and 
after  the  capture  of  Smolensk  by  the  French 
he  was  superseded  by  Kutusoff.  Serving  under 
his  successor,  he  commanded  the  right  wing  of 


the  Russian  army  at  the  battle  of  Moscow, 
maintained  his  position,  and  covered  the  retreat 
of  the  rest  of  the  army.  After  the  battle  of 
Bautzen,  in  1813,  at  which  he  again  distinguished 
himself,  he  was  reappointed  to  the  chief  com- 
mand, which  he  had  soon  after  to  resign  to 
Prince  Schwarzenberg.  He  forced  the  surren- 
der of  Gen.  Vandamme,  who  had  been  detached 
by  Napoleon  for  some  special  operations,  after 
the  battle  of  Dresden,  and  took  part  in  the  de- 
cisive battle  of  Leipsic.  On  crossing  the  Rhine 
at  the  head  of  the  Prussian  troops  he  issued  a 
strict  proclamation,  forbidding  all  license  on  the 
part  of  his  soldiers,  and  by  the  maintenance  of 
an  exact  discipline  he  conciliated  the  French  as 
much  as  possible  to  the  invaders.  He  was  made 
a  field-marshal  in  Paris.  In  1815  he  commanded 
a  mixed  corps  of  continental  troops.  In  this 
year  he  received  from  the  emperor  the  title  of 
prince,  and  from  Louis  XVIII.  the  badge  of  the 
order  of  Military  Merit.  The  Emperor  Alex- 
ander caused  a  statue  to  be  erected  to  him  in 
one  of  the  principal  places  of  St.  Petersburg. 

Barclay  Sound,  an  inlet  on  the  west  coast 
of  Vancouver  Island.  It  is  some  35  miles  in 
extent  and  the  Alberni  Canal  continues  it  yet 
farther  inland.  It  contains  several  islands  and 
iron  ore  is  found  along  its  shores. 

Bard,  John,  American  physician:  b.  near 
Philadelphia,  February  1716;  d.  30  ]March  1799. 
He  was  of  a  family  which  had  fled  1[rom  France 
upon  the  revocation  of  the  edict  of  Nantes.  He 
practised  his  profession  a  few  j'ears  in  Phila- 
delphia, but  removed  to  New  York  in  1746, 
where  he  rose  to  the  first  rank  among  physi- 
cians. In  1759,  the  citizens  of  New  York  were 
alarmed  by  the  arrival  of  a  ship,  on  board  which 
a  malignant  fever  was  raging,  and  Dr.  Bard  was 
appointed  to  take  measures  to  prevent  the  dis- 
ease from  spreading.  He  succeeded  in  keeping 
the  pestilence  within  the  limits  of  a  temporary 
hospital,  but  to  guard  against  similar  dangers  in 
future,  at  his  suggestion,  Bedloe's  Island  was 
purchased,  and  hospital  buildings  erected  there- 
on, which  were  placed  under  his  charge.  He 
continued  the  practice  of  his  profession  to  an 
advanced  age,  and  upon  the  establishment  of  the 
New  York  Medical  Society  in  1788,  was  elected 
its  first  president. 

Bard,  Samuel,  American  physician:  b. 
Philadelphia,  i  April  1742;  d.  24  May  1821.  He 
practised  in  Philadelphia  and  New  York ;  or- 
ganized the  medical  school  of  Kings  (Colum- 
bia) College,  and  was  dean  of  the  faculty ;  alsc 
was  president  of  the  New  York  College  of  Phy- 
sicians and  Surgeons  that  succeeded  the  medical 
school.  He  published  several  works,  including 
'The  Shepherd's  Guide'  (1807)  ;  and  a  'Manual 
of  Midwifery'    (1807). 

Bard,  Thomas  Robert,  American  politi- 
cian: b.  Chambcrsburg,  Pa.,  8  Dec.  1841.  He 
engaged  in  railroading  in  Maryland  1858-64, 
when  he  went  to  California  to  look  after  the 
interests  of  Col.  Thomas  A.  Scott.  Since  then 
he  has  resided  in  Ventura  County,  engaging  in 
wharving  and  warehousing,  banking,  sheep  graz- 
ing, real  estate,  and  petroleum  mining.  In  1892 
he  was  the  only  Republican  elector  for  Califor- 
nia. He  was  elected  to  the  United  States  Senate 
7  Feb.  1900  by  the  unanimous  vote  of  the  Re- 
publican majority  in  the  legislature. 


BARD  —  BARDOWICK 


Bard,  a  fortress  and  village  in  Italy,  about 
23  miles  southeast  of  Aosta.  When  the  French 
crossed  the  St.  Bernard,  in  1800,  the  fortress  of 
Bard,  manned  by  400  Austrians,  maintained  for 
10  daj'S  a  resistance  to  their  further  advance  into 
Italy.  Ultimately  Napoleon  contrived  to  elude 
the  vigilance  of  the  garrison,  and  passed  by  a 
mountain-track  during  the  night. 

Bard,  a  designation  applied  to  the  ancient 
poets  of  the  Celtic  tribes,  who,  in  battle,  raised 
the  war-cry,  and  in  peace  sang  the  exploits  of 
their  heroes,  celebrated  the  attributes  of  their 
gods,  and  chronicled  the  history  of  their  nation. 
Their  early  history  is  uncertain.  Diodorus  tells 
us  that  the  Celts  had  bards,  who  sang  to  musical 
instruments ;  and  Strabo  testifies  that  they  were 
treated  with  respect  approaching  to  veneration. 
There  is  a  passage  in  the  ^Germania^  of  Tacitus 
in  which  a  word  occurs  that  some  have  read  as 
barditus,  and  translated  Bard's  Song;  but  bari- 
tus  appears  to  be  the  true  reading,  and  the 
true  signification  merely  War-cry.  The  first 
Welsh  bards  of  whom  anything  is  extant  are 
Taliesin,  Aneurin,  and  Llywarch  Hen,  of  the 
6th  century;  but  their  language  is  imperfectly 
understood.  From  the  days  of  these  early  rep- 
resentatives of  the  bards  we  have  nothing  fur- 
ther till  the  middle  of  the  loth  century,  when 
the  reputation  of  the  order  was  increased  under 
the  auspices  of  Howel  Dha.  A  code  of  laws 
was  framed  by  that  prince,  to  regulate  their  du- 
ties and  fix  their  privileges.  They  were  distrib- 
uted into  three  classes,  with  a  fixed  allowance ; 
degrees  of  rank  were  established,  and  regular 
prize  contests,  known  as  eisteddfods,  were  insti- 
tuted. Their  order  was  frequently  honored  by 
the  admission  of  princes,  among  whom  was 
Llewellyn,  last  king  of  Wales.  The  Britons, 
kept  in  awe  as  they  were  by  the  Romans,  subse- 
quently harassed  by  the  English,  and  eternally 
jealous  of  the  attacks,  the  encroachment,  and  the 
neighborhood  of  aliens,  were,  on  this  account,  at- 
tached to  their  Celtic  manners.  This  situation 
and  these  circumstances  inspired  them  with  a 
proud  and  obstinate  determination  to  maintain  a 
national  distinction,  and  preserve  their  ancient 
usages,  among  which  the  bardic  profession  is  so 
eminent.  Sensible  of  the  influence  of  their  tra- 
ditional poetry  in  keeping  alive  the  ideas  of 
military  valor  and  of  ancient  glory  among  the 
people,  Edward  I.  is  said  to  have  collected  all 
the  Welsh  bards,  and  caused  them  to  be  hanged 
lay  martial  law  as  stirrers  up  of  sedition.  On 
this  incident  is  founded  Gray's  well-known  ode 
*The  Bard.^  We,  however,  find  them  existing 
at  a  inuch  later  period,  but  confining  themselves 
to  the  humble  task  of  compiling  private  genealo- 
gies. But  little  is  known  of  the  music  and  inea- 
sures  of  the  bards  ;  their  prosody  depended  much 
on  alliteration;  their  instruments  were  the  harp, 
the  pipe,  and  the  crwth.  Attempts  have  been 
made  in  Wales  for  the  revival  of  oardisra,  and 
the  Cambrian  Society  was  formed  in  1818,  for 
the  preservation  of  the  remains  of  this  ancient 
literature,  and  for  the  encouragement  of  the 
national  muse.  The  bardic  institution  of  the 
Irish  bears  a  strong  affinity  to  that  of  the  Welsh. 
The  genealogical  sonnets  of  the  Irish  bards 
are  still  the  chief  foundations  of  the  ancient  his- 
tory of  Ireland.  Their  songs  are  strongly 
marked  with  the  traces  of  Skaldic  imagination, 
which  still  appears  among  the  *^*tale-tellers,^'  a 
sort  of  poetical  historians,  supposed  to  be  the 
descendants    of    the    bards.    There    was,    also, 


evidently  a  connection  of  the  Welsh  with  Ar- 
morica.  Hence,  in  the  early  French  romances, 
we  often  find  the  scene  laid  in  Wales ;  and, 
on  the  other  hand,  many  fictions  have  passed 
from  the  Troubadours  into  the  tales  of  the 
Welsh.  In  the  Highlands  of  Scotland  there  are 
considerable  remains  of  compositions  supposed 
to  be  those  of  their  old  bards  still  preserved. 
Of  these,  the  poems  of  Ossian,  said  to  be  col- 
lected and  translated  by  MacPherson,  were  the 
most  celebrated,  but  the  best  authorities  have 
decided  that  they  are  spurious. 

Bardeir,  Mrs.,  the  obliging  landlady  of 
Mr.  Pickwick  in  Dickens'  *^  Pickwick  Papers,' 
and  the  heroine  of  the  famous  ^Bardell  vs.  Pick- 
wick^  case. 

Bardesanes,  bar-de-sa'nez,  Syrian  poet  and 
theologian,  who  lived  in  the  latter  half  of  the 
2d  century,  in  Edessa,  and  is  memorable  for 
the  peculiarity  of  his  doctrines.  He  considered 
the  evil  in  the  world  only  an  accidental  reaction 
of  matter,  and  all  life  as  the  offspring  of  male 
and  female  yEons.  From  God,  the  inscrutable 
Principle  of  all  substances,  and  from  the  con- 
sort of  this  first  Principle,  proceeded  Christ,  the 
Son  of  the  Living,  and  a  female  Holy  Ghost ; 
from  these,  the  spirits  or  created  powers  of  the 
four  elements ;  thus  forming  the  holy  eight,  or 
the  godlike  fulness,  whose  visible  copies  he  found 
in  the  sun,  moon,  and  stars,  and  therefore  at- 
tributed to  these  all  the  changes  of  nature  and 
of  human  destiny.  The  female  Holy  Ghost, 
impregnated  by  the  Son  of  the  Living,  was, 
according  to  him,  the  Creator  of  the  world. 
The  human  soul,  originally  of  the  nature  of  the 
.-Eons,  was  confined  in  the  material  body  only 
as  a  punishment  to  its  fall,  but  not  subjected 
to  the  dominion  of  the  stars.  He  considered 
Jesus,  the  ^on  destined  for  the  salvation  of 
souls,  only  a  feigned  man,  and  his  death  only 
a  feigned  death,  but  his  doctrine  the  sure  means 
to  fill  the  souls  of  men  with  ardent  desires  for 
their  celestial  home,  and  to  lead  them  back  to 
God,  to  whom  they  go  immediately  after  death, 
and  without  a  resurrection  of  the  earthly  body. 
Bardesanes  propagated  this  doctrine  in  Syrian 
hymns,  and  is  the  first  writer  of  hymns  in  this 
language.  The  Bardesanists  did  not  formally 
separate  themselves  from  the  orthodox  Christian 
Church,  and  they  maintained  themselves  until 
the  5th  century.  A  fragment  of  the  work  of 
Bardesanes  upon  destiny  is  preserved  in  the 
Greek  language,  by  Eusebius,  ^Prsepar.  Evangel, 
lib.  vi.  cap.  103.-*     He  led  an  irreproachable  life. 

Bardili,  Christoph  Gottfried,  German 
metaphysician:  b.  Blaubeuren,  Wiirtemberg,  28 
May  1761 ;  d.  Stuttgart,  5  June  1808.  He  was 
distinguished  as  a  critic  and  opponent  of  Kant, 
and  philosophically  a  forerunner  of  Schelling 
and  Hegel  through  his  exposition  and  defense  of 
the  reality  of  pure  abstract  thought  as  a  ground 
of  concrete  thinking  and  being. 

Bar'dolph,  Shakespearean  character.  He 
is  one  of  the  dissolute  comrades  of  Falstaff  and 
appears  in  the  plays  ^Henry  IV.^  parts  I.  and 
II;  ^Henry  V.';  and  <Merry  Wives  of  Wind- 
sor.' 

Bardowick,  bar'do-vek,  a  town  In  Han- 
over, once  the  commercial  centre  of  northern 
Germany,  but  now  an  insignificant  village,  fa- 
mous for  the  ruins  of  a  one  time  magnificent 
cathedral,  dating  from  before  the  destructioi; 
of  the  town  in  1189.     Pop.  (1900)  2002. 


BARDSLEY  —  BARFLEUR 


Bardsley,  Charles  Wareing,  English  cler- 
gyman and  author  :  b.  Keighley,  Yorkshire,  1834. 
He  was  graduated  at  Oxford  in  1868,  and  or- 
dained deacon  in  1870.  His  publications  include 
'English  Surnames,  their  Sources  and  Significa- 
tions^ (1875)  ;  *^John  Leeley's  Troubles'  (1876) 
*  Memorials  of  St.  Anne's.  jManchester'  (1876) 
^Curiosities  of  Puritan  Nomenclature'  (1880)  , 
^Her  Grandfather's  Bible,  a  Tale  of  Furner's 
Fells'    (1886),  etc. 

Bardwan,  burd-wiin',  a  division  of  Bengal, 
upon  the  Hugh.  Area,  13,850  square  miles;  pop. 
(1901)  2,245,000.  Apart  from  its  products,  rice, 
grain,  hemp,  cotton,  indigo,  etc.,  it  has  a  noted 
coal  field  of  about  500  square  miles  in  area, 
with  an  annual  output  of  about  500,000  tons. 
The  capital  of  the  same  name  has  a  population 
of  34,080. 

Bare'bone,    or    Barbon,    Praise-God,    the 

name  of  a  leather  seller  in  Fleet  Street  in  London, 
well  known  in  his  day  as  a  prominent  preacher 
among  the  Baptists:  b.  about  1596;  d.  1679.  He 
made  himself  notorious  as  an  enemy  of  the 
monarchy,  and  in  1660,  on  Monk's  arrival  in 
London,  Barebone,  at  the  head  of  a  numerous 
mob,  presented  a  petition  to  Parliament  against 
the  restoration  of  the  Stuarts.  In  1661  he  was 
committed  to  the  Tower,  and  remained  for  some 
time  in  confinement. 

Barebones  Parliament,  a  derisive  term  ap- 
plied to  the  ^'Little  Parliament"  summoned  by 
Oliver  Cromwell,  4  July  1653.  It  consisted  of 
140  persons,  '4'aithful,  fearing  God,  and  hating 
covetousness,"  but  mostly  of  very  destructive 
social  principles.  These  began  by  abolishing  the 
court  of  chancery,  and  were  proceeding  to  abol- 
ish tithes,  to  the  alarm  of  the  more  moderate 
members,  and  of  Cromwell  himself,  who  dis- 
solved the  Parliament  on  12  December  of  the 
same  year.  See  Gardiner,  'History  of  the  Com- 
monwealth and  Protectorate'  Vol.  II.  (1897). 

Barefooted  Friars.      See  Friars. 

Barege  ba-razh,  a  light,  open  tissue  of 
silk  and  worsted  or  cotton  and  worsted  for 
women's  dresses,  originally  manufactured  near 
Bareges,  France,  and  in  that  country  known  as 
crepe  de  barege  The  fabric  is  now  chiefly 
manufactured  at  Bagneres  de  Bigorre. 

Bareges  (ancient  Valletria),  a  watering 
place  in  the  south  of  France,  department  of  the 
Hautes-Pyrenees,  22  miles  south  from  Tarbes, 
and  celebrated  for  its  thermal  springs.  It  is 
situated  in  a  valley  between  two  perpendicular 
chains  of  mountains,  along  with  numerous  oth- 
er villages.  From  June  to  September  it  is 
crowded  with  patients,  and  the  bath  establish- 
ment is  a  spacious  marble  building.  A  military 
hospital  and  an  ecclesiastical  charity  hospital 
are  also  prominent  local  institutions. 

Bareilly,  ba-ra'le,  a  town  of  Hindustan  in 
the  northwest  provinces,  capital  of  a  district  of 
the  same  name,  131  miles  east-southeast  from 
Delhi.  It  has  a  pleasant  and  elevated  site,  and 
contains  one  well-built  street,  an  old  and  a  new 
fort,  and  cantonments  in  the  environs.  The 
principal  manufactures  are  ornamental  furni- 
ture, sword-cutlery,  gold  and  silver  lace,  and 
perfumery.  On  the  outbreak  of  the  Indian  muti- 
ny the  native  garrison  mutinied  and  took  pos- 
session of  the  place.  It  was  retaken  by  Lord 
Clyde  in  May,  1858.     Pop.   (1901)   117,400. 


Barentz,  "William,  Dutch  navigator:  b. 
about  1560,  who  discovered  Nova  Zembla  in 
1594-  While  on  a  third  expedition  to  the  same 
region,  in  1596,  he  discovered  Spitzbergen,  but 
had  to  spend  the  winter  of  1596-7  in  Nova 
Zembla.  He  and  his  companions  suffered  great 
hardships  which  led  to  his  death  on  the  home- 
ward journey.  Relics  of  his  expedition  were 
discovered  undisturbed  in  1871. 

Barere  de  Vieuzac,  ba-rar-de-vye-zak, 
Bertrand,  French  revolutionist  and  agi- 
tator: b.  Tarbes,  10  Sept.  1755;  d.  14  Jan.  1841. 
An  advocate  of  Toulouse,  he  acted  as  a  deputy 
in  the  National  Assembly,  and  was  sent  by  the 
department  of  the  Hautes-Pyrenees  to  the  Na- 
tional Convention  in  1792.  He  soon  became 
active  as  a  journalist,  and  attached  himself  to 
the  Mountain,  supporting  it  with  eloquence  of 
such  a  flowery  and  poetical  style  as  afterward 
earned  him  the  name  of  the  ''Anacreon  of  the 
g;uillotine."  He  was  president  of  the  conven- 
tion when  the  sentence  was  passed  upon  Louis 
XVI.  He  rejected  the  appeal  to  the  people,  and 
gave  his  vote  with  these  words:  ''The  law  is  for 
death,  and  I  am  here  only  as  the  organ  of  the 
law."  Though  a  supporter  of  Robespierre,  he 
concurred  in  his  downfall,  yet  this  did  not  save 
him  from  being  impeached  and  sentenced  to 
transportation.  His  sentence  was  not  carried 
into  effect,  and  he  shared  in  the  general  am- 
nesty of  the  i8th  Brumaire.  Elected  a  deputy 
during  the  Hundred  Days,  he  was  banished  af- 
ter the  second  restoration.  He  went  to  Brus- 
sels, where  he  devoted  himself  to  literary  work 
till  the  revolution  of  July  permitted  his  re- 
turn. 

Baretti,  ba-ret'te,  Giuseppe  Marc'  Antonio, 

Italian  writer:  b.  Turin  25  April  1716;  d.  5  May 
1789.  In  1753  he  published  a  'Defence  of 
the  Poetry  of  Italy  against  the  Censures  of  M. 
Voltaire.'  About  this  time  he  was  introduced 
to  Johnson,  then  engaged  in  the  compilation  of 
his  'Dictionary,'  of  which  Baretti  availed  him- 
self to  compile  an  Italian  and  English  diction- 
ary in  1760,  much  more  complete  than  any 
which  had  hitherto  appeared.  In  this  year  he 
revisited  his  native  country,  and  published  at 
Venice  a  critical  journal,  the  ^Frusta  Literaria,' 
which  w^as  soon  suppressed.  He  therefore  re- 
turned to  England,  and  in  1768  published  an 
'Account  of  the  Manners  and  Customs  of 
Italy.'  While  defending  himself  in  a  street 
brawl  he  mortally  wounded  one  of  his  assail- 
ants, and  was  tried  for  murder  at  the  Old  Bailey, 
but  acquitted.  On  this  occasion  Johnson, 
Burke,  Goldsmith,  Garrick,  Reynolds,  and  Beau- 
clerk  gave  testimony  to  his  good  character.  In 
1770  he  published  his  'Journey  from  London  to 
Genoa  through  England,  Portugal,  Spain,  and 
France,'  and  continued  to  publish  introductory 
works  for  students  in  the  Italian  and  other 
modern  languages,  and  superintended  an  edition 
of  Machiavelli's  works.  His  'Opere  Scritte  in 
Lingua  Italiana'  appeared  at  Milan  in  6  volumes 
in  1813-18.  Baron  Pietri  Custodi  published  his 
'Scritti   Scelti,  Inediti,   o  Rari'    (1822). 

Barfleur,  bar-fler,  a  seaport  of  France,  in 
the  department  of  La  Manche,  about  15  miles 
east  of  Cherbourg.  It  was  at  one  time  the  best 
port  on  the  coast  of  Normandy,  but  in  the  year 
1346  was  taken  and  pillaged  by  Edward  III., 
king    of    England,    and    the    harbor    destroyed. 


BARGE  — BARING 


William  the  Conqueror  fitted  out  at  Barfleur 
the  expedition  which  effected  the  conquest  of 
England.     Pop.  (1897)  1,189. 

Barge,  a  term  commonly  applied  to  flat- 
bottomed  boats  such  as  are  used  on  rivers  and 
canals,  the  name  including  various  craft,  many 
of  them  carrj^ing  sails  and  being  rigged  in  sev- 
eral ways.  Formerly  the  name  was  given  to  a 
boat  of  state  or  pleasure  used  chiefly  for  orna- 
mental purposes,  and  to  the  boat  of  the  com- 
manding officer  of  a  ship  of  war.  In  eastern 
New  England  the  name  is  also  given  to  a  kind 
of  open  omnibus  much  used  at  railway  sta- 
tions  and   seaside   resorts. 

Bar'ham,  Richard  Harris,  English  humor- 
ous writer:  b.  Canterbury,  6  Dec.  1788; 
d.  17  June  1845.  Having  been  ordained 
a  clergj'^man,  he  became  in  1821  one  of 
the  minor  canons  of  St.  Paul's  Cathe- 
dral. In  1824  he  was  appointed  a  priest 
in  ordinary  of  the  chapel-royal,  and  was  shortly 
afterward  presented  to  the  rectory  of  the  united 
parishes  of  St.  Mary  Magdalene  and  St.-Greg- 
ory-by-St.  Paul,  London.  In  1837,  on  the  start- 
ing of  Bentley's  "^Miscellany,'  under  the  editor- 
ship of  Charles  Dickens,  he  laid  the  foundation 
of  his  literary  fame  by  the  publication  in  that 
periodical  of  the  ^Ingoldsby  Legends'  —  a  series 
of  humorous  tales  in  verse  which  achieved  an 
immense  success,  having  in  a  collective  form, 
from  1840  onward,  been  published  over  and 
over  again  in  various  editions,  with  many 
^'legends"  added  to  the  original  number. 
Though  a  brilliant  member  of  society,  and  rank- 
ing with  the  most  distinguished  wits  of  the  day, 
including  his  intimate  friends,  Sydney  Smith 
and  Theodore  Hook,  Mr.  Barham  never  ne- 
glected his  more  serious  duties  as  a  clergyman. 
His  life  has  been  written  by  his  son. 

Bari,  a  negro  people  of  Africa,  dwelling  on 
both  sides  of  the  White  Nile.  Gondokoro  is 
their  chief  town.  They  practise  agriculture 
and  cattle-raising.  Their  country  was  conquered 
by  Baker  Pasha  in  1871  for  Egypt. 

Bari,  ba're  (ancient  Barium),  an  important 
seaport  of  southern  Italj^  in  Apulia,  capital  of 
the  province  Terra  di  Bari,  and  situated  on  a 
promontory  of  the  Adriatic,  69  miles  north- 
west of  Brindisi.  It  was  a  place  of  some  im- 
portance under  the  Romans,  passed  from  them 
to  the  Saracens,  and  was  afterward  selected  as 
the  seat  of  government  by  the  Northmen  who 
conquered  Apulia.  It  has  been  thrice  destroyed 
and  rebuilt  on  the  same  site.  The  present  to^vll, 
surrounded  by  walls,  and  defended  by  a  castle, 
consists  of  a  poorly-built  old  town  with  a  bet- 
ter part  of  more  recent  date.  It  is  the  see  of 
an  archbishop,  and  possesses  a  cathedral  with 
a  tower  260  feet  high,  dating  from  the  early 
half  of  the  nth  century,  but  largely  spoiled  by 
recent  alterations.  The  church  of  San  Nicola 
dates  from  1087;  and  there  is  also  a  roj'^al  ly- 
ceum.  Bari  manufactures  cotton  and  linen 
goods,  organs,  pianos,  hats,  soap,  glass,  and 
liquors,  and  has  a  trade  in  wine,  grain,  almonds, 
oil,  etc.  It  has  regular  steamboat  communica- 
tion with  Venice,  Ancona,  Trieste,  Brindisi, 
Genoa,  and  Marseilles.  A  United  States  consul 
is  stationed  here.     Pop.   (1901)  77,478. 

Bariatinski,  bar-ya-ten'ske,  Alexander 
Ivanovich,  Prince,  Russian  field-marshal:  b. 
1814;  d.  Geneva.  9  March  1879.  He  was  edu- 
cated with  the  future  czar,  Alexander  II.,  and 


while  a  young  officer  in  the  hussars  was  trans- 
ferred to  the  Caucasus,  where  his  successes 
against  the  famous  Shamyl  secured  him,  in 
1852,  the  rank  of  lieutenant-general.  On  the 
accession  of  Alexander  II.  he  returned  to  St. 
Petersburg,  and  in  1856  was  appointed  to  the 
command  of  the  army  of  the  Caucasus.  Three 
successful  campaigns  were  closed  by  the  storm- 
ing of  Ghunib,  and  the  capture  of  Shamyl.  For 
these  services  he  was  made  a  field-marshal.  His 
health,  however,  had  broken  down,  and  the  re- 
mainder of  his  life  was  passed  chiefly  abroad. 

Barili,  ba-re'le,  Philippines,  a  town  in  the 
province  of  Cebu,  52  miles  from  Cebu,  its  capi- 
tal.    Pop.  (1898)  20,914. 

Barilla  (Spanish,  ^^mpure  soda"),  the  com- 
mercial name  of  a  crude  variety  of  soda  ob- 
tained by  burning  certain  fleshy  plants  that 
grow  near  the  ocean  and  in  other  salty  places. 
The  Salsola  soda  was  largely  used  for  this  pur- 
pose, and  was  cultivated  in  Spain,  Sicily,  Sar- 
dinia, and  other  places  on  account  of  the  con- 
siderable yield  of  barilla  that  it  furnished.  The 
plants  were  cut  in  September,  dried  for  about 
a  month,  and  then  burned  on  an  iron  grating, 
beneath  which  was  a  pit  into  which  the  fused 
ashes  fell.  The  burning  was  continued  until  a 
ton  or  two  of  the  ash  had  accumulated  in  the 
pit,  after  which  the  product  was  allowed  to  cool, 
and  was  then  broken  up  and  shipped  to  market. 
Barilla  contains  about  20  per  cent  of  soda,  the 
remainder  consisting  chiefly  of  chlorides  and 
sulphates  of  sodium,  calcium,  and  aluminum.  It 
was  formerly  much  used  in  the  manufacture  of 
soap,  but  has  now  been  almost  entirely  replaced 
by  purer  grades  of  soda,  obtained  by  chemical 
means  from  common  salt.     See  Kelp. 

Bar'ing,  the  family  name  of  one  of  the 
most  influential  financial  establishments  in  the 
world,  the  well-known  house  of  Baring  Broth- 
ers &  Company.  John  Baring,  the  father  of  the 
founders,  was  a  German  cloth  maker  who  en- 
gaged in  business  in  a  small  way  at  Larkbear, 
Devonshire,  England,  in  the  earlier  half  of  the 
i8th  century.  His  sons,  Francis  and  John, 
established  the  firm  of  Baring  Brothers  in  Lon- 
don, in  1770.  Since  1890  the  house  has  been 
reorganized   as  a  limited   banking  company. 

Baring,  Alexander.  See  Ashburton,  Alex- 
ander Baring,  Lord. 

Baring,  Sir  Evelyn  (Viscount  Cromer),  an 
English  colonial  civil  servant :  b.  Norfolk,  Eng., 
26  Feb.  1841.  He  served  in  the  Royal  Artillery, 
became  secretary-  to  his  cousin,  the  Earl  of 
Northbrook,  one  of  the  controllers-general  of 
Egyptian  finance  (1879),  finance  minister  of  In- 
dia (1880),  and  agent  and  consul-general  in 
Egypt  from  1883  till  April  1907.  He  was  created 
a  peer  in  1892.  viscount  in  1899,  and  is  author 
of  < Staff  College  Essays'  ;  ^The  War  Game.' 

Baring,  Sir  Francis,  English  oanker:  b. 
Larkbear,  England,  1740;  d.  1810.  He  obtained 
a  commercial  training,  founded  a  large  and  suc- 
cessful business,  became  a  director  of  the  East 
India  Company,  and  was  created  a  baronet  in 
1793.  He  took  an  active  part  in  the  discussions 
relative  to  the  bank  restriction  act  of  1797,  and 
at  the  time  of  his  death  was  reckoned  the  first 
merchant   in  Europe. 

Baring,  Sir  Francis  Thornhill,  English 
banker,  son  of  Sir  Thomas:  b.  1796;  d.  1866, 
Under  successive  Whig  governments,  he  was  a 


BARING  —  BARIUM 


lord  of  the  treasury,  secretary  to  the  treasury, 
chancellor  of  the  exchequer,  and  first  lord  of 
the  admiralty.  He  was  created  Baron  North- 
brook   in    1866. 

Baring,  Sir  Thomas,  English  banker:  b. 
1772 ;  d.  April  1848.  He  was  the  eldest  son  of  Sir 
Francis,  whom  he  succeeded  in  the  baronetcy. 
He  was  chiefly  remarkable  as  an  admirer  and 
encourager  of  art.  His  magnificent  collection  of 
paintings  was  dispersed  by  public  sale  after  his 
death.  His  fourth  son,  Charles  Thomas 
(1807-79),  was  bishop  of  Durham. 

Baring,  Thomas,  English  banker  and  poli- 
tician, brother  of  the  first  Lord  ilorthbrook :  b. 
1799;  d.  1873.  He  devoted  himself  early  to  com- 
mercial pursuits,  and  also  to  politics,  in  which 
he  was  a  Conservative,  thus  taking  the  opposite 
side  to  his  brother.  He  entered  Parliament  in 
1835.  representing  the  borough  of  Huntingdon 
from   1844  till   his   death. 

Baring,  Thomas  George,  second  Earl  of 
Northbrook:  b.  1826;  d.  London,  Eng.,  115 
Nov.  1904.  He  was  successively  a  lord 
of  the  admiralty,  under  secretary  of  state  for 
India,  under  secretary  of  war,  governor-gen- 
eral of  India  (1872-6),  and  first  lord  of  the 
admiralty  (1880-5),  and  was  cieated  an  earl  in 
1876.  He  has  published  'The  Teachings  of 
Christ  in  His  Own  Words. ^ 

Baring-Gould,  Sabine,  English  clergyman 
and  novelist:  b.  Exeter,  28  Jan.  1834;  d.  Port 
Elizabeth,  South  Africa,  4  June  1906.  He  grad- 
uated from  Cambridge  in  1856,  and  since  1881 
has  been  rector  of  Lew-Trenchard  in  Devon. 
Among  his  numerous  works  are:  'Iceland:  Its 
Scenes  and  Sagas^  (1864)  ;  'The  Book  of 
Werewolves^  (1865)  ;  'Curious  Myths  of  the 
Middle  Ages^  (1866-7)  ;  ^  Lives  of  the  Saints^ 
(1872-9);  'Yorkshire  Oddities^  (1874);  'Ger- 
many, Past  and  Present^  (1879).  Prominent 
among  his  novels  and  other  later  books  are: 
'Mehalah:  a  Story  of  the  Salt  Marshes^ 
(1880);  'John  Herring^  (1883);  'Red  Spider> 
(1887);  'Grettis  the  Outlaw>  (1890)  ;  'The 
Broom  Squire^  (1896)  ;  'Guavas  the  Tinner^ 
(1897);  'Bladys  (1897);  'Domitia>  C1898)  ; 
'Pabo  the  Priest^  (1899);  'A  Book  of  the 
West>  (1899)  ;  'Furze-Bloom'  (1899)  ;  'The 
Crock  of  Gold'  (1899);  'Winefred'  (1900); 
'A  Book  of  Dartmoor'  (1900)  ;  'In  a  Quiet 
Village'  (1900)  :  'Virgin  Saints  and  Martyrs' 
(1900)  ;  'The  Frobishers'  ;  'A  Book  of  Brit- 
tany' (1901)  ;  'Royal  Georgie'  (1901)  ;  'Miss 
Quillet';    'Nebo   the   Nailer'    (1902). 

Baring  Island,  an  island  in  the  Arctic 
Archipelago.  The  name  is  also  given  to  a  bay 
and  strait.  They  were  named  for  Sir  Francis 
Baring,  who  was  first  lord  of  the  admiralty  at 
the   time   of  their   discovery. 

Baringo,  a  lake  in  East  Africa,  northeast 
of  the  Victoria  Nyanza,  about  20  miles  long. 
200  square  miles  in  area,  and  between  3.000  and 
4.000  feet  above  sea-level.  Though  fed  by  many 
streams,  it  has  no  visible  outlet.  It  contains 
several  small  islands  and  was  discovered  by 
Thomson  in  1883. 

Barite,  ba'rit  (Greek,  "heavy,"  in  allusion 
to  its  high  specific  gravity),  a  mineral  having 
the  formula  BaSO^,  and  crystallizing  in  the 
orthorhombic  system,  but  also  occurring  mass- 
ive, and  in  granular,  earthy,  and  stalactitic 
forms.    It  is  usually  white  or  nearly  so,  and  has 


a  hardness  of  from  2.5  to  3.5.  Its  specific 
gravity  ranges  from  4.3  to  4.6,  and  from  this 
circumstance  the  mineral  is  often  called  "heavy- 
spar."  Barite  was  first  examined  (in  1602) 
by  Casciorolus,  a  shoemaker  of  Bologna,  who 
discovered  that  it  becomes  phosphorescent  when 
heated  with  combustible  matter,  and  gave  it  the 
name  lapis  solis,  or  "sun  stone."  Barite  occurs 
in  many  parts  of  the  world,  and  in  large  quan- 
tities. In  the  United  States  it  is  found  abun- 
dantly in  many  States,  notably  in  Virginia, 
North  Carolina,  and  Missouri,  and  in  the  Lake 
Superior  region.  It  constitutes  an  important 
source  of  barium  compounds,  and  was  mined  m 
the  United  States  to  the  extent  of  about  61,000 
tons  in    1902.     See  also   B.\rium. 

Baritone,  or  Barytone,  a  male  voice,  whose 
compass  partakes  of  those  of  the  common  bass 
and  the  tenor,  but  does  not  extend  so  far  down- 
ward as  the  one  nor  to  an  equal  height  with 
the  other.  Its  best  tones  are  from  the  lower  A 
of  the  bass  clef  to  the  lower  E  or  F  in  the 
treble;  yet  we  find  Verdi  and  Meyerbeer  exact- 
ing G  and  even  A  flat  from  it.  This  name  is 
also  given  to  the  smaller  bass  saxhorn  in  B  flat 
or  C,  used  in  reed  and  brass  bands. 

Ba'rium,  a  metallic  element,  strongly  re- 
sembling calcium  in  its  chemical  properties. 
The  mineral  barite  (q.v.)  was  the  first  com- 
pound of  barium  to  be  examined.  In  1750 
Marggraf  showed  that  barite  contains  sulphu- 
ric acid,  and  the  subsequent  labors  of  Scheele 
and  Gahn  proved  that  it  also  contains  a  pre- 
viously unrecognized  earth,  which  Bergmann 
called  terra  ponderosiim,  or  "heavy  earth."  In 
1779  Guyton  de  Morveau  proposed  the  name 
"barote"  (Greek,  "heavy")  for  this  earth,  and 
Lavoisier  modified  the  word  to  "baryta,"  in 
which  form  it  still  survives.  Subsequently  ba- 
rj'ta  was  found  to  be  the  oxid  of  a  new  metal, 
which  was  isolated  by  electrolysis  in  1808  by 
Berzelius  and  Pontin,  and  afterward  by  Davy, 
and  named  "barium."  The  properties  of  metal- 
lic barium  are  not  yet  satisfactorily  ascertained, 
for  it  is  probable  that  the  metal  has  never  been 
obtained  in  a  state  of  even  approximate  purity. 
Thus,  Davy  says  it  is  a  silver  white  metal; 
Clarke  ascribes  to  it  the  color  and  lustre  of 
iron ;  Bunsen  and  Matthiessen  describe  it  as 
golden  yellow ;  and  Donath  states  that  its  true 
color  is  that  of  bronze.  It  oxidizes  rapidly  in 
the  air,  and  decomposes  water  readily.  It  is 
ductile  and  somewhat  malleable.  Its  atomic 
weight  is  137.4  (0^16),  and  its  chemical  sym- 
bol is  Ba.  It  melts  at  about  the  same  tempera- 
ture as  cast  iron,  and  its  specific  gravity  ap- 
pears to  be  between  3.75  and  4.00.  The  most 
common  sources  of  barium  compounds  are  the 
carbonate  and  sulphate,  which  occur  native  as 
Witherite  and  Barite  (qq.v.),  respectively. 
The  nitrate  is  prepared  by  acting  upon  the 
native  carbonate  with  nitric  acid.  It  is  a  solu- 
ble salt,  with  the  formula  Ba(N03):.  The 
nitrate  decomposes  upon  being  strongly  heated, 
the  nitric  acid  being  expelled,  while  barium 
monoxid  (or  baryta),  BaO,  is  left  behind  as  a 
gray,  porous  mass,  strongly  caustic  and  alka- 
line. When  gently  heated  in  air,  barium  mo- 
noxid takes  up  another  molecule  of  oxygen  and 
forms  the  dioxid.  BaO:;  and  on  being  more 
strongly  heated,  the  dioxid  gives  up  the  extra 
atom  of  oxygen  again,  and  returns  to  the  mo- 
noxid.  It  was  long  ago  proposed  to  make  use  of 


BARK  —  BARK-BEETLES 


this  curious  property  for  isolating  pure  oxygen 
from  the  air,  by  alternately  heating  the  dioxid 
at  a  high  temperature,  and  collecting  the  oxygen 
given  off  as  it  returns  to  the  monoxid,  and  then 
submitting  it,  at  a  lower  temperature,  to  the 
action  of  a  current  of  air  until  it  has  again 
passed  into  the  state  of  dioxid.  It  was  found, 
however,  that  the  process  would  work  only  for 
a  short 'time,  after  which  a  fresh  supply  of 
baryta  was  required.  Recent  investigations 
have  gone  far  toward  discovering  the  cause 
of  this  loss  of  activity,  and  it  is  now  likely 
that  oxygen  will  soon  be  made  on  a  commercial 
scale  by  this  most  ingenious  process.  Baryta 
absorbs  water  with  considerable  evolution  of 
heat  and  the  formation  of  a  hydrate,  Ba(0H)2, 
which  crystallizes  with  eight  molecules  of  water. 
Barium  hydrate  is  also  made,  in  large  quanti- 
ties and  at  a  low  price,  at  Niagara  Falls,  by  the 
electrolysis  of  soluble  salts  of  barium.  The 
hydrate  is  used  in  refining  sugar,  being  much 
superior  to  lime  for  this  purpose.  With  cane 
sugar  it  forms  an  insoluble  compound  from 
which  the  sugar  may  afterward  be  set  free  by 
a  current  of  carbon  dioxid  gas.  The  hydrate 
is  also  likely  to  be  of  great  use,  in  the  near 
future,  for  preventing  the  formation  of  boiler 
scale,  by  precipitating  the  carbonates  and  sul- 
phates in  the  feed  water,  in  the  form  of  in- 
soluble barium  compounds.  The  value  of  ba- 
rium hydrate  for  this  purpose  has  long  been 
known,  but  until  the  development  of  the  elec- 
trolytic method  of  manufacturing  it,  the  ex- 
pense involved  was  prohibitive.  Barium  sul- 
phate (barite)  is  thrown  down  as  a  precipitate 
whenever  a  soluble  barium  compound  is  added 
to  a  solution  of  any  sulphate ;  and  for  this 
reason  soluble  barium  salts  are  much  used  by 
the  chemist  in  testing  for  sulphuric  acid  and 
sulphates.  The  chloride  (BaCl^)  is  the  salt 
most  commonly  employed  as  a  reagent  for  this 
purpose.  Barium  sulphate  is  one  of  the  most 
insoluble  salts  known.  The  native  sulphate, 
when  ground  up,  is  used  to  adulterate  white 
lead.  The  artificial  sulphate  is  also  used  for 
this  purpose,  and  is  itself  used  as  a  paint,  under 
the  name  of  "permanent  white,^'  or  blanc  fixe. 
The  artificial  sulphate  is  said  to  be  superior  to 
the  natural  mineral  for  use  as  a  paint,  as  it 
has  more  "body.^^  When  barium  sulphate  is 
heated  with  coal  it  loses  its  oxygen,  and  be- 
comes reduced  to  the  sulphid,  BaS,  a  salt  which 
is  highly  phosphorescent,  and  is  known  as 
Bologna  phosphorus.  After  exposure  to  sun- 
light or  to  a  strong  artificial  light,  barium  sul- 
phid shines  for  hours  with  a  bright,  orange 
color.  Barium  is  readily  recognized  by  the 
spectroscope,  by  a  number  of  characteristic 
green  lines.  Its  volatile  salts  communicate  a 
green  color  to  non-luminous  flames,  and  are 
used    (especially  the  nitrate)    in   pyrotechny. 

In  poisoning  by  the  barium  salts  the  symp- 
toms resemble  those  seen  in  poisoning  by  other 
metals.  In  the  acute  forms  there  is  pain  and 
burning  in  the  mouth  and  stomach,  nausea, 
vomiting,  and  chills.  These  are  followed  by 
diarrhoea,  dizziness,  and  chilly  feelings.  The 
pulse  is  slowed,  at  first  large  and  full,  later 
small  and  scarcely  recognizable.  Muscle  paral- 
ysis supervenes  with  dyspnoea,  loss  of  conscious- 
ness, convulsions,  and  death.  In  the  treatment 
prompt  washing  of  the  stomach  with  a  solution 
of  Glauber's  salts  is  advisable.  This  forms  an 
insoluble  barium  sulphate. 


Bark,  the   more   or   less   easily  separable 

layers  of  tissue  surrounding  the  woody  cylinder 
of  trees  and  shrubs,  also,  by  extension,  the 
analogous  part  (cortex)  of  textile  plants  such 
as  hemp,  jute,  ramie,  flax,  etc.,  and  other  annual 
stems.  The  layers  are  divided  into  three  groups 
which  may  be  readily  seen  in  a  yearling  stem ; 
(i)  The  phloem,  bast,  the  inner  food-conducting 
tissue  annually  thickened  from  the  cambium 
(q.v.)  layer  which  separates  it  from  the  wood; 
(2)  the  green  zone  which  generally  does  not 
increase  in  thickness  but  which  in  young  twigs 
assists  in  food  elaboration  (see  Photosyn- 
thesis) ;  (3)  the  epidermis  or  external  layer 
with  contiguous  cork  cells  which  increase  from 
the  phellogen,  or  cork  cambium,  a  layer  of 
epidermal  or  cortical  cells.  These  cork  cells 
which  develop  mainly  at  right  angles  to  the 
direction  of  the  stem,  die  and  become  more  or 
less  weather-beaten  and  seamed  from  cracking 
and  give  the  characteristic  appearance  to  tree 
trunks.  Many  trees  can  be  identified  by  their 
bark  alone. 

The  bark  of  many  trees  and  shrubs  is  of 
economic  use  mainly  in  tanning,  dyeing,  medi- 
cine, and  cookery.  In  tanning  (q.v.)  such 
barks  as  are  rich  in  tannic  acid  are  most  in 
demand;  oak,  hemlock,  and  chestnut  (qq.v.) 
are  general  favorites  in  America  and  Europe ; 
eucalyptus  and  acacia  in  Australia.  Larch  and 
willow  bark  are  used  for  special  work.  To 
obtain  these  barks  the  trees  are  felled  after  the 
sap  has  started  to  flow  in  the  spring,  the  rough 
exterior  laj^ers  removed,  the  bark  of  the  trunk 
and  main  limbs  peeled  off  in  lengths  of  about 
two  feet  with  specially  made  tools ;  the  bark 
of  the  smaller  branches,  in  equal  lengths,  is 
loosened  with  mallets  and  slipped  off^.  After 
removal  the  bark  is  loosely  piled  in  open  sheds 
to  dr}'-  or  stacked  on  end  in  the  open  air, 
the  larger  pieces  being  placed  on  the  outside  to 
protect  the  smaller  inner  ones  from  rain  and 
sun,  which  together  with  mildew  are  the  im- 
portant agencies  that  may  injure  the  quality 
of  the  product.  The  barks  used  in  medicine, 
cookery,  etc.,  are  treated  under  individual  titles. 
See  Cascarilla,  Cinchona,  and  Cinnamon  ; 
also  Cork. 

Bark,  or  Barque,  a  three-masted  vessel 
whose  foremast  and  mainmast  are  square- 
rigged,  but  whose  mizzenmast  has  fore-and-aft 
sails  only.  The  distinction  between  a  bark  and 
a  barkentine  is  that  the  latter  has  but  one 
mast  square-rigged,  the  main  and  mizzen  being 
both  rigged  fore-and-aft. 

Bark-beetles,  members  of  the  family 
Scolytidcc,  and  allied  to  the  weevils.  They  are 
of  an  elongate  C3'^lindrical  form,  truncated  be- 
fore and  behind.  They  mine  under  the  bark  of 
trees,  running  their  winding  galleries  in  every 
direction,  but  rarely  attack  living  healthy  trees. 
They  are  usually  brown  or  black  in  color.  The 
rounded  head  does  not  end  in  a  snout  and  is 
deeply  sunken  in  the  thorax ;  the  clavate  anten- 
nae are  somewhat  elbowed,  while  the  palpi  are 
very  short ;  the  elytra  are  often  hollowed  at 
the  end,  and  the  short  stout  legs  are  toothed  on 
the  under  side  of  the  femora,  and  the  tarsi  are 
slender  and  narrow.  The  eggs  are  laid  in  the 
bark,  whence  the  larvae  on  being  hatched  bore 
straight  into  the  sap  wood,  or  mine  between  the 
bark  and  the  sap  wood.  They  are  fleshy,  cylin- 
drical,   footless    larvae,    wrinkled    on    the    back. 


BARK-LOUSE  —  BARKER 


When  fully  grown  in  the  autumn  they  gnaw  an 
exit  for  the  beetle,  taking  care  to  leave  a  little 
space  closed  in  front  of  their  burrow  to  con- 
ceal the  pupa.  The  various  species  of  Scolytus, 
Tomicus,  and  Xyloterus  give  rise  to  a  disease 
similar  to  fireblight,  by  their  ravages  beneath  the 
twigs  of  fruit  trees,  causing  the  bark  to  shrivel 
and  peal  off  as  if  a  fire  had  run  through  the 
orchard.  Xyloterus  ftiscatus  has  been  found  to 
bore  into  empty  wine  casks  and  spoil  them  for 
use.  The  spruce  forests  of  Maine  and  other 
parts  of  northern  New  England  have,  since  1818, 
been  devastated  by  Dcndrocotoniis  piccaperda 
of  Hopkins.  It  attacks  and  kills  vigorous  trees 
in  perfect  health,  the  largest  and  best  stands  of 
limber  suffering  most  from  its  ravages.  The 
estimated  number  of  adults  which  under  favor- 
able conditions  may  emerge  from  an  average- 
sized  tree  is  from  5,000  to  7,000.  Hopkins  esti- 
mates that  an  average  of  three  pairs  of  beetles 
to  the  square  foot  of  bark  on  10  to  15  feet  of 
the  trunk  of  an  average-sized  tree  are  sufficient 
to  kill  it,  and  that  6,000  beetles  breeding  in  one 
tree  may  be  sufficient  to  kill  from  20  to  25  more 
trees.  Two  other  beetles  (Polygraphiis  sufipcn- 
nis  and  Tcfropium  ciniiauioptcnim)  also  aid  the 
Deudrocotonus  in  killing  the  spruce.  Consult : 
Packard,  'Report  on  the  Insects  Injurious  to 
Forest  and  Shade  Trees^  (1890)  ;  Hopkins, 
*  Insect  Enemies  of  the  Spruce  in  the  North- 
east^ (Bull.  No.  28,  Division  of  Entomology, 
U.  S.  Dept.  Agriculture,  1891). 

Bark-louse,  a  hemipterous  insect  of  the 
scale  family  (Coccidce).  The  bark-lice  are  very 
small  insects,  whose  females  are  wingless,  their 
bodies  resembling  scales.  The  females  sting 
the  bark  of  trees  with  a  long  slender  beak, 
sucking  in  the  sap,  and,  when  very  numerous, 
injure  or  kill  the  tree.  The  males  have  two 
wings  but  no  beak,  and  take  no  food.  The 
apple  bark-louse  (Mytilaspis  pomonim)  is  de- 
structive to  young  apple-trees,  while  in  Florida 
M.  gloi'cri  is  a  pest  of  the  orange,  as  is  also 
the  San  Jose  scale-insect  (q.v.).  The  cochineal, 
the  mealy-bug  of  hot-houses,  and  various  other 
coccid  insects,  belong  to  this  group.  See  Scale- 
insects,  and  the  names  of  various  species. 

Bark,  Peruvian.  A  bark  obtained  from 
several  trees  belonging  to  the  genus  Cinchona, 
which  grow  spontaneously  in  many  parts  of 
South  America,  but  more  particularly  of  Peru. 
The  trees  somewhat  resemble  a  cherry-tree  in 
appearance,  and  have  white  or  pink  flowers. 
This  valuable  medicine  was  formerly  called 
Jesuit's  Bark,  from  having  been  introduced 
into  Europe  by  the  members  of  that  Order 
settled  in  South  America.  They  were  instruct- 
ed in  its  use  by  the  natives  of  Peru,  and  it  con- 
tinued for  many  years  a  source  of  profit  to  the 
Order.  Its  bontanical  name  was  derived  from 
that  of  the  Countess  del  Chinchon,  the  lady  of 
a  Spanish  viceroy,  who  had  been  cured  by  it. 
The  tree  from  which  it  is  obtained  grows  abun- 
dantly in  the  forests  of  Quito  and  Peru,  and 
the  bark  is  cut  by  the  natives  in  the  months 
of  September,  October,  and  November,  during 
which  alone  the  weather  is  free  from  rain. 
The  bark  is  of  three  kinds  —  red,  yellow,  and 
pale,  of  which  the  yellow  and  pale  barks  are 
the  stronger  in  their  febrifuge  properties.  The 
crown-bark,  as  the  highest-priced  is  termed,  is 
of  a  pale  yellowish-red.  The  pale  is  the  original 
Peruvi"^n  cinchona,  and  is  produced  by   several 


varieties  of  the  Cinchona  oMcimlis.  The  red  is 
obtained  from  the  C.  sticcirubra,  which  grows 
chiefly  in  the  forests  of  Ecuador  around  Chim- 
borazo.  The  yellow  sort  is  produced  by  the 
C  calisaya,  and  grows  in  Bolivia  and  Peru. 

The  uses  of  the  bark  in  medicine  are  too 
well  known  to  need  description;  but  the  chem- 
ical discoveries  in  relation  to  it  are  deserving 
of  more  particular  mention.  Its  medicinal  prop- 
erties were  found  to  depend  upon  the  presence 
of  a  substance  called  quinine.  This  exists, 
more  or  less,  in  all  kinds  of  Peruvian  bark,  but 
in  quantities  very  unequal  in  the  various  kinds. 
See  QuixiNE. 

Barkal,  or  Jcbel  Barkal,  an  isolated  sand- 
stone rock,  400  feet  high,  in  Nubia,  near  the 
Fourth  Cataract  of  the  Nile.  It  is  nearly  per- 
pendicular on  all  sides,  but  fully  so  on  the 
side  nearest  the  Nile.  There  are  some  remark- 
able ruins  in  the  vicinity.  Excavations  here 
have  revealed  inscriptions  and  archaeological 
remains  of  great  interest  and  value,  an  account 
of  which  may  be  found  in  Lepsius's  'Denk- 
miiler,^    Vol.  V. 

Bark'entine.     See  Bark  or  Barque. 

Barker,  Albert  Smith,  American  naval  offi- 
cer :  b.  Massachusetts,  March  1843.  He  was 
graduated  at  the  United  States  Naval  Academy 
in  1859;  served  on  the  frigate  Mississippi  in 
the  operations  to  open  the  Mississippi  River 
in  1861-3,  taking  part  in  the  bombardment  and 
passage  of  forts  Jackson  and  St.  Philip  and 
the  Chalmette  batteries,  the  capture  of  New 
Orleans,  and  the  attempted  passage  of  Port 
Hudson,  where  his  vessel  was  destroyed.  He 
became  captain  5  May  1892;  commanded  the 
cruiser  Newark  during  the  war  with  Spain ; 
subsequently  succeeded  to  the  command  of  the 
battleship  Oregon,  which  he  took  to  Manila; 
became  a  rear-admiral,  and  was  placed  in  com- 
mand of  the  Norfolk  Navy  Yard  in  1899;  and 
in  July  1900  succeeded  the  late  Rear-Admiral 
Philip  as  commandant  of  the  Brooklyn  Navy 
Yard. 

Barker,  Edmund  Henry,  English  philolo- 
gist: b.  Hollym,  Yorkshire,  December  1788; 
d.  London,  21  March  1839.  He  undertook  the 
labor  of  reprinting  the  'Thesaurus  Grsecus-"  of 
H.  Stephens,  upon  which  was  expended  an  im- 
mense amount  of  time  and  money,  but  owing  tc 
severe  adverse  criticisms,  the  work  did  not 
appear  in  the  form  which  was  originally  in- 
tended, or  under  his  name.  His  first  work, 
'Classical  Recreations,'  appeared  in  London, 
1812;  one  volume  only  was  published.  He  also 
wrote  several  dissertations,  essays,  etc.,  for  re- 
views ;  a  work  upon  the  claims  of  Sir  Philip 
Francis  to  the  authorship  of  the  Junius  letters ; 
a  Greek  and  English  dictionar3%  etc.  In  the 
latter  part  of  his  life  he  became  so  reduced  that 
he  was  at  one  time  confined  in  a  debtors' 
prison,  and  finally  died  in  an  obscure  lodging- 
house  in  extreme  want. 

Barker,  Fordyce,  American  physician:  b. 
Wilton,  Franklin  County,  Me.,  2  May  1819;  d.  3a 
May  1891.  He  entered  upon  the  practice  of  his 
profession  in  Norwich,  Conn.,  in  1845,  and 
made  a  specialty  of  obstetrics  and  diseases  of 
women.  After  serving  as  professor  of  mid- 
wifery at  Bowdoin,  he  removed  to  New  York 
in  1850.  He  was  an  incorporator  of  the 
New    York    Medical     College    and    obstetricaT 


BARKER  —  B  ARLAAM 


surgeon  to  Bellevue  Hospital,  besides  acting  as 
consulting  physician  in  leading  hospitals.  He 
wrote    VPuerperal   Diseases*    (1872);   and    <0n 

Seasickness.' 

Barker,  George  Frederick,  American 
physicist:  b.  Charlestown,  Mass.,  14  July  1835. 
He  was  graduated  from  Sheffield  Scientific 
School,  1858,  and  Albany  Medical  College,  1863, 
and  from  1859  to  1872  taught  at  Harvard,  Yale, 
Wheaton  College  (111.),  and  Western  Univer- 
sity of  Pennsylvania.  Since  1873  he  has  been 
professor  of  physics  in  the  University  of  Penn- 
sj^lvania.  He  was  a  United  States  commis- 
sioner at  the  International  Electrical  Exhibition 
at  Paris,  1881,  where  he  received  the  Legion 
of  Honor  decoration,  with  rank  of  commander. 
He  has  frequently  served  as  an  expert  in  patent 
and  other  cases,  notably  as  a  government  expert 
in  the  suit  against  the  American  Bell  Telephone 
Company,  and  in  the  Lydia  Sherman  poisoning 
case  in  1872.  His  publications  have  chiefly  ap- 
peared in  the  ^American  Journal  of  Science,' 
^American  Chemist,'  and  "^Proceedings  of  the 
American  Philosophical  Society.'  Others  are, 
besides  text-books  on  chemistry:  ^Nitrous-Ox- 
ide' (1866)  ;  *^ Correlation  of  Vital  and  Physical 
Forces'  (1871)  ;  ^Progress  in  Physics.'  For 
several  years  he  contributed  to  the  Smithsonian 
reports. 

Barker,  Jacob,  American  financier:  b. 
Swan  Island,  Me.,  7  Dec.  1779;  d.  Philadelphia, 
26  Dec.  1871.  He  early  developed  remarkable 
business  ability,  settled  in  New  York,  and 
before  he  was  21  owned  five  trading  vessels  and 
controlled  a  large  credit.  In  1801  he  met  with 
heavy  reverses,  but  obtaining  a  government  con- 
tract for  supplying  oil,  made  up  his  losses,  and 
at  the  outbreak  of  the  War  of  1812,  undertook 
the  raising  of  a  loan  of  $5,000,000  for  the  gov- 
ernment. He  was  a  founder  of  Tammany  Hall, 
and  a  State  senator,  and  established  a  bank  in 
Wall  Street  in  1815  which  failed  in  1819.  His 
financial  methods  aroused  intense  opposition 
and  he  was  once  indicted  for  fraud  and  con- 
victed, but  a  new  trial  quashed  the  indictment. 
Removing  to  New  Orleans  in  1834,  he  was  ad- 
mitted to  the  bar  and  accumulated  a  large  for- 
tune that  was  mostly  lost  during  the  Civil 
War.  During  the  latter  part  of  his  life  he  lived 
in  Philadelphia  with  his  son,  Wharton  Barker. 
See  ^Incidents  in  the  Life  of  Jacob  Barker, 
1800-1855^     (1855). 

Barker,  James  Nelson,  American  author: 
b.  Philadelphia,  17  June  1784;  d.  Washington, 
March  1858.  He  served  wnth  distinction  in  the 
War  of  1812,  but  subsequently  entered  civil  life, 
becoming  mayor  of  his  native  city  in  1820.  He 
was  collector  of  customs  at  Philadelphia  1829-38 
and  during  the  ensuing  20  years  was  comptrol- 
ler of  the  United  States  Treasury.  His  dra- 
matic works,  especially  ^Marmion,'  ^The  In- 
dian Princess,'  and  ^Smiles  and  Tears,'  were 
popular. 

Barker,  Lewellys  Franklin,  Canadian- 
American  anatomist:  b.  Norwich,  Ont.,  1867. 
He  was  a  professor  of  anatomy  at  Johns  Hop- 
kins University  1894-1900,  and  from  1900  has 
been  at  the  head  of  the  department  of  anatomy 
in  the  Rush  Medical  College  of  University  of 
Chicago.  He  is  author  of  ^The  Nervous  Sys- 
tem and  Its  Constituent  Neurones'    (1899). 


Barker,  Matthew  Henry,  English  novelist: 
b.  Deptford,  1790;  d.  London,  29  June  1846. 
He  followed  the  sea,  and  under  the  name  of 
"The  Old  Sailor,"  wrote  spirited  sea  tales, 
very  popular  in  their  day.  They  include  'Land 
and  Sea  Tales'  (1836);  'Life  of  Nelson' 
(1836);  'Topsailsheet  Blocks'  (1838;  new  ed. 
1881);  and  'The  Victory,  or  the  Wardroom 
Mess'    (1844). 

Barker's  Mill,  a  form  of  waterwheel  de- 
vised by  Dr.  Barker,  some  300  years  ago.  It 
turns  about  a  vertical  axis,  down  which  the 
water  that  is  to  operate  it  flows.  At  the 
lower  extremity  of  the  vertical  axis  two  or 
more  hollow  arms  project  horizontally,  like 
the  spokes  of  a  wheel.  Water  is  discharged 
tangentially  from  the  ends  of  these  hollow 
arms,  and  by  its  reaction  causes  the  wheel  to 
rotate.  Barker's  mill  is  now  used  only  as  a 
toy,  although  a  modification  of  it,  invented  by 
Whitelaw,  is  still  used,  to  some  extent,  as  a 
source  of  power  in  Great  Britain,  where  it  is 
known  as  the  Scotch  turbine.    See  Turbine. 

Barking,  England,  a  town  in  Essex,  on 
the  left  bank  of  the  Roding,  about  two  miles 
above  its  junction  with  the  Thames,  and  seven 
miles  northeast  from  London.  The  houses  are 
mostly  of  brick  and  generally  well  built.  It 
has  a  parish  church,  a  handsome  structure,  with 
a  lofty  tower,  and  some  fine  public  buildings. 
There  are  also  the  ruins  of  Barking  Abbey,  at 
one  time  among  the  wealthiest  nunneries  of 
England.  There  are  several  important  indus- 
trial works,  the  largest  being  a  gas  works  em- 
ploying many  hands.  Pop.  (1901)  21,500.  Con- 
sult  'Barking  Town'    (1897). 

Barking  Wolf,  a  name  in  early  American 
books  for  the  prairie  wolf  or  coyote,  on  account 
of  the  greater  resemblance  in  its  voice  to  the 
barking  of  a  dog  than  to  the  howl  of  the 
wolf.     See  Coyote.     • 

Bar'kis,  a  rustic  figure  in  Dickens'  'David 
Copperfield.'  He  proposes  to  David's  nurse, 
Peggotty,  in  the  since  famous  phrase  "Barkis 
is   willin'." 

Barks'dale,  William,  American  statesman 
and  military  officer:  b.  Rutherford  County, 
Tenn.,  21  Aug.  1821 ;  d.  2  July  1863.  He  was 
admitted  to  the  bar  when  under  21,  and  rapidly 
achieved  eminence  in  law  and  politics,  editing 
the  Columbus  Democrat,  and  serving  in  the 
Mexican  war.  He  entered  Congress  in  1853, 
but  resigned  his  seat  when  his  State  seceded, 
and  took  command  of  a  regiment  of  Mississippi 
volunteers.  He  was  made  a  Confederate  brig- 
adier-general after  a  campaign  in  Virginia,  and 
was  killed  at  Gettysburg. 

Barlaam,  bar'la-am,  Italian  theologian: 
b.  Seminaria,  Calabria ;  d.  about  1348.  He  was 
a  monk  of  St.  Basil,  noted  for  his  learning,  and 
particularly  for  his  thorough  knowledge  of 
the  Greek  language.  In  1327  he  visited  Con- 
stantinople, and  in  1331  he  was  appointed  abbot 
of  the  convent  of  St.  Salvator.  In  1339  the 
kings  of  France  and  Sicily  sent  Barlaam  in  vain 
to  Pope  Benedict  XII.  at  Avignon,  for  the 
purpose  of  obtaining  assistance  against  the  Mo- 
hammedans, and  of  arranging  a  union  between 
the  Greek  and  Latin  Churches.  Henceforth  he 
was  engaged  in  various  religious  controversies, 
and   was  defeated  in  them  all.     He  finally  en- 


BARLAAM  AND  JOSAPHAT —  BARLEY 


tered  the  Roman  Catholic  Church,  and  through 
the  influence  of  his  friend,  Petrarch,  received 
from  Pope  Clement  VI.  the  bishopric  of  Geraci. 

Barlaam  and  Josaphat,  one  of  the  most 
popular  of  early  niediccval  romances,  supposed 
to  have  been  written  by  St.  John  of  Damascus, 
—  or  Damascenus,  as  he  is  sometimes  called, — 
a  Syrian  monk  born  about  the  end  of  the  7th 
century.  The  name  of  Barlaam  and  Josaphat 
appear  in  both  the  Greek  and  Roman  lists  of 
saints.  According  to  the  narrative  of  Damas- 
cenus, Josaphat  was  the  son  of  a  king  of  India 
brought  up  in  magnificent  seclusion,  to  the  end 
that  he  might  know  nothing  of  human  misery. 
Despite  his  father's  care,  the  knowledge  of 
sickness,  poverty,  and  death  cannot  be  hidden 
from  him;  he  is  oppressed  by  the  mystery  of 
existence.  A  Christian  hermit,  Barlaam,  finds 
his  way  to  him  at  the  risk  of  life,  and  succeeds 
in  converting  him  to  Christianity.  The  prince 
uses  his  influence  to  promote  the  new  faith 
among  his  people.  When  he  has  raised  his 
kingdom  to  high  prosperity,  he  leaves  it  to 
spend  the  remainder  of  his  days  as  a  holy 
hermit.  Professor  Max  Miiller  traces  a  very 
close  connection  between  the  legend  of  Bar- 
laam and  Josaphat,  and  the  Indian  legends  of 
the  Buddha  as  related  in  the  Sanskrit  of  the 
Lalita  Vistara.  This  connection  was  first 
noticed,  according  to  Prof.  Miiller,  by  AI. 
Laboulaye  in  the  ^Journal  des  Debats'  (July 
1859).  A  year  later,  Dr.  Felix  Liebrecht  made 
an  elaborate  treatment  of  the  subject.  The 
compilers  of  the  ^Gesta  Romanorum,^  Boccac- 
cio, Gower,  and  Shakespeare  have  all  drawn 
materials  from  this  romance. 

Barlaeus,  bar-le'us,  or  Baerle,  Kaspar  van, 
Dutch  historian  and  learned  writer:  b.  Antwerp, 
12  Feb.  1584;  d.  Amsterdam,  14  Jan.  1648. 
His  ^Poems,^  mostly  Latin,  are  not  forcible, 
but  his  *  History  of  Brazil  under  Maurice  of 
Nassau^  is  decidedly  so;  and  he  composed  also 
numerous  fine  orations,  the  influence  he  ex- 
ercised upon  contemporary  thought  bemg  very 
considerable. 

Barletta,  bar-let'ta,  Gabriello,  Italian 
monk :  b.  perhaps  at  Barletta,  in  the  kingdom 
of  Naples,  in  the  15th  century.  He  became 
celebrated  at  Naples  on  account  of  his  sermons, 
in  which  he  mixed  sarcasm  and  the  ludicrous 
with  the  sacred ;  quoting,  now  Virgil,  now 
Moses ;  placing  David  at  the  side  of  Hercules ; 
and  commencing  a  sentence  in  Italian  to  con- 
tinue it  in  Latin,  and  end  it  in  Greek.  Some- 
times he  forgot  himself  so  far  as  to  use  ex- 
pressions of  which  he  had  not  considered  the 
signification,  as  when  he  asked  by  what  signs 
the  Samaritan  knew  Jesus  was  a  Jew.  Very 
serious  authors,  Niceron  and  others,  have  given 
the  response  of  the  preacher ;  but  it  cannot  be 
reproduced  here.  There  is  under  his  name  a 
collection  of  Latin  sermons,  which  have  gone 
through  more  than  20  editions. 

Barletta,  Italy,  a  seaport  town  on  the 
west  shore  of  the  Adriatic,  23  miles  northwest 
of  Bari.  In  the  market-place  is  a  colossal 
bronze  statue,  about  18  feet  high,  supposed  to 
represent  the  Emperor  Heraclius.  A  statue 
of  the  statesman  Massimo  d'  Azeglio,  who  died 
in  1866,  adorns  another  square.  The  cathedral 
is  a  fine  Byzantine  edifice,  the  nave  of  which 
is  supported  by  antique  granite  columns.  There 
are  several  other  churches,  convents  for  both 
Vol.  2 — 21. 


sexes,  an  orphan  institution,  a  colli^ge  founded 
by  Ferdinand  IV.,  and  a  theatre.  The  harbor 
is  formed  by  a  mole  running  out  from  the 
shore.  It  admits  of  small  vessels  only,  but 
good  anchorage-ground  is  found  in  the  road- 
stead. Barletta  has  a  considerable  trade  in 
grain,  wine,  almonds,  and  the  other  productions 
of  the  country,  which  are  exported  to  the  differ- 
ent ports  of  the  Adriatic.     Pop.   (1901)  42,022. 

Barley  (A.  S.  baccrlic,  from  here,  barley  -\- 
leac,  a  leek,  plant)  ;  genus  Hordeum;  our 
fourth  most  important  cereal.  It  belongs  to 
the  natural  order  Graminea  or  grass  family, 
and  is  one  of  the  oldest  of  the  cultivated  mem- 
bers of  this  family.  It  was  cultivated  in  ancient 
Egypt  (Exod.  ix.  31),  by  the  Greeks  and  Ro- 
mans. Pliny  regarded  it  as  the  most  ancient 
food  of  mankind.  It  has  been  found  in  the 
lake  dwellings  of  Switzerland  in  deposits  be- 
longing to  the  Stone  Age.  Ears  of  barley  are 
represented  plaited  in  the  hair  of  the  goddess 
Ceres,  and  are  also  shown  on  ancient  coins. 
One  of  the  sacred  books  of  the  Chinese  claims 
that  it  was  grown  in  China  2000  B.C.  It  grows 
wild  in  western  Asia,  and  some  authorities  re- 
gard this  as  its  original  home.  It  is  adapted  to 
both  warm  and  cold  climates,  has  a  wider 
range  of  distribution  than  any  other  cereal, 
being  grown  all  over  the  region  embraced  in  the 
temperate  zones,  from  Alaska,  Iceland,  and 
Norway  in  the  north  to  Algeria,  Egypt,  India, 
and  other  sub-tropical  countries.  The  Nepaul 
or  Himalaya  barley  is  very  hardy,  producing 
good  crops  at  an  elevation  of  14,000  feet  above 
the  sea.  In  Chile  and  Switzerland  it  thrives  at 
5,000  feet,  but  on  the  plateaus  of  Peru  it  rarely 
ripens. 

This  species  is  divided  into  several  types, 
of  which  the  following  are  recognized:  Two- 
rowed  barley,  Hordeum  distichon;  four-rowed 
barley,  H.  vulgare,  the  common  barley,  here  or 
bigg;  six-rowed  barley,  H.  hexasticlwn;  naked 
barley,  H.  distichon  nudum,  the  flowering  glume 
and  pale  not  adhering  to  the  grain  as  in  other 
types;  fan,  spratt,  or  Battledore  barley,  H.  zeo- 
criton,  two-rowed  with  wide-spreading  awns; 
this  is  valued  in  Germany  and  is  sometimes 
called  German  rice.  These  types  are  further 
subdivided  into  varieties,  the  most  popular  for 
malting  belonging  to  the  two-rowed  type.  The 
best  known  is  the  Chevalier,  which  originated  in 
Suffolk,  England,  in  1819.  This  variety  and 
selections  from  it  constitute  the  high-priced  bar- 
ley of  California.  In  Europe  the  two-rowed 
type  predominates.  In  this  country  the  six- 
rowed  is  more  common.  The  four-rowed  vari- 
eties were  formerly  used  for  malting;  they  are 
hardy  and  productive  but  coarse,  and  are  being 
replaced  by  the  two-rowed.  In  northern  lati- 
tudes well-drained  and  fertile  medium  or  rather 
light  soils,  particularly  those  of  a  calcareous 
nature  are  best.  Strong  loams,  hea\'y'  clays, 
and  soils  rich  in  humus,  produce  heavy  crops, 
but  of  inferior  quality.  In  southern  latitudes 
medium  to  heavy  loams  are  best.  Climate  and 
season  are  of  more  importance  than  soil  in  de- 
termining whether  the  barley  will  be  a  good 
malting  variety  or  not.  A  rather  dry  climate 
suits  well.  The  climate  of  eastern  and  south- 
eastern England  produces  the  best  malting  bar- 
ley. It  may  be  sown  broadcast  or  drilled,  but 
the  latter  method  is  more  satisfactory.  Fall- 
sown  varieties  are  handled  like  fall-sown  wheat, 
but   it   is    generally    sown   in   the    spring   after 


BARLEY  BREAK  — BARLOW 


spring-wheat  sowing  is  over.  The  amount  sown 
varies  from  two  to  three  bushels  per  acre.  It 
germinates  quickly,  and  late  spring  frosts  may 
injure  it.  Fertilizers  when  applied  must  be 
evenly  distributed  or  an  uneven  growth  will 
result.  It  ripens  before  spring  wheat,  and 
should  be  fully  ripe  before  it  is  cut.  The  color 
and  value  of  the  grain  is  easily  injured  by  damp 
weather.  From  30  to  40  bushels  of  grain  and 
1,500  to  2,200  pounds  of  straw  is  a  good  yield. 
Sometimes  this  yield  of  grain  is  doubled.  A 
good  malting  variety  must  have  quick,  high, 
and  even  germinating  power ;  the  grains  must 
be  plump,  heavy,  thin-husked,  and  uniform  in 
size ;  of  good  bright  color,  not  "steely*^  or 
bleached,  indicating  immaturity  when  cut,  nor 
musty ;  must  contain  a  high  percentage  of  starch, 
mealy  not  flinty,  showing  that  the  starch  can 
be  readily  transformed  during  malting.  Barley 
IS  sometimes  attacked  by  rust  and  smut,  but 
less  so  than  wheat.  (See  Rusts;  Wheat.) 
Wireworms  are  sometimes  troublesome.  The 
production  of  barley  in  the  United  States  is  in- 
creasing. In  1866,  7,916,342  bushels  were  grown 
on  492,532  acres.  In  1905,  136,651,020  bushels 
en  5,095,528  acres.  The  four  leading  States  in 
1904  were  Minnesota,  32,123,041  bushels;  Cali- 
fornia, 28,091,999  bushels;  North  Dakota.  17,518,- 
074;  Wisconsin,  14,941,290  bushels.  The  aver- 
age yield  for  the  10  years  1895-1904  was  25.02 
bushels  per  acre.  The  average  farm  value  40.48c 
per  bushel.  In  1904  only  Russia  grew  more 
barley  than  the  United  States. 

Feeding  Value  and  Uses. — The  average  per- 
centage composition  of  barley  is,  water,  10.9; 
proteids,  12.4;  nitrogen-free  extract,  chiefly 
starch,  69.8;  ether  extract,  1.8;  crude  fibre,  2.7; 
ash,  2.4.  Digestion  experiments  with  pigs 
showed  that  80  per  cent  of  the  dry  matter,  81 
per  cent  of  the  protein,  87  per  cent  of  the  nitro- 
gen-free extract,  and  57  per  cent  of  the  ether 
extract  were  digestible.  Barley  is  chiefly  used 
for  malting,  for  the  preparation  of  spirits,  beer, 
and  malted  foods.  It  is  also  employed  in  do- 
mestic cookery  as  *pot  or  hulled  barley^^  in 
which  only  the  husks  are  removed;  "pearl  bar- 
ley^' is  the  grain  deprived  of  husk  and  pellicle, 
then  ground  to  a  round  form  and  polished ; 
"patent  barley"  is  flour  obtained  by  grinding 
pearl  barley.  It  is  used  in  soups,  for  making 
demulcent  and  emollient  drinks  for  invalids  and 
other  purposes.  Barley  bread  is  darker  in  color 
and  less  nutritious  than  that  from  wheat  flour; 
it  does  not  contain  gluten,  but  is  fairly  rich  in 
other  proteids. 

Barley,  or  decoctions  of  it,  are  used  to 
modify  cows'  milk  for  feeding  to  infants.  Bar- 
ley meal  and  the  by-products,  barley  bean,  bar- 
ley feed  (from  pearled  barley)  screenings,  malt 
combs,  and  brewers'  grains  are  used  as  stock 
feeds.  Its  use  for  horse  feed  in  the  United 
States  is  confined  to  the  Pacific  coast.  For 
other  stock  its  use  is  more  general.  It  may  be 
fed  alone  or  with  other  grain.  Barley  hay  is 
grown,  the  crop  being  cut  before  the  grain  is 
mature.  As  a  forage  crop  or  pasture  it  may  be 
grown  alone  or  with  peas,  vetches,  or  other 
quick-growing  legumes.  Barley  straw  is  usually 
considered  as  not  worth  feeding,  but  may  be 
used  as  bedding.     See   Malt. 

Barley  Break,  a  game  once  common,  and 
often  mentioned  by  old  English  writers.  It 
was  played  by  six  young  people,  three  of  either 


sex,  formed  into  couples,  a  young  man  and  a 
young  woman  in  each,  it  being  decided  by  lot 
which  individuals  were  to  be  paired  together. 
A  piece  of  ground  was  then  divided  into  three 
spaces,  of  which  the  central  one  was  profanely 
termed  hell.  This  was  assigned  to  a  couple  as 
their  appropriate  place.  The  couples  who  occu- 
pied the  other  spaces  then  advanced  as  near  as 
they  dared  to  the  central  one  to  tempt  the 
doomed  pair,  who,  with  one  of  their  hands 
locked  in  that  of  their  partner,  endeavored  with 
the  other  to  grasp  them  and  draw  them  into  the 
central  space.  If  they  succeeded,  they  were 
then  allowed  themselves  to  emerge  from  it,  the 
couple  caught  taking  their  places.  That  the 
game  might  not  be  too  speedily  finished,  leave 
was  given  to  the  couple  in  danger  of  being  taken 
to  break  hands  and  individually  try  to  escape, 
while  no  such  liberty  was  accorded  to  those  at- 
tempting to  seize  them. 

Barleycorn,  John,  a  personification  of  the 
spirit  of  barley,  or  malt  liquor.  It  is  commonly 
used  jocularly,  and  in  humorous  verse.  Dr. 
Murray's  ^  Dictionary^  quotes  a  title  in  the  Pepy- 
sian  Library,  about  1620,  "A  pleasant  new  bal- 
lad ...  of  the  bloody  murther  of  Sir  John  Bar- 
leycorn.® Burns'  ballad  on  John  Barleycorn, 
'There  was  Three  Kings  into  the  East,^  is  well 
known. 

Barlow,  Francis  Channing,  American  mil- 
itary officer:  b.  Brooklyn,  N.  Y.,  9  Oct.  1834; 
d.  II  Jan.  1896.  He  studied  law  in  New  York, 
and  practised  there,  but  in  1861  enlisted  as  a 
private  in  the  12th  Regiment,  New  York  State 
National  Guard,  which  was  among  the  first 
troops  at  the  front.  He  was  promoted  lieuten- 
ant after  three  months  of  service ;  colonel  dur- 
ing the  siege  of  Yorktown ;  distinguished  himself 
in  the  battle  of  Fair  Oaks,  or  Seven  Pines,  for 
which  he  was  promoted  brigadier-general,  and 
fought  in  almost  every  subsequent  battle  of  the 
Army  of  the  Potomac.  He  was  severely  wound- 
ed at  Chancellorsville  and  at  Gettysburg,  and 
was  mustered  out  of  the  service  with  the  rank 
of  major-general  of  volunteers.  In  1866-8  he 
was  secretary  of  State  of  New  York;  in  1871 
became  attorney-general ;  and  in  1873  resumed 
law  practice   in    New   York. 

Barlow,  James  William,  Irish  historian:  b. 
21  Oct.  1826.  He  was  professor  of  modern 
history  in  Trinity  College,  Dublin,  from  1861, 
and  has  published  'Lectures  on  Mediaeval  Italy'  ; 
'The  Normans  in  Italy'  ;  'Eternal  Punishment 
or  Eternal  Death'  ;  'The  Ultimatum  of  Pessi- 
mism.' 

Barlow,  Jane,  popular  Irish  novelist:  b. 
Clontarf,  Ireland,  17  Oct.  i860.  The  literary 
quality  is  a  marked  characteristic  of  all  her 
writing.  Her  published  works  include  'Bog- 
land  Studies,'  verse  (1892)  ;  'Irish  Idylls' 
(1892)  ;  'Kerrigan's  Qualitv'  (1893)  >'  ^The 
End  of  Elfintown'  (1894)  ;  'The  Battle  of  the 
Frogs  and  Mice'  (1894)  ;  'Maureen's  Fairing' 
(1895);  'Strangers  at  LisconneP  (1895); 
'Mrs.  Martin's  Company'  (1896)  ;  'Creel  of 
Irish  Stories'  (1897)  ;  ^ From  the  East  Unto  the 
West'  (1898);  'From  the  Land  of  the  Sham- 
rock' (1900)  ;  'Ghost-bereft  and  Other  Stories' 
(1902)  ;  'The  Founding  of  Fortunes'    (1902). 

Barlow,  Joel,  American  poet  and  diploma- 
tist :  b.  Redding,  Conn.,  24  March  1754  ;  d.  near 
Cracow,  Poland,  24  Dec.  1812.  In  1774  he  was 
placed  at  Dartmouth  College,  New  Hampshire 


BARLOW  — BARMOTE  COURT 


and  after  a  short  residence  entered  Yale  Col- 
lege, New  Haven,  where  he  displayed  a  talent 
for  versification,  which  gained  him  the  friend- 
ship of  Dr.  Dwight,  then  a  tutor  there.  Bar- 
low, more  than  once  during  the  vacations  of  the 
college,  served  as  a  volunteer  in  the  army  of 
the  Revolution.  In  1778  he  applied  himself  to 
the  study  of  the  law,  but  soon  after  accepted 
the  position  of  chaplain  in  the  army,  which  he 
held  till  the  close  of  the  war  (1783).  During 
this  period  his  songs  and  addresses  were  said 
to  have  animated  and  encouraged  the  soldiers; 
at  this  time,  too,  he  planned  and  partly  com- 
posed his  'Vision  of  Columbus.*  He  went  to 
Hartford,  where  he  started  a  weekly  newspaper, 
continuing  at  same  time  the  preparation  of  his 
poem  for  the  press.  It  was  published  in  1787, 
and  some  months  after  in  London.  To  pro- 
mote the  sale  of  his  poem,  and  that  of  a  new 
edition  of  the  Psalms  adapted  by  him.  Barlow 
gave  up  the  newspaper  and  became  a  bookseller. 
In  1788  we  find  him  in  France  as  agent  for  a 
number  of  speculators  in  land,  called  the  Ohio 
Company.  The  Revolution  was  then  in  pro- 
gress, and  Barlow  went  about  lecturing  and  or- 
ganizing societies  in  its  favor.  He  went  to 
England  in  1791,  and  was  deputed  in  the  follow- 
ing year  by  the  London  Constitutional  Society 
to  present  an  address  to  the  French  Convention. 
In  1795  he  was  appointed  American  consul  at 
Algiers,  a  post  he  only  held  for  two  years. 
Returning  to  Paris  he  made  some  successful 
com.mercial  speculations  and  acquired  a  consid- 
erable fortune.  He  returned,  after  an  absence  of 
17  years,  to  his  native  country  (1805).  In  1811 
he  was  appointed  minister-plenipotentiary  to 
France.  In  the  following  year,  owing  to  the 
fatigues  and  privations  of  a  journey  to  Wilna 
to  hold  a  conference  with  Napoleon,  he  died 
at  an  obscure  village  near  Cracow.  His  princi- 
pal poem,  the  'Columbiad,''  has  never  been 
popular ;  it  is  defective  in  plan  and  execution, 
overloaded  with  philosophical  discussions  and 
political  tirades;  and  disfigured  by  pedantic  and 
uncouth  words  of  his  own  coinage.  His  prose 
writings  bear  the  stamp  of  an  active  and  ener- 
getic intellect,  but  want  that  ripeness  of  judg- 
ment required  by  the  complex  nature  of  the 
subjects  he  examines.  See  Todd,  'Life  and 
Letters  of  Joel   Barlow^    (iS 


Barlow,  Peter,  English  physicist  and 
mathematician:  b.  Norwich,  October  1776;  d.  i 
March  1862.  He  was  professor  of  mathematics 
in  the  Royal  Military  Academy  at  Woolwich 
for  a  period  of  40  years.  His  greatest  work  is 
the  'Mathematical  and  Philosophical  Diction- 
ary.' He  was  also  the  author  of  an  elaborate 
work  on  the  'Machinery  and  Manufactures  of 
Great  Britain'  (1837)  ;  of  a  treatise  on  the 
'Force  and  Rapidity  of  Locomotives'  (1838)  ; 
and  of  an  'Essay  on  Magnetic  Attraction,'  one 
of  the  first  works  in  which  the  phenomena  of 
magnetism  were  distinctly  enunciated.  He  in- 
vented the  Barlow  lens. 

Barlow,  William  Henry,  English  engineer: 
b.  ID  May  1812;  d.  14  Nov.  1902.  He  was  edu- 
cated for  the  engineering  profession,  and  among 
his  most  notable  achievements  are  the  St.  Pan- 
eras  terminal  station  in  London  and  the  Tay 
Bridge,  constructed  1880-7.  In  1876  he  visited 
the  United  States  as  one  of  the  judges  of  the 
Centennial  Commission.  He  published  'Illurn- 
ination     of     Lighthouses' ;     'Diurnal     Electric 


Tides  and  Storms >  ;  'The  Resistance  of  Flexure 
in  Beams';  'The  Logograph.' 

Barlowe,  Arthur,  English  navigator:  b. 
about  1550;  d.  about  1620.  In  1584  he  was  sent 
with  Philip  Amidas  to  select  a  suitable  loca- 
tion for  Raleigh's  proposed  American  colony. 
They  explored  the  coast  of  North  Carolina  and 
on  their  return  to  England  Barlowe  wrote  an 
enthusiastic  description  of  the  attractions  of 
the  land  they  had  visited. 

Barlows  Disease.     See  Scurvy. 

Barm.     See  Yeast. 

Bar'mecides,  a  celebrated  Persian  family, 
whose  virtues  and  splendor  form  a  favorite  sub- 
ject for  Mohammedan  poets  and  historians. 
Two  eminent  members  were  Khaledben-Barmek, 
prime  minister  of  Caliph  Abul  Abbas  Al-Saffah, 
and  tutor  of  the  celebrated  Haroun  al-Raschid, 
and  his  son  Yahya,  grand  vizier  of  Haroun. 
The  expression  Barmecides'  Feast,  meaning  a 
visionary  banquet  or  make-believe  entertain- 
ment, originates  from  a  story  in  the  Arabian 
Nights'  Entertainments,  of  a  wealthy  Barmecide, 
to  whom  a  poor  man,  Schacabac,  had  applied 
for  charity.  On  the  latter  informing  him  that 
he  was  starving,  the  Barmecide  invited  him  to 
dinner;  and  calling  for  a  succession  of  the  most 
sumptuous  viands,  although  none  were  provided, 
urged  his  guest  to  fall  to  and  enjoy  himself, 
praising  the  merits  of  each  dish  as  it  was  pre- 
tended to  arrive  on  the  table.  Schacabac, 
though  suffering  all  the  pangs  of  hunger,  en- 
tered into  the  eccentric  humor  of  his  host,  de- 
clared his  infinite  enjoyment  of  everything  set 
before  him,  and  by  his  patience  so  won  the 
heart  of  his  eccentric  entertainer,  that  the  lat- 
ter not  only  provided  for  him  immediately  an 
actual  and  plenteous  repast,  but  likewise  took 
him  into  his  house  and  intrusted  him  with  the 
management  of  his  affairs. 

Barmecides'  Feast.     See  Barmecides. 

Bar'men,  a  city  on  the  Wupper,  in 
Rhenish  Prussia.  The  town  of  Barmen  is 
formed  by  the  union  of  seven  villages  contained 
in  the  valley  of  Barmen,  from  which  it  takes 
its  name,  and  its  western  border  adjoins  the 
city  of  Elberfeld.  It  is  the  seat  of  the  Rhen- 
ish Missionary  Society,  which  has  here  a  large 
seminary.  The  valley  is  remarkable  for  natural 
beauty.  The  United  States  has  a  resident  con- 
sul. Barmen  contains  the  principal  ribbon 
manufactories  on  the  Continent,  and  its  ribbons 
are  sent  into  all  parts  of  the  world.  Next  to 
ribbons  the  most  important  textile  manufactures 
are  zanellas  or  Indian  cloths,  satin  for  lining, 
and  lace.  Barmen  also  possesses  numerous 
large  dye-works,  besides  manufactures  of  chem- 
icals, plated  and  other  metal  wares,  buttons, 
yarns,  iron,  machines,  pianos,  organs,  soap,  etc. 
The  city  has  six  railway  stations,  and  one  of 
its  remarkable  features  is  the  electric  swinging 
railway  over  and  along  the  line  of  the  Wupper 
between  Barmen  and  Sonnborn.  Pop.  (1900) 
142,000. 

Bar'mote  Court  (from  hcrg,  hill,  and  mote, 
meeting),  a  name  given  to  local  courts  held  in 
the  lead-mining  portions  of  Derbyshire,  Eng- 
land. Their  purpose  is  the  definition  of  the 
ancient  rights  of  the  inhabitants,  and  the  set- 
tlement of  disputes  connected  therewith.  They 
are  of  ancient  origin,  but  their  scope  has  been 
much    restricted    during   the    Victorian    period. 


BARN  — BARN  SWALLOW 


See  Bainbridge,  <The  Law  of  Mines  and  Min- 
erals^  (5th  ed.  1900). 

Bam  (Saxon,  berern,  from  here,  barley, 
and  em,  a  close  place  or  repository).  The  word 
seems  originally  to  have  denoted  a  building  for 
the  storing  of  grain.  In  modern  times  it  has 
a  wider  signification  —  all  structures  of  any  ca- 
pacity used  on  a  farm  for  storing  crops  and 
sheltering  stock  being  known  as  barns.  In  the 
changeable  climate  of  the  United  States,  with 
its  severe  winters,  protection  to  cattle  becomes 
an  important  item  in  the  operations  of  hus- 
bandry, and  as  our  agriculture  becomes  more 
highly  developed  we  construct  more  expensive, 
convenient,  and  useful  barns.  A  well-built 
barn,  embracing  all  the  conveniences  needed  for 
the  easy  and  safe  storing  of  crops,  and  the 
comfort  and  well-being  of  farm  stock,  will  al- 
ways be  one  of  the  safest  and  best  investments 
a  farmer  can  make.  At  one  time  the  barns  on 
many  estates  were  capacious  enough  to  contain 
all  the  grain  raised  on  them,  but  recently  the 
practice  of  stacking  grain  has  gained  ground, 
and  it  is  now  considered  the  better  plan  — 
building  the  grain  barn  of  sufficient  size  to  con- 
tain one  or  two  ricks  of  grain  at  a  time,  and 
all  the  necessary  appurtenances  for  threshing. 
The  stacked  grain  is  kept  in  better  condition 
from  having  a  freer  circulation  of  air,  and  being 
so  disposed  as  to  be  free  from  the  attacks 
of  vermin.  A  regular  yard  is  set  apart  for 
stacks,  elevated  platforms  are  provided  on  which 
the  stacks  are  built,  and  they  are  so  arranged 
as  to  prevent  vermin  from  climbing  to  them 
from  the  ground,  and  so  far  separated  as  to 
leave  each  stack  isolated.  Many  such  conven- 
iences are  known  to  the  American  farmer.  The 
skeleton  barn,  a  building  but  partially  enclosed, 
spaces  being  left  between  the  boards  for  the 
free  ingress  of  air,  with  a  durable  roof  and 
projecting  eaves,  is  most  used  for  grain,  and 
for  the  storing  of  hay  loosely  trussed  for  mar- 
ket. The  sheep  and  stock  barns  on  the  con- 
tinent of  Europe  are  generally  of  an  inferior 
character,  and  usually  serve  also  as  a  residence 
for  the  family  of  the  servant  or  foreman  of  the 
farm.  The  sheep  and  stock  barns  of  the  United 
States  are  generally  commodious  structures, 
with  wide  sheds  on  each  side,  in  which  the  ani- 
mals find  shelter  and  receive  their  provender,  or, 
when  built  on  a  side  hill,  the  cellar  is  appro- 
priated to  this  purpose.  Sheds  also  surround 
the  whole  yard  in  many  instances,  while  stacks 
of  the  poorer  quality  of  hay  and  threshed  straw 
occupy  the  centre  of  the  yard,  their  contents 
being  freely  used  as  bedding  and  partial  food 
for  cattle,  the  greater  bulk  finding  its  way  into 
the  manure  heap.  These  are  both  comfortable 
quarters  for  the  animals,  and  profitable  for  the 
farmer.  Modifications  of  this  general  plan  are 
made  by  each  farmer  according  to  his  means 
and  peculiar  ideas.  As  a  general  rule,  stock 
barns  are  found  most  profitable  when  they  af- 
ford the  most  ample  accommodations.  The 
greater  the  comfort  of  his  animals,  the  more 
uniform  the  profit  of  the  farmer.  Great  care 
should  be  used  in  the  selection  of  a  place  for 
the  farm  buildings.  The  barns  should  be  easily 
reached,  and  so  arranged  as  to  admit  of  the 
economical  disposition  of  both  crops  and  man- 
ures. The  soil  should  be  dry  and  porous,  or 
should  be  thoroughly  drained.  Ample  provision 
should  be  made  for  the  saving  of  manures. 
Side-hill    barns    aflford    cellars    in    which    these 


may  be  kept  without  waste,  their  bulk  aug- 
mented, and  those  changes  produced  upon  them 
which  are  so  essential  to  their  highest  efficacy. 
If  no  good  springs,  streams,  or  wells  can  be 
obtained,  cisterns  for  rain  water  should  be  pro- 
vided. Barns  are  usually  built  of  wood,  some 
of  stone,  a  few  of  brick,  and  of  concrete  or 
gravel  wall.  The  gravel  wall  can  be  made 
cheaper  than  stone  walls,  and  can  be  built  on 
farms  affording  only  gravel  and  small  stones 
of  a  quality  too  poor  to  build  ordinary  stone 
walls.  Barn  doors  are  usually  of  wood ;  and 
when  intended  for  the  threshing  or  handling  of 
grain  should  be  tight  and  smooth,  and  kept 
clean.  Oak,  beech,  and  yellow  pine  form  excel- 
lent floors.  The  threshing  floors  described  by 
Columella  were  formed  by  wetting  the  earth 
with  the  lees  of  oil,  mixing  in  some  chaff,  and 
ramming  the  whole  down  firmly ;  chaff  was  then 
trodden  on  the  top,  and  the  whole  left  to  dry 
in  the  sun.  The  lees  of  oil  were  said  to  check 
vegetation,  and  drive  away  vermin.  The  prepa- 
ration of  corrugated  iron,  at  a  comparatively 
cheap  rate  of  cost,  suggests  that  material  as 
one  of  the  best  for  a  well-built  barn.  The  roof 
deserves  more  attention  than  it  usually  receives 
at  the  hands  of  the  farmer  who  wishes  to  be 
truly  economical  in  his  expenditure  for  build- 
ings. Finally,  let  all  farmers  remember  that 
ventilation  is  one  of  the  most  important  things 
to  be  secured,  especially  in  stock  barns. 

Barn  Owl,  a  widespread  but  rather  un- 
common owl  (Stri.v  Aamtnea)  which  seems  to 
be  known  in  all  parts  of  the  world,  and  is 
everywhere  recognizable  among  other  owls  by 
the  heart-shaped  form  of  the  facial  disks,  which 
meet  in  a  point  below  the  beak.  These  give  a 
very  quaint  expression,  which  has  led  to  the 
soubriquet  ^^monkey-faced"  in  the  southern 
States.  It  is  about  17  inches  in  length,  and  its 
plumage  is  yellowish-red,  irregularly  marked 
with  lighter  and  darker  tints.  The  eyes  are 
small  and  black  and  surrounded  by  cream-col- 
ored disks,  bordered  with  rust-red.  The  legs 
are  long  and  bear  short  feathers  only.  .  It  is 
more  numerous  in  the  southern  part  of  the 
United  States  than  in  the  northerly  portion,  and 
is  rarely  seen  even  where  many  exist,  since  it 
is  more  completely  nocturnal  in  its  habits  than 
are  most  owls.  It  makes  its  nest  in  hollow 
trees  or  a  niche  in  some  rocky  cliff  or  earthen 
bank,  and  occasionally  nests  in  belfries  or  old 
walls,  as  is  a  common  habit  in  Europe.  The 
nest  is  composed  of  straw  and  feathers  and  the 
eggs  are  white.  H.  K.  Fisher,  author  of  ^The 
Hawks  and  Owls  of  the  United  States'  (1893), 
regards  this  owl  as  probably  the  most  bene- 
ficial of  its  tribe  to  the  agriculturist,  because 
in  America,  at  least,  it  subsists  almost  entirely 
upon  the  small  rodents  so  injurious  to  crops. 
This  is  especially  true  in  the  South,  where  it 
subsists  on  the  cotton  rat  and  the  many  harm- 
ful mice ;  while  in  the  West,  it  catches  gophers, 
ground-squirrels,  and  rabbits,  so  that  it  is  en- 
titled to  gratitude  and  protection.  _  The  same 
beneficent  service  is  reported  for  it  in  other 
parts  of  the  world.  The  American  is  regarded 
by  many  ornithologists  as  a  separate  species, 
Strix  pratincola. 

Barn  Swallow,  one  of  the  most  familiar 
and  wide  spread  of  North  American  swallows 
(Chelidon  erythrogaster) .  Its  plumage  is  lus- 
trous blue,  the  forehead,  chin,  and  throat  dull 


BARNABAS  —  BARNACLE 


chestnut;,  bounded  by  a  collar-like  band  of  blue 
across  the  chest,  below  which  the  plumage  is 
pale  reddish-brown.  By  its  deeply  forked  tail 
it  is  readily  distinguished  from  the  square-tailed 
cliff-swallow  (q.v.),  which  also  throngs  about 
barns,  and  often  is  wrongly  termed  barn  swal- 
low ;  but  the  latter  invariably  puts  its  flask- 
shaped  nests  under  the  eaves  outside  of  the 
structure,  while  the  true  barn  swallow  invaria- 
bly nests  inside  the  building.  These  birds  have 
remarkable  wing  power,  flying  for  many  miles 
at  a  time  at  the  rate  of  more  than  a  mile  a 
minute,  with  consummate  grace  and  ease;  and 
catching  in  the  air  all  their  food,  which  con- 
sists of  winged  insects,  many  of  which  are  in- 
jurious or  annoying  to  man,  so  that  their  pres- 
ence is  of  decided  benefit,  as  well  as  a  pleasant 
accompaniment  of  rural  life.  Before  the  coun- 
try was  densely  populated  the  swallows  made 
their  homes  in  caves,  or  in  niches  of  rocks,  or 
hollow  trees,  but  ever  since  the  civilization  of 
the  country  began,  these  trustful  birds  have  built 
their  nests  close  to  man's  habitation,  every- 
where frequenting  barns  and  outhouses.  Their 
nest  is  composed  of  layers  of  mud,  about  an 
inch  thick,  plentifully  mixed  with  straw,  and 
lined  with  feathers.  They  usually  rear  two 
broods  a  season :  the  first  in  IMay,  and  the  sec- 
ond in  July.  The  eggs  are  four  to  six  in  num- 
ber, white,  with  red  and  purple  spots  and 
splashes  nearly  covering  the  larger  end.  When 
the  second  brood  of  young  are  capable  of  using 
their  wings,  the  swallows  congregate  in  flocks 
of  thousands,  and  m.igrate  southward,  travel- 
ing by  daylight,  instead  of  at  night,  as  is  the 
custom  of  most  migratory  birds.  In  the  north- 
eastern part  of  the  country,  the  barn  swallows 
have  been  nearly  exterminated  by  the  English 
sparrow,  who  seize  their  nest  for  their  own 
breeding  purposes  and  destroy  their  eggs  and 
young  in  a  ruthless  way,  often,  apparently,  in 
a  spirit  of  malicious  mischief. 

Bar'nabas,  the  surname  given  by  the  apos- 
tles to  Joses,  or  Joseph,  a  fellow-laborer  of 
Paul,  and,  like  him,  ranked  as  an  apostle.  He 
is  said  to  have  founded  at  Antioch  the  first 
Christian  community,  to  have  been  first  bishop 
of  Milan,  and  to  have  suffered  martyrdom  at 
Cyprus.  His  festival  is  held  on  ii  June. 
There  is  an  epistle  in  21  chapters  ascribed  to 
Barnabas  by  Tertullian  and  other  early  Chris- 
tian writers,  but  without  any  support  of  internal 
evidence.  It  was  probably  written  between  119 
and  126  B.C.  by  some  one  who  was  not  a  Jew, 
and  under  the  influence  of  Alexandrian  Judaistic 
thought. 

Barnabas,  Cape,  a  headland  of  Alaska, 
which  the  navigator,  Capt.  Cook,  discovered 
on  St.  Bainabas  Day. 

Bar'nabites,  a  religious  order,  properly 
called  "Regular  Clerks  of  the  Congregation  of 
St.  Paul,*^  and  deriving  the  name  of  Barnabites 
from  their  church,  dedicated  to  St.  Barnabas, 
at  Milan.  Their  origin  is  uncertain,  but  is  sup- 
posed to  date  from  the  pontificate  of  Gregory 
XI.  ('1370-8).  A  younger  branch  was  founded 
during  the  i6th  century,  for  the  purpose  of 
preaching  and  administering  the  sacraments 
among  the  populace  of  Milan,  who  had  become 
much  corrupted  by  the  continual  presence  of  a 
multitude  of  German  soldiers  in  the  city,  and 
who  were  also  much  afflicted  by  pestilence.  In 
1579   their    constitutions    and    rules    were   fully 


revised  and  established  under  the  direction  of 
St.  Charles  Borromeo.  They  were  expelled 
from  France  in  1880  and  as  an  order  have 
greatly  declined. 

Barnaby,  Sir  Nathaniel,  English  naval 
architect:  b.  Chatham,  1829.  From  1855  to 
1885  he  was  engaged  in  the  designing  office 
of  the  admiralty  in  the  construction  of  nearly 
all  the  British  naval  vessels.  He  brought 
about  the  substitution  of  steel  for  iron  in  ship- 
building, and  the  subsidizing  of  merchant  ves- 
sels for  use  in  war.  He  was  made  a  K.  C.  B.  in 
1885. 

Barnaby  Rudge,  a  novel  by  Charles  Dick- 
ens, published  in  1841.  The  plot  is  extremely 
intricate.  Some  of  the  most  whimsical  and 
amusing  of  Dickens'  character-studies  appear 
in  the  pages  of  this  novel;  while  the  whole 
episode  of  the  gathering  and  march  of  the  mob, 
and  the  storming  of  Newgate  is  surpassed  in 
dramatic  intensity  by  no  passage  in  modern 
fiction,  unless  by  Dickens'  own  treatment  of 
the  French  Revolution  in  the  ^Tale  of  Two 
Cities.*  Among  the  important  characters,  many 
of  whom  are  the  authors  of  sayings  now  pro- 
verbial, are  Gabriel  Varden,  the  cheerful  and 
incorruptible  old  locksmith,  father  of  Dolly 
Varden ;  Mrs.  Varden,  a  type  of  the  narrow- 
minded  zealot,  devoted  to  the  Protestant  man- 
ual ;  Miss  Miggs,  their  servant,  mean,  treach- 
erous, and  self-seeking;  Sim  Tappertit,  an 
apprentice,  an  admirable  portrait  of  the  half- fool, 
half-knave,  so  often  found  in  the  English  ser- 
vile classes  half  a  century  ago ;  Hugh,  the 
hostler,  and  Dennis,  the  hangman ;  and  Grip, 
the  raven,  who  fills  an  important  part  in  the 
story,  and  for  whom  Dickens  himself  named  a 
favorite  raven. 

Barnacle,  Lord  Decimus  Tite,  the  name  of 
the  nobleman  whom  Dickens  in  his  'Little  Dor- 
rit*  places  in  charge  of  the  circumlocution 
office. 

Barnacle,  a  degenerate  crustacean,  living 
attached  to  rocks  and  the  bottoms  of  ships.  The 
barnacles  would  at  first  glance  hardly  be  re- 
garded as  Crustacea  at  all,  and  were  considered 
to  be  mollusca,  until  in  1836,  Thompson  found 
that  the  young  barnacle  was  like  the  larvas  of 
other  low  Crustacea  (Copcpoda).  The  j'oung 
barnacle  is,  as  in  the  common  sessile  form,  a 
shell-like  animal ;  the  shell  composed  of  several 
pieces  or  valves  with  a  multivalve,  conical,  mov- 
able lid,  having  an  opening  through  which  sev- 
eral pairs  of  long,  many  jointed,  hairy  append- 
ages are  thrust,  thus  creating  a  current  which 
sets  in  toward  the  mouth.  The  common  barna- 
cle (Balanus  balanoides)  abounds  on  every 
rocky  shore  from  extreme  high-water  mark  to 
deep  water,  and  the  student  can,  by  putting  a 
group  of  them  in  sea  water,  observe  the  open- 
ing and  shutting  of  the  valves  and  the  move- 
ments of  the  appendages.  The  structure  of  the 
barnacle  may  best  be  observed  in  dissecting  a 
goose-barnacle  (Lepas  fascicularis).  This  bar- 
nacle consists  of  a  body  (capitulum)  and  leath- 
ery peduncle.  There  are  six  pairs  of  jointed 
feet,  representing  the  feet  of  the  Cyclops.  The 
mouth,  with  the  upper  lip.  mandibles,  and  two 
pairs  of  maxillae,  will  be  found  in  the  middle 
of  the  shell.  A  short  oesophagus  leads  to  a 
pouch-like  stomach  and  tubular  intestine.  This 
form,  like  most  barnacles,  is  hermaphroditic, 
the  ovary  lying  at  the  bottom  of  the  shell,  or, 


BARNACLE-EATER  —  BARNARD 


in  the  pedunculated  forms,  in  the  base  of  the 
peduncle,  while  the  male  gland  is  either  close 
to  or  some  distance  from  the  ovary.  There  is 
also  at  the  base  of  the  shell,  or  in  the  peduncle 
when  developed,  a  cement-gland,  the  secretion 
of  which  is  for  the  purpose  of  attaching  the 
barnacle  when  in  the  "cypris'^  stage  to  some 
rock  or  weed. 

While  the  sexes  are  generally  united  in  the 
same  individual,  in  the  gerera  Ibla  and  Scalpel- 
liim,  besides  the  normal  hermaphroditic  form, 
there  are  females,  and  also  males  called  "com- 
plementary males,''  which  are  attached  parasiti- 
cally  both  to  the  females  and  the  hermaphro- 
ditic forms,  living  just  within  the  valves  or 
fastened  to  the  membranes  of  the  body.  These 
complemental  males  are  degraded,  imperfect 
forms,  with  sometimes  no  mouth  or  digestive 
canal.  The  apparent  design  in  nature  of  their 
different  sexual  forms  is  to  effect  cross-fertili- 
zation. The  eggs  pass  from  the  ovaries  into 
the  body-cavity,  where  they  are  fertilized,  and 
remain  for  some  time.  They  pass  through  a 
morula  condition,  a  suppressed  gastrula  or  two- 
layered  state,  and  hatch  in  a  form  called  a 
"Nauplius,''  from  the  fact  that  the  free-swim- 
ming larva  of  the  Entomostraca  was  at  first 
thought  to  be  an  adult  Crustacean,  and  de- 
scribed under  the  name  of  Nauplius.  The 
Nauplius  of  the  genuine  barnacles  has  three 
pairs  of  legs  ending  in  long  bristles,  with  a 
single  eye  and  a  pair  of  antennae,  the  body  end- 
ing in  front  in  two  horns,  and  posteriorly  in  a 
long  caudal  spine.  After  swimming  about  for 
a  while,  the  Nauplius  attaches  itself  to  some 
object  by  its  antennas,  and  a  strange  transfor- 
mation results.  The  body  is  enclosed  by  two 
sets  of  valves,  appearing  as  if  bivalved,  like  a 
cypris ;  the  peduncle  grows  out,  concealing  the 
rudimentary  antennje,  and  the  feet  become 
smaller,  and  eventually  the  barnacle  shape  is 
attained.  The  common  barnacle  {Balanus  ba- 
lanoides)  attains  its  full  size  after  becoming 
fixed,  in  one  season ;  that  is,  between  April  and 
November. 

Barnacle-eater.     See  File-fish. 

Barnacle  Goose.   See   Bernacle  Goose. 

Barnard,  Lady  Anne,  Scottish  poet,  author 
of  <Auld  Robin  Gray'  :  b.  1750;  d.  26  May  1825. 
She  was  the  eldest  daughter  of  James  Lindsay, 
fifth  Earl  of  Balcarres,  and  in  1793  married  An- 
drew Barnard,  a  son  of  the  bishop  of  Limerick, 
and  colonial  secretary  to  Lord  Macartney  at  the 
Cape  of  Good  Hope.  There  Lady  Anne  lived 
till  1807,  when,  losing  her  husband,  she  re- 
turned to  London,  her  residence  till  her  death. 
Her  famous  lyric  was  written  as  early  as  1772 
to  sing  to. an  ancient  melody;  but  she  first  ac- 
knowledged its  authorship  in  1823  to  Sir  Walter 
Scott,  who  two  years  later  edited  it  for  the 
Bannatyne  Club,  with  two  continuations.  Her 
^Letters'  were  published  in  1901. 

Barnard,  Charles,  American  dramatist:  b. 
Boston,  Mass.,  13  Feb.  1838.  He  is  a  journalist 
and  dramatist.  His  most  popular  play  is  <The 
County  Fair'-  (1888).  Author  of  ^The  Tone- 
Masters'  (New  York  1871)  ;  <Knights  of  To- 
Day'  (1881)  ;  (The  Whistling  Buoy'  (1887)  ; 
dramas,  and  books  on  gardening  and  electricity. 

Barnard,  Mrs.  Charlotte  Arlington,  «Clari- 
REL."  English  comnoser  of  songs  and  ballads: 
b.  1830;  d.  1869.  She  wrote  nearly  100  ballads 
between  1858  and  i860  under  the  pseudonym  of 


Claribel,  many  of  them  becoming  very  popu- 
lar, "Won't  You  Tell  Me  Why,  Robin?"  and 
"Come  Back  to  Erin,"  being  especially  well 
known.  In  most  cases  she  wrote  the  words  for 
her  songs,  and  she  was  also  the  author  of  a  vol- 
ume of  "^Thoughts,  Verses,  and  Songs.' 

Barnard,  Daniel  Dewey,  American  lawyer: 
b.  Shefheld,  Mass.,  16  July  1797;  d.  Albany,  N. 
Y.,  24  April  1861.  He  was  admitted  to  the  bar 
and  began  practice  at  Rochester,  N.  Y.,  ib2i. 
He  was  a  representative  in  Congress,  1827-9, 
and  1839-45,  serving  as  chairman  of  the  Ju- 
diciary Committee.  From  1850  to  1853  he  was 
minister  to  Russia.  He  gave  much  time  to 
literary  pursuits,  publishing  several  addresses 
and  speeches. 

Barnard,  Edward  Emerson,  American  as- 
tronomer :  b.  Nashville,  Tenn.,  16  Dec.  1857.  He 
was  astronomer  in  Lick  Observatory,  Cali  • 
fornia,  in  1887-95,  and  then  became  professor 
of  astronomy  in  Chicago  University.  His  prin- 
cipal discoveries  are  the  fifth  satellite  of 
Jupiter  in  1892,  and  16  comets.  He  has  made 
photographs  of  the  Milky  Way,  the  comets, 
nebulae,  etc.  The  French  Academy  of  Sciences 
awarded  him  the  Lalande  gold  medal  in  1892, 
and  the  Arago  gold  medal  in  1893,  and  the 
Royal  Astronomic'I  Society  of  Great  Britain 
gave  him  a  gold  medal  in  I097.  He  is  a 
member  of  many  American  and  foreign 
societies,  and  a  contributor  to  astronomical 
journals. 

Barnard,  Frederick  Augustus  Porter, 
American  educator :  b.  Shefheld,  Mass.,  5  May 
1809;  d.  27  April  1889.  He  was  graduated  at 
Yale  College  in  1S28 ;  instructor  there  in  1830 ; 
professor  of  mathematics  and  natural  philosophy 
in  the  University  of  Alabama,  1837-48,  and  af- 
terward of  chemistry  and  natural  history  till 
1854;  professor  of  mathematics  and  astronomy 
in  the  University  of  Mississippi,  1854-61 ;  its 
president  in  1856-8;  and  its  chancellor  in 
1858-61.  He  was  president  of  Columbia  Col- 
lege, New  York,  in  1864-88.  In  i860,  he  was 
appointed  a  member  of  the  expedition  to  ob- 
serve the  eclipse  of  the  sun  in  Labrador ;  was 
engaged  in  1862  in  reducing  observations  of  the 
stars  in  the  southern  hemisphere ;  had  charge  of 
the  publication  of  charts  and  maps  of  the  United 
States  Coast  Survey  in  1863 ;  was  named  one  of 
the  original  incorporators  of  the  National  Acad- 
emy of  Sciences  in  1863 ;  was  one  of  the  L^nited 
States  commissioners  to  the  Paris  Exposition 
in  1867;  member  of  the  American  Philosophical 
Societ3^  corresponding  member  of  the  Royal  So- 
ciety of  Liege,  and  member  of  many  other  scien- 
tific and  literary  associations.  Among  his  publi- 
cations are:  ^Letters  on  College  Government' 
(1854)  ;  *^ Report  on  Collegiate  Education' 
(1854)  ;  ^Art  Culture'  (1854)  ;  < History  of  the 
American  Coast  Survey'  (1857);  ^  University 
Education'  (1858)  ;  ^Undulatory  Theory  of 
Light'  (1862)  ;  'Machinery  and  Processes  of 
the  Industrial  Arts,  and  Apparatus  of  Exact 
Science'  (1868)  ;  "^Metric  System  of  Weights 
and  Measures'  (1871)  ;  *^  Recent  Progress  of  Sci- 
ence' ;  etc.  Barnard  College,  affiliated  with 
Columbia  University,  was  named  in  his  honor. 

Barnard,  George  Grey,  American  sculptor 
of  eminence:  b.  Bellefonte,  Pa.,  24  May  1863.  He 
studied  at  the  Chicago  Art  Institute  and  the 
ficole  Nationale  des  Beaux  Arts,  Paris,  1884-7. 
He  first  exhibited  at  the  salon  of  1894.    In  1900 


BARNACLE,  BALANOGLOSSUS,   ETC. 


1.  Common  Barnacle    (Balanus) 

2.  Larva  of  Lepas. 


3.  Mussel  (Lepas  anatifera). 

4.  Megalasma  striatum. 


5.   Balanoglossus     clavigerus,   young 
specimen. 


BOT  FLIES  AND  BLOW  FLIES. 


1.  Cattle  Bet  Fly.     a.  Adult;  b.  Larva;  c.  Pupa,  all  enlarged. 

2.  Sheep  Bot  Fly.     a,  Adult;  b.  Larva,  from  above;  c,  Pupa. 

3.  Horse  Bot  Fly.     a.  Adult;  b.  Egg,  attached    to  a  hair. 

4.  Blow  Flies.  I,  Musca  vomitoria;  a.  Adult;  b,  Egg;  c.  Larva;  d.  Pupa;  e,  Sarcophaga  carnaria;  f.  Newly  born' 
larvae;  g,  Growing  larvae;  h,  Musca  domesticia  and  larva;  i,  Stomax  calcitrans;  j,  Head  of  fly  enlarged;  k,  Foot  of  fly 
enlarged;  1,  House  fly,  poisoned  by  Fly-asaric. 


BARNARD  —  BARNARDO 


he  received  a  gold  medal  at  the  Paris  Exposi- 
tion. His  chief  works,  largely  symbolical  in 
character,  are:  'Brotherly  Love,^  'The  Two 
Natures*  (in  the  Metropolitan  Museum),  'The 
God  Pan>  (Central  Park),  and  'The  Hewer.> 
His    studio   is    in    New    York. 

Barnard,  Henry,  American  educator:  b. 
Hartford,  Conn.,  24  Jan.  181 1;  d.  5  July  1900. 
He  was  president  of  the  University  of  Wiscon- 
sin (1856-9),  and  St.  John's  College,  Annapolis, 
Md.  (1865-6)  ;  founded  the  'American  Journal 
of  Education'  (1855)  ;  was  the  first  United 
States  commissioner  of  education  (1867-70). 
Among  his  numerous  writings  are:  'Hints  and 
Methods  for  Teachers'  (1857)  :  'Pestalozzi  and 
Pestalozzianism'  (1861)  ;  'German  Educational 
Reformers'  (1862)  ;  etc.  In  1886  he  began  to 
publish  the  'American  Library  of  Schools  and 
Education,'  a  collection  of  800  of  his  own  writ- 
ings, reports,  etc. 

Barnard,  John,  American  Congregational 
clergyman :  b.  Boston,  6  Nov.  1681  ;  d.  24  Jan. 
1770.  He  was  one  of  the  earliest  New  England 
dissenters  from  Calvinism.  Ordained  colleague 
minister  of  Marblehead  (1716)  ;  he  took  great 
interest  in  the  local  fisheries  and  commerce.  He 
wrote  'History  of  the  Strange  Adventures  of 
Philip  Ashton'    (1725),  etc. 

Barnard,  John  Gross,  American  military 
engineer:  b.  Sheffield,  Mass.,  19  May  1815;  d. 
14  May  1882;  brother  of  F.  A.  P.  Barnard 
(q.v.).  He  was  graduated  at  the  United  States 
Military  Academy  in  1833  ;  served  from  1835  to 
1852  on  the  coast  of  the  Gulf  of  Mexico ;  and 
was  brevetted  major  in  the  Mexican  war.  He 
subsequently  had  charge  of  the  fortifications  of 
San  Francisco  and  New  York  harbors. 

Barnard,  Joseph  Folger,  American  jurist: 
b.  Poughkeepsie,  N.  Y.,  1823;  d.  there  6  Jan, 
1904.  He  was  graduated  from  Yale  University 
in  1841  ;  admitted  to  the  New  York  bar  1844; 
was  elected  justice  of  the  State  supreme  court 
in  1862,  and  was  re-elected,  holding  the  office 
until  his  death, 

Barnard  College,  an  educational  institution 
for  women  in  New  York,  affiliated  with  Co- 
lumbia University  (q.v.),  and  founded  in  1889. 
The  admission  of  women  to  Columbia  on  the 
same  terms  as  men  had  been  warmly  urged  for 
some  years  by  President  F.  A.  P.  Barnard 
(q.v.),  when  in  1882  the  trustees  consented  to 
allow  their  attendance  at  the  lectures,  but  de- 
clined to  grant  matriculation  or  examination. 
This  being  found  contrary  to  the  statutes  of 
Columbia,  on  8  June  1883  a  collegiate  course 
duplicating  that  for  the  men  was  opened  to 
women  outside  the  college,  but  taught  by  the 
same  instructors,  with  the  same  examinations, 
and  rewarded  with  a  degree.  The  plan  was 
abandoned  after  five  years'  trial,  and  in  March 
1888  a  proposal  was  made  to  establish  a  wo- 
man's annex,  to  be  separately  financed,  but  man- 
aged under  the  approval  of  the  trustees  of  Co- 
lumbia; the  women  to  pursue  the  same  courses 
under  the  same  instructors,  in  such  wise  as  not 
to  interfere  with  the  men's  classes.  Columbia  to 
appoint  the  examiners  and  confer  the  degrees. 
This  was  accepted,  and  in  1889  the  institution 
was  opened  under  the  name  of  Barnard  Col- 
lege, with  seven  students.  Later  the  rule  of 
common    instructors    was    so    far   relaxed    that 


the  professors  in  Barnard  were  only  required  to 
have  the  approval  of  Columbia,  and  since  then 
the  deans  and  some  professors  have  been  wo- 
men ;  still  later,  each  institution  assumed  the 
support  of  three  professorships  in  the  other. 
After  a  time  certain  classes  of  the  senior  year 
and  many  post-graduate  classes  were  opened 
to  women,  subject  in  all  cases  to  the  consent  of 
each  professor.  The  growth  of  Barnard  College 
rendered  these  provisional  arrangements  unsat- 
isfactory, and  they  were  modified  by  making 
Barnard  formally  a  part  of  the  Columbia  system, 
19  Jan.  1900.  At  present  the  president  of  Co- 
lumbia is  ex  officio  president  and  a  trustee  of 
Barnard,  while  the  dean  of  Barnard  controls 
its  internal  management  and  has  a  vote  in  the 
council  of  Columbia.  Barnard,  however,  re- 
mains a  distinct  institution,  separately  financed, 
with  its  own  trustees,  and  supports  a  complete 
undergraduate  course.  Columbia  grants  all 
Barnard  degrees  as  its  own,  and  the  Columbia 
library  is  free  to  Barnard  students,  and  certain 
post-graduate  courses  are  open  to  members  of 
both  institutions.  Barnard  College  received  32 
new  students  during  its  first  year,  had  doubled 
the  number  three  years  later,  and  16  years  from 
its  foundation,  in  1905,  had  57  professors  and 
366  students,  and  had  graduated  455  in  all. 
The  productive  funds  are  $28,333  and  income 
$119,157.  Bcirnard  was  started  without  further 
resources  than  a  few  four-years  subscriptions, 
but  speedily  attracted  donations  and  endowments 
which  have  enabled  it  to  keep  pace  with  its  rap- 
idly growing  demands.  Up  to  March  1902,  it 
had  an  endowment  of  $250,000;  in  that  month 
an  equal  amount  was  added  by  John  D.  Rocke- 
feller, and  another  $250,000  was  the  result  of 
lesser  gifts.  In  March  1903,  a  gift  of  $i,ooo,oco 
was  made  to  the  college  by  Mrs.  Elizabeth  Mil- 
bank  Anderson,  who  had  previously  given  Mil- 
bank  Hall  to  the  institution.  Among  its  build- 
ings are  Biinkerhoff  Hall,  chiefly  built  from 
gifts  by  Mrs.  Van  Wyck  Brinkerhoff;  Fiske 
Hall,  given  by  Mrs.  Josiah  M.  Fiske;  and  Mil- 
bank  Hall,  given  by  Mrs.  Abram  A.  Anderson. 
'  The  first  dean  of  Barnard  was  Miss  Emily 
James  Smith  (who  subsequently  became  the 
wife  o"  George  Haven  Putnam,  the  New  York 
publisher),  and  in  looi  she  was  succeeded  by 
Miss  Laura  Drake  Gill. 

Barnar'do,  Thomas  John,  English  philan- 
thropist: b.  Ireland,  1845;  d.  London.  Eng.,  19 
Sept.  1905.  He  founded  the  Barnardo  Homes 
for  homeless  children,  his  attention  being  turned 
in  this  direction  by  the  condition  of  a  boy 
in  a  ragged  school  in  east  London  in  1866 
Following  up  the  subject,  he  began  to  rescue 
children  who  had  found  their  only  shelter  at 
night  under  archways,  or  in  courts  and  alleys. 
These  were  introduced  to  his  homes,  where  they 
received  an  industrial  training,  were  saved  from 
a  possible  career  of  crime,  and  enabled  to  achieve 
an  honorable  position  in  life.  In  1899  over 
36.000  boys  and  girls  had  passed  through  the 
homes :  at  the  same  time  Dr.  Barnardo  had  under 
his  direction  in  the  Ilnited  Kingdom  and  the 
colonies  24  mission  branches  and  86  distinct 
homes  dealing  with  every  age  and  class  _  of 
needy  and  destitute  childhood,  including  an  im- 
migration depot  in  Ontario,  an  industrial  farm 
in  Manitoba,  a  home  for  babies,  and  a  hospital 
for  sick  children.  Up  to  1899  the  number  of 
trained  and  tested  boys  and  girls  who  had  been 
placed'  in  colonial  situations  exceeded  10,000. 


BARNATO  —  BARNES 


Barna'to,  Barney,  or  Barnett,  South  Afri- 
can speculator,  whose  real  name  is  believed  to 
have  been  Bernard  Isaac :  b.  London,  England, 
about  1845,  of  Hebrew  parents;  d.  14  June  1897. 
He  began  business  as  a  dealer  in  diamonds,  and 
in  five  years  earned  enough  to  buy  shares  in 
the  Kimberley  diamond  mines.  He  established 
a  partnership  with  Cecil  Rhodes,  and,  when,  in 
1886,  gold  was  discovered,  secured  possession  of 
the  greater  part  of  the  region.  He  committed 
suicide  by  jumping  from  the  deck  of  the  steamer 
Scot,  bound  from  Cape  Town  to  Southampton. 
See  Isaac's  ^Life  of  Barnett  Barnato^   (1897). 

Barnaul,  bar-nowl',  a  mining  town  of 
Siberia,  in  the  government  of  Tomsk,  and  230 
miles  southwest  of  the  town  of  that  name,  on 
the  Barnaulski,  near  its  junction  with  the  Obi. 
It  is  well  built,  and  the  streets  are  regular  and 
spacious.  The  chief  edifices  are  of  wood.  There 
is  a  mining-school,  an  observatory,  a  public 
library,  a  museum,  etc.  Lead  is  smelted  from 
the  mines  in  the  neighborhood ;  there  are  lime 
and  brick  kilns,  a  mint  for  copper  coins,  and 
manufactories.     Pop.    (1897)   29,408. 

Barnave,  bar-nav,  Antoine  Pierre  Joseph 
Marie,  French  orator:  b.  Grenoble,  1761 ;  d. 
Paris,  29  Nov.  1793.  He  was  chosen  a  deputy 
of  the  tiers  ctat  to  the  assembly  of  the  states- 
general,  and  showed  himself  an  open  enemy  to 
the  court.  The  Constituent  Assembly  appointed 
him  their  president  in  January  1791.  After  the 
flight  of  the  king  he  defended  Lafayette  against 
the  charge  of  being  privy  to  this  step,  and,  upon 
the  arrest  of  the  royal  family,  was  sent,  with 
Petion  and  Latour-Maubourg,  to  meet  them, 
and  to  conduct  them  to  Paris.  When  the  corre- 
spondence of  the  court  fell  into  the  hands  of  the 
victorious  party,  10  Aug.  1792,  they  pretended  to 
have  found  documents  which  showed  him  to 
have  been  secretly  connected  with  it,  and  he  was 
guillotined.  See  Salvandy,  *Life  of  Barnave^  ; 
Lamartine,   ^History  of  the  Girondists.' 

Barnburners,  a  nickname  for  the  progress- 
ive section  of  the  New  York  State  Democracy 
from  about  1844  to  1852,  which  retaliated  by  call- 
ing the  other  party  "Hunkers.^'  They  were  essen- 
tially the  same  party  which  from  1835  onward 
had  favored  extension  of  the  canal  system,  while 
their  opponents  were  the  same  who  wished  it 
restricted  to  immediately  profitable  canals ;  but 
under  these  names  the  division  was  on  the  slav- 
ery question  (see  Free-Soil  Party),  in  which 
the  Barnburners  were  the  Van  Buren  or  Free- 
Soil  wing.  They  also  stood  for  the  local  con- 
trol by  the  ^'Albany  Regency,'^  as  against  the 
Polk  "machine"  which  the  new  administration 
was  trying  to  build  up  in  New  York,  and  which 
favored  the  extension  of  slavery  into  the  Terri- 
tories. About  1852  the  nicknames  changed  into 
^^Softs'^  and  "Hards,''  corresponding  with  new 
issues  to  the  later  "Half-breeds"  and  "Stal- 
warts." The  origin  of  the  name  is  usually  de- 
rived from  the  familiar  campaign  story  of  the 
man  who  burned  his  barn  to  free  it  from  rats. 

Barnby,  Joseph,  Sir,  English  composer 
and  organist :  b.  York,  12  Aug.  1838 ;  d.  London, 
28  Jan.  1896.  He  was  chorister  in  York  Min- 
ster; organist  St.  Andrew's,  Wells  Street,  Lon- 
don, 1863-71  ;  precentor  and  choir-master  St. 
Ann's,  Soho,  1871 ;  precentor  and  director  of 
musical  instruction  in  Eton  College,  1875,  and 
head  of  the  Guildhall  School  of  Music  ip  Lon- 
don from  1892.     His  cantatas  of  "Rebekah,"  a 


sacred  idyll,  and  "The  Lord  Is  King" ;  numer- 
ous highly  interesting  services  and  anthems 
(such  as  "King  All  Glorious"),  for  the  Church, 
as  well  as  several  secular  choruses  and  songs, 
rendered  him  famous  both  in  England  and  the 
United  Stales.     He  was  knighted  in  1892. 

Bar'negat  Bay,  a  bay  on  the  east  coast  of 
New  Jersey,  about  25  miles  in  length,  and  sepa- 
rated from  the  ocean  by  Squan  and  Island 
beaches.  Barnegat  Inlet  connects  it  with  the 
Atlantic.  On  the  south  side  of  the  inlet  is  a 
lighthouse   150  feet   high. 

Barnes,  Albert,  American  theologian:  b. 
Rome,  I  Dec.  1798;  d.  Philadelphia,  24  Dec.  1870. 
Until  the  age  of  17  he  was  employed  by  his 
father,  who  was  a  tanner,  in  his  own  occupa- 
tion. At  the  age  of  22  he  graduated  at  Hamil- 
ton College,  and  after  studying  theology  at 
Princeton  was  licensed  to  preach  in  1824,  and 
ordained  pastor  to  the  Presb3'terian  Church  of 
Morristown,  N.  J.,  in  February  1825.  In  1830 
he  was  removed  to  the  pastoral  charge  of  the 
First  Presbyterian  Church  in  Philadelphia, 
where  he  remained  till  his  death.  He  is  chiefly 
known  by  his  *^ Notes  on  the  New  Testament,' 
published  in  11  volumes  between  1832  and  1848; 
and  his  < Notes  on  the  Old  Testament,'  com- 
pleted in  1870,  which  are  favorite  works  with 
Sunday-school  teachers  and  others  engaged  in 
biblical  tuition.  Other  works  of  his  are:  ^The 
Church  and  Slavery'  (1857)  ;  ^The  Atonement 
in  Its  Relations  to  Law  and  Moral  Government' 
(1859)  ;  "^Evidences  of  Christianity'  (1868)  ; 
^Life  at  Threescore  and  Ten'  (1869).  He  was 
tried  for  heresy  on  account  of  his  belief  in  un- 
limited atonement,  and  though  acquitted,  the 
eventual  result  of  the  trial  was  to  divide 
the  Presbyterian  body  in  the  United  States  into 
the  Old  and  New  School  branches  in  1837. 

Barnes,  Alfred  Smith,  American  publisher: 
b.  New  Haven,  Conn.,  28  Jan.  1817;  d.  Brook- 
lyn, N.  Y.,  17  Feb.  18S8.  He  began  his  career  in 
the  book  store  of  D.  F.  Robinson  &  Company  in 
Hartford,  Conn.,  removing  to  New  York  with  the 
firm.  At  the  age  of  21  he  formed  a  connection 
with  Prof.  Charles  F.  Davies  and  began  publish- 
ing the  latter's  mathematical  works,  personally 
canvassing  for  them  every  State  in  the  coun- 
try. In  1840  he  removed  his  business  to  Phila- 
delphia, but  returned  to  New  York  in  1855.  He 
confined  his  publications  almost  exclusively  to 
school  text-books.  Retiring  from  active  man- 
agement in  1880  he  left  five  sons  to  continue 
the  business.  At  his  death  he  left  large  be- 
quests to  charities  and  educational  institutions. 

Barnes,  Barnabe,  English  poet:  b.  York- 
shire, about  1569;  d.  Durham,  England,  De- 
cember 1609.  He  was  the  son  of  a  bishop  of 
Durham ;  was  educated  at  Oxford ;  and  went  to 
Normandy  in  1591  with  the  Earl  of  Essex.  Flis 
fame  rests  on  a  collection  of  sonnets,  madrigals, 
and  odes,  called  "^Parthenophil  and  Parthenope' 
(about  1593).  Other  books  of  his  are:  ^A  Di- 
vine Century  of  Spiritual  Sonnets'  (1595)  >'  arid 
^The  Devil's   Charter,'    a  tragedy    (1607). 

Barnes,  Charles  Reid,  American  botanist: 
b.  Madison,  Ind.,  7  Sept.  1858.  He  was  edu- 
cated at  Hanover  (Ind.)  College,  1877,  and  pur- 
sued graduate  studies  at  Harvard.  He  held 
professorships  in  Purdue  University  and  the 
University  of  Wisconsin,  1880-98,  and  since 
1898  has  been  professor  of  plant  physiology  in 
the  University  of  Chicago.     He  is  the  author  of 


BARNES  —  BARNEVELDT 


^Outlines  of  Plant  Life^  (1900)  ;  joint  author  of 
^ Plant  Dissection^  ;  and  *^Keys  to  the  Genera  and 
Species  of  North  American  Mosses'  (i8go). 
He  has  contributed  many  papers  to  the  ^Botani- 
cal Gazette,'  of  which  he  has  been  an  editor 
since  1883. 

Barnes,  Dame  Juliana.  See  Eerners,Daaie 
Juliana. 

Barnes,  James^  American  soldier:  b.  Bos- 
ton, Mass.  1806;  d.  Springfield,  Mass.,  12  Feb. 
1869.  Appointed  to  West  Point  from  Massa- 
chusetts, he  graduated  there  in  1829,  standing 
fifth  in  a  class  which  included  R.  E.  Lee,  J.  E. 
Johnston,  and  a  number  of  others  who  after- 
ward became  distinguished.  Resigning  from  the 
army  after  seven  years'  service,  he  became  a 
vailroad  engineer  and  built,  either  wholly  or  in 
part,  the  Rome  &  W.,  Sacketts'  H.  &  E., 
the  Bufifalo,  C.  &  N.  Y.,  the  Terre  Haute,  A.  & 
St.  L.,  and  the  Potsdam  &  W.  R.R.'s,  between 
1848  and  1857.  During  the  Civil  War  he  was  col- 
onel of  the  i8th  Massachusetts  Volunteers  1861-2, 
and  brigadier-general  of  United  States  Volun- 
teers 1862-5.  He  was  present  at  the  battles  of 
Antietam,  Fredericksburg,  Chancellorsville,  and 
Gettysburg,  where  he  was  severely  wounded. 
Exposure  and  wounds  so  impaired  his  constitu- 
tion that  he  was  unable  to  engage  activel}^  in  his 
profession  after  the  War. 

Barnes,  James,  American  author:  b.  An- 
napolis, Md.,  19  Sept.  1866.  He  was  graduated 
from  Princeton  University  in  1891,  and  has  been 
connected  in  an  editorial  capacity  with  "^Scrib- 
ner's  Magazine'  and  *■  Harpers'  Weekly.'  Dur- 
ing the  Boer  war  he  acted  as  a  correspondent 
in  the  field  for  the  ^Outlook.'  His  books  are: 
*  Naval  Actions  of  1812'  ;  *For  King  or  Coun- 
try' ;  ^Yankee  Ships  and  Yankee  Sailors'  ;  ^A 
Loyal  Traitor';  *The  Hero  of  Erie'  (1898); 
*A  Princetonian'  ;  "^David  G.  Farragut'  (1899)  ; 
^ Drake  and  His  Yeomen'  (1899);  < Great  War 
Trek  with  the  British  Army  on  the  Veldt' 
(1901)  ;  "^With  the  Flag  in  the  Channel'   (1902). 

Barnes,  Joseph  K.,  American  surgeon:  b. 
Philadelphia,  21  July  1817;  d.  Washington,  D. 
C,  5  April  1883.  He  was  educated  in  the  medi- 
cal department  of  the  University  of  Pennsyl- 
vania ;  became  assistant  surgeon  in  the  army  in 
1840,  and  served  at  various  posts  through  the 
Mexican  war.  At  the  beginning  of  the  Civil 
War  he  was  summoned  from  Oregon  and  as- 
signed to  duty  in  the  office  of  the  surgeon- 
general.  In  1863  he  was  appointed  a  medical 
inspector,  with  the  rank  of  colonel,  and  in  Sep- 
tember of  the  same  year  was  promoted  to 
brigadier-general.  In  1865  he  was  brevetled 
major-general.  United  States  Army.  He  was 
surgeon-general  of  the  army  from  1864  till  1882, 
when  he  was  retired. 

Barnes,  William,  English  dialect  poet  and 
philologist:  b.  Rushay,  Dorsetshire,  in  1800;  d. 
7  Oct.  1886.  Of  humble  birth,  he  first  entered  a 
solicitor's  office,  then  taught  a  school  in  Dor- 
chester, and  having  taken  orders  became  rector 
of  Winterbourne  Came  in  his  native  county,  and 
died  there.  He  acquired  a  knowledge  of  many 
languages,  and  published  ^An  Anglo-Saxon  De- 
lectus' ;  <A  Philological  Grammar,'  grounded 
upon  English;  <^Grammar  and  Glossary  of  the 
Dorset  Dialect,'  etc.,  but  is  best  known  by  his 
<  Poems  of  Rural  Life,'  in  the  Dorset  dialect, 
and  < Rural  Poems,'   in  common  English. 


Barnesville,  Ohio,  town  in  Belmont 
County,  on  the  B.  &  O.  R.R.,  32  miles  west  of 
Wheeling.  It  is  the  centre  of  an  extensive  to- 
bacco and  fruit  region  and  has  numerous  man- 
ufactories. It  has  a  national  bank,  schools, 
churches  and  several  newspapers.  Pop.  (1900) 
3,721. 

Bar'net,  or  High  Barnet,  a  town  of  Eng- 
land, in  Herts,  11  miles  from  London.  Pop. 
(1901)   7,900. 

Barneveldt,  bar'ne-velt,  John  van   Olden, 

Dutch  statesman:  b.  1549;  d.  13  May  1619. 
He  early  showed  himself  zealous  for  the  inde- 
pendence of  the  United  Provinces,  and  as 
advocate-general  of  the  province  of  Holland  dis- 
played profound  views  and  great  skill  in  busi- 
ness. He  preserved  his  country  against  the 
ambition  of  Leicester ;  penetrated  the  secret 
plans  of  Maurice  of  Nassau,  whom  his  fellow- 
citizens  had  elevated  to  the  post  of  stadtholder; 
and  his  marked  distrust  of  this  prince  placed  him 
at  the  head  of  the  Republican  party,  which 
aimed  to  make  the  stadtholder  subordinate  to  the 
legislative  power.  Spain  at  that  time  made 
proposals  for  peace  through  the  archduke,  gov- 
ernor of  the  Netherlands.  Barneveldt  was  ap- 
pointed plenipotentiary  on  this  occasion,  and 
evinced  alike  the  skill  of  a  statesman  and  the 
firmness  of  a  republican.  Maurice  of  Nassau, 
whose  interest  led  him  to  prefer  war,  labored 
to  prevent  the  establishment  of  peace;  and 
Barneveldt  was  induced  only  by  the  most  ur- 
gent solicitations  of  the  states  to  retain  the  office 
which  had  been  assigned  to  him,  concluding  in 
1609  an  armistice  with  Spain  for  the  term  of 
12  years,  in  which  the  independence  of  Holland 
was  acknowledged.  His  influence  now  became 
still  greater,  and  he  was  more  and  more  an 
object  of  jealousy  to  the  house  of  Nassau.  The 
hostile  spirit  of  the  opposite  parties  in  the  state 
was  further  increased  by  theological  difficulties. 
In  order  to  prevent  a  civil  war  Barneveldt  pro- 
posed an  ecclesiastical  council,  which  resolved 
upon  a  general  toleration  in  respect  to  the 
points  in  question.  The  states  acceded  at  first 
to  this  wise  measure,  but  at  a  later  period  the 
Nassau  party  persuaded  them  to  adopt  other 
views.  This  party  represented  the  Arminians 
as  secret  friends  of  Spain.  Maurice  insisted 
upon  a  general  sjmod,  with  a  view,  as  he  pre- 
tended, of  putting  an  end  to  all  religious  quar- 
rels ;  but  Barneveldt  persuaded  the  states  to 
oppose  this  measure.  Troops  were  now  levied, 
without  the  consent  of  Maurice,  to  re-establish 
order  in  the  cities  where  the  Gomarists  had 
excited  disturbances.  On  the  other  side,  the 
Nassau  party  redoubled  its  attacks  upon  Barne- 
veldt, who,  in  answer  to  them,  published  that 
celebrated  memorial  in  which  he  warns  the 
United  Provinces  of  the  danger  which  threat- 
ened them  from  the  other  party.  Maurice,  how- 
ever, procured  the  assembling  of  a  synod  at 
Dort,  in  1618,  to  which  almost  all  the  Calvinistic 
churches  of  Europe  sent  deputies.  They  con- 
demned the  Arminians  with  the  most  unjust 
severity,  and  Maurice  was  encouraged  by  their 
sentence  to  adopt  violent  measures.  He  caused 
Barneveldt  and  other  leading  men  of  the  Ar- 
minians to  be  arrested;  and  26  bribed  judges 
condemned  to  death  as  a  traitor  the  man  to 
whom  his  country  owed  its  political  existence. 
The  old  man  of  72  ascended  the  scaffold,  and 


BARNEY  —  BARNUM 


<;uffered  de:ith  with  the  same  firmness  which  he 
had  evinced  under  all  the  circumstances  of  his 
life.  His  two  sons  formed  a  conspiracy  against 
the  tyrant;  William  escaped,  but  Reinier  was 
taken  and  executed.  His  mother,  after  his  con- 
denmation,  threw  herself  at  the  feet  of  Maurice 
to  beg  for  mercy,  and  to  his  question  why  she 
humbled  herself  thus  for  the  sake  of  her  son 
when  she  had  not  done  it  for  her  husband,  made 
the  memorable  reply :  "I  did  not  ask  pardon  for 
my  husband,  because  he  was  innocent;  I  ask 
it  for  my  son,  because  he  is  guilty.*  See  Mot- 
ley, 'John  of  Barneveldt^    (1874). 

Barney,  Joshua,  American  naval  officer: 
b.  Baltimore,  Md.,  6  July  1759;  d.  i  Dec.  1818. 
He  was  captured  by  the  British  in  March  1778, 
but  exchanged  in  August  of  the  same  year ;  was 
captured  again  and  held  a  prisoner  till  he  es- 
caped in  1781.  In  April  1782.  he  took  the  Brit- 
ish ship  General  Monk,  off  Cape  May;  in  No- 
vember 1782,  he  carried  dispatches  to  Dr.  Frank- 
lin in  France,  and  brought  back  a  sum  of  money 
lent  by  the  French  government.  In  1794  he  went 
with  Monroe  to  France,  and  for  six  years  served 
in  the  French  navy.  In  1814  he  commanded  the 
i^eet  stationed  in  Chesapeake  Bay. 

Barnfield,  Richard,  English  poet:  b.  Nor- 
bury,  Shropshire,  1574;  d.  1627.  His  lyrics,  *As 
It  Fell  Upon  a  Day^  and  "^If  Music  and  Sweet 
Poetry  Agree,'  were  long  ascribed  to  Shake- 
speare and  were  included  in  *^The  Passionate 
Pilgrim'  (i599)-  Barnfield's  works  include: 
'The  Affectionate  Shepherd'  (1594)  ;  'Cynthia, 
with  Certain  Sonnets  and  the  Legend  of  Cas- 
sandra' (159s)  ;  'The  Encomion  of  Lady  Pe- 
cunia'    (1598). 

Barni,  bar-ne,  Jules  Remain,  French 
scholar  and  critic:  b.  Lille,  i  June  1818;  d.  Mers, 
4  July  1878.  His  efforts  to  propagate  the  Kan- 
tian philosophy  through  the  medium  of  'Ob- 
servations on  the  Sense  of  the  Sublime  and 
Beautiful'  (1836)  ;  'Foundations  of  Ethical 
Metaphysic'  (1848),  and  'Kantian  Philosophy' 
(1850),  earned  him  distinction;  as  did  also,  in 
another,  but  contiguous  field,  a  'History  of 
Moral  and  Political  Ideas  in  France  in  the 
Eighteenth  Century'    (1866). 

Barns'ley,  England,  a  town  in  the  west 
riding  of  Yorkshire,  23  miles  south  by  east  of 
Leeds.  It  occupies  the  summits  and  slopes  of 
two  hills  and  is  well  built.  Among  the  chief 
buildings  are  the  public  hall,  built  at  a  cost  of 
over  £26,000,  and  furnishing  accommodations  for 
various  societies ;  the  offices  of  the  miners'  asso- 
ciation, the  Beckett  Hospital,  the  county  court, 
the  offices  of  the  Barnsley  Banking  Company,  the 
parish  church,  St.  George's  Church,  the  Congre- 
gational Church,  a  beautiful  edifice,  and  several 
other  places  of  worship.  Its  staple  industry  is 
the  manufacture  of  linen  in  a  variety  of  forms, 
which  is  carried  on  to  a  great  extent,  both  hand- 
looms  and  power-looms  being  used ;  linens  are 
also  printed  here  in  a  style  similar  to  the  cottons 
of  Lancashire.  There  are  numerous  collieries 
in  the  neighborhood,  among  which  the  Oaks 
Colliery  has  been  made  memorable  by  several 
disastrous  explosions.  The  town  possesses  a 
beautiful  public  park  containing  several  monu- 
ments. A  United  States  consul  is  stationed 
here.     Pop.   (1901)  41,000. 

Barn'stable,  Mass.,  a  town,  port  of  entry, 
and  county-seat  of  Barnstable  County,  72  miles 


southeast  of  Boston.  Within  its  corporate  limits 
are  12  villages,  several  of  which,  such  as 
Hyannis,  Osterville,  and  Cotuit,  are  well-known 
summer  resorts.  The  town  has  several  public 
libraries  and  a  State  normal  school.  Farming, 
fishing,  and  cranberry  culture  are  the  principal 
industries.     Pop.    (1900)    4,364. 

Barnstaple,  England,  a  town  in  Devon- 
shire, 34  miles  northwest  from  Exeter,  on  the 
right  bank  of  the  Taw,  here  crossed  by  a  hand- 
some bridge  of  16  arches.  It  is  locally  styled  Ba- 
rum,  and  among  its  public  edifices  are  a  large  14th 
century  church,  a  guildhall,  and  market  build- 
ings, the  bridge  buildings,  Albert  clock-tower, 
etc.  Its  manufactures  consist  chiefly  of  pottery, 
known  as  "Barum  ware,"  lace,  paper,  furniture, 
toys,  leather,  gloves,  and  collars ;  and  ships  and 
boats  are  built.  The  trade  chiefly  depends  on 
the  surrounding  district.  Previous  to  1885  the 
town  returned  two  members  to  Parliament. 
Pop.   (1901)   14,000. 

Barnum,  Frances  Courtenay  (Baylor), 
American  novelist :  b.  Fayetteville,  Ark.,  1848. 
She  has  written  'On  Both  Sides,'  an  interna- 
tional novel  (1886);  'Behind  the  Blue  Ridge,* 
'Juan  and  Juanita,'  a  story  for  boys  and  girls; 
'Claudia  Hyde'  (1894)  ;  'The  Ladder  of  For- 
tune' (1899).  She  has  also  been  a  frequent 
contributor  to  magazines,  and  a  writer  of  short 
stories.  Since  her  marriage  she  has  lived  in 
Savannah,  Ga. 

Barnum,  Phineas  Taylor,  American  show- 
man:  b.  Bethel,  Conn.,  5  Julyi8io;  d.  Bridgeport 
7  April  1891.  He  was  the  son  of  a  tavern- 
keeper  and  in  his  boyhood  displayed  a  remark- 
able propensity  for  practical  jokes  upon  his 
father's  customers,  as  well  as  a  decided  turn  for 
trade.  Having  accumulated  a  small  sum  of 
money  he  opened  a  small  miscellaneous  store. 
Here  he  was  very  successful^  and  taking  advan- 
tage of  the  mania  for  lotteries  which  then  pre- 
vailed throughout  the  country,  he  visited  New 
York,  and  obtained  some  insight  into  their  man- 
agement. Returning  to  his  store,  he  immediately 
entered  into  this  business  upon  a  large  scale, 
established  agencies  in  various  cities  and  towns, 
and  realized  considerable  sums  from  the  im- 
mense sales  of  tickets  which  he  was  thus  enabled 
to  make.  The  predominating  trait  in  his  char- 
acter would  not,  however,  permit  him  to  settlt 
down  as  a  country  store-keeper,  and  we  soon 
hear  of  him  as  the  editor  of  the  Herald  of 
Freedom,  published  in  Danbury,  Conn.  In  this 
undertaking  he  was  also  very  successful  in  a 
pecuniary  point  of  view,  but  his  freedom  of 
speech  and  the  boldness  of  his  opinions  soon 
gained  him  many  enemies,  and  he  was  several 
times  sued  for  libel,  and  once  confined  in  prison 
for  60  days.  In  1834  he  removed  with  his  fam- 
ily to  New  York,  having  become  much  reduced 
in  circumstances.  Here  he  tried  many  ways 
to  obtain  a  livelihood,  but  without  much  success, 
until  1835,  when  hearing  of  Joice  Heth,  a  col- 
ored woman,  the  reputed  nurse  of  George  Wash- 
ington, he  visited  her  owners,  and  becoming  sat- 
isfied that  here  was  an  opportunity  of  retrieving 
his  broken  fortunes,  he  became  her  purchaser 
for  the  sum  of  $1,000,  which  he  had  obtained 
from  various  friends.  By  widely  advertising  this 
curiosity,  considerable  excitement  was  created, 
and  the  receipts  soon  amounted  to  $1,500  per 
week.  This  was  Mr.  Barnum's  first  attempt  as 
a    public    showman,    and    finding    the    business 


BARNUM  —  BARODA 


profitable,  he  collected  a  small  company  and  trav- 
eled through  the  country,  realizing  large  sums 
wherever  he  halted.  In  1836  Joice  Heth  died, 
and  a  post-mortem  examination  proved  her  to 
have  been  but  75  or  80  years  old,  instead  of 
161,  which  was  her  reputed  age.  From  1836 
until  1839  Mr.  Barnum  continued  in  the  exhibit- 
ing business,  but  was  then  obliged  to  return  to 
New  York,  again  reduced  to  poverty.  He  now 
barely  subsisted  by  writing  occasional  articles 
for  Sunday  papers,  and  by  petty  jobs.  In  1841, 
the  establishment  known  as  Scudder's  American 
Museum  was  announced  for  sale,  and  with  a 
boldness  almost  unparalleled  in  mercantile 
transactions,  Mr.  Barnum  negotiated  for  its  pur- 
chase; without  owning  a  dollar  he  made  satis- 
factory arrangements  with  its  holders  and  took 
possession.  Here  his  fortune  turned ;  at  the  end 
of  a  year  he  was  able  to  pay  all  the  obligations 
which  he  had  entered  into  on  account  of  the 
museum.  In  1848  he  had  added  to  it  two  other 
extensive  and  valuable  collections,  beside  several 
minor  ones,  and  single  curiosities  without  num- 
ber. It  now  became  the  most  popular  place  of 
amusement  in  the  United  States.  In  1842  he 
heard  of  Charles  S.  Stratton,  of  Bridgeport, 
then  5  years  old,  less  than  2  feet  high,  and  weigh- 
ing only  16  pounds.  The  boy  became  known  to 
the  world  as  Gen.  Tom  Thumb,  and  was  ex- 
hibited in  the  United  States  with  astonishing 
success  until  1844,  when  Mr.  Barnum  sailed 
with  him  for  England.  Throughout  Great  Brit- 
ain he  was  received  with  a  popularity  surpassing 
even  that  of  America,  and  for  four  months  the 
receipts  averaged  $500  per  day.  Tom  Thumb 
was  presented  to  the  royal  families  of  England, 
France,  and  Belgium,  courted  and  caressed  by 
the  nobility,  and  presented  with  costly  gifts.  In 
Coventry  Barnum  purchased  the  "Happy  Fam- 
ily*' of  birds  and  animals,  for  which  he  paid 
$2,500.  In  1847  he  returned  to  America,  where 
the  "GeneraP*  was  again  exhibited  for  a  year 
with  increased  success,  the  receipts  in  the  United 
States  and  Havana  amounting  to  $150,000. 
Barnum  conceived  the  idea  of  inducing  Mile. 
Jenny  Lind  to  visit  America,  and  entered  into 
an  agreement  with  her,  by  which  he  engaged 
her  to  sing  in  America  for  150  nights  at  $1,000 
per  night,  the  expenses  of  herself  and  troupe 
:o  be  defrayed  by  him.  Jenny  Lind  arrived  in 
New  York  i  Sept.  1850.  The  excitement  upon 
this  occasion  has  perhaps  never  been  equaled  in 
America.  She  gave  her  first  concert  at  Castle 
Garden,  and  from  that  time  until  June  1851,  gave 
g;i  concerts,  which  were  a  succession  of  tri- 
umphs, the  gross  receipts  for  the  whole  amount- 
ing to  over  $700,000.  The  tickets  were  generally 
sold  at  auction,  the  highest  price  paid  for  one 
ticket  being  in  Providence,  R.  I.,  namely,  $650. 
He  continued  before  the  public  with  varying 
success  until  1855,  when  having  built  himself 
an  extensive  villa  at  Bridgeport,  Conn.,  he  re- 
tired from  business  and  published  his  life,  giv- 
ing a  full  account  of  the  various  enterprises  in 
which  he  had  been  engaged.  He  also  devoted 
much  of  his  time  to  farming,  and  made  many 
improvements  in  Bridgeport.  Two  museums 
of  his  were  burned,  in  1865  and  1868,  and  in 
1871  he  established  "The  Greatest  Show  on 
Earth,*  a  combination  of  traveling  circus  and 
menageries.  He  was  defeated  for  Congress  in 
1866,  but  was  four  times  a  member  of  the  Con- 
necticut legislature.  Besides  his  < Autobiogra- 
phy >  (1854),  he  published  <The  Humbugs  of  the 


World*    (1865),  and  ^Struggles  and  Triumphs> 
(1869). 

Barnum,  William  H.,  American  politician: 
b.  Boston  Corners,  N.  Y.,  17  Sept.  1818;  d.  30 
April  1889.  He  received  a  public  school  educa- 
tion and  amassed  large  wealth  in  manufacturing; 
was  a  member  of  Congress  from  Connecticut  in 
1866-76,  when  he  was  elected  United  States 
Senator  to  complete  the  term  of  Orris  Ferry 
(deceased).  In  1880  and  1884  he  was  chairman 
of  the  Democratic   National  Committee. 

Barn'well,  Robert  Woodward,  American 
statesman  :  b.  Beaufort,  S.  C,  10  Aug.  1801  ;  d.  25 
Nov.  1882.  He  was  graduated  from  Harvard 
University  in  182 1  ;  became  a  lawyer;  was  a 
member  of  Congress  from  South  Carolina  in 
1829-33;  a  United  States  senator  from  that 
State,  1850-1 ;  commissioner  from  South  Caro- 
lina to  confer  with  the  Federal  government  re- 
garding the  proposed  secession  of  the  State  in 
i860;  member  of  the  Provisional  Confederate 
Congress,  1861-2;  a  Confederate  senator  in 
1862-6;  and  then  president  of  the  University  of 
South  Carolina  (an  office  he  had  held  in 
1835-41)  till  1873. 

Barnwell,  Robert  Woodward,  American 
bishop  of  the  Episcopal  Church :  b.  Beaufort, 
S.  C,  27  Dec.  1849;  d.  Selma,  Ala.,  24  July  1902. 
He  prepared  for  the  Episcopal  ministry  at  the 
General  Theological  Seminary  in  New  York, 
and  was  rector  of  Trinity  Church,  Demopo- 
lis,  Ala.,  1876-80;  and  of  St.  Paul's,  Selma,  Ala., 
1890-1900.  In  1900  he  was  consecrated  Bishop 
of  Alabama. 

Baroccio,  ba-roch'6,  or  Barocci,  Fiori 
Federigo,  Italian  painter:  b.  Urbino,  1528;  d. 
there  31  Sept.  1612.  In  his  youth  he  studied 
the  works  of  Titian,  and,  in  1560  he  was  en- 
trusted by  Pius  IV.  with  the  decoration  of  the 
Belvedere  palace.  Some  of  the  Roman  painters, 
envious  of  his  genius,  invited  him  to  a  banquet, 
where  they  gave  him  poison.  For  four  years  he 
was  not  able  to  touch  his  pencil,  and  afterward 
could  only  work  two  hours  a  day.  His  later 
pictures  are  in  the  style  of  Correggio.  His  'Last 
Supper,*  'Descent  from  the  Cross,*  'St.  Francis 
Stigmatized,*  'Christ  and  Magdalen,*  and  'An- 
nunciation,*   are  among  his   best  productions. 

Baroche,  ba-rosh,  Pierre  Jules,  French 
statesman:  b.  Paris,  1802;  d.  Jersey,  1870.  In 
1847  he  was  elected  member  of  the  Chamber  of 
Deputies  for  the  department  of  Charente- 
Inferieure,  where  he  steadily  opposed  the  minis- 
try of  Guizot.  He  signed  the  Acte  d'  Accusa- 
tion, drawn  up  by  Odillon  Barrot  23  Feb.  1848, 
in  which  they  were  accused  of  violating  the 
rights  of  citizens,  and  of  systematic  corruption. 
On  2  Dec.  1851,  Baroche  was  nominated  presi- 
dent of  the  Council  of  State;  an  office  in  which 
he  exhibited  much  ability  and  tact,  and  subse- 
quently filled  the  offices  of  minister  of  foreign 
affairs  (i860),  and  minister  of  justice  (1863). 
He  was  made  a  senator  in  1864. 

Baro'da,  a  city  of  Hindustan,  in  the  prov- 
ince of  Gujerat,  capital  of  the  native  state  of 
Baroda,  240  miles  north  of  Bombay,  on  the  left 
bank  of  the  Viswamitra,  here  spanned  by  four 
stone  bridges.  The  city  proper  is  surrounded  by 
a  wall,  outside  of  which  are  large  suburbs.  The 
houses  in  general  are  very  mean,  but  there  are 
several  palaces,  some  handsome  houses  belonging 
to  the  wealthy  inhabitants,  government   offices, 


BAROMETER 


a  high  school,  and  numerous  temples.  It  is 
a  place  of  considerable  trade,  and  the  seat  of  a 
British  resident.  Pop.  (1901)  103,800.  The 
state  of  Baroda,  which  has  been  tributary  to 
Great  Britain  from  1802,  has  an  area  of  8,100 
square  miles  and  a  population  (1901)  of 
1,953,000. 

Barometer  (Greek,  ^'weigM-measure'^), 
an  instrument  invented  by  the  Italian  physicist 
Torricelli,  and  used  for  determining  the  pres- 
sure of  the  atmosphere.  (For  an  account  of  its 
early  history  see  Atmosphere.)  In  its  sim- 
plest form  the  mercurial 
barometer  consists  essen- 
tially of  a  vertical  glass 
tube  about  a  yard  in 
length,  closed  at  the  top 
and  open  at  the  bottom, 
and  partially  filled  with 
mercury,  into  a  vessel  of 
which  its  lower  end  also 
dips.  In  preparing  the  in- 
strument for  use,  the  tube 
is  first  completely  filled 
with  mercury;  but  as  soon 
as  it  is  free  to  do  so 
the  column  of  mercury 
in  the  tube  sinks  (leaving 
a  vacuous  space  at.  the  top 
of  the  tube)  until  it 
stands  at  a  height  (usually 
about  30  inches)  such  that 
the  pressure  of  the  col- 
umn exactly  balances  that 
of  the  atmosphere.  A 
graduated  scale  of  metal 
or  glass  is  provided,  by 
means  of  which  the  differ- 
ence in  level  between  the 
of  the  column  and  the  ."lurface  of 
mercury    in    the    open    vessel    (called    the 


top 
the 


^'cistern")  at  the  bottom  can  be  measured  with 
precision.  In  the  Fortin  instrument  (the  de- 
sign commonly  adopted  for  all  but  the  most  re- 
fined work)  the  cistern  is  closed  below  by  a 
piece  of  flexible  leather,  which  can  be  raised  or 
lowered  by  means  of  a  screw,  in  order  to  bring 
the  surface  of  the  mercury  in  the  cistern  to  a 
certain  fixed  level,  before  the  reading  is  taken. 
A  pointed  index,  k,  preferably  of  ivory,  projects 
downward  into  the  cistern  from  the  upper  cover, 
the  position  of  its  tip,  with  respect  to  the  scale 
on  the  barometer  tube  above,  being  known.  The 
mercury  in  the  cistern  being  first  brought  ac- 
curately into  contact  with  the  extremity  of  k, 
the  position  of  the  upper  end  of  the  barometric 
column  is  read  from  the  scale.  The  ^'apparent'^ 
height  of  the  barometer  is  then  known;  but  in 
order  to  deduce  the  "true^*  height,  certain  cor- 
rections must  be  applied.  The  most  important 
of  these  is  the  correction  for. temperature.  The 
scale  from  which  the  height  of  the  column  is 
read  is  longer  when  the  temperature  is  high  than 
when  the  temperature  is  low;  and  the  mercury 
in  the  column  is  also  less  dense  at  higher  tem- 
peratures than  at  lower  ones.  These  two 
sources  of  error  partially  compensate  each  other ; 
for  at  a  high  temperature  the  reduced  density 
of  the  mercury  tends  to  make  the  column  stand 
too  high,  while  the  greater  length  of  the  scale  at 
such  a  temperature  tends  to  make  the  reading 
too  small.  The  compensation  is  not  perfect, 
however,  and  when  the  coefficient  of  expansion 
of  the  scale  is  known^  a  table  of  temperature 


corrections  must  be  calculated,  to  reduce  the 
direct  reading  to  what  it  would  have  been  if  it 
had  been  taken  at  some  fixed  standard  tempera- 
ture. The  temperature  of  meltnig  ice  is  adopted, 
by  universal  consent,  as  the  standard  to  which 
the  ^'apparent"  reading  is  to  be  reduced.  An- 
other important  correction  must  be  applied  in 
order  to  allow  for  the  variations  of  gravity 
with  the  latitude  and  elevation  of  the  place  of 
observation.  Where  gravity  is  relatively  weak, 
a  longer  column  of  mercury  will  be  required 
to  balance  a  given  atmospheric  pressure  than 
would  be  required  to  balance  the  same  pressure 
in  a  region  where  gravity  is  stronger.  All  the 
barometric  readings  taken  at  the  International 
Bureau  of  Weights  and  Measures,  near  Paris, 
are  reduced  to  the  values  they  would  have  if 
made  at  the  level  of  the  sea,  in  latitude  45°  ; 
and  this  practice  is  growing  in  favor  among 
physicists  generally.  To  reduce  a  barometric 
reading  to  sea-level  and  to  latitude  45°,  it  is 
merely  necessary  to  multiply  the  observed  height 
of  the  column  (after  applying  the  correction  for 
temperature)  by  the  expression  (i  — .00259  cos 
L)  (i  — .00000006  H),  where  L  is  the  latitude  of 
the  place  of  observation,  and  H  is  its  height 
above  the  sea,  in  feet.  Several  secondary  cor- 
rections have  also  to  be  considered,  when  great 
refinement  is  desired.  Prominent  among  these  is 
the  correction  for  "capillarity,''  which  is  made 
necessary  by  the  fact  that  the  mercury  does  not 
stand  as  high  in  a  small  barometric  tube  as  it 
does  in  a  larger  one,  on  account  of  the  surface 
tension  (q.v.)  of  the  liquid.  No  simple  formula 
for  this  correction  can  be  given,  and  it  varies 
somewhat  according  as  the  barometer  is  rising  or 
falling  at  the  time  of  the  observation.  Tables 
for  finding  the  capillary  correction  are  given  in 
Guyot's  meteorological  and  physical  tables,  pub- 
lished under  the  direction  of  the  Smithsonian 
Institution  at  Washington.  An  excellent  table 
is  also  given  in  Guillaume's  ^Thermometrie  de 
Precision,^  where  the  elaborate  precautions  taken 
in  filling  the  modern  precision  barometer  are 
also  described. 

The  barometer  is  a  simple  instrument,  and 
of  the  greatest  use  in  all  kinds  of  scientific 
work.  The  greatest  fault  of  the  mercurial  in- 
strument is  the  difficulty  of  transporting  it  with- 
out breakage  and  without  destroying  the  vacuum 
in  the  upper  part  of  the  tube  by  the  admission 
of  air  laubbles.  Instruments  like  the  Fortin 
type  may  be  transported  by  screwing  up  the 
leather  bottom  until  both  the  cistern  and  the 
tube  are  completely  filled  with  mercury,  then 
reversing  the  barometer,  and  carrying  it  to  its 
destination  bottom  side  up.  The  ^^aneroid* 
barometer,  although  not  nearly  so  accurate  as 
the  mercurial  instrument,  possesses  the  advan- 
tage of  portability,  since,  as  its  name  signifies, 
it  does  not  contain  any  liquid;  and  it  is  there- 
fore used  to  a  considerable  extent  in  the  deter- 
mination of  the  heights  of  places  above  the 
sea.  (See  Hypsometry.)  Various  forms  of 
the  aneroid  exist.  One  of  these  consists  of  a 
cylindrical  metal  box.  exhausted  of  air,  and 
having  a  lid  of  thin,  corrugated  metal.  The  lid, 
which  is  highly  elastic,  jdelds  to  every  chan.ge 
of  atmospheric  pressure,  and  delicate  multiply- 
ing levers  transmit  its  motions  to  an  index  that 
moves  over  a  graduated  scale,  whose  divisions 
are  marked  on  the  dial  empirically,  by  compari- 
son with  a  mercurial  barometer.  For  further 
information   concerning  the   barometer   and   its 


BAROMETER. 


*,  *  TorricelU's  Experiment  with  tube  full  of  .Mercury.         '  Barometer  in  its  simplest  form.         *  Barometer  with  bent 
tube  and  scale.        ^, ''  Fortin's  portable  Barometer — structural  details.        '  Common  Wheel-Barometer  or  Weather- 
Glass.        '  Internal  structure  of  same.         '  Aneroid  Barometer.        '  '  Internal  Mechanism  of  Aneroid. 


BAROMETRIC  LIGHT  — BARONY 


use.  consult  Stewart  and  Gee,  ^Elementary  Prac- 
tical Physics^;  Glazebrook  and  Shaw,  'Prac- 
tical Physics^  ;  Abbe,  'Meteorological  Apparatus 
and  Methods'  ;  Guillaume,  'Thermometrie  de 
Precision.'     See  also  Meteorology. 

Barometric  Light,  a  name  sometimes 
given  to  the  faint  glow  (first  observed  by  Jean 
Picard  in  1675)  produced  in  the  vacuous  space 
of  a  mercurial  barometer  when  the  instrument 
is  agitated.  The  light  is  given  oflf  by  the  mer- 
curial vapor  (or  other  highly  attenuated  gas) 
that  is  present,  under  the  influence  of  the  elec- 
tricity generated  by  the  friction  of  the  mercury 
against  the  glass.  Advantage  has  been  taken  of 
this  phenomenon  in  the  construction  of  "self- 
acting*  Geissler  tubes,  the  electricity  required 
to  excite  them  being  generated,  when  they  are 
inverted  or  shaken,  by  the  friction  of  a  small 
quantity  of  mercury  introduced  before  the  ex- 
haustion. No  very  brilliant  results  can  be 
obtained  in  this  way,  however. 

Baron,  ba-ron,  Michel,  or  Boyron,  French 
comedian :  b.  1653.  and  long  attached  to  Mo- 
liere's  companJ^  For  nearly  30  years  he  played 
with  great  success,  and  retired  from  the  stage 
in  1691  without  any  apparent  reason.  In  1720. 
however,  he  again  returned,  and  was  received 
with  immense  enthusiasm,  playing,  with  great 
success,  even  the  most  youthful  parts.  In  1729 
he  was  taken  ill  while  on  the  boards,  and  died 
shortly  after. 

Baron.  In  the  feudal  system  of  the 
Middle  Ages,  at  first,  the  immediate  tenant  of 
any  superior  was  called  his  Baron.  In  old  rec- 
ords the  citizens  of  London  are  so  styled,  and 
the  members  of  the  House  of  Commons,  elected 
by  the  Cinque-Ports,  were  called  barons.  This 
title  was  introduced  into  England  by  William 
the  Conqueror  to  signify  an  immediate  vassal 
of  the  Crown,  who  had  a  seat  and  vote  in  the 
royal  court  and  tribunals,  and  subsequently  in 
the  House  of  Peers.  It  was  the  second  rank 
of  nobility,  until  dukes  and  marquises  were 
introduced  and  placed  above  the  earls,  and  vis- 
counts also  set  above  the  barons.  It  is  now  the 
lowest  rank  of  the  peerage,  and  is  held  by 
prescription,  patent,  or  tenure.  The  barons 
were  anciently  divided  into  greater  barons,  or 
such  as  held  their  lands  of  the  king  in  capite; 
and  lesser  barons,  such  as  held  their  lands  of 
the  greater  barons  by  military  service.  In  Ger- 
many the  ancient  barons  of  the  empire  were 
the  immediate  vassals  of  the  Crown.  They  ap- 
peared in  the  imperial  court  and  diet,  and  be- 
longed to  the  high  nobility.  But  these  ancient 
feudatories  were  early  elevated  to  the  rank  of 
counts  or  princes.  A  baron  has  the  title  of 
*right  honorable  lord,"  etc.,  and  should  be  ad- 
dressed as  ''my  lord*'  or  "your  lordship."  His 
wife  claims  also  the  title  of  "right  honorable," 
and  may  be  addressed  as  "madam,"  or  "your 
ladyship."  The  coronation  robes  of  a  baron 
differ  from  those  of  the  other  peers  in  having 
but  two  rows  of  spots  on  the  mantle ;  and  the 
parliamentary  robes,  in  having  but  two  guards 
of  white  fur,  with  rows  of  gold  lace.  The 
right  of  wearing  a  coronet  was  first  conferred 
on  barons  by  Charles  II.  It  is  adorned  with 
six  pearls,  set  at  equal  distances,  of  which 
four  are  usually  shown.  In  England,  the  four 
puisne  judges  of  the  court  of  exchequer  bear 
the  title  of  baron,  and  the  chief  judge  that  of 
Lord  Chief  Baron  of  the  Exchequer.     They  are 


addressed  as  My  Lord,  but  have  no  seat  in  the 
House  of  Lords,  unless  by  being  previously 
made  a  member  of  the  peerage.    See  also  Peer. 

Baronet,  a  hereditary  dignity  in  Great 
Britain  and  Ireland  next  in  rank  to  the  peerage, 
originally  instituted  by  James  I.,  22  May  161 1. 
The  first  person  to  receive  the  honor  was  Sir 
Nicholas  Bacon  of  Redgrave,  whose  successors 
in  the  title  have  ever  since  held  the  rank  of 
premier  baronet  of  the  kingdom.  Baronets  are 
created  by  letters-patent,  under  the  great  seal, 
and  the  honor  is  generally  given  to  the  gran- 
tee and  the  heirs  male  of  his  body  lawfully 
begotten,  though  sometimes  it  is  entailed  on 
collaterals.  The  order  was  created  nominally 
to  assist  in  the  plantation  of  Ulster,  but  really 
in  order  to  raise  money  for  the  king,  and  each 
baronet,  on  his  creation,  was  obliged  to  pay 
into  the  treasury  a  sum  amounting  to  a  little 
less  than  $5,500.  According  to  the  terms  of  its 
foundation  the  dignity  could  be  conferred  only 
on  those  who  had  the  right  by  inheritance  from 
at  least  a  grandfather  to  wear  coat-armor,  and 
whose  income  from  lands  was  not  less  than 
$5,000  per  annum.  In  1622  there  were  200  baro- 
nets in  England,  this  being  the  number  to 
which  the  order  was  originally  limited.  Charles 
I.  and  subsequent  sovereigns  disregarded  alto- 
gether the  original  limitation  of  the  number. 
Precedence  is  given  to  baronets  before  all 
knights,  except  those  of  the  Garter,  bannerets 
created  on  the  field,  and  privy-councilors.  An 
order  of  Baronets  of  Ireland  was  also  instituted 
by  James  I.,  for  the  same  purpose  and  with  the 
same  privileges  as  the  baronets  of  England. 
Since  the  union,  in  1801,  none  have  been  created 
otherwise  than  as  baronets  of  the  United  King- 
dom. Charles  I.  instituted  an  order  of  Baronets 
of  Scotland  and  Nova  Scotia  in  1625,  for  the 
purpose  of  advancing  the  plantation  of  Nova 
Scotia,  in  which  the  king  granted  a  certain  por- 
tion of  land  to  each  member  of  the  order. 
Since  the  union  the  power  of  the  Crown  to 
create  new  baronets  specially  connected  with 
Scotland  is  held  to  have  ceased. 

Baro'nius,  Caesar,  Italian  ecclesiastical 
historian:  b.  Sora,  1538;  d.  30  June  1607.  He 
was  educated  at  Naples;  in  1557  went  to  Rome; 
was  one  of  the  first  pupils  of  St.  Philip  of 
Neri,  and  member  of  the  oratory  founded  by  him ; 
afterward  cardinal  and  librarian  of  the  Vatican 
Library.  He  owed  these  dignities  to  the  ser- 
vices which  he  rendered  the  Church  by  his 
edition  of  the  Roman  Martyrology,  'Ecclesiasti- 
cal Annals,'  in  reply  to  the  Protestant  'Magde- 
burg Centuries,'  comprising  valuable  docu- 
ments from  the  papal  archives,  on  which  he 
labored  from  the  year  1580  until  his  death. 
They  were  continued,  though  with  less  power, 
by  other  writers,  of  whom  Raynaldus  takes  the 
first  rank. 

Barons'  War,  the  war  carried  on  for  sev- 
eral years  by  Simon  de  Montfort  and  other 
barons  of  Henry  III.  against  the  king,  begin- 
ning in  1263.    See  also  Montfort,  Simon  de. 

Barony,  the  lordship  or  fee  of  a  baron, 
either  temporal  or  spiritual.  Originally  every 
peer  of  superior  rank  had  also  a  barony  an- 
nexed to  his  other  titles.  But  now  the  rule 
is  not  universal.  Baronies  in  their  first  crea- 
tion emanated  from  the  king.  Baronies  apper- 
tain also  to  bishops,  as  formerly  to  abbots. 
William    the    Conqueror    having    changed    the 


BAROTSE  —  BARRACKPUR 


spiritual  tenure  of  frank-almoyn,  or  free  alms, 
by  which  they  held  their  lands  under  the  Saxon 
government,  to  the  Norman  or  feudal  tenure 
by  barony.  It  was  in  virtue  of  this  that  they 
obtained  seats  in  the  House  of  Lords.  The 
word  is  commonly  applied  in  Ireland  to  a  sub- 
division of  a  county. 

Barotse,  ba-rot'se,  a  South  African  people 
inhabiting  a  region  in  the  west  of  Rhodesia, 
extending  from  the  Chobe  River  northward  to 
the  Kabompo.  They  are  a  branch  of  the 
Bechuanas  who  have  migrated  northward,  and 
it  would  appear  that  they  were  long  subject  to 
a  Basuto  tribe  called  the  Makololo.  About 
i860,  however,  they  threw  off  the  yoke  of  their 
oppressors  and  almost  exterminated  them,  but 
they  still  speak  the  language  of  the  Makololos. 
Their  country  is  a  treeless,  alluvial  plain,  over 
150,000  square  miles  in  extent.  From  1890  King 
Lawanika  acknowledged  the  virtual  supremacy 
of  Great  Britain,  and  in  1898  the  British  South 
African  Company  obtained  complete  administra- 
tive powers. 

Barou'che,  a  four-wheeled  carriage  virith  a 
falling  top.  There  are  usually  two  inside  seats 
in  which  four  persons  can  sit. 

Barquesimeto,  bar-ke-se-ma-to,  a  city  of 
Venezuela,  capital  of  the  state  of  Lara ;  is  sit- 
uated in  a  high  plain,  on  the  Barquesimeto 
River.  It  was  founded  by  the  Spaniards  in 
1552.  The  soil  of  the  neighborhood  is  very 
fertile.  Coffee  of  excellent  quality  is  grown 
here.  The  town  is  well  built,  and  has  wide 
streets,  and  among  its  prominent  buildings  are 
the  government  palace,  barracks,  market  and 
Cathedral.  Pop.  (1899)  about  40,000.  Previous 
to  the  earthquake  of  1812  it  contained  15,000 
persons,  but  that  calamity  destroyed  1,500  lives, 
and  left  scarcely  a  house  standing. 

Barr,  Amelia  Edith,  (Huddleston),  Anglo- 
American  novelist :  b.  Ulverstone,  Lancashire, 
England,  29  March  1831.  She  was  the  daugh- 
ter of  the  Rev.  William  Huddleston,  and  in  1850 
married  Robert  Barr.  She  came  to  the  United 
States  in  1854,  and  lived  for  some  years  in 
Texas;  but  after  her  husband's  death  (1867) 
removed  to  New  York,  where  her  first  book, 
'Romance  and  Reality.*  was  published  in  1872. 
She  is  a  prolific  writer,  and  her  more  than  30 
novels  are  very  pooular.  Among  them  are  ^Jan 
Vedder's  Wife>  (1885)  ;  <A  Da^ughter  of  Fife' 
(1885):  ^A  Bow  of  Orange  Ribbon>  (1886); 
*A  Border  Shepherdess*  (1887)  ;  'Friend 
Olivia*  (1890)  ;  <A  Sister  to  Esau*  (1891)  ; 
'Remember  the  Alamo*  ;  'Prisoners  of  Con- 
science* (1897)  ;  'I,  Thou,  and  the  Other  One* 
(1899);  ^Trinity  Bells*  (1899);  'The  Maid  of 
Maiden  Lane*  (1900)  ;  'The  Lion's  Whelp* 
(1901)  ;  'Souls  of  Passage*    (1901). 

Barr,  James,  Canadian  author:  b.  Wallace- 
town,  Ontario,  1862.  He  engaged  in  journalism 
in  that  province,  the  United  States,  and  in 
London ;  and  under  the  pen-name  of  Angus 
Evan  Abbott  has  contributed  much  to  maga- 
zine literature.  Among  his  separate  publica- 
tions are  'American  Humorous  Verse*  (1891), 
and  the  American  volume  in  the  'International 
Humorous  Series*  (1893),  the  last  containing  a 
biographical  index  of  nearly  200  American  and 
Canadian  humorists.  He  is  a  brother  of  Robert 
Barr   (q.v.). 


Barr,  Robert,  Scottish  novelist:  b.  Glas- 
gow, 16  Sept.  1850.  He  spent  his  childhood  in 
Canada,  drifted  into  journalism,  and  in  1876 
joined  the  staff  of  Detroit  Free  Press,  and  wrote 
under  the  name  of  Luke  Sharp.  He  went  to 
London  in  1881  and  in  1892  founded  The  Idler 
with  Jerome  K.  Jerome,  but  retired  in  1895  to 
devote  himself  to  fiction.  He  is  author  of  'In 
a  Steamer  Chair*  (1892)  ;  'In  the  Midst  of 
Alarms*  (1894)  '<  '■The  Face  and  the  Mask* 
(1895);  'One  Day's  Courtship*  (1896);  'A 
Woman  Intervenes*  (1896)  ;  'Countess  Tekla* 
(1899)  ;  'The  Unchanging  East*  (1900)  ;  'The 
Victors*  (1901)  ;  'A  Prince  of  Good  Fellows* 
(1902). 

Barra,  a  small  Mandingo  kingdom  of  west- 
ern Africa,  near  the  mouth  of  the  Gambia,  with 
an  estimated  population  of  200,000,  its  men  be- 
ing remarkable  for  their  fine  proportions.  The 
surface,  which  is  fertile,  but  rather  marshy, 
is  well  cultivated.  The  territory  about  the 
mouth  of  the  river  belongs  to  the  British,  who 
have  built  the  port  of  Albreda  on  the  south 
bank,  from  which  considerable  trade  is  car- 
ried on.  The  chief  town  is  Barrinding,  where 
the  so-called  king  resides. 

Bar'ra,  a  Scottish  island,  forming  part  of 
the  Outer  Hebrides,  eight  miles  long  and  from 
two  to  five  wide,  and  almost  entirely  composed 
of  gneiss,  which  on  the  west  coast  forms  huge 
rocky  barriers.  On  these  the  Atlantic,  beating 
with  all  its  force,  has  hollowed  out  vast  caves 
and  fissures.  In  the  interior  not  merely  the 
hollows  and  valleys,  but  many  of  the  loftiest 
hills  are  clothed  with  fine  pasture,  on  which 
large  herds  of  cattle  and  flocks  of  sheep  are 
reared.  The  coasts  abound  with  fish,  and  the 
island  forms  a  fishing  centre  of  some  impor- 
tance. There  are  many  standing  stones  and 
other  antiquities.     Pop.    (1891)  2,131. 

Bar'racan,  strictly,  a  thick,  strong  fabric 
made  in  Persia  and  Armenia,  of  camel's  hair, 
but  the  name  has  been  applied  to  various  wool, 
flax,  and  cotton  stuffs. 

Barracand,  ba-ra-c6ii,  Leon  Henri,  French 
poet  and  novelist:  b.  Romans,  Drome,  2  May 
1844.  He  gave  up  the  law  when  a  very  young 
man  in  order  to  write  verses ;  but  he  was  not 
much  known  as  a  poet  until  'Dananiel*  (1886) 
appeared,  under  the  pseudonym  of  Leon  Gran- 
DET,  followed  by  a  sequel,  'Doctor  Gal*  (1870), 
He  had  already,  however,  attracted  attention  by 
some  fictions,  and  has  steadily  risen  in  im- 
portance as  a  novelist — 'Yolande*  (1867); 
'Hilaire  Gervais*  (1885)  ;  'The  Second  Lieu- 
tenant's Manuscript*  (1887)  ;  and  'The  Cousin* 
(1888),  being  perhaps  best  known.  His  'La- 
martine  and  the  Muse*  (1883)  was  crowned 
by  the  French  Academj'. 

Barrack  Room  Ballads,  a  book  of  verse  by 
Rudyard  Kipling,  published  in  1892.  It  deals 
with  the  various  experiences  of  Tommy  Atkins, 
the  British  private,  and  no  such  vivid  por- 
traiture of  the  common  soldier  with  his  dull- 
ness, his  unhesitating  obedience,  and  his  matter- 
of-fact  heroisms  has  appeared  elsewhere. 

Barrackpur,  ba-rak-poor',  a  town  and  can- 
tonment in  Hindustan,  on  the  Hooghly,  15 
miles  north  of  Calcutta.  In  the  vicinity  is  the 
suburban  residence  of  the  Viceroy  of  India, 
within  a  park  four  miles  in  circuit.  A  sepoy 
mutiny,    the   prelude   to   the   great   outbreak    a; 


BARRACKS  —  BARRAS 


Meerut  in  May,  took  place  here  in  February 
1857.  A  mutiny  had  previously  taken  place  in 
1824.  Barrackpur  is  also  known  as  North  Bar- 
rackpur  to  distinguish  it  from  South  Barrack- 
pur or  Agarpara,  midway  between  it  and  Cal- 
cutta.    Pop.  18,000. 

Barracks,  a  name  originally  given  to  tem- 
porary accommodation  for  troops,  but  now  des- 
ignating permanent  and  commodious  erections, 
in  which  troops  are  lodged  in  fortified  towns 
or  other  places.  The  introduction  of  barracks 
into  England  was  opposed  as  dangerous  to  lib- 
erty, by  estranging  the  soldier  from  the  citizen, 
and  fitting  him  to  become  a  tool  of  despotism ; 
but  the  billeting  of  soldiers  upon  citizens  had 
grown  to  be  so  burdensome  to  communities  that 
after  the  close  of  the  i8th  century  extensive 
barracks  were  built  at  convenient  stations  all 
over  the  United  Kingdom.  Much  improvement 
has  been  effected  in  the  construction  and  ar- 
rangement of  English  barracks  during  the  last 
half-century ;  and  separate  quarters  are  now 
provided  for  married  soldiers.  The  construc- 
tion and  repair  of  barracks  is  part  of  the  duty 
of  the  royal  engineers ;  their  equipment  and  al- 
lotment is  intrusted  to  a  barracks  section  of  the 
Army  Service  Corps.  In  the  United  States 
the  term  is  ofiicially  used  to  designate  impor- 
tant military  posts,  such  as  the  Columbus  Bar- 
racks, San  Diego  Barracks,  Washington  Bar- 
racks, and  others. 

Barracoon,  a  negro  barrack  or  slave  de- 
pot, formerly  plentiful  on  the  coasts  of  Africa, 
Cuba,  and   Brazil. 

Barracuda,  bar-ra-koo'da,  an  oceanic  fish 
of  the  famih^  Sphyrcenid<E,  of  which  about  20 
species  inhabit  the  warm  seas  of  the  whole 
world.  All  are  elongate,  pike-like  fishes,  with 
long,  pointed  jaws  filled  with  sharp  teeth.  They 
are  often  of  large  size,  are  powerful  swimmers, 
active  and  voracious,  and,  like  the  blucfish.  prey 
upon  schools  of  smaller  fishes.  Several  species 
occur  on  the  American  coasts.  The  great  bar 
racuda  '^picuda,'*  or  "becuna*'  {Sphyrccna  picu- 
da) ,  is  -common  throughout  the  West  Indies 
and  northward  to  South  Carolina,  and  reaches 
a  length  of  six  feet.  It  is  the  largest  and  most 
voracious  of  the  genus,  is  as  fierce  as  a  shark, 
and  is  sometimes  dangerous  to  bathers.  Other 
West  Indian  species  are  those  called  guaguanche, 
and  picudilla.  These  are  smaller,  as  is  a  third 
species  also,  which  is  common  along  the  At- 
lantic coast  of  the  United  States.  Two  or  three 
species  are  found  on  the  Pacific  coast  from 
California  southward.  One  of  these  (5*.  argen- 
tea)  is  a  long  and  slender  species,  known 
as  the  California  ^<barracouta."  and  highly  val- 
ued for  food.  It  closely  resembles  the  typical 
European  barracuda  (S.  sphyrcena),  locally 
known  as  *spet'^  and  ^^sennet.'*  and  one  of  the 
important  food-fishes  of  the  Mediterranean. 

Barramunda,  bar-ra-mun'da,  or  Burnett 
Salmon,  names  in  Australia  for  a  mud-fish 
{Ceratodus),  remarkable  as  a  survival  of  the 
very  ancient  group  Dipnoi.     See  Lung-Fish. 

Barrande,  ba-rand,  Joachim,  French  geol- 
ogist :  b.  Sangues  in  the  department  of  Haute 
Loire,  11  Aug.  1799;  d.  Vienna,  5  Oct.  1883. 
His  specialty  was  the  Silurian  formations  in 
Bohemia,  his  writings  including  'Systeme 
Silurien  du  Centre  de  la  Boheme^  (1852 
and  1887)  ;  Xolonie  dans  le  Bassin  Silurien  de 
la  Boheme^    (i860)  ;   ^Documents  sur  la  Faune 


Primordiale  et  la  Systeme  Taconique  en  Amer- 
ique>  (1861)  ;  ^Representation  de  Colonies  de  la 
Boheme  dans  le  Bassin  Silurien  du  nordouest 
de  la  France^  (1853)  ;  ^Cephalapodes,  Etudes 
Generales.^ 

Barran'dite,  a  mineral  occurring  in 
rounded  concretions  exhibiting  a  concentric 
structure  as  well  as  indistinct  radial  fibres.  It 
is  gray,  usually  with  tinges  of  color,  and  has 
a  hardness  of  4.5  and  a  specific  gravity  of  2.58. 
Its  composition  is  ( Al,Fe)  P0«  +  2H2O,  the 
iron  and  aluminum  being  present  in  the  ratio 
of  about  4  to  3.  It  is  found  mainly  at  Cer- 
hovic    in  Bohemia. 

Barranquilla,  bar-ran-ke'lya,  the  chief 
commercial  centre  of  Colombia,  some  15  miles 
from  the  mouth  of  the  Magdalena.  The  bar 
at  the  mouth  of  the  river  has  been  improved 
so  as  to  enable  sea-going  vessels  to  pass  up 
to  Barranquilla,  which  possesses  excellent 
wharfage  accommodation.  The  inland  traffic 
by  river  steamers  is  important.  The  trade  is 
mainly  in  the  hands  of  Germans.  It  is  the  seat 
of  a  United  States  consulate.  Pop.  about 
40,000. 

Barrantes  y  Moreno,  bar-ran'ta-se-mo-ra'- 
no,  Vicente,  Spanish  writer:  b.  Badajoz,  24 
March  1829.  He  first  studied  theology,  but  in 
1848  settled  in  Madrid  to  pursue  literature;  held 
responsible  government  offices ;  became  a  mem- 
ber of  the  Academy  in  1872.  Among  his 
works  are  the  stories  ^Always  Late'  (i8tI); 
<Juan  de  Padilla,>  ^The  Widow  of  Padilla.> 
and  a  series  of  historical  studies,  dealing  with 
strictly  local  Philippine  and  Estremaduran 
topics.  His  ^Tales  and  Legends'  are  well 
chosen  and  well  written ;  but  a  work  on  '  The 
Defects  and  Dangers  of  Universal  SuflFragc? 
partly  fiction   and  partly  satire,   is   ineffective. 

Barras,  ba-ras,  Paul  Frangois  Jean  Nico- 
las, Comte  de,  French  statesman:  b.  Fox- 
Amphoux  (Var),  30  June  1755;  d.  January 
1829.  When  the  Revolution  broke  out  he  im- 
mediately showed  himself  an  opponent  of  the 
court,  and  had  a  seat  in  the  tiers-etat.  while  his 
brother  was  sitting  among  the  nobility.  He 
took  part  in  the  attacks  upon  the  Bastile  and 
the  Tuileries.  was  elected  a  juryman  at  the 
tribunal  of  Orleans,  and  in  September  a  mem- 
ber of  the  national  convention,  where  he  voted 
for  the  death  of  Louis  XVI.  Although  he  had 
established  his  reputation  as  a  patriot,  yet  he 
displeased  Robespierre,  who  resolved  to  involve 
him  in  the  great  proscription  which  he  then 
meditated.  Barras  therefore  joined  those  de- 
termined to  overthrow  Robespierre,  and  took  an 
important  part  in  the  events  of  the  9th  Ther- 
midor  (27  July  1794).  He  was  entrusted  with 
the  chief  command  of  the  forces  of  his  party, 
repelled  the  troops  of  Henriot.  and  made  him- 
self master  of  Robespierre.  On  4  Feb.  1795  he 
was  elected  president  of  the  convention.  The 
13th  Vendemiaire  (5  Oct.  I795).  when  the 
troops  of  the  sections  which  favored  the  royal 
cause  approached  the  convention.  Barras  for  a 
second  time  received  the  chief  command  of 
the  troops  of  the  convention,  and  the  battalion 
of  the  patriots,  who  hastened  to  their  assistance. 
On  this  occasion  he  employed  Gen.  Bonaparte. 
In  his  report  he  attributed  the  victory  to  ibis 
young  general,  and  procured  for  him  the  chief 
command  of  the  army  of  the  interior.  His  im- 
portant services  promoted  him  to  the  Directory. 


BARRASS  —  BARREL 


Barras  soon  perceived  that  Bonaparte  would 
give  a  decisive  superiority  to  him  who  should 
obtain  an  influence  over  him;  and  therefore  he 
displaced  Carnot  from  the  War  Department 
and  took  possession  of  it  himself.  This  sepa- 
rated them,  and  Carnot  for  some  time  took  part 
with  the  council,  where  a  party  had  been 
formed  to  restrain  the  power  of  the  Directory, 
and  particularly  that  of  Barras.  The  rupture 
could  only  terminate  with  the  ruin  of  one  of 
the  parties:  that  of  the  council  fell  by  the 
events  of  the  i8th  Fructidor  (4  Sept.  I797),  in 
which  Barras  took  a  leading  part.  From  this 
period  he  governed  absolutely  until  13  June 
1799,  when  Sieyes  entered  the  Directory.  Never- 
theless Barras  succeeded  in  preserving  his  seat, 
but  he  became  a  victim  of  the  i8th  Brumaire 
(9  Nov.  1799).  In  a  letter  which  he  sent  to 
St.  Cloud  he  resigned  his  office,  and  received  a 
passport  to  his  estate.  He  afterward  retired  to 
Brussels,  where  he  lived  for  several  years;  but 
finally  received  permission  to  repair  to  the  south 
of  France.  His  memoirs  were  published  in 
French  and  English  (1895-6). 

Barrass,  Edward,  Canadian  clergyman:  b. 
Durham,  England,  22  July  1821.  He  entered 
the  ministry  in  1840,  and  removed  to  Toronto 
in  1853.  He  became  the  assistant  editor  of  the 
Christian  Guardian,  and  published,  among  other 
works,  *-A  Gallery  of  Deceased  Ministers^ 
(1853)  ;  ^Class  Meetings:  Their  Origin  and  Ad- 
vantages^ (1865)  ;  ^A  Gallery  of  Distinguished 
Men^  (1870);  and  ^Smiles  and  Tears:  or, 
Sketches  from  Real  Life^    (1879). 

Bar'ratry,  a  law  term  applied  to  (i)  the 
oft'ense  committed  by  the  master  of  a  vessel  of 
embezzling  or  injuring  goods  committed  to  his 
charge  for  a  voyage.  Barratry  has  also  been 
defined  to  be  an  unlawful  or  fraudulent  act,  or 
very  gross  or  culpable  negligence,  of  the  master 
or  mariners  of  a  vessel  in  violation  of  their 
duty  as  such,  and  directly  prejudicial  to  the 
owner,  and  without  his  consent ;  (2)  the  offense 
of  frequently  exciting  and  stirring  up  law  suits 
or  quarrels  among  one's  neighbors  or  in  society 
generally.  An  indictment  for  this  offense  must 
charge  the  offender  with  being  a  common  bar- 
rator, and  the  proof  must  show  at  least  three 
instances  of  offending.  An  attorney  is  not  liable 
to  indictment  for  maintaining  another  in  a 
groundless  action.  In  New  York,  and  some 
other  States,  barratry  is  defined  to  be  the  prac- 
tice of  exciting  groundless  judicial  proceedings, 
and  is  a  misdemeanor. 

Barre,     bar,     Antoine     le     Fevre     de     la, 

French  naval  officer :  b.  about  1600 ;  d.  4  May 
1688.  He  was  appointed  governor  of  Guiana  in 
1663,  and  re-took  Cayenne  from  the  Dutch.  In 
1667  he  defeated  the  English  in  the  Antilles, 
forcing  them  to  raise  the  blockade  of  St.  Chris- 
topher. In  1682  he  was  appointed  to  the  gov- 
ernorship of  Canada,  taking  the  place  of  the 
Count  de  Frontenac.  He  was,  however,  re- 
called in  1684,  for  having  by  his  irresolution 
caused  the  failure  of  the  expedition  to  treat  with 
the  savages. 

Barre,  Isaac,  British  officer:  b.  Dublin, 
1726;  d.  London,  20  July  1802.  He  was  wound- 
ed at  Quebec,  was  beside  Wolfe  when  he  fell, 
and  figures  in  West's  picture  of  *^The  Death  of 
Wolfe. ^  He  entered  parliament  in  1761,  and 
held  office  successively  under  Lord  Butte,  Pitt, 
Rockingham,    and    Lord    Shelburne.     In    Pitt's 


second  administration  he  exposed  the  corrup- 
tions of  the  ministry,  was  a  strong  opponent  of 
Lord  North's  ministry,  and  opposed  the  taxation 
of  America.  The  town  of  Barre,  Mass.,  was 
named  in  his  honor. 

Barre,  bar'ra,  a  group  of  Arawakan  tribes 
dwelling  along  the  Upper  Rio  Negro  in  north- 
western Brazil  and  the  adjoining  districts  of 
Venezuela.  They  are  extremely  aggressive,  and 
their  language  is  extending  rapidly  throughout 
that  region. 

Barre,  bar're,  Mass,  a  town  in  Worcester 
County,  on  the  Ware  River,  21  miles  north- 
west of  Worcester.  An  institute  for  feeble- 
minded children  is  established  here,  and  there 
are  cotton,  woolen,  and  straw  factories.  It  was 
named  for  Col.  Isaac  Barre  (q.v.).  Pop.  (1900) 
2,059. 

Barre,  Vt.,  a  city  in  Washington  County, 
on  the  Central  V.,  the  Barre,  and  the  Montpelier 
&  W.  R.  R.R.'s ;  six  miles  southeast  of  Mont- 
pelier. Barre  received  a  city  charter  in  1894; 
and  has  a  reputation  as  one  of  the  most  im- 
portant seats  of  the  granite  industry  in  the 
United  States.  It  contains,  besides  granite 
quarries,  several  industrial  plants  connected 
therewith  ;  a  national  and  two  savings  banks ;  a 
public  library;  opera  house,  Goddard  Seminary; 
a  home  school  for  young  men  and  women,  with 
four  courses  of  study ;  Spaulding  High  School ; 
daily  and  weekly  newspapers ;  an  assessed  prop- 
erty valuation  exceeding  $2,500,000,  and  a  total 
debt  of  about  $150,000.  It  was  incorporated  in 
1894.    Pop.  (1900)  8,448. 

Barreiro,  ba-ra'e-ro,  Juan  Baptista  Her- 
nandez, Cuban  lawyer:  b.  Havana,  about 
1842.  He  acquired  a  liberal  education,  and 
amassed  large  wealth  in  the  practice  of  his  pro- 
fession. He  was  professor  of  Roman  law  in 
the  University  of  Havana  for  30  years ;  and 
more  recently  was  dean  of  the  law  faculty  in 
the  university.  In  February  1900,  while  acting 
as  first  assistant  mayor  of  Havana,  he  was  ap- 
pointed a  member  of  the  new  Cuban  Civil  Cab- 
inet, and  given  the  portfolio  of  public  education. 

Barrel,  a  hollow  vessel  made  of  staves, 
set  on  end,  arranged  around  a  circle,  and  bound 
together  with  hoops.  By  each  stave  being  made 
wider  in  the  middle  and  tapering  a  little  toward 
the  ends,  the  barrel  is  of  larger  diameter,  or 
bulges,  in  the  middle.  The  bevelled  edges  of 
the  staves  cause  them  to  fit  closely  together, 
making  a  tight  joint  along  their  length.  The 
ends  are  closed  by  circular  heads,  the  edges 
made  thin  to  fit  into  a  groove  cut  to  receive 
them  near  the  ends  of  the  staves,  in  which  they 
are  held  fast  by  driving  the  hoops  upon  the 
swell  of  the  barrel.  The  construction  of  the 
barrel  is  ingeniously  adapted  for  combining 
great  strength  with  lightness.  It  resists  pres- 
sure from  without  by  the  arched  arrangement 
of  the  staves ;  and  the  hoops  secure  it  from  the 
expansive  force  of  gases  often  generated  in  its 
contents.  Its  form  is  the  most  convenient  for 
transportation,  admitting  of  the  vessel  being 
rolled  or  rapidly  swung  by  hooks  placed  under 
the  chine  or  ends  of  the  staves.  In  the  form  of 
kegs,  firkins,  liquor  casks,  butts,  hogsheads,  etc., 
they  are  met  with  everywhere.  Yet  the  Chinese, 
with  all  their  ingenuity,  it  is  said,  have  never 
made  a  barrel.  Formerly  barrels  were  con- 
structed entirely  by  hand,  the  cooper  shaving  the 
staves  with  the  draw  knife,  and  shaping  them 


BARREN  GROUNDS  — BARRETT 


■by  clamps.  But  machines  are  now  applied  to 
this  purpose,  by  which  the  work  is  done  much 
more  expeditiously.     See  Cooper.age. 

As  a  measure  of  capacity,  the  barrel  is  of 
variable  dimensions,  differing  in  size  with  the 
materials  it  is  designed  to  hold.  In  wine  mea- 
sure the  barrel  must  contain  31J/2  gallons.  A 
barrel  of  beer  in  England  is  equal  to  361^  im- 
perial gallons.  In  the  United  States  a  barrel  of 
flour  must  contain  196  pounds ;  and  a  barrel  of 
beef  or  pork,  200  pounds.  The  measure  of  ca- 
pacity called  barrel  bulk  is  five  cubic  feet.  Bar- 
rel is  also  used  to  express  any  thing  long  and 
hollow,  as  a  gun-barrel.  It  is  also  applied  to  the 
cylinder  in  a  watch,  about  which  the  spring  is 
coiled ;  and  in  anatomy,  to  the  "cavity  of  the 
tympanum^^  of  the  ear. 

Barren  Grounds,  the  name  given  to  a 
large  tract  in  the  Northwest  Territories  of  Can- 
ada, extending  northward  to  the  Arctic  Ocean 
between  Great  Bear  and  Great  Slave  lakes  and 
Hudson  Bay.  It  consists  largely  of  swamps, 
lakes,  and  bare  rock,  and  a  comparatively  small 
part  of  it  is  yet  well  known.  The  vegetation 
■chiefly  consists  of  dwarf  birches  and  willows, 
mosses  and  lichens.  The  animals  include  the 
reindeer,  musk-ox,  beaver,  polar  bear,  wolves, 
foxes,  etc. 

Barren  Island,  a  volcanic  island  in  the 
Andaman  Sea,  about  lat.  12°  15'  N. ;  Ion.  93° 
54'  E.  Its  diameter  is  about  two  miles,  with 
submarine  slopes  plunging  rapidly  to  a  depth 
■of  more  than  800  fathoms.  There  is  an  ancient 
crater  over  a  mile  in  diameter,  from  the  centre 
of  which  a  newer  cone  rises  to  a  height  of 
1,015  feet.  The  volcano  was  active  in  1789  and 
1803,  but  is  now  dormant.  A  small  island  near 
Coney  Island,  New  York,  is  also  known  as 
Barren  Island. 

Barren  Measures,  the  name  given  to  cer- 
tain groups  of  strata  associated  with  the  coal 
measures,  but  which  contain  no  workable  de- 
posits. .  In  the  United  States  there  are  two 
so-called  barren  stages,  a  lower  intervening 
between  the  lower  productive  and  the  upper  pro- 
ductive measures,  and  an  upper  lying  at  the 
base  of  the   Permian  System. 

Barres,  ba-res,  Maurice,  French  novelist: 
b.  Charms-sur-Moselle,  1862.  His  earlier  writ- 
ing as  exemplified  in  his  ^Sous  I'oeil  des  Bar- 
bares>  (1888)  ;  ^Un  Homme  Libre^  (1889)  ;  and 
<Le  Jardin  de  Berenice^  (1891),  is  more  or  less 
decadent  in  character,  but  his  later  work  is  much 
more  forceful,  and  inculcates  a  healthful  spirit 
of  nationalism.  ^Les  Deracines^  (1897)  is 
among  the  best  of  his  latest  writings. 

Barrett,  Benjamin  Fisk,  American  Swe- 
denborgian  clergj-man :  b.  Dresden,  Me.,  1808 ; 
d.  Germantown,  Pa.,  6  Aug.  1892.  He  was 
graduated  from  Bowdoin  College  in  1832,  and 
held  Swedenborgian  pastorates  in  New  York, 
Cincinnati,  and  Philadelphia.  He  was  a  vo- 
luminous writer  and  industrious  editor  of  books 
and  periodicals  relating  to  Swedenborgianism. 
Chief  among  them  are:  ^Life  of  Swedenborg* 
C1841)  ;  'Letters  on  the  Divine  Trinity^  (i860; 
4th  ed.  1873)  :  < Catholicity  of  the  New  Church' 
(1863)  ;  <Episcopalianism'  (1871)  ;  'New  View 
of  Help  (1870:  5th  ed.  1886);  'Swedenborg 
and  Channing'  (1878)  ;  'Heaven  Revealed' 
<i885). 

Vol.   2 — 22. 


Barrett,  George  Hooker,  American  actor: 
b.  Exeter,  England,  9  June  1794;  d.  5  Sept. 
i860.  He  left  England  with  his  mother,  an  ac- 
tress of  some  celebrity,  and  arrived  at  Boston 
in  October  1796;  he  made  his  first  appearance 
the  same  year  in  the  part  of  Cora's  child,  in 
'Pizarro,'  at  the  age  of  two  years.  He  com- 
menced playing  in  New  York  in  1806.  at  the 
Park  Theatre,  in  the  part  of  'Young  Norval,* 
and  became  manager  of  the  Bowery  Theatre, 
New  York,  in  1826,  in  company  with  E.  Gilbert. 
He  afterward  visited  England,  and  in  1837  per- 
formed at  Drury  Lane  Theatre,  London,  under 
the  management  of  Alfred  Bunn.  He  was  also 
manager  of  the  Tremont  Theatre,  Boston,  and 
in  1847  opened  the  Broadway  Theatre,  New 
York,  but  he  did  not  retire  from  the  stage.  His 
favorite  characters  were  in  genteel  comedy,  but 
he  also  acted  in  farce  and  low  comedy  with 
great  success.  From  his  elegance  and  stateliness 
he  was  known  by  the  sobriquet  of  "Gentleman 
George.'' 

Barrett,  John,  American  diplomatist:  b. 
Grafton,  Vt.,  28  Nov.  1866.  He  was  graduated 
at  Dartmouth  College  in  1889,  and  the  same 
year  went  to  the  Pacific  coast  and  engaged  in 
journalism  till  1894.  During  1894-8  he  was 
United  States  minister-resident  and  consul-gen- 
eral at  Bangkok,  Siam,  and,  afterward  repre- 
sented  several  American  newspapers  in  Manila, 
Philippine  Islands.  After  the  American  victory 
in  Manila  Bay  he  made  a  special  study  of  con- 
ditions in  the  Philippines,  and,  returning  by  way 
of  London,  addressed  a  joint  assembly  of  mem- 
bers of  the  House  of  Commons  and  the  London 
Chamber  of  Commerce,  on  the  condition  of  trade 
in  the  Far  East.  He  returned  to  the  United 
States  in  the  summer  of  1899,  and  did  much  in 
support  of  the  action  of  the  Federal  government 
in  the  Philippines. 

Barrett,  John  Kelly,  Canadian  official:  b. 
Hamilton,  Ontario,  5  June  i860.  He  was  grad- 
uated at  Holy' Cross  College,  Worcester,  Mass., 
in  1872,  and  after  serving  as  principal  of  St. 
Mary's  Model  School  in  Hamilton  entered  the 
public  service,  principally  in  the  line  of  educa- 
tion. He  became  conspicuous  in  1890.  when  the 
authorities  of  Manitoba  abolished  the  Roman 
Catholic  schools  and  the  official  use  of  French 
in  that  province,  by  defending  the  claims  of  the 
Roman  Catholic  minority  and  by  bringing  suit 
against  the  city  of  Winnipeg  to  test  the  consti- 
tutional power  of  the  Provincial  Government  in 
passing  the  School  Act  of  1890. 

Barrett,  Lawrence,  American  actor:  b. 
Paterson,  N.  J.,  4  April  1838;  d.  21  March  1891. 
His  first  appearance  on  the  stage  was  in  1853, 
in  'The  French  Spy.'  In  1856  he  appeared  as 
Sir  Thomas  Clifford  in  'The  Hunchback'  at 
Chambers  Street  Theatre,  New  York,  and  in 
1857  he  supported  Burton,  Charlotte  Cushman, 
Edwin  Booth,  and  other  eminent  actors.  He 
served  as  a  captain  in  the  28th  Massachusetts 
Infantry  in  the  early  part  of  the  Civil  War. 
Later  he  acted  at  Philadelphia,  Washington,  and 
at  Winter  Garden,  in  New  York,  where  he  was 
engaged  by  Mr.  Booth  to  play  Othello  to  his 
lago.  After  this  he  became  an  associate  man- 
ager of  the  Varieties  Theatre  in  New  Orleans, 
where  for  the  first  time  he  played  the  parts 
of  Richeh'eu,  Hamlet,  and  Shylock.  In  1864  he 
secured  'Rosedale'  from  Lester  Wallack,  and 
after  appearing  in  its  leading  character  at  New 


BARRETT  —  B ARRIE 


Orleans,  began  his  first  tour  as  a  star  actor. 
In  1867  he  played  at  Maguire's  Opera  House 
in  San  Francisco,  and  was  then  manager  of 
the  California  Theatre  till  1870.  Late  in  1870 
he  went  with  Mr.  Booth,  playing  in  alternate 
characters  in  Booth's  Theatre.  In  1871-2  he 
was  manager  of  the  New  Varieties  Theatre  in 
New  Orleans,  and  in  De.cember  1872  acted  Cas- 
sius  to  Booth's  Brutus  in  New  York.  During 
1873-4  he  made  tours  through  the  United  States. 
In  1875  he  appeared  as  Cassius  in  'Julius 
Caesar,^  in  Booth's  Theatre,  and  later  as  King 
Lear.  He  was  the  first  actor  to  appear  as  Dan- 
iel Druce  in  the  United  States  in  Mr.  Gilbert's 
play.  In  1882  he  brought  out  'Francesca  di 
Rimini,^  at  the  Chestnut  Street  Theatre  in  Phil- 
adelphia. In  1883  this  play  ran  for  nine  weeks 
at  the  Star  Theatre,  in  New  York.  In  1887  he 
began  his  first  joint  engagement  with  Edwin 
Booth  in  Buffalo.  Mr.  Barrett's  last  production 
of  a  new  play  was  'Guido  Ferranti^  by  Oscar 
Wilde,  brought  out  in  1890,  at  the  Broadway 
Theatre,  New  York.  His  last  appearance  was 
on  18  March  1891,  in  the  character  of  Adrian  du 
Mauprat  to  the  Richelieu  of  Mr.  Booth.  He 
wrote  'Life  of  Edwin  Forrest.^ 

Barrett,  William  Alexander,  English  jour- 
nalist and  musician:  b.  London,  15  Oct.  1834; 
d.  17  Oct.  i8gi.  He  was  musical  critic  of  the 
London  Morning  Post  from  1867  till  his  death, 
and  edited  several  musical  journals.  He  pub- 
lished a  'Life  of  Balfe'  ;  'The  Choristers' 
Guide^  ;  'English  Church  Composers'  ;  'English 
Folk  Songs,  Glees,  apd  Madrigals,'  and  a  'Dic- 
tionary of  Musical  Terms'    (with  Stainer.) 

Barrett,  William  Fletcher,  English  scien- 
tist :  b.  Jamaica,  West  Indies,  10  Feb.  1844.  He 
assisted  Prof.  Tyndall  at  the  Royal  Institution, 
London,  1862-6,  and  in  1873  became  professor 
of  experimental  physics  in  the  Royal  College  of 
Science,  Dublin.  He  was  one  of  the  founders 
of  the  Society  for  Psychical  Research,  and  is 
widely  known  for  his  original  researches  in 
magnetism  and  radiant  heat.  He  has  published 
'Lessons  in  Science'  (1880)  ;  'Early  Chapters 
in  Science'  (1899)  ;  'A  Monograph  on  the  So- 
called  Divining  Rod'   (1897-1900). 

Barrett,  Wilson,  English  dramatist  and 
actor :  b.  Essex,  18  Feb.  1846 ;  d.  London,  22 
July,  1904.  He  went  upon  the  state  in  1863.  In 
1874  he  became  manager  of  the  Amphitheatre  in 
Leeds,  and  later  lessee  of  the  Grand  Theatre  in 
Leeds ;  in  1879  manager  of  the  Court  Theatre, 
London;  and  in  1881,  of  Princess'  Theatre,  Lon- 
don. He  visited  the  United  States  in  1886,  and, 
returning  to  England  in  1887,  became  manager  of 
the  Globe  Theatre ;  revisited  the  United  States  in 
1888,  and  again  in  1889 ;  in  1896  became  man- 
ager of  the  Lyric  Theatre,  London ;  and  in 
1899,  of  the  Lyceum.  His  dramas  include  'The 
Sign  of  the  Cross'  ;  *^  Pharaoh'  ;  'Now-a-days'  ; 
'The  Daughters  of  Babylon'  ;  'In  Old  New 
York'  ;  etc. ;  and  he  adapted  for  stage  pur- 
poses such  well-known  novels  as  'The  Deem- 
ster' ;  'The  Bondman'  ;  'The  Manxman'  ;  and 
'Quo  Vadis.' 

Barr'head,  a  manufacturing  town  of  Scot- 
land, seven  miles  southwest  of  Glasgow.  The 
chief  industries  are  the  printing  of  cottons,  the 
spinning  of  cotton  yarn,  dyeing,  bleaching,  iron 
and  brass  founding,  and  the  making  of  machin- 
ery and  sanitary  appliances.     Pop.  (1901)  9.9CO. 


Barrias,  ba-re-as,  Felix  Joseph,  French 
painter :  b.  Paris,  13  Sept.  1822 ;  a  pupil  of  Leon 
Cogniet.  His  most  successful  works  are  'Cin- 
cinnatus'  (1844)  ;  'Sappho'  (1847)  ;  and  'Death 
of  Chopin'  (1885).  He  was  awarded  the  Grand 
Prix  de  Rome,  1844 ;  Legion  of  Honor,  1859 ; 
first  medal  at  the  Paris  Exposition,  1889. 

Barrias,  Louis  Ernest,  French  sculptor:  b. 
Paris,  1841  ;  d.  4  Feb.  1905.  His  first  success 
was  the  'Spartains'  for  the  Tuileries  in  1871. 
Among  his  latest  works  are  the  Carnot  Me- 
morial for  the  city  of  Bordeaux  (1896),  and  the 
bronze  statue  of  Laboisier  for  Paris   (1900). 

Barricade,  an  obstruction  hastily  impro- 
vised to  defend  a  narrow  passage  (for  instance, 
a  street,  a  bridge,  etc.),  serving  to  retard  an 
enemy  and  afford  an  opportunity  of  firing  upon 
them  with  effect.  Carriages,  casks,  chests,  fur- 
niture, beams  —  in  short,  everything  which  is  at 
hand  is  used  for  this  purpose ;  and  if  it  is  ne- 
cessary that  the  enemy,  when  consisting  prin- 
cipally of  cavalry,  should  be  checked  in  the 
pursuit,  though  it  be  but  for  a  moment,  the 
baggage  wagons  may  be  employed  with  effect. 
Barricades,  constructed  of  the  first  materials 
that  came  to  hand,  were  used  in  popular  insur- 
rections during  the  Middle  Ages,  and  Paris  has 
obtained  notoriety  as  the  city  in  which  they  have 
been  most  frequently  employed.  In  1358  its 
streets  were  barricaded  against  the  Dauphin. 
The  first  "Battle  of  the  Barricades"  took  place 
on  the  entry  of  the  Duke  of  Guise  into  Paris, 
12  May  1588.  It  was  followed,  during  the  War 
of  the  Fronde,  by  another  contest  of  a  some- 
what similar  character,  26  Aug.  1648,  when 
Anne  of  Austria  ordered  the  arrest  of  three  pop- 
ular members  of  the  parliament.  In  July  1830, 
the  elder  branch  of  the  Bourbons,  and  in  Feb- 
ruary 1848,  the  Orleans  branch  of  the  same  fam- 
ily, were  driven  from  the  French  throne,  after  a 
struggle  at  the  barricades.  Gen.  Cavaignac,  in 
defense  of  the  provisional  government,  waged 
a  fearful  contest  with  the  insurgents,  who  had 
erected  barricades,  23-26  June  1848,  in  which  he 
was  at  length  victorious.  The  killed  and 
wounded  amounted  to  15,000,  and  about  8,000 
of  the  rebels  were  taken  prisoners. 

Napoleon  III.  widened  and  macadamized 
many  of  the  principal  streets  of  Paris,  partly 
with  the  express  purpose  of  rendering  the  suc- 
cessful erection  of  barricades  next  to  impossible ; 
but  nevertheless  in  the  second  siege  of  Paris 
(1871),  the  Communists  threw  up  numbers  of 
strong  barricades.  There  was  a  remarkable  bar- 
ricade erection  in  London  in  1821.  The  ministry 
desired  that  the  body  of  Queen  Caroline  should 
be  conveyed  out  of  the  country  to  Germany,  for 
interment  without  the  populace  having  the  op- 
portunity of  making  any  demonstration.  On  the 
matter  becoming  known,  a  vast  barricade  was 
erected  at  the  point  where  the  Hampstead  Road 
joins  the  New  Road;  and  as  nothing  but  the  use 
of  artillery  could  have  forced  the  way,  the  offi- 
cer in  charge  of  the  funeral  changed  his  course. 
In  1848  and  1849  barricades  were  successfully 
carried  in  Paris,  Berlin,  Vienna,  and  Dresden, 
by  taking  the  defenders  in  the  rear. 

Barricades,  The  Days  of  the,  a  phrase  em- 
ployed to  denote  popular  Parisian  revolts.  See 
also  Bareicade. 

Barrie,  James  Matthew,  popular  Scot- 
tish author:  b.  Kurriemuir,  Forfarshire,  9  May 
i860.     He   graduated   from   Edinburgh   Univer- 


BARRIE  —  BARRINGTON 


sity  in  1882,  and  went  to  London  in  1885,  to  en- 
gage in  journalism.  His  peculiar  talent  for  de- 
picting Scottish  village  life  and  rustic  charac- 
ters with  fidelity,  pathos,  humor,  and  poetic 
charm,  has  brought  him  fame.  ^Better  Dead^ 
(1887)  and  ^When  a  Man's  Single^  (1888)  were 
followed  by  <Auld  Licht  Idylls>  (1888)  and  a 
Window  in  Thrums^  (i88g),  which  first  made 
him    widely    known:     'An    Edinburgh    Eleven' 

(1890)  .  'My  Lady  Nicotine,'  humorous  essays 
on    smoking     (1890)  ;     'The     Little    Minister' 

(1891)  ;  'Sentimental  Tommy'  (1896);  'Mar 
garet  Ogilvy'  (1896).  a  biography  of  his 
mother;  'Tommy  and  GrizeP  (1900)  ;  'The  Lit- 
tle White  Bird'  (1902),  etc.  He  has  also  written 
nuiTierous  short  sketches,  and  the  following  dra- 
matic works :  'Walker,  London'  (1892);  'Jane 
Annie'  (1893)  ;  and  'The  Professor's  Love 
Story'  (1895).  *The  Little  Minister'  was  dram- 
atized in  1897.  and  was  played  with  success  in 
the  United  States.  See  Hammerton,  'James 
Matthew  Barrie  and  His  Books'    (1900). 

Barrie,  Canada,  town  and  county-seat  of 
Simcoe  County,  Ontario ;  on  the  Grand  Trunk 
Railway,  at  the  western  extremity  of  Lake  Sim- 
coe ;  64  miles  north-northwest  of  Toronto. 
Barrie  was  founded  in  1832  and  incorporated  in 
1871.  It  is  a  popular  and  beautiful  summer  re- 
sort, and  the  starting  point  of  the  Lake  Simcoe 
steamers.  The  chief  industrial  establishments 
are  planing  and  grist  mills,  carriage  works, 
breweries,  brick-yards,  engine  and  boiler  works, 
and  wicker  works.  The  waterworks  and  electric 
light  plant  are  owned  by  the  corporation.  There 
are  10  churches,  a  collegiate  institute  and  busi- 
ness college.  In  1896  Allandale,  a  railway  cen- 
tre, was  annexed  to  the  town,  and  the  Grand 
Trunk  Railway  has  here  a  large  roundhouse, 
machine  shops,  etc.  A  United  States  consular 
agent  is  stationed  here.     Pop.   (1901)  5,949. 

Barrier  Reef,  The  Great,  a  coral  reef  or 
line  ot  reefs  extending  for  1,260  miles  off  the 
northeast  coast  of  Australia,  at  a  mean  distance 
from  land  of  30  miles.  It  rises  precipitously 
from  a  great  depth,  no  bottom  having  been  found 
at  some  places  with  a  line  of  285  fathoms. 

Barrier  Treaty.     When,  by  the   Peace   of 

Utrecht,  the  Spanish  Netherlands  were  ceded 
to  Austria,  1715,  this  cession  was  agreed  to  by 
the  Dutch,  who  had  conquered  these  provinces 
in  alliance  with  England,  only  on  condition  that 
they  should  have  the  right  (in  order  to  secure 
their  borders  and  give  them  a  barrier  against 
their  powerful  nei,ghbor,  France)  to  garrison 
several  fortresses  of  the  countrj',  and  that  Aus- 
tria should  engage  to  pay  yearly  to  Holland 
350,000  dollars  for  the  support  of  these  garri- 
sons. The  treaty  which  was  concluded  between 
Austria,  England,  and  Holland  was  called  the 
Barrier  Treaty,  In  1781  the  Emperor  Joseph 
II.  declared  it  void. 

Barriere,  ba-ryar,  Jean  Frangois,  French 
historical  writer:  b.  Paris,  12  May  1786;  d. 
there,  22  Aug.  1868.  His  energies  were  first 
directed  to  periodical  literature ;  but  he  subse- 
quently produced  'The  Court  and  the  City  Un- 
der Louis  XIV.,  Louis  XV.,  and  Louis  XVI.,' 
besides  editing  a  numerous  series  of  memoirs  of 
personages  connected  with  the  Grand  Monarch. 

Barriere,  Theodore,  French  dramatist: 
b.  Paris,  1823;  d.  there,  16  Oct.  1877.  In  col- 
laboration with  others  he   supplied  the  French 


stage  with  a  great  number  of  dramas  and  come- 
dies, some  of  which  met  with  much  favor,  es- 
pecially 'Bohemian  Life'  (1848,  with  Murger)  ; 
'The  Maids  of  Marble'  (1S53,  with  Thibou.st), 
a  counterpart  to  Dumas'  'The  Camelia  Lady,' 
and  'The  Spurious  Men  of  Honor'  (1856,  with 
Capendu),  a  scathing  satire,  and  his  master- 
piece. 

Barriers,  Battle  of  The,  an  engagement 
between  the  French  and  the  Allies  in  front  of 
Paris,  March  1814,  in  which  the  former  were 
defeated.  Its  immediate  result  was  the  abdi- 
cation of   Napoleon. 

Barrili,  bar-re'le,  Antonio  Giulio,  Italian 
novelist:  b.  Savona,  14  Dec.  1836.  Engaging  in 
journalism  u'hen  only  18,  he  assumed  the  man- 
agement of  //  Movimento  in  i860,  and  became 
proprietor  and  editor  of  //  Caffaio  in  Genoa  in 

1872.  He  had  taken  part  in  the  campaigns  of 
1859  and  18G6  (with  Garibaldi  in  Tyrol)  and  in 
the  Roman  expedition  of  1867,  and  sat  in  the 
Chamber  of  Deputies  in  1876-9.  He  is  one  of 
the  most  prolific  writers  of  modern  Italy,  and 
among  his  numerous  stories  are  'Elm  Tree  and 
Ivy'  (1868)  ;  'The  Vale  of  Olives'  (1871)  ;  'As 
in  a  Dream,'  'The  Devil's  Portrait'  (1882); 
'The  Eleventh  Commandment,'  'A  Whimsical 
Wooing.'  He  has  published  several  volumes 
of  criticism,  among  which  may  be  named: 
^Ilrinnovamento  Letterario  Italiano'   (1890). 

Barring-out,  a  practice  once  common  in 
some  English  schools  and  rendered  familiar  to 
many  from  forming  the  subject  of  one  of  the 
tales  in  Miss  Edgeworth's  'Parent's  Assistant.' 
It  generally  took  place  a  few  days  before  the 
holidays,  when  the  boys  barred  the  doors  of 
the  school  and  defied  the  masters  from  the  win- 
dows. It  was  commonly  understood  that  the 
pupils  might  dictate  terms  as  to  holidays  for  the 
ensuing  year  if  they  could  prevent  the  masters' 
entrance  for  three  successive  days.  The  origin 
of  the  practice  is  not  known ;  but  its  observance 
is  enjoined  in  the  statutes  of  Witton  School, 
Cheshire,  founded  in  1588,  by  Sir  John  Deanc. 

Bar'ringer,  Daniel  Moreau,  American 
statesman :  b.  in  the  county  of  Cabarrus,  N,  C, 
1807 ;   d.    White   Sulphur   Springs,   Va.,    i    Sept. 

1873,  He  graduated  at  the  University  of  North 
Carolina  in  1826,  established  himself  in  the 
practice  of  law  in  1829,  and,  after  gaining 
distinction  as  a  lawyer,  was,  in  1843,  elected  a 
representative  to  the  National  Congress,  He 
was  twice  re-elected,  and  was  minister  to  Spain, 
1849-53,  He  was  a  delegate  to  the  National 
U^nion  Convention  in  Philadelphia  in  1866. 

Barringer,  Rufus,  American  lawyer  and 
soldier:  b,  Cabarrus  County,  N.  C,  2  Dec.  1821 ; 
d.  Charlotte,  N,  C,  3  Feb.  1805.  lie  graduated 
from  the  University  of  North  Carolina,  1842, 
and  settled  in  the  practice  of  law  at  Concord, 
though  a  strong  Union  man  he  followed  his 
State  into  the  Confederacy,  raised  a  company  of 
cavalry,  and  by  June  1864,  had  risen  to  the  rank 
of  brigadier-general.  He  was  in  76  actions,  and 
was  severely  wounded  on  several  occasions.  At 
the  close  of  the  war  he  returned  to  the  practice 
of  law,  advocated  the  acceptance  of  the  recon- 
struction acts,  and  took  a  prominent  part  in 
State  politics  until  his   retirement  in  1884. 

Bar'rington,  Daines,  English  lawyer,  anti- 
quary, and  naturalist :  b.  1727 ;  d.  March  1800. 
After    preparatory   studies   at   Oxford   and   the 


HARRINGTON  —  BARRIOS 


Inner  Temple,  he  was  called  to  the  bar,  and 
held  several  offices  previous  to  his  being  ap- 
pointed a  Welsh  judge  in  1757.  He  was  subse- 
quently second  justice  of  Chester  till  1785,  when 
he  resigned  that  post,  and  thenceforward  lived 
in  retirement,  chiefly  at  his  chambers  in  the 
Inner  Temple,  where  he  died.  His  publications 
were  numerous,  but  his  name  is  now  best  known 
as  a  correspondent  of  White  of  Selborne,  whose 
famous  letters  on  natural  history  he  is  said  to 
have  suggested.  He  was  an  eager,  curious  anti- 
quary, uncritical  and  the  subject  of  many  hoaxes. 
Barrington,  George,  Irishman,  noted  au- 
thor and  notorious  thief:  b.  1755;  d.  about  1840. 
His  most  notable  act  of  thieving  was  the  robbing 
of  a  Russian  prince  in  Covent  Garden  Theatre. 
He  took  from  him  a  gold  snuff-box  said  to  be 
worth  $150,000;  but,  as  the  prince  refused  to 
prosecute,  he  was  dismissed  from  trial.  In  1790 
he  was  sentenced  to  seven  years'  penal  servitude 
at  Botany  Bay ;  but  having  given  information  of 
an  intended  mutiny  of  the  other  convicts  on  the 
voyage,  at  the  end  of  two  years  he  was  dis- 
charged, on  the  first  warrant  of  emancipation 
ever  issued.  He  was  made  superintendent  of 
convicts,  and  later  high  constable  at  Paramatta. 
He  was  a  wit,  and  of  some  literary  genius :  one 
couplet  in  a  prologue  he  wrote  for  Young's  play 
^Revenge,^  produced  by  the  convicts  on  the 
opening  of  the  Sydney  Theatre,  remains  an  en- 
during classic: 

"  True  patriots  we;  for  be  it  understood, 

We  left  our  country  for  our  country's  good." 

He  wrote  also  'Voyage  to  Botany  Bay*  (1801), 
'History  of  New  South  Wales'  (1802),  'History 
of  New  Holland,  >  i.  e.  Australia  (1808). 

Barrington,  John  Shute,  English  lawyer 
and  theologian:  b.  London,  1678;  d.  Becket, 
Berkshire,  14  Dec.  1734.  He  w-as  created  first 
Viscount  Barrington  in  1720.  He  was  a  disciple 
and  friend  of  Locke,  a  friendship  which  is 
thought  to  have  been  brought  about  by  the  pub- 
lication of  his  (Barrington's)  work,  'The  In- 
terest of  England,*  etc.  He  was  devoted  to 
theology  and  wrote  extensively  in  that  science. 
His  chief  works  have  been  collected  under  the 
title  'The  Theological  Works  of  the  First  Vis- 
count  Barrington.-* 

Barrington,  Sir  Jonah,  Irish  jurist:  b. 
County  Queens  in  1760;  d.  Versailles,  France, 
3  April  1834.  He  became  judge  in  the  Court 
of  Admiralty,  and  was  a  steady  opponent  of  the 
Act  of  Union  in  1800.  As  the  result  of  several 
peculations,  upon  petition  of  both  Parliamentary 
houses,  he  was  deprived  of  his  office,  and  in 
1830  left  England.  He  was  the  author  of  'Per- 
sonal Sketches*  (1827)  ;  'Historic  Memoirs  of 
Ireland*  (1832)  ;  'The  Rise  and  Fall  of  the 
Irish  Nation*    (1833),  etc. 

Barrington,  William  Wildman,  English 
statesman,  second  Viscount  Barrington:  b.  15 
Jan.  1717;  d.  I  Feb.  1793.  He  was  sworn  a 
member  of  the  privy  council  in  1755,  and  in  the 
same  year  accepted  the  office  of  secretary  of 
war.  In  1761  he  was  appointed  chancellor  of 
the  exchequer,  but  in  1765  reassumed  the  post  of 
secretary  of  war,  which  he  held  till  1778,  w^hen, 
in  consideration  of  long  public  and  personal 
services,  he  was  retired. 

Barrington,  Can.,  a  seaport  of  Nova 
Scotia  in  Shelburne  County,  173  miles  west  of 
Halifax  by  rail.     Its  industries  are  ship-building. 


fishing,  and  the  shipping  trade.  A  United 
States  consul  resides  here.  Barrington  Pas- 
sage is  a  small  fishing  suburb.     Pop.  1,900. 

Barrios,  bar're-6s,  Gerardo,  Central  Amer^ 
ican  statesman:  b.  about  1810;  d.  1865.  He  be- 
came president  of  Salvador  in  i860.  During  his 
administration,  education,  commerce,  and  public 
works  progressed  remarkably,  his  presidential 
management  being  unusually  liberal.  He  was 
deposed  by  Duenas  as  the  outcome  of  the  war 
with  Guatemala,  and,  while  endeavoring  to  bring 
about  a  revolution  in  order  to  become  president 
again,  was  captured  and  executed. 

Barrios,  Justo  Rufino,  Guatemalan  states- 
man, of  Spanish-Indian  blood :  b.  San  Lorenzo, 
Guatemala,  17  July  1835;  d.  Chalchuapa,  2 
April  1885.  He  was  educated  for  the  law,  but 
the  political  punishment  of  his  father  led  him 
to  become  a  guerrilla  revolutionist,  and  finally 
chief  lieutenant  of  Garcia  Granados,  who  by  his 
help  ousted  Vicente  Cerna  (the  decisive  battle 
being  fought  29  June  1871)  and  became  presi- 
dent. Barrios  being  commander-in-chief.  The 
revolution  w^as  a  democratic  and  anti-clerical 
one,  and  the  new  government  began  by  expell- 
ing the  Jesuits  ;  to  which  Barrios  added  the  sup- 
pression of  religious  orders  during  an  acting 
presidency,  and  after  he  had,  on  4  June  1873, 
succeeded  Granados  as  president.  There  had 
been  incessant  revolts  of  the  reactionists,  which 
shortly  after  his  accession  he  quelled  once  for 
all,  establishing  a  system  of  terrorism  and  es- 
pionage which  at  least  gave  the  country  quiet 
and  enabled  him  to  carry  out  his  wonderful  re- 
forms and  improvements.  He  maintained  in- 
ternal peace,  and  supremacy  in  Central  America, 
by  a  thorough  system  of  militia  drill  for  all  but 
the  pure-blooded  Indians;  keeping  an  army  of 
some  30,000  men  in  constant  reserve,  with  3,000 
to  4,000  in  the  capital,  which  he  made  one  of 
the  best  ordered  cities  of  Spanish  America.  He 
reorganized  the  postal  and  organized  the  tele- 
graphic service  also  on  the  reports  of  men 
sent  to  examine  the  United  States  systems.  He 
built  the  first  telegraph  and  the  first  railroad 
in  Guatemala,  and  started  a  line  to  the  coast, 
compelling  every  citizen  earning  over  $8  a  month 
to  hold  stock  in  it ;  constructed  street  railway 
lines  in  the  capital ;  improved  the  roads  and 
built  solid  bridges.  He  remodeled  the  educa- 
tional system,  established  collegiate  institutes, 
normal  and  industrial  schools,  and  made 
knowledge  of  French  and  English  a  condition 
of  license  to  practise  law  or  medicine.  He 
built  two  modern  penitentiaries.  In  a  word,  he 
transformed  Guatemala  into  one  of  the  most 
habitable  and  progressive  countries  south  of 
the  United  States.  But  the  foremost  purpose  of 
his  life  was  to  form  Central  America  into  one 
united  state,  for  power  and  prosperity  and  the 
ending  of  the  miserable  wars  that  wasted  its 
vitality.  On  15  Jan.  1876  he  assembled  a  diet 
from  all  the  states  in  Guatemala  city  to  frame  a 
plan  of  consolidation ;  but  as  it  could  not  agree 
upon  one,  he  therefore  determined  to  set  up 
governments  in  the  other  states  favorable  to  his 
plans.  Honduras  was  racked  by  a  civil  war 
and  offered  no  difficulties,  Salvador  was  too 
small  to  resist  the  union  of  the  two,  and  thence- 
forward till  1884  Barrios  disposed  of  the  re- 
sources of  all  three  republics.  On  i  March 
1880,  the  first  constitution  of  Guatemala  went 
into  operation,  and  Barrios  was  re-elected  for  a 


BARRISTER  —  BARROSA 


six-year  term.  On  24  Feb.  1883  he  issued  a 
circular  to  the  hberal  party,  pledging  himself 
to  effect  the  unification  only  by  peaceful  means 
and  with  the  consent  of  all  the  republics.  In 
March  1884  he  called  a  meeting  of  five  delegates 
from  each  republic,  but  Costa  Rica  and  Nica- 
ragua still  held  back.  Finally,  on  28  Feb.  1885, 
he  with  his  assembly,  issued  a  decree  proclaim- 
ing the  union  of  the  five  states,  relying  on  Hon- 
duras and  Salvador  to  help  him  put  down 
resistance  in  the  others.  But  the  president  of 
Salvador  refused  to  employ  force,  and  on  Barrios 
persisting,  joined  Nicaragua  and  Costa  Rica 
in  a  league  to  resist  him,  appealing  to  Mexico 
and  the  United  States  for  help.  President  Diaz 
of  Mexico  remonstrated  with  Barrios,  and  the 
United  States  viewed  the  movement  with  dis- 
favor ;  but  on  the  Salvador  troops,  which  ex- 
pected Mexican  help,  invading  Guatemala,  Bar- 
rios drove  them  back  into  Salvador,  and  while 
entering  Chalchuapa  w^as  struck  down  by  a 
sharpshooter's  bullet.  His  widow  removed  to 
New  York,  and  his  son  became  a  cadet  in  the 
United  States  army. 

Bar'rister,  in  England,  an  advocate  or 
pleader,  who  has  been  admitted  by  one  of  the 
Inns  of  Court,  namely,  the  Inner  Temple,  Mid- 
dle Temple,  Lincoln's  Inn,  or  Gray's  Inn,  to 
plead  at  the  bar.  Before  a  student  can  be  ad- 
mitted to  the  bar  he  must  have  been  a  member 
of  one  of  those  societies,  and  have  kept  12 
terms  there  by  dining  sufficiently  often  in  the 
hall  of  the  society  to  which  he  belongs,  and 
must  also  pass  a  public  examination.  The  ex- 
aminations, which  had  dwindled  into  mere 
forms,  have  in  recent  years  been  made  more 
stringent.  Barristers  are  sometimes  called  ut- 
ter or  outer  barristers,  to  distinguish  them  from 
queen's  (or  king's)  counsel,  who  sit  within  the 
bar  in  the  courts,  and  are  distinguished  by  a 
silk  gown.  Barristers  are  also  spoken  of  as 
counsel,  as  in  the  phrase  opinion  of  counsel, 
that  is,  a  written  opinion  obtained  from  a  bar- 
rister before  whom  the  facts  of  a  case  have 
been  laid.  The  duties  of  a  barrister  are  hon- 
orary, and  he  can  maintain  no  action  for  his 
fees.  It  is  the  barristers  who  speak  before  all 
the  higher  courts,  being  instructed  in  regard  to 
the  facts  of  the  case  they  have  in  hand  by 
means  of  the  brief  which  they  receive  from  the 
solicitor  engaging  their  services.  In  the  United 
States  there  is  no  distinct  order  of  counsel 
corresponding  to  the  English  barrister,  the  same 
person  performing  the  duties  of  attorney,  solici- 
tor, counsel,  or  advocate.     See  also  Advocate. 

Barron,  James,  American  naval  officer:  b. 
Virginia,  1769;  d.  21  April  1851.  He  entered  the 
navy  in  1798,  and  commanded  the  Chesapeake 
in  1807,  when  it  was  attacked  by  the  British 
ship  Leopard  as  a  result  of  his  refusal  to  allow 
the  Chesapeake  to  be  searched  for  deserters. 
The  Chesapeake,  which  w-as  quite  unprepared, 
discharged  one  gun  previous  to  striking  her 
colors.  She  was  captured  and  three  alleged 
deserters  were  found.  Barron  was  court-mar- 
tialed for  neglect  of  duty,  though  only  par- 
tially to  blame  for  the  surrender  of  his  vessel, 
and  suspended  for  five  years.  The  court  closed 
its  finding  on  the  subject  of  the  personal  con- 
duct of  the  accused,  in  the  following  language: 
*No  transposition  of  the  specifications,  or  any 
other  modification  of  the  charges  themselves, 
would  alter  the  opinion  of  the  court  as  to  the 


firmness  and  courage  of  the  accused ;  the  evi- 
dence on  this  point  is  clear  and  satisfactory.'^ 
Such  was  the  fate  of  Commodore  Barron,  but  it 
is  more  than  probable  that  under  the  state 
of  public  feeling,  demanding  a  victim,  those  who 
were  really  responsible  for  the  efficiency  of  the 
Chesapeake,  escaped  unpunished.  Upon  his  res- 
toration, as  the  outcome  of  a  long  correspond- 
ence with  his  personal  enemy,  Commodore 
Decatur,  a  duel  was  fought  and  Decatur  was 
killed.  Barron  became  senior  officer  in  the  navy 
in  1839,  though  never  again  in  active  service  and 
never  regained  full  public  esteem.  See  Chesa- 
peake AND  Leopard. 

Barron,  Samuel,  American  naval  officer: 
b.  Hampton,  \'a.,  1763;  d.  29  Oct.  1810.  In  1805 
he  commanded  a  squadron  of  10  vessels  in 
the  expedition  against  Tripoli.  On  his  return  to 
the  United  States  he  was  appointed  commandant 
of  the  Gosport  Navy  Yard,  but  died  immediately 
afterward. 

Barros,  bar-ros,  Arana  Diego,  Chilean 
scholar  and  historian :  b.  Santiago,  16  Aug. 
1830.  Ill  health  obliging  him  to  give  up  legal 
studies,  he  early  devoted  himself  entirely  to  his- 
torical and  literary  pursuits,  and  soon  became 
an  authority  on  the  history  of  his  native  coun- 
try. The  favor  with  which  his  historical 
sketch  of  the  campaigns  of  1818-21  was  received 
encouraged  him  to  begin  an  extensive  ^History 
of  Chilean  Independence'  (1854-8).  He  spent 
several  years  investigating  the  government 
archives  and  private  libraries  of  South  America 
and  Europe  in  search  of  material  bearing  on  the 
history  of  South  America.  His  chief  works  in 
addition  to  the  above  are:  "^Vida  y  Viajes  de 
Hernando  de  Magallanes^  (1864)  ;  ^Histoire  de 
la  Guerre  du  Pacifique^  (1881),  written  by 
order  of  the  government ;  and  his  monumental 
^Historia  General  de  Chile'  (12  vols.  1884-93). 
In  Simancas  he  discovered  the  manuscript  of 
the  ^Puren  Indomito.'  an  historical  poem  on  the 
Araucanian  war,  and  published  an  edition  of  it 
at  Leipsic  in  i860. 

Barros,  Joao  de,  eminent  Portuguese 
historian:  b.  Viseu,  1496;  d.  Pombal,  1570.  His 
first  work,  an  historical  romance,  entitled  the 
^Emperor  Clarimond,'  appeared  in  1520.  Bar- 
ros presented  it  to  the  king,  who  urged  him  to 
undertake  the  history  of  the  Portuguese  in  In- 
dia, which  was  issued  1552-62.  King  John  III. 
appointed  Barros  governor  of  the  Portuguese 
settlements  in  Guinea,  and  afterward  general 
agent  for  these  colonies.  In  1530  he  presented 
Barros  with  the  province  of  Maranham  in  Bra- 
zil for  the  purpose  of  colonization.  Barros  lost 
a  great  part  of  his  fortune  by  the  enterprise,  and 
returned  the  province  to  the  king,  who  indern- 
nified  him  for  his  losses.  His  work  ^L'Azia 
Portugueza,^  is  much  admired  for  its  style  and 
erudition.  He  wrote  besides  a  moral  dialogue, 
^Rhopicancuma,^  in  which  he  shows  the  per- 
nicious consequences  of  accommodating  prin- 
ciples to  circumstances;  but  this  work  was 
prohibited  by  the  Inquisition.  He  w^rote  also 
a  dialogue  on  false  modesty,  and  a  Portuguese 
grammar,  the  first  ever  published. 

Barro'sa,  or  Borosa,  a  village  in  Spain, 
near  the  southwest  coast  of  Andalusia,  16  miles 
south-southeast  of  Cadiz.  On  a  knoll  to  the 
east  of  it  a  battle  was  fought  in  181 1,  in  which 
the  British  under  Gen.  Graham,  when  aban- 
doned   by   the    Spaniards,    defeated    a    superior 


BARROT  —  BARROW 


French  force  under  Victor.  No  decisive  results 
were  obtained  from  the  battle,  however. 

Barret,  ba-ro,   Camille  Hyacinthe  Odllon, 

French  statesman :  b.  Villefort,  Lozere,  19  July 
1791 ;  d.  Bougival,  near  Paris,  6  Aug.  1873. 
At  19  he  pleaded  before  the  ordinary  tribunals, 
and  at  23,  by  a  special  dispensation,  before  the 
Court  of  Cassation,  Paris,  and  early  acquired 
a  high  reputation  for  eloquence.  In  the  politi- 
cal arena  his  oratory  soon  made  him  one  of  the 
most  influential  leaders  of  the  liberal  opposition. 
He  became  president  of  the  "Aide-toi"  Society 
in  1830,  and  at  the  July  revolution  in  that  year 
was  one  of  three  commissioners  appointed  to 
conduct  the  dethroned  Charles  X.  to  Cherbourg, 
on  his  way  to  England.  Returning  he  was  ap- 
pointed prefect  of  the  department  of  the  Seine 
and  member  of  the  Council  of  State,  but  in  a 
few  months  resigned  his  offices  to  lead  the 
opposition  to  Casimir  Perier  and  the  reactionary 
ministers  who  followed  him.  He  supported 
Thiers  from  his  accession  to  office  in  March 
1840,  to  his  fall  in  October,  when  he  resumed 
his  opposition  to  the  ministry  of  Guizot.  He 
took  a  conspicuous  part  in  the  reform  movement 
of  1847,  and  spoke  eloquently  at  several  of  the 
provincial  reform  banquets  which  led  to  the 
revolution  of  February  1848.  Made  president 
by  Thiers  in  his  short-lived  ministry,  he  ad- 
vised the  king  to  withdraw  his  troops  and  thus 
remove  the  last  obstacle  to  the  downfall  of  his 
throne.  In  the  last  sitting  of  the  Chamber  of 
Deputies  he  supported  the  claim  of  the  Count 
de  Paris  to  the  throne  and  the  regency  of  the 
Duchess  of  Orleans.  The  February  revolution 
considerably  abated  his  ardor  for  public  liberty. 
He  held  office  for  some  time  under  the  presi- 
dency of  Louis  Napoleon,  but  retired  from 
active  political  life  after  the  coup  d'etat,  2  Dec. 
1851,  and  accepted  no  office  under  the  Second 
Empire.  In  July  1872  he  was  made  a  councilor 
of  state  and  vice-president  of  the  council,  6  Aug. 
1873.  His  *^Memoires  Posthumes'  appeared  at 
Paris   (1875-6). 

Barrow,  Frances  Elizabeth,  American 
author :  b.  Charleston,  S.  C,  22  Feb.  1822 ;  d. 
7  May  1894.  She  was  educated  in  New  York, 
where  she  was  married  to  James  Barsow.  She 
wrote,  under  the  name  of  Aunt  Fanny,  nu- 
merous books  for  children;  among  them  *^Six 
Nightcaps,^  which  has  been  translated  into 
French,  German,  and  Swedish.  Another,  ^The 
Letter  G-*  (1864),  was  widely  known  and  very 
popular.  She  also  wrote  a  novel,  "^The  Wife's 
Stratagem.^ 

Barrow,  or  Borrowe,  Henry,  English 
ecclesiastical  reformer,  often  considered  as  one 
of  the  founders  of  Congregationalism :  d.  1593. 
He  was  a  member  of  Gray's  Inn,  London,  in 
1576  and  there  became  interested  in  the  writings 
of  Thomas  Browne,  the  founder  of  the  Brown- 
ists.  On  account  of  his  advocacy  of  Church 
reform  he  was  imprisoned  and  with  his  co- 
reformer,  Greenwood,  was  hanged  at  Tyburn. 
He  was  the  author  of  "^ Brief  Discourse  of  the 
False  Church^  (1590).  See  Dexter,  < Congre- 
gationalism of  the  Last  Three  Hundred  Years' 
(1880). 

Barrow,  Isaac,  eminent  English  mathema- 
tician and  theologian :  b.  London,  1630 ;  d.  May 
1677.  At  the  Charterhouse,  where  he  was  edu- 
cated,   he    was    chiefly   remarkable   for   fighting 


and  neglect  of  study,  but  being  removed  to 
a  school  at  Felsted,  in  Essex,  he  began  to  show 
some  earnest  of  his  future  great  reputation.  He 
was  subsequently  entered  a  pensioner  of  Trinity 
College,  Cambridge,  in  1645,  of  which  he  was 
chosen  a  scholar  in  1647.  The  ejection  of  his 
uncle,  the  Bishop  of  St.  Asaph,  from  his  fellow- 
ship of  Peterhouse,  in  consequence  of  his  ad- 
herence to  the  royal  party,  and  the  great  losses 
sustained  by  his  father  in  the  same  cause,  left 
him  largely  unprovided  for.  His  good  dis- 
position and  great  attainments,  however,  so 
won  upon  his  superiors  that,  although  he  re- 
fused to  subscribe  to  the  Covenant,  he  was  very 
highly  regarded.  Finding  that  opinions  in 
church  and  state  opposite  to  his  own  now  pre- 
vailed, he  proceeded  some  length  in  the  study 
of  anatomy,  botany,  and  chemistry,  with  a  view 
to  the  medical  profession.  He,  however, 
changed  his  mind,  and  to  the  study  of  divinity 
joined  that  of  mathematics  and  astronomy.  In 
1652  he  graduated  M.A.  at  Oxford,  and  being 
disappointed  in  his  endeavor  to  obtain  the 
Greek  professorship  at  Cambridge,  engaged  in 
a  scheme  of  foreign  travel.  He  set  out  in  1655, 
and  during  his  absence  his  first  work,  an  edi- 
tion of  Euclid's  *  Elements,'  was  published  at 
Cambridge.  He  visited  France  and  Italy,  where 
he  embarked  for  Smyrna,  and  from  Smyrna  he 
proceeded  to  Constantinople,  returning  in  1659 
by  way  of  Germany  and  Holland,  and  was  soon 
after  episcopally  ordained  by  Bishop  Brown- 
rigg.  In  1660  he  was  elected  Greek  professor  at 
the  University  of  Cambridge,  without  a  com- 
petitor. The  following  year  he  received  the  de- 
gree of  B.D.  He  was  in  1662  chosen  professor 
of  geometry  in  Gresham  College,  and  in  1663 
the  Royal  Society  elected  him  a  member  of  that 
body  in  the  first  choice  after  their  incorpora- 
tion. The  same  year  he  was  appointed  the  first 
Lucasian  professor  of  mathematics  at  Cam- 
bridge, on  which  occasion  he  delivered  an  excel- 
lent prefatory  lecture  on  the  utility  of  mathe- 
matical science  In  1669,  on  a  conscientious 
principle  of  duty,  he  determined  to  give  up 
mathematics  and  adhere  exclusively  to  divinity. 
Accordingly,  after  publishing  his  celebrated 
'Lectiones  Opticas,'  he  resigned  his  chair  to  the 
great  Newton.  In  1670  he  was  created  D.D.  by 
mandate,  and  in  1672  the  king  nominated  him  to 
the  mastership  of  Trinity  College,  observing  that 
he  had  bestowed  it  on  the  best  scholar  in  Eng- 
land. He  had  before  this  refused  a  living,  given 
him  with  a  view  I0  secure  his  services  as  a 
tutor  to  the  son  of  the  gentleman  who  had  it 
to  bestow,  because  he  deemed  such  a  contract 
simoniacal ;  and  he  now,  with  similar  consci- 
entiousness, had  a  clause  in  his  patent  of  mas- 
ter allowing  him  to  marry,  erased,  because  in- 
compatible with  the  intentions  of  the  founder. 
In  1675  he  was  chosen  vice-chancellor  of  the 
University  of  Cambridge ;  but  the  credit  and 
utility  expected  from  his  labors  were  frustrated 
by  his  untimely  death. 

The  works  of  Barrow,  both  mathematical 
and  theological,  are  of  the  highest  class.  Of 
the  former  the  following  are  the  principal : 
^Euclidis  Elementa'  (1655)  ;  <Euclidis  Data' 
(1657)  ;  *^Lectiones  Optic^e'  (1669)  ;  'Lectiones 
Geometricae'  (1670)  ;  'Archimedis  Opera' 
(1675)  ;  ^Apollonii  Conicorum,  lib.  iv.' ;  ^Theo- 
dosii  Sphericorum,  lib.  iii.,  novo  methodo  illus- 
trata  et  succincte  demonstrata'  (1675)  ;  ^Lectio 
in  qua  Theoremata  Archimedis   de  Sphsera  et 


BARROW  —  BARROW-IN-FURNESS 


Cylindro  per  Methodiim  Indivisibilium  Inves- 
tigata,  etc.*  (1678)  ;  ' Mathematicje  Lectiones* 
(1683).  All  his  English  works  are  theological; 
they  were  left  in  manuscript,  and  published  by 
Dr.  Tillotson  (1685).  ^Isaaci  Barrow  Opus- 
cula*  appeared  in  1607.  As  a  mathematician, 
especially  in  the  higher  geometry,  Barrow  was 
deemed  inferior  only  to  Newton ;  as  a  divine 
he  was  singularly  distinguished  for  depth  and 
copiousness  of  thought.  A  fine  specimen  of  his 
characteristic  copiousness  is  quoted  by  Addison 
from  his  sermon  on  'Vain  and  Idle  Talking,^ 
in  which  the  various  forms  and  guises  of  wit, 
■ — a  faculty  for  which  Dr.  Barrow  was  himself 
celebrated, —  are  enumerated  with  a  felicity  of 
expression  which  it  would  be  difhcult  to  parallel. 

Barrow,  Sir  John,  eminent  English  traveler 
and  geographer :  b.  near  Ulverstone,  Lanca- 
shire, 1764;  d.  23  Nov.  1848.  When  14  years 
old  he  entered  an  iron  foundry  in  Liverpool 
as  clerk  and  overlooker.  Two  years  after- 
ward he  gave  up  this  situation  and  made  a  voy- 
age in  a  whaler  to  Greenland.  He  was 
subsequently  employed  as  a  teacher  of  mathe- 
matics in  a  school  at  Greenwich,  and  in  that 
capacity  attracted  the  attention  of  Sir  George 
Staunton,  who  appointed  him  nominally  comp- 
troller of  the  household  to  Lord  Macartney  in 
his  embassy  to  China  in  1792,  though  his  real 
employment  was  to  take  charge  of  the  philo- 
sophical instruments  carried  out  as  presents  to 
the  Chinese  emperor.  Of  this  journey  he  after- 
ward published  an  account  under  the  title  of 
*  Travels  in  China*  (1804).  On  Lord  Macart- 
ney being  appointed  governor  of  the  Cape  of 
Good  Hope  in  1797,  he  made  Mr.  Barrow  his 
private  secretary ;  and  on  quitting  the  Cape 
in  1798  left  him  auditor-general  of  public  ac- 
counts. During  his  residence  there  he  made 
several  journeys  into  the  interior  of  South  Afri- 
ca, and  on  his  return  to  England  published  an 
account  of  them  under  the  title  of  'Travels  in 
Southern  Africa.*  In  1804  Barrow  was  ap- 
pointed second  secretary  to  the  admiralty.  The 
duties  of  this  post  he  discharged  with  the 
most  exemplary  industry  and  activity,  and  he 
took  an  ardent  interest  in  promoting  geographi- 
cal and  scientific  discovery,  and  more  especially 
the  expeditions  to  the  Arctic  Seas.  His  leisure 
hours  were  employed  in  literary  work,  and  the 
numerous  volumes  published  by  him  attest  the 
profitable  use  he  made  of  his  time.  These  in- 
clude, in  addition  to  the  books  of  travel  already 
mentioned,  the  'Life  of  Earl  Macartney*  'Life 
of  Lord  Anson*  ;  'Life  of  Lord  Howe*  ;  'Voy- 
ages of  Discovery  and  Research  within  the  Arc- 
tic Regions*  ;  Autobiographical  Memoir* 
(1847)  'Sketches  of  the  Royal  Society.*  In 
1835  he  was  created  a  baronet,  and  in  1845 
retired  from  his  office  at  the  admiralty.  He 
originated  the  Royal  Geographical  Society  in 
1830  and  was  its  vice-president  at  the  time 
of  his  death.  Barrow  Strait,  Cape  Barrow,  and 
Point  Barrow,  in  the  Arctic  regions,  were 
named  in  his  honor. 

Barrow,  a  navigable  river  of  Ireland,  prov- 
ince of  Leinster.  Its  course  is  generally  south- 
ward, and  after  about  900  miles  it  joins  the  Suir 
to  form  the  estuary  called  Waterford  Harbor. 
It  is  navigable  for  vessels  of  200  tons  to  New 
Ross,  25  miles  from  the  sea,  and  for  barges  to 
Athy  in  Kildare  County,  where  it  is  joined  by  a 
branch  of  the  Grand  Canal. 


Barrow,  Cape  or  Point,  a  term  applied  to 
three  prominent  localities  of  the  Arctic  region, 
in  honor  of  Sir  John  Barrow,  (i)  Point  Bar- 
row, on  the  north  coast  of  Alaska,  in  lat.  71° 
23'  N.,  and  Ion.  156°  31'  W.,  long  considered 
as  the  most  northerly  spot  on  the  American 
mainland.  (2)  Cape  Barrow,  on  the  coast  of 
Canada,  or  Coronation  Gulf,  is  in  lat.  68°  N., 
Ion.  111°  W.  (3)  Barrow  Strait,  the  earliest 
of  Parry's  discoveries,  leading  to  the  west  out 
of  Lancaster  Sound,  which  Parry's  immediate 
predecessor.  Captain,  afterward  Sir  John  Ross, 
had  pronounced  to  be  landlocked  in  that  direc- 
tion. Besides  its  main  course  to  Melville 
Sound,  Barrow  Strait  throws  off  Prince  Re- 
gent's Inlet  to  the  .south  and  Wellington  Chan- 
nel to  the  north.  The  passage  averages  about 
50  miles  in  breadth,  extending  nearly  along  the 
parallel  of  74°  N.,  from  85°  to  100°  W. 

Barrow,  an  artificial  mound  or  tumulus 
of  stones  or  earth,  piled  up  over  the  remains 
of  the  dead.  Such  erections  were  frequently 
made  in  ancient  times  in  our  own  land,  and 
they  are  met  with  also  in  many  other  countries 
both  in  the  Old  and  New  World.  In  Scotland 
they  are  called  cairns.  When  opened  they  are 
often  found  to  contain  stone  cysts,  calcined 
bones,  etc.  Burial  in  barrows,  commencing 
amid  the  mists  of  remote  antiquity,  seems  to 
have  been  practised  as  late  as  the  8th  century 
A.D.  One  of  the  finest  barrows  in  the  world  is 
Silbury  Hill,  Wiltshire,  near  Marlborough.  It 
is  170  feet  in  perpendicular  height,  316  along 
the  slope,  and  covers  about  five  acres  of  ground. 
See  also  Mound  Builders. 

Barrow-in-Furness,  an  English  seaport, 
and  count}'  borough,  in  the  district  of  Furness, 
situated  opposite  to  and  including  the  island 
of  Walney,  Lancashire.  In  1848  or  1849  it  was 
but  a  hamlet  with  100  inhabitants,  whose  chief 
support  was  fishing;  in  1901  its  population  was 
57,584.  This  extraordinary  prosperity  is  due  to  the 
working  of  the  rich  mines  of  red  hematite  iron- 
ore  which  abounds  in  the  district,  and  to  the 
extension  of  the  railway  to  Barrow,  by  which  its 
excellent  natural  position  and  capabilities  of 
development  as  a  seaport  have  been  taken  ad- 
vantage of.  There  are  now  four  docks  com- 
pleted, and  the  depth  of  water  is  sufficient  to 
admit  the  largest  ships  at  present  afloat.  Much 
timber  is  imported  from  the  north  of  Europe 
and  from  Canada  and  Norway,  large  numbers 
of  cattle  are  brought  from  Belfast,  and  an 
extensive  trade  is  done  in  grain  and  flour. 
Iron-ore  and  pig-iron  are  largely  shipped  from 
the  port.  There  is  a  large  passenger  traffic  with 
the  Isle  of  Man  and  Belfast.  The  chief  indus- 
trial occupations  are  the  manufacture  of  iron 
and  Bessemer  steel,  ship-building,  iron-found- 
ing, and  the  making  of  ropes,  sails,  bricks,  and 
large  jute-works,  paper-pulp  works,  and  salt- 
works have  been  established.  Barrow  owes  a 
great  deal  of  its  prosperity  to  the  discovery 
of  the  Bessemer  process  of  steel-making,  and 
to  the  fact  that  the  hematite  ores  of  the  dis- 
trict are  specially  adapted  to  this  process.  The 
yearly  output  of  pig-iron  is  said  to  be  350.000 
tons,  with  200,000  tons  of  Bessemer  and  Sie- 
mens-Martin steel.  Messrs.  Vickers,  Sons,  and 
Maxim,  Limited,  employ  some  8,000  persons, 
and  have  built  some  of  the  largest  merchant  and 
war-vessels  afloat.  They  also  manufacture  ord- 
nance.   The    town   is    laid    out    on    a    regular 


BARROWS  —  BARRY 


plan,  mostly  in  rectangles,  is  substantially  built, 
and  well  drained  and  supplied  with  gas, 
water,  and  electricitj'.  It  contains  churches, 
chapels,  and  schools  for  the  various  denomina- 
tions, a  free  public  library,  workmen's  insti- 
tute, and  a  town-hall,  built  at  a  cost  of  over 
i6o,ooo.  The  Redistribution  Act  of  1885  erected 
it  into  a  parliamentary  borough,  returning  one 
member.  The  interesting  ruins  of  Furness 
Abbey,  which  was  founded  in  1127,  lie  within 
two  miles  of  the  town. 

Barrows,  Elijah  Porter,  American  clergy- 
man and  educator:  b.  Mansfield,  Conn.,  1807;  d. 
1888.  He  was  professor  of  sacred  literature  in 
Western  Reserve  College,  Ohio,  1837-52,  and  of 
Hebrew  in  Andover  Theological  Seminary, 
1853-66.  In  1872  he  became  professor  of  He- 
brew at  Oberlin  College,  Ohio.  Beside  many 
contributions  to  the  'Bibiiotheca  Sacra, ^  he  pub- 
lished ^Companion  to  the  Bible^  (1867)  ;  ^Sa- 
cred Geography  and  Antiquities'  (1872)  ;  ^Man- 
ners and  Customs  of  the  Jews'    (1884). 

Barrows,  John  Henry,  American  edu- 
cator: b.  Medina,  Mich.,  11  July  1847;  d.  Oberlin, 
Ohio,  3  June  1902.  He  was  graduated  at  Olivet 
College  in  1867  ;  subsequently  studied  in  Yale  Col- 
lege, Union  and  Andover  Theological  Seminaries, 
and  at  Gottingen  ;  was  pastor  of  the  First  Presby- 
terian Church,  in  Chicago,  for  14  years;  organ- 
ized and  was  president  of  the  World's  Parlia- 
ment of  Religions,  at  the  World's  Columbian 
Exposition  in  Chicago,  in  1893.  He  delivered 
a  course  of  lectures  on  Christianity  in  the  prin- 
cipal universities  in  India,  under  the  patronage 
of  the  University  of  Chicago,  1896-7,  and  be- 
came president  of  Oberlin  College  in  1898.  He 
published  '  The  Gospels  are  True  Histories' 
(1891)  ;  <Life  of  Henry  Ward  Beecher'  (1893)  : 
'Christianity  the  World  Religion'  ;  'The  World 
Pilgrimage'  ;  'History  of  the  Parliament  of 
Religions'  (1893;  !  'The  Christian  Conquest  of 
Asia,'    (1899). 

Barrows,  Samuel  June,  American  cler- 
gyman and  author:  b.  New  York,  26  May  1845. 
After  a  varied  early  career  he  became  private 
secretary  to  William  H.  Seward  in  1867,  went 
to  Utah  in  1870  with  Chaplain  Newman  of  the 
United  States  Senate,  and  reported  the  debate 
with  the  Mormons.  He  was  graduated  at  Har- 
vard Divinity  School  in  1875,  and  while  an 
undergraduate  accompanied  as  correspondent  of 
the  New  York  Tribune  Gen.  Stanley's  Yellow- 
stone expedition  in  1873,  and  Gen.  Custer's 
Black  Hills  expedition  in  1874,  taking  part  in 
the  battle  of  the  Big  Florn.  He  was  pastor  of 
the  First  Unitarian  Church,  Dorchester,  Mass., 
1876-81  ;  editor  of  the  Christian  Register 
(1881-97)  ;  secretary  of  the  United  States  dele- 
gation to  the  International  Prison  Congress, 
Paris,  1895 ;  and  United  States  representative  on 
the  International  Prison  Commission,  1896.  In 
1897  he  was  elected  to  Congress  from  the  loth 
Massachusetts  district.  He  has  written  'The 
Doom  of  the  Majority  of  Mankind'  (1883)  ; 
'Shaybacks  in  Camp'  ;  'Crimes  and  Misdemean- 
ors in  the  United  States'  ;  'A  Baptist  Meeting 
House'  ;  'Isles  and  Shrines  of  Greece'   (1898). 

Barrundia,  bar-roon'de-a,  Jose  Francisco, 
Central  American  statesman :  b.  Guatemala, 
1779;  d.  New  York.  4  Aug.  1854.  He  was 
sentenced  to  death  for  treason  in  1813,  but 
escaped,  and  became  leader  of  the  Revolutionary 
Party,  in  1819.     In  1823-4,  as  a  member  of  the 


Constitutional  Convention  of  Central  America^ 
he  brought  forward  the  decree  for  the  abolition 
of  slavery.  He  became  president  of  the  Cen- 
tral American  Republic  in  1829;  retaining  office- 
for  over  a  year,  and  in  1852  was  again  elected 
president.  He  came  to  the  United  States  in 
1854,  as  minister  from  Honduras,  to  propose 
the  annexation  of  that  territory  to  the  United 
States,  but  died  suddenly  before  anything  was- 
accomplished. 

Barry,  Alfred,  English  prelate:  b.  London, 
15  Jan.  1826.  He  was  a  son  of  the  architect 
Sir  Charles.  Barry,  and  was  educated  at  Cam- 
bridge. He  was  headmaster  of  Leeds  gram- 
mar-school, 1854-62 ;  principal  of  Cheltenham 
College,  1862-8,  and  of  King's  College,  London 
1868-83.  He  was  canon  of  Worcester,  1871-81, 
of  Westminster  1881-4.  He  became  primate  of 
Australia  and  bishop  of  Sydney  in  1884,  but 
resigned  his  see  in  1889  and  returning  to  Eng- 
land was  rector  of  St.  James,  Piccadilly,  Lon- 
don, 1895-1900.  He  has  published  'Introduc- 
tion to  the  Old  Testament'  (1850);  'Life  of 
Sir  C.  Barry'  (1867)  ;  'Boyle  Lectures' 
(1876-8)  ;  'Christianity  and  Socialism'  (1891)  ; 
'England's  Mission  to  India'  (1894);  'Hulsean 
Lectures'    (1895). 

Barry,  Ann  Spranger,  English  actress:  b. 
Bath,  1734;  d.  London,  1801.  She  was  several 
times  married.  Her  first  great  success  was 
in  the  character  of  Cordelia,  at  Drury  Lane, 
London  (1767).  Her  farewell  was  as  Lady 
Randolph,  at  Covent  Garden  (1797).  Equal  to 
Mrs.  Woffington  and  Mrs.  Gibber  in  tragedy, 
she  surpassed  them  both  in  comedy.  As  Des- 
demona  she  had,  during  her  whole  career,  na 
competitor.  She  is  buried  in  Westminster  Ab- 
bey. 

Barry,  Sir  Charles,  distinguished  Eng- 
lish architect:  b.  London,  23  May  1795;  d-  May 
i860.  At  a  very  early  age  he  displayed  a  taste 
for  drawing  and  design,  and  while  a  youth,  ex- 
hibited at  the  Royal  Academy.  Having  re- 
solved to  devote  his  energies  to  architecture,  he 
employed  the  little  property  left  him  in  visiting 
Italy,  Greece,  and  the  East.  He  left  England 
in  1817,  and  remained  abroad  upward  of  three 
years.  After  his  return  he  entered  on  his  pro- 
fessional career.  He  executed  numerous  im- 
portant buildings,  such  as  the  Traveler's  and 
Reform  Club-houses,  London ;  St.  Edward's 
School,  Birmingham,  etc. ;  and  in  1836  was 
appointed  architect  of  the  new  Houses  of  Par- 
liament at  Westminster.  On  this  building  his 
fame  as  an  architect  rests,  and  with  its  execu- 
tion he  was  employed  almost  unintermittently 
to  the  day  of  his  death,  extending  over  a  period 
of  more  than  24  years.  In  1852  he  received  the 
honor  of  knighthood.  He  had  been  admitted 
a  Royal  Academician  in  1841.  As  an  architect 
he  belonged  to  the  eclectic  school,  and  adopted 
indifferently  the  Gothic  or  classic  styles  ac- 
cording as  he  might  be  required  or  circum- 
stances rendered  it  expedient. 

Barry,  Edward  Middleton,  English  archi- 
tect, son  of  Sir  Charles  Barry:  b.  1830;  d.  1880. 
He  had  already  distinguished  himself  in  his- 
profession,  and  succeeding  to  his  father's  busi- 
ness, completed  his  great  work  the  Houses  of 
Parliament.  He  designed  a  large  number  of 
buildings,  many  of  them  of  national  magnitude 
and  importance,  such  as  the  Covent  Gardetr 
Theatre,  the  opera  house  at  Malta,  and  the  New 


BARRY 


National  Gallery  in  London.  He  was  elected  a 
Royal  Academician  in  1869,  and  in  1873  suc- 
ceeded Sir  G.  G.  Scott  as  professor  of  archi- 
tecture to  the  Academy. 

Barry,  Elizabeth,  English  actress:  b.  1658; 
d.  London,  7  Nov.  1713.  She  was  said  to  be 
the  daughter  of  Col.  Barry,  a  prominent  royalist 
in  the  civil  war.  She  made  her  debut  on  the 
stage  under  the  patronage  of  the  Earl  of  Roches- 
ter; and  her  first  performance  is  said  to  have 
been  witnessed  by  Charles  IL  and  the  Duke 
and  Duchess  of  York.  Her  reputation  was  won 
chiefly  in  the  line  of  tragedy,  in  the  roles  of 
Monimia  and  Belvidera.  She  was  known  as 
*'the  great  Mrs.  Barry*^ ;  and  is  said  to  have 
created  over  100  roles.  See  Gait,  ^  Lives  of  the 
Players >     (1831). 

Biarry,  James,  Irish  painter  and  writer  on 
his  art:  b.  Cork,  11  Oct.  1741  ;  d.  12  Feb.  1806. 
By  one  of  his  first  paintings  in  oil,  ^The  Con- 
version of  St.  Patrick,*  exhibited  at  Dublin,  he 
attracted  the  attention  of  Burke,  who  carried 
him,  in  his  23d  year,  to  London.  The  brothers 
Burke  provided  him  with  the  means  for  visit- 
ing Paris  and  Rome,  whence  he  went  to  Flor- 
ence, Bologna,  and  Naples.  He  remained  about 
four  years  in  Italy,  returning  in  1770.  Having 
exhibited  some  important  pictures  he  was  elect- 
ed an  associate  of  the  Royal  Academy  in  1772, 
and  a  full  academician  the  following  year.  In 
1777-83  he  executed  his  chief  work,  the  paint- 
ings which  adorn  the  great  hall  of  the  Society 
of  Arts.  In  1775  he  published  *An  Inquiry  into 
the  Real  or  Imaginary  Obstructions  to  the  In- 
crease of  the  Arts  in  England.^  He  was  ap- 
pointed professor  of  painting  to  the  Academy 
in  1782;  but  in  1799,  after  he  had  alienated  the 
respect  of  his  fellow-academicians  by  his  pe- 
culiar manners,  and  by  his  savage  attacks  upon 
them,  he  was  expelled  on  the  occasion  of  a  vio- 
lent pamphlet  issued  by  him  under  the  title  of 
a  *  Letter  to  the  Society  of  Dilettanti.^  He  was 
distinguished  more  by  vigor  of  conception  than 
by  accuracy  of  execution,  and  his  paintings  have 
not  maintained  their  reputation. 

Barry,  John,  the  first  American  commo- 
dore: b.  Wexford,  Ireland,  1745;  d.  Philadel- 
phia, 13  Sept.  1803.  He  early  displayed  a  great 
partiality  for  the  sea, '  and  at  the  age  of  II 
adopted  America  as  his  home,  and  made  a  num- 
ber of  voyages  in  merchant  ships,  until  the 
commencement  of  the  Revolution.  He  at  once 
embraced  the  cause  of  the  colonies,  offered  his 
services,  and  was  one  of  the  first  officers  com- 
missioned by  Congress  in  the  naval  service. 
After  a  successful  cruise  in  the  I^xington,  he 
was  transferred,  in  the  latter  part  of  1776,  to 
the  Effingham,  one  of  three  large  frigates  built 
in  Philadelphia.  When  the  American  vessels 
of  war  were  lying  near  Whitehill,  whither 
they  had  been  sent  when  the  city  and  the  forts 
of  the  river  had  fallen  into  the  power  of  the 
British,  Commodore  Barry  conceived  the  dar- 
ing plan  of  annoying  the  enemy  by  means  of 
small  boats,  properly  armed,  which  being  sta- 
tioned down  the  river  and  bay  might  intercept 
supplies,  and  in  case  of  danger  take  refuge  in 
the  creeks.  He  accordingly  manned  the  boats 
of  the  frigates,  descended  the  river  with  muffled 
oars  under  cover  of  the  night,  and  appeared  un- 
expectedly before  the  city.  He  effected  his  ob- 
ject by  intercepting  a  large  stock  of  provisions, 
and  capturing  several  vessels  laden  with  mili- 


tary munitions  and  valuable  stores  for  the  Brit- 
ish officers.  He  was  afterward  transferred  to 
the  Alliance,  a  frigate  of  36  guns,  which  was 
placed  under  his  orders.  25  December  1781  the 
Alliance  sailed  from  Boston  with  the  Marquis 
de  la  Fayette  and  Count  de  Noailles  on  board, 
who  were  proceeding  to  France  on  public  busi- 
ness. During  the  rest  of  the  war  Barry  served 
with  credit  to  himself  and  benefit  to  his  coun- 
try, and  after  the  cessation  of  hostilities,  was 
appointed  to  superintend  the  building  of  the  fri- 
gate United  States  in  Philadelphia,  which  was 
designed  for  his  command.  He  retained  the 
command  of  the  United  States  until  she  was 
laid  up  in  ordinary. 

Barry,  John  Arthur,  Australian  journalist: 
b.  1850.  He  led  a  roving  life  for  many  years, 
but  finally  settled  in  Sydney,  N.  S.  W.  His 
writings  include:  *  Steve  Brown's  Bunyip' 
(1893);  'The  Great  Deep>  (1895);  'The  Lack 
of  the  Native  Born^  (1898);  <A  Son  of  the 
Sea^  (1899)  ;  <Against  the  Tides  of  Fate> 
(1899)  ;  'Old  and  New  Sydney^  (1901);  'Red 
Lion  and  Blue  Star^    (1902). 

Barry,  John  Daniel,  American  novelist:  b. 
Boston,  Mass.,  31  Dec.  1866.  He  has  written 
*A  Daughter  of  Thespis*  ;  <The  Intriguers*  ; 
'Mademoiselle  Blanche'  ;  'The  Princess  Mar- 
garethe,  a  Fairy  Tale*  ;  etc. 

Barry,  Sir  John  Wolfe,  English  engineer 
of  eminence,  youngest  son  of  Sir  Charles  Bar- 
ry: b.  London,  7  Dec.  1836.  He  built  the  pres- 
ent Blackfriars  Bridge  in  London,  the  Tower 
Bridge,  the  Barry  Dock  at  CardifT,  and  planned 
the  railway  in  Argentina  from  Buenos  Ayres  to 
San  Rosario.  He  has  published  'Railway  Appli- 
ances* (1876)  ;  'Lectures  on  Railways  and 
Locomotives*  (1882)  ;  'The  Tower  Bridge' 
(1894). 

Barry,  Martin,  English  physiologist:  b. 
Fratton,  Hampshire,  1802;  d.  Beecles,  Suffolk, 
April  1855.  He  studied  at  the  medical  schools 
of  London,  and  at  several  on  the  Continent, 
and  took  his  degree  of  M.D.  in  Edinburgh,  in 
1833.  He  wrote  much  on  physiological  sub- 
jects, and  especially  on  animal  development  and 
embryology.  He  was  elected  a  member  of  the 
Royal  Society  in  1840.  In  1844  he  was  ap- 
pointed house-surgeon  to  the  Royal  Maternity 
Hospital,  Edinburgh.  His  means  being  ample, 
he  gave  his  professional  services  largely  to  the 
poor. 

Barry,  Patrick,  American  horticulturist; 
b.  near  Belfast,  Ireland,  May  1816;  d.  Roches- 
ter, N.  Y.,  23  June  1890.  He  came  to  the  United 
States  at  20  and  settled  at  Rochester  in  1840. 
He  was  a  member  of  the  nursery  firm  of  El- 
wanger  &  Barry.  He  published  a  much  valued 
work  called  'The  Fruit  Garden,*  and  at  various 
times  edited  the  'Horticulturist*  and  the  Gene- 
see Farmer. 

Barry,  Spranger,  Irish  actor,  the  great 
rival  of  Garrick:  b.  Dublin,  1719;  d.  London, 
1777.  He  was  brought  up  as  a  silversmith  ;  but 
was  attracted  to  the  stage.  He  first  appeared 
(1744)  at  the  Theatre  Royal,  Smock  Alley,  Dub- 
lin ;  and  in  1746  was  engaged  at  Drury  Lane, 
London,  as  alternate  to  Garrick,  in  'Hamlet  * 
and  'Macbeth.'  Having  aroused  Garrick's 
jealousy  by  his  success  as  Romeo,  he  was  en- 
gaged (1749)  at  Covent  Garden,  where  his  su- 
premacy in    ^Romeo  and  Juliet*    was  generally 


BARRY  — BARTAS 


conceded.  He  spent  1754-66  trying  to  found  a 
theatre  at  Dublin.  In  1767  he  reappeared  at 
London  in  the  part  of  Othello.  From  1774  till 
his  death  he  acted  at  Covent  Garden.  He  is 
buried  in  Westminster  Abbey. 

Barry,  Thomas  Henry,  American  sol- 
dier: b.  New  York,  13  Oct.  1855.  He  gradu- 
ated at  West  Point,  1877,  and  passed  through 
the  various  grades  of  the  service  to  his  ap- 
pointment as  brigadier-general.  United  States 
volunteers,  18  June  1900.  From  August  1898  to 
February  1900  he  was  adjutant-general  of  the 
8th  army  corps  in  the  Philippines,  and  became 
chief  of  staflF,  Division  of  the  Philippines,  1900-I, 
and  became  Brigadier-General   18  Aug.   1903. 

Barry,  William  Farquhar,  American  mili- 
tary officer:  b.  New  York,  18  Aug.  1818;  d. 
18  July  1879.  He  first  saw  actice  service  in  the 
Florida  war  (1852-3),  and  in  the  Mexican  war 
acted  as  aide-de-camp  to  Gen.  Worth.  At  the 
outbreak  of  the  Civil  War  he  was  made  chief 
of  artillery,  and  organized  the  artillery  of  the 
Army  of  the  Potomac.  He  subsequently  became 
chief  of  artillery  to  Sherman,  and  took  part 
in  the  march  to  the  sea.  In  1865  he  was  brevet- 
ted  major-general.  In  1867  he  had  charge  of 
the  Artillery  School  at  Fort  Monroe.  He  was 
part  author  with  J.  G.  Barnard  of  <  Engineer 
and  Artillery  Operations  of  the  Army  of  the 
Potomac,  1861-2,^  and  of  <^Tactics  for  the  Field 
Artillery  of  the  United  States.^ 

Barry,  William  Francis,  English  Roman 
Catholic  priest,  theologian,  and  novelist :  b. 
London,  21  April  1849.  He  was  educated  at 
Oscott  and  the  English  College,  Rome ;  was 
professor  of  philosophy  at  Birmingham  Theo- 
logical College,  1873-7 ;  professor  of  divinity 
at  Oscott,  1877-80 ;  and  has  been  rector  of  a 
parish  in  Dorchester,  O.xfordshire,  from  1883. 
Besides  writing  much  on  metaphysical  themes 
in  English  reviews,  he  is  the  author  of  several 
brilliant  novels,  including:  ^The  New  Anti- 
gone>  (1887)  ;  ^The  Place  of  Dreams>  (1894)  ; 
^The  Two  Standards^  (1898)  ;  <Arden  Mas- 
3iter>  (1900);  <The  Wizard's  Knot^  (1901)  ; 
'Ernest  Rcnan'  (1905).  He  has  also  published 
'The  Papal  Monarchy*    (1902). 

Barry,  William  Taylor,  American  states- 
man :  b.  Lunenburg,  Va.,  5  Feb.  1784 ;  d.  Liver- 
pool, England,  30  Aug.  1835.  He  graduated  at 
William  and  Mary  College  (1803),  and  was 
soon  after  admitted  to  the  bar.  In  1810  he  be- 
came a  member  of  Congress  from  Kentucky. 
He  served  in  the  War  of  1812;  and  from 
1814-16  v/as  United  States  senator  from  Ken- 
tucky. In  1828  he  was  appointed  postmaster- 
general  under  Jackson ;  and  was  on  his  way 
abroad  as  minister  to  Spain  at  the  time  of  his 
death.  He  was  the  first  postmaster-general  who 
had  a  seat  in  the  Cabinet. 


Barry  Cornwall. 

Waller. 


See     Procter,      Bryan 


Barry,  a  seaport  and  railway  terminus  of 
south  Wales,  county  of  Glamorgan,  seven  miles 
southwest  of  Cardiff.  It  has  been  practically 
brought  into  existence  by  the  construction 
(1884-9)  of  a  dock  of  70  acres  area  here,  be- 
tween Barry  Island  and  the  mainland,  at  a  cost  of 
about  ^850,000,  the  entrance  being  between  two 
breakwaters  respectively  2,600  and  700  feet  in 
length.  Barry  possesses  churches  and  chapels, 
market-^iall,  public-hall,  seamen's  institute,  etc., 


and  carries  on  a  large  export  trade  in  coal.  As 
a  municipality  it  is  markedly  progressive.  Pop. 
(1901)    27,000. 

Barry  Lyndon,  the  best  of  Thackeray's 
shorter  novels.  It  was  originally  written  as  a 
serial  for  'Eraser's  Magazine,*  and  was  pub- 
lished in  book  form  in  1844.  It  is  cast  in  the 
form  of  an  autobiography.  The  hero  is  an  Irish 
gambler  and  blackleg,  but  of  audacious  cour- 
age and  of  picturesque  versatility.  He  tells  his 
story  in  a  plain  matter-of-fact  way,  without 
concealment  or  sophistication,  glorying  in  epi- 
sodes which  would  seem  shameful  to  the  most 
rudimentary  conscience,  and  holding  himself  to 
be  the  greatest  but  most  ill  used  of  men. 

Barrymore,  Maurice,  American  actor:  b. 
India,  1847 ;  d.  Amityville,  L.  I.,  25  March 
1905.  He  was  educated  at  Cambridge.  Hav- 
ing gone  upon  the  stage  he  came  to  America 
and  made  his  first  appearance  in  1875.  Since 
then  he  has  been  most  of  the  time  in  this 
country,  acting  as  leading  man  with  Modjeska, 
Mrs.  Langtry,  Mrs.  Bernard  Beere,  and  Olga 
Nethersole.  He  has  also  written  several  plays, 
among  them  'Nadjeska.^ 

Bar'sabas,  the  son  of  Alpheus,  brother  of 
James  the  Less  and  of  Jude,  and  one  of  the 
candidates  nominated  for  the  apostolical  office 
left  vacant  by  the  treachery  and  suicide  of 
Judas.  According  to  tradition  he  was  afterward 
appointed  bishop  of  Eleutheropolis,  a  town  of 
Palestine,  about  20  miles  from  Jerusalem,  and 
suffered  martydrom.  Another  Barsabas,  sur- 
named  Judas,  and  supposed  to  be  the  brother 
of  the  above,  is  mentioned  in  the  Acts  as  one 
of  the  companions  of  Paul  and  Barnabas  when 
they  went  to  preach  the  gospel  at  Antioch.  He 
is  supposed  to  have  returned  to  Jerusalem,  and 
died  at  a  very  advanced  age. 

Barsu'ma,  or  Barsumas,  Nestorian  bishop 
who  flourished  in  the  5th  century.  He  became 
bishop  of  Nisibis  and  Metropolitan  in  435.  He 
established  a  theological  school  which  sent  out 
many  missionaries,  and  is  regarded  as  the  found- 
er of  the  Nestorian  faith  in  Persia  and  eastern 
Asia. 

Bartan,  bar-tan',  a  town  of  Asia  Minor, 
at  the  junction  of  the«  river  Bartan  and  a 
smaller  stream,  the  former  navigable  for  small 
vessels  entering  the  Black  Sea  a  few  miles 
below.  It  is  surrounded  by  a  ruinous  wall,  and 
consists  of  about  800  houses,  built  on  two  low 
hills  of  cretaceous  limestone.  The  houses,  on 
account  of  the  marshy  character  of  the  sur- 
rounding country,  are  all  built  of  two  stories, 
only  the  upper  one  of  which'  is  inhabited.  For 
the  same  reason  the  streets  are  carefully  paved 
with  large  limestone  slabs.  It  has  several 
mosques,  khans,  and  baths ;  and  carries  on  an 
active  trade  with  Constantinople,  from  which 
it  imports  various  kinds  of  merchandise,  send- 
ing in  exchange  hemp,  fruit,  and  building- 
timber.     Pop.  4,000. 

Bartas,  bar-ta,  Guillaume  de  Salluste  du, 

French  soldier,  diplomatist,  and  man  of  letters : 
b.  Montfort,  1544;  d.  1590  of  wounds  received 
at  the  battle  of  Ivry.  His  chief  poem,  'The  Di- 
vine Week,*  gives  an  account  of  the  creation, 
and  is  said  to  have  had  a  considerable  influence 
on  Milton's  'Paradise  Lost.*  Thirty  editions 
of  the  work  passed  through  the  press  in  six 
years.    Joshua  Sylvester  (1563-1618)   translated 


BARTENSTEIN  —  BARTH 


into  English  ^Du  Bartas,  His  Divine  Weeks 
and  Works'  (1598).  Mrs.  Anne  Bradstreet, 
the  earhest  American  woman  of  letters,  was  an 
ardent  admirer  of  his  strained  pedantic  style 
and  modeled  her  own  verse  upon  it. 

Bartenstein,  bar'ten-stin,  Treaty  of,  a 
treaty  between  Prussia  and  Russia  against 
France,  concluded  at  Bartenstein,  Prussia,  26 
April  1807,  soon  after  the  battle  of  Eylau. 
The  objects  of  the  alliance  were  to  re-establish 
Prussia  within  the  limits  of  1805 ;  to  dissolve 
the  Rhine  Confederation ;  to  restore  Tyrol  and 
Venice  to  Austria ;  to  secure  the  co-operation 
of  England  and  Sweden ;  to  aggrandize  Han- 
over at  the  expense  of  France ;  to  restore  the 
House  of  Orange;  and  to  obtain  from  France 
indemnities  to  the  kings  of  Sardinia  and  Naples. 
The  terms  of  this  alliance  are  chiefly  important 
for  their  similarity  to  the  terms  offered  Napo- 
leon at  Prague  (1813).  The  town  of  Barten- 
stein has  manufacturing  interests  of  importance. 
Pop.   (1900)  6,779. 

Barter,  a  term  used  in  commerce  and 
political  economy,  to  express  the  exchange  of 
one  commodity  for  another,  as  contrasted  with 
the  sale  of  commodities  for  money.  It  is  simply 
a  primitive  form  of  exchange  carried  on  in 
countries  in  which  the  use  of  money  has  not 
yet  been  introduced,  or  is  not  prevalent.  It 
was  an  economic  stage  through  which  all  com- 
munities must  have  passed.  Even  yet  in  many 
rude  countries  barter  is  very  common ;  and  Eu- 
ropean travelers  find  it  convenient  to  take  with 
them  weapons,  tools,  and  ornaments  to  exchange 
with  the  natives  for  their  commodities.  In  civ- 
ilized communities  barter  is  a  very  exceptional 
thing,  having  been  superseded  by  the  use  of 
money  in  various  forms. 

In  law,  barter,  or  exchange,  as  it  is  now 
more  generally  called  in  law  books,  is  a  con- 
tract for  transferring  propert}^  the  considera- 
tion being  some  other  commodity ;  or  it  may 
be  described  as  a  contract  for  the  exchange  of 
two  subjects  or  commodities.  It  thus  differs 
from  sale,  which  is  a  contract  for  the  trans- 
ference of  property  in  consideration  of  a  price 
in  money.     See  also  Sale. 

Bartfeld,  biirt'felt,  a  tovv^n  in  Hungary, 
156  miles  northeast  of  Budapest,  on  a  rising 
ground  near  the  banks  of  the  Tepla  and  Lauka. 
It  is  one  of  the  oldest  towns  in  Hungary,  and  is 
well  built ;  has  several  Roman  Catholic 
churches,  a  Lutheran  church  and  school,  a 
Franciscan  monastery,  military  academy,  hos- 
pital, theatre,  paper-mills,  potteries,  etc.  Some 
acidulous  chalybeate  springs  and  baths,  near 
the  town,  are  much  frequented.  The  trade  in 
wine,  hemp,  linen  cloth,  and  woolen  yarn  is 
considerable.     Pop.  5,069. 

Barth,  bart,  Auguste,  French  Oriental 
scholar :  b.  in  Strassburg^  2.2.  May  1834.  He  is 
a  member  of  the  French  Institute  and  his  an- 
nual reports  in  ^ Revue  de  1'  Historic  des  Reli- 
gions^ are  much  esteemed.  His  most  important 
work  is  'Les  Religions  de  1'  Inde'  (1879; 
English  translation  1882). 

Barth,  Heinrich,  distinguished  geogra- 
pher and  African  traveler:  b.  Hamburg,  16 
Feb.  1821 ;  d.  25  Nov.  1865.  He  received  his 
education  partly  in  his  native  town,  and  partly 
at  the  University  of  Berlin,  and  having  deter- 
mined to  explore  all  the  countries  bordering  on 
the   Mediterranean,   set  out  with  this   intention 


in  the  beginning  of  1845.  After  his  return  in 
the  end  of  1847  he  wrote  an  account  of  his 
travels,  which  he  published  with  the  title  *  Wan- 
derungen  durch  die  Kiistenlander  des  Mittel- 
meeres*  (Berlin,  1849).  In  less  than  two  years 
after  his  return  from  his  first  travels  he  was 
invited  by  the  English  government  to  join  Dr. 
Overweg  in  accompanying  the  expedition  that 
was  about  to  proceed  under  James  Richardson 
to  Central  Africa.  The  expedition  having  landed 
at  Tripoli  in  the  end  of  1849,  set  out  thence 
for  the  interior  of  Africa  in  February  1850. 
His  explorations,  which  extended  over  an  area 
of  about  2,000,000  square  miles,  hitherto  almost 
entirely  unknown,  were  continued  for  more  than 
five  years,  in  spite  of  the  death  both  of  Richard- 
son and  Overweg,  and  he  did  not  return  to 
Tripoli  till  the  autumn  of  1855.  The  chief  geo- 
.graphical  results  of  these  travels  consist  in  the 
light  they  throw  on  the  true  nature  of  the 
Desert  of  Sahara,  in  showing  that  the  eastern 
upper  branch  of  the  Niger,  the  Benuwe,  is  not 
connected  with  Lake  Chad,  and  in  the  deter- 
mination of  the  course  of  the  Niger  between 
Say  and  Timbuctoo.  The  result  of  these  trav- 
els, entitled  ^Travels  and  Discoveries  in  North 
and  Central  Africa,^  was  published  in  English 
(1857-8).  Immediately  after  its  publication  he 
set  out  upon  a  new  series  of  travels  through 
the  countries  bordering  on  the  Mediterranean, 
the  last  of  which  occupied  the  summer  of  1865. 
Besides  the  works  mentioned,  he  published 
_^SammIung  und  Verarbeitung  Central-afrikan- 
ischer  Vokabularien^    (1862-3). 

Barth,  or  Bart,  Jean,  French  seaman:  b. 
Dunkirk,  20  Oct.  1650;  d.  there,  27  April  1702. 
He  was  the  son  of  a  fisherman,  and  at  an  early 
age  evinced  a  love  of  adventure,  which  led  him 
to  follow  the  sea.  He  desired  to  enter  the  royal 
service,  but  at  this  period  the  lower  classes 
were  never  commissioned  in  the  French  royal 
navy,  and  Barth  was  constrained  to  take  the 
command  of  a  privateer.  In  this  position  op- 
portunities soon  occurred  for  distinguishing 
himself,  and  his  name  became  known  to  Louis 
XIV.,  who  commissioned  him  to  cruise  in  the 
Mediterranean.  His  bravery  soon  raised  him 
in  the  favor  of  the  king,  and  he  was  appointed 
captain  of  the  squadron  in  1697.  France  being 
now  at  war  with  the  Dutch,  a  field  was  opened 
of  which  Barth  was  not  slow  to  take  advantage, 
and  the  most  unexampled  feats  of  daring  soon 
made  him  the  terror  of  his  enemies.  On  one 
occasion,  a  famine  existing  in  France,  Barth 
recaptured  from  the  Dutch  100  sail  of  vessels, 
loaded  with  grain.  At  another  time  when  Dun- 
kirk was  blockaded,  taking  advantage  of  a  fog, 
he  sailed  through  the  English  and  Dutch  fleets, 
and  destroyed  86  merchantmen :  then  making 
a  descent  near  Newcastle,  Northumberland,  he 
destroyed  200  houses,  and  returned  safely  with 
property  valued  at  500,000  crowns.  Barth  was 
rough  in  manners,  and  entirely  uneducated ; 
indeed,  he  could  with  difficulty  scrawl  his  own 
name;  but  he  was  as  simple-minded  and  honest 
as  he  was  brave.  A  statue  to  his  memory,  by 
David  d'Angers,  was  erected  at  Dunkirk  in 
1845.  See  Badin,  <Jean  Bart>  (1867)  ;  Landelle. 
<Jean  Bart  et  son  fils^    (1874). 

Barth,  Paul,  German  sociologist:  b. 
Baruthe,  Silesia,  i  Aug.  1858.  He  is  a  pro- 
fessor in  the  University  of  Leipsic  and  in  addi- 
tion to  his  much-valued    ^Philosophie  der  Ge- 


BARTH  —  BARTHELEMY-SAINT-HILAIRE 


schichte  als  Sociologies  (1897),  is  the  author  of 
<Geschichte  Philosophic  Hegels  und  die  Hege- 
lianer  bis  auf  Marx  und  Hartmann^  (1890)  ; 
<  Beweggriinden  des  Sittlichen  Handelns^ 
(1889)  ;  Tiberius  Gracchus^    (2  ed.  1893). 

Barth,  a  seaport  of  Prussia,  in  the  prov- 
ince of  Pomerania,  northwest  of  Stralsund.  Its 
chief  industries  are  ship-building  and  fish  cur- 
ing and  packing,  and  it  has  also  a  good  trade 
in  grain  and  wool.  Its  church  dates  from  the 
13th    century.      Pop.    (1900)    7,100. 

Barthelemy,  bar-ta-l'-me,  Auguste-Mar- 
seille,  French  poet  and  politician:  b.  iMar- 
seilles,  1796;  d.  there,  23  Aug.  1867.  Educated 
at  the  Jesuit  College  of  Juilly,  he  went  to  Paris 
in  1822,  and  soon  made  himself  famous  by  a 
series  ot  vigorous  and  pointed  political  satires 
in  verse,  directed  against  the  Bourbons,  and 
full  of  suggestive  regrets  for  the  glories  of  the 
empire.  In  <  Napoleon  in  Egypt^  (1828),  and 
still  more  in  his  elegy  for  Napoleon's  son,  ^The 
Son  of  the  Man^  (1829),  he  spoke  out  his  im- 
perialism more  boldly,  and  the  latter  occasioned 
his  imprisonment  on  the  eve  of  the  revolution 
of  July.  His  liberation,  of  course,  was  imme- 
diate; and  with  his  friend  Mery,  he  celebrated 
the  victory  of  the  people  in  a  poem  dedicated  to 
the  Parisians,  entitled  "^The  Insurrection. ^  Dur- 
ing all  the  changes  which  followed,  Barthelemy 
was  indefatigable  as  a  brilliant  versifier  on  the 
political  events  of  the  day ;  though,  in  his  later 
years,  his  popularity  somewhat  declined.  He 
was,  from  the  first,  a  warm  supporter  of  the 
second  Napoleonic  regime.  Some  of  his  sayings 
are  memorable,  as  the  oft-quoted  '^L'homme  ab- 
surde  est  celui  qui  ne  change  jamais. '^  He  died 
in  Marseilles,  of  which  city  he  was  librarian. 

Barthelemy,  Fransois,  Marquis  de,  French 
diplomatist:  b.  Aubagne  (Provence),  20  Oct. 
1747;  d.  Paris,  3  April  1830.  He  was  brought 
up  by  his  uncle,  the  author  of  ^Anacharsis^  ; 
and  the  protection  of  the  Duke  of  Choiseul  es- 
tablished him  in  diplomacy.  The  Revolution  did 
not  hinder  his  success  in  life;  in  1793  he  was 
minister  plenipotentiary  to  Switzerland.  He 
successively  negotiated  the  Peace  of  Basel  with 
Prussia,  Spain,  and  the  elector  of  Hesse,  the 
first  treaties  concluded  by  the  French  republic. 
This  won  for  him  an  enviable  reputation ;  but 
he  was  especially  popular  among  the  Clichyen 
or  royalist  part}',  by  which  he  was,  in  1797, 
elected  member  of  the  directory ;  consequently 
on  the  republican  coup  d'etat  of  the  i8th  Fructi- 
dor,  he  was  ejected  from  the  government,  ar- 
rested, and  transported  with  Pichegru  and 
Ramel,  to  Guiana,  whence  he  escaped  to  the 
United  States.  Shortly  afterward  he  was  in 
England,  and  after  the  i8th  Brumaire  was  re- 
called by  the  first  consul,  who  made  him  a 
senator.  On  the  establishment  of  the  Empire 
he  received  the  title  of  count  and  showed  great 
devotion  to  Napoleon  during  the  course  of  his 
prosperity,  but  as  soon  as  misfortune  threatened 
Barthelemy  sided  at  once  with  his  enemies.  He 
was  made  a  minister  of  state  and  a  marquis  by 
Louis  XVIII.  and  in  1819  proposed  the  restric- 
tion of  the  electoral   franchise. 

Barthelemy,  Jean  Jacques,  French  anti- 
quarian :  b.  Cassis,  near  Marseilles,  20  Jan. 
1716;  d.  30  Jan.  1795.  He  received  a  good  edu- 
cation from  the  fathers  of  the  oratory  at  Mar- 
seilles, and  was  about  to  prepare  himself,  under 
the  Jesuits,  for  holy  orders;  but  becoming  dis- 


gusted with  his  teachers  declined  all  offers  of 
clerical  promotion,  and  only  accepted  the  title 
of  abbe,  in  order  to  show  that  he  belonged  to 
this  class.  He  became  deeply  interested  in  the 
study  of  Oriental  languages  and  antiquities, 
and  his  indefatigable  industry  and  acute- 
ness  soon  enabled  him  to  communicate  to  the 
learned  new  discoveries  in  this  Oriental  study, 
among  which  the  *^ Alphabet  of  Palmyra, ^  pub- 
lished 1754,  holds  a  principal  place.  In  1747 
he  was  chosen  member  of  the  Academy  of  In- 
scriptions at  Paris.  About  this  time  he  became 
acquainted  with  the  Count  Stainville  (afterward 
the  minister  Choiseul),  who  was  on  the  point 
of  departing  as  ambassador  for  Rome,  and  in- 
vited Barthelemy  to  accompany  him.  Having 
been  appointed  director  of  the  Cabinet  of 
Medals  in  1753,  he  accepted  the  offer  and  went, 
in  1754,  to  Rome.  He  traveled  through  Italy, 
collected  antiquities,  and  occupied  himself,  after 
his  return,  with  learned  works  and  with  the 
arrangement  of  the  cabinet  which  had  been 
intrusted  to  his  care,  and  to  which  he  added 
a  great  number  of  costly  and  rare  medals. 
Among  his  works  none  are  so  distinguished  for 
learning  and  beauty  of  description  as  the  ^Trav- 
els of  the  Younger  Anacharsis  in  Greece,^  on 
which  he  had  labored  30  years,  and  which  was 
translated  into  English,  German,  and  other  lan- 
guages. He  himself  was  modest  enough  to  call 
this  an  unwieldy  compilation,  but  all  the 
learned  men  of  France  and  foreign  countries 
received  it  with  the  greatest  applause.  Bar- 
thelemy, in  his  advanced  age,  resolved  to  com- 
pose a  complete  catalogue  of  the  Royal  Cabinet 
of  Medals,  but  was  interrupted  in  1788  by  the 
storms  of  the  Revolution.  In  1789  he  received 
a  place  in  the  Academie  Frangaise.  In  1793  he 
was  arrested  on  a  charge  of  aristocratic  lean- 
ings, but  was  soon  after  set  at  liberty.  When 
the  chief  librarian  of  the  national  library,  the 
notorious  Carra,  was  executed,  31  Oct.  1793, 
Barthelemy  received  the  offer  of  his  place  but 
declined   it. 

Barthelemy-Saint-Hilaire,  Jules,  French 
politician  and  philosopher:  b.  Paris,  19  Aug. 
1805 ;  d.  there,  25  Nov.  1895.  On  completing 
his  studies  he  received  an  appointment  in  the 
ministry  of  finance,  being  at  that  time  also 
on  the  staff  of  the  Globe  newspaper.  After  the 
revolution  of  1830  he  founded  a  journal  called 
Bon  Sens,  and  continued  to  support  the  liberal 
party  in  the  press.  In  1834  he  became  examiner 
in  French  literature  at  the  ficole  Polytechnique, 
and  four  years  later  he  was  appointed  to  the 
chair  of  Greek  and  Latin  philosophy  in  the 
College  de  France.  He  played  a  part  on  the 
side  of  the  moderate  party  in  the  revolution  of 
1848,  and  was  elected  to  the  constituent  assem- 
bly for  Seine-et-Oise.  The  coup  d'etat  of  De- 
cember 1852  caused  him  to  forsake  political  life 
for  a  considerable  time  and  to  resign  his  profes- 
sorship. From  this  retirement  he  emerged  in 
1869,  the  year  of  his  election  as  deputy  for  the 
first  circumscription  of  Seine-et-Oise.  He  was 
shortly  afterward  sent  to  the  National  Assem- 
bly as  the  representative  of  that  department, 
and  during  the  troublous  times  of  1870-I  he 
was  closely  associated  with  M.  Thiers.  In  1875 
he  became  a  life  senator,  and  in  the  cabinet  of 
M.  Jules  Ferry,  constituted  1880,  he  was  ap- 
pointed minister  of  foreign  affairs.  The  chief 
event  of  his  tenure  of  this  office  was  the  occu- 


BARTHEZ  —  BARTHOLOMEW 


pation  of  Tunis.  In  1881  he  again  abandoned 
public  life  for  study  and  literary  work.  His 
greatest  work  is  his  complete  French  version 
of  Aristotle  (1837-93)  :  and  among  his  other 
writings  are  ^De  la  Logique  d'Aristote'  (1838)  ; 
<Des  Vedas)  (1854)  ;  <Du  Bouddhisme>  (1855)  ; 
<  Letters  on  Egypt^  (1856);  Le  Bouddha  et  sa 
Religion'  (1862)  ;  < Mahomet  et  le  Coran> 
(1865);  ^De  la  Metaphysique>  (1879);  ^L'lnde 
Anglaise*  (1887)  ;  <La  Philosophic  dans  les 
rapports  avec  les  Sciences  et  la  Religion' 
(1889)  ;  < Etude  sur  Francis  Bacon'  (1890)  ; 
^Victor  Cousin'  (1895)  ;  and  other  works  on 
Hindu  religions,  philosophy,  etc. 

Barthez,  bar-tas,  Paul  Joseph,  distin- 
guished French  physician:  b.  Montpellier,  11 
Dec.  1734;  d.  15  Dec.  1806.  He  was  the  founder 
of  a  medical  school  at  Montpellier  which  ac- 
quired a  reputation  throughout  all  Europe. 
Later  he  received  high  honors  at  the  hands  of 
Napoleon.  Among  his  numerous  writings  may 
l^e  specially  mentioned  the  'Nouvelle  jNIecanique 
<ies  Mouvements  de  I'Homme  et  des  Animaux.' 

Bartholdi,  Frederic  Auguste,  distinguished 
French  sculptor:  b.  Colmar,  Alsace,  2  April 
1834;  d.  Paris,  4  Oct.  1904.  While  a  student  in 
painting  under  the  celebrated  Ary  Scheffer,  he 
showed  a  greater  bent  and  aptitude  for  sculpture, 
and  devoted  his  energies  to  this  branch  of  art, 
exhibiting  numerous  works  at  the  salons.  After 
the  Franco-German  War  of  1870-71,  in  which 
he  fought  on  the  staff  of  Garibaldi,  he  came  into 
prominence  by  the  gigantic  ^Lion  of  Belfort' 
carved  out  of  the  red  rock  on  the  hill  which 
towers  over  the  Alsatian  city,  and  commemo- 
rates its  celebrated  siege  and  defense.  His  statue 
of  *  Lafayette  Arriving  in  America,'  now  in 
Union  Square,  New  York  city,  was  presented  to 
the  metropolis  by  France  as  a  testimonial  of 
gratitude  to  Americans  for  sympathy  and  ser- 
vice during  the  Franco-German  War.  During 
the  days  of  the  Commune  when  unable  to  pur- 
sue his  studio  work  in  Paris,  Bartholdi  visited 
the  United  States,  and  when  arriving  in  the 
beautiful  harbor  of  New  York,  conceived  the 
idea  of  the  colossal  statue  of  ^Liberty  Enlight- 
ening the  World,'  erected  on  one  of  the  islands 
of  the  harbor  to  welcome  with  its  flaming  torch 
all  arrivals  in  the  Land  of  Liberty.  On  his 
return  to  France  he  divulged  his  plan,  and  a 
body  of  distinguished  Frenchmen  formed  a  so- 
ciety to  carry  out  his  project.  Bartholdi  gave  20 
years  of  devoted  effort  to  the  work,  personally 
superintending  the  raising  of  the  subscription 
of  $400,000  with  which  the  French  nation  gave 
the  statue  to  the  United  States.  Tlie  donations 
came  maijily  from  the  pence  of  the  poor,  requir- 
ing enormous  attention  and  detail,  and  when  sub- 
scriptions lagged,  Bartholdi  pledged  his  own 
private  fortune  to  defray  the  running  expenses 
and  practically  impoverished  himself  over  the 
work.  Patiently  overcoming  all  difficulties  and 
obstacles,  he  had  the  satisfaction  to  see  the  statue 
dedicated  with  imposing  ceremonies  by  President 
Cleveland  28  Oct.  1886.  (See  Liberty,  Statue 
OF.)  Bartholdi  was  a  prolific  sculptor,  and  among 
the  most  notable  of  his  other  works  are  the 
figures  of  Washington  and  Lafayette  on  the 
Place  des  fitats-Unis  in  Paris,  the  Bartholdi 
"fountain  of  the  Botanical  Gardens  in  Washing- 
ton, the  bronze  group  of  the  'Lyre  among  the 
Berbers,  a   Souvenir  of  the  Nile,'   exhibited  at 


the  Salon  of  1857;  <Genius  in  the  Talons  of 
Misery,'  Salon  of  1859;  'Portrait  of  General 
Schramm,  the  Modern  Martyr'  (1864);  'Por- 
trait of  Laboulaye'  (1866);  'The  Leisures  of 
Peace'  (1868);  'Young  Alsatian  Grape  Grow- 
er' (1869)  ;  an  equestrian  statue  of  Vercinge- 
torix  (1870)  ;  portraits  of  Messieurs  Erckmann- 
Chatrian;  his  well-known  'Curse  of  Alsace' 
(1872)  ;  and  'Swizerland  Assuaging  the  Sorrows 
of  Strasbourg,  Siege  of  1870'  (1873). 

Bartholin,  bar'to-len,  Kasper,  Danish  phy- 
sician :  b.  A'lalmo,  Sweden,  12  Feb.  1585 ;  d. 
Soroe,  13  July  1630.  He  traveled  in  Germany, 
France,  England,  and  Italy,  and  taught  medi- 
cine at  Padua,  Wittemberg,  and  Copenhagen. 
He  was  for  many  years  rector  of  the  university 
of  Copenhagen,  and  his  'Institutiones  Anatom- 
ical' was  a  text-book  in  general  use  in  Europe 
■  in  the  17th  century  in  various  translations. 

Bartholin,  Thomas,  Danish  physician,  the 
most  distinguished  of  the  sons  of  the  preceding: 
b.  Copenhagen,  20  Oct.  1619;  d.  4  Dec.  1680. 
After  traveling  throughout  Europe,  he  became 
professor  of  anatomy  in  the  University  of  Co- 
penhagen, and  made  several  discoveries  in  this 
science.  He  revised  his  father's  'Anatomy' 
and  was  a  firm  believer  in  Harvey's  theory  of 
the  circulation  of  the  blood.  His  son,  Kaspar 
(1654-1704),  was  a  famous  anatomist,  and  his 
son  Thomas  (1650-90)  was  an  antiquarian 
writer  whose  'Antiquitatum  Danicarum  Libri 
Tres'   (1689)  is  of  much  value. 

Bartholin's  Glands  (named  after  their  dis- 
coverer, Kaspar  Bartholin  (q.v.),  are  the 
yulyo-vaginal  glands,  two  in  number,  situated 
inside  the  vaginal  opening.  They  secrete  a 
mucous  secretion  and  are  subject  to  infection, 
forming    abscesses.     See    also     Bartholinitis  ; 

COWPERITIS. 

Bartholomew,  of  the  Martyrs,  archbishop 
of  Braga  in  Portugal:  b.  1527;  d.  1590.  He 
wrote  several  treatises  on  spiritual  subjects, 
was  an  intimate  friend  of  Saint  Charles  Bor- 
romeo,  and  did  for  the  Church  in  Portugal  what 
Saint  Charles  did  for  religion  in  Italy.  He  was 
one  of  the  most  influential  members  of  the 
Council  of  Trent,  and  the  enactment  of  most  of 
the  reformatory  decrees  in  that  Council  was 
due  to  his  zeal  and  perseverance.  Consult  his 
'Life'    translated  by   Lady   Herbert. 

Bartholomew,  Edward  Sheffield,  American 
sculptor :  b.  Colchester,  Conn.,  1822 ;  d.  2  May 
1858.  He  studied  in  New  York  and  in  Rome, 
where  he  lived  during  the  latter  part  of  his  life. 
Among  his  works  are  'Blind  Homer,  Led  by 
His  Daughter,'  'Eve,'  *  Youth  and  Old  Age,' 
'Ganymede,'  and  'Evening  Star.' 

Barthoromew,  Saint  (son  of  Tolmai),  the 
apostle,  probably  the  same  person  as  Nathanael, 
mentioned  in  the  Gospel  of  St.  John  as  an  up- 
right Israelite,  and  one  of  the  first  disciples 
of  Jesus.  The  name  "Tholmai"  was  not  a  pat- 
ronymic, but  a  surname  given  to  the  apostle, 
a  common  practice,  owing  to  the  well-known 
scarcity  of  Hebrew  family  names.  He  is  said 
to  have  taught  Christianity  in  the  south  of 
Arabia,  into  which,  according  to  Eusebius,  he 
carried  the  Gospel  of  St.  Matthew  in  the  He- 
brew language.  Chrysostom  mentions  that  he 
preached  in  Armenia  and  Asia  Minor,  and  tra- 
dition tells  that  he  was  flayed  alive  and  crucified 
head  downward.     His  day  is  the  24th  of  August. 


BARTHOLOMEW,  SAINT  — BARTHOLOMEW'S  HOSPITAL 

Bartholomew,   Saint,   archbishop   of    Nak-  routed    army;     the    young    Prince    Henry    de 

schiwan    «Apostle  of  Armenia,"  b.  Bologna;  d.  Beam    (afterward  Henry  IV.,  king  of  Navarre 

1333      Having   learned    of   his   missionary   zeal,  and  France),  the  head  of  the  Protestant  party 

Pope   John    XXH.    consecrated    him   bishop    of  after  the  death  of   Conde,   was  appomted  com- 

Maraga  in  Armenia.     He  belonged  to  the   Do  mander-m-chief.  and  Coligny  commanded  m  the 

minican  Order  and  established  a  province  of  the  name  of  the  Prmce  Henry  de  Conde,  who  swore 

same  in  Armenia.     With  the  assistance  of  con-  to  avenge  the  murder  of  his  father.     The  ad- 

freres  he  translated  into  Armenian  the   Psalter,  yantageous   offers   of  peace   at   St.   Germain-en- 

the  Missal,  the  moral  tracts  of  Saint  Augustine.  Laye    (8  Aug.   1570)    satisfied  the  chiefs  of  the 

and    Saint  Thomas'   four   books,    <Contra   Gen-  Huguenots,   particular  y  Admiral  Coligny,   who 

j.jjgg  )  was  wearied  with  civil  war.     i  he  king  appeared 

Bartholomew  Fair,   a   celebrated   fair   for-  ^o   have   entirely   disengaged    himself   from   the 

merlv  held  in  West  Smithfield,  London,  on  Saint  inA^encf  of    he  Guises  and  his  mother;  he  m- 

Ti'     ,    ,           >     T-v                A          4.     T.t             c    t.  vited     the    old    Coligny,    the    support    of    the 

Bartholomews    Day,    24    Augtist.     It    was    first  Huguenots,  to  his  couri    and  honored  him  as  a 

established   in   the   reign   of  Henry   I.,  and  was  ^^^^^^      ^^^  ^-^^^^  ^^  ^^^  j.;        ^^^  ^^^^-^^  ^^ 

originally    devoted    mainly    to    the   purposes    of  ^j^^    p^-^^^    ^^    ^-^^^    (^g    ^                 )      ^^■. 

business  and  traffic.     It  was  finally  abolished  in  ^^-^^  ^^^^^^^    ^p   ^   ^^j^   ^^^   ^jf^  most   distin- 

^°^5-                                                    .     ,       _              J  guished    Huguenots    in    Paris.      Meanwhile   the 

Bartholomew,   Saint,  one  of  the  Leeward  ^^^^^^   ^^d   allied   herself   to   the    Guise   family. 

Islands,    in   the   West    Indies.    120  miles   to   the  and   jealous   of   the    influence   of   Coligny   with 

northwest  of   Guadeloupe,  belonging  to  France  the  king,  determined  to  have  him  assassinated, 

(to    which    It    was    transferred    by    Sweden    m  Qn  22  August    a  shot  from  a  window  wounded 

1877),  about  8  square  miles  in  area,  and  rising  the  admiral.     The  king  hastened  to  visit  him, 

to  the  height  of  about   1,000  feet.     It  produces  and  swore  to  punish  the  author  of  the  villainy; 

tobacco,    sugar,    cotton,    indigo,    cassava,    drugs,  but  on   the  same   day    he   was   induced  by  his 

etc.,  with  some  excellent  woods    (including  lig-  mother  to  believe  that  the  admiral  had  designs 

num  vitas"),  and  limestone.     All  the  fresh  water  on  his  life.     <<God's  death!"  he  exclaimed:  "kill 

which  can  be  procured   is  saved   in  cisterns,  as  the    admiral ;    and    not    only    him,    but    all    the 

there   are   no   springs.     The   climate   is   healthy.  Huguenots:    let    none    remain    to    disturb    us!* 

The  island  i?  encompassed  by  formidable  rocks,  The  following  night  Catherine  held  the  bloody 

which  render  it  dangerous  of  access  to  shipping,  council  which  fixed  the  execution  for  the  night 

Pop.  2,835.     The  only  town  is  Gustavia  or  Saint  of   St.   Bartholomew,  24  Aug.   1572.     After  the 

Bartholomew.     In  the  South  Pacific  Ocean  are  assassination  of  Coligny    a  bell  from  the  tower 

two  other  islands  of  the  same  name.  of  the   royal  palace,   at  midnight,   gave  to   the 

Bartholomew,  Massacre  of  Saint,  the  assembled  companies  of  2,000  burghers  the  sig- 
slaughter  of  French  Protestants  in  Paris  and  r:al  for  the  general  massacre  of  the  Huguenots, 
other  cities  in  France  on  various  dates  between  The  Prince  of  Conde  and  the  king  of  Navarre 
24  Aug.  and  3  Oct.  1572.  After  the  death  of  saved  their  lives  by  choosing  mass  rather 
Francis  II.,  Catherine  de  Medici  had  assumed  than  death,  and  pretending  to  embrace  the 
the  regency  for  her  son,  Charles  IX.,  then  only  Roman  Catholic  religion.  Roman  Catholics  as 
10  years  old,  and  in  spite  of  the  opposition  of  well  as  Huguenots  fell  victims  to  the 
the  Guises  she  issued  an  edict  of  toleration  political  and  personal  hatred  of  the  slay- 
in  favor  of  the  Protestant  party,  1562,  which  ers.  By  the  king's  orders  the  massacre 
she  had  favored  in  many  ways.  The  party  of  was  extended  through  the  whole  kingdom;  and 
the  Guisas  now  persuaded  the  nation  that  the  if,  in  some  provinces,  the  officers  had  honor  and 
Roman  Catholic  religion  was  in  the  greatest  humanity  enough  to  disobey  the  orders  to  butcher 
danger.  Religious  dissension  grew  rife,  and  their  innocent  fellow^  citizens,  yet  instru- 
each  party,  Roman  Catholic  and  Huguenot,  ments  were  always  found  to  continue  the 
under  pretext  of  religion,  treated  the  other  massacre.  This  horrible  slaughter  continued 
with  cruelty.  Prince  Conde  took  up  arms;  over  40  days;  the  victims  are  calculated  from 
the  Guises  had  recourse  to  the  Spaniards,  10,000  to  100,000.  The  Calvinist  martyrology 
Conde  to  the  English,  for  assistance.  Both  cites  786  names;  2,000  is  the  number  corn- 
parties  were  guilty  of  the  most  atrocious  puted  by  late  historians.  At  Rome  the  mas- 
cruelties,  but  finally  concluded  peace.  The  sacre  was  reported  as  a  victory  oyer  a  great 
queen-mother  caused  the  king,  who  had  en-  Huguenot  conspiracy  against  the  king;  it  was 
tered  his  14th  year,  to  be  declared  of  age,  that  for  this  reason  the  Pope  ordered  the  Te  Deum 
she  might  govern  more  absolutely  under  his  to  be  chanted  and  a  medal  struck  commemorat- 
name.  Duke  Francis  de  Guise  had  been  assas-  ing  the  event.  Those  of  the  Huguenots  who 
sinated  by  a  Huguenot,  at  the  siege  of  Orleans;  escaped  fled  into  the  mountains  and  to 
but  his  spirit  continued  in  his  family,  which  Rochelle.  The  Duke  of  Anjou  laid  siege  to  that 
considered  the  Admiral  Coligny  as  the  author  city,  but,  during  the  siege,  received  the  news 
of  his  murder.  The  king  had  been  persuaded  that  the  Poles  had  elected  him  their  king.  He 
that  the  Huguenots  had  designs  on  his  life,  concluded  a  treaty,  6  July  1573,  and  the  king 
and  had  conceived  an  implacable  hatred  against  granted  to  the  Huguenots  the  exercise  of  their 
them.  Meanwhile  the  court  endeavored  to  religion  in  certain  towns.  See  also  Huguenots. 
gain  time,  in  order  to  seize  the  persons  of  the  See  Loughnan,  <The  :\Ionth>  (1892). 
prince  and  the  admiral  by  stratagem,  but  was  ,  ,  ..^  .  ,  «  •  j:  1 
disappointed,  and  hostilities  were  renewed  in  Bartholomews  Hospital,  baint,  formerly 
1565.  and  still  again  after  the  Peace  of  Lonju-  the  priory  of  St.  Bartholomew,  and  made_  a 
meau,  1568,  this  time  with  greater  cruelty  than  hospital  by  Henry  VIII.  in  1547.  It  contains 
ever  In  the  battle  of  Jarnac,  1569,  Conde  was  676  beds,  and.  on  an  average.  6,000  patients  are 
made  prisoner  and  shot  by  Capt.  de  Monte-  annually  admitted  to  the  hospital,  -while  about 
sqiiie'i.     Coligny   collected    the   remains   of   the  100,000  out-patients  are  relieved  by  it. 


BARTHOLOMITES  —  BARTLETT 


Barthol'omites.     See  Basilians. 

Bar'tizan,  a  battlement  on  the  top  of  a 
house  or  castle ;  a  small  overhanging  turret  pro- 
jecting from  the  angle  on  the  top  of  a  tower, 
or  from  the  parapet  or  other  parts  of  a  build- 
ing ;  or,  the  battlement  surrounding  a  spire  or 
steeple,  or  the  roof  of  a  cathedral  or  church. 

Bartlett,  Elisha,  American  physician  and 
author:  b.  Smithfield,  R.  I.,  1805;  d.  there,  18 
July  1855.  He  graduated  from  the  medical  de- 
partment of  Brown  University  in  1826,  and  de- 
livered the  course  of  lectures  on  pathological 
anatomy  at  the  Berkshire  medical  institute  in 
Pittsfield,  Mass.,  in  1832.  In  1836  or  1837  he 
was  elected  the  first  mayor  of  Lowell.  He  sub- 
sequently lectured  at  Dartmouth  College,  and 
in  Transylvania  University  and  the  universi- 
ties of  Maryland  and  New  York.  In  1851  he 
became  professor  of  materia  medica  and  medi- 
cal jurisprudence  in  the  College  of  Physicians 
and  Surgeons  in  New  York,  which  place  he 
held  until  his  death.  He  published  ^ Essay  on 
the  Philosophy  of  Medical  Science^  (1844)  ; 
^Fevers  of  the  United  States^  (1850)  ;  and  a 
volume  of  poems,  entitled  ^Simple  Settings  in 
Verse  for  Portraits  and  Pictures  in  Mr.  Dick- 
ens' Gallery^    (1855). 

Bartlett,  Edwin  Julius,  American  chemist: 
b.  Hudson,  O.,  16  Feb.  1851.  He  was  graduated 
at  Dartmouth  College  in  1872,  and  at  Rush 
Medical  College  in  1879;  made  associate  pro- 
fessor of  chemistry  in  Dartmouth  in  1879,  and 
full  professor  in  1883.  He  is  a  member  of  the 
American  Chemical  Society,  and  the  New  York 
Medico-Legal  Society,  and  an  honorary  mem- 
ber of  the  New  Hampshire  Medical  Society. 
He  is  the  author  of  many  papers  on  chemical 
subjects. 

Bartlett,  Sir  Ellis  Ashmead.  See  Ash- 
mead-Bartlett. 

Bartlett,  Homer  Newton,  American  com- 
poser :  b.  Olive,  N.  Y.,  28  Dec.  1846.  He  began 
his  public  career  when  9  years  of  age,  and  at 
ID  composed  violin  music,  piano  duos,  songs, 
and  vocal  duets.  He  has  written  a  large  num- 
ber of  anthems,  quartets,  and  glees  for  vocal 
rendering,  and  pieces  for  the  flute,  stringed 
instruments,  and  military  bands  and  orchestras. 
His  best  compositions  include  a  three-act  opera, 
'La  Valliere*  ;  a  cantata,  ^The  Last  Chieftain ' ; 
an  oratorio,  ^Samuel,'  etc. 

Bartlett,  Ichabod,  American  lawyer:  b. 
Salisbury,  N.  H.,  1786;  d.  19  Oct.  1853.  He 
graduated  at  Dartmouth  College  in  1808,  com- 
menced the  practice  of  the  law  in  Durham,  but 
soon  removed  to  Portsmouth,  where  his  skill 
and  ability  soon  commanded  success.  He  is 
celebrated  as  an  opponent  of  Webster  and  Ma- 
son. He  was  frequently  a  member  of  the  State 
legislature,  and  of  the  United  States  House  of 
Representatives  for  three  terms,  1823-9. 

Bartlett,  John,  American  author  and  pub- 
lisher:  b.  Plymouth,  Mass.,  14  June  1820;  d. 
Cambridge,  Mass.,  3  Dec.  1905.  He  entered  the 
university  book-store,  became  a  publisher  in  Cam- 
bridge in  1836,  and  senior  partner  in  the  house 
of  Little,  Brown  &  Company,  in  1878.  His 
works  include:  <  Familiar  Quotations'  (1854; 
9th  ed.  1891);  <New  Method  of  Chess  Nota- 
tion' (1857)  ;  <The  Shakespeare  Phrase-Book> 
(1882);  'Catalogue  of  Books  on  Angling,  In- 
cluding Ichthyology,  Pisciculture,  etc'     (1882); 


'The   Complete   Concordance   to    Shakespeare's 
Dramatic  Works'    C1894);  and   <Poems.' 

Bartlett,  John  R.,  American  naval  officer : 
b^  New  York,  1843;  d.  Saint  Louis,  22 
Nov.  1904.  He  was  appointed  an  acting 
midshipman  in  the  navy  from  Rhode  Is- 
land in  1859;  entered  the  United  States  Naval 
Academy,  where  he  remamed  till  the  beginning 
of  the  Civil  War,  when  he  was  assigned  to  the 
West  Gulf  Blockading  Squadron.  He  took 
part  in  the  bombardment  and  passage  of  Forts 
St.  Philip  and  Jackson,  and  the  Chalmette  bat- 
teries, and  the  capture  of  New  Orleans  and 
attack  on  Vicksburg  in  June  1862.  He  was  pro- 
moted lieutenant  in  1864 ;  took  part  in  the  bom- 
bardment of  Fort  Fisher  in  December,  and  the 
assault  on  its  works  in  January.  Subsequently 
he  was  on  surveying  duty  in  Nicaragua  and  on 
the  United  States  Coast  Survey ;  was  promoted 
to  captain,  i  July  1892;  and  was  retired  12  July 
1897.  After  the  declaration  of  war  against 
Spain,  in  1898,  he  was  recalled  to  active  ser- 
vice, and  on  9  July  succeeded  Rear-Admiral 
Erben  as  commander  of  the  Auxiliary  Naval 
Squadron,  organized  for  the  protection  of  the 
Atlantic  coast  cities. 

Bartlett,  John  Russell,  American  author: 
b.  Providence,  R.  I.,  23  Oct.  1805 ;  d.  28  May 
1886.  He  was  educated  for  a  mercantile  career, 
and  after  1837  entered  the  book-importing  trade 
in  New  York.  In  1850,  he  was  appointed  one 
of  the  commissioners  to  determine  the  Mexican 
boundary.  In  1855  he  was  made  secretary  of 
State  of  Rhode  Island.  He  published  various 
valuable  records,  genealogies,  local  histories, 
etc.,  but  his  best  known  work  is  his  'Diction- 
ary of  Americanisms'    (1850). 

Bartlett,  John  Sherren,  Anglo-American 
journalist,  founder  of  the  Albion  newspaper  in 
New  York:  b.  Dorsetshire,  England,  1790;  d. 
24  Aug.  1863.  He  was  educated  as  a  physician 
in  London ;  was  appointed  surgeon  i.i  the  royal 
navy  in  1812 ;  sailed  to  the  West  Indies  on 
board  the  packet  Swallow ;  was  captured  by  the 
American  frigates  President  and  Congress, 
under  Commodore  Rodgers,  and  remained  a 
prisoner  at  Boston  until  discharged  in  1813. 
At  the  close  of  the  war  he  married  a  lady  of 
Boston  and  established  himself  there  as  a 
physician.  The  Albion,  commenced  by  him  in 
New  York.  22  June  1822,  as  an  English  organ 
of  conservative  politics,  gained  a  wide  and 
profitable  circulation.  Bartlett  subsequently 
commenced  one  or  two  other  papers  of  a  simi- 
lar character  at  a  cheaper  price,  and  on  the  be- 
ginning of  Atlantic  steam  navigation  also  es- 
tablished at  Liverpool  the  European,  a  weekly 
compendium  of  the  latest  news  for  American 
circulation.  Owing  to  the  failure  of  his  health, 
he  withdrew  from  the  Albion  in  1848.  He  sub- 
sequently published  the  Anglo-Saxon,  a  weekly 
paper  at  Boston,  which  he  continued  about  two 
years.  In  1857  he  served  as  English  consul  at 
Baltimore. 

Bartlett,  Joseph,  American  wit,  poet,  and 
adventurer:  b.  Plymouth.  Mass.,  1763;  d.  Bos- 
ton, 27  Oct.  1827.  He  began  the  study  of  law 
at  Salem,  but  soon  gave  it  up  for  a  voyage  to 
England.  Here  he  pursued  the  career  of  an 
adventurer,  gambled,  spent,  got  into  prison, 
wrote  a  play  for  his  release,  and  went  upon 
the  stage  himself.  From  an  actor  he  became 
a  merchant,  and  having  sailed  for  America  with 


BARTLETT  —  BARTLEY 

a   large  supply  of  goods   on   credit,   was   ship-  a  year  of  travel  in  the  East.     In   1877  he  ac- 

wrecked  on  Cape  Cod.     In  1799  he  delivered  a  cepted    the    presidency    of    Dartmouth    College, 

poem   on    ^Physiognomy^    before   the   Phi    Beta  which    he   held    until    1892,    when    he    resigned. 

Kappa  society  of  Harvard,   satirical  and  clever,  He  was  the  author  of  a  number  of   works,  in- 

and  said  to  touch  upon  the  traits  of  individuals  at  eluding;    *From    Egypt    to    Palestine^     (1879); 

the  time.   To  the  edition  of  this  poem,  published  ^Sketches  of  Missions  of  the  American  Board^  ; 

in  1823,  were  appended  a  number  of  ^Aphorisms  ^Sources    of   History   in   the   Pentateuch'  ;    and 

on  Men,  Principles,  and  Things,'   the  results  of  *^The    Veracity    of    the    Hexateuch'  ;    and    also 

his  various  experience.     The  same  year  he  de-  wrote    a    part    of    the    American    edition     of 

livered  a  Fourth  of  July  oration  at  Boston,  and  'Smith's   Dictionary  of  the   Bible. > 
afterward    recited   a    poem,    entitled   the    'New  Bartlett,  William  Francis,  American  mili- 

Vicar    of    Bray,'     which    obtained    considerable  tary  officer :  b.  Haverhill,  Mass.,  6  Jan.  1840 ;  d. 

celebrity.     He   next   attempted   the   practice    of  17    Dec.    1876.      He    was    a    student    at    Har- 

law   and   of   politics    in    Maine,    was   elected   to  yard    University   at   the   outbreak    of   the    Civil 

the    State    legislature,    and    nearly    secured    an  \Var,    but    left    to    enter    the    army.      He    was 

election  to  Congress  by  his  active  exertions  as  wounded  in  the  battle  of  Ball's  Blufif,  suffering 

a  speaker  and  newspaper  writer.    He  then  prac-  the  loss  of  a  leg ;  but  continued  in  the  service ; 

tised    law    at    Portsmouth,    N.    H.,    and    finally  ^as  twice  wounded  at  Port  Hudson ;  and  in  the 

closed    his    improvident    life,    a    burden    to    his  battles    of    the    Wilderness,    while    leading    the 

friends,    at    Boston.      See    Duyckmck's    <Cyclo-  57th  Massachusetts  regiment,  was  again  wound- 

paedia  of  American  Literature.'  ed,   taken  prisoner,   and  sent  to   Libby   Prison. 

Bartlett,   Josiah,    American    statesman:   b.  At  the  close  of  the  war,  he  was  made  a  major- 

Amesbury,   Mass.,   November    1729;    d.   19  May  general  of  volunteers  for  distinguished  services 

1795.     He  commenced   the  practice  of  medicine  in   the  field. 

in  1750,  at  Kingston,  and  established  a  reputa-  Bartlett,   William    Henry,    English   artist: 

tion,   during  the   prevalence  of   the  angina  ma-  b.   Kentish  Town.   London,   29  March   1809;    d. 

ligna  in  1754,  by  treatment  with  Peruvian  bark,  25    Sept.    1854.      He    served    an    apprenticeship 

in  opposition  to  the  usage  of  other  physicians,  with   the    distinguished    architectural    antiquary, 

He     received    several    appointments    from    the  John     Britton,    who    employed    him    to    make 

royal  governor,  John  Wentworth,  but  lost  them  drawings    for    his    <  Cathedral    Antiquities'    and 

in    1775,    for    being    a    zealous    Whig.      Being  i Picturesque     Antiquities     of     English     Cities.' 

chosen    delegate    to    the    Continental    Congress,  Bartlett       subsequently       traveled       extensively 

he  was  the  first  who  voted  for,  and  the  first,  abroad,  and  the  works  which  he  published,  de- 

after  the  president,   who  signed  the  Declaration  scriptive   of   the    countries   visited   by   him     ob- 

of    Independence,    his    name    being    first    called  tained    great    success    with    the    public.      They 

as  representative  of  the  most  easterly  province,  include     <  Walks     About     Jerusalem'      (1844)  ; 

He  accompanied   Stark  m   1777  to  Bennington.  <Forty  Days  in  the  Desert'    (1848);   'The  Nile 

He    was    appointed    chief    justice    of   the    com-  Boat    or    Glimpses    of    Egypt'     (1849)  ;    <Foot- 

mon  pleas  in  1779,  justice  of  the  supreme  court  steps  of  Our  Lord  and  His  Apostles  in  Syria, 

m  1784,  and  chief  justice  in  1788.     He  was  an  Greece,   and   Italy'    (1851)  ;    'The   Pilgrim  Fa- 

active  member  of  the  convention  called  to  adopt  thers'    (1853)  ;   'Jerusalem  Revisited'    (1855). 
the    Federal    constitution    in    1788.     In    1790   he  Bartlett,      William      Holmes      Chambers, 

zii  ?ro^etif  fi^s^go^l^o'-midS^  Z'.^  ^^'vl^7  ^"'  ^ss^'T  ^^  F^riis^ 

State   constitution      He   was   also  president    of  ^^,  ^SSS^^Tv^^ ^L^'.r^s  uSl 

the  medical  society  established  in   1791,  by  his  .         .       r  ■  •  /    ^  ^r 

,■            T       ,1   1  •           •            ff;         1  •     i  .•  tenant    of    engineers,    was    assistant    professor 
exertions.     In  all  his  various  offices  his  duties  .1  ^q^„  „      tt  ^  ^1 
wprf^   ahlv  pnH    faithfnilv   disrhflrcrerl  ^here,    1827-9.      He    was    engaged    on    the    con- 
were  ably  and   taithtully   discharged.  struction    of    Fort    Munroe   and    Fort    Adams; 

Bartlett,   Paul  Wayland,   American   sculp-  was  assistant  engineer  at  Washington,    1832-4; 

tor:  b.  New  Haven,  Conn.,  1865.   He  entered  the  and  again  at  West  Point  as  assistant  professor, 

ficole    des    Beaux    Arts,    Paris,     1880;    became  1834-6.      When    he   resigned   his    lieutenancy   in 

chevalier   of   the   Legion   of   Honor,   1895.     His  1836,  he  was  made  full  professor  of  philosophy 

principal    works    are:    an    equestrian    statue    of  at   West   Point,  and  held  this  position  until   he 

Gen.    McClellan    in    Philadelphia;    one    of    La-  retired    in    1871.      He    was    a    member    of    the 

fayette    in    Paris    (presented   to    France   by   the  Natural   Academy  of  Sciences  and  other  scien- 

school  children  of  the  United  States)  ;  a  statue  tific  societies,  and  wrote  several  scientific  books, 

of  Gen.   Joseph   Warren   in   Boston;    statues  of  including    'Treatise   on   Optics'     (1839);    'Syn- 

Columbus  and  Michel  Angelo  in  the  Library  of  thetical    Mechanics'     (i8so-8)  ;    'Acoustics   and 

Congress,     and     'The     Bear     Tamer,'      in     the  Optics'       (1852-9)  ;       'Analytical      Mechanics' 

Metropolitan   Museum  of   New  York.  (1853-9)  ;  and  'Spherical  Astronomy'  (1858-9). 

Bartlett,  Samuel  Colcord,  American  edu-  Bartley,  Elias  Hudson,  American  chemist: 
cator:  b.  Salisbury,  N.  H.,  25  Nov.  1817;  d.  b.  Bartleyville,  N.  J.,  6  Dec.  1849.  He  was 
16  Nov.  1898.  He  was  educated  at  Dartmouth  graduated  at  Cornell  University  in  1873 ;  was 
College,  and  became  a  teacher  there  and  at  an  instructor  there  in  1874-5 ;  professor  of 
Andover  Theological  Seminary.  He  had  charge  chemistry  at  Swarthmore  College,  1875-8 ;  lec- 
of  a  church  at  Monson,  Mass. ;  subsequently  be-  turer  at  the  Franklin  Institute,  Philadelphia,  in 
coming  professor  of  philosophy  in  Western  Re-  1877-8.  He  removed  to  Brooklyn  in  1879; 
serve  University,  Ohio.  He  afterward  became  graduated  at  Long  Island  College  Hospital  in 
pastor  of  a  church  in  Manchester,  N.  H..  and  1879;  was  lecturer  there  on  physiological  and 
later  of  the  New  England  Church  in  Chicago,  practical  chemistry  in  1880-5  ;  and  then  became 
In  1858  he  was  made  professor  of  biblical  liter-  professor  of  chemistry  and  toxicology.  He 
ature  in  the  Chicago  Theological  Seminary,  was  made  chief  chemist  of  the  health  depart- 
where   he  remained   until    1873,    when   he   spent  ment   of   Brooklyn,  in   1882.     He  is  the  author 


BARTOK  —  BARTOLOZZI 


of  several  articles  in  Wood's  *  Household  Prac- 
tice of  Medicine^  (1885),  and  of  ^A  Text-Book 
of  Medical  Chemistry.^ 

Bar'tok,  Ludwig  von,  a  Hungarian  poet 
and  dramatist:  b.  1851.  ^Carpathian  Songs^ 
includes  his  happiest  verse.  As  a  playwright, 
he  is  even  more  distinguished ;  the  comedy  of 
*The  Most  BeautifuP  (1880),  and  the  historical 
tragedy,  'Margareta  Kendi,'  as  well  as  *Anna 
Thuran,^  a  historical  drama,  having  been  fre- 
quently acted. 

Bartol,  Cyrus  Augustus,  American  Unita- 
rian clergyman :  b.  Freeport,  Me.,  30  April 
1813 ;  d.  17  Dec.  1900.  He  was  graduated  at 
Bowdoin  College  in  1832,  and  at  Cambridge 
Divinity  School  in  1835 ;  became  colleague  pas- 
tor with  Dr.  Charles  Lowell  of  the  West 
Church  (Unitarian),)  in  Boston,  1837,  and  full 
pastor  in  1861.  He  was  a  member  of  the 
Transcendental  Club.  His  works  include: 
^Discourses  on  the  Christian  Spirit  and  Life^ 
(1850)  ;  ^Discourses  on  Christian  Body  and 
Form^  (1854)  ;  ^Pictures  of  Europe  Framed  in 
Ideas'  (1855)  ;  ^History  of  the  West  Church 
and  Its  Ministers'  (1858)  ;  *^ Church  and  Con- 
gregation' (1858)  ;  ^Word  of  the  Spirit  to 
the  Church'  (1859)  ;  *  Radical  Problems' 
(1872);  <The  Rising  Faith'  (1874);  ^Princi- 
ples  and   Portraits'    (1880). 

Bartoli,  bar't5-le,  Adolf o,  Italian  historian: 
b.  Fivizzano,  19  Nov.  1833 ;  d.  1894.  He 
has  long  been  a  recognized  arbiter  of  taste 
and  the  elegancies  in  connection  with  his  coun- 
try's literature;  his  'First  Two  Centuries  of 
Italian  Literature'  (1870-80),  and  'History  of 
Italian  Literature'  (1878-89)  being  master- 
pieces. In  1874  he  became  professor  of  Italian 
literature  in  the  Institute  of  Florence. 

Bartoli,  Danielle,  a  learned  Italian  Jesuit : 
b.  Ferrara,  12  Feb.  1608;  d.  Rome,  13  Jan. 
1685.  He  was  the  author  of  a  celebrated  his- 
tory of  the  order  of  the  Jesuits,  published  at 
Rome  in  six  volumes  (1653-75).  Bartoli  had 
access  to  many  curious  manuscripts  in  the  Vati- 
can, of  which  he  availed  himself.  This  gives 
to  his  work  peculiar  interest,  and  portions  of 
it,  as  for  instance  that  on  Asia,  passed  through 
several  editions.  The  first  edition  of  1667  con- 
tains also  an  interesting  account  of  the  mission 
to  Mongolia,  and  a  sketch  of  the  life  of  Father 
Acquaviva.  He  also  wrote  on  physics  and  phi- 
lology. A  new  edition  of  his  complete  works 
in  12  volumes  appeared  at  Turin  in  1825.  and 
a  select  edition  of  the  most  striking  passages  at 
Milan   in    1826. 

Bartoli,  Pietro  Santi,  sometimes  called 
Perugio,  Italian  painter  and  engraver :  b.  about 
1635 ;  d.  Rome,  1700.  He  was  a  pupil  of  Nicolas 
Poussin.  His  engravings,  numbering  over 
1,000,  are  scarce  and  valuable.  His  skill  as  a 
copyist  was  so  great  that  he  could  counterfeit 
the  effects  of  time  on  the  colors  of  pictures. 
The  'Admiranda  Romanorum  Antiquitatem 
Vestijia,'  a  collection  of  engravings  much  es- 
teemed archseologically,  is  his  most  important 
work. 

Bartolini,  bar-to-le'ne,  Lorenzo,  cele- 
brated Italian  sculptor:  b.  Vernio,  i777;  d. 
Florence,  1850.  In  his  5'outh  he  was  a  pupil 
of  Desmarets,  a  French  painter,  and  made  con- 
siderable progress ;  but  the  bent  of  his  genius 
leading   him   rather    to   handle   the  chisel   than 

Vol.     2 23. 


the  brush,  he  proceeded  to  Paris  and  entered 
the  studio  of  the  sculptor  Lemot.  Napoleon 
intrusted  him  with  a  multitude  of  works,  among 
others  a  colossal  bust  of  the  emperor  placed 
above  the  entrance  of  the  French  Institute,  and 
a  magnificent  statue  of  him,  which,  in  conse- 
quence of  the  events  of  the  restoration,  was 
never  delivered  to  government,  and  is  now  in 
America.  On  the  fall  of  the  empire  he  returned 
to  Florence,  where  he  continued  to  exercise  his 
profession.  Among  his  greater  works  may  be 
mentioned  his  groups  of  Charity,  and  Hercules 
and  Lycas,  and  the  beautiful  monument  in  the 
cathedral  of  Lausanne,  Switzerland,  erected  in 
memory  of  Lady  Stratford  Canning,  who  died 
there  in  1817.  Bartolini  ranks  next  to  Canova 
among  modern  Italian  sculptors.  See  Canova, 
'Schools  and  Masters  of  Sculpture'   (1898). 

Bartolommeo,  bar-to-lom-ma'o,  Fra,  or 
Baccio  Delia  Porta,  one  of  the  most  distin- 
guished of  the  Florentine  painters:  b.  Savign- 
ano,  1469;  d.  Florence,  1517.  He  learned  in 
Florence  the  first  principles  of  painting  from 
Cosimo  Roselli,  and  acquired  a  more  perfect 
knowledge  of  art  by  studying  the  works  of 
Leonardo  da  Vinci.  He  was  an  admirer  and 
follower  of  Savonarola,  on  whose  death,  in  con- 
sequence of  a  vow  made  during  the  peril  of 
persecution,  he  took  the  Dominican  habit  in 
1500,  and  assumed  the  name  of  Fra  Bartolommeo. 
For  the  space  of  four  years  he  did  not  touch 
his  pencil,  and  employed  it  afterward  only  on 
devotional  subjects.  Raphael  visited  Florence 
in  1504  and  gave  instructions  to  Bartolommeo 
in  perspective,  receiving  in  return  his  lessons 
in  coloring.  Some  years  afterward  the  latter 
visited  Michael  Angelo  and  Raphael  at  Rome. 
After  his  return  to  Florence  he  executed  several 
religious  pictures,  among  which  were  a  Saint 
Mark  and  Saint  Sebastian,  which  are  greatly 
admired.  His  style  is  severe  and  elevated,  but 
very  graceful  in  youthful  figures ;  his  coloring, 
in  vigor  and  brilliancy,  comes  near  to  that  of 
Titian  and  Giorgione.  But  he  particularly  ex- 
cels in  drapery,  which  none  before  him  repre- 
sented with  equal  truth,  fulness,  and  ease.  His 
pictures  are  preserved  in  the  gallery  of  the 
Grand-Duke  at  Florence  and  in  the  palace  of 
Pitti.  See  Jameson.  'Memoirs  of  the  Early 
Italian  Painters'  (1887);  Symonds,  'The  Ren- 
aissance in  Italy'  (1885);  Radcliffe,  'Schools 
and  Masters  of  Painting'  (1898)  ;  Cartwright, 
'The  Painters  of  Florence'    (1901). 

Bartolozzi,  bar-to-lot'se,  Francesco,  a  dis- 
tinguished Italian  engraver:  b.  Florence,  21 
Sept.  1728;  d.  Lisbon,  Portugal,  April  1813. 
In  Venice,  in  Florence,  and  Milan,  he  etched 
several  pieces  on  sacred  subjects,  and  then  went 
to  London,  where  he  received  great  encourage- 
ment and  accommodated  himself  entirely  to  the 
national  taste,  so  as  even  to  work  in  the  popular 
red  dotted  manner.  His  pieces  were  so  uni- 
versally sought  for  that  a  complete  collection 
of  them  was  valued  at  £1,000.  He  was  elected 
a  member  of  the  Royal  Academy  of  Arts  in 
London.  After  40  years'  residence  in  London 
he  went  to  Lisbon  to  engrave  on  copper  the 
portrait  of  the  regent,  where  he  received,  in 
1807,  the  order  of  Christ.  With  accuracy  of 
design  he  united  great  delicacy  of  execution. 
Among  his  best  engravings  is  the  'Death  of  Lore 
Chatham,'  after  Copley,  and  the  'Virgin  and 
Child.'     His  works,  among  which  are  imitations 


BARTOLUS  —  BARTON 


in  etching  of  drawings  of  the  great  masters, 
amount  to  more  than  2,000.  See  Clement, 
'Painters,  Sculptors,  and  Engravers*    (1899). 

Bar'tolus,  Osso,  or  Bartolus  A.  Saxoffer- 
rato,  a  celebrated  Italian  jurist:  b.  Sasso 
Ferrato,  in  the  Marches  of  Ancona,  about  13131 
d.  Perugia,  1356.  He  took  his  degree  of  doctor 
of  law  at  Bologna,  became  professor,  first  at 
Pisa,  aud  then  at  Perugia,  was  ennobled  and 
honored  with  other  distinction  and  privileges 
by  the  emperor  Charles  IV.,  and  not  only  pub- 
lished many  important  works  such  as  treatises 
*0n  Procedure,*  'On  Evidence,*  and  commen- 
tary on  the  'Code  of  Justinian,*  but  distin- 
guished himself  in  various  other  branches  of 
knowledge. 

Barton,  Andrew,  Scottish  naval  com- 
mander, who  flourished  during  the  reign  of 
James  IV.,  and  belonged  to  a  family  which  for 
two  generations  had  produced  able  and  suc- 
cessful seamen.  In  1497  he  commanded  the 
escort  which  accompanied  Perkin  Warbeck 
from  Scotland.  After  doing  considerable  dam- 
age to  English  shipping,  he  was  killed  in  an 
engagement  with  two  ships  which  had  been 
especially  fitted  out  against  him   (1512). 

Barton,  Benjamin  Smith,  American  natu- 
ralist:  b.  Lancaster,  Pa.,  10  Feb.  1766;  d.  Phila- 
delphia, 19  Dec.  1815.  He  studied  the  natural 
sciences  and  medicine  in  Philadelphia,  Edin- 
burgh, and  London,  and  took  his  degree  at  Got- 
tingen.  He  practised  medicine  in  Philadelphia, 
and  held  successively  the  chairs  of  botany  and 
natural  history,  materia  medica,  and  theory 
and  practice  of  medicine  in  the  university 
there.  He  became  president  of  many  learned 
societies,  was  a  correspondent  of  Humboldt, 
and,  among  other  works,  wrote  'Elements  of 
Botany*  (1812-14)  ;  'Collections  for  an  Es- 
say toward  a  Materia  Medica  of  the  United 
States*  (3d  ed.  1810)  ;  and  'Flora  Virginica* 
(1812). 

Barton,  Bernard,  English  poet,  often  styled 
the  Quaker  poet:  b.  London,  31  Jan.  1784;  d. 
19  Feb.  1814.  In  1806  he  removed  to  Wood- 
bridge,  in  Suffolk,  where  he  entered  into  a 
business  in  coals  and  corn ;  but  subsequently 
gave  up  this  occupation,  and  in  1810  became 
clerk  in  a  bank  at  Woodbridge,  a  situation 
which  he  held  till  not  long  before  his  death. 
In  1824  a  reading  society  founded  by  him  at 
Woodbridge  presented  him  with  £1,200,  and  he 
afterward  received  a  pension  of  £100  through 
Sir  Robert  Peel.  His  first  appearance  as  an  au- 
thor was  in  1812,  when  he  published  a  small 
volume  of  poems  under  the  title  of  'Metrical 
Effusions,*  which  led  to  a  correspondence  with 
the  poet  Southey.  This  was  followed  in  1818 
by  'Poems  by  an  Amateur,*  and  in  1820  by  a 
volume  entitled  simply  'Poems,*  which  became 
popular,  and  gained  him  the  friendship  of 
Lamb  and  Byron.  Of  his  other  productions 
the  chief  were:  'Napoleon,  and  other  Poems* 
(1822);  'Poetic  Vigils*  (1824);  'Devotional 
Verses*  (1826)  ;  'A  New- Year's  Eve,  and  other 
Poems*  (1828)  ;  besides  many  contributions  to 
the  annuals  and  magazines.  His  last  work 
was  'Household  Verses*  (1845).  His  daugh- 
ter, Lucy,  published  'Selections  from  the 
Poems  and  Letters  of  Bernard  Barton,*  in  1849. 
His  poetry,  though  deficient  in  force,  is  pleas- 
ing, fluent,  and  gracef'd,  animated  by  a  love  of 
nature,  and  by  a  pure  religious  spirit. 


Barton,  Clara,  American  philanthropist: 
b.  Oxford,  Mass.,  1830.  She  early  became  a 
teacher,  and  founded  at  Bordentown,  N.  J.,  a 
free  school,  opening  it  with  six  pupils.  In  1854 
it  had  grown  to  600,  when  she  became  a  clerk 
in  the  patent  office  in  Washington.  On  the  out- 
break of  the  Civil  War  she  resigned  her  clerk- 
ship and  became  a  volunteer  nurse  in  the  army 
hospitals  and  on  the  battle-field.  In  1864  she 
was  appointed  to  the  charge  of  the  hospitals  at 
the  front  of  the  army  of  the  James.  She  was 
present  at  several  battles,  and  in  1865  was  placed 
by  President  Lincoln  in  charge  of  the  search  for 
missing  men  of  the  Union  armies,  having  already 
devoted  much  time  to  that  work  at  her  own  ex- 
pense. On  the  breaking  out  of  the  Franco-Prus- 
sian war  in  1870,  she  aided  the  Grand  Duchess 
of  Baden  in  preparing  military  hospitals,  assisted 
the  Red  Cross  Society,  and,  at  the  request  of  the 
authorities,  superintended  the  distribution  of 
v/ork  to  the  poor  of  Strasburg  in  187 1,  after  the 
siege,  and  in  1872  did  a  like  work  in  Paris.  At 
the  close  of  the  war  she  was  decorated  with  the 
Golden  Cross  of  Baden  and  the  Iron  Cross  of 
Germany.  On  the  organization  of  the  American 
Red  Cross  Society  in  1881  she  was  made  its 
president,  and  in  that  capacity  in  1884  had  charge 
of  the  measures  to  relieve  sufferers  from  the 
Mississippi  and  Ohio  floods.  In  1883  she  was 
appointed  superintendent  of  the  Reformatory 
Prison  for  Women  at  Sherborn,  Mass.  In  1889 
she  had  charge  of  movements  in  behalf  of  suf- 
ferers from  the  floods  at  Johnstown,  Pa. ;  in 
1892  distributed  relief  to  the  Russian  famine 
sufferers;  in  1896  personally  directed  relief 
measures  at  the  scenes  of  the  Armenian  massa- 
cres ;  in  1898,  at  the  request  of  President  Mc- 
Kinley,  took  relief  to  the  Cuban  reconcentrados, 
and  performed  field  work  during  the  war  with 
Spain ;  and  in  1900  undertook  to  direct  the  relief 
of  sufferers  at  Galveston,  but  broke  down  phys- 
ically. She  resigned  from  the  Red  Cross  Society 
in  1904.  She  has  published  'History  of  the  Red 
Cross*  (1883)  ;  'History  of  the  Red  Cross  in 
Peace  and  War*   (1898). 

Barton,  David,  American  legislator:  b. 
probably  in  Waco  County,  Ky.,  1785;  d.  Boone- 
ville.  Mo.,  27  Sept.  1837-  He  was  one  of  the  ear- 
liest settlers  in  Missouri ;  presided  over  the  con- 
vention that  drew  up  the  State  constitution  in 
1820;  and  was  a  United  States  Senator  from 
that   State   in    1 821-31. 

Barton,  Elizabeth,  English  religious  im- 
postor (commonly  called  the  Holy  Maid  of 
Kent)  :  b.  about  1506;  d.  20  April  1534.  She 
was  used  as  an  mstrument  by  the  adherents  of 
Queen  Catherine  to  excite  the  English  nation 
against  the  proposed  divorce  of  Henry  VIII. 
from  his  first  wife,  and  the  apprehended  separa- 
tion of  the  English  Church  from  Rome,  with 
which  the  king  then  threatened  the  Pope.  Her 
delirious  utterances,  in  a  nervous  illness,  were 
made  use  of  by  the  parson  of  Aldington,  Rich- 
ard Maister.  and  by  a  canon  of  Canterbury 
named  Bocking,  to  persuade  her  that  she  was  a 
prophetess  inspired  by  God.  Among  other 
things  she  prophesied  that  Henry,  if  he  per- 
sisted in  his  purpose  of  divorce  and  second 
marriage,  would  die  a  shameful  death  and  be 
succeeded  by  Catherine's  daughter.  Her  reve- 
lations, published  and  distributed  by  the  monk 


BARTON  —  BARUCH 


Dering,  produced  such  a  fermentation  among 
the  people  that  Henry  ordered  the  apprehen- 
sion and  examination  of  EHzabeth  and  her  ac- 
comphces  before  the  star-chamber.  After  they 
had  there  confessed  the  imposture  they  were 
condemned  to  make  a  pubHc  confession  and  to 
imprisonment ;  and  the  Maid,  Bocking,  Maister, 
Dering,  and  three  others  were  afterward  ad- 
judged guihj'  of  high  treason  for  a  conspiracy 
against  the  king,  and  executed.  The  venerable 
Bishop  Fisher  and  Sir  Thomas  IMore  were 
among  those  accused  of  holding  correspondence 
with  the  Holy  Maid  ;  and  the  former  was  pro- 
nounced guilty  of  misprision,  or  concealment,  of 
(reason  in  consequence. 

Barton,  George  Hunt,  American  geologist: 
b.  Sudbury,  Mass.,  8  July  1852.  He  was  as- 
sistant on  Hawaiian  Government  survey, 
1S81-3 ;  assistant  in  geology  in  the  Massachu- 
setts Institute  of  Technology  in  1883-4 :  then 
assistant  professor  of  geolog}^  there;  he  also  oc- 
cupied the  corresponding  chair  in  Boston  Uni- 
versity and  the  Teachers'  School  of  Science ; 
and  was  assistant  geologist  of  the  United  States 
Geological  Survey.  In  1896  he  was  a  member 
of  the  sixth  Peary  expedition  to  Greenland.  He 
is  a  member  of  the  Boston  Society  of  Natural 
History,  the  National  Geological  Society,  and 
the  Geological  Society  of  America,  and  the 
author  of  many  technical  papers. 

Barton.  William,  American  military  offi- 
cer: b.  Warren,  R.  I.,  26  May  1748;  d. 
Providence,  R.  I.,  22  Oct.  1831.  He  joined 
the  Revolutionary  army  soon  after  Bunker 
Hill,  and  on  the  night  of  10  July  1777, 
he  performed  the  exploit  which  made  him 
famous.  Leading  a  small  party  of  men,  in  four 
whale-boats,  across  Narragansett  Bay,  he  sur- 
prised and  captured  the  British  general.  Pres- 
cott,  at  his  headquarters,  and  hurried  him  away 
to  Washington's  camp  in  New  Jersey.  Barton 
received  a  sword  from  Congress,  and  was 
brevetted  colonel.  He  was  afterward  a  mem- 
ber of  the  State  convention  which  adopted  the 
Federal  Constitution. 

Barton,  William  Paul  Crillon,  American 
botanist:  b.  Philadelphia,  Pa.,  17  Nov.  1786;  d. 
29  Feb.  1856,  a  nephew  of  Benjamin  Smith 
Bar'cOn  (q.v.).  He  was  educated  at  Princeton 
College,  and  in  the  medical  school  of  the  Uni- 
versity of  Pennsylvania ;  was  surgeon  in  the 
United  States  navy  and  became  professor  of 
botany  in  Jefferson  Medical  College,  in  1815. 
He  was  author  of  'Flora  of  North  America* 
(1818-24)  :  "^Vegetable  ^Materia  Medica  of  the 
United  States*  (1817-25)  ;  'Compendium 
Flon-e*    (1818). 

Bartram,  John,  an  eminent  American  bot- 
anist:  b.  Chester  County,  Pa.,  23  March  1699; 
d.  22  Sept.  1777.  He  is  frequently  called  the 
"father  of  American  botany,'*  and  he  founded 
at  Kingsessing  the  first  botanical  garden  in 
America.  Linnaeus  termed  him  "the  greatest 
natural  botanist  in  the  world.**  He  published 
'Observations  of  the  Inhabitants,  Climate,  Soil, 
Diverse  Productions,  Animals,  etc.,  Made  in 
His  Travels  from  Pennsylvania  to  Lake  On- 
tario,* and  a  similar  volume  on  eastern  Florida 
(1766).  He  was  in  constant  correspondence 
with  European  botanists,  to  whom  he  sent  large 
collections  of  American  plants  and  would  read- 
ily undertake  a  journey  of  a  hundred  miles  to 
see  a  new  plant. 


Bartram,  William,  American  botanist  and 
ornithologist:  b.  Kingsessing,  Pa.,  9  Feb.  1739; 
d.  there  22  July  1823;  a  son  of  John  Bartram. 
He  spent  five  years  in  the  southern  States 
studying  natural  history,  and  published  the  re- 
sults in  'Travels  Through  North  and  South 
Carolina  and  East  and  West  Florida.*  He 
compiled  a  list  of  American  birds,  which  was 
the  best  of  its  kind  up  to  the  time  of  Wilson. 

Bartsch,  biirtsh,  Adam  von,  Austrian  en- 
graver and  art  writer:  b.  \'ienna,  17  Aug.  1757; 
d.  there,  21  Aug.  1821.  At  die  age  of  16  he 
brought  himself  into  the  notice  of  the  Austrian 
government  by  a  series  of  engravings  of  the 
gold  and  silver  medals  issued  during  the  reign 
of  Maria  Theresa,  and,  in  1781.  was  appointed 
keeper  of  the  prints  of  the  royal  collection.  In 
1803  he  produced  the  first  volume  of  his  well- 
known  and  authoritative  work,  'Le  Peintre- 
Graveur,*  in  21  volumes,  giving  a  description 
of  the  principal  engravers  of  Europe,  and  criti- 
cisms on  their  works.  He  etched  upward  of  500 
pieces,  and  published  several  catalogues  of 
works   of  art. 

Bartsch,    Karl    Friedrich    Adolf    Konrad, 

German  philologist :  b.  Sprottan,  Silesia,  25 
Feb.  1832;  d.  19  Feb.  1888.  He  was  professor 
at  Rostock,  where  he  established  the  earliest 
Germanic  seminary  in  Germany,  1858-71 ;  and 
for  the  remainder  of  his  life  was  head  of  the 
department  of  German  and  Romance  philology 
at  the  L'niversity  of  Heidelberg.  He  was  an 
extremely  brilliant,  versatile,  industrious  scholar 
whose  attention  was  chiefly  given  to  Middle 
High  German  and  Provengal  poetry,  and  was 
an  original  poet  also,  publishing  a  volume  of 
Ij'rics  in  1874.  Beside  an  important  study  of 
the  'Nibelungenlied*  (1865),  he  published 
'The  Song  of  Roland*  (1874)  ;  a  translation 
of  Burns  ((1865);  and  of  Dante's  'Divina 
Commedia*  (1867),  as  well  as  introductions  to 
the  study  of  Provencal  and  old  French,  etc. 

Barttelot,     bar-tlo',     Edmund     Musgrove, 

English  soldier:  b.  1859;  d.  1888.  Entering 
the  Indian  army  he  served  in  the  Afghan  cairt- 
paign,  and  as  major  in  the  Egj-ptian  army, 
joined  the  Stanley  expedition  for  the  relief  of 
Emin  Pasha  in  1887.  In  June  1888  he  began  a 
journey  into  the  heart  of  Africa  and  in  the 
course  of  a  mutiny  among  his  followers  was 
shot  by  one  of  his  men.  He  was  accused  of 
barbarous  cruelty  in  his  command  by  Stanley, 
a  charge  oposed  by  Barttelot  s  brother  in  his 
'Life  of  Edmund  Musgrove  Barttelot*    (1890). 

Baru,  ba-roo',  Philippines,  a  town  of 
Leyte.  31  miles  from  the  capital  of  the  prov- 
ince, Taclobam.     Pop.   12.322. 

Baru  (MaylajO)  a  wooly  material  found 
at  the  base  of  the  leaves  of  a  sago  palm-tree, 
saguerus  saccliarifer.  It  is  much  used  in  stuff- 
ing cushions   and  calking   ships. 

Baruch,  ba'ruk  (Hebrew,  "the  blessed**), 
the  name  of  several  individuals,  of  whom  the 
most  celebrated  was  the  son  of  Neriah,  scribe 
and  assistant  to  the  prophet  Jeremiah.  During 
the  reign  of  Jehoiakim,  about  607  B.C.,  Jeremiah 
while  in  prison,  having  been  divinely  commis- 
sioned to  put  all  his  prophecies  in  writing,  dic- 
tated them  to  Baruch.  who  inserted  them  in  a 
roll,  which  he  was  ordered  to  read  both  within 
and  at  the  entrance  of  the  temple.  Jehoiakim 
on  hearing  its  commencement  cut   it   in  pieces 


BARUS  —  BAS-RELIEF 


and  threw  it  into  the  fire.  At  the  captivity, 
after  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem,  Jeremiah 
and  Baruch  were  permitted  to  remain  in  Pales- 
tine, but  were  afterward  carried  into  Egypt,  588 
B.C.  The  subsequent  life  of  Baruch  is  little 
known.  One  of  the  apocryphal  books  bears 
the  name  of  Baruch.  The  Council  of  Trent 
gave  it  a  place  in  the  canon,  but  its  authentic- 
ity was  not  admitted  either  by  the  ancient  Jews 
or   the  early  Christian   fathers. 

Ba'rus,  Carl  Hazard,  American  physicist: 
b.  Cincinnati,  O..  19  Feb.  1856.  He  studied 
at  Columbia  College  and  the  University  of 
Wiirzberg;  was  physicist  of  the  United  States 
Geological  Survey  in  1880-92;  professor  of 
meteorojogy  in  the  United  States  Weather  Bu- 
reau, 1892-3 ;  and  physicist  of  the  Smithsonian 
Institution,  in  1893-5.  In  1895,  he  became  pro- 
fessor of  physics  at  Brown  University.  He  is 
a  member  of  the  National  Academy  of  Sci- 
ences ;  was  vice-president  and  chairman  of  the 
section  of  physics  in  the  American  Association 
for  the  Advancement  of  Science  in  1897  5  and 
is  a  corresponding  member  of  the  British  Asso- 
ciation for  the  Advancement  of  Science.  He 
contributes  to  the  American  Journal  of  Sci- 
ence, and  has  written  also  valuable  monographs 
for  the  United  States  Geological  Survey. 

Bary,  ba're,  Heinrich  Anton  de,  German 
physician  and  botanist :  b.  Frankfort-on-the- 
Main,  26  Jan.  1831  ;  d.  19  Jan.  1888.  He  is 
noted  for  his  investigations  in  cryptogamic  bot- 
anj'-,  and  was  professor  of  botany  at  Freiburg 
in  1855,  at  Halle  in  1867,  and  at  Strasburg  in 
1872.  Among  his  works  are  ^Die  Mycetozen^ 
(1859)  ;  ^Vergleichende  Morphologic  und  Bi- 
ologie  der  Pilze,  Mycetozen  tmd  Bacterien^ 
(1884)  ;  "^Vorlesungen  iiber  Bactorien^    (1885). 

Barye,  ba-re,  Antoine  Louis,  noted 
French  sculptor:  b.  Paris,  24  Sept.  1795;  d. 
there,  25  June  1875.  He  studied  engraving  with 
Fourrier  and  a  goldsmith  named  Beinnais ;  in 
1812,  was  a  topographical  engineer,  and  is  sup- 
posed to  have  modeled  a  number  of  relief  maps 
now  in  the  French  war  office.  In  1816  he  stud- 
ied drawing  with  the  painter  Gros,  and  sculp- 
ture with  Basio ;  and,  in  1819,  took  the  second 
prize  for  a  ^Milo  di  Crotona,^  which  was 
awarded  him  at  a  Concours  of  the  Beaux  Arts. 
From  1823  till  1831  he  worked  under  Faucon- 
nier,  jeweler  to  the  Duchesse  d'Angouleme.  In 
1831  he  exhibited  the  celebrated  ^  Tiger  De- 
vouring a  Crocodile,^'  and  was  then  emploj^ed 
by  M.  Lefuel  to  make  four  groups  for  the 
pavilion  on  the  Place  du  Carrousel.  He  was 
an  officer  of  the  Legion  of  Honor,  a  member  of 
the  Institute,  and  a  professor  at  the  Jardin  des 
Plantes.     See  Brownell,   ^French  Art'    (1892). 

Bary'ta,  barium  monoxid.     See  Barium. 

Barytes,  a  common  name  for  Barite  (q.v.). 

Baryton  (viola  di  Bardone),  a  chamber  in- 
strument, very  popular  in  the  i8th  century,  but 
now  obsolete.  It  was  somewhat  like  the  viol  di 
gamba  in  tone,  but  had  a  broader  finger-board, 
with  six  or  seven  gut-strings,  while  under  the 
neck  there  were  from  9  to  24  strings  of  brass 
wire,  which  were  pinched  with  the  point  of  the 
thumb,  to  produce  a  sound,  while  the  gut-strings 
were  acted  on  by  a  bow. 

Barytone.     See  Baritone. 

Bas,  or  Batz,  a  French  island  in  the  de- 
partment of  Finisterre,  2^/2  miles  from  the  coast 


in  the  English  Channel.  Although  but  three  miles 
long  and  two  miles  wide  it  is  defended  by  two 
forts  and  four  batteries.  It  has  a  lighthouse  at 
an  elevation  of  212  feet,  and  three  fishing  vil- 
lages.    Pop.   (1896)  1,286. 

Bas-relief,  ba-re-lef  (in  Italian,  basso- 
rilievo,  or  low  relief),  as  applied  to  sculpture, 
a  representation  of  one  or  more  figures,  raised 
on  a  flat  surface  or  background,  in  such  a  man- 
ner, however,  as  that  no  part  of  them  shall  be 
entirely  detached  from  it.  Alto-rilievo,  or  high 
relief,  is  that  in  which  the  figures  project  half 
of  their  apparent  circumference  from  the  back- 
ground. Mczzo-rilicvo,  or  middle  relief,  is  a 
third  species,  between  the  two.  But,  generally 
speaking,  the  first  term  is  made-  to  comprehend 
both  the  others.  The  term  itself  was  invented 
in  Italy,  about  the  nth  or  12th  century,  on  the 
revival  of  the  arts ;  for  the  Greeks  called  such 
works  simply  carved  (a)iaglypta)  ;  and  to  what 
is  now  called  high  relief  they  only  applied  the 
term  rounded  (toreutike). 

Bas-relief  is  particularly  allied  to  archi- 
tecture and  under  its  dominion,  since  any  con- 
siderable work  of  this  kind  must  be  made  for 
the  pediment,  frieze,  or  panel  of  a  building,  or 
for  some  other  architectural  work,  such  as  a 
tomb,  sarcophagus,  pedestal,  or  column.  Bas- 
reliefs  seem  to  have  been  invented  in  the  earliest 
ages  by  the  Eg3^ptians,  for  the  whole  of  their 
ancient  monuments  are  covered  with  them,  being 
executed  in  the  same  way  as  the  hieroglyphics 
on  their  sepulchral  chambers,  obelisks,  and  tem- 
ples. This  has  been  fi_nely  illustrated  by  the 
drawings  and  models  of  the  tomb  of  Sethi  I., 
originally  discovered  near  the  ancient  Thebes 
by  Belzoni,  and  which  has  since  become  fa- 
miliar to  many  persons ;  all  the  walls  of  that 
extraordinary  excavation  being  covered  with 
thousands  of  figures  in  low  relief,  colored,  and 
exhibiting  the  religious  and  warlike  ceremonies 
of  that  wonderful  people.  Bas-reliefs,  too,  are 
found  in  India,  decorating  the  subterraneous 
temples  of  Ellora  and  Elephanta  in  an  astonish- 
ing profusion.  The  subjects  are,  of  course, 
sacred,  and  in  the  style  of  drawing  resemble  very 
strongly  those  of  the  Eg\'ptian  monuments,  but 
are  evidently  inferior,  having  larger  heads  and 
disproportioned  bodies  and  limbs.  Both  these 
temples  have  been  well  illustrated  and  described 
by  Thomas  Daniell,  R.  A.,  and  Capt.  Scaley ; 
and  for  further  information  their  respective 
works  may  be  constilted.  The  Persians,  too, 
like  other  ancient  nations,  employed  bas-relief 
as  a  figured  writing,  thereby  recording  and  rep- 
resenting the  S3^mbols  of  the  power  and  energy 
of  the  Divinity,  their  own  religious  ceremonies, 
and  warlike  achievements.  The  sculptures  still 
existing  on  the  ruins  of  the  palace  of  Persepolis 
and  the  royal  tombs  accord  in  many  striking  par- 
ticulars with  those  taken  to  England  by  Belzoni. 
In  both  the  figures  are  arranged  in  lines,  either 
horizontal  or  perpendicular,  to  suit  the  double 
purpose  of  decoration  and  descripaon.  In  both 
of  them  the  natives  of  Egypt  are  distinguished 
by  the  hood  with  lappets,  the  mitre,  the  full  hair 
artificially  curled,  the  close  tunic,  the  apron  of 
papyrus ;  the  Hindus,  by  the  necklaces,  bracelets, 
and  anklets ;  the  Hebrews,  by  their  long  beards, 
and  hair  in  spiral  ringlets,  their  caps,  full  tunics, 
with  regular  folds  and  large  sleeves ;  the  Medes, 
again,  by  their  close  tunics ;  while  the  Persians 
themselves,    in    many   particulars,    resemble   the 


BASAITI  —  BASCOM 


Hebrews.  The  comparison  may  be  easily  made 
by  looking  over  the  prints  in  Sir  Robert  Ker 
Portre's  *  Travels  in  Persia/  and  those  in  Le 
Bruyn's  ^ Travels,^  and  then  the  engravings  of 
Denon's  and   Belzoni's  large  works. 

Since  it  has  been  well  observed  that  the 
Greeks  commenced  in  works  of  art  precisely 
where  the  Egyptians  left  off,  we  find  that  the 
early  bas-reliefs  of  Greece  resemble  pretty  accu- 
rately those  of  Egj'pt.  The  objects  are  repre- 
sented in  the  same  hard  and  simple  manner,  and 
the  marbles  taken  to  England  from  the  temple 
of  /Egina  serve  to  fill  up  the  history  of  sculp- 
ture, in  the  interval  between  its  first  introduction 
into  Greece  and  its  full  development  under 
Phidias,  at  Athens,  when  that  glorious  work,  the 
Parthenon,  was  produced  under  the  auspices  of 
Pericles. 

The  draperies  in  these  early  bas-reliefs  are 
thin  and  meagre,  showing  the  forms  of  the 
body  and  limbs;  the  folds  regular,  small,  and 
distinct,  consisting  chiefly  of  perpendicular  and 
zigzag  lines.  Some  of  the  head-dresses  consist 
of  small  curls,  very  like  the  fashions  of  barbarous 
nations ;  and  in  a  bronze  patera  in.  the  British 
Museum  the  club  of  Hercules  is  ornamented 
with  spiral  flutes,  like  one  brought  by  Capt. 
Cook  from  the  Sandwich  Islands. 

The  best  examples  of  bas-relief  now  in  ex- 
istence are  to  be  found  within  the  walls  of 
the  British  Museum.  We  mean,  of  course,  those 
of  the  Elgin  Marbles,  which  are  executed  in  this 
manner.  And  in  the  same  collection  are  the 
tombstone  of  Xanthippus,  and  a  man  curbing  a 
horse,  both  conjectured  to  be  of  the  age  of 
Phidias,  and  which  formed  part  of  the  Townley 
collection.  In  the  collection  of  the  Marquis  of 
Lansdowne  is  a  Greek  bas-relief  of  Calchas,  the 
size  of  life.  At  Wilton  there  is  a  beautiful  rep- 
resentation of  the  ^  Death  of  Meleager,^  and  a 
small  but  curious  ^Hercules  and  yEgle^  ;  a  bas- 
relief  composed  of  mosaic  in  natural  colors, 
which  is  supposed  to  be  iniique.  The  celebrated 
Barberini  vase,  formerly  in  the  possession  of 
the  Duke  of  Portland,  is  of  dark-blue  glass, 
bearing  figures  in  Toas-relief  of  white  enamel  or 
glass  of  admirable  workmanship.  Fragments  of 
bas-reliefs  of  similar  materials  have  been  found 
in  the  ruins  of  C?esar's  palace  at  Rome,  where 
they  had  been  fixed  in  the  walls.  The  two  tri- 
umphal columns  of  Trajan  and  Antonine  are 
covered  with  bas-reliefs,  containing  several  thou- 
sand figures  (the  first,  indeed,  has  2,500  human 
figures,  according  to  Vasi),  without  reckoning 
horses,  elephants,  mules,  and  the  implements  of 
war. 

Basaiti,  ba-sa-e'te,  Marco,  celebrated 
painter  of  Greek  extraction :  b.  Friuli  about  the 
middle  of  the  15th  century.  He  settled  in 
Venice,  where  several  of  his  paintmgs,  remarka- 
ble for  the  bvilliancy  of  their  coloring,  and  dis- 
tinguished by  other  excellences,  are  seen.  His 
masterpiece,  now  in  the  Ver>etian  Academy,  is 
<The  Calling  of  St.  Andrew  and  St.  Peter.^  He 
was  the  contemporary,  and  not  unfrequently  the 
successful  rival,  of  Gian  Bellini. 

Basalt',  a  class  of  rocks  belonging  to  the 
volcanic  series  and  characterized  by  augite  and 
plagioclase  feldspar  as  essential  constituents, 
and  by  iron  ores  (magnetite  and  ilmenite)  as 
accessory  minerals.  Olivine  is  also  present  in 
typical  basalts ;  among  the  rarer  minerals  are 
orthorhombic  pyroxene,  black  mica,  hornblende, 


quartz,  leucite,  and  nepheline.  Those  varieties 
which  contain  notable  quantities  of  olivine  are 
known  as  olivine  basalts,  while  the  presence  of 
leucite  and  nepheline  characterizes  the  leucite 
basalts  and  the  nepheline  basalts.  In  texture  the 
basalts  vary  from  a  finely  crystalline  apparently 
homogeneous  mass  to  coarsely  crystalline  aggre- 
gates; but  the  normal  type  is  a  fine-grained,  black 
rock,  in  which  olivine  is  the  only  mineral  that 
can  be  recognized  without  the  microscope.  The 
ground  mass  of  the  denser  varieties  contains 
more  or  less  glass,  due  to  the  rapid  cooling  of 
the  magma  from  the  molten  state.  Basalts  are 
extremely  abundant  especially  in  those  regions 
which  have  undergone  volcanic  disturbance 
within  geologically  recent  times;  in  fact  most 
of  the  volcanoes  of  the  present  day  erupt  basal- 
tic materials.  In  the  United  States  they  occur 
mostly  in  the  region  west  of  the  Mississippi 
River,  where  great  areas  have  been  flooded  by 
fissure  eruptions.  The  tendency  of  basalt  to 
assume  a  columnar  structure  often  lends  a  char- 
acteristic appearance  to  scenery,  as  is  illustrated 
by  the  famous  Giants'  Causeway  on  the  north 
coast  of  Ireland. 

Basanite,  baz'a-nlt  (Gr.  basanos,  ^^touch- 
stone")-    See  Touchstone. 

Bascinet,  or  Basnet,  a  light  helmet,  some- 
times with  but  more  frequently  without  a  -"isor, 
and  worn  by  knights  at  times  when,  though  ap- 
prehension of  danger  was  not  imminent,  it 
might  not  have  been  safe  to  be  altogether  un- 
armed. It  resembled  a  basin,  and  hence  its 
name.  It  was  in  general  use  for  English  in- 
fantry in  the  reigns  of  Edward  II.  and  III.,  and 
Richard  II.,  and  is  frequently  mentioned  in 
Parliamentary  and  other  public  records. 

Bas'com,  Florence,  American  educator, 
daughter  of  Dr.  John  Bascom  (q.v. ).  She  was 
educated  at  the  University  of  Wisconsin  and 
at  Johns  Hopkins  University,  receiving  from 
the  first  the  degree  of  B.A.  and  B.L.  in  1882, 
B.S.  in  1884,  and  M.A.  in  1887;  and  from  the 
latter  that  of  Ph.D.  in  1892.  She  was  the  first 
woman  to  whom  Johns  Hopkins  granted  a  de- 
gree, and  the  first  to  receive  a  Ph.D.  from  any 
American  college.  She  had  much  difficulty  in 
securing  admission  to  Johns  Hopkins  as  a  grad- 
uate student,  the  only  concession  to  her  sex  be- 
ing that  she  might  attend  the  lectures  on  geol- 
ogy, and  use  the  laboratory  apparatus  in  that 
branch.  She  had  previously  applied  herself  to 
geology,  and  her  thesis  on  receiving  her  Ph.D. 
was  on  inorganic  geolog^^  palaeontology  and 
chemistry  being  minor  subjects.  Subsequently 
she  was  engaged  in  teaching;  was  assistant  edi- 
tor of  the  ^American  Geologist^  ;  became  profes- 
sor at  Bryn  Mawr  College;  and  in  1899  was 
chosen  to  supervise  the  geological  survey  of 
Chester  County,  Pa. 

Bascom,  Henry  Bidleman,  American  cler- 
gyman:  b.  Hancock,  N.  Y.,  27  May  1796;  d.  8 
Sept.  1850.  He  was  licensed  to  preach  in  1813, 
and  made  chaplain  to  Congress  in  1823 ;  presi- 
dent of  Madison  College,  Pennsylvania  (1827-9), 
and  of  the  Transylvania  University,  Ky.,  1842. 
In  1850  he  was  made  a  bishop  of  the  ^fethodist 
Episcopal  Qiurch.  He  edited  the  ^Quarterly 
Review,*  1846-50.  His  writings  were  published 
in  1856. 

Bascom,  John,  American  educator  and 
philosophical  writer :  b.  Geneva,  N.  Y.,  1827. 
He  was  president  of  the  University  of  Wiscon- 


BASE  —  BASEBALL 


sin,  1874-87,  and  in  1900  was  professor  of  po- 
Jitical  science  in  Williams  College.  He  has  writ- 
ten a  number  of  philosophical  works,  among 
them  *  Philosophy  of  English  Literature* 
(1874);  lectures  before  the  Lowell  Institute; 
^Comparative  Psychology'  (1878);  < Sociology' 
(1887)  ;  *An  Historical  Interpretation  of  Phi- 
losophy' (1893)  ;  'Growth  of  Nationality  in  the 
United  States'  (1899)  ;  and  ^God  and  His  Good- 
ness'   (1901). 

Base.  In  archilecture:  (a)  The  part  of  a 
column  between  the  bottom  of  the  shaft  and  the 
top  of  the  pedestal.  In  cases  in  which  there  is 
no  pedestal,  then  the  base  is  the  part  between  the 
bottom  of  the  column  and  the  plinth,  (b)  A 
plinth  with  its  moldings  constituting  the  lower 
part  (that  which  slightly  projects)  of  the  wall 
of  a  room. 

In  botany,  a  term  applied  to  the  part  of  a 
leaf  adjoining  the  leaf-stalk,  to  that  portion  of  a 
pericarp  which  adjoins  the  penduncle,  or  to 
anything  similarly  situated. 

In  chemistry,  a  body  capable  of  replacing  the 
hydrogen  of  an  acid  so  as  to  produce  a  new 
compound,  called  a  ''salt,"  which  contains  the 
base  and  all  the  elements  of  the  acid  except  the 
displaced  hydrogen.  The  name  was  given  by 
Rouelle  in  1744,  and  is  now  loosely  used  to 
signify  a  metal,  a  salt-forming  oxid  or  hj'droxid, 
or  an  organic  body,  such  as  an  alkaloid,  an 
amide,  an  amine,  pyridine,  quinoline,  etc.,  which  is 
capable  of  combining  with  an  acid  to  form  a 
salt.  When  oxids  combine  with  acids  their  oxy- 
gen unites  with  the  liberated  hydrogen  of  the 
acid,  to  form  water.  A  body  (like  caustic  pot- 
ash, KOH),  is  said  to  be  strongly  basic  when 
it  forms  salts  that  are  very  stable  and  are  not 
altered  by  hot  or  cold  water. 

In  fortification,  the  exterior  side  of  a  poly- 
gon, or  the  imaginary  line  connecting  the  salient 
angles  of  two  adjacent  bastions. 

In  geometry:  (a)  The  base  of  an  ordinary 
triangle  is  its  third  side,  not  necessarily  the  one 
drawn  at  the  bottom  of  the  diagram,  but  the 
one  which  has  not  yet  been  mentioned,  while  the 
two  others  have  (Euclid,  book  i.,  prop.  4, 
Enunciation),  (b)  The  base  of  an  isosceles  tri- 
angle is  the  side  which  is  not  one  of  the  equal 
two  (Ibid.  prop.  5,  Enunciation),  (c)  The  base 
of  a  parallelogram  is  the  straight  line  on  which 
in  any  particular  proposition  the  parallelogram 
is  assumed  to  stand  (Ibid.  prop.  35).  It  also 
is  not  necessarily  drawn  the  lowest  in  the  figure 
(Ibid.  prop.  47).  (d)  The  base  of  a  cone  is  the 
circle  described  by  that  side  containing  the  right 
angle  which  revolves  (Euclid,  book  xi.,  def. 
20).  (e)  The  bases  of  a  cylinder  are  the  circles 
described  by  the  two  rotary  opposite  sides  of  the 
parallelogram,  by  the  revolution  of  which  it  is 
formed    (Ibid.  def.  23). 

In  heraldry,  the  lower  part  of  a  shield,  or, 
more  specifically,  the  width  of  a  bar  parted  off 
from  the  lower  part  of  a  shield  by  a  horizontal 
line.  It  is  called  also  base-bar,  baste,  and 
plain  point  ('Glossary  of  Heraldry'). 

In  military  aifairs,  see  Tactics. 

In  ordnance,  the  protuberant  rear  portion  of 
a  gun  between  the  knot  of  the  cascabel  and  the 
base-ring. 

In  sculpture,  the  pedestal  of  a  statue. 

In  trigonometry,  surveying,  and  mapmaking, 
a  base  or  base-line  is  a  straight  line  measured  on 
the  ground,  from  the  two  extremities  of  which 
angles  will  be  taken   with  the  view  of  laying 


down  a  triangle  or  series  of  triangles,  and  so 
mapping  out  the  country  to  be  surveyed. 

In  ecology,  that  portion  of  anything  by  which 
it  is  attached  to  anything  else  of  higher  value 
or  signification   (Dana). 

Base  of  Operations.       See  Tactics. 

Baseball,  a  popular  sport  in  the  United 
States,  of  such  general  interest  as  to  be  known 
as  "the  national  game."  It  had  its  origin  in  the 
old  English  game  of  "rounders,"  but  developed 
on  Ainerican  soil  into  a  very  different  sport.  In 
Philadelphia  an  early  form  was  played  under  the 
name  of  "town-ball,"  and  a  similar  game  was 
known  in  Upper  Canada  as  early  as  1838.  It  was 
in  the  neighborhood  of  New  York,  however,  that 
baseball  received  its  greatest  development,  regu- 
larly organized  clubs  contesting  in  the  "Elysian 
Fields,"  at  what  is  now  the  site  of  the  city  of 
Hoboken,  N.  J.,  as  early  as  1845.  It  was  no'_ 
until  1857,  however,  that  the  first  baseball  con- 
vention was  held  for  the  purpose  of  framing 
uniform  rules  out  of  the  various  methods  of  each 
district  and  club,  and  in  the  following  May  the 
first  "National  Baseball  Association"  was  organ- 
ized. 

The  first  real  series  of  games  played  between 
organized  clubs  was  that  between  teams  picked 
from  the  various  clubs  of  New  York  and  Brook- 
lyn on  the  old  Fashion  Racecourse  at  Flushing 
L.  I.,  in  1858,  the  first  authorized  code  of  rules 
being  formulated  and  published  for  their  direc- 
tion. From  the  present  view-point  these  rules 
were  crude.  For  instance,  the  regulation  ball 
weighed  6^/2  ounces  and  measured  10^  inches  in 
circumference.  It  was  a  lively  ball  (anticipating 
hy  50  years  the  latest  development  of  the  golf- 
ball),  being  made  with  214  ounces  of  rubber, 
covered  with  j^arn  and  leather.  The  bat  was 
unlimited  as  to  length,  but  was  decreed  not  to 
exceed  2^/4  inches  in  diameter.  In  the  delivery 
of  the  ball  there  was  a  greater  difference  than  in 
any  other  respect  as  compared  with  the  later  de- 
velopment of  the  game:  for  the  ball  could  only 
be  pitched:  all  throws  and  jerks  being  pro- 
hibited. The  pitcher  was  at  liberty  to  take  any 
number  of  steps  before  delivery,  and  his  limit 
was  anywhere  behind  a  line  12  feet  across,  and 
45  feet  from  the  home  base.  Then,  too,  he  could 
pitch  his  ball  almost  without  limitation  so  long 
as  he  pitched  "as  near  as  possible  to  the  home 
base." 

As  then  played,  none  but  amateurs  partici- 
pated; indeed,  no  one  could  represent  his  club 
unless  he  had  been  a  member  for  30  days,  and 
"money,  place,  or  emolument"  was  a  bar.  Games 
were  originally  played  on  free  grounds,  but  on 
the  establishment  of  the  L^nion  Ball  Ground  and 
the  Capitoline  Club  of  Brooklyn  in  1863,  the 
admission  money  went  to  the  proprietor,  the 
players  later  having  a  share,  and  thus  was  laid 
the  foundation  of  professional  play.  So  matters 
drifted  for  six  j^ears,  with  a  gradual  tendency 
to  greater  restrictions  in  rules,  greater  skill  in 
play,  and  more  and  more  professionalism,  until 
1869.  when  for  the  first  time  a  salaried  team, 
the  "Red  Stockings  of  Cincinnati,"  began  a  tour 
of  games,  and  naturally  carried  ever}i;hing  before 
them.  Through  1869  and  up  to  June  1870,  they 
played  without  losing  a  single  game. 

The  delivery  of  the  pitcher  had  been  gradu- 
ally developing.  As  early  as  i860  the  disguised 
underhand  throw  had  come  into  vogue,  and  by 
1866  Arthur  Cummings,  of  the  Excelsior  Junior 


BASEDOW  ~  BASEL 


Nine,  introduced  a  curved  delivery.  With  the 
advent  of  the  swifter-playing  professional,  and 
the  reduced  size  and  weight  of  the  ball,  came 
into  necessity,  and  therefore  into  use,  the  various 
safeguards,  of  padded  gloves,  catchers'  mitts, 
breast-pads,  and  masks. 

Ey  1^71  the  game  had  become  so  extensive 
and  the  professional  element  so  popular  that  a 
** National  Association  of  Professional  Baseball 
Players"  was  formed,  and  m  1875  the  various 
club-owners  took  control  of  the  professional 
players  and  organized  "The  National  League  of 
Professional  Ball  Ckibs,"  which  continued  in 
undisputed  possession  of  the  professional  field 
until  1890,  when  a  rival  association,  "The  Ameri- 
can League,'^  was  founded.  There  are  several 
other  leagues  of  minor  importance.  Base- 
ball naturally  found  favor  in  American  universi- 
ties and  colleges,  but  its  technique  in  the  early 
days  was  crude,  even  among  the  best  teams. 
Team  play  as  now  interpreted  was  almost  un- 
known, the  hitting  was  harder,  and  the  fielding 
poorer,  the  outfielders  played  much  farther  afield. 
As  late  as  the  middle  sixties  scores  of  50  runs 
were  not  uncommon,  and  a  hard-hitting  college 
team  would  make  over  100.  As  late  as  1867, 
when  two  college  nines  made,  respectively,  13 
and  8,  it  was  considered  a  phenomenon.  There 
is  no  intercollegiate  championship  in  the  ordi- 
nary sense;  each  college  plays  a  set  of  games 
w'ith  other  colleges.  A  full  and  exact  know- 
ledge of  the  game  can  be  acquired  only  by  a 
study  of  the  official  rules.  Briefly,  the  game  is 
played  between  two  teams  of  nine  men  each,  on 
a  field  in  which  a  diamond-shape  with  sides  of  90 
feet  each  has  been  marked  out  according  to  cer- 
tain technical  rules,  the  angles  being  named,  re- 
spectively, the  home  plate  and  first,  second,  and 
third  bases,  reckoning  to  the  right  from  the 
home  plate.  The  pitcher's  "box"  is  situated 
near  the  centre  of  the  diamond,  about  60  feet 
from  the  batsman's  stand,  and  from  that  point 
the  pitcher  is  required  to  deliver  balls  to  the 
batsman,  pitched  according  to  definite  rules. 
The  catcher  stands  behind  the  batsman;  his 
principal  office  is  to  catch  unhit  balls  and  return 
them  to  the  pitcher,  or  to  throw  to  the  baseman 
when  the  batsman  is  making  a  run.  The  fielders 
are  known  as  the  infield,  consisting  of  first,  sec- 
ond, and  third  basemen  and  short-stop ;  and  the 
outfield,  or  left  right,  and  centre  fielders.  The 
office  of  the  first  section  is  to  catch  batted  or 
thrown  balls,  and  to  touch  therewith  the  bats- 
man running  between  bases,  or,  failing  in  this, 
to  return  the  ball  to  the  pitcher;  that  of  the 
second  section  may  be  stated  generally  as  the 
stopping  or  catching  of  batted  balls  and  return- 
ing them  to  the  pitcher  or  throwing  them  to 
the  baseman  for  the  purpose  of  putting  out  run- 
ning batsmen.  The  positions  and  duties  of  the 
fielders  are  defined  with  strict  limitations  by  the 
rules.  The  aim  of  each  team  is  to  make  as 
many  runs  as  possible.  To  score  a  run  a  player 
must  make  a  complete  circuit  of  the  bases,  but 
not  necessarily  at  one  hit.  With  his  own  hit 
he  may  get  as  far  as -first  base;  then  may  get 
to  second  base  while  the  pitcher  is  delivenng 
a  ball  to  the  second  batter,  and  to  the  third  base 
on  the  hit  of  that  man,  or  even  on  the  hit  of  the 
third  batsman.  When  three  men  are  put  out, 
one  inning  is  finished;  and  the  other  team  takes 
its  turn,  with  three  men  one  after  the  other, 
and  so  on  until  there  have  been  nine  innings  on 
each  side.    A  batsman  is  out  who  is  touched  by  the 


ball  after  leaving  one  base  and  before  he  reaches 
another,  or  whose  batted  ball  is  caught  by  one 
of  the  fielders  before  it  reaches  the  ground.  The 
batsman  is  also  declared  out  when  hit  by  a 
batted  ball ;  or  when  being  forced  to  run  for  a 
base  by  reason  of  all  bases  being  occupied,  the 
ball  is  held  by  the  fielder  at  the  base  for  which 
he  is  making.  The  batsman  must  not  step  out 
of  his  box,  and  must  strike  at  every  ball  that 
crosses  "the  plate"  on  a  level  between  his  knees 
and  shoulders  —  such  are  called  "fair  balls." 
If  he  fails  either  to  .strike  at  or  to  hit  it  counts  as 
a  "strike"  against  him.  and  if  he  fails  three  times 
he  is  out,  providing  the  third  ball  is  caught  by 
the  catcher  before  it  reaches  the  ground.  If 
the  pitcher  delivers  a  ball  which  does  not  pass 
over  the  plate  in  the  defined  zone,  it  is  counted 
as  "one  ball"  in  favor  of  the  batsman,  and  after 
four  such  balls  he  is  entitled  to  go  to  the  first 
base  unmolested.  Baseball  has  been  re-trans- 
planted back  to  England,  but  without  much  suc- 
cess.    In  Australia  it  has  become  popular. 

The  principal  authorities  on  the  game  are 
Spalding's  < Baseball  Guide'  ;  'The  Art  of  Pitch- 
ing and  Fielding,  Batting  and  Base-Running,' 
by  Henry  Chadwick  (1886)  ;  'Baseball,'  in  the 
Oval  Series  (1896);  and  'Baseball,'  by  J.  M. 
Ward  (1888). 

Basedow,  ba'ze-do,  Johann  Bernhard,  often 
called  by  himself  Bernard  von  Xokdaldingex  ; 
German  educator:  b.  11  Sept.  1723;  d.  25  July 
1790.  He  had  in  Dessau  an  institution  for  edu- 
cation called  Philanthropinon.  The  chief  fea- 
tures of  Basedow's  system  are  the  cosmopolitan 
character  which  he  endeavored  to  instil  into  his 
pupils,  and  the  full  development  of  the  faculties 
of  the  young  at  which  he  aspired,  in  pursuance 
of  the  notions  of  Locke  and  Rousseau.  With 
Salzmann,  Campe,  etc.,  he  established  some  good 
institutions,  and  deserves  special  credit  for  his 
efforts  for  the  education  of  the  lower  classes. 

Basedow's  Disease  (also  called  Gr.wes' 
Disease  J.  a  peculiar  affection  of  the  sympa- 
thetic nervous  system,  characterized  by  rapid 
and  irregular  heart-action,  large  protruding  eye- 
balls, swelling  of  the  neck,  extreme  nervousness, 
and  marked  muscular  tremor.  Its  exact  cause  is 
unknown,  but  it  seems  to  be  associated  with 
some  variation  in  the  function  of  the  thyroid 
gland.  It  usually  occurs  in  young  females  and 
is  not  infrequently  a  curable  affection,  although 
some  patients  are  incurable.  Surgical  opera- 
tions on  the  cervical  sympathetic  have  cured 
some  cases.  (See  Goitre.)  Consult:  Osier, 
'Practice  of  Medicine'  ;  Nothnagel,  'System  of 
Medicine.' 

Basel,  ba'zel,  Basle,  or  Bale,  bal.  Switzer- 
land ;  one  of  the  largest  cities  in  the  federa- 
tion and  capital  of  canton  Baselstadt,  43  miles 
north  of  Bern.  It  consists  of  two  parts,  situ- 
ated on  opposite  sides  of  the  Rhine,  and  corn- 
municating  by  a  long  wooden  bridge.  It  is 
walled  and  irregularly,  though  fairly  well  built; 
and  has  an  ancient  cathedral.  _  Basel  was  for- 
merlv  a  free  imperial  city,  but  joined  the  Swiss 
Confederacy  in  1501.  Buxtorf,  Wetstein.  Her- 
mann, the  Bernouillis,  and  Euler  were  born  in 
Basel.  Erasmus  also  lived  there  several  years, 
and  lies  buried  in  the  cathedral.  _  Among  the  in- 
stitutions of  the  city  are  the  university,  founded 
in  1450;  various  collections  of  paintings,  a  sem- 
inarv  for  missionaries,  and  a  German  Bible  So- 
ciety.    In  1849  a  large  museum  was  completed, 


BASEL 


which  contains  the  university  library  (now  con- 
sisting of  about  80,000  volumes),  with  4,000 
manuscripts,  and  all  the  collections  belonging 
to  the  town.  Its  manufactures  consist  principally 
of  ribbons,  silk  goods,  cotton  prints,  linen, 
gloves,  leather,  jewelry,  and  turnery  ware.  Its 
advantageous  position  on  the  Rhine,  a  little  be- 
low the  point  where  it  becomes  navigable,  and  at 
the  terminus  of  the  French  and  German  rail- 
ways, has  made  it  a  centre  of  trade,  and  start- 
ing point  for  travelers  in  Switzerland.  It  is  the 
seat  of  a  United  States  consulate.  Pop.  (1900) 
about  113,000. 

Basel,  Confession  of,  a  Calvinistic  con- 
fession introduced  by  CEcolampadius  at  the 
opening  of  the  Synod  of  Basel  (1531).  It  was 
adopted  by  the  Protestants  of  Basel  in  1534. 
Simple  and  comparatively  moderate  in  its  terms, 
it  occupies  an  intermediate  place  between 
Zwingli  and  Luther. 

Basel,  Council  of,  a  council  announced  at 
the  Council  of  Constance,  and  convoked  by 
Pope  Martin  V.,  and  his  successor  Eugenius  IV. 
It  commenced  its  sittings  14  Dec.  1431  under 
the  presidency  of  the  cardinal  legate  Juliana 
Caesarini  of  St.  Angelo.  The  objects  of  its  de- 
liberations were  to  extirpate  heresies  (that  of 
the  Hussites  in  particular),  to  unite  all  Chris- 
tian nations  under  the  Roman  Catholic  Church, 
to  put  a  stop  to  wars  between  Christian  princes, 
and  to  reform  the  Church.  The  Pope,  having 
learned  that  the  Fathers  were  about  to  reopen  a 
discussion  upon  Hussite  doctrines  already  defi- 
nitely pronounced  upon,  and  also  because  of 
the  expressed  wish  of  the  Greek  bishops  to 
reopen  negotiations  for  reunion  at  a  council  to 
be  held  on  Italian  soil,  instructed  the  cardinal 
legate  to  dissolve  the  Council.  That  body  op- 
posed the  claims  of  the  Pope,  with  severe  ani- 
madversions on  his  neglect  of  the  welfare  of  the 
Church,  and,  notwithstanding  his  repeated  or- 
ders to  remove  to  Italy,  continued  its  delibera- 
tions under  the  protection  of  the  Emperor  Sigis- 
mund,  of  the  German  princes,  and  of  France. 

In  order  to  secure  itself  against  the  attacks 
of  Eugenius  IV.  it  re-enacted  the  decrees  of  the 
Council  of  Constance  concerning  the  power  of 
a  general  council  (in  matters  of  faith,  of 
schism,  and  of  reformation)  to  command  the 
Pope,_as  well  as  all  Christendom,  and  to  punish 
the  disobedience  of  the  clergy,  and  even  of  the 
Pope,  by  virtue  of  its  judicial  character  as  the 
representative  of  the  universal  Church.  It  like- 
wise pronounced  all  the  doings  and  remon- 
strances of  the  Pope  against  its  proceedings  of 
no  force,  and  began  a  formal  process  against 
him  after  lie  had  issued  a  bull  for  its  dissolu- 
tion ;  appointed  him,  term  after  term,  to  appear 
before  its  tribunal,  and  exercised  as  much  as 
possible  the  papal  prerogatives  in  France  and  • 
Germany. 

Meanwhile  it  concluded,  in  the  name  of  the 
Church,  a  peace  with  the  Hussites  (whose  dep- 
uties anpearerf  6  Jan.  1433,  with  300  horse,  in 
Basel),  by  which  the  use  of  the  cup  in  the  com- 
munion was  granted  to  them.  This  peace  was 
ratified  20  Nov.  1433,  by  the  Calixtines,  the  most 
powerful  and  finally  prevailing  partv  of  the 
Hussites.  The  council  deviated  on  this  point, 
mdeed,  from  the  decrees  of  the  Council  of  Con- 
stance, but  was  obliged  so  to  do  in  order  to 
assist  its  most  faithful  protector,  the  Emperor 
Sigismund,    to    the    acquisition    of    Bohemia   by 


this  compromise  with  the  Hussites,  who  were 
not  to  be  subdued  by  force.  Eugene  IV  re- 
voked in  1433  his  decree  of  dissolution,  and  at 
the  sixteenth  session,  5  Feb.  1434.  was  read  a 
document  subscribed  to  by  the  Pope,  in  which 
It  was  declared  that  the  Council  had  been  law- 
fully convened.  In  return  the  Fathers  recalled 
everything  that  had  been  said  against  the  per- 
son of  the  Pope  or  the  dignity  of  his  office. 
I  tie  council,  proud  of  this  victory  over  the 
Pope,  then  attempted  to  interfere  in  the  quar- 
rels of  the  German  princes,  but  was  reminded 
by  Sigismund,  who  protested  against  its  inter- 
meddling m  the  affairs  of  the  Crown,  of  its 
proper  point  — the  reformation  of  the  Church. 
Toward  the  limitation  of  the  power  of  the  Pope^ 
a  proceeding  which  naturally  evoked  papal  op- 
position, it  had  already  made  an  important  step 
by  depriving  him  of  the  disposal  of  the  pre- 
bends of  cathedral  and  collegiate  churches, 
which  had  been  obtained  by  his  predecessors ; 
by  restoring  to  the  chapters  the  free  election 
of  their  officers,  and  by  obliging  the  Pope  to 
confirm  them  gratuitously.  It  proceeded  to  the 
reformation  of  the  clergy  by  ordaining  that  the 
excommunicated  should  not  incur  the  penalties 
of  their  sentence  before  its  publication;  that 
interdicts  should  never  be  granted  at  the  re- 
quest of  single  individuals ;  and  that  repeated 
appeals  should  not  be  allowed,  on  account  o£ 
their  complaints  (20th  session,  22  Jan.  1435)  ; 
that  the  annates  (q.v.),  the  sums  paid  for  the 
pallia,  etc.,  should  be  regarded  as  simoniacal, 
and  should  not,  under  any  pretext,  be  de- 
rnanded  or  paid  in  future;  that  the  divine  ser- 
vice, the  mass,  and  the  canonical  hours  should 
be  regularly  observed  by  the  clergy  of  each 
class ;  that  disturbances  of  public  worship  should 
be  prevented  by  a  good  ecclesiastical  police; 
that  the  Feast  of  Fools  and  all  irreverent  cele- 
brations customary  in  the  Church  about  Christ- 
mas should  be  abolished  (21st  session,  9  June 
1435). 

In  the  23d  session  (25  March  1436)  the  form 
of  election,  the  confession  of  faith,  and  the  offi- 
cial oath  of  each  Pope,  by  which  he  bound  him- 
self to  obey  the  decrees  of  the  council,  and  the 
annual  repetition  of  the  same,  were  provided 
for;  all  preferment  of  the  relations  of  a  Pope 
vv^as  forbidden,  and  the  college  of  cardinals  was 
limited  to  24  prelates  and  doctors  of  all  na- 
tions, who  should  be  elected  by  the  free  votes 
of  the  college,  should  be  entitled  to  half  of  the 
revenues  of  the  states  of  the  Church,  should 
watch  over  the  Pope,  and  alwavs  sign  his  bulls. 
They  granted  him  only  the  right  to  dispose  of 
the  prebends  belonging  to  the  diocese  of  Rome, 
and  abolished  the  investiture  of  Church  prefer- 
ments in  reversion. 

In  the  26th  session  it  again  summoned  him 
to  appear,  on  account  of  his  disobedience  of  its 
decrees,  declared  him  guilty  of  contumacy,  and, 
after  Eugenius  had  opened  his  counter-synod 
at  Ferrara,  decreed  his.  suspension  from  the 
papal  chair  in  the  31st  session  (24  Jan.  1438). 
In  the  same  session  it  forbade  appeal  to  Rome 
without  resort  to  the  intermediate  jurisdictions, 
left  to  the  papal  disposition  but  i  out  of  10 
and  _  2  out  of  50  prebends  of  a  church,  and 
destined  the  third  part  of  all  canonries  which 
might  become  vacant  to  men  who  had  taken 
regular  degrees.  The  removal  of  Eugenius, 
however,   seemed  to  be  so  questionable  a  pro- 


BASEL  —  BASEMENT 


ceeding  that  some  prelates,  who  till  then  had 
been  the  boldest  and  most  intluential  speakers 
in  the  council  (for  example,  the  cardinal  legate 
Juliano,  and  the  great  canon  Nicholas  of  Cusa, 
Archdeacon  of  Liege,  with  the  most  of  the 
Italians),  left  Basel  and  went  over  to  the  party 
of  Eugenius.  The  Archbishop  of  Aries,  Car- 
dinal Louis  Allemand,  a  man  of  superior  spirit, 
courage,  and  eloquence,  was  now  made  first 
president  of  the  council,  and  directed  its  pro- 
ceedings with  much  vigor. 

Although  its  number  was  diminished,  its 
most  powerful  protector,  the  Emperor  Sigis- 
mund,  deceased,  and  its  authority  doubted  by 
several  princes  and  nations  on  account  of  its 
open  rupture  with  the  Pope ;  yet,  in  the  33d 
session  (16  May  1439),  after  violent  debates,  in 
which  the  Archbishop  of  Palermo,  Nic.  Tu- 
deschi  (known  under  the  name  of  Panormita- 
nus,  as  the  greatest  canon  of  his  time),  who 
was  the  delegate  of  the  king  of  Aragon  and 
Sicily,  took  the  part  of  the  Pope  —  it  declared 
Eugenius,  on  account  of  his  obstinate  disobe- 
dience of  its  decrees,  a  heretic,  and  formally 
deposed  him,  in  the  following  session,  as  guilty 
of  simony,  perjury,  violation  of  the  laws  of  the 
Church,  and  bad  administration  in  his  office.  In 
the  34th  session,  June  1439,  the  council  pro- 
nounced the  deposition  of  Eugene.  At  this  ses- 
sion there  were  but  two  representatives  of  Spain 
and  Italy,  and  the  total  number  of  prelates  in- 
cluding abbots   was  39. 

Notwithstanding  the  plague,  then  raging  in 
Basel,  which  continually  diminished  its  number, 
it  proceeded  in  a  regular  conclave  (17  Nov.  of 
the  same  year)  to  elect  the  Duke  Amadeus  of 
Savoy  to  the  papal  chair.  This  prince  then 
lived  in  retirement  at  Ripaglia,  on  the  Lake  of 
Geneva,  and  seemed  particularly  qualified  for 
the  office  on  account  of  his  piety,  his  riches, 
and  his  connections.  But  Felix  V., —  this  was 
the  name  he  adopted, —  was  acknowledged  by 
only  a  few  princes,  cities,  and  universities.  The 
chief  powers,  France  and  Germany,  assented  to 
the  decrees  of  the  council  for  the  reformation 
of  the  Church,  but  they  chose  to  remain  neutral 
in  the  contest  with  Eugenius.  Meanwhile  he 
acquired  new  credit  by  the  union  concluded 
with  the  Greek  deputies  at  Florence  (but  after- 
ward rejected  by  the  Greek  Church)  and  the 
friendship  of  the  Em.peror  Frederic  III.  Tlie 
council  on  the  other  hand,  denounced  by  Eu- 
genius and  deserted  by  its  protectors,  gradually 
declined  under  its  feeble  Pope,  and,  consulting 
only  appearances  and  the  personal  safety  of  its 
members,  held  its  45th  and  last  session  16  May 
1443,  after  an  inaction  of  three  years  inter- 
rupted only  by  a  few  insignificant  decrees.  At 
this  session  the  place  of  meeting  was  changed  to 
Lausanne.  Here  some  of  the  prelates  remained 
together  under  the  cardinal  Louis  Allemand  un- 
til 1449,  when,  after  the  death  of  Eugenius  and 
the  resignation  of  Felix  V.,  they  gladly  accepted 
the  amnesty  offered  by  the  new  Pope,  Nicholas 
v.,  and  pronounced  the  council  closed.  The  de- 
crees of  the  Council  of  Basel  are  admitted  into 
none  of  the  Roman  or  official  collections,  and 
by  the  Roman  Church  are  considered  of  no 
authority.  They  have  been  regarded,  however, 
as  of  authority  in  points  of  canon  law,  in 
France  and  Germany,  as  their  regulations  for 
the  reformation  of  the  Church  were  to  some  ex- 
tent adopted   in   both  countries,  and,  as  far  as 


they  regard  clerical  discipline,  were  actually 
enforced.  Some  concordats  concluded  at  sub- 
sequent dates  have  modified  the  application  of 
them,  but  never  formally  and  entirely  annulled 
them.  The  Council  of  Basel  was  one  of  the 
most  miportant  in  the  history  of  the  Church. 
The  spirit  of  the  councils  of  Pisa  (1409)  and 
of  Constance  (1414-18)  was  formulated  in  the 
decrees  of  Basel,  and  led  to  a  twofold  result ;  on 
the  one  hand  the  many  salutary  decrees  of  re- 
form, on  the  other  the  clear  expression  of  many 
dangerous  principles  in  regard  to  the  organiza- 
tion of  the  Church.  Its  history  has  often  been 
misrepresented  by  historians,  some  seeing  in  it 
only  an  unhappy  tendency  from  the  true  centre 
of  unity;  others  regarding  it  as  a  great  pro- 
gressive movement,  but  forgetting  that  it  was 
simply  the  growth  of  an  expediency  due  to  ex- 
ceptional conditions.  To  know  it  impartially  it 
must  be  studied  in  the  original  sources. 

Consult:  Hardouin  ;  Labbe ;  Cossart ;  Mansi's 
collection  consists  of  31  folios;  Alzog,  <Church 
History>;  and  Parsons,  'Studies  in  Church 
History.^ 

Basel,  Treaties  of  Peace  at,  5  April  and 
22  July  1795,  between  Prussia,  Spain,  and 
France,  in  which  Prussia  and  Spain  separated 
themselves  from  the  coalition  against  France 
and  acknowledged  the  republic.  France  re- 
tained the  Prussian  provinces  on  the  left  bank 
of  the  Rhine  until  the  general  peace,  and  ac- 
cepted the  mediation  of  Prussia,  when  any  Ger- 
man princes  wished  to  conclude  separate  treaties 
of  peace  with  it.  A  secret  article  was  inserted 
in  the  treaty,  the  object  of  which  was  to  secure 
compensation  to  Prussia  in  case  the  left  bank 
of  the  Rhine  should  remain  with  France  at  the 
general  peace.  The  landgrave  of  Hesse-Cassel 
afterward  concluded  a  treaty  with  the  French 
republic  at  Basel,  28  Aug.  1795,  by  which  the 
latter  retained  possession  of  the  territories  of 
Hesse-Cassel  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Rhine  until 
the  general  peace.  By  the  Peace  of  Basel  all 
the  conquests  of  France  beyond  the  Pyrenees 
were  restored  to  Spain,  in  exchange  for  which 
that  country  ceded  to  France  the  Spanish  part 
of  the  island  of  St.  Domingo. 

Basel,  University  of,  an  institution  opened 
in  1460.  After  the  Reformation  it  became 
strongly  Protestant  and  exerted  a  widespread 
influence  in  behalf  of  the  new  faith.  .Among  its 
professors  were  Erasmus,  CEcolampadius,  Euler, 
and  the  Bernoullis.  It  is  at  present  the  princi- 
pal theological  school  in  Switzerland,  with  de- 
partments of  medicine,  law,  and  philosophy. 
Its  library  contains  230,000  volumes  and  i,i^oo 
MSS. 

Basel'la,  or  Malabar  Nightshade,  a  mono- 
tj'pic  but  very  variable  genus  of  tropical  herbs 
of  the  natural  order  Chcnopodiacece.  B.  rubra, 
a  twining  annual  or  biennial  plant,  native  of 
India,  where  it  is  cultivated  as  a  pot  herb,  is 
often  raised  in  Europe,  and  has  been  introduced 
into  the  United  States  as  a  substitute  for  spin- 
ach, which  it  succeeds  in  season  (July  until 
frost).  It  is  decidedly  mucilaginous  when 
cooked.  Sometimes  it  is  used  as  a  greenhouse 
climber.  One  variety  bears  edible  tubers,  and 
another  furnishes  a  purple  dye. 

Basement,  in  architecture,  the  base  or 
lowest  story  of  a  building.  It  should  have  ex- 
ternally an  appearance  of  strength,  but  its  height 


BASEY  — BASIL 


and  proportion  to  the  rest  of  the  edifice  are 
very  various,  depending  on  the  character  of 
the  apartments  on  the  ground  floor. 

Basey,  ba'sa,  Philippines,  a  town  in  Samar, 
with  a  population   in   1898  of   13,756. 

Bashahr',  one  of  the  Punjab  hill  states,  on 
the  lower  slopes  of  the  Himalayas,  traversed 
from  east  to  west  by  the  Sutlej  ;  area,  3,320 
square  miles.  The  rajah  and  upper  classes  in 
the  southern  parts  are  Rajputs,  and  the  people 
generally  are  of  the  Hindu  race,  but  their  ob- 
servance of  Hinduism  is  very  partial.  The 
rajah  pays  tribute  to  the  British  government, 
for  which  he  is  required  to  raise  troops  in 
time  of  war,  and  by  which  his  sentences  of 
death  must  be  confirmed.     Pop.  JSJ^j. 

Bashan,  ba'shan  or  ba-shan'  (meaning  un- 
certain, perhaps  "soft,  rich  soiP')>  the  name  in 
Scripture  for  a  singularly  rich  tract  of  country 
lying  beyond  the  Jordan,  between  Mount  Her- 
mon  and  the  land  of  Gilead.  These  two  re- 
gions, Bashan  and  Gilead,  attracted  the  atten- 
tion of  those  tribes  that  desired  to  continue 
the  pastoral  life  to  which  they  and  their  fathers 
had  been  accustomed ;  and  Gilead  was  accord- 
ingly divided  between  Reuben  and  Gad,  while 
Bashan  was  given  to  the  half-tribe  of  Manasseh. 
Its  forests  contain  magnificent  oaks,  and  the 
^'strong  bulls  of  Bashan*^  of  ancient  times  are 
still  represented  by  vast  herds  of  black  cattle. 
Bashan  had  been  the  kingdom  of  the  Canaanite 
giant  Og,  whom  Moses  destroyed ;  and  one  dis- 
trict of  the  country,  Argob,  had  at  that  time 
60  fenced  cities,  with  walls,  gates,  and  bars, 
besides  many  unwalled  towns,  remains  of  which 
are  yet  to  be  seen.  Among  the  cities  of  this 
region  were  Edrei,  Kenath,  Golan,  and  Bozrah. 
After  the  captivity  it  is  mentioned  as  divided 
into  Trachonitis  (the  ancient  Argob),  Gaulanitis 
(Golan),  Auranitis  (Hauran,  mentioned  by 
Ezekiel),  and  Batansa,  or  Bashan  proper. 

Bashford,  James  Whitford,  American 
clergyman:  b.  Fayette,  Wis.,  27  May  1849.  He 
was  graduated  at  the  University  of  Wisconsin 
in  1873,  and  at  the  Theological  School  of  Bos- 
ton University  in  1876 ;  became  instructor  of 
Greek  at  the  University  of  Wisconsin  in  1874, 
and  president  of  the  Wesleyan  University  of 
Ohio  in  1889.  His  works  include  ^Science  of 
Religion,^  numerous  pviblished  sermons,  and 
contributions   to   periodical   literature. 

Bashi-Bazouks',  irregular  troops  in  the 
pay  of  the  Turkish  Sultan.  They  are  a  wild, 
turbulent  body  of  men,  mostly  from  Turkey  in 
Asia,  and  in  the  duties  with  which  they  are  en- 
trusted resemble  the  Cossacks  in  the  Russian 
army.  In  the  spring  of  1876  the  Bashi-Bazouks 
were  guilty  of  great  atrocities  in  checking  a 
threatened  insurrection  in  the  district  around 
Philippopolis  in  eastern  Rumelia. 

Bashi'  Islands.     See  B.\tan  Islands. 

Bashkirs',  or  Bashkeers',  a  tribe  of  half- 
civilized  people  subject  to  Russia,  and  inhabit- 
ing the  banks  of  the  Ural  and  Volga.  They  are 
probably  descended  from  the  Nogay  Tartars 
and  resemble  them  in  their  manners.  They 
formerly  roamed  about,  under  their  own 
princes,  in  southern  Siberia.  To  avoid  the  Si- 
berian khans  they  settled  in  their  present  terri- 
tory, extended  themselves  along  the  Volga  and 
the  Ural,  and  submitted  to  the  khan  of  Khasan. 
At   the   time   when   this   state    was   overthrown 


by  Ivan  II.  they  voluntarily  took  refuge  under 
the  Russian  sceptre ;  but  their  frequent  revolts 
long  prevented  their  increase  and  kept  them  in 
a  weak  condition.  They  number  about  500,000, 
and  inhabit  chiefly  the  governments  of  Oren- 
burg, Perm,  and  Samara.  They  are  Moham- 
medans, and  live  chiefly  by  hunting,  the  breed- 
ing of  cattle  and  horses,  and  keeping  of  bees. 
They  prepare  from  mare's  and  camel's  milk 
a  fermented  beverage,  koumiss  (q.v.),  which  is 
their  favorite  drink.  They  furnish  the  Russian 
army  with  a  body  of  irregular  cavalry. 

Bashkirtseff,  bash-kert'sef,  Marie,  Russian 
author:  b.  Russia,  i860;  d.  Paris,  1884.  She 
came  of  a  noble  and  wealthy  family,  went 
to  Italy  to  study  singing,  and  to  Paris  to 
study  art.  Her  fame  rests  on  her  private  *Jour- 
nal,^  which  seems  to  have  been  written  with 
ultimate  publication  in  view.  It  begins  with 
her  13th  year  and  continues  through  her  later 
life.  According  to  her  own  words,  it  was  in- 
tended to  be  "the  transcript  of  a  woman's  life." 
It  appeared  in  Paris  in  1885,  and  was  abridged 
and  translated  into  English  in  1889,  and  was 
called  by  Gladstone  "a  book  without  a  parallel." 
Like  Rousseau's  *■  Confessions,^  it  claims  to  be 
an  absolutely  candid  expression  of  individual 
experience.  From  the  age  of  three  years  she 
cherished  inordinate  ambition,  and  felt  herself 
destined  to  become  great  as  singer,  writer, 
artist,  or  queen  of  society.  Admiration  was  es- 
sential to  her,  and  she  records  compliments  to 
her  beauty  or  her  erudition  with  equal  pleasure. 
Her  life  was  a  curious  mixture  of  the  interests 
of  an  attractive  society  girl  with  those  of  a 
serious  student.  Her  chronic  discontent  was 
due  to  the  disproportion  between  her  aspirations 
and  her  achievements.  She  was  never  unself- 
conscious,  and  her  book  reveals  her  longings, 
her  petty  vanities,  and  her  childish  crudities, 
as  well  as  her  versatile  and  brilliant  talents. 

Basic  Slag,  the  slag  of  refuse  matter  which 
is  obtained  in  making  basic  steel,  and  which, 
from  the  phosphate  of  lime  it  contains,  is  a 
valuable  fertilizer. 

Basic  Steel.     See  Steel  Manufacture. 

Basil,  ba'zil  or  baz'Tl,  Saint,  surnamed 
The  Great,  Bishop  of  C?esarea,  Cappadocia : 
b.  about  326 ;  d.  380.  He  was  studying  in 
Athens  in  355,  and  there  became  the  friend  of 
Gregory,  afterward  Bishop  of  Nazianzen.  He 
was  baptized  in  357,  and  after  extensive  travels 
retired  to  the  desert  of  Pontus  and  there 
founded  an  order  of  monks  named  Basilians. 
He  succeeded  Eusebius  in  the  see  of  Cjesarea 
in  370,  and  by  his  opposition  to  Arian  doctrines 
greatly  oflended  the  Emperor  Valens.  The 
liturgy  of  St.  Basil  is  still  used  in  the  Eastern 
Church. 

Basil  I.,  emperor  of  Constantinople:  b. 
Macedon,  of  poor  parents,  about  the  beginning 
of  the  9th  century ;  d.  886,  from  a  blow  given 
him  by  a  stag  while  hunting.  In  his  25th  year 
he  made  his  way  to  Constantinople,  and  gained 
the  favor  of  an  archimandrite,  who  procured 
him  service  with  an  officer  of  the  court  of  the 
Emperor  Michael  III.  Later  he  was  appointed 
head-chamberlain  to  the  emperor.  Despite  in- 
trigues against  him  he  advanced  so  rapidly  in 
the  emperor's  favor  that  he  was  adopted  as  his 
colleague.  He  murdered  his  chief  rival,  Bardus, 
and  knowing  that  Michael  had  rendered  himself 
odious  by  his  cruelty  and  debauchery,  he  headed 


BASIL  — BASILICA 


a  body  of  conspirators  and  murdered  him  in  his 
bed  in  867,  and  assumed  sole  occupancy  of  the 
throne.  Notwithstanding  his  criminal  acts,  he 
proved  an  able  and  equitable  sovereign ;  paid 
equal  attention  to  the  internal  administration 
and  the  foreign  relations  of  the  empire,  and, 
not  overlooking  even  its  religious  interests,  sent 
an  archbishop  into  Russia  and  laid  the  founda- 
tion of  that  ascendency  which  the  Greek  Church 
has  so  long  possessed  in  that  country.  He  com- 
piled a  body  of  laws  called  the  Basilica,  which, 
augmented  by  his  son  and  successor,  Leo  the 
Philosopher,  were  in  force  till  the  fall  of  the 
empire.  Basil  I.  deprived  Photius  of  the  see 
of  Constantinople,  and  restored  Ignatius ;  but 
on  the  death  of  the  latter  he  recalled  Photius. 
He  successfully  carried  on  war  with  the  Sara- 
cens. The  versatility,  if  not  the  depth  of  his 
intellect,  is  strikingly  displa3'ed  in  his  exhorta- 
tions to  his  son  Leo,  which  are  still  extant. 

Basil  II.,  emperor  of  the  East:  d.  1025. 
On  the  death  of  his  father,  the  Emperor  Ro- 
:  nanus  the  Younger,  in  963,  he  was  kept  out 
of  the  succession  for  12  years  by  two  usurpers ; 
the  first,  Nicephorus  II.  (Phocus),  who  died 
in  969,  and  the  second,  Johannes  (John)  Zimis- 
ces,  who  associated  Basil  and  his  brother 
Constantine  with  him  in  the  empire  in  975,  and 
died  the  following  year,  leaving  the  whole 
power  to  Basil  although  Constantine  was 
still  his  colleague  in  name.  His  reign  was 
almost  a  continuous  warfare,  in  which  the  con- 
tending parties  seemed  to  vie  with  each  other 
in  committing  deeds  of  cruelty.  In  1014,  after 
a  great  victory  over  the  Bulgarians,  in  which 
he  had  taken  15,000  prisoners,  he  had  99  out 
of  every  100  deprived  of  their  eyes  and  thus 
sent  home.  This  horrible  cruelty  caused  the 
death  of  Samuel,  king  of  the  Bulgarians.  The 
war  ended  in  1019  by  the  complete  conquest  of 
Bulgaria. 

Basil  (Ooimum),  a  genus  of  fragrant  an- 
nual herbs  of  the  natural  order  Labiatcc,  natives 
of  warm  climates,  cultivated  for  culinary  pur- 
poses and  for  ornament.  The  species  generally 
raised  are  sweet  basil  (0.  basilicuni),  bush  or 
dwarf  basil,  (O.  tninijiium) ,  (considered  by 
some  botanists  a  form  of  O.  basiliciim) ,  and 
tree  basil  (O.  gratissimuin) .  The  name  basil 
is  also  applied  to  certain  species  of  several  other 
related  genera ;  for  instance,  Pycnanthetnum 
and  Calainintha.  For  culture  and  uses,  see 
Herbs  (Culinary.) 

Basilan,  ba-se'liin,  Philippines,  the  largest 
island  of  the  Sulu  Archipelago.  It  is  of  ob- 
long form,  about  36  miles  long  and  situated 
south  of  Mindanao,  from  which  it  is  separated 
by  a  strait  nine  miles  wide.  The  island  is  very 
mountainous,  and  most  of  it  is  covered  by  vir- 
gin forests.  The  soil  is  extremely  rich  and 
produces  a  variety  of  valuable  crops,  including 
cotton,  cofifee,  sugar,  chocolate,  tobacco,  indigo, 
and  spices  of  all  sorts.  Basilan  has  about  15.000 
inhabitants  and  three  excellent  harbors.  The 
name  is  also  applied  to  the  whole  group  of  34 
adjacent  islets.  The  leading  port  is  Isabela,  on 
Basilan  Strait. 

Basil'ean  Manuscripts,  two  manuscripts  of 
the  Greek  New  Testament,  now  in  the  library 
of  Basel:  (i)  a  nearly  complete  uncial  copy 
of  the  Gospels  of  the  8th  century;  (2)  a  cursive 
copy  of  the  whole  New  Testament  except  the 
Apocalypse,  of  the  loth  century. 


Basil'ian  Liturgy,  that  form  for  celebrat- 
ing the  eucharist  drawn  up,  toward  the  close  of 
the  4th  century,  by  Basil  the  Great,  still  used 
in  the  Greek  Church. 

Basilian  Monks,  a  monastic  order,  chiefly 
belonging  to  the  Greek  Church,  which  strictly 
follow  the  rules  of  St.  Basil  (q.v.),  who,  after 
visiting  the  monasteries  of  Egypt,  Syria,  and 
Palestine,  induced  many  to  enter  and  even  to 
found  convents.  His  rule  was  cotifirmed  by 
Pope  Liberius  in  363.  In  379  there  were  at 
least  80,000  in  the  Eastern  monasteries.  Many 
convents  were  dispersed  in  the  8th  century, 
during  the  Iconoclast  persecutions,  and  all  be- 
gan to  languish  about  the  time  of  the  Eastern 
schism.  The  order  comprises  priests,  lay- 
brothers,  cenobites  living  in  community,  ancho- 
rites in  cells,  and  hermits  in  solitudes.  They 
are  governed  by  an  archimandrite  who  has  sev- 
eral convents  under  his  jurisdiction,  and  by 
exarchs  deputed  by  the  archimandrite  to  visit 
the  convents.  The  order  has  developed  more 
extensively  in  Russia  than  in  other  countries. 
In  Austria,  Poland,  and  Hungary  there  are 
many  communities,  known  as  Ruthenians,  in 
union  with  Rome.  In  Italy  also  they  had  con- 
vents in  Calabria.  Sicily,  and  Naples.  In  Spain 
they  flourished  for  nearly  two  centuries  until 
1835.  The  communities  of  Sisters  of  this  name 
were  founded  by  St.  Maerina,  sister  of  St.  Basil. 
Other  communities  following  the  rule  of  St. 
Basil  are  the  Melchites.  with  about  600  houses 
in  Libanus ;  the  Bartholomites  of  the  Armenian 
rites,  so  called  because,  after  taking  refuge  in 
Genoa  in  1307,  they  had  possession  of  St. 
Bartholomew's  church  there  until  1659.  This 
name  is  likewise  given  to  a  community  of  secu- 
lar priests  founded  by  Bartholomew  Holzhauser 
in  Germany  in  1640,  and  once  propagated  in 
Hungary,  Poland,  and  Spain,  but  now  extinct. 
There  are  but  six  Basilians  in  the  United  States 
(in  Chicago)  affiliated  to  the  provincial  house  in 
Toronto,  Canada. 

Basil'ica  (literally,  a  royal  hall,  originally 
the  hall  occupied  by  the  archon  basileus  or 
*'king  archon"  among  the  ancient  Athenians), 
the  name  of  buildings  belonging  to  classical  an- 
tiquity, which  acquired  their  characteristic  form 
among  the  Romans.  In  the  first  centuries  of 
the  Christian  era  the  Roman  basilicas  were 
splendid  public  buildings,  of  an  oblong  shape, 
commonly  adorned  with  columns  and  statues, 
w^here  the  citizens  collected  to  consult  for  their 
common  welfare,  the  merchants  exposed  their 
wares,  young  orators  exerci.sed  themselves  in 
declamation,  etc.  Constantine  the  Great  gave 
some  basilicas  to  the  Christians  in  Rome  for 
their  worship.  Thence  it  happened  that  the 
first  Christian  churches  obtained  the  name  of 
basiliccc.  But  in  the  4th  century  after  Christ  the 
ancient  form  of  the  basilica  began  to  be  modified 
and  developed.  (See  Christi.an  Architecture.) 
The  chief  changes  that  from  that  time  onward 
were  gradually  made  in  its  construction  con- 
sisted in  the  raising  of  the  nave  above  the  rest 
of  the  building,  the  introduction  of  upper  win- 
dows, the  addition  of  the  transepts,  and  the 
decoration  of  the  interior  with  works  of  mosaic. 
At  a  later  time  towers  were  introduced,  and 
still  later  vaulted  roofs  instead  of  the  flat  tim- 
ber roofs  with  which  they  were  formerly  pro- 
vided. The  original  church  on  the  site  of  which 
St.  Peter's  is  built  was  a  basilica,  and  hence  the 


BASILICA  —  BASILISK 


name  is  often  applied  to  the  present  church, 
which  is  not,  strictly  speaking,  a  basilica. 

Basilica,  a  code  of  laws  founded  on  the 
code  of  Justinian,  supposed  to  have  been  named 
after  the  Greek  emperor  Basihus  I.,  in  whose 
reign  its  compilation  was  begun.  It  was  fin- 
ished by  Leo  the  Philosopher,  and  revised 
by  order  of  his  son  Constantine  Porphyrogeni- 
tus  in  945.  It  consisted  of  60  books,  but  we  no 
longer  possess  them  in  a  complete  form.  The 
principal  editions  are  those  of  Fabrot  (7  vols., 
Paris,  1647),  and  Heimbach  (Vols.  I-V,  Leip- 
sic,   1833-50). 

Basilicata,  bii-zil-e-ca'ta,  the  ancient  Luca- 
nia,  in  southern  Italy,  composed  solely  of  the 
province  of  Potenza ;  so  called  after  the  Em- 
peror Basilius  II.,  who  reconquered  it  from  the 
Saracens  and  Lombards  in  the  nth  century. 
It  is  mountainous,  several  peaks  rising  to  up- 
ward of  4,500  feet  (Monte  Pollino,  7,375  feet). 
The  Apennines  here  divide  into  two  parts,  which 
branch  off  to  the  east  and  west.  From  these 
the  rivers  Bradano,  Basento,  Salandrella,  Agri, 
and  Sinni  take  their  source,  and,  after  draining 
this  fertile  district,  fall  into  the  Gulf  of  Taranto 
in  the  Ionian  Sea.  There  are  also  many  lakes, 
some  of  volcanic  origin.  The  chief  are  Mon- 
ticchio,  Pesole,  Maorno,  and  Santa  Palagina. 
The  bulk  of  the  people  are  poor  and  ignorant, 
and  talk  a  dialect  called  basiiisco.  Its  coast 
Ime  being  for  the  most  part  marshy,  and,  as  a 
consequence,  unhealthful,  the  province  derives 
next  to  no  commercial  benefit  from  it.  The 
orange  and  lemon  grow  well  near  the  coast. 
Other  products  are  cotton,  flax,  silk,  honey, 
wax,  licorice,  dried  fruit,  saffron,  tobacco,  etc. 
Mineral  springs  are  many,  chiefly  sulphur- 
ous. There  are  marble  quarries  at  Avig- 
liano,  Latronico,  Muro,  Lucano,  and  Picerno ; 
chalk  at  Mauro  Forte  and  Montemuro ;  trans- 
parent quartz  at  Lagonegro ;  tufa  at  Matera ; 
and  excellent  lignite  at  San  Chirico  Raparo  and 
Rotonda.  Area,  3,845  square  miles;  pop.  (1901) 
490,000. 

Basilicon,  ba-zil'i-kon,  a  name  of  several 
ointments,  the  chief  ingredients  of  which  are 
wax,  pitch,  resin,  and  olive  oil. 

Basilicon  Do'ron  (the  royal  gift),  the 
title  of  a  book  written  by  King  James  I.  in 
1599,  and  printed  in  Edinburgh  in  1603,  con- 
taining a  collection  of  precepts  on  the  art  of 
government,  and  maintaining  the  claim  of  the 
king  to  be  sole  head  of  the  Church. 

Basilides,  ba-sTl'i-dez,  founder  of  one  of 
the  most  remarkable  sects  of  ancient  Alexan- 
dria. He  lived  under  the  reigns  of  Trajan, 
Adrian,  and  Antoninus,  but  the  place  of  his 
birth,  supposed  to  be  in  Persia,  Syria,  or  Egypt, 
is  unknown.  He  was  well  acquainted  with 
Christianity,  but,  under  the  pretense  of  freeing 
it  from  corruption,  corrupted  it  still  more  by 
mixing  it  up  with  the  wildest  dreams  of  the 
Gnostics  and  peopling  the  earth  and  the  air 
with  multitudes  of  aeons.  He  had  numerous 
followers,  who  spread  from  Syria  and  Egypt 
into  Italy,  and  even  as  far  as  France,  but  they 
suddenly  sank  into  obscurity  and  are  scarcely 
heard  of  after  the  4th  century. 

Basil'io  da  Gama,  ga'ma,  Jose,  a  Brazilian 
poet:  b.  San  Jose,  1740;  d.  Lisbon,  1795.  His 
principal  poem  gives  a  picturesque  and  roman- 
tic account  of  the  bloody  wars   which  the  Por- 


tuguese waged,  in  1756,  against  the  natives  of 
Paraguay.  He  was  a  protege  of  the  Brazilian 
minister  Pombal,  who  gave  him  employment  in 
his  Cabinet.  He  shared  Pombal's  exile,  and 
also  dedicated  verses  to  him  in  token  of  his 
gratitude.  On  his  return  to  Rio  de  Janeiro  he 
was  favorably  received  by  the  authorities  and 
the  literary  notabilities,  and  with  their  co-opera- 
tion he  became  one  of  the  founders  of  the  first 
Brazilian  academy.  In  1790  he  again  had  to 
resort  to  flight,  and  he  succeeded  in  escaping  to 
Lisbon.  He  was  the  author  of  many  lyrical 
pieces  and  sonnets,  and  of  a  poem,  'Quitubia,* 
written  on  an  African  chieftain  whose  devo- 
tion to  Portugal  engaged  the  poet's  sympathy ; 
but  the  most  abiding  monument  of  his  genius 
is  his  ^ Uruguay,^  which  is  still  popular  wher- 
ever the  Portuguese  language  is  known. 

Basilis'cus,  brother  of  Verina,  wife  of  Leo, 
emperor  of  the  East :  d.  477.  In  his  youth  he 
obtained  some  successes  against  the  Scythians, 
and  in  468,  through  the  influence  of  his  sister, 
was  appointed  to  command  the  immense  arma- 
ment fitted  out  at  Constantinople  against  Gen- 
seric,  king  of  the«Vandals  in  Africa.  This  ex- 
pedition consisted  of  upward  of  1,100  vessels, 
conveying  soldiers  and  sailors  to  the  number 
of  more  than  100,000  men,  and  its  equipment 
is  said  to  have  cost  about  $25,000,000.  But 
this  vast  fleet,  after  reaching  the  coast  of 
Africa  in  safety,  was  altogether  destroyed  or 
dispersed  by  Genseric,  through  the  incapacity 
or  treachery  of  its  leader.  Basiliscus  escaped 
to  Constantinople,  and  obtained  the  pardon 
of  the  emperor  only  by  the  earnest  inter- 
cession of  the  empress.  After  the  death  of 
Leo,  and  of  his  successor,  Leo  II.,  in  474, 
Basiliscus  usurped  the  imperial  throne.  But  he 
was  imable  to  sustain  himself  in  this  position, 
and  was  not  long  after  overthrown  and  put  to 
death  by  Zeno,  the  legitimate  heir. 

Basilisk,  baz'T-lTsk,  according  to  Pliny  (lib. 
viii.  c.  21),  a  kind  of  serpent  found  in  the 
African  deserts,  named  basiliskos.  or  little  king, 
because  its  body  was  marked  with  bright  spots, 
and  those  on  the  head  had  the  appearance  of  a 
crown  or  diadem.  It  had  a  very  pointed  head, 
with  fiery  eyes,  and  was  of  a  dark  color,  verging 
to  blackness.  All  other  snakes  were  said  to  fly 
from  the  sound  of  its  hissing;  and  instead  of 
trailing  along  like  other  serpents  the  basilisk 
raised  its  body  nearly  erect,  and,  as  it  passed 
along,  killed  the  herbs  and  fruits  by  its  touch, 
and  even  by  its  breath.  Yet  this  monster  was 
destroyed  by  weasels.  If  these  fables  had  ref- 
erence to  any  real  animal,  it  is  probable  that 
it  was  a  species  somewhat  similar  to  the  cobra 
de  capello,  or  the  asp  viper.  Both  are  accus- 
tomed to  erect  a  very  considerable  part  of  the 
body,  though  not  to  move  forward  in  this  way. 
It  is  highly  probable  that  the  basilisk  of  the 
ancients  was  merely  a  creature  of  fiction. 

The  name  is  now  applied  to  one  of  the  Cen- 
tral and  South  American  lizards  of  the  family 
Iguanidce  and  genus  Basiliscus,  remarkable  for 
the  high  and  erectile  crests  which  are  devel- 
oped along  the  back  and  tail  of  the  males.  They 
have  long  legs  and  long  flexible  toes,  enabling 
them  to  climb  trees  with  great  activity.  They 
prefer  such  trees  as  overhang  the  water,  into 
which  they  plunge  at  any  sign  of  danger.  They 
feed  entirely  upon  vegetable  matter.  The  best- 
kfiown   species  is  Basiliscus  americanus,  which 


BASILOSAURUS  —  BASKET 


lias  a  length  of  nearly  three  feet,  three  fifths  of 
which  is  tail.  In  color  the  basilisks  are  green 
and  brown,  with  dark  cross-bars  on  the  back, 
and  the  crest  of  the  males  is  red.  In  early 
spring  they  lay  about  a  dozen  eggs  in  a  hole 
among  the  roots  of  a  tree.     See  also  Iguana. 

Basilosaurus.     See  Zeuglodon. 

Ba'sin,  in  physical  geography,  the  whole 
tract  of  country  drained  by  a  river  and  its 
tributaries.  The  line  dividing  one  river  basin 
from  another  is  the  watershed,  and  by  tracing 
the  various  watersheds  each  country  is  divided 
into  its  constituent  basins.  The  basin  of  a 
lake  or  sea  comprises  as  well  all  the  territory 
drained  by  the  rivers  which  run  into  it.  Such 
hydrographic  basins  owe  their  origin  either  to 
erosive  action  or  to  a  depression  of  the  earth's 
crust.  When  rivers  become  established  upon  a 
new  land  surface  they  proceed  to  deepen  and 
widen  their  channels,  and  in  course  of  time 
may  appreciably  lower  the  level  of  the  drainage 
area.  Glaciers  are  also  important  agents  in  the 
establishment  of  hydrographic  basins,  as  is  il- 
lustrated by  the  numerous  rock  basins  (now 
occupied  by  lakes)  that  were  hollowed  out  by 
the  great  ice-sheets  that  once  invaded  northern 
North  America  and  Europe.  Other  depres- 
sions have  been  formed  by  vertical  movements 
of  the  strata  comprising  the  earth's  crust.  The 
Great  Basin  lying  between  the  Rocky  Moun- 
tains and  the  coast  ranges,  and  many  of  the 
lake  basins  of  central  Africa,  originated  in 
this  way.  In  geology  a  basin  is  the  synclinal 
arrangement  of  strata  so  that  they  dip  or  are 
inclined  toward  a  common  centre.  The  Paris 
Basin  and  the  London  Basin  are  familiar  in- 
stances.    See  River  ;  Lake  ;  Valley  ;  etc. 

Bas'ingstoke,  England,  a  town  and  parish 
of  Hampshire,  situated  near  the  source  of  the 
Loddon,  i8  miles  north-northeast  from  Win- 
chester. Its  streets  are  well  built,  payed,  and 
lighted,  and  the  town  is  amply  supplied  with 
water.  It  has  a  town-hall,  containing  a  spacious 
corn-market  and  ball-room.  It  has  also  a  fine 
Gothic  church,  erected  in  the  time  of  Henry 
VIII. ;  several  other  places  of  wprship ;  a  me- 
chanics' institute,  with  good  library;  and  numer- 
ous charities.  A  considerable  trade  is  carried 
on  in  corn  and  malt.  Population  of  municipal 
borough  (1901)  9,810. 

Bas'kerville,  John,  English  printer  and 
artist:  b.  Wolverley,  Worcestershire,  1706;  d. 
1775.  Inheriting  a  small  estate,  he  was  brought 
up  to  no  profession,  but,  acquiring  great  skill 
in  penmanship  and  carving  letters  on  stone,  at 
the  age  of  20  he  settled  at  Birmingham  as  a 
writing-master.  He  subsequently  engaged  in 
the  manufacture  of  japanned  works,  and  in 
1750  entered  upon  his  great  career  as  printer 
and  typefounder,  in  which  he  displayed  extraor- 
dinary ability,  as  well  as  in  the  manufacture  of 
the  ink  and  paper  used  in  his  productions.  His 
first  great  work  was  an  edition  of  Virgil,  in 
royal  quarto,  1756,  which  was  followed  by  many 
of  the  Latin  classics,  and  some  English  ones, 
in  quarto  and  smaller  sizes.  After  his  death  his 
types  and  matrices  were  sold  to  Beaumarchais 
at  Paris  for  £3,700. 

Basket,  a  vessel  made  of  osier  twigs  or 
other  flexible  materials,  as  rushes,  strips  of 
wood,  splits  of  bamboo,  rattan,  etc.,  and  used 
for  holding  and  carrying  all  sorts  of  commodi- 


ties. The  word  is  of  Brilanno-Celtic  origin  and 
still  subsists  in  the  Welsh  language  in  the  form 
Basgazvd,  from  Basg,  plaiting,  net-work :  it  was 
adopted  into  the  Latin  language  in  the  ist  cen- 
tury with  form  little  altered  —  Bascauda.  The 
baskets  made  in  Britain  were  highly  prized  by 
the  Romans,  and  the  poets  Juvenal  and  Martial 
make  mention  of  them  as  articles  of  no  trifling 
value.  They  were  evidently  regarded  as  rare 
exotic  curios  in  Juvenal's  day,  for  the  poet,  in 
drawing  an  exaggerated  picture  of  the  ship- 
wreck in  which  his  friend  Catullus  threw  over- 
board his  most  cherished  possessions,  couples 
Bascaudse  (ba.skcts)  with  articles  of  chased 
silver  wrought  by  famous  artists  (Sat.  xii.). 
And  Martial  (xiv.  99)  makes  the  British  bas- 
ket say  of  itself: — 

Barbara  de  pictis  veni  bascauda  Britannis, 

Sed  me  jam  mavult  dicere  Roma  suam  — 

"  The    Basket    Barbaric,    I'm    come    from    the    painted 

Britanni, 
But  Rome  now  would  choose  rather  to  title  me  Roman." 

In  primeval  times  basket-making  was  a 
branch  of  the  art  of  weaving,  and  both  of 
these  arts  grew  out  of  the  still  more  primi- 
tive one  of  wattling,  first  employed  in  mak- 
ing enclosures.  Tylor  ('Early  History  of 
in  making  enclosures.  Tylor  ('Early  Hist,  of 
Mankind' )  notes  the  existence  of  wicker- 
weaving  among  primitive  tribes  throughout  the 
world.  This  is  the  first  step  in  the  art  of  weav- 
ing textile  fabrics.  It  is  practised,  or  rather 
was  practised,  by  the  natives  of  New  Zealand 
and  of  northwestern  America,  and  as  late  as 
i856by  an  Indian  tribe  living  northwest  of  Lake 
Huron.  In  the  lake  habitations  of  Switzer- 
land have  been  found  specimens  of  wicker- 
weaving  work  consisting  of  strands  of  un- 
twisted fibre,  probably  hemp,  bound  together  by 
transverse  strands  wattled  in  among  them ;  and 
in  the  same  localities  have  been  found  speci- 
mens of  the  same  kind  of  weaving  but  of  a 
progressively  higher  and  finer  type.  There  is 
even  a  genetic  relation  between  the  arts  of 
basket-making  and  pottery,  proved  by  speci- 
mens of  rude  pottery  found  in  all  quarters  of 
the  world:  in  these  are  seen  the  impresses  of 
the  basket-work  on  which  the  clay  was  molded 
and  which  was  burnt  away  in  the  kiln.  Even 
after  the  art  of  molding  the  clay  without  the 
basket-work  frame  was  invented,  the  potters 
seem  to  have  imitated  the  markings  left  by  it. 
Among  the  Indians  of  the  Mississippi  valley 
along  the  gulf,  all  pottery  vessels  of  large  size 
used  to  be  modeled  in  baskets  of  willow  or 
splints,  which,  being  burnt  off,  their  markings 
remained.  Shields  of  basket-work  covered  with 
hide  were  in  use  among  the  Briions  at  the 
time  of  Caesar's  invasion,  and  similar  shields  are 
still  employed  by  primitive  peoples  wherever 
they  live  in  savage  isolation.  Boats,  too,  of 
basket-work,  with  a  covering  of  hide  (coracles), 
were  used  by  the  ancient  Britons,  and  boats  of 
the  same  type  were  seen  by  Herodotus  (I.  194) 
navigating  the  Euphrates.  These  were  of  round 
form,  without  distinction  of  bow  and  stern, 
and  similar  boats  are  still  in  use  on  some  rivers 
in  India.  On  account  of  its  lightness,  combined 
with  strength  and  durability,  basket-work  is  pre- 
ferred to  joinerj-  in  the  manufacture  of  various 
commodities,  as  window-screens,  pony-carriage 
bodies,  chairs,  tables,  etc.  In  South  America 
the  natives  weave  of  rushes  baskets  capable  of 
holding   liquids,   and   those   of    Tasmania,    now 


BASKET-BALL  —  BASKET-FISH 


extinct,  used  to  weave  of  leaves  water-tight 
vessels.  The  material  most  commonly  em- 
ployed in  basket-making  is  the  willow  or  ozier 
twig,  and  the  production  of  this  material  is  an 
important  industry  in  France,  Germany,  Bel- 
gium, Holland,  and  Britain.  The  product  of 
France  and  Britain  is  the  most  highly  esteemed 
for  firmness,  toughness,  and  evenness ;  that  of 
Germany  is  reputed  inferior  to  the  French ;  the 
Dutch  product  is  in  least  esteem,  being  soft 
and  pithy.  Besides  ozier  twigs,  a  great  variety 
of  other  materials  are  employed  in  basket- 
making.  In  this  country  coarse,  strong  baskets 
are  made  of  shavings  or  long  broad  splits  of 
various  tough  woods.  In  China  and  Japan  the 
usual  materials  are  bamboo  and  rattan,  and  the 
Chinese  and  Japanese  excel  in  the  manufacture 
of  wares  of  these  materials,  their  products  be- 
ing unrivaled  for  fineness,  elegance,  and  finish; 
and  some  of  their  work,  as  in  the  encasing  of 
the  egg-shell  porcelain  of  the  Japanese  is  mar- 
velous for  the  delicacy  of  the  manipulation : 
even  the  examples  seen  in  our  marts,  of  com- 
mon little  porcelain  saucers  so  encased  in 
basket-work,  are  worthy  of  admiration  for 
painstaking  workmanship.  The  fronds  of  the 
Palmyra  palm,  originally  employed  in  India  in 
making  *Cajan"  baskets,  now  afford  a  staple 
material  for  use  in  the  art  throughout  the  world. 
So,  too,  Phormium  tciiax,  native  of  New  Zea- 
land, which  yielded  to  the  natives  of  that  coun- 
try their  peculiar  basket-making  material,  is  now 
employed  in  all  countries  for  the  same  purpose. 
Basket-making  is  one  of  the  simplest  of  the 
mechanic  arts ;  and  the  workman,  in  making 
baskets  designed  for  use,  not  for  ornament  or 
to  please  the  fancy,  has  no  absolute  need  of 
tools  or  apparatus  beyond  those  requisite  for 
cutting  the  rods  and  interlacing  them  —  a  knife 
and  a  bodkin,  with  a  mallet  to  beat  them  into 
place.  The  process  can  be  learned  in  principle 
by  inspection  of  a  basket-maker  at  work  in 
fashioning  a  basket  from  the  foundation  to  the 
rim.  Having  provided  a  sufficient  quantity  of 
rods  or  splints  of  much  greater  length  than 
the  proposed  dimensions  of  the  finished  work, 
he  lays  a  number  of  them  on  the  floor  in  paral- 
lel pairs  at  small  intervals  in  the  direction  of 
the  longer  diameter  of  the  basket :  this  is  the 
woof,  so  to  speak.  Then  these  are  crossed  at 
right  angles  by  two  of  the  largest  osiers,  with 
their  thick  ends  toward  the  workman,  who  sets 
his  foot  upon  them ;  next,  each  of  these  is 
woven  alternately  over  and  under  the  length- 
wise parallel  pieces,  and  thus  the  parallel  pieces 
are  held  fast;  this  is  the  ^"^slath,''  —  the  founda- 
tion. Now  the  end  of  one  of  the  two  transverse 
rods  is  woven  over  and  under  the  lengthwise 
rods  all  round  the  bottom  till  that  whole  rod 
is  worked  in ;  and  the  same  is  done  with  the 
other  transverse  rod,  and  then  additional  long 
oziers  are  woven  in  till  the  bottom  is  of  the 
required  size.  The  bottom  is  now  finished  and 
work  begins  on  the  superstructure  by  driving 
the  sharpened  large  ends  of  a  sufficient  number 
of  long,  stout  oziers  between  the  rods  at  the 
bottom  from  the  edge  toward  the  centre:  these 
are  the  ribs  or  skeleton,  being  set  up  in  the  di- 
rection of  the  sides ;  between  these  ribs  other 
rods  are  woven  in  till  the  structure  reaches  the 
desired  height.  To  finish  the  edge  the  ends 
of  the  ribs  are  turned  down  over  each  other 
and  thus  compactly  united.  A  handle  is  added 
by    forcing    two    or    three    sharpened    rods    of 


the  requisite  length  down  through  the  weav- 
ing of  the  sides,  close  together,  and  pinning 
them  fast  a  little  below  the  brim ;  the  rods  are 
then  either  bound  or  plaited  in  any  way  the 
workman  chooses. 

Our  North  American  Indians  were  once 
among  the  most  expert  basket-weavers  in  the 
world.  Now  only  the  older  Indians  know  the 
art,  and  certain  tribes  whose  work  was  incom- 
parably fine  and  beautiful  have  already  lost  it. 
After  much  pauperizing  under  the  abominable 
reservation  system,  it  was  decided  that  the  In- 
dians needed  an  industry  to  save  them  from 
sinking  still  lower.  Lace-making,  after  Brus- 
sels and  French  patterns,  was  first  superim- 
posed on  a  Minnesota  reservation,  whence  it  has 
spread.  Now,  lace-making,  which  has  been  de- 
veloped by  the  European  woman,  fits  her  like 
a  glove  ;  and  quite  as  truly,  basket-making  fits 
the  Indian  like  a  moccasin.  Yet  the  Indians 
have  succeeded  at  making  lace,  for  they  have 
remarkable  skill  with  the  fingers.  An  enlight- 
ened administrator  of  Indian  affairs  has  taken 
up  the  task  of  human  development  in  the  right 
way  and  has  made  plans  to  revive  basket- 
making  by  introducing  it  into  the  Government 
Indian  schools,  where  the  children,  who  now 
know  nothing  of  this  beautiful  art,  may  learn 
from  the  only  masters  capable  of  teaching  them 
—  their  own  people,  directed  by  white  teachers 
who  know  the  needs  of  the  constantly  widen- 
ing market.  Hundreds  of  thousands  of  dollars' 
worth  of  baskets  are  imported  from  Japan  and 
Germany  every  year  • —  money  which  by  every 
right  should  be  earned  'by  our  capable  and 
needy  Indians  ;  and  better  than  the  money  they 
will  earn  is  the  satisfaction  of  doing  what  they 
do   with  surpassing  skill. 

Basket-ball,  a  distinctly  American  gami». 
Its  history  begins  in  i8gi,  when  a  lecturer  in 
psychology  at  the  Young  Men's  Christian  Asso- 
ciation Training  School  in  Springfield,  Mass., 
suggested,  as  an  exercise  of  inventiveness,  a 
game  that  would  comply  with  certain  condi- 
tions. One  of  his  pupils,  James  Naismith,  tak- 
ing" note  of  the  hypothetical  conditions  indoors, — 
limited  area,  limited  number  of  contestants, 
equally  applicable  to  either  sex,  etc., —  applied 
his  mind  to  meet  those  conditions,  and  invented 
«  basket-ball.» 

It  is  played  on  a  marked  oblong  square  con- 
taining not  more  than  3.500  feet  of  actual 
playing-space,  by  teams  of  five  each,  known 
respectively  as  centre,  left,  and  right  forwards, 
and  left  and  right  backs.  The  ball  is  round 
and  inflated,  not  less  than  30  nor  more  than  32 
inches  in  circumference,  and  very  like  that  with 
which  "Association*  foot-ball  is  played.  The 
goals  are  hammock  nets  of  cord,  suspended 
from  metal  rings  18  inches  in  diameter,  and 
placed  10  feet  from  the  ground,  in  the  centre 
of  the  ends  of  the  playing-space.  The  time  of 
playing,  for  seniors,  is  two  halves  of  20  minutes, 
with  an  interval  of  10  minutes;  and  for  juniors, 
two  halves  of  15  minutes,  with  a  similar  inter- 
val. No  kicking  of  the  ball  with  the  foot,  or 
hitting  with  the  fists,  is  permitted ;  the  ball 
must  be  held  by  the  hands  only. 

For  rules,  and  much  other  necessary  informa- 
tion for  actual  plaving.  consult  Hepbion's  ^Of- 
ficial Basket-Bail  Rules.> 

Basket-fish,  a  name  given  about  1670  by 
John  Winthrop,  governor  of  Connecticut,  to 
the    Astrophyton    agassisii.     It    belongs    to    the 


BASKET-WORM  —  BASS 


group  Euryalida,  and  is  allied  to  the  sand-stars, 
but  differs  in  the  arms  being  much  branched 
and  ending  in  long  slender  tendrils  which  are 
so  much  interlaced  as  to  suggest  basket-work. 
It  is  very  large,  the  disk  being  two  inches 
across,  and  the  entire  animal  often  a  foot  in 
diameter.  It  lives  off  the  coast  of  New  Eng- 
land in  from  lo  to  lOO  fathoms  of  water.  Other 
names  are  "Medusa's-head,"  and  *Sea-basket." 

Basket-worm.     See  Bag-worm. 

Baskett,  James  Newton,  American  zoolo- 
gist :  b.  Kentucky,  i  Nov.  1849.  He  was  grad- 
uated at  the  Missouri  State  University  in  1872. 
He  has  devoted  himself  to  the  study  of  compara- 
tive vertebrate  anatomy,  with  ornithology  as  a 
specialty.  In  1893  he  presented  a  paper  on  'Some 
Hints  at  the  Kmship  of  Birds  as  Shown  by  Their 
Eggs^  at  the  World's  Congress  of  Ornitholo- 
gists in  Chicago.  Among  his  publications  are 
'The  Story  of  the  Birds'  ;  'The  Story  of  the 
Fishes'  ;  'The  Story  of  the  Amphibians  and 
Reptiles';  'The  Story  of  the  Mammals';  'At 
You-All's  House'  (a  novel)  ;  'As  the  Light 
Led'    (a  novel),  etc. 

Basking-fish,  or  Basking-shark.  See 
Shark. 

Basle.      See  Basel. 

Basnage,  ba-nazh,  a  family  of  French 
Protestants,  remarkable  for  the  number  of  able 
men  and  eminent  writers  whom  it  has  pro- 
duced. 

1.  Nicolas,  who,  having  espoused  the  doc- 
trines of  the  Reformation,  was  compelled  by 
persecution  to  take  refuge  in  England,  where 
he  became  the  minister  of  a  congregation  at 
Norwich.  When,  by  the  accession  of  Henry 
IV.,  a  better  era  began  to  dawn,  he  returned  to 
his  country  and  officiated,  till  his  death,  as 
minister  of  a  church  at  Carentan. 

2.  Benjaman,  son  of  the  former:  b.  1850; 
d.  1652.  He  succeeded  his  father  in  his  charge, 
and  held  it  for  the  long  period  of  51  years. 
He  long  held  a  prominent  place  among  the  re- 
formers of  France :  presided  in  the  assembly 
held  at  Rochelle  in  1622 ;  undertook  the  dan- 
gerous task  of  negotiating  for  English  aid; 
traveled  into  Scotland  to  arouse  the  Protestant 
feeling  in  that  country ;  and  on  his  return  took 
the  lead  in  the  important  synods  held  at  Char- 
enton  in  1623  and  1631,  and  at  Alengon,  in  1637. 
flis  principal  work,  entitled,  'Treatise  on  the 
Church,'   is  a  good  specimen  of  his  talents. 

3.  Henry  de  Franouenay  :  b.  1615;  d.  1695. 
He  was  the  youngest  son  of  Benjamin,  studied 
for  the  bar,  and  as  a  provincial  advocate  in 
Rouen  long  stood  at  the  head  of  his  profes- 
sion. His  eloquence,  learning,  and  unsullied  in- 
tegrity secured  him  the  esteem,  not  only  of  the 
Protestants,  whose  views  he  held,  but  even  of 
those  most  violently  opposed  to  him.  His  com- 
plete works,  confined  to  juridical  subjects,  were 
published  at  Rouen  in  2  vols,  folio  in  1778. 

•  4.  Jacques,  eldest  son  of  Henri :  b.  Rouen, 
1653;  d.  1723.  He  is  the  best-known  and  per- 
haps the  ablest  member  of  the  family.  He 
studied  theology  at  Geneva  and  Sedan,  and  in 
1676  became  minister  of  the  Protestant  Church 
at  Rouen.  In  1685  his  church  having  been 
closed  by  decree  of  Louis  XTV.,  he  removed  to 
Holland  and  officiated  as  minister,  first  at  Rot- 
terdam, and  then  permanently  at  The  Hague. 
Among  his  works  mav  be  mentioned  'History 
of  the  Church,'   2  vols,   folio;    'History  of  the 


Jews,'  15  vols.  12  mo.;  'Annals  of  the  United 
Provinces,'  2  vols,  folio;  and  'The  Holy  Com- 
munion.' 

Basques,  basks,  or  Biscayans,  in  their  own 
language,  Euscaldunac;  a  remarkable  race  of 
people  dwelling  in  the  southwest  corner  of 
France,  and  in  the  north  of  Spain,  on  both 
sides  of  the  Pyrenees.  They  are  probably  de- 
scendants of  the  ancient  Iberi,  who  occupied 
Spain  before  the  Celts.  The  French  Basques 
(Gascons)  settled,  at  the  end  of  the  6U1  century, 
on  the  north  side  of  the  Pyrenees,  between  those 
mountains  and  the  Garonne.  After  long  strug- 
gles they  submitted  to  the  kings  of  the  Franks. 
Under  the  Carlovingian  race  they  elected  their 
own  dukes,  but  after  the  extinction  of  that  fam- 
ily they  fell  under  the  dominion  of  Aquitania  in 
the  nth  century,  and  with  it  under  that  of 
France  in  1453.  The  Basques  preserve  their 
ancient  language,  former  manners,  and  their  na- 
tional dances,  and  make  admirable  soldiers,, 
especially  in  guerrilla  warfare,  to  which  their  na- 
tive temperament  inclines,  and  their  frequent 
expeditions  in  carrying  on  the  smuggling,  to 
\vhich  they  are  much  addicted,  inure  them. 
They  are  good  seamen,  and  were  the  first  Euro- 
peans who  engaged  in  the  whale-fishery,  which 
they  have,  however,  long  since  relinquished. 
They  occupy,  in  Spain,  the  provinces  of  Biscay,. 
Guipuzcoa,  and  Alava ;  in  France,  the  depart- 
ments of  the  Upper  and  Lower  Pyrenees,  Ariege 
and  Upper  Garonne.     See  Biscay. 

Basrah.    See  Bassora. 

Bass,  Edward,  first  Protestant  Episcopal 
bishop  of  Massachusetts :  b.  Dorchester,  Mass.,. 
23  Nov.  1726;  d.  Newburyport,  Mass.,  10  Sept. 
1803.  He  was  graduated  at  Harvard  in  1744; 
was  ordained  in  England  in  1752;  and  later  be- 
came pastor  of  the  church  at  Newburyport,. 
Mass.  During  the  Revolution  he  omitted  from 
the  church  service  all  reference  to  the  royal 
family  and  the  British  government.  For  this 
he  was  expelled  from  the  Society  for  the  Prop- 
agation of  the  Gospel.  In  1797  he  was  conse- 
crated bishop  of  Massachusetts,  and  finally  also 
of  New  Hampshire  and  Rhode  Island. 

Bass,  Michael  Thomas,  English  brewer: 
b.  1799 ;  d.  1884.  He  became  head  of  the  Bur- 
ton brewing  firm  of  Bass  &  Company  upon  the 
death  of  his  father,  and  was  a  member  of  Par- 
liament from  1848  to  1883.  His  benefactions 
were  very  numerous,  and  included  the  building 
and  endowing  of  St.  Paul's  Church.  Burton 
(the  total  expenditure  on  the  parish  being  about 
$500,000)  ;  and  the  establishment  of  recreation 
grounds,  a  free  library,  and  swimming  baths  for 
Derby,  at  a  cost  of  $185,000.  Of  simple  tastes, 
he  more  than  once  declined  a  baronetcy  and  a 
peerage. 

Bass,  the  name  of  various  trimly  shaped, 
active,  gamy  fishes  of  both  fresh  and  salt  water, 
mostly  in  northern  regions.  The  term  was 
originally  applied  to  the  Moronc  labra.v  of  the 
west  coast  of  Europe,  and  was  thence  trans- 
ferred to  many  other  fishes  having  a  real  or 
fancied  likeness  to  this  in  appearance  and  quali- 
ties. This  fish  repre.sents  the  sea-perch  family, 
Scrranidcc.  is  perch-like  in  form,  usually  12 
to  18  inches  long,  and  frequents  the  shoal  shore- 
waters  in  great  numbers,  being  noted  for  its 
fierceness  and  voracity.  Its  flesh  is  excellent. 
The  same  family  and  genius  are  represented  in 
North  America  by  many  species,  of  which  the 


BASS  — BASS  ROCK 


nearest  relative  is  the  yellow  bass  (M.  inter- 
rupta)  of  the  southern  Mississippi  valley.  It 
is  a  brass3--yello\v  with  seven  very  distinct 
black  longitudinal  lines,  those  below  the  lateral 
line  being  interrupted  posteriorly,  the  posterior 
parts  alternating  with  the  anterior.  Its  body 
is  oblong-ovate  with  the  back  much  arched. 
The  dorsal  fin  and  anal  spines  are  stout.  It  is 
a  light  fish  for  its  length,  ordinarily  weighing 
one  to  two  pounds,  but  often  measuring  12  to 
18  inches,  and  weighing  five  pounds.  It  is  very 
gamy,  and  is  esteemed  by  some  anglers  the 
equal  of  the  black  bass  in  this  respect. 

In  the  same  family  falls  the  well-known 
striped  bass  or  <'rock  fish"  (Rocciis  lincatiis), 
of  the  northeastern  Atlantic,  which  approaches 
the  coast  and  enters  fresh  water  only  at  spawn- 
ing-time, when  its  ascends  the  rivers.  It  was 
absent  from  the  Pacific  coast  until  planted  there 
artificially,  since  which  it  has  multiplied  from 
Puget  Sound  to  lower  California.  The  largest 
fish  are  to  be  found  in  Chesapeake  Bay,  where 
they  average  from  30  to  50  pounds  in  weight, 
and  occasionally  reach  double  that.  In  color 
they  are  brassy-olive,  the  fins  and  sides  rather 
pale,  and  the  latter  marked  with  seven  or  eight 
blackish  stripes.  The  favorite  waj'  of  fishing 
for  the  striped  bass  is  by  casting  a  ^'squid" 
through  the  surf,  using  as  a  bait  .pieces  of  clam, 
shrimp,  or  crab ;  but  they  will  rise  to  a  fly ;  and 
on  the  Pacific  coast  are  easily  lured  by  a  shin- 
ing spoon-bait. 

The  white  bass  {R.  chrysops)  is  a  near 
relative  of  the  striped  bass,  and  inhabits  the 
Great  Lakes  from  the  St.  Lawrence  to  Mani- 
toba, and  southward  in  the  Mississippi  valley 
to  Arkansas.  Its  preference  is  for  still  waters, 
and  it  is  even  lighter  in  weight  for  length  than 
the  yellow  bass.  It  is  generall}^  taken  with  bait, 
though  it  will  rise  to  the  fly.  It  is  silvery  in 
its  color,  tinged  with  golden  below,  with  dusky 
lines  along  the  sides. 

The  most  important  of  the  American  fresh- 
water bass  are  the  black  bass  —  two  species  of 
percoid  game  fishes  of  the  distinctly  American 
family  Centrarchidce,  which  also  contains  the 
various  sunfish  (q.v.).  One  is  the  "big- 
mouthed"  and  the  other  the  ^^small-mouthed" 
black  bass.  Both  were  originally  confined  to 
the  waters  of  the  upper  Mississippi  valley,  and 
Great  Lakes  region,  but  in  1853  they  were  in- 
troduced into  the  head  waters  of  the  Potomac 
River,  whence  they  have  spread  into  all  the 
rivers  that  empty  into  Chesapeake  Bay.  More 
recently  bass  have  been  introduced  into  New 
England  and  into  many  of  the  far  western 
States ;  as  well  as  transported  into  England, 
France,  Germany,  and  other  countries.  The 
body  is  oblong,  compressed,  the  back  not  much 
elevated,  head  oblong-conic,  lower  jaw  promi- 
nent, teeth  on  jaws,  vomer  and  platines  in 
broad  villiform  bands,  the  inner  depressible, 
usually  no  teeth  on  tongue.  Black  bass  vary 
greatly  in  size  in  different  waters.  The  small- 
mouthed,  however,  seldom  exceeds  six  pounds 
in  weight,  while  the  large-mouthed,  especially 
in  the  South,  is  larger,  running  as  high  as  14 
pounds.  In  color  both  are  dull  golden-green 
with  a  bronze  lustre,  the  scales  on  the  cheeks 
are  more  minute  than  those  on  the  body,  and  the 
dor.sal  fin  is  deeply  notched.  In  the  small- 
mouthed  species  (Micropterus  dolomieu)  the 
maxillary  does  not  extend  beyond  the  eye.  and 
the  scales  on  the  cheek  are  arranged  in  17  rows. 


In  the  large-mouthed  {M.  sahnoides)  the  max- 
illary extends  beyond  the  eye  and  there  are  but 
10  rows  of  scales  on  the  cheeks.  The  lateral 
line  in  both  is  nearly  straight,  passing  from  the 
upper  edge  of  the  gill-cover  to  the  centre  of  the 
base  of  the  caudal  fin.  The  small-mouthed  has 
the  wider  range,  extending  from  the  Red  River 
of  the  North  to  Texas  and  Mexico.  Both  va- 
rieties are  free,  but  capricious,  biters,  and 
both  are  game  fighters.  They  are  taken  with 
artificial  flies,  such  as  the  "  Rube  Wood,"  *  Seth 
Green,"  "  silver  doctor,"  and  "Parmachenee 
bell,"  as  well  as  by  casting  with  a  wide  range  of 
natural  baits,  such  as  crayfish,  minnows,  worms, 
and  small  frogs ;  or  they  may  be  taken  by  troll- 
ing from  a  boat,  using  a  stiff  rod,  especially 
in  lakes,  with  any  standard  silver  or  golden 
spoon-bait.  In  some  districts  the  large-mouthed 
bass  is  called  ''straw"  bass ;  in  others  "  slough," 
''  lake,"  ''  marsh,"  or  "Oswego"  bass,  or  "green 
trout,"   "  welchman,"   etc. 

Another  species  deserving  mention  is  the 
"rock-bass,"  one  of  the  sunfish  (Ambloplites 
rupesfris) ,  found  in  practically  every  lake,  pond, 
and  stream  east  of  the  dry  plains.  It  does  not 
usually  attain  more  than  half  a  pound  in  weight, 
is  easily  caught,  and  is  the  least  persistent  fighter 
of  any  of  the  family.  In  color  it  is  mottled- 
olive  or  brassy-green. 

Consult:  Henshall,  'Book  of  the  Bass' 
(1889)  ;  ^ricl  Jordan  and  Evermann,  'American 
Food  and  Game  Fishes'    (New  York  1902). 

Bass^  bas  (It.  basso,  deep,  low),  the  lowest 
part  in  the  harmony  of  a  musical  composition. 
It  is  the  most  important  of  all  the  parts,  the 
foundation  of  the  harmony,  and  the  support  of 
the  whole  composition.  Different  forms  of  bass 
are:  Basso  concertante,  or  Basso  recitante, 
the  bass  of  the  little  chorus ;  the  bass  which  ac- 
companies the  softer  parts  of  a  composition,  as 
well  as  those  which  employ  the  whole  power 
of  the  band.  This  part  is  generally  taken  by 
the  violoncellos.  Bass-counter  or  contra-bass, 
the  under  bass  ;  that  part  which,  when  there  are 
two  basses  in  a  composition,  is  performed  by  the 
double  basses,  the  violoncellos  taking  the  upper 
bass  or  basso  concertante.  Basso  repieno 
(Ital.),  the  bass  of  the  grand  chorus;  that  bass 
which  joins  in  the  full  parts  of  a  composition, 
and,  by  its  depth  of  tone  and  energy  of  stroke, 
affords  a  powerful  contrast  to  the  lighter  and 
softer  passages  or  movements.  Figured  bass,  a. 
bass  which,  while  a  certain  chord  or  harmony 
is  continued  by  the  parts  above,  moves  in  notes 
of  the  same  harmony.  Fundamental  bass,  that 
bass  which  forms  the  tone  or  natural  foundation 
of  the  harmony,  and  from  which  that  harmony  is 
derived.  Ground  bass,  a  bass  which  starts  with 
some  subject  of  its  own,  and  continues  to  be 
repeated  throughout  the  movement,  while  the 
upper  part  or  parts  pursue  a  separate  air  and 
supply  the  harmony.  Tlwrough  bass,  the  sj'Stem 
in  which  words  are  denoted  by  placing  figures 
'over  the  bass  note.  Bass  clef,  the  character  put 
at  the  beginning  of  the  stave,  in  which  the  bass 
or  lower  notes  of  the  composition  are  placed, 
and  serving  to  determine  the  pitch  and  names  of 
those  notes. 

Bass  (bas)  Rock,  a  remarkable  trap-rock 
island,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Firth  of  Forth,  three 
miles  from  North  Berwick.  It  is  of  circular 
shape,  about  a  mile  in  circumference,  and  rises 
precipitously  to  a  height  of  420  feet.     It  is  inac- 


BASS,  BAT  FISH.  BALLOOX  FISH,  ETC. 


1.  Bellows  Fish  (Centriscus  scolopax) 

2.  Cave  Fish  (Amblyopsis  spelaeus). 
3     Bill  Fish  (Lepid^sleus  osseus) 


4.  Falloon  Fish  (Tetrodon  fuhaka). 

5.  Fat  Fish  (Malthe  vespc-rtilio). 

6.  Skeleton  of  a  Bass  (Perca  fluviatilis). 


BASS  STRAIT  — BASSET 


cessible  except  on  one  flat  shelving  point  on  the 
southeast.  Its  summit  is  estimated  at  about 
seven  acres,  and  this  supports  a  few  sheep,  the 
mutton  of  which  is  considered  a  great  dehcacy. 
Solan  geese  and  other  sea-fowl  in  myriads  cover 
its  rocks,  and  fly  around  it  in  clouds.  The 
surrounding  water  is  of  great  depth  on  the 
northeast,  but  shallow  on  the  south.  Among 
the  historical  ruins  on  the  island  are  the  remains 
of  a  fortalice  commanding  the  landing-place, 
capable  of  accommodating  upward  of  lOO  men, 
formerly  accessible  only  by  ladders  or  buckets 
and  chains ;  and  the  ruins  of  a  chapel  about 
halfway  up  the  acclivity.  The  Bass  was  pur- 
chased by  the  English  government  in  1671,  and 
its  castle,  long  since  demolished,  was  converted 
into  a  state  prison  in  which  several  eminent 
Covenanters  were  confined.  It  was  the  last 
place  in  Britain  that  held  out  against  William 
III.,  its  small  band  of  gallant  defenders  yielding 
only  to  starvation.  The  island  anciently  be- 
longed to  a  family  of  the  name  of  Lauder, 
whose  head  was  stj'led  Lauder  of  the  Bass. 

Bass  (has)  Strait,  a  channel  beset  with 
islands,  which  separates  Australia  from  Tas- 
mania, 120  miles  broad,  discovered  by  George 
Bass,  a  surgeon  in  the  British  navy,  in  1798. 

Bass  (bas)  Viol,  a  stringed  instrument  re- 
sembling the  violin  in  form,  but  much  larger. 
It  has  four  strings  and  eight  stops,  which  are 
subdivided  into  semi-stops,  and  is  played  with 
a  bow.     See  Viol. 

Bas'sa,  Africa,  a  district  on  the  west  coast 
forming  part  of  the  negro  state  of  Liberia 
(q.v.). 

Bassanio,  ba-sa'ne-6,  the  lover  of  Portia 
in   Shakespeare's    *^  Merchant  of  Venice.^ 

Bassano,  bas-sa'no,  Hugues  Bernard 
Maret,  Due  de,  French  publicist  and  states- 
man: b.  Dijon,  1763;  d.  1839.  On  the  first  out- 
burst of  the  French  Revolution  he  enthusiastical- 
ly embraced  its  principles,  published  the  Bulletin 
de  I'  Assemblee,  and  soon  after  was  appointed 
editor  of  the  Moniteur.  He  became  acquainted 
with  Bonaparte,  and  was  made  by  him  chief  of 
division   in  the  ministry  of   foreign  affairs.     In 

181 1  he  was  created  Duke  of  Bassano  and  ap- 
pointed    minister    of    foreign    affairs ;     and     in 

1812  he  conducted  and  signed  the  treaties  be- 
tween France,  Austria,  and  Prussia,  preparatorj' 
to  the  fatal  expedition  to  Russia.  When  the 
emperor  was  sent  to  Elba  in  1814,  Bassano  re- 
tired from  public  life ;  but  immediately  after 
Napoleon's  return  he  joined  him,  and  was  very 
nearly  taken  prisoner  at  Waterloo.  On  the  em- 
peror's final  overthrow  Bassano  was  banished 
from  France,  but  at  the  Revolution  of  July  1830 
he  was  recalled  and  restored  to  all  his  honors. 
In  1838  he  was  made  minister  of  the  interior  and 
president  of  the  council,  but  the  ministry  of 
which  he  formed  a  part  survived  only  three 
days. 

Bassano,  Jacopo,  (real  name  Giacomo  da 
Ponte),  Italian  painter:  b.  Bassano  (whence  his 
surname),  1510;  d.  1592.  He  painted  historical 
pieces,  landscapes,  flowers,  and  portraits ;  among 
the  latter  those  of  the  Doge  of  Venice,  of  Ari- 
osto,  Tasso,  and  other  persons  of  eminence. 
Several  of  his  best  works  are  in  the  churches  of 
Bassano,  Venice.  Vicenza,  and  other  towns  of 
Italy.  He  left  four  sons,  all  painters,  of  whom 
Francesco  was  the  most  distinguished. 
Vol.  2 — 24. 


Bassano,  Italy,  a  city  in  the  province  of 
Vicenza,  on  the  Brenta  (Ion.  11°  43'  E. ,  lat.  45° 
46'  N.J.  Its  30  churches  contain  beautiful  paint- 
ings. A  stone  bridge,  182  feet  long,  unites  the 
town  with  the  large  village  Vincantino.  Vines 
and  olives  are  cultivated  in  the  vicinity  and  there 
is  considerable  trade  in  silk,  cloth,  and  leather. 
Its  principal  manufactures  are  straw  hats,  por- 
celain, and  wax.  Napoleon  made  Bassano  a 
duchy,  with  50,000  francs  yearly  income,  and 
granted  it  to  his  minister  of  foreign  affairs, 
Maret  (see  Bassano,  Hugues).  Near  Bas- 
sano, 8  Sept.  1796,  Bonaparte  defeated  the  Aus- 
trian general  Wurmser.  Bassona  was  the  birth- 
place of  the  famous  printer  Mauritius,  as  well 
as  of  the  historical  painter  Giacomo  da  Ponte 
(see  Bassano,  Jacopo),  and  a  short  distance 
away  lies  the  village  of  Possagus,  the  birthplace 
of  Canova.     Pop.  (1902)  15,443. 

Bassein,  bas-san',  India,  a  decayed  town  m 
the  presidency  of  Bombay,  at  the  south  end  of  a 
small  island  of  the  same  name,  28  miles  north  of 
Bombay,  and  separated  from  the  Island  of 
Salsette  by  a  narrow  channel.  It  was  fortified 
by  the  Portuguese  in  1536,  and  remained  in  their 
possession  until  captured  by  the  Mahrattas  in 
1739.  During  this  period  it  rose  to  be  a  fine  and 
wealthy  city  of  over  60,000  inhabitants,  with 
many  stately  buildings,  including  a  cathedral, 
5  convents,  13  churches,  and  handsome  private 
residences.     Pop.   (1901)  about  11,000. 

Bassein,  Burma,  a  town  in  the  Irrawaddy 
division  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Bassein  River, 
one  of  the  mouths  of  the  Irrawaddy.  with  a  su- 
burb on  the  right  bank;  lat.  16°  46'  N. ;  Ion.  94° 
48'  E.  The  English  fort  with  the  court-houses, 
treasury,  police-office,  etc.,  are  on  the  left  bank. 
In  the  suburb  on  the  right  bank  are  the  rice- 
mills  and  store-yards  of  the  principal  merchants. 
The  river  is  navigable  up  to  the  town  for  ships 
of  the  largest  burden,  and  Bassein  is  now  a 
place  of  considerable  trade,  exporting  large  quan- 
tities of  rice,  and  importing  coal,  salt,  cottons, 
etc.  It  is  the  seat  of  a  consul  of  the  United 
States.     Pop.  about  30,000. 

Basselin,  bas-laii,  or  Bachelin,  bash-Ian, 
Oliver,  French  poet:  b.  Val-de-Vire,  Norman- 
dy, about  1350 ;  d.  about  1419.  It  has  been  asserted 
that  the  vocabulary  of  theatrical  and  poetical  lit- 
erature is  indebted  to  him  for  the  word  "vaude- 
ville.'^ He  seems  to  have  been  a  cloth-fuller  or 
presser,  much  given  to  versified  narration  and 
iteration  of  convivial  themes  in  rhymed  frag- 
ments dubbed  van.r-de-vire  in  honor  of  the 
poet's  birthplace.  In  the  'Book  of  New  Songs 
and  Vaux-de-Vire'  (1610)  appears  a  collection 
of  these  bacchanalian  stanzas,  the  most  touch- 
ing of  which  is  addressed  by  the  sipger  <To  My 
Nose,'  the  rubescence  thereof  being  tastefully 
and  exquisitely  celebrated. 

Basses-Alpes,  bas-alp  (*lower  Alps''),  a 
department  of  France,  on  the  Italian  border. 
See  Alps. 

Basses-Pyrenees,  bas-pe-ra-na  (''lower 
Pyrenees"),  a  French  department  bordering  on 
Spain  and  the  Bay  of  Biscay.     See  Pyrenees. 

Basset,  a  game  of  cards,  formerly  much 
played,  especially  in  France.  It  is  very  similar 
to  the  modern  faro.  Severe  edicts  were  issued 
against  it  by  Louis  XIV.,  and  it  was  afterward 
played  under  the  name  of  pour  et  contre.    De 


BASSET-HORN  —  B  ASSIA 


Moivre,  in  his  ^Doctrine  of  Chances,'  has  cal- 
culated many  problems  connected  with  this 
game. 

Basset-horn,  a  wooden  wind-instrument 
(called  also  Cornet  by  reason  of  its  curvature), 
believed  to  have  been  invented  in  Passau  in 
1770.  It  was  afterward  perfected  by  Theodore 
Lotz  in  Presburg.  It  is,  properly  considered, 
an  enlarged  clarinet;  and,  notwithstanding  the 
difference  of  its  form,  it  resembles  that,  not  only 
in  its  qualities  and  tone,  but  also  as  regards  its 
intonation,  the  mode  of  holding  it,  and  finger- 
ing; so  that  every  clarinet  player  can  perform 
on  it.  Besides  the  mouthpiece  it  is  formed  of 
five  pieces  —  the  head-piece,  two  middle  pieces, 
the  trunk,  and  the  bell,  the  last  of  which  is 
usually  of  brass.  It  differs  from  the  clarinet 
chiefly  in  having  four  additional  low  keys 
worked  by  the  thumb  of  the  right  hand.  Its 
compass  is  three  and  a  half  octaves,  from  lower 
F  in  the  bass  to  double  C  of  the  treble.  It  is 
seldom  used  in  the  orchestra ;  though  it  is  found 
in  Mozart's  *  Requiem^  and  some  other  pieces. 
It  may  also  be  used  as  a  bass  instrument. 

Basset-hound,  a  dog  with  many  hound-like 
characteristics,  somewhat  used  for  rabbit-hunt- 
ing, clumsy  in  shape,  and  allied  to  the  dachshund 
(q.v.).  Its  head  is  as  massive  and  solemn- 
looking  as  that  of  a  bloodhound,  which  it  also 
resembles  in  the  length  of  its  ears.  Its  body 
is  as  bulky  as  that  of  a  foxhound,  to  which  it  is 
also  similar  as  regards  coior,  hair  and  form, 
save  that  its  fore  legs  are  but  four  inches  high 
and  crooked  at  the  knee.  Below  this  point  is  a 
wrinkled  ankle  terminating  in  a  massive  paw, 
each  toe  of  which  stands  out  distinctly.  Its 
coat  is  short,  smooth,  and  fine,  with  the  gloss  of 
a  thoroughbred  race-horse;  and  its  colors  are 
black  and  white  and  tan.  In  weight  it  varies 
frorn  40  to  45  pounds.  It  is  probably  of  French 
origin. 

Basseterre,  bas-tar,  the  name  of  two  towns 
in  the  West  Indies,  (i)  The  capital  of  the  Is- 
land of  St.  Christopher's,  a  seaport  situated  at 
the  mouth  of  a  small  river,  on  the  south  side  of 
the  island,  and  on  the  edge  of  the  fertile  vale  of 
Basseterre,  a  tract  yielding  rich  crops  of  sugar 
and  fruits.  The  town  was  destroyed  by  fire  in 
1867,  but  has  been  rebuilt  with  better  houses 
and  wider  streets  than  before.  It  is  a  place  of 
considerable  commercial  importance,  with  a  pop- 
ulation of  about  8,000.  (2)  The  capital  of  the 
Island  of  Guadaloupe,  situated  near  the  south 
end  of  the  island,  and  consisting  of  one  principal 
long  street  stretching  along  the  seashore.  P  is 
defended  by  forts  Royal  and  Matilda.  The 
anchorage  is  unsheltered  and  exposed  to  a  con- 
stant swell.     Pop.  about  10,500. 

Bas'sett,  James,  American  missionary:  b. 
Hamilton,  Canada,  31  Jan.  1834.  He  was  gradu- 
ated at  Wabash  College  1856,  and  at  Lane  The- 
ological Seminary  1859;  was  chaplain  in  the 
Union  army  1862-3 :  and  later  pastor  of  Presby- 
terian churches  in  Newark  and  Englewood,  N.  J. 
In  1871  he  went  to  Persia  as  a  missionary, 
and  in  a  short  time  acquired  such  a  familiarity 
with  the  language  that  he  composed  a  volume 
of  hymns  in  Persian  (<Teheran,>  1875;  1884). 
Other  of  his  writings  are:  ^Among  the  Turco- 
mans' (contributed  to  the  ^Leisure  Hour,' 
1879-80);  <Note  on  the  Simnuni  Dialects 
(< Journal  of  the  Royal  Asiatic  Society,'  1884); 


<  Persia,  the  Land  of  the  Imams'  (N.  Y.  1886). 
He  has  also  translated  the  Gospel  of  St. 
Matthew  into  Gaghatti  Tartar  (London  1880). 

Bassett,  John  Spencer,  American  historian: 
b.  Tarboro,  N.  C,  10  Sept.  1867.  He  was 
graduated  at  Trinity  College,  Durham,  N.  C, 
in  1888,  and  took  Ph.D.  at  Johns  Hopkins  in 
1894.  His  works  include  'Constitutional  Be- 
ginnings in  North  Carolina'  ;  ^Slavery  and  Ser- 
vitude in  the  Colony  of  North  Carolina'  ;  'Anti- 
Slavery  Leaders  of  North  Carolina'  ;  'Slavery  in 
the  State  of  North  Carolina'  ;  'The  War  of  the 
Regulation,'  etc.  In  1900  he  was  professor  of 
history  in  Trinity  College,  N.  C. 

Bassford,  William  Kipp,  American  musi- 
cian :  b.  New  York,  23  April  1839.  He  has 
composed  many  songs  and  pianoforte  numbers : 
as,  Mass  in  E  flat  (1894),  and  a  two-act  opera, 
'Casilda,'  still  in  manuscript.  He  completed  the 
opera  'Estrella,'  left  unfinished  by  the  composer, 
William  Vincent  Wallace,  at  his  death. 

Bassi,  bas'se,  Laura  Maria  Caterina,  Ital- 
ian philosopher:  b.  Bologna,  29  Oct.  171 1;  d.  20 
Feb.  1778.  She  received  a  doctor's  degree  as  an 
acknowledgment  of  her  attainments,  and  de- 
livered public  lectures  on  experimental  philoso- 
phy. She  also  lectured  in  the  Philosophical  Col- 
lege, where  she  was  appointed  professor.  Her 
correspondence  with  the  most  eminent  scholars 
of  Europe  was  very  extensive.  She  married 
Giuseppe  Verrati  in  1738  and  had  several  chil- 
dren. 

Bassi,  bas'se,  Ugo,  Barnabite  monk,  and 
distinguished  Italian  patriot :  b.  Cento,  in  the 
Roman  states  1804,  of  an  Italian  father  and 
Greek  mother.  He  was  much  distinguished 
among  the  brethren  for  his  extraordinary  learn- 
ing and  talents.  The  liberality  of  his  political 
opinions,  however,  rendered  him  obnoxious  to 
the  papal  court,  and  he  was  sent  into  exile  in 
Sicily,  from  which  he  returned  on  the  accession 
of  Pius  IX.  in  1846.  On  the  breaking  out  of 
the  Lombard  revolution  in  1848  he  greatly  dis- 
tinguished himself  by  his  valor  in  battle  and  his 
ui'.tiring  services  in  the  hospitals.  On  the  ca- 
pitulation of  Treviso  he  went  to  Venice,  where 
he  fought  in  the  ranks  against  her  Austrian  be- 
siegers. Thence  he  went  to  Rome  and  joined 
Garibaldi's  legion  as  chaplain.  On  the  fall  of 
Rome  he  was  one  of  those  who  followed  Gari- 
baldi when  he  made  a  last  attempt  to  fight  his 
way  to  Venice,  which  still  held  out  against  the 
Austrians.  The  little  band  was,  however,  dis- 
persed and  cut  up  bj'  Austrian  troops,  and  Gari- 
baldi himself  escaped  with  great  difficulty.  Bassi 
was  taken  prisoner,  carried  to  Bologna,  and  con- 
demned to  death  18  Aug.  1849.  He  was  the 
author  of  a  work  on  'The  Church  After  the 
Image  of  Christ,'  and  an  unfinished  poem  called 
'Constantine,  or  the  Triumph  of  the  Cross.' 
His  talents  were  universal.  He  was  an  accom- 
plished musician  and  composer,  wrote  his  own 
language  in  remarkable  perfection,  and  was  a 
perfect  master  of  Greek,  Latin,  English,  and 
French.  He  was  equally  remarkabl'"  for  his 
personal  beauty  and  his  eloquence  as  an  i}n- 
provisatore,  while  his  memory  was  so  prodigious 
that  he  is  said  to  have  been  capable  of  reciting 
the  whole  of  Dante's  'Divina  Commedia.' 

Bassia,  a  genus  of  tropical  trees  found  in 
the  East  Indies  and  Africa,  of  the  natural  order 
Sapotacece.  One  species  (J5.  parkii)  is  supposed 
to  be  the  shea-tree  of  Park,  the  fruit  of  which 


BASSOMPIERRE  —  BAST 


yields  a  kind  of  butter  that  is  highly  valued  and 
forms  an  important  article  of  commerce  in  the 
interior  of  Africa.  There  are  several  other  spe- 
cies, of  which  B.  longifolia,  or  Indian  oil-tree, 
and  B.  butyracea,  or  Indian  butter-tree,  are  well 
known  examples,  yielding  a  large  quantity  of 
oleaginous  or  butyraceous  matter.  The  wood 
is  as  hard  and  incorruptible  as  teak.  See  also 
Butter-tree. 

Bassompierre,  ba-s6n-pe-ar,  Frangois 
(fraa-swar)  de,  marshal  of  France,  one  of  the 
most  distinguished  men  of  the  courts  of  Henry 
IV.  and  Louis  XIII.,  descended  from  a  branch 
of  the  house  of  Cleves :  b.  Lorraine,  1579; 
d.  1646.  In  his  youth  he  studied  philoso- 
phy, jurisprudence,  medicine,  and  the  military 
art.  After  traveling  through  Italy  he  appeared 
at  the  court  of  Henry  IV.,  where  his  taste  for 
splendor,  play,  and  gallantr}'  soon  made  him 
conspicuous.  In  1600  he  made  his  first  cam- 
paign against  the  Duke  of  Savoy,  and  fought 
with  equal  distinction  in  the  following  year 
against  the  Turks.  His  love  of  France  soon 
called  hmi  back;  he  aspired  to  the  hand  of  the 
daughter  of  the  Constable  de  Montmorency, 
whose  charms  had  excited  the  most  violent 
passion  in  Henry  IV.  Bassompierre  yielded  to 
the  solicitations  of  his  king  and  renounced 
his  intended  union  with  her.  In  -1622  Louis 
XIII.  appointed  him  marshal  of  France,  and 
became  so  much  attached  to  him  that  Luynes, 
the  declared  favorite,  alarmed  at  his  growing 
influence,  insisted  upon  his  removal  from  court. 
Bassompierre  therefore  accepted  an  embassy, 
and  held  this  position  successively  in  Spain, 
Switzerland,  and  England.  After  his  return 
he  entered  again  into  the  military  service  and 
was  present  at  the  siege  of  Rochelle  and  iMont- 
auban.  Cardinal  Richelieu,  who  soon  after  ob- 
tained entire  control  of  the  king  and  the  coun- 
try, feared  the  boldness  of  Bassompierre  and 
his  secret  connection  with  the  house  of  Lor- 
raine ;  and  the  machinations  of  the  latter  served 
him  as  a  pretext  for  sending  Bassompierre,  in 
1631,  to  the  Bastille,  from  which  he  was  not 
released  till  1643,  after  the  death  of  the  cardi- 
nal. During  his  detention  he  occupied  himself 
with  his  memoirs  (first  published  at  Cologne, 
1665),  and  the  history  of  his  embassies  in 
Spain,  Switzerland,  and  England,  which  sheds 
much  light  on  the  events  of  that  time. 

Bassoon',  a  w' ooden  reed  instrument  which 
forms  the  natural  bass  to  the  oboe,  serving  as 
a  continuation  of  its  scale  downward.  The  reed 
is  fixed  to  a  crooked  mouthpiece  issuing  from 
the  side  of  the  bassoon.  The  holes  are  partly 
closed  by  the  fingers,  partly  by  means  of  keys. 
It  was  formerly  used  as  an  accompaniment  to 
the  oboe,  but  it  is  now  so  far  improved  with 
keys  as  to  be  susceptible  of  being  played  solo. 
Its  compass  is  more  than  three  octaves,  from 
low  B  flat  to  A  flat  in  the  treble;  but  its 
scale  is  complicated,  and  much  depends  upon 
the  player  and  even  upon  the  individual  instru- 
ment. It  consists  of  four  tubes  (besides  the 
mouthpiece),  bound  together  somewhat  like  a 
fagot.  Hence  the  Italians  term  it  fagotto,  and 
from  them  the  Germans  fagott.  It  forms,  when 
put  together,  a  continuous  tube  about  eight 
feet  long,_  but  as  the  bore  is  bent  abruptly 
back  on  itself  its  height  is  only  about  four 
feet.  In  music  designed  for  wind-instruments 
it  often  forms  the  bass.     It  is  capable  of  very 


fine  effects,  and  has  been  much  employed  by 
some  of  the  best  composers,  sometimes  as  a 
tenor  or  even  alto  instrument. 

Bassora,  bas-so'ra,  or  Basrah,  bas'ra,  Tur- 
key, a  city  situated  between  two  and  three  miles 
on  the  west  side  of  and  on  a  navigable  canal 
leading  from  the  Shat-el-Arab,  as  the  united 
stream  of  the  Tigris  and  Euphrates  is  called, 
about  half  way  between  the  Persian  Gulf  and  the 
junction  of  the  two  rivers.  The  Shat-el-Arab 
is  navigable  for  vessels  of  500  tons  to  Bassora, 
70  miles.  Merchants  from  Arabia,  Turkey.  Ar- 
menia, and  Greece,  also  Jews  and  Indians,  reside 
here,  and  it  is  the  station  of  a  United  States 
consul.  The  Arabs  are  more  numerous  than 
the  Turks,  and  their  language  is  chiefly  spoken. 
The  city  is  surrounded  by  a  wall  about  10  miles 
in  circuit,  20  to  25  feet  thick.  The  houses  are 
generally  mean,  partly  constructed  of  clay,  and 
tl  e  bazaars  are  miserable  edifices.  A  consider- 
able trade  is  carried  on.  Mail  steamers  run 
between  Bombay  and  Bassora,  and  there  are 
also  other  steamers  trading  here.  Dates  form 
the  principal  export;  camels  and  horses,  galls, 
gum,  carpets,  wool,  and  wheat  are  also  exported; 
total  exports  over  $5,000,000  annually.  The  im- 
ports are  coft'ee,  rice,  spices,  textiles,  etc.  The 
trade  of  the  interior  is  conducted  by  means  of 
caravans.  The  town  is  dirty  and  unhealthy ; 
the  environs  are  very  fertile.  The  modern  Bas- 
sora arose  in  the  17th  century,  and  does  not 
occupy  the  site  of  the  older  town,  whose  ruins 
lie  about  nine  miles  southwest  of  it.  Pop.  about 
30,000.  The  vilayet  of  Bassora  has  an  area 
of  16,482  square  miles,  and  a  population  of  about 
200,000. 

Bassora  Gum,  a  gum  brought  from  Bas- 
sora ;  supposed  to  be  derived  either  from  a 
cactus  or  a  mesembrj'anthemum. 

Bassorin,  a  kind  of  mucilage  found  in  gum 
tragacanth  (sometimes  called  adraganthin), 
which  forms  a  jelly  with  water  but  does  not 
dissolve  in  it.  A  clear,  aqueous-looking  liquid, 
apparently  of  the  nature  of  Bassorin,  exists 
in  the  large  cells  of  the  tubercular  roots  of  some 
terrestrial  orchids  of  the  section  Ophyrecc.  It 
is  formed  of  minute  cells,  each  with  its  cytoblast ; 
the  whole  being  compactly  aggregated  in  the 
interior  of  the  parent  cell. 

Bassville,  bas-vel,  Nicolas  Jean  Hugon  de, 

French  journalist  and  diplomatist.  As  editor 
of  the  Merciire  National  he  attracted  attention  to 
himself  and  was  appointed  secretary  to  the 
legation  at  Naples  in  1792.  Soon  after  this  he 
was  despatched  to  Rome,  where  he  was  killed, 
in  1793,  by  the  populace  for  attempting,  under 
orders  of  the  French  government,  to  oblige  all 
French  residents  to  wear  the  tricolor  cockade. 
The  death  of  Bassville  has  furnished  the  sub- 
ject for  many  compositions  in  both  prose  and 
verse,  in  French  and  Italian. 

Basswood,  the  American  linden,  or  lime- 
tree   (q.v.). 

Bast,  or  Bass,  the  thin  layer  of  fibrous 
tissue  formed  by,  but  outside  the  layer  of  cam- 
bium (q.v.),  or  in  popular  phrase  the  inner  bark 
of  dicotyledonous  shrubs  and  trees.  Less  fre- 
quently it  occurs  in  the  leaves  and  pith  of  dicoty- 
ledonous herbs  and  in  the  stems  of  certain  mon- 
ocotvledonous  plants  in  which  it  is  not  easily 
distinguished  from  the  wood.  By  extension 
the  term  is  also  applied  to  the  phloem  portion 


BAST  — BASTARD 


of  the  vascular  system  (q.v.)  of  flowering  plants 
and  ferns.  For  the  plant,  as  well  as  for  mercan- 
tile purposes,  bast  is  highly  important,  for 
until  it  becomes  changed  into  wood,  it  conducts 
the  elaborated  food  from  the  green  tissue  to 
regions  of  use  or  storage.  The  bast  cells  are 
disposed  and  developed  variously  in  diflferent 
plants ;  occurring  in  rows,  wreaths,  more  or  less 
spread  bundles,  or  single  within  the  paren- 
chyma. In  some  plants  bast  is  formed  but 
once,  in  others  every  year.  Some  fibres  are 
simple,  others  branched ;  some  priinary,  others 
secondary;  some  ever  limber,  and  some  change 
to  wood.  They  are  most  developed  toward  the 
outside  of  the  stem.  While  young  they  contain 
a  granulary  liquid,  which  disappears  by  the 
thickening  of  their  walls.  Young  bast  cells  when 
treated  by  a  solution  of  iodine  and  chloride  of 
zinc,  become  pale  blue,  the  older  ones  violet,  the 
full-grown  pink.  Thickened  cells  are  plainly 
stratified,  and  their  walls  often  become  contigu- 
ous by  the  disappearance  of  the  cavity.  The 
walls  exhibit  various  designs,  spiral  or  other 
lines,  more  or  less  constantly,  according  to 
the  species  of  the  plant.  By  microscopical  exam- 
ination and  chemical  analysis  the  nature  of  the 
various  fabrics  made  of  bast  may  be  determined. 
Thomson  and  F.  Baur  have  thus  demonstrated 
the  sheets  around  Egyptian  mummies  to  be  of 
linen.  The  degree  of  contraction,  of  twisting, 
the  length,  density,  and  form  of  the  single  cells 
of  the  bast  vary  in  different  plants.  They  are 
very  long  in  flax,  hemp,  in  some  nettles,  spurges. 
etc.,  very  short  in  cinchona.  Cotton  consists  of 
long  hairs,  and  not  of  bast  cells,  which  it  very 
much  resembles  otherwise.  The  bast  cells  of 
monocotyledenous  plants  are  mostl)'  lignified. 
They  conduct  elaborated  food  but  a  short  time, 
become  filled  w-ith  air,  and  thus  dead  to  the 
plant.  The  unlignified  are  very  hygroscopic  and 
often  contain  chlorophyll.  No  bast  cell  has  pits, 
but  the  coniferae  have  sieve  pores  or  canals. 
The  uses  of  bast  are  manifold.  Flax  bast  is 
soft,  flexible,  seldom  with  swellings ;  hemp  bast 
is  very  long,  stiller  and  thicker  than  flax,  more 
stratified;  nettle  {Urtica  dioica)  bast  resem- 
bles cotton,  has  swellings  and  is  thicker  than 
hemp.  Branched  and  lignified  bast  cells  of  great 
beauty  are  found  in  the  mangrove  tree  (Rhiso- 
phora  mangle)  and  the  secondary  ones  of  Abies 
pectinata.  Among  the  monocotyledonous  bast 
fibres,  those  of  the  New  Zealand  flax  (Phormium 
tenax)  are  the  most  remarkable,  being  fonned 
in  bundles  near  the  margin  of  leaves.  They 
resemble  hemp,  are  very  white,  sometimes  j^el- 
lowish,  very  long,  and  contain  much  lignin, 
in  consequence  of  which  they  are  somewhat  stiff, 
but  very  tough  and  fit  for  stout  ropes.  In 
palms  a  highly  developed  body  of  lignified  bast 
surrounds  the  vascular  bundles,  while  bast  bun- 
dles are  found  also  in  the  bark,  leaves,  and 
interior  of  the  stem.  A  similar  disposition 
exists  in  the  Dracaena  reflcxa,  and  in  some 
Aroidece.  Everybody  knows  the  tenacity  of  the 
bast  of  the  lime  tree,  which  is  hence  called  bass- 
wood.  The  Chinese  grass-cloth  is  made  of 
Boehmeria  nivea  or  B.  tenacissima.  Manila 
Jsemp  comes  from  Miisa  textiUs;  rice  bags  are 
made  in  East  India  from  Aiitiaris  toxicaria. 
From  the  use  of  bast  in  ancient  times  for 
writing  upon,  the  Latin  name  of  bast,  liber,  has 
been  applied  to  designate  book.  See  also  Fibre  ; 
Flax;  Hemp;  Jute;  R.\mie. 


Bast,  in  Egyptian  mj'thology,  a  goddess 
represented  with  the  head  of  a  cat  or  lione'.ij. 
Bubastis,  in  Egj'pt,  was  the  city  where  she  held  a 
high  place,  similar  to  that  of  Neith  in  Sais. 
Nearly  a  million  Egyptians  made  annual  pilgrim- 
ages to  her  shrine.  Great  numbers  of  bronze 
images  of  Bast  were  purchased  in  Bubastis. 

Bastable,  C.  P.,  Irish  political  economist: 
b.  Charleville,  County  Cork,  Ireland,  1855,  and 
since  1882  a  professor  of  political  economy  in 
Dublin  University.  He  is  the  author  of  *An 
Examination  of  Some  Objections  to  the  Study 
of  Political  Economy-'  (1884)  ;  "^The  Commerce 
of  Nations^  (1892)  ;  "^Public  Finance^  (1895)  : 
*The  Theory  of  International  Trade'    (1897). 

Bastar,  a  feudatory  state  of  British  India, 
joined  with  the  Chanda  district  of  the  Central 
Provinces.  It  has  an  area  of  13,062  square 
miles.     Pop.   (1891)   310,884. 

Bastard,  one  begotten  and  born  out  of 
lawful  w^edlock,  or  born  during  wedlock  where 
the  husband  was  under  the  age  of  puberty,  or 
where  the  husband  had  died  at  such  a  time  that 
there  was  no  possibility  of  his  being  the  father, 
or  where  there  was  no  possibility  of  access  on 
the  part  of  the  husband  on  account  of  his 
absence  from  the  country,  or  where  the  hus- 
band labored  under  a  disability  due  to  some 
natural  infirmity. 

The  Romans  distinguished  two  kinds  of  nat- 
ural children  —  notlii,  the  issue  of  concubinage, 
and  spuriij  the  children  of  prostitutes;  the  former 
could  inherit  from  the  mother,  and  were  entitled 
to  support  from  the  father ;  the  latter  had  no 
claims  whatever  to  support.  Both  were  often 
raised  to  all  the  rights  of  legitimate  children  by 
affiliation.  The  Athenians  treated  all  bastards 
with  extreme  rigor.  By  the  laws  of  Solon,  they 
were  denied  the  rights  of  citizenship,  and  a  law 
of  Pericles  ordered  the  sale  of  5,000  bastards 
as  slaves.  What  rendered  these  regulations 
more  severe  was,  that  not  only  the  issue  of 
concubinage  and  adultery,  but  all  children  whose 
parents  were  not  both  Athenians,  were  consid- 
ered bastards  at  Athens.  Thus  Themistocles, 
whose  mother  was  a  native  of  Halicarnassus, 
was  deemed  a  bastard.  The  law,  as  might  be 
expected,  was  often  set  aside  by  the  influence 
of  powerful  citizens.  Pericles  himself  had  it 
repealed  in  favor  of  his  son  by  Aspasia,  after  he 
had  lost  his  legitimate  children  by  the  plague. 
The  condition  of  bastards  has  been  different  in 
different  periods  of  modern  history.  Among 
the  Goths  and  Franks,  they  were  permitted  to 
inherit  from  the  father.  Thiery,  the  natural  son 
of  Clovis,  inherited  a  share  of  his  father's  con- 
quests. William  the  Conqueror,  natural  son  of 
Robert  I.,  Duke  of  Normandy,  and  of  Arlette, 
daughter  of  a  furrier  of  Falaise,  inherited  his 
father's  dominions.  He  called  himself  Willel- 
miis,  cognomcnto  Batardus.  The  celebrated 
Dunois  styled  himself,  in  his  letters,  the  Bastard 
of  Orleans.  In  Spain,  bastards  have  always 
been  capable  of  inheriting.  The  bastardy  of 
Henry  of  Transtamare  did  not  prevent  his  acces- 
sion to  the  throne  of  Castile.  In  France,  the 
condition  of  bastards  was  formerly  very  differ- 
ent in  the  different  provinces.  Since  the  Revolu- 
tion, it  has  been  regulated  in  a  uniform  manner 
by  the  general  law  of  the  kingdom.  The  code 
civil  thiis  fixes  their  rights:  If  the  father  or 
mother  leave  legitimate  descendants,  the  bastard 
is  entitled  to  one  third  of  the  portion  he  would 


BASTARD  BAR  — BASTIAT 


have  inherited  had  he  been  a  lawful  child;  if 
the  father  or  mother  die  without  descendants, 
but  leave  ascendants,  or  brothers  or  sisters,  he  is 
then  entitled  to  one  half  of  such  a  portion;  if 
the  father  or  mother  leave  no  ascendants  nor 
descendants,  nor  brothers  nor  sisters,  he  is  en- 
titled to  three  quarters  of  such  a  portion ;  and 
if  the  father  or  mother  leave  no  relations  within 
the  degrees  of  succession,  he  is  entitled  to  the 
whole  property.  These  regulations  do  not  apply- 
to  the  issue  of  an  incestuous  or  adulterous  con- 
nection. 

By  the  common  law  of  England,  a  child  born 
after  marriage,  however  soon,  is  legitimate,  or 
at  least  he  is  presumed  to  be  so ;  for  one 
born  in  wedlock,  and  long  enough  after  the 
marriage  to  admit  of  the  period  of  gestation, 
may  still  be  proved  illegitimate,  under  some  cir- 
cumstances, and  this  is  the  general  rule  in  the 
United  States.  According  to  the  common  law, 
a  bastard  is  not  the  heir  of  any  one  ;  and,  on  the 
other  hand,  his  only  heirs  are  his  children  born 
in  wedlock,  and  their  descendants.  According 
to  the  Roman  law,  one  born  out  of  wedlock 
might  be  legitimated  by  subsequent  marriage  and 
acknowledgment  of  his  parents.  In  1236  the 
English  prelates  proposed  the  introduction  of  the 
Roman  law,  in  this  respect,  into  England,  to 
which  the  nobility  made  the  celebrated  reply, 
A^oliunus  leges  A)iglice  mutare  (We  are  unwill- 
ing to  change  the  laws  of  England).  See  Schou- 
ler,  ^Treatise  on  the  Law  of  Domestic  Rela- 
tions.^ 

Bastard  Bar,  the  ordinary  name  given  to 
the  heraldic  mark  used  to  indicate  illegitimate 
descent.  Properly  speaking,  it  is  not  a  bar  at 
all,  which  is  a  band  stretching  horizontally 
across  the  shield,  but  a  baton  sinister ;  that  is, 
it  stretches  diagonally  across  the  shield  in  the 
direction  of  the  sinister  chief  and  the  dexter 
base,  but  is  couped  or  cut  short  at  the  ends, 
so  as  not  to  touch  the  corners  of  the  shield. 
This  circumstance  serves  to  distinguish  the 
bastard  bar  from  the  bend  sinister,  as  well  as 
the  fact  that  the  former  is  only  one  fourth 
of  the  breadth  of  the  latter.  When  belonging 
to  the  illegitimate  descendants  of  royalty  it 
may  be  of  metal ;  but  in  other  cases  it  must 
be  of  color,  even  when  on  another  color.  This 
mark  in  heraldry  is  of  comparatively  recent 
origin,  bastards  in  earlier  times,  not  having  been 
allowed  to  bear  the  arms  of  their  fathers.  It 
cannot  be  removed  until  three  generations  have 
borne  it,  and  not  even  then  unless  replaced  by 
some  other  mark  assigned  by  the  king  of  arms, 
or  unless  the  coat  is  changed.  Sometimes  per- 
mission was  granted  to  a  bastard  or  one  of  his 
descendants  to  bear  it  dexter  instead  of  sin- 
ister, although  he  was  not  allowed  to  cancel  it 
altogether. 

Bastard  of  Orleans,  the  name  given  to  the 
natural  son  of  Louis,  brother  of  Charles  VI. 
of  France,  Jean  Dunois  b.  1402;  d.  1468.  On 
account  of  his  exploits  in  the  Hundred  Years' 
war  he  was  created  Count  of  Orleans. 

Bastarnae,  the  earliest  Teutonic  people 
mentioned  in  history.  They  migrated  from  the 
region  of  the  Vistula  to  the  Lower  Danube 
about  200  B.C.  See  Keane,  ^Man:  Past  and 
Present^    (1899). 

Bastia,  the  former  capital  of  the  island  of 
Corsica.  q8  miles  northeast  of  Ajaccio  by  rail. 
It  is  badly  built,  has  narrow   streets,  a  strong 


citadel  near  the  sea,  and  a  spacious  but  not 
very  well  sheltered  harbor.  The  inhabitants 
carry  on  a  considerable  trade  in  manufactured 
goods,  hides,  wine,  oil,  wax  candles,  liquors, 
and  maccaroni.  The  stilettoes  manufactured 
here  are  held  in  great  esteem  by  the  Italians. 
In  1745  Bastia  was  taken  by  the  British,  and 
in  1768  was  united  with  France.  On  the  new 
division  of  the  French  territories  (1791)  Bastia 
was  made  the  capital  of  the  department  of  Cor- 
sica, of  which  at  present  Ajaccio  is  the  capital. 
Bastia  is  still,  however,  the  commercial  and 
industrial  capital  of  the  island  and  a  United 
States  consul  is  stationed  here.  Pop.  (1900) 
22,522. 

Bastian,  Adolf,  German  traveler  and  an- 
thropologist: b.  Bremen,  26  June  1826.  He  has 
made  extended  journeys  throughout  Australia, 
Asia,  America,  and  West  Africa  at  various  peri- 
ods of  his  career,  and  his  explorations  have 
been  prosecuted  in  such  widely  sundered  coun- 
tries as  Yucatan,  New  Zealand,  and  Persia.  At 
the  age  of  70  he  started  on  an  exploring  voyage 
to  the  Malay  Archipelago.  He  has  been  pro- 
fessor of  ethnology  in  the  University  of  Berlin, 
director  of  the  Museum  fiir  Volkerfunde.  and 
in  1901  became  editor  of  the  'Ethnographisches 
Notizblatt,^  published  in  Berlin.  His  nearly  60 
works  deal  with  the  various  aspects  of  an- 
thropology, his  range  being  broad  and  his 
services  in  behalf  of  science  of  the  greatest 
value.  Among  his  many  volumes  may  be 
named  ^Der  Mensch  in  der  Geschichte'  (i860)  ; 
'Ethnographische  Forschungen*  (1871-3)  ; 
'Der  Buddhismus  in  seiner  Psychologic* 
(1882)  ;  <Der  Fetisch  an  der  Kiiste  Guineas' 
(1884)  ;  'Vorgeschichtliche  Schopfungslieder* 
(1893)  ;  ^Die  Nikronesischen  Kolonien*  (1899- 
1900)  ;  'Die  Volkerkunde  und  der  Volker- 
werkehr'    (1900). 

Bastian,  Henry  Charlton,  English  physi- 
cian and  biologist :  b.  Truro,  26  April  1837. 
He  obtained  the  degree  of  M.A.  in  1861  from 
the  University  of  London,  graduating  subse- 
quently in  medicine  at  the  same  university.  In 
1864-6  he  was  a  medical  officer  in  Broadmoor 
Criminal  Lunatic  Asj'lum,  and  in  the  latter  year 
was  appointed  lecturer  on  pathology  and  as- 
sistant phj'sician  in  St.  Mary's  Hospital.  In 
1867  he  became  professor  of  pathological  ?nat- 
omy  in  University  College,  and  in  1878  he  was 
also  appointed  professor  of  clinical  medicine. 
In  1887-95  'le  was  professor  of  the  principles 
and  practice  of  medicine.  Apart  from  numer- 
ous contributions  to  medical  and  other  period- 
icals, and  to  Quain's  'Dictionary  of  Medicine,' 
his  works  include  'The  Modes  of  Origin  of 
Lowest  Organisms'  (1871)  ;  'The  Beginnings 
of  Life'  (1872)  ;  'Evolution  and  the  Origin  of 
Life'  (1874)  ;  'Lectures  on  Paralysis  from. 
Brain  Disease'  (1875)  ;  'The  Brain  as  an  Or- 
gan of  Mind'  (1880),  which  has  been  trans- 
lated into  French  and  German;  'Paralysis: 
Cerebral,  Bulbar,  and  Spinal'  (1886)  ;  <A 
Treatise  on  Aphasia  and  other  Speech  Defects' 
(1898).  He  is  a  recognized  authority  in  the 
pathology  of  the  nervous  system  and  an  ad- 
vocate of  the  doctrine  of  spontaneous  genera- 
tion. 

Bastiat,  Frederic,  a  distinguished  French 
political  economist :  b.  Bayonne,  19  June  1801 ; 
d.  Rome,  24  Dec.  1850.  He  entered  in  1818  the 
counting-house  of  his  uncle  at  Bayonne,  but  he 


BASTIDE 


felt  no  enjoyment  in  the  routine  of  mercantile 
life,  and  in  1825  retired  to  a  property  at  Mu- 
gron,  of  which  he  became  possessor  on  the 
death  of  his  grandfather.  Thus  withdrawn 
from  society  he  devoted  himself  with  eagerness 
to  meditation  and  study,  mastering  the  English 
and  Italian  languages  and  literatures,  specula- 
ting on  the  problems  of  philosophy  and  religion, 
and  digesting  the  doctrines  of  Adam  Smith  and 
Say,  of  Charles  Compte  and  Dunoyer.  In  1845 
he  came  to  Paris  in  order  to  superintend  the 
publication  of  his  *Cobden  et  la  Ligue,  ou  I'agi- 
tation  Anglaise  pour  la  liberie  des  echanges,' 
and  was  very  cordially  received  by  the  econo- 
mists of  the  capital ;  from  Paris  he  went  to 
London  and  Manchester,  and  made  the  personal 
acquaintance  of  Cobden,  Bright,  and  other  lead- 
ers of  the  league.  When  he  returned  to  France 
he  found  that  his  writings  had  been  exerting 
a  powerful  influence;  and  in  1846  he  assisted  in 
organizing  at  Bordeaux  the  first  French  Free 
Trade  Association.  He  wrote  in  rapid  succes- 
sion a  series  of  brilliant  and  effective  pamphlets 
and  essays,  showing  how  socialism  was  con- 
nected with  protection,  and  exposing  the  delu- 
sions on  which  it  rested.  While  thus  occupied 
he  was  meditating  the  composition  of  a  great 
constructive  work,  meant  to  renovate  economical 
science  by  basing  it  on  the  principle  that  "inter- 
ests left  to  themselves  tend  to  harmonious  com- 
binations, and  to  the  progressive  preponderance 
of  the  general  good.*  The  first  volume  of  this 
work,  *Les  Harmonies  ficonomiques,'  was  pub- 
lished in  the  beginning  of  1850.  The  life  work 
of  Bastiat,  in  order  to  be  fairly  appreciated,  re- 
quires to  be  considered  in  three  aspects,  (i) 
He  was  the  advocate  of  free  trade,  the  opponent 
of  protection.  The  general  theory  of  free  trade 
had,  of  course,  been  clearly  stated  and  solidly 
established  before  he  was  born,  and  his  desire 
to  see  its  principles  acted  on  in  France  was 
quickened  and  confirmed  by  the  agitation  of  the 
Anti-Corn-Law  League  for  their  realization  .in 
England,  but  as  no  one  denies  it  to  h::ve  been 
a  great  merit  in  Cobden  to  have  seen  so  dis- 
tinctly and  comprehensively  the  bearing  of 
economical  truths  which  he  did  not  discover, 
no  one  should  deny  it  to  have  been  also  a 
great  merit  in  Bastiat.  He  did  far  more  than 
merely  restate  the  already  familiar  truths  of 
free  trade.  He  showed  as  no  one  before  him 
had  done  how  they  were  applicable  in  the  vari- 
ous spheres  of  French  agriculture,  trade,  and 
commerce.  Now  the  abstract  theory  of  free 
trade  is  of  comparatively  little  value ;  its  elab- 
oration so  as  to  cover  details,  its  concrete  ap- 
plication, and  its  varied  illustration  are  equally 
essential.  And  in  these  respects  it  owes  more, 
perhaps,  to  Bastiat  than  to  any  other  economist. 
In  the  *Sophismes  ficonomiques^  we  have  the 
completest  and  most  effective,  the  wisest  and 
the  wittiest  exposure  of  protectionism  in  its 
principles,  reasonings,  and  consequences  which 
exists  in  any  language.  (2)  He  was  the  op- 
ponent of  socialism.  In  this  respect  also  he  had 
no  equal  among  the  economists  of  France.  He 
alone  fought  socialism  hand  to  hand,  body  to 
body,  as  it  were,  not  caricaturing  it,  not  de- 
nouncing it,  not  criticising  under  its  name 
some  merely  abstract  theory,  but  taking  it  as 
actually  presented  by  its  most  popular  repre- 
sentatives, considering  patiently  their  proposals 
and  arguments,  and  proving  conclusively  that 
they     proceed     on     false     principles,     reasoned 


badly,  and  sought  to  realize  generous  aims  by 
foolish  and  harmful  means.  Nowhere  will  rea- 
son find  a  richer  armory  of  weapons  available 
against  socialism  than  in  the  pamphlets  pub- 
hshed  by  Bastiat  between  1848  and  1850.  These 
pamphlets  will  live,  it  is  to  be  hoped,  at  least 
as  long  as  the  errors  which  they  expose.  (3) 
He  attempted  to  expound  in  an  original  and 
independent  manner  political  economy  as  a 
science.  In  combating  first  the  protectionists 
and  afterward  the  socialists,  there  gradually 
rose  on  his  mind  a  conception  which  seemed  to 
him  to  shed  a  flood  of  light  over  the  whole  of 
economical  doctrine,  and,  indeed,  over  the  whole 
theory  of  society,  namely,  the  harmony  of  the  es- 
sential tendencies  of  human  nature.  The  radi- 
cal error,  he  became  always  more  convinced, 
both  of  protectionism  and  socialism,  was  the 
assumption  that  human  interests,  if  left  to  them- 
selves, would  inevitably  prove  antagonistic  and 
anti-social,  capital  robbing  labor,  manufactures 
ruining  agriculture,  the  foreigner  injuring  the 
native,  the  consumer  the  producer,  etc. ;  and  the 
chief  weakness  of  the  various  schools  of  po- 
litical economy,  he  believed  he  had  discovered 
in  their  imperfect  apprehension  of  the  truth  that 
human  interests,  when  left  to  themselves,  when 
not  arbitrarily  and  forcibly  interfered  with,  tend 
to  |iarmonious  combination,  to  the  general  good. 
Such  was  the  point  of  view  from  which  Bas- 
tiat sought  to  expound  the  whole  of  economical 
science.  The  sphere  of  that  science  he  limited 
to  exchange,  and  he  drew  a  sharp  distinction 
between  utility  and  value.  Political  economy 
he  defined  as  the  theory  of  value,  and  value  as 
^*the  relation  of  two  services  exchanged."  The 
latter  definition  he  deemed  of  supreme  im- 
portance. It  appeared  to  him  to  correct  what 
was  defective  or  erroneous  in  the  conflicting 
definitions  of  value  given  by  Adam  Smith,  Say, 
Ricardo,  Senior,  Storch,  etc.,  to  preserve  and 
combine  what  was  true  in  them,  and  to  afford 
a  basis  for  a  more  consistent  and  developed 
economical  theory  than  had  previously  been 
presented.  It  has,  however,  found  little  accept- 
ance, and  Roscher,  Cairnes,  and  others  seem  to 
have  shown  it  to  be  ambiguous  and  misleading. 
A  consequence  of  it  on  which  he  laid  great 
stress  was  that  the  gratuitous  gifts  of  nature, 
whatever  be  their  utility,  are  incapable  of  acquir- 
ing value  —  what  is  gratuitous  for  man  in  an 
isolated  state  remaining  gratuitous  in  a  social 
condition.  Thus,  land,  according  to  Bastiat,  is 
as  gratuitous  to  men  at  the  present  day  as  to 
their  first  parents,  the  rent  which  is  paid  for  it, — 
its  so-called  value, —  being  merely  the  return 
for  the  labor  and  capital  which  have  been  ex- 
pended on  its  improvement.  In  the  general 
opinion  of  economists  he  has  failed  to  establish 
this  doctrine,  failed  to  show  that  the  properties 
and  forces  of  nature  cannot  be  so  appropriated 
as  to  acquire  value.  His  theory  of  rent  is 
nearly  the  same  as  Carey's,  that  is,  decidedly 
anti-Ricardian.  His  views  on  the  growth  of 
capital  and  interest,  on  landed  property,  competi- 
tion, consumption,  wages,  and  population,  are 
independent,  and,  if  not  unqualifiedly  true,  at 
least  richly  suggestive. 

Bastide,  Jules,  French  statesman:  b.  Paris, 
21  Nov.  1800;  d.  1879.  Early  a  democrat,  he 
could  never  cease  to  labor  for  the  downfall  of 
the  Bourbon  monarchy,  and  fought  hard  in  the 
revolution  of  July  1830.  He  was  also  opposed 
to     I  he     Orleans     monarchy.       Condemned     to 


BASTIEN-LEPAGE  —  BASTION 


death  for  his  share  in  the  insurrection  of  5  June 
1832,  he  escaped  from  prison  and  fled  to  Eng- 
land, where  he  resided  two  years.  He  returned 
in  1834,  and  was  acquitted.  After  the  death  of 
Armand  Carrel  he  became  chief  editor  of  the 
National  new'spaper.  This  place  he  resigned 
in  1846  and  founded  the  Revue  Nationale  in 
1847.  He  rendered  great  assistance  to  Lamar- 
tine  in  the  office  of  the  ministry  of  foreign 
aflfairs,  and  was  minister  for  foreign  affairs 
from  10  May  to  20  Dec.  1848.  lie  retired  to 
private  life  after  the  coup  d'etat  of  1852.  He 
was  the  author  of  ^La  republique  frangaise  et 
ritalie  en  1848^  (1858)  ;  'Guerres  de  religion 
en  France'    (1859). 

Bastien-Lepage,  bast-yen'-le-pazh,  Jules, 
French  painter :  b.  Damvilliers,  i  Nov.  1848 ; 
d.  10  Dec.  1884.  He  studied  under  Cabanel, 
and  early  began  to  attract  notice  by  his  im- 
pressionist pictures  in  the  Salon.  Some  of  his 
more  important  works  were  'In  Spring,'  'The 
First  Communion,'  'The  Shepherds,'  'The 
Potato  Harvest,'  '  The  Wheat-field,'  'The 
Beggar,'  and  'Joan  of  Arc  Listening  to  the 
Voices.'  His  most  striking  portraits  were 
those  of  his  grandfather,  his  father  and  mother, 
Sarah  Bernhardt,  Andre  Theuriet,  and  the 
Prince  of  Wales.  He  was  made  a  chevalier  of 
the  Legion  of  Honor  in  1879.  See  Theuriet, 
<J.  Bastien-Lepage,  I'homme  et  I'artist'    (1885). 

Bastile,  the  state  prison  and  citadel  of 
Paris,  built  to  protect  the  palace  of  Charles  V. 
against  the  incursions  of  the  Burgundians,  and 
destroyed  by  the  mob  in  the  beginning  of  the 
Revolution  in  1789,  after  an  existence  of  over 
four  centuries.  It  was  founded  by  Hugues 
d'Aubriot  in  1369,  and  completed  by  the  addi- 
tion of  four  towers  in  1383. 

Lettres  de  cachet  were  issued  in  the  name 
of  the  king,  but  the  names  of  the  individuals 
were  inserted  by  the  ministers,  who  were  the 
depositaries  of  these  letters.  Of  the  origin  of 
this  custom  we  may  perhaps  find  the  explana- 
tion in  Montesquieu's  Esprit  des  Lois,  where 
it  is  said,  "Honor  is  the  virtue  of  monarchies, 
and  often  supplies  its  place."  A  nobleman  was 
unwilling  to  be  dishonored  by  a  member  of  his 
family.  Filial  disobedience  and  unworthy  con- 
duct w-ere  probably,  not  more  uncommon  among 
the  nobility  of  France  than  elsewhere.  But  in 
such  cases  fathers  and  relations  often  requested 
the  confinement  of  the  offender  until  the  head  of 
the  family  should  express  a  wish  for  his  re- 
lease. At  first  this  privilege  was  limited  to  the 
chief  families  of  the  country.  The  next  step 
was,  that  the  ministers  of  government  consid- 
ered themselves  entitled  to  the  same  privileges 
as  heads  of  families  among  the  nobility.  If  an 
offense  was  committed  in  their  offices  or  house- 
holds, which,  if  known,  would  have  cast  a 
shadow  upon  the  ministers  themselves,  they 
arrested,  motu  propria,  the  obnoxious  indi- 
viduals, and  often  made  use  of  their  privilege 
to  put  out  of  sight  persons  whose  honest  dis- 
charge of  duty  had  excited  their  displeasure, 
or  who  w^ere  acquainted  with  facts  disgraceful 
to  the  ministers  themselves.  It  sometimes  hap- 
pened that  no  further  examination  of  the  pris- 
oners was  held,  and  the  cause  of  their  detention 
nowhere  recorded.  In  such  cases  an  individual 
remained  in  prison  sometimes  30  or  40  3'ears, 
or  even  till  his  death,  because  succeeding  officers 
took  it   for  granted  that  he  had  been  properly 


confiiied,  or  that  his  imprisonment  was  re- 
quired for  reasons  of  state.  The  invention  of 
the  lettres  de  cachet  immediately  opened  the 
door  to  the  tyranny  of  ministers  and  the  in- 
trigues of  favorites,  who  supplied  themselves 
with  these  orders,  in  order  to  confine  individuals 
who  had  become  obnoxious  to  them.  These 
arrests  became  continually  more  arbitrary,  and 
men  of  the  greatest  merit  were  liable  to  be 
thrown  into  prison  whenever  they  happened  to 
displease  a  minister,  a  favorite,  or  a  mistress. 
On  14  July  1789  the  Bastile  was  surrounded 
by  a  tumultuous  mob,  who  first  attempted  to 
negotiate  with  the  governor  Delaunay,  but  when 
these  negotiations  failed,  began  to  attack  the 
fortress.  For  several  hours  the  mob  continued 
their  siege  without  being  able  to  effect  any- 
thing more  than  an  entrance  into  the  outer 
court  of  the  Bastile ;  but  at  last  the  arrival  of 
some  of  the  Royal  Guard  with  a  few  pieces  of 
artillery  forced  the  governor  to  let  down  the 
second  drawbridge  and  admit  the  populace.  The 
governor  was  seized,  but  on  the  way  to  the 
hotel  de  ville  was  torn  from  his  captors  and 
put  to  death."  The  next  day  the  destruction  of 
the  Bastile  began,  and  a  bronze  column  now 
marks  its  site.  The  event  considered  by  itself 
was  of  no  great  national  importance,  but  it 
marked  the  beginning  of  the  French  revolution. 
Much  exaggeration  took  place  in  relation 
to  the  discoveries  said  to  be  made  in  its  demo- 
lition, especially  those  in  relation  to  one  Count 
de  Lorges;  but  it  is  sufficiently  established  that 
there  was  no  such  person  in  existence,  much 
less  in  the  Bastile.  No  exaggeration,  however, 
was  needed.  Seven  persons  only  \vere  found 
in  its  cells  and  dungeons ;  one,  the  Count  de 
Solage,  a  prisoner  since  his  nth  year;  another, 
Tavernier,  the  son  of  Paris  Duverney,  who, 
after  10  years  at  the  Isles  ^Marguerites,  had 
passed  30  years  in  the  Bastile,  and  who  re- 
appeared on  his  liberation,  bewildered,  with  a 
broken  intellect,  like  a  man  awakened  from  a 
sleep  of  40  years,  to  a  new  world  compared  with 
that  on  which  he  had  closed  his  eyes.  Records 
of  horrors  even  worse  than  this  were  found  in- 
scribed on  the  registers  of  the  prison.  Two 
will  suffice.  They  are  the  names  of  Father 
Theodore  Fleurand,  of  Brandenburg,  a  Capu- 
chin, retained  many  years  on  suspicion  of  being 
a  spy ;  and  of  one  Lcbar,  arrested  at  76  and 
dead  at  90  years.  Nearly  50  years  before  Cag- 
liostro  scrawled  on  the  walls  of  his  cell:  "The 
Bastile  shall  be  demolished,  and  the  people  shall 
dance  on  the  area  where  it  stood."  This 
prophecy,  at  least,  of  the  empiric  and  impostor, 
was  realized  to  the  letter.  It  was  the  Car- 
magnole which  they  danced  about  the  liberty 
trees  to  the  tune  of  the  'Ca  Ira.'  See  Arnold, 
'Histoire  de  la  Bastile'  (1845-59);  Bingham, 
'The  Bastile'  (1888)  ;  Funck-Brentano,  'The 
Bastile'    (1900). 

Bastinado,  a  punishment  employed  by  the 
Turks,  which  consists  of  blows  upon  the  back 
or  soles  of  the  feet,  applied  with  a  light  wooden 
stick  or  with  a  knotted  string. 

Bastion,  a  flanking  tower  in  mediaeval 
fortification,  from  which  archers  and  war  ma- 
chines could  direct  their  projectiles  on  the 
storming  enemy  while  he  was  held  in  check  by 
the  ditch.  On  the  introduction  of  artillery  into 
Europe  towers  were  made  considerably  larger 
than  formerly,  and  ultimately,  in  the  beginning 


BASTON  — BAT 


of  the  i6th  century,  the  Italian  engineers  made 
them  polygonal  instead  of  round  or  square,  thus 
forming  a  bastion.  This  is  an  irregular  penta- 
gon, one  side  of  which  is  turned  inward  toward 
the  tower,  so  that  the  opposite  salient  angle 
faces  the  open  field.  The  two  longer  sides,  en- 
closing the  salient  angle,  are  called  the  faces; 
the  two  shorter  ones,  connecting  them  with  the 
town  wall  or  rampart,  are  called  the  flanks. 
The  faces  are  destined  to  reply  to  the  distant 
fire  of  the  enemy,  the  flanks  to  protect  the  ditch 
by  their  fire.  The  first  Italian  bastions  still 
showed  their  descent  from  the  ancient  towers. 
They  kept  close  to  the  main  walls ;  the  salient 
angle  was  very  obtuse,  the  faces  short,  and  the 
parapet  revetted  with  masonry  to  the  very  top. 
Bastions  are  built  in  very  different  ways.  Some 
are  entirely  filled  with  earth :  some  have  a  void 
space  inside;  some  are  straight,  some  curved, 
some  double,  some  have  even  three  or  four 
flanks,  one  over  the  other ;  some  have  fausse- 
brayes,  or  low  ramparts  of  earth  outside ;  some- 
times they  have  casemates,  destined  for  the 
retreat  of  the  garrison,  or  for  batteries ;  some- 
times cavaliers  or  orillons,  etc.  In  modern 
times,  among  the  fortifications  built  according 
to  the  system  of  bastions,  those  on  the  plan  of 
Cormontaigne  and  the  modern  French  works, 
are  considered  best  adapted  for  defense.  They 
are  spacious;  the  flank  of  the  side  bulwark, 
which  is  perpendicular  to  the  prolongation  of 
the  face  of  the  principal  bulwark^  is  not  farther 
distant  than  300  paces  from  its  point;  it  is  also 
straight,  and  orillons  and  other  artificial  con- 
trivances are  banished. 

Baston,  Robert,  English  poet:  b.  in  the 
13th  century  near  Nottingham;  d.  about  1320. 
He  became  prior  of  a  Carmelite  convent  at 
Scarborough,  and  is  said  to  have  accompanied 
Edward  II.  into  Scotland,  with  the  view  of 
celebrating  the  anticipated  victories  of  his  sover- 
eign, but  having  been  taken  prisoner,  was  com- 
pelled to  change  his  strain,  and  wrote  in  honor 
of  Robert  Bruce.  Besides  poetry  he  left  several 
works  in  Latin,  one  entitled  'De  Variis  Mundi 
Statibus,^  and  another,  *^De  Sacerdotum  Luxu- 
riis.^ 

Bastwick,  John,  English  physician:  b. 
Writtle  in  Essex,  1593;  d.  1654.  He  settled  at 
Colchester,  but  instead  of  confining  himself  to 
his  profession  entered  keenly  into  theological 
controversy,  and  in  1624  procured  the  publica- 
tion in  Holland  of  a  treatise  which  he  had  writ- 
ten, entitled  ^Elenchus  Religionis  Papisticae,^ 
which,  as  he  declares  on  the  title-page,  he 
proves  it  to  be  neither  apostolic  nor  catholic, 
nay,  not  even  Roman.  He  afterward  published 
'Flagellum  Pontificis  et  Episcoporum  Lati- 
alium,^  which  acquired  some  notoriety  as  a  fer- 
vid attack  on  Episcopacy  in  general,  and  at- 
tracted the  attention  of  the  high-commission 
court,  who  called  the  author  before  them,  and 
condemned  him  to  a  fine  and  two  years'  im- 
prisonment. Bastwick  became  more  zealous 
than  before,  however,  and  published  a  defense 
addressed  to  the  English  prelates  and  a  new 
"litany,*  in  which  his  former  offenses  were 
boldly  repeated.  A  second  sentence  mercilessly 
condemned  him  to  a  much  heavier  fine,  to  ex- 
posure on  the  pillory,  the  loss  of  his  ears,  and 
imprisonment  for  life.  The  ascendency  of  the 
Parliament  in  1640  procured  his  freedom ;  the 
sentence  was  formally  repealed,  and  the  amount 


of  the  fines  imposed  on  him  was  afterward  re- 
funded. He  appears  to  have  been  a  stanch 
Presbyterian,  for  in  1648  we  find  him  attacking 
the  Independents. 

Basutoland,  an  English  crown  colony  of 
South  Africa,  lying  to  the  east  of  the  Orange 
River  Colony,  and  on  the  northeast  of  Cape 
Colony.  The  Basutos  belong  chiefly  to  the 
great  stem  of  the  Bechuanas,  out  of  one  of  the 
chief  branches  of  whom,  along  with  the  sur- 
vivors of  various  other  Caffre  tribes,  they  have 
arisen.  Their  countenance  is  better  formed 
than  that  of  the  negroes,  although  they  have  the 
flat  nose,  protruding  lips,  and  woolly  hair  of  the 
latter.  Their  figure  is  slender  and  well-propor- 
tioned, the  color  of  their  skin  a  very  ,dark 
brown,  and  their  disposition  cheerful,  mild,  and 
pacific.  Their  land,  called  by  themselves  Le- 
suto,  is  very  fertile,  and  is  cultivated  with  great 
industry ;  but  its  fertility  has  long  exposed  them 
to  the  encroachments  of  their  neighbors.  Un- 
der their  chief  Moshesh,  who  died  in  1869,  they 
were  raised  from  a  state  of  utter  barbarism  to 
a  certain  degree  of  civilization,  and  the  land 
was  thrown  open  to  mission^jies.  Being  ex- 
posed, however,  to  constant  attacks  of  their 
warlike  neighbors,  Moshesh  was  at  last  induced 
to  request  the  English  government  to  adopt 
them  as  subjects.  This  was  acceded  to,  and  in 
1868  Basutoland  was  declared  English  territory, 
being  annexed  to  Cape  Colony  in  1871.  In 
1884,  however,  Basutoland  was  placed  under  the 
direct  authority  of  the  home  government.  It 
has  an  area  of  about  10,300  square  miles,  and 
the  exports,  which  consist  chiefly  of  grain,  cat- 
tle, and  wool,  in  1900  amounted  to  $669,320. 
Pop.  (estimated)  about  260.000.  See  Widdi- 
combe,  "^  Fourteen  Years  in  Basutoland'  (1892)  ; 
Barkley,  ^  Among  Boers  and  Basutos'  (1900)  ; 
Bryce,  ^Impressions  of  South  Africa   (1899). 

Bat,  one  of  a  group  (order  Cheiroptera)  of 
small  mammals  adapted  to  life  in  the  air  by 
the  possession  of  wings  formed  of  a  membrane 
stretched  between  the  greatly  prolonged  bones 
of  the  arm  and  hand.  The  general  organiza- 
tion of  bats  allies  them  to  the  Insectivora.  The 
bones  of  the  spine,  hinder  limbs,  and  tail  are  of 
a  normal  character :  the  chest  is  much  enlarged 
to  admit  of  the  increased  size  of  the  lungs  and 
heart,  necessary  to  the  relatively  violent  exer- 
tion necessary  to  flight,  the  breast  bone  is  keeled 
as  in  birds,  and  the  muscles  of  the  fore  limbs 
are  much  enlarged.  The  fore  limbs  themselves 
consist  of  the  normal  number  and  arrangement 
of  bones,  but  all  are  greatly  elongated,  especially 
those  of  the  fingers,  which  are  so  lengthened 
out  as  often  to  be  equal  to  the  total  length 
of  the  spine.  The  thumb,  however,  is  compara- 
tively small,  stands  at  right  angles  to  the  other 
bones,  and  terminates  in  a  strong  claw  of  great 
service  in  clinging  to  supports.  The  whole  ex- 
tent of  the  arm  and  hand  in  the  bats  is  in- 
closed within  a  membrane  which  consists  of 
leathery  skin,  more  or  less  furry  tipon  the  out- 
side, which  stretches  between  the  fingers,  arm 
bones  and  body,  forming  an  extensible  mem- 
brane, or  parachute,  and  constituting  an  effec- 
tive instrument  of  flight.  In  some  bats  a  similar 
membrane  (which  is  only  an  extension  of  the 
skin  and  is  of  double  thickness)  stretches  from 
the  heel  of  each  hind  foot,  where  it  is  supported 
by  a  bony  spur,  to  the  tip  of  the  tail,  but  in 
many  bats  the  tail  is  free  from  any  such  mem- 


BATS. 


X.   Flap-nose  Bat  (Rhinopoma  microphyllum).  3-  Water  Bat  (Vespertilio  daubcntonii)  _ 

2.  Pigmy  Bat  (Vesperugo  pipistrellus)  (natural  sl.e).         4.  Horse-shoe  Nose  Dat  (Rh.nolophus  ferrum-equinum). 


BAT-PARASITES 


brane.  The  tail  is  very  variable  in  length,  but 
is  never  prehensile  nor  bushy.  The  hinder  limbs 
of  bats  are  peculiar  in  being  twisted  in  such 
a  way  that  the  knee  bends  backward,  making 
walking  very  difficult. 

The  membranous  wings  of  the  bat  are  not 
only  an  organ  of  flight,  enabling  it  to  perform 
feats  in  the  air  probably  not  exceeded  by  any 
bird  or  insect,  but  are  also  a  means  of  informmg 
the  creature  as  to  its  surroundings.  Bats  are 
mainly  nocturnal  and  their  eyes,  though  highly 
organized,  are  very  small,  imbedded  in  fur  and 
comparatively  useless  in  the  dark,  yet  no  animal 
seems  more  thoroughly  wide  awake  and  able 
to  take  care  of  itself,  even  in  almost  complete 
darkness,  than  this  one,  which  habitually  lives 
m  gloomy  caves  and  seeks  its  food  only  after 
daylight  has  departed.  The  ability  which  it  dis- 
plays in  catching  its  prey  by  extraordinary 
agility  in  pursuit,  and  in  avoiding  obstacles  as  it 
darts  about  among  the  trees,  seem  to  be  due 
largely  to  an  extreme  sensitiveness  in  the  wings. 
These  are  not  only  supplied  with  a  great  num- 
ber of  blood  vessels  and  nerves,  but  their  sur- 
faces abound  in  minute  sense-organs,  each  the 
terminus  of  a  nerve  fibrilla.  This  armature  has 
evidently  arisen  as  an  added  means  of  informa- 
tion, giving  the  animal  a  sense  of  touch  more 
exquisite  than  we  know  of  elsewhere  in  the 
animal  kingdom.  The  well-known  experiments 
of  the  Italian  Spallanzani  toward  the  end  of  the 
i8th  century,  which  have  been  verified  by  more 
recent  investigations,  make  it  plain  that  bats 
depend  very  largely  upon  these  sense-organs  in 
their  wings  to  guide  them  in  their  devious  flight 
through  the  darkness.  It  w"as  found  that  bats 
whose  eyes  were  sealed  up  with  varnish,  or  even 
completely  destroj^ed,  made  their  \vay  with  ap- 
parent ease  not  only  through  dark  rooms,  but  in 
places  where  strings  had  been  stretched  across 
the  path  m  various  directions,  and  other  obsta- 
cles had  to  be  avoided.  These  blinded  bats 
never  collided  with  such  obstructions,  but 
seemed  able  to  approach  a  wall  at  ease,  alight 
upon  a  pel  :h,  or  even  find  a  small  cavity  with- 
out apparently  searching  for  it. 

For  a  similar  purpose  of  information  many 
bats  are  furnished  with  extraordinary  mem- 
branous appendages  upon  the  nostrils  and  ears, 
which  give  to  some  of  them  the  most  grotesque 
appearance.  In  the  large  fruit-eating  fox- 
headed  bats  of  the  East  Indies,  which  are  more 
nearly  diurnal  than  any  others,  the  ears  are  of 
no  great  size,  and  the  nose  is  defended  only 
by  long  hairs  about  the  nostrils  and  eyelids ; 
but  in  all  the  smaller,  insect-eating,  nocturnal 
bats,  there  arise  upon  the  nostrils  leaf-like  ap- 
pendages, sometimes  very  large  and  complicated, 
which  resemble  the  leathery  substance  of  the 
wings,  and  in  such  species,  the  ears  are  often 
several  times  larger  in  area  than  all  the  rest  of 
the  face.  These  great  ears  must  not  only  collect 
sounds  far  too  faint  for  us  to  hear,  but  their 
membranes  are  as  nervous  and  sensitive  as 
those  of  the  wings,  probablj"-  being  able  to  feel 
degrees  of  density  in  the  air  entirely  imper- 
ceptible to  most  other  creatures. 

Bats  are  divisible  into  two  groups  or  sub- 
orders, the  Megachiroptcra,  and  the  Microchi- 
roptera.  The  first  group  contains  the  fruit-eating 
tats  whose  large  size,  reddish  fur,  and  fox-like 
head  have  given  them  the  name  of  flying  foxes 
(q.v.).  Their  chief  distinguishing  feature,  how- 
ever, is  the    fact  that   the  molar  teeth   are  not 


tubercular  but  are  marked  with  a  longitudinal 
furrow.  They  live  mainly  upon  fruit  and  are 
confined  to  the  tropics  of  the  Old  World,  and 
are  all  included  in  a  single  family,  Pteropodidcs. 
Ihe  Microchiroptera  have  molars  with  sharp 
cusps  adapted  to  cutting  and  crushing  the  in- 
sects upon  which  they  mainly  subsist.  This 
group  includes  all  of  the  ordinary  bats,  of  which 
those  most  familiar  in  North  America  and 
Europe  belong  to  the  large  and  typical  family 
l'cspcrtiliouida\o{  which  nearly  200  species  are 
named.  Among  the  most  numerous  and  wide- 
spread of  the  North  American  bats,  are  the  large 
hoary  bat  {Lasiurus  cinereus)  of  the  north 
eastern  States:  but  it  keeps  to  the  woods  and 
is  not  often  seen;  it  migrates  to  the  southern 
States  in  winter.  It  is  about  5.50  inches  long 
Another  common  bat  of  the  woods  is  the 
smaller,  silver-haired  (Lasiouycteriis  uoctiva- 
gans.)  The  red  bat  (length  4.40  inches)  is 
numerous  in  the  Alleghanian  region,  inhabiting 
caves  in  great  companies;  but  the  "common" 
bat  of  the  whole  country  east  of  the  Rockies,  is 
the  little,  glossy,  brown  familiar  of  our  homes 
and  gardens,  as  well  as  of  the  woods,  which 
remains  with  us  the  year  around,  hibernating 
during  cold  weather  in  the  hollow  trees, 
caves,  and  crevices  about  buildings,  where  they 
rnake  their  home,  and  whence  they  emerge  at 
night,  to  seek  their  prey  about  our  farmyards 
and  gardens.  As  the  insects  caught  are  mainly 
mosquitos  and  similar  pests,  and  as  they  do  no 
harm,  they  should  be  encouraged,  rather  than 
feared  and  persecuted.  **A\vake  at  the  most," 
says  Cram,  "some  four  out  of  every  24  hours 
of  their  drowsy  little  lives,  they  never  make  any 
nests  or  even  attempt  to  fi.K  over  the  crannies 
where  they  hide,  and  where  the  little  bats  are 
born.  These  helpless  little  things  are  not  left 
at  home  at  the  mercy  of  foraging  rats  and 
mice.  When  the  old  bat  flits  off  into  the  twi- 
light, the  youngsters  often  go  with  her,  clinging 
about  her  neck.  ...  At  times,  she  deposits  them 
on  the  branch  of  a  tree,  where  they  hang,  shel- 
tered by  the  leaves.* 

The  lower  Mississippi  Valley  has  a  yellowish 
bat,  called  "big-eared"  (Coryiwrhinus  macrotis) 
which  differs  from  the  others  in  that  its  great 
ears  are  joined  together  by  their  bases  in  front. 

For  a  systematic  account  of  the  bats  of  the 
world  consult  Dobson,  ^Catalogue  of  Chirop- 
tera  in  the  British  Museum'  (1878),  and  his 
subsequent  papers,  mentioned  in  Flower's 
<  Mammalia'  (1891).  For  North  Americaii 
forms  consult  H.  Allen,  ^Bats  of  North  America' 
(Smithsonian  Institution,  Washington,  1893). 
For  habits,  etc.,  see  the  writings  of  Harlan,  Au- 
dubon, Baird,  Godman,  E.  A.  Mearns,  C.  L. 
Herrick,  G.  S.  Miller,  and  especially  C.  H.  Mer- 
riam,  'Mammals  of  the  Adirondacks'  (Linnsan 
Society,  New  York,  1893)  ;  Stone  and  Cram, 
'American  Animals'  (1902)  ;  Gosse,  'A  Nat- 
uralist's Sojourn  in  Jamaica'  (1851).  See  also 
Fox-b.\t;  Fruit-b.\t;  Le.\f-nosed  B.\ts;  V.\m- 
piRE,   and    similar  titles. 

Bat-parasites.  Besides  bugs  (see  Bed-bi'g) 
certain  very  strangely  modified  wingless  flies 
are  in  rare  cases  found  living  on  bats  in  Africa 
and  the  East  Indies.  They  are  somewhat  spider 
like,  wMth  a  narrow  ej'eless  head,  though  four 
ocelli  are  present  in  some  species,  which  rests 
on  the  back  of  the  thorax,  while  the  legs  are 
large,  long,  and  sprawling,  ending  _  in  large 
claws.     They  are  only  a  line  or  two  in  length. 


BATABANO  —  BATAVI 


The  larva  is,  like  that  of  the  sheep-tick  (q.v.) 
and  horse-fly  iHippobosca),  very  peculiar,  the 
maggot  being  probably  nourished  in  the  dilated 
oviduct  of  the  fly,  then  attaining  its  full  growth, 
when  it  is  expelled  in  the  shape  of  a  broad, 
short  puparium,  the  skin  being  hardened  by  the 
excretion  of  chitin. 

Batabano,  ba-ta-ba-no',  Cuba,  a  town  in 
the  province  of  Havana  near  the  south  coast, 
37  miles  from  Havana,  by  rail.  San  Cristobal 
de  la  Habana  was  founded  on  the  site  of  the 
inodern  Batabano  by  Diego  Velasquez  in  15 14. 
Pop.  (1899)   1,025. 

Batac,  ba-tak',  or  Batag,  Philippines,  an 
island  about  one  and  a  half  miles  off  the  north- 
east coast  of  Samar,  the  most  northerly  of  that 
portion  of  the  Philippine  islands  which  goes 
under  the  designation  of  Visaya,  or  Bisaya. 
Area  18  square  miles. 

Batac,  or  Batag,  Philippines,  a  town  of 
Luzon  in  the  province  of  Ilcos  Norte,  founded 
in  1587.  It  is  situated  10  miles  south  of  Laoag. 
Pop.   (1898)    17,625. 

Batak,  ba'tak,  Bulgaria,  a  district  and 
town  southwest  of  Philippopolis.  The  region 
became  prominent  in  European  history  in  the 
time  of  the  Bulgarian  insurrection  against  Tur- 
key in  1876.  In  May  of  that  year  the  villagers 
of  Batak  were  preparing  to  take  part  in  the 
insurrection,  when  the  place  was  attacked  by 
a  force  of  Bashi-Bazouks  under  the  command 
of  Achmet  Agha  of  Dopat.  After  a  short 
struggle,  the  village  was  surrendered  and  the 
inhabitants  gave  up  their  weapons,  on  the  as- 
surance of  the  Turkish  commander  that  "not 
a  hair  of  their  heads  should  be  touched.^'  On 
•9  May  1876  the  Turks  began  one  of  the  most 
cruel  massacres  recorded  in  history ;  the  inhab- 
itants of  the  unfortunate  village  were  butchered 
and  those  who  took  refuge  in  the  church  were 
l)urned  to  death  by  the  Turkish  soldiers.  Mr. 
Baring,  the  English  commissioner,  visiting  the 
place  two  months  later,  found  but  one  survivor, 
an  old  woman.  The  Turkish  government  re- 
warded Achmet  with  a  decoration  of  honor. 
The  news  of  the  massacre  at  Batak  and  of  other 
^Bulgarian  atrocities,''  aroused  all  Europe  and 
furnished  Russia  with  an  excellent  pretext  for 
declaring  war  against  Turkey  in  1877.  See 
also  Bulgaria  ;  San  Stefano,  Treaty  of  ;  Tur- 
key. 

Bataleur,  ba-ta-ler',  a  large,  voluminously 
crested  eagle  of  Africa,  named  Hclofarsns 
ecaudatiis  with  reference  to  the  unusual  short- 
ness of  its  tail.  It  has  the  handsomest  plumage 
of  all  the  eagles,  presenting  bold  contrasts  of 
rich  maroon,  black,  and  gray,  with  bronzy  re- 
flections from  the  wings.  It  feeds  mainly  on 
hzards  and  snakes,  attacking  the  latter,  even 
when  venomous,  by  blows  of  its  powerful  beak. 
Its  breeding  season,  which  is  at  the  commence- 
ment of  the  hot  weather  when  other  birds  are 
busy  at  other  things,  seems  to  be  placed  with 
reference  to  the  greater  ease  with  which  snakes 
can  then  be  captured,  when  the  grass  dies  down 
or  burns  off,  exposing  them  to  view. 

Batalha,  ba-tal'ya,  a  village  in  Portugal, 
69  miles  north  of  Lisbon,  famed  for  its  Domini- 
can convent,  founded  by  King  John  I.,  in  com- 
memoration of  a  victory  over  the  king  of  Castile 
in  the  year_  1385.  This  convent  is  one  of  the 
most  splendid  buildings  in  Europe  and  is  576  feet 


long  and  443  wide.  Its  church,  in  which  lie  the 
remains  of  the  founder  and  the  foUowmg  three 
kings  of  the  house  of  Aviz,  as  well  as  those  of 
Prince  Henry  the  Navigator,  is  a  beautiful 
edifice,  adorned  with  many  art  treasures. 

Batan,  ba'tan,  Philippines,  a  province  of 
the  island  of  Luzon,  forming  the  peninsula  be- 
tween the  bay  of  Manila  and  the  China  Sea ; 
area,  450  square  miles ;  chief  town,  Bolanga.  It 
is  noted  for  many  excellent  varieties  of  marble, 
which  are  extens~ively  used  in  the  churches  and 
public  buildings  of  Manila  and  other  towns  of 
the  Philippines.  The  inhabitants  of  the  towns 
and  coasts  of  this  province  are  of  the  Tagalog 
race,  but,  besides  these,  the  mountain  fastnesses 
are  inhabited  by  numerous  tribes  of  Negritos. 

Batan,  Philippines,  a  town  on  the  island 
of  Panay,  in  the  province  of  Capiz,  31  miles  from 
Capiz.      Pop.    (1898)    12,908. 

Batan,  or  Bashi  Islands,  a  group  of  small 
islands  in  the  Chinese  Sea,  discovered  by  Dam- 
pier  in  1687,  and  now  forming  a  dependency  of 
the  Philippines,  north  of  which  they  are  situ- 
ated, midway  between  Luzon  and  Formosa. 
American  control  was  established  over  these 
islands  in  March  1900,  with  Teofilo  Costillejo 
as  first  governor.  The  Batans  are  bounded  on 
the  north  by  Bashi  Channel,  which  divides  the 
Philippines  from  the  Japanese  insular  territory, 
and  have  an  area  of  125  square  miles  and  a 
population  estimated  at  9,500.  The  principal 
islands  in  the  group  are  Itbayal,  Basa^,  Saptan, 
and  Hujos.  Santo  Domingo  de  Basco,  the  prin- 
cipal town  and  port,  is  about  500  miles  from 
Manila,  and  has  a  population  of  about  3,000. 
The  other  large  towns  are  San  Bartolome  de 
Calayan,  San  Carlos  de  Marigatao,  San  Jose  de 
Ibana,  Santa  Maria  de  Maj'an,  and  San  Vicente 
de  Saptan.  Under  Spanish  rule  Santo  Domingo 
was  the  residence  of  a  political  military  gov- 
ernor,  a   judge    and   an   attorney-general. 

Batangas,  ba-tan'gas,  Philippines,  a  town 
on  the  island  of  Luzon,  58  miles  south  of 
Manila.  It  was  founded  in  1581,  and  it  situated 
on  the  large  bay  of  Batangas,  opening  into  the 
Strait  of  Mindoro.  It  is  well-built,  containing 
several  spacious  streets,  in  which  are  many 
elegant  mansions.  The  city  has  an  excellent 
harbor,  and  prior  to  the  war  between  the  United 
States  and  Spain  was  the  seat  of  a  large  com- 
merce. The  province  is  one  of  the  richest  sugar 
growing  districts  in  the  Philippines;  but  the 
industry  is  far  inferior  to  its  possibilities  owing 
to  the  lack  of  proper  machinery  and  modern 
methods  of  treatment.  It  is  also  notable  for 
its  large  prodiiction  of  cocoanut  oil,  the  larger 
part  of  which  is  used  for  domestic  purposes, 
chiefly  lamp  _  oil  and  lubricating  machinery. 
Such  of  it  as  is  exported  to  Europe,  after  being 
solidified,  is  manufactured  into  soap  and  candles. 
Pop.    39.358. 

Batatas,  ba-ta'tas.    See  Sweet  Potato. 

Bata'vi,  an  old  German  nation  which  in- 
habited a  part  of  the  present  Holland,  especially 
the  island  called  Batavia,  formed  by  that  branch 
of  the  Rhine  which  empties  itself  into  the  sea 
near  Leyden,  together  with  the  Waal  and  the 
Meuse.  Their  territories,  however,  extended 
much  beyond  the  Waal.  Their  bravery  was 
commended  by  Tacitus.  According  to  him,  they 
w-ere  originally  the  same  as  the  Catti,  a  German 
tribe  which  had  emigrated  from  their  country  on 


BATAVIA  —  BATCHELLER 


account  of  domestic  troubles.  This  must  have 
happened  before  the  time  of  Caesar.  When  Ger- 
manicus  was  about  to  invade  Germany  from 
the  sea,  he  made  their  island  the  rendezvous 
of  his  fleet.  Being  subjected  by  the  Romans, 
they  served  them  with  such  courage  and  fidehty 
as  to  obtain  the  title  of  their  friends  and  breth- 
ren. They  were  exempted  from  tributes  and 
taxes,  and  permitted  to  choose  their  leaders 
among  themselves.  Their  cavalry  was  particu- 
larly excejient.  During  the  reign  of  Vespasian 
they  revolted,  under  the  command  of  Civilis, 
from  the  Romans,  and  extorted  from  them 
favorable  terms  of  peace.  Trajan  and  Adrian 
subjected  them  again.  At  the  end  of  the  3rd 
century  the  Salian  Franks  obtained  possession 
of  the  island  of  Batavia.  See  Batavian  Re- 
public. 

Bata'via,  properly  the  name  of  the  island 
occupied  by  the  ancient  Batavi,  became  at  a 
later  date  the  Latin  name  for  Holland  and 
the  whole  kingdom  of  the  Netherlands.  The 
name  Batavian  Republic  (q.v.)  was  given  to  the 
Netherlands  on  their  new  organization.  16  May 
1795,  and  they  continued  to  bear  it  till  the  es- 
tablishment of  the  kingdom  of  Holland,  under 
Louis    Bonaparte,   8  June    1806. 

Batavia,  Java,  a  city  and  seaport  on  the 
north  coast  of  the  island,  near  the  west  end,  and 
the  capital  of  all  the  Dutch  East  Indies;  Ion. 
106°  50'  E. ;  lat.  6°  8'  S.  It  is  situated  on  a 
wide,  deep  bay,  in  which  are  interspersed  many 
low,  green  islets,  within  which  ships  find  safe 
anchorage,  the  roadstead  being  sheltered  from 
the  northwest  monsoon.  The  largest  of  these 
islets  is  Onrust,  at  which  all  ships  above  300 
tons  burden  have  to  anchor.  The  town  consists 
of  two  portions.  The  old  is  situated  in  a  low, 
marshy  plain  near  the  sea,  and  intersected  by 
the  Great  River  and  sundry  canals,  is  exceed- 
ingly unhealthy,  and  subject  to  an  intermittent 
fever,  very  fatal  to  strangers.  Much  has  been 
done,  however,  to  diminish  the  unhealthiness  by 
draining  the  marshes,  and  letting  currents  of 
water  into  the  stagnant  canals.  The  old  is  still 
the  business  quarter  and  contains  the  principal 
warehouses  and  offices  of  the  Europeans,  the 
Java  Bank,  and  the  exchange.  On  the  west  side 
of  the  Great  River  is  the  Chinese  quarter,  inhab- 
ited entirely  by  Chinese.  Batavia  is  the  chief 
mart  among  the  islands  of  the  Asiatic  Archipel- 
ago for  the  products  of  the  Eastern  seas  and  the 
manufactures  of  the  West,  and  its  commerce  is 
correspondingly  important.  Batavia  was  founded 
by  the  Dutch  in  1619,  and  attained  its  greatest 
prosperity  in  the  beginning  of  the  i8th  century, 
when  it  had  about  150,000  inhabitants.  1  he  most 
important  edifices  are  the  Stadt-house,  Calvin- 
istic,  Lutheran,  and  Portuguese  churches,  some 
Mohammedan  mosques  and  Chinese  temples. 
Pop.  (1900)  115,567.  The  inhabitants  are  chiefly 
of  Malay  extraction,  with  a  considerable  admix- 
ture of  Chinese,  and  a  small  number  of  Euro- 
peans (Dutch,  English,  and  Portuguese).  A 
United  States  consul  resides  here.     See  Java. 

Batavia,  111.,  a  town  in  Kane  County,  on 
the  Fox  River,  and  on  the  Chicago  &  N.  W.  and 
Chicago,  B.  &  Q.  R.R.'s ;  2,7  miles  west  of  Chi- 
cago. Here  is  the  State  Asylum  for  the  Insane, 
and  9  churches,  public  schools  and  public  library. 
Among  the  industries  are  stone  quarries,  farm 
implement  works,  and  wagon  factories.     Batavia 


was  settled  in  1834  and  incorporated  in  1856. 
Pop.  (1900)  3,871. 

Batavia,  N.  Y.,  a  town  and  county-seat 
of  Genesee  County,  on  Tonawanda  Creek  and 
several  railroads ;  n  miles  east  of  Buffalo  and 
32  miles  west  of  Rochester;  on  the  New  York 
C.  &  H.  R.,  the  Lehigh  Valley,  and  Lake  Erie  & 
W.  R.R.'s.  It  is  in  an  agricultural  region;  has 
manufactories  of  plows  and  harvesters,  carriage 
wheels,  and  shoes,  and  contains  the  State  insti- 
tution for  the  Blind,  the  Dean  Richmond  Me- 
morial Library,  national  banks,  daily  and  weekly 
newspapers.  Batavia  was  the  home  of  William 
Morgan,  made  famous  through  the  Anti-Ma- 
sonic excitement  in  1826.    Pop.  (igoo)  9,180. 

Batavian  Republic,  the  name  adopted  by 
the  Seven  United  Provinces  of  the  Netherlands 
soon  after  the  French  Revolution,  and  acknow- 
ledged hy  the  powers  of  Europe.  The  whole 
republic  was  declared  one  and  indivisible;  all 
members  of  society  were  declared  equal  in  the 
eye  of  the  law,  without  respect  to  rank  or  birth ; 
all  religious  societies,  acknowledging  a  Supreme 
Being,  equally  protected  by  law.  Feudality  was 
abolished,  all  fiefs  declared  allodial,  and  posses- 
sors 9f  lordships  to  be  indemnified.  In  1806 
the  form  of  government  was  changed  into  that 
of  a  kingdom,  under  the  name  of  Holland ;  and 
the  Batavian  republic  fell  nominally  under  the 
sway  of  Louis  Bonaparte  as  its  sovereign,  but 
really  under  that  of  his  brother  Napoleon.  See 
Netherlaxds. 

Batbie,  ba-be,  Anselme  Polycarpe,  French 
jurist  and  politician:  b.  Seissan,  31  May  1828; 
d.  Paris,  30  June  1887.  He  first  belonged  to  the 
faculties  of  law  at  Dijon  and  Toulouse,  but.  in 
1862,  he  became  professor  of  constitutional  law 
at  Paris.  Elected  to  the  National  Assembly 
(February  1871),  he  became  one  of  the  leaders 
of  the  Monarchist  party.  In  Broglie's  reaction- 
ary cabinet  (1873)  he  was  made  minister  of 
public  instruction.  After  1876  he  was  a  mem- 
ber of  the  Senate.  He  wrote  'Turgot,  Philos- 
opher, Economist,  and  Administrator*  (i860)  ; 
^Course  of  Political  Economy'  (1864);  ^New 
Course  of  Political  Economy*  (1865)  ;  'The 
Public  Credit*  (1865)  ;  'Summary  of  the  Course 
of  Public  and  Administrative  Law*  (1885),  and 
'Theoretical  and  Practical  Treatise  on  Public 
and  Administrative  Law*    (1885). 

Batchelder,  Richard  Napoleon,  American 
military  officer:  b.  Lake  \'illage,  N.  H..  27  July 
1832.  He  entered  the  Union  army  at  the  begin- 
ning of  the  Civil  War :  and  was  brevetted 
brigadier-general.  United  States  Volunteers. 
13  March  1865 ;  became  brigadier-general  and 
quartermaster-general,  L'nited  States  .\rmy,  26 
June  1890;  and  was  retired  27  July  1896.  He 
was  awarded  a  Congressional  medal  of  honor 
for  most  distinguished  gallantry  in  action  during 
the  Civil  War. 

Batcheller,  George  Sherman,  .American 
jurist:  b.  Batchcllcrville,  N.  Y.,  25  July  1837. 
He  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1858;  entered 
the  Union  army  at  the  beginning  of  the  Civil 
War;  w-as  taken  prisoner  at  Harper's  Ferry,  and 
exchanged  in  1863 ;  was  then  appointed  deputy 
provost-marshal-general  of  the  Department  of 
the  South ;  and.  in  1865-70  was  inspector-gen- 
eral on  the  staff  of  Governor  Fenton  of  New 
York.  In  1883  he  became  president  of  the  Inter- 
national Tribunal  of  Egypt;  in  1889,  assistant 
secretary  of  the  Unitec!  States  Treasury;  in  i8go. 


BATCHELOR  —  BATES 


United  States  minister-resident  and  consul-gen- 
eral to  Portugal;  and  in  1897,  again  a  member 
of  the  International  Tribunal  of  Egypt.  In  the 
last-named  year  he  received  from  King  Humbert 
the  decoration  of  the  great  cordon  of  the  Order 
of  the  Crown  of  Italy,  in  recognition  of  Lis 
services  as  president  of  the  Universal  Postal 
Congress  which  met  in  Washington  in  ]May 
1897. 

Batchelor,  George,  American  Unitarian 
clergyman :  b.  Southbury,  Conn.,  1836.  He  \yas 
secretary  of  the  American  Unitarian  Association 
1893-7,  and  has  since  been  editor  of  the  ^Chris- 
tian Register.'  published  in  Boston.  He  has 
also  been  secretary  of  the  National  Unitarian 
Conference  1870-80,  and  its  chairrnan  1893-4. 
He  is  the  author  of  ^Social  Equilibrium.' 

Batchian,  bat-shyan',  or  Batian,  one  of  the 
Moluccas,  west  of  the  southern  peninsula  of  the 
large  island  of  Halmahera  or  Gilolo.  Area,  835 
square  miles;  pop.  about  11,000.  It  belongs  to 
the  Dutch  residency  of  Ternate,  consists  of  two 
peninsulas  joined  by  a  narrow  isthmus,  and  has 
many  mountains.  Batchian  produces  gold,  cop- 
per, much  coal,  sago,  cocoanut  trees,  rice,  cloves, 
and  fine   timber. 

Bate,  William  Brimage,  American  legis- 
lator :  b.  near  Castalian  Springs,  Tenn.,  7  Oct. 
1826 ;  d.  Washington,  D.  C,  9  March  1905.  He 
served  as  a  volunteer  through  the  Mexican  war ; 
was  graduated  at  the  Lebanon  Law  School  in 
1852 ;  elected  attornej'-general  of  the  Nashville 
district  in  1854 ;  and  was  presidential  elector 
in  i860.  In  the  Civil  War  he  rose  from  private 
to  the  rank  of  major-general  in  the  Confederate 
army,  and  was  three  times  dangerously  wounded. 
He  was  an  elector-at-large  for  Tennessee  on  the 
Democratic  ticket  in  1876 ;  was  elected  governor 
in  1882  and  1884 ;  and  a  United  States  senator 
in   1887,   1893,  and  1899. 

Bateman,  Kate  Josephine,  American  ac- 
■tress:  b.  Baltimore,  Aid.,  7  Oct.  1842.  About 
1851  she  and  her  sister  Ellen  began  to  act, 
being  known  as  the  Bateman  Sisters.  Kate  be- 
gan, in  1861,  to  play  Juliet,  Pauline,  etc.,  but 
was  especially  successful  in  Leah.  She  became 
rich  and  famous,  and,  having  married  George 
Crowe,  an  English  physician,  identified  herself 
with  the  management  of  a  London  theatre. 

Bateman,  Newton,  American  educator:  b. 
Fairfield,  N.  J.,  -z"]  July  1822;  d.  Galesburg, 
111.,  21  Oct.  1897.  He  graduated  from  Illinois 
College,  1843,  and  studied  at  Lane  Theological 
Seminary,  but  began  to  teach  instead  of  entering 
the  ministry.  He  was  professor  of  mathematics 
at  St.  Charles  College,  1847-51 ;  State  superin- 
tendent of  public  instruction,  1858-63 ;  member 
of  the  State  board  of  health,  1877-97 ;  and  presi- 
dent of  Knox  College,  1875-92,  when  ill-health 
caused  his  retirement.  His  official  reports  are 
of  high  value  in  educational  literature,  and  much 
of  the  excellence  of  the  Illinois  school  laws  is 
due  to  his  widom  and  foresight.  He  published 
< School  Laws  of  Illinois'  (1865 ;  12th  ed.  1866)  ; 
'School  Laws  and  Common  School  Decisions  of 
the  State  of  Illinois'  ;  revised  by  W.  L.  Pills- 
bury  (1888). 

Bates,  Alfred  E.,  American  military  offi- 
cer: b.  Monroe.  Mich.,  15  July  1840.  He  gradu- 
ated at  the  United  States  Military  Academy  in 
1865 ;  commissioned  a  second  lieutenant  in  the 
2nd    Cavalry :    promoted  to  first    lieutenant,    19 


Oct.  1865 ;  transferred  to  pay  department  with 
the  rank  of  lieutenant-colonel,  7  Jan.  1897 ;  pro- 
moted colonel  and  assistant  paymaster-general, 
31  March  1899;  and  brigadier-general  and  pay- 
master-general, 12  July  following.  He  served 
for  several  years  as  military  attache  to  the 
United  States  Embassy  in  London,  and  was  a 
brigadier-general  of  volunteers  in  the  war  with 
Spain  in  1898. 

Bates,  Arlo,  American  author:  b.  East 
Machias,  Me.,  16  Dec.  1850.  He  graduated  from 
Bowdoin  in  1876,  when  he  engaged  in  literary 
work  in  Boston,  editing  the  Sunday  Courier, 
1880^3 ;  and  afterward  became  professor  of 
English  Literature  in  the  Massachusetts  Institute 
of  Technology.  He  is  author  of  poems  and 
novels,  including  *^The  Pagans'  (New  York 
1884)  ;  <A  Lad's  Love'  ;  <The  Wheel  of  Fire' 
(1885);  'The  Philistines'  (1888);  'Berries  of 
the  Brier'  (1886),  poems;  'Told  in  the  Gate' 
(1892)  ;  'Talks  on  Writing  English'  ;  'Talks  on 
the  Study  of  Literature'  (1897)  ;  'The  Puri- 
tans' (1899)  ;  'Under  the  Beech  Tree'  (1899)  ; 
'Diary  of  a   Saint'    (1902). 

Bates,  Barnabas,  American  clergyman;  an 
active  promoter  of  cheap  postage  in  the  United 
States:  b.  Edmonton,  England,  1785;  d.  Boston, 
Mass.,  II  Oct.  1853.  He  came  to  America  at 
an  early  age,  became  a  Baptist  preacher  in 
Rhode  Island,  and  was,  for  a  time,  collector  of 
the  port  of  Bristol.  In  1825,  having  become  a 
Unitarian,  he  established  a  weekly  journal  in 
New  York,  called  the  Cliristian  Inquirer. 
During  Jackson's  administration  he  received  an 
appointment  under  Samuel  Gouverneur,  post- 
master of  New  York,  and  for  some  time  per- 
formed the  duties  of  postmaster  himself.  The 
information  gained  in  this  capacity,  first  inter- 
ested him  in  the  question  of  cheap  postage.  He 
investigated  the  subject  for  years,  wrote,  pub- 
lished pamphlets,  and  lectured  throughout  the 
country,  and  finally  effected  a  material  reduction 
in  the  rates  of  land  postage.  He  was  endeavor- 
ing to  obtain  a  corresponding  reform  in  ocean 
postage  at  the  time  of  his  death. 

Bates,  Blanche,  American  actress:  b.  Port- 
land, Oregon,  1873.  She  made  her  first  appear- 
ance in  1894  in  San  Francisco,  taking  a  part 
in  Brander  Matthews'  one-act  play  'This  Pic- 
ture and  That.'  Her  first  success  was  as  Mrs. 
Hillary  in  'The  Senator,'  and  she  has  played 
the  leading  comedy  roles  in  'The  Last  Word,' 
'The  Railroad  of  Love,'  'Transit  of  Leo,'  and 
'The  International  Match.'  Her  acting  of  Nora 
in  'A  Doll's  House'  (the  first  Ibsen  play  pre- 
sented on  the  Pacific  coast)  was  a  distinct  artis- 
tic triumph.  She  has  also  taken  leading  parts 
in  'The  Charity  Ball,'  'Sweet  Lavender,'  'The 
Dancing  Girl,'  and  others.  Her  phenomenal 
success  in  'The  Great  Ruby'  (1899)  ;  as  Miladi 
in  'The  Three  Musketeers'  (1899)  ;  and  in  Long 
and  Belasco's  'Darling  of  the  Gods'  (1902-3), 
has  given  her  a  place  of  assured  prominence  on 
the  American  stage.  See  Strang,  'Famous  Ac- 
tresses of  the  Day'    (1899). 

Bates,  Charlotte  Fiske,  American  poet  and 
miscellaneous  prose-writer:  b.  New  York,  30 
Nov.  1838.  She  was  educated  in  Cambridge, 
Mass.;  assisted  Longfellow  in  compiling  'Poems 
of  Places'  ;  edited  the  'Cambridge  Book  of 
Poetry  and  Song'  (Boston,  1882;);  'The  Long- 
fellow Birthday  Book'  ;  and  'Seven  Voices  of 
Sympathy'  ;  has  contributed  to  magazines ;  and 


BATES  —  BATESVILLE 


has  puDlished  'Risk  and  Other  Poems^  (1879). 
She  was  married  in  1891  to  Adolphe  Roge. 

Bates,  Clara  (Doty),  American  author:  b. 
Ann  Arbor,  Mich.,  1838;  d.  1895.  She  lived 
in  Chicago  and  pubHshed  many  juvenile  books; 
also   *From   Heart's   Content'    (1892). 

Bates,  David,  American  poet :  b.  1810, 
d.  Philadelphia,  25  Jan.  1870.  He  was  the 
author  of  the  well-known  poem  'Speak  Gently.' 
In  1848  his  poems  were  published  under  the 
title,   <The  Eolian.> 

Bates,  Edward,  American  lawyer :  b.  Bel- 
mont, Va.,  4  Sept.  1793 ;  d.  25  March  1869. 
Having  settled  in  Missouri,  he  served  in  the 
legislature  and  constitutional  convention,  and  in 
Congress  in  1827-9.  He  was  attorney-general 
of  the  United  States  in  Lincoln's  first  adminis- 
tration ;  and  had  been  a  candidate  for  the  presi- 
dential nomination  in  i860. 

Bates,  Harriet  Leonora  (Vose),  better 
known  as  Eleanor  Putnam,  American  story 
writer,  wife  of  Arlo  Bates:  b.  1856;  d.  1886.  She 
wrote    'A    Woodland    Wooing'  ;    'Old    Salem' 

(1886)  ;  with  her  husband,  'Prince  Vance,'  etc. 
Bates,     John     Coalter,     American     military 

officer:  b.  St.  Charles  County,  Mo.,  26  Aug. 
1842.  He  entered  the  regular  army  as  a  lieu- 
tenant in  the  nth  United  States  infantry,  14 
May  1861 ;  served  on  the  staff  of  General 
Meade  from  the  battle  of  Gettysburg  to  the 
close  of  the  war.  On  4  May  1898  he  was  ap- 
pointed a  brigadier-general  of  volunteers ;  on 
8  July  was  promoted  to  major-general  for  his 
services  in  the  Santiago  campaign.  In  February 
1899  he  was  appointed  military  governor  of  the 
province  of  Santa  Clara,  Cuba,  and  in  April  fol- 
lowing, was  ordered  to  duty  in  the  Philippines. 
In  March  1900  he  was  assigned  to  the  command 
of  the  department  of  southern  Luzon,  and  for 
liis  eminent  services  there  and  on  the  Sulu  group 
was  promoted  major-general,  9  June  1902. 

Bates,  Joshua,  American  financier :  b.  Wey- 
mouth, Mass.,  1788;  d.  24  Sept.  1864.  In  1828  he 
became  a  member  of  the  house  of  Baring 
Brothers  &  Company,  in  London,  and  subsequent- 
ly its  senior  partner.  In  1854  he  was  appointed 
umpire  to  the  joint  British  and  American  Com- 
mission for  the  settlement  of  claims  arising 
from  the  War  of  1812.  He  was  the  principal 
founder  of  the  Boston  Public  Library,  and  in 
1852,  the  first  year  of  its  existence,  he  made 
it  a  gift  of  $50,000,  and  later  gave  it  30,000 
volumes.  Its  main  reading  room  is  named 
''Bates  Hall"  in  his  honor. 

Bates,  Katharine  Lee,  American  story 
writer,  poet,  and  educator :  b.  Falmouth,  Mass., 
12  Aug.  1859.  She  was  called  to  the  chair  of 
English  literature  in  Wellesley  College  in  1891  ; 
and  has  edited  collections  of  ballads,  etc. ;  and 
written  juvenile  stories,  including  'Rose  and 
Thorn'  (1889);  also  'The  English  Religious 
Drama'     (1893)  ;    and    'The    College    Beautiful 

(1887)  ;  'History  of  American  Literature' 
^1898);   'Spanish  Highways  and  Byways'  (1900). 

Bates,  Samuel  Penniman,  American  histo- 
rian :  b.  Mendon,  Mass.,  29  Jan.  1827.  He  has 
been  principal  of  Meadville  Academy,  Pa. :  su- 
perintendent of  schools  in  Crawford  County, 
Pa.,  1857-60;  deputy  state  superintendent  of 
schools,  1860-6;  and  State  historian.  1866-73. 
Among  his  publications  are  the  'Lives  of  the 
Governors  of  Pennsylvania'    (1873);    'Lectures 


on  Mental  and  Moral  Culture'  (1859)  ;  'History 
of  the  Battle  of  Gettysburg'  (1878);  'History 
of  , the   Battle  of  Chancellorsville'    (1882). 

Bate's  Case,  an  English  historical  incident 
of  much  significance  as  marking  the  opening  of 
the  struggle  of  Parliament  with  the  Stuart 
kings.  John  Bate,  a  London  merchant,  having 
refused  to  pay  certain  duties  levied  without 
consent  of  Parliament,  was  sent  to  prison  by 
the  royal  officers.  The  Commons  supported 
Bate,  but  the  king's  authority  to  levy  imposi- 
tions on  exports  and  imports  was  sustained  by 
the   Court  of  Exchequer. 

Bates  College,  Lewiston,  Me.,  was  opened  in 
1863  and  chartered  in  1864.  It  grew  out  of 
Maine  State  Seminary,  a  secondary  school 
opened  in  1857.  The  college  was  founded  by  its 
first  president.  Rev.  Oren  Burbank  Cheney,  D.D. 
(1863-94),  and  bears  the  name  of  its  chief 
benefactor,  Benjamin  Edward  Bates,  a  merchant 
of  Boston,  and  one  of  the  founders  of  the  city 
of  Lewiston.  Bates  was  the  first  eastern  college 
to  afford  collegiate  education  to  women,  and  her 
first  woman  graduate  (1869)  became  a  professor 
in  Vassar  College.  Established  in  the  interest 
of  the  Free  Baptist  denomination,  she  has  been 
notably  free  from  sectarianism  —  her  faculty 
having  been  drawn  from  seven  religious  denomi- 
nations and  her  students  representing  Protes- 
tants, Catholics,  and  Hebrews.  Bates  places 
primary  stress  upon  character,  does  not  tolerate 
hazing  and  makes  abstinence  from  intoxicating 
drinks  a  condition  of  student  membership.  Her 
courses  of  instruction  cover  the  range  of  under- 
graduate studies  as  pursued  in  progressive  col- 
leges of  to-day.  The  unusual  excellence  of  her 
courses  in  English,  including  argumentation,  is 
indicated  by  her  eleven  victories  in  twelve  inter- 
collegiate debates  held  with  five  colleges  and 
universities.  To  these  results  her  three  flourish- 
ing literary  societies  are  believed  to  have  con- 
tributed. Alone  among  New  England  colleges. 
Bates  has  no  secret  fraternities.  She  has  chemi- 
cal, physical,  and  biological  laboratories,  libra- 
ries containing  28,000  volumes,  and  a  spacious 
athletic  field.  Her  campus  of  50  acres  is  of  rare 
natural  beauty,  and  with  her  nine  buildings,  has 
a  value  of  $350,000.  Her  invested  funds  amount 
to  upwards  of  $400,000.  Of  her  1097  graduates 
475  have  become  educators,  60  of  them  teachers 
in  colleges  and  vmiversities.  For  the  last  15 
years  the  number  of  her  graduates  at  the  head 
of  city  high  schools  in  New  England  is  believed 
to  have  exceeded  those  of  any  other  college. 
Bates  has  71  scholarships,  affording  free  tui- 
tion to  their  recipients,  and  she  so  shapes  her 
entire  policy  as  to  help  students  of  small  means 
to  meet  their  own  expenses.  The  college  has 
22  officers  and  instructors,  and  353  students  — 
an  increase  of  more  than  too  per  cent,  during 
the  last  decade.  Cobb  Divinity  School  is  a 
department  of  Bates  College,  having  its  own 
building,  faculty,  and  administration. 

George  C.  Chase,  President. 

Batesville,  Ark.,  a  town  and  county-seat  of 
Independence  County :  situated  on  the  White 
River  and  on  a  branch  of  the  St.  Louis,  I.  M.  & 
S.  R.R.  It  is  the  seat  of  Arkansas  College,  a 
Presbyterian  institution.  The  river  is  navigable 
for  steamboats  to  this  point  and  the  LTniced 
States  government  is  providing  a  sj'Stem  of 
locks  and  dams  to  insure  navigation  for  100 
miles    above    the    town.      It    contains    immense 


BATFISH  — BATH  AND  BATHING 


quarries  of  marble  and  other  stone,  and  there 
are  woolen  mills,  flouring  mills,  furniture  fac- 
tories, etc.     Pop.   (1900)  2,2,27. 

Batfish,  a  sea-fish  (Malthe  vespertilio)  of 
low  organization,  constituting  the  family  Mal- 
theida,  allied  to  the  goosefishes  {LophiidcE), 
which  creeps  about  the  bottom  like  a  huge 
toad  and  feeds  upon  whatever  comes  w^ithin 
its  reach.  It  is  numerous  in  all  warm  seas,  and 
some  related  forms  inhabit  the  deeper  parts  of 
the  ocean.    See  Goosefish. 

Bath,  England,  a  citj'  in  Somersetshire, 
107  miles  west  of  London.  It  is  beautifully 
situated  on  the  Avon,  in  a  narrow  valley 
bounded  on  the  northeast  and  southwest  by 
hills,  and  widening  on  the  northwest  into  rich 
and  extensive  meadows.  The  Avon  is  navigable 
from  Bath  to  Bristol.  Bath  is  noted  for  its 
places  of  amusement,  its  fine  streets,  and 
the  magnificence  of  its  public  buildings.  The 
houses  are  of  superior  construction,  built  of 
freestone,  obtained  from  the  hills  about  the  town. 
The  Abbey  Church  ranks  as  one  of  the  finest 
specimens  of  perpendicular  Gothic  architecture. 
Bath  is  remarkable  for  its  medicinal  waters, 
the  four  principal  springs  yielding  no  less  than 
184,000  gallons  of  water  a  day ;  and  the  baths 
are  both  elegant  and  commodious.  The  tem- 
perature of  the  springs  varies  from  109°  to 
117°  F.  They  contain  carbonic  acid,  chloride 
of  sodium  and  of  magnesium,  sulphate  of  soda, 
carbonate  and  sulphate  of  lime,  etc.  Bath  was 
founded  by  the  Romans,  and  called  by  them 
Aquw  Soils  (waters  of  the  sun).  Among  the 
Roman  remains  discovered  here  have  been 
some  fine  baths.  The  height  of  its  prosperity 
was  reached,  however,  in  the  i8th  century, 
when  Beau  Nash  was  leader  of  the  fashion 
and  master  of  its  ceremonies.  Since  then, 
although  it  still  attracts  large  numbers  of  visit- 
ors, it  has  become  the  resort  of  valetudinarians 
chiefly.  Jointly  with  Wells  it  is  the  head  of 
a  diocese,  and  returns  two  members  to  the 
House  of  Commons.     Pop.  (1901)  49,817. 

Bath,  Me.,  city,  port  of  entry,  and  county- 
seat  of  Sagadahoc  County,  on  the  Kennebec 
River,  and  the  Maine  C.  R.R. ;  12  miles  from 
the  ocean  and  30  miles  south  of  Augusta  and  36 
miles  northeast  of  Portland.  It  is  admirably 
situated  as  a  commercial  port ;  has  regular 
steamboat  connections  with  Boston  and  Port- 
land ;  is  principal!}'  engaged  in  shipbuilding,  both 
wood  and  iron ;  and  has  manufactories  of  brass 
and  iron  goods,  oil  cloth,  shoes,  and  lumber. 
The  Bath  Iron  Works  have  built  the  gun-boats 
Machias  and  Castine,  the  ram  Katahdin,  and 
several  of  the  modern  torpedo  boats  for  the 
United  States  navy.  Bath  has  a  large  coastwise 
and  foreign  trade  in  ice,  coal,  lumber,  hay,  iron, 
and  steel ;  and  contains  four  national  banks,  pub- 
lic library,  a  costly  system  of  waterworks,  and 
property  valued  at  $7,000,000.  Pop.  (1900) 
10,477. 

Bath,  N.  Y.,  town  and  county-seat  of 
Steuben  County,  on  the  Cohocton  Creek,  36  miles 
west  of  Elmira,  on  the  Buffalo  branch  of  the 
Erie,  and  the  Delaware,  L.  &  W.  R.R.'s.  It  is 
the  seat  of  the  New  York  State  Soldiers  and 
Sailors'  Home,  the  Davenport  Home  for  Or- 
phan Girls,  and  Haverling  Academy;  is  prin- 
cipally engaged  in  agriculture ;   and  has  manu- 


factories of  shoes,  sash  and  blinds,  harness, 
etc.  It  is  governed  by  a  mayor,  annually 
elected,  and  a  town  council.    Pop.  (1900)  4,994- 

Bath  and  Bathing.  The  use  of  the  bath 
is  primarily  for  purposes  of  cleanliness,  but 
it  also  subserves  various  other  useful  ends. 
Bathing  undoubtedly  took  place  first  in  rivers 
and  in  the  sea,  but  men  soon  learned  to  en- 
joy this  pleasure  in  their  own  houses.  Even 
Homer  inentions  the  use  of  the  bath  as  an  old 
custom.  When  Ulysses  enters  the  palace  of 
Circe,  a  bath  is  prepared  for  him,  after  which 
he  is  anointed  with  costly  perfumes,  and 
dressed  in  rich  garments.  In  later  times, 
rooms,  both  public  and  private,  were  built  ex- 
pressly for  the  purpose  of  bathing.  The  pub- 
lic baths  of  the  Greeks  were  mostly  connected 
with  the  gymnasia,  because  a  bath  was  taken 
immediately  after  the  athletic  exercises.  The 
Romans  imitated  the  Greeks  in  this  matter, 
and  built  magnificent  baths  in  which  both 
males  and  females  could  bathe  (in  separate 
divisions),  and  warm  or  cold  baths  could  be 
taken  ;  such  establishments,  indeed,  were  so  ex- 
tensive that  even  their  ruins  excite  admira- 
tion. 

The  Cold  Bath. —  The  first  efifect  of  the 
cold  bath  (at  a  temperature  say  from  50°  to 
70°)  is  to  produce  a  shock  to  the  nerves  of  the 
ckin.  In  the  case  of  the  cold  bath  as  ordina- 
rilv  used,  the  application  is  short,  and  the  more 
near  to  the  temperature  of  50°  F.  the  water  is 
the  shorter  it  should  be.  Following  the  first 
action  is  reaction,  during  which  the  blood  re- 
turns to  the  skin,  the  blood  vessels  of  which 
relax,  and  a  pleasant  sensation  of  glow,  spread- 
ing rapidly  over  the  surface,  is  experienced. 
This  reaction  is  aided  by  rapid  friction  of  the 
skin,  as  by  towels,  and  if,  after  drying,  the 
body  is  quickly  clothed  and  exercise  engaged 
in,  the  total  effect  of  the  bath  is  stimulating, 
inducing  a  feeling  not  only  of  warmth  but  also 
of  vigor.  The  length  of  time  the  cold  may  be 
applied  without  interfering  with  the  setting  in 
of  a  proper  reaction  depends  on  the  individual. 
A  mere  instant's  immersion  is  sufficient  for 
some,  others  can  bear  several  minutes,  while 
some  could  not  bear  complete  immersion  of  the 
body  at  all,  a  feeling  of  coldness  and  shiver- 
ing lasting  for  hours  after  it.  Obviously  for 
such  persons  the  full  cold  bath  is  not  suitable, 
and  the  cold  wet  towel,  cold  wet  sponge,  wet 
sheet,  etc.,  may  be  used  instead,  and  may  grad- 
ually lead  up  to  the  full  cold  plunge,  which 
may  thus  be  made  tolerable  and  enjoyable. 
The  cold  bath  is  not  usually  suitable  for  the 
old  and  the  delicate.  The  action  of  the  cold 
water  may  be  intensified  by  showering  it  or 
spraying  it  on  the  body  by  means  of  various 
arrangements  of  pipes,  etc.  The  morning  or 
early  part  of  the  day  is  the  suitable  time  for 
all  such  kinds  of  baths.  Persons  who  are  thus 
hjjbituated  to  the  use  of  cold  wate^  are  less 
susceptible  to  the  influence  of  cold  and  can 
stand    longer   exposure   than    others. 

Tepid  Baths,  "(temperature  85°  to  95°)  pro- 
duce neither  depression  nor  excitement,  and 
are  therefore  suited  for  all.  They  are  the  best 
when  prolonged  immersion  is  desired,  as  in 
the  treatment  of  chronic  skin  and  nervous  dis- 
eases. 

The  Warm  Bath  (temperature  96°  to  104°) 
is  particularly  serviceable  in  removing  feelings 
of    fatigue.     It    should    quicken    only    slightly 


BATH  AND  BATHING 

the   circulation,    and  bring   an   additional   quan-  212°.     Not    only   the   activity   of   the    skin,   but 

tity  of  blood  to  the  skin.     It  is  by  this  means  the   action   of  the   heart   and   of   breathing  are 

that    it    removes    the    tired    feeling    from    ex-  greatly    increased.     It    is    thus    not    suited    for 

hausted   muscles,    for    it   promotes   the   removal  everyone,  certainly  not  in  its  full  form  for  any- 

from  the   tissues  of  the  waste  products,  which  one  with   weak  heart  or  vessels,  and   for  very 

have   accumulated   during  the   period   of   activ-  full-blooded  persons. 

ity,  and  whose  presence  in  the  muscles  is  the  The  Ttirkish  Bath. —  The  hot-air  bath  is 
cause  of  the  feeling  of  weariness.  After  pro-  usually  obtained  with  other  accessories  in  the 
longed  labor,  or  a  long  fatiguing  walk,  or  form  of  the  Turkish  bath.  This  bath  was 
prolonged  exposure  to  damp  and  cold,  or  after,  adopted  by  the  Turks  from  the  Romans,  who 
for  example,  the  exertion  of  much  dancing,  derived  it  from  the  Greeks.  The  bather  enters 
nothing  is  so  restorative  and  refreshing  as  a  the  dressing-room  (Rom.  vestiariuvi)  which 
warm  bath.  When  employed  for  such  pur-  is  heated  to  an  ordinarily  comfortalale  tem- 
poses,  the  person  should  end  with  a  spray  or  perature.  Beyond  this  room  there  are,  in  the 
douche,  or  simple  sponge  of  tepid  water  (70°)  fully-equipped  Turkish  baths,  three  rooms, 
if  he  is  about  to  go  to  bed,  or  with  a  warm  separated  from  the  dressing-room  by  well- 
spray,  quickly  reduced  to  cold,  before  dressing  padded  doors.  The  first  of  these  corresponds 
to  go  out.  Warm  baths  are  largely  employed  to  the  Roman  tepidarium,  the  warm  room,  in 
in  feverish  aflfeclions  of  children  for  promot-  which  the  temperature  is  from  115°  to  120°; 
ing  the  action  of  the  skin ;  and  they  are  a  safe  beyond  this  and  separated  from  it  by  heavy 
resort  in  the  convulsions  of  children,  cold  be-  curtains  is  the  hot  room,  or  calidarium.  in 
ing  at  the  same  time  applied  to  the  head.  which    the    temperature    ranges    from    120°    to 

The    hot    bath    (temperature    102°    to    110°)  140°;    and    still    beyond    is    the    hottest    room, 

acts  in  a  more  pronounced  way  upon  the  heart  called  also  the  flue  room,  corresponding  to  the 

and    nervous    system    than    the    merely    warm  Roman     laconicum.     Here    the    temperature     is 

bath.     If    very    hot    it    powerfully    excites    the  not  below   150°,  usually   175°   to   180°,   but  may 

heart,    whose    action,    indeed,    it    may    stimulate  be  200°   and  upward.     Every  Turkish  bath  has 

to    violence.     The    brain    is    also    influenced    by  at   least  two    rooms   beyond   the   dressing-room, 

the  more  copious  flow  of  blood  through  it,  due  one   in    which   the   temperature   may   readily   be 

to  the  vigorous  action  of  the  heart.     These  ef-  raised   to    140°    or   thereby,   and   one   beyond    it 

fects,   however,   are   largely   counterbalanced   by  in   which  the  highest  temperatures  may  be  ob- 

the    increased   flow   of   blood   to   the   skin.     But  tained. 

the  prolonged  use  of  hot  baths  is  weakening.  When  a  full  Turkish  bath  is  taken  the  fol- 
and  the  temporary  strain  thrown  upon  the  lowing  is  the  usual  course :  The  bather  un- 
heart  and  blood-vessels  and  brain  would  be  dresses  in  one  of  the  curtained  recesses  of  the 
hurtful  to  many.  The  bather  should  be  im-  dressing-room,  girds  a  towel  or  similar  cloth 
mersed  to  the  chin  ;  the  hair  is  damped  with  round  his  loins,  and  carrying  a  bath-towel  over 
cold  water,  and  a  thin  cold  cloth  is  wrapped  the  arm  passes  into  the  warm  room.  Here  he 
about  the  head.  Cold  water  may  be  drunk  if  stays  only  long  enough  to  wet  the  hair  with 
desired.  The  bath  should  last  20  minutes,  or  cold  water,  and  perhaps  drink  of  it,  and  then 
less  if  oppression  is  felt.  It  should  conclude,  passes  on  through  the  hot  room,  into  the  hot- 
as  directed  for  warm  bath,  with  tepid  douche  test  room.  Spreading  his  towel  over  a  chair 
or  sponging,  or  with  warm  spray  quickly  he  reclines  on  it,  wets  his  head  with  cold  wa- 
reduced  to  cold.  The  hot  bath  should  not  be  ter,  and  drinks  at  his  pleasure,  but  not  too 
used  in  the  morning  or  early  part  of  the  day,  copiously,  of  cold  water,  which  the  attendant 
or  at  any  time  except  before  going  to  bed,  un-  will  bring  him.  Here  he  remains  5  or  10 
less  the  person  is  properly  cooled  down  before  minutes.  By  this  time  the  whole  body  will  be 
dressing  and  going  out.  bedewed    with    perspiration ;     and     the     bather 

The  Hot-air  Bath  is  one  of  the  most  power-  passes   out  into   the   room   next   in  temperature, 

ful    ways    of    stimulating    the    activity    of    the  the  hot  room,   \yhere  he  reclines  for  another   10 

skin.     The    person,    unclothed,    is   placed   in   an  or    15   minutes.     Then   he   passes  to   the   warm 

apartment    which    is    heated    by   means    of    fur-  room,    lower    in    temperature    than    the    former, 

naces,    the     air     being     dry.     In     a     longer     or  and  here  he  reclines  till  the  attendant  is  ready 

shorter  time,   according   to  the  heat  of  the  air  for    him,    when    he    proceeds    to    the    washing 

and  the  condition   of  the  bather,   the  perspira-  room.     Here  he  lies  on  a  table  and  the  attend- 

tion   bursts   out   upon   the   skin,   becoming   very  ant  goes  over  the  whole  body,  rubbing  the  sur- 

copious,    so    that   the   whole   body   is   bathed   in  face,    and   thus   removing   all   loose   effete    skin, 

sweat.     A  very  high  temperature  may  be  borne  grasping    and    kneading    the    muscles,    bending 

so  long  as  the  air   is  quite   dry,   for  the  sweat  joints    and    so    on.     He    is    then    rubbed    over 

passes   rapidly  off  irom  the  body  in  the   form  with    soap,    scrubbed    and    washed    down,    and 

of   vapor,    removing   a    large    quantity    of    heat,  lastly   douched  with   warm   and  then   tepid   and 

and  thus  the  temperature  of  the  body  does  not  cold  water.     From  this  room  the  bather  passes 

rise,   unless  the   air  is  very  hot,  when  the  heat  out  quickly,   plunges  through   a   cold   bath,   and 

of  the   body   usually  increases  by  two  or  three  regains  the  dressing-room,  where  he   is  quickly 

degrees.     The  same  high  temperature  could  not  dried  down  with  warm  dry  towels.     He  is  then 

be  borne  if  the  air  were  moist,  as  in  the   case  enveloped    in   a   dry   bath-towel,   and   so   attired 

of  a   vapor  bath,   for  then  the  air   is   saturated  he    lies    down    on    his    couch    in    the    dressing- 

or  nearly  so  with  moisture  and  cannot  take  up  room,  covered  over  with  a  light  rug  or  blanket, 

more,   or  can   take  up   very  little.     Marked   op-  till    his    skin    assumes    its    natural    degree    of 

pre^sion.   difficultv   of  breathing,   fullness  in  the  warmth.     When  the   skin  is  cool  and  dry,  usu- 

head.  faintness,  etc.,   would  then  speedilv  arise,  ally   in    15    or   20   minutes,    the    bather   dresses 

When   the   air   is    quite   dry,   however,    a    high  deliberately,    and    may    then    go    out.     The    or- 

temperature,   for  examnle,   that  of   180°   F.,   can  dinary  duration  of  the  full  bath,  from  the   flue 

usually  be  endured   with  ease,   and  even  above  room  to  the  washing  room.,  is  from  40  minutes 


BATH  BRICK 


to  an  hour.  The  full  bath,  however,  is  suited 
chiefly  for  those  accustomed  to  it,  for  the 
healthy  and  robust. 

The  vapor  bath  acts  upon  the  body  much 
as  the  hot-water  bath  does,  but  it  acts  more 
powerfully,  though  the  effect  of  the  heat  is 
not  so  quick  since  vapbr  is  a  slower  conductor 
of  heat  than  water.  This  bath  can.  therefore, 
be  borne  hotter  than  a  water  bath,  but  the 
high  temperature  cannot  be  borne  long,  for  the 
vapor  does  not  permit  of  the  loss  of  heat  from 
the  body  as  hot  air  does.  The  temperature  of 
the  vapor  bath  cannot  be  comfortably  endured 
above  120°  F.  The  vapor  bath  is  characteris- 
tic of  the  Russian  baths.  It  is  taken  in  a 
chamber  filled  with  vapor,  which  is  thus  not 
only  applied  to  the  surface  of  the  body  but 
also  inhaled.  This  makes  it  still  more  oppres- 
sive. It  may  be  used,  however,  in  a  simple 
form,  in  which  the  vapor  is  not  breathed, 
by  the  person  sitting  on  a  chair,  surrounded 
from  the  neck  downward  by  blankets,  which  en- 
velop the  chair  also  and  hang  to  the  ground. 
Under  the  chair  is  placed  a  shallow  earthenware 
or  metal  dish,  containing  boiling  water  to  the 
depth  of  3  or  4  inches.  In  the  water  are 
placed  a  couple  of  red-hot  bricks.  Or  under 
the  chair  may  be  placed  a  spirit-lamp,  sup- 
ported above  it  being  a  shallow  pan  contain- 
ing boiling  water.  Such  baths  are  very  useful 
for  catarrh,  for  rheumatic  and  neuralgic  pains, 
sciatica,  etc.,  as  well  as  for  cases  where  exces- 
sive action  of  the  skin  is  desired  to  relieve 
deeper  organs,  for  example  the  kidneys.  Ten 
to  fifteen  minutes  are  long  enough  for  exposure 
in  the  vapor  bath. 

Sea-Bathing. — Ordinary  sea-bathing  is  of 
course  cold,  and  produces  the  stimulating  ef- 
fects described  in  regard  to  the  cold  bath. 
There  is  besides  the  additional  stimulus  due 
to  the  salt,  so  that  sea-bathing  acts  as  an  in- 
vigorating tonic.  It  is  not,  however,  suited  for 
everyone,  and  is  taken  much  too  indiscrim- 
inately. It  is  also  indulged  in  without  due  pre- 
caution. It  is  a  very  common  error  for  persons 
to  remain  in  the  sea  too  long,  the  result  being 
shivering,  blueness  of  the  skin,  difficulty  in  re- 
covering warmth,  headache,  etc.  Persons  who 
are  anaemic, —  that  is,  of  deficient  quality  of 
blood, —  ought  not  to  indulge  in  sea-bathing 
without  advice,  and  failing  advice  had  better 
try  first  a  salt-water  bath  at  home.  Persons 
who  have  suffered  from  any  internal  complaint 
ought  also  to  refrain.  The  best  time  for  sea- 
bathing is  in  the  morning.  It  should  never  be 
indulged  in  immediately  after  a  meal,  when 
the  business  of  digestion  is  going  actively  for- 
ward. A  good  time  is  before  lunch  or  early 
dinner,  for  which  the  brisk  walk  home  after 
the  bath  will  prove  an  excellent  appetizer. 
Neither  should  sea-bathing  be  engaged  in  im- 
mediately after  very  active  exercise,  when  the 
body  is  in  s  state  of  very  active  perspiration  or 
in  a  condition  of  fatigue.  At  the  same  time, 
moderate  exercise  before  the  bath  is  unobjec- 
tionable, and  the  body  ought  to  be  comfortably 
warm.  The  person  should  undress  quickly  and 
plunge  in  bodily,  wetting  the  whole  body  at 
once.  During  the  bath  exercise  should  be  ac- 
tive, as  in  continued  swimming.  Children, 
because  of  the  little  resisting  power  of  their 
bodies  are  readily  depressed  by  sea-bathing. 
They  may  be  gradually  accustomed  to  it ;  but 
they  ought  not  to  be  forcibly  immersed  to  their 


aversion  and  terror.  Sea-bath?  m;iy  be  imi- 
tated at  home  by  the  addition  of  common  salt 
or  sea  salt  to  water.  The  benefits  or  open-air 
bathing, —  sea  or  river, —  are  not  limited,  of 
course,  to  the  action  of  the  water,  but  are  in- 
creased by  the  action  of  the  fresh  air,  the  res- 
piration of  which  is  stimulated  by  the  bath, 
and  by  the  exercise  in  the  open  air  invariably 
indulged    in   afterward. 

There  are  many  kinds  of  medicated  baths, 
which  have,  or  are  supposed  to  have,  special 
properties,  valuable  for  diseased  conditions,  be- 
cause of  containing  various  saline  substances 
dissolved  in  them.  Such  baths  may  be  arti- 
ficially prepared  by  the  addition  of  the  salts 
to  the  water,  or  natural  mineral  waters  may 
be  used  for  the  purpose.  Mud-baths  are 
recommended  for  special  reasons. 

Various  arrangements  are  employed  for  ac- 
centuating the  effect  of  the  water,  whether 
used  hot  or  cold,  or  for  applying  it  to  particu- 
lar parts  of  the  body.  The  spray  is  one  well- 
known  variety  of  bath.  The  douche  is  a  jet 
of  water  directed  upon  some  part  of  the  body 
through  a  1I/2  inch  pipe,  the  force  of  the  wa- 
ter, quantity  discharged,  and  temperature 
being  capable  of  modification.  It  at  first 
lowers  the  vitality  of  the  part  to  which  it  is 
applied,  but  reaction  sets  in  quickly,  so  that 
its  whole  effect  is  stimulating,  quickening  tis- 
sue change.  The  douche  may  be  used  hot  or 
cold,  or  one  after  the  other  in  rapid  succession, 
a  change  which  is  most  stimulating  of  all.  In 
old-standing  complaints,  thickenings  about 
joints,  stiff  joints,  etc.,  it  is  a  very  useful  ap- 
plication. In  the  case  of  the  descending 
douche,  the  pipe  is  10  to  15  feet  above  the  floor 
level,  and  for  the  horizontal  douche  the  pipe 
is  4  feet  above  floor  level.  In  the  former 
case  it  is  played  first  on  the  spine,  and  then 
shoulders,  hips,  arms  and  legs  in  succession. 
At  the  close  it  is  directed  on  to  the  chest  and 
head,  the  force  of  the  water  being  broken  by 
the  hands.  In  the  latter  case  the  back,  chest, 
arms,  and  legs  are  douched  in  the  order 
named,  while  the  patient  rubs  himself  vigor- 
ously. Before  beginning  the  head  is  wet  with 
cold  water,  and  is  douched  last,  the  force  of 
the  water  being  broken.  The  process  should 
last  scarcely  two  minutes. 

The  sitz-bath  or  hip-bath  is  a  means  of 
limiting  the  application  of  the  water  to  the 
hips  and  neighboring  parts.  The  form  of  the 
bathing-tub  is  such  that  the  person  has  the 
bath  in  the  sitting  posture,  the  limbs  and  upper 
part  of  the  body  being  out  of  the  bath.  The 
sitz-bath,  hot  or  cold  according  to  circum- 
stances, is  in  much  use  for  abdominal  and 
liver  complaints,  and  specially  for  feminine 
ailments.  Its  soothing  effects  used  hot  in  such 
disorders  are  marked.  Altogether  the  use  of 
the  bath,  in  association  with  treatment  by 
medicine,  is  of  the  highest  value  in  numerous 
disorders,  rheumatic,  gouty,  digestive,  lebrile, 
etc.  In  particular,  the  Turkish  bath,  under 
due  superintendence,  may  produce  surprising 
results,  from  checking  a  simple  cold  upward. 
See  also  Hydrotherapy. 

Bath  Brick,  or  Bristol  Brick,  an  artificially 
manufactured  brick,  of  the  usual  form,  but 
formed  of  calcareous  earth.  It  is  used  for  clean- 
ing various  kinds  of  metal  work,  and  in  Eng- 
land is  manufactured  from  the  silt  left  in  the 
river  Parret  in  Somersetshire  after  high  tides.     1 


BATH  BUN  — BATH,  HISTORY   OF  THE 


Bath  Bun,  an  English  bun,  or  sweetened 
cake  or  biscuit,  made  generally  without  cur- 
rants. 

Bath  Chair,  a  small  carriage  or  chair  on 
wheels,  drawn  by  a  chairman,  and  intended  for 
the  conveyance  of  individuals  or  others  for 
short  distances.  It  is  so  called  because  either 
originally  or  principally  used  at  Bath,  where  the 
steepness  of  many  of  the  streets  rendered  such 
conveyances   especially  useful. 

Bath,  History  of  the.  As  the  most  an- 
cient records  of  the  human  race  refer  to  the 
use  of  the  bath  it  is  probably  safe  to  surmise 
that  the  prehistoric  peoples  early  discovered 
the  cleansing  effect  of  water  and  were  eager  to 
enjoy  it.  To  the  ancient  Egyptians,  as  to  the 
more  modern  Mohammedans,  it  is  a  part  of 
their  religious  service,  while  among  the  early 
Hebrews  it  was  not  only  one  of  the  first  puri- 
ficative  duties  but  it  was  positively  prescribed 
by  the  ]\Iosaic  law  in  certain  specified  cases  of 
uncleanness.  Thus  the  Jew  who  had  no  bath 
in  the  court  yard  of  his  house,  bathed  in  the 
streams,  or,  later,  in  the  mixed,  or  public  baths, 
while,  besides  water,  bran  was  often  used  for 
ceremonial  cleansing,  especially  by  the  women, 
just  as  the  modern  Arabs,  when  unable  to 
obtain  water,  rub  themselves  clean  with 
sand.     See  Ablution. 

The  earliest  and  most  common  form  of  bath- 
ing was,  of  course,  that  of  swimming  in  riv- 
ers, and  bathing  in  such  rivers  as  the  Nile 
•and  the  Ganges  was  supposed  to  possess  a  re- 
ligious significance  which  tended  to  make  the 
practice  a  very  popular  one.  The  use  of  oils 
and  the  greater  luxury  of  perfumes  became 
customary  on  occasions  of  sanitary  bathing  at  a 
very  early  period.  In  later  times  the  more 
wealthy  Romans  possessed  many  kinds  of  oils 
and  pomades  which  they  brought  to  the  baths, 
that  their  bodies  might  be  anointed  with  them, 
while  even  the  poorest  classes  rubbed  their  bodies 
with  flour  of  lentils  after  the  bath. 

The  first  reference  to  such  a  convenience  as 
that  of  a  public  bath  occurs  in  the  Bible,  where 
it  is  stated  that  the  bathing  "pools*^  were  some- 
times sheltered  by  porticoes,  but  this  was  a 
simple  invention  when  compared  to  the  perfect 
bathing  facilities  which  were  afterward  pro- 
vided by  the  Greeks  and  Romans,  while  the 
praise  lavished  upon  the  baths  of  Darius  by 
Alexander  the  Great  iridicates  that  the  Persians 
must  also  have  possessed  beautifully  appointed 
bathing  facilities. 

The  public  baths,  which  began  to  be  built  in 
Rome  shortly  after  Clodius  had  succeeded  in 
supplying  the  city  with  water  from  Praeneste, 
soon  became  one  of  the  most  popular  institu- 
tions of  the  nation  and  emperors  vied  with  their 
predecessors  to  construct  the  largest  and  most 
elaborate  establishments.  As  the  result,  enor- 
mous buildhigs  were  erected  and  these  contained 
not  only  the  bathing  apartments  but  the  gym- 
nasia and  libraries,  or  even  theatres,  and  the 
most  able  writers  of  that  time  admit  their  in- 
ability to  describe  the  magnificence  and  luxuri- 
ous appointment  of  many  of  these  palaces  of 
cleanliness  and  pleasure.  For  example,  Seneca 
says,  ^*To  such  a  pitch  of  luxury  have  we  come 
that  we  are  dissatisfied  if  we  do  not  tread  on 
gems  in  our  baths."  These  baths,  or  thermce, 
Vol.  2—25. 


as  they  were  called,  contained  swimming  baths 
warm  baths,  vapor  baths,  and  baths  of  hot  and 
cold  air. 

Wherever  the  Romans  settled  they  built  pub- 
lic baths,  and  wherever  they  found  hot  springs 
or  natural  stufse,  they  made  use  of  them,  thus 
saving  the  expense  of  heating,  as  at  Baiae  »nd 
Bath.  The  charge  made  at  a  public  bath  was 
only  a  quadraus,  or  about  one  quarter  cent. 

The  delicacy  of  feeling  concerning  the  bath- 
ing together  of  sexes  which  is  said  to  have  ex- 
isted in  early  times  certainly  did  not  extend  to 
tlie  days  of  the  Empire,  when  it  was  not  at 
all  uncommon  for  men  and  women  to  make 
use  of  the  same  bath  and  it  was  probably  due 
to  this  practice  that  the  public  baths  came  to  be 
condemned  by  the  early  Christians  as  places  of 
unbounded  license.  While  admitting  the  useful- 
ness of  the  bath  from  the  standpoint  of  cleanli- 
ness and  health,  the  Church  fathers  insisted  that 
baths  should  be  taken  for  such  purposes  only 
and  not  for  pleasure.  It  was  at  this  time  when 
the  bath  reached  the  height  of  luxuriousness ; 
when  rich  citizens  had  magnificent  private  baths 
of  their  own  attached  to  their  villas,  and  when 
elaborate  private  bathing  houses  might  be  had 
for  hire  in  all  the  cities ;  conditions  which  con- 
tinued until  about  the  5th  century,  when  the 
destruction  of  Rome's  water  supply  by  the 
Huns  and  the  many  disasters  which  accompa- 
nied the  downfall  of  the  Empire  tended  to  turn 
popular  attention  from  the  delights  of  the 
thcrmcc.  How  thoroughly  the  bath  afterward 
fell  into  disuse,  however,  is  a  matter  which 
historians  have  been  unable  to  determine.  In 
the  East,  of  course,  where  the  heat  and  dust 
make  its  use  obligatory,  there  has  never  been 
any  diminution  in  the  practice,  and  while  in 
Europe,  for  a  time  at  least,  perfumes  were  used 
to  offset  any  disagreeable  odors  that  might 
arise  from  uncleanliness  of  the  person,  this 
condition  could  not  have  existed  for  many  cen- 
turies, for,  by  the  latter  part  of  the  12th  cen- 
tury, the  popularity  of  the  bath  had  become  so 
well  re-established  that  there  was  scarcely  any 
large  city  in  Europe  which  did  not  possess  well 
patronized  hot  air  bathing  houses.  Agaiii  in 
the  17th  century,  when  the  Turkish  bath  was 
introduced,  there  was  another  revival  of  inter- 
est in  the  matter  of  personal  cleanliness,  and 
people  of  all  classes  flocked  to  the  baths,  or 
Hummuns,  as  they  were  called,  to  enjoy  the 
new  luxury  that  had  been  imported  from  the 
East. 

While  the  Turkish  bath,  not  to  mention  the 
Russian  and  Egyptian  baths,  are  so  similar  to 
the  hot  air  baths  of  the  Romans  that  many 
authorities  have  regarded  them  as  nothing  more 
or  less  than  an  outgrowth  from  the  latter,  the 
fact  that  the  principle  of  the  vapor  bath  has  • 
been  known  to  many  nations,  and  has  even 
been  found  among  savages,  or  races  in  an 
early  stage  of  civilization,  has  led  to  the  more 
recent  and  counter  theory  that  the  hot  air  boxes 
of  the  Mexicans,  the  "medicine  sweats''  of  the 
American  Indians,  the  small  baths  of  the  an- 
cient inhabitants  of  Scotland  and  Ireland,  and 
the  larger  vapor  baths  of  Japan,  like  those  of 
Turkey  and  Russia,  are  of  just  as  independent 
origin  as  those  of  the  more  ancient  Rome. 
However  that  may  be  it  is  at  least  certain  that, 
while  this  luxurious  form  of  bathing  was 
largely  responsible  for  the  neglect  of  the  cold 


BATH  BUN  — BATH  HOUSES 


bath  and  the  sea-bathing,  the  virtues  of  which 
have  been  appreciated  only  within  comparatively 
modern  times,  it  is  largely  due  to  the  pleasure- 
able  sensations  resulting  from  this  form  of 
bath  that  the  various  nations  of  the  world 
have  not  neglected  those  principles  of  cleanli- 
ness upon  which  the  good  health  of  a  people 
so  vitally  depends. 

J.  R.  Header, 
Editor   of    ^American    Year  Book? 

Bath  Houses,  Public.  The  public  bath- 
house was  a  matter  of  course  in  the  cities  of 
southern  Europe  down  to  the  end  of  the  Roman 
empire;  one  of  the  chief  objects  of  public 
expenditure  and  private  munificence.  The  Ro- 
mans borrowed  it  from  the  Greeks,  but  vastly 
improved  it,  connecting  it  with  a  general  system 
of  public  recreation.  Maecenas  under  Augustus 
was  the  first  private  citizen  to  build  a  splendid 
specimen  and  give  it  to  the  city  of  Rome ;  and 
after  him  each  succeeding  emperor  strove  to 
outdo  the  others  in  enormous  buildings  of  mag- 
nificent architecture  and  sumptuous  fittings,  con- 
taining not  only  all  kinds  of  baths, —  cold,  hot, 
swimming,  vapor,  hot  air,  and  shower, —  but 
gymnasia,  theatres,  and  libraries.  Private  per- 
sons also  founded  them  in  provincial  cities.  But 
after  the  barbarian  deluge,  both  money  and 
water  supply  failed,  and  till  very  modern  times 
general  cleanliness  ceased  to  be  a  municipal 
concern.  The  system  first  revived  in  Germany, 
but  only  in  cold  swimming  baths ;  the  first 
enclosed  bath  houses  with  hot  and  cold  water 
were  established  in  Liverpool,  in  1842.  The 
movement  spread  but  tardily  in  Great  Britain, — 
the  first  legislation  of  1846  being  little  acted  on, 
—  till  about  1890,  when  city  councils  began  to 
take  it  up  energetically  with  authorization  from 
Parliament ;  but  it  then  increased  so  rapidly 
that  almost  every  town  or  borough  of  50,000 
people  now  has  its  public  bath  open  the  year 
round,  as  do  very  many  smaller  ones.  In  Ger- 
many about  50  cities  have  them.  On  the  Conti- 
nent generally  and  in  Scandinavia,  only  the 
large  cities  are  thus  provided;  but  in  Russia 
they  are  almost  universal  in  places  of  any  size. 

In  the  United  States,  though  public  baths 
have  existed  for  some  40  years  in  a  few  great 
water-side  cities,  they  were  till  a  few  years  ago 
confined  to  cold  swimming-baths  sunk  in  the 
sea  or  river  near  the  shore,  and  open  only  dur- 
ing warm  weather;  of  excellent  service  for  the 
comfort  of  those  not  too  far  off,  but  too  lim- 
ited in  scope  to  be  of  the  highest  value  to  the 
general  public.  Not  only  were  they  closed  for 
more  than  half  the  year,  but  to  those  who  must 
walk  more  than  half  or  three  quarters  of  a  mile 
to  obtain  a  bath  (their  utility  being  for  the  poor), 
their  value  as  refreshment  in  hot  weather  was 
neutralized  by  the  needful  exertion  to  reach 
them.  Their  use,  therefore,  depended  on  their 
distribution  and  relation  to  the  water  system. 
Thus,  in  Boston,  where  six  were  established  in 
1866,  with  300,00c  patrons  during  the  first  sea- 
son, and  extended  to  14  in  1897,  they  were  so 
located  on  the  Charles  River,  at  City  Point,  and 
on  South  Bay,  that  a  considerable  part  of 
the  poorer  population  were  within  fairly  easy 
distance  of  them.  Only  about  a  dozen  United 
States  cities,  however,  had  even  these  bathing 
facilities  till  a  few  years  since,  and  the  first 
general  movement  in  favor  of  year-round  hot 
and    cold  batij':     was    a    reflex    from    Germany, 


about  1891.  In  that  year  the  People's  Baths 
were  built  in  New  York  by  a  private  philan- 
thropic association,  and  maintained  by  a  small 
fee;  and  in  1893  Chicago  opened  a  small  munici- 
pal bath  house.  The  first  compulsory  legisla- 
tion was  by  New  York  state  in  April  1895 
(though  a  bathing  and  washing  association  was 
incorporated  there  in  1849)  ;  it  obliged  all  cities 
of  over  50,000  people  to  establish  public  baths 
and  comfort  stations,  kept  open  the  year  round, 
with  both  hot  and  cold  water,  and  14  hours  a 
day,  and  under  such  conditions  as  the  local 
board  of  health  judged  proper;  river,  lake,  or 
sea  baths  not  to  be  deemed  a  compliance  with 
the  act.  Cities  under  50,000,  though  not  com- 
pelled, were  permitted  to  use  their  funds  or 
credit  for  the  same  object.  The  first  city  to 
comply,  and  perhaps  the  first  in  the  United 
States  to  furnish  such  conveniences  in  their  full 
extent,  was  Yonkers,  N.  Y.,  not  within  the  com- 
pulsory section.  This  town  opened  one  on 
Labor  Day,  1896;  and  another  of  brick,  fire- 
proof, in  1898,  with  accommodations  for  400 
daily  baths.  Within  the  act,  Buffalo  opened  its 
first  in  1897 ;  Albany,  Rochester,  Syracuse,  and 
Troy,  have  since  complied ;  and  in  New  York 
the  first  one,  five  years  after  the  act  was  passed, 
was  opened  in  Rivington  Street  in  a  closely 
packed  quarter,  during  1900,  at  a  cost  of 
$100,000.  It  furnishes  3,000  baths  a  day  of  20 
minutes  each,  from  67  spray  baths.  In  Phila- 
delphia the  Public  Baths  Association  was  organ- 
ized in  1895 ;  but  the  first  to  be  opened  was  in 
1898,  in  a  crowded  quarter  between  Fourth  and 
Fifth  streets.  It  is  a  building  of  2^/2  stories,  40 
by  60,  constructed  of  brick  and  iron,  with  con- 
crete floors  and  iron  partitions.  It  cost  about 
$30,000.  It  has  no  swimming  pool,  but  only 
shower  baths  —  a  system  rapidly  coming  into 
favor  from  its  economy  of  space  and  water ; 
the  People's  Baths  and  the  Baron  de  Hirsch 
Fund  Baths  in  New  York  adopt  the  same  plan. 
The  Philadelphia  establishment  has  a  public 
laundry  in  connection  with  its  own  suit  and 
towel  laundry,  where  women  and  men  in  sepa- 
rate compartments  can  wash  their  clothing  for  a 
small  fee,  and  single  men  make  much  use  of  it 
to  wash  their  underclothing.  Pittsburg,  Pa.,  has 
recently  erected  a  permanent  public  bath.  Some 
of  the  old  warm-season  baths  have  since  been 
made  permanent,  as  in  Newark,  N.  J.,  which  so 
extended  two  in  1898,  and  in  1900  voted  a  third. 
Boston  from  1897  to  1899  increased  its  public 
baths  to  2>?>- — I4  floating,  10  beach,  and  9  oth- 
ers ;  17  south  of  the  common  and  16  north ;  and 
prepared  to  erect  permanent  structures  in  each 
industrial  section  of  the  city.  The  first  of  these 
was  opened  at  Dover  Street  in  1898  —  a  fine 
brick  and  granite  structure,  with  marble  parti- 
tions and  staircases,  the  whole  with  land  costing 
$86,000.  It  has  gymnasiums  also,  and  medical 
directors  for  each  se.x  to  give  courses  of  train- 
ing, and  for  cases  of  accident  or  sudden  illness. 
The  intention  is  ultimately  to  make  these  baths 
places  of  public  recreation,  corresponding  to  the 
summer  playgrounds  ;  thus  reaching  in  the  20th 
century  the  point  at  which  the  Romans  had 
arrived  in  the  first.  Brookline,  adjoining  Bos- 
ton, has  a  handsomely  appointed  permanent 
municipal  bath  house  and  so  have  Worcester, 
Mass.,  and  Providence.  R.  I.  St.  Paul,  Minn., 
through  the  public  spirit  of  Dr.  Ohage,  a  Ger- 
man physician,  now  has  a  public  playground, 
pavilion,    etc.,    connected    with    permanent   bath 


BATH  — BATHORI 


houses  on  what  was  till  recently  a  waste  island 
in  the  middle  of  the  Mississippi,  near  the  busi- 
ness centre  of  the  city  and  between  two  main 
bridges.  Like  most  of  the  other  bath  establish- 
ments, it  is  free,  save  a  small  charge  for  soap 
and  towels ;  has  free  instruction  in  swimming, 
and  is  open  every  day,  including  Sundays.  The 
donor  calls  it  an  experiment  in  municipal  social- 
ism, being  himself  a  socialist.  A  very  recent 
phase  of  the  movement  is  the  connection  of  the 
system  with  the  public  schools.  It  began  in 
Germany,  Gottingen  leading  the  way  in  1885 
under  the  headship  of  the  mayor  and  a  professor 
in  the  university.  Thus  far,  in  the  United  States 
it  is  nearly  confined  to  Boston  and  its  suburbs ; 
in  1900  a  number  of  baths  were  put  into  the 
Paul  Revere  school  in  the  North  End,  and  in 
Brookline  swimming  is  a  regular  part  of  the 
school  curriculum.  As  a  means  of  public  sani- 
tation, preventing  the  spread  of  disease  and 
purifying  the  air,  where  the  rooms  are  full  of 
children  from  the  poorer  quarters,  it  has  much 
to  commend  it. 

Bath,  Knights  of  the,  an  English  order 
concerning  the  origin  of  which  antiquaries  differ. 
Henry  IV.,  on  the  day  of  his  coronation,  con- 
ferred the  degree  upon  46  knights.  From  that 
time  the  kings  of  England  have  bestowed  this 
dignity  previous  to  coronations,  after  births  and 
marriages  of  the  royal  issue,  etc.  Charles  II. 
created  several  Knights  of  the  Bath,  but  after 
his  time  the  order  fell  into  neglect,  till  1725, 
when  George  I.  revived  it.  By  the  book  of 
statutes  then  prepared,  the  number  of  knights 
was  fixed  at  38,  namely,  the  sovereign,  and  Zl 
knights  companions.  The  king  allowed  the 
chapel  of  Henry  VII.,  in  Westminster  Abbey, 
to  be  the  chapel  of  the  order.  The  limits  of  the 
order  were  greatly  extended  by  the  prince 
regent  in  1815,  to  reward  the  distinguished  ser- 
vices of  officers  during  the  wars ;  and  again  in 
1847,  when  it  was  also  opened  to  civilians.  It 
was  further  enlarged  in  1861.  It  now  consists 
of  three  classes,  each  of  which  is  subdivided  into 
(i)  military  members;  (2)  civil  members,  and 
(3)  honorary  members,  consisting  of  foreign 
princes  and  officers.  The  first  class  consists  of 
Knights  Grand  Cross  (G.C.B.)  ;  the  second  of 
Knights  Commanders  (K.C.B.)  ;  and  the  third, 
of  Companions  (C.B.).  The  dean  of  West- 
minster is  dean  of  the  order.  The  ribbon  of 
the  order  is  crimson,  and  its  motto,  "Tria  juncta 
in  uno."  The  name  is  conjecturally  derived 
from  the  initiatory  ceremony  of  bathing  once 
practised  at  the  installation  of  a  knight,  as  sym- 
bolical of  the  purity  thereafter  required  of  him. 

Bathom'eter,  an  instrument  for  measuring 
the  depth  of  the  sea  or  any  large  body  of  water 
without  a  sounding  line,  the  name  being  derived 
from  bathos,  depth.  It  was  invented  by  Dr. 
C.  W.  Siemens  after  1859  as  an  adjunct  to  the 
laying  of  submarine  telegraphic  cables,  so  as  to 
keep  a  continuous  record  of  the  sea  depth  below 
a  moving  ship.  The  principle  of  the  instrument 
is  based  upon  the  gravitation  of  the  earth, 
total  gravitation  being  represented  by  a  column 
of  mercury,  which  rests  upon  a  thin  steel  dia- 
phragm embossed  in  such  a  way  that  its  centre 
can  move  within  a  small  range  freely  up  and 
down  under  the  influence  of  the  rnercury  col- 
umn without  encountering  any  frictional  resist- 
ance. The  column  ends  in  a  cup,  and  mercury 
is  poured  into  both  cup  and  pipe  up  to  a  certain 


point,  the  space  above  being  filled  with  water, 
alcohol,  or  a  liquid  of  less  density,  this  latter  ter- 
minating in  a  spiral  tube  laid  upon  a  scale  at 
the  top  of  the  instrument.  The  centre  of  the 
diaphragm  which  supports  the  column  of  mer- 
cury is  carried  by  two  or  more  carefully  tem- 
pered steel  springs,  so  adjusted  that  their  elastic 
pressure  balances  exactly  the  dead  weight  of 
the  column  of  mercury  resting  upon  the  dia- 
phragm, the  result  being  that  the  diaphragm 
retains  its  horizontal  position.  Inclosed  in  an 
air-tight  casing  closed  by  a  disc  of  plate  glass, 
the  instrument  records  by  an  ingenious  compen- 
sating arrangement  the  natural  balance  of  the 
elastic  and  gravity  forces  on  the  scale,  from 
which  readings  are  made.  Consult  Siemens, 
'The  Bathometer >    (1879). 

Bathori,  ba'to-re,  or  Battori,  a  celebrated 
Hungarian  family  which  in  the  15th  century 
became  divided  into  two  branches,  one  of  which 
gave  Transylvania  five  princes,  and  Poland  one 
of  its  greatest  kings : 

1.  Stephen:  b.  1532;  d.  Grodno,  1586.  He 
entered  the  army,  and  so  distinguished  himself 
that  when  the  death  of  John  Sigismund  Zapolya, 
nephew  of  Sigismund  II.,  king  of  Poland,  in 
1571,  left  a  vacancy  in  the  sovereignty  of  Tran- 
sylvania, Stephen  Bathori,  without  courting  the 
honor,  was  unanimously  elected.  When  the 
throne  of  Poland  became  vacant  by  Henry  of 
Valois  quitting  the  country  in  order  to  mount 
the  throne  of  France,  Stephen  Bathori  was 
elected  to  succeed  him  in  1575,  and  was  crowned 
along  with  his  queen,  Anne,  daughter  of  Sigis- 
mund Augustus,  at  Cracow,  in  1576.  He  found 
the  kingdom  torn  asunder  by  faction,  the  peo- 
ple enervated  by  long  peace,  the  treasury 
exhausted,  and  the  army  without  discipline.  He 
therefore  gave  his  first  attention  to  internal 
improvement,  but  had  no  sooner  effected  it 
than  he  determined  to  recover  the  Polish  terri- 
tories of  which  the  czar  of  Muscovy  had  man- 
aged to  possess  himself  by  fomenting  dissen- 
sions. He  accordingly  declared  war  against 
him,  beat  him  at  all  points,  and  compelled  him 
to  accept  a  disadvantageous  peace.  Under 
Stephen  Bathori,  Poland  enjoyed  a  comparative 
tranquillity  to  which  it  had  long  been  a  stranger, 
and  he  was  meditating  important  constitutional 
reforms,  which  promised  to  make  that  tran- 
quillity permanent,  when  he  died  suddenly. 

2.  Sigismund,  nephew  of  Stephen :  d.  1613. 
He  became  waiwode  or  prince  of  Transylvania 
in  1581,  shook  off  the  Ottoman  yoke,  and,  by 
the  great  talents  he  displayed,  had  begun  to  give 
hopes  of  reigning  gloriously  as  an  independent 
sovereign,  when,  from  mere  fickleness  and 
eccentricity  of  character,  he  voluntarily  resigned 
his  dominions  to  the  Emperor  Rudolph  II.  in 
return  for  two  principalities  in  Silesia,  a  cardi- 
nal's hat,  and  a  pension.  With  the  same  fickle- 
ness, however,  he  immediately  repented  of  the 
act,  and,  availing  himself  of  an  invitation  by 
the  Transylvanians,  returned,  and  placed  him- 
self under  the  protection  of  the  Porte.  The  tal- 
ent which  he  had  displayed,  and  the  good  for- 
tune which  had  followed  him  in  early  life, 
appeared  now  to  have  forsaken  him  ;  the  Imperi- 
alists defeated  him  in  every  battle,  and  he  was 
obliged  to  throw  himself  on  the  mercy  of  the 
emperor,  who  sent  him  to  live  out  the  rest  of  his 
days  at  Prague. 


BATHS  OF  AGRIPPA  —  B ATH YMETRY 


Baths  of  Agrippa,  the  earliest  of  the  Ro- 
man thermae;  erected  by  Marcus  Agrippa  in 
the  reign  of  Augustus.  They  stood  in  the  Cam- 
pus ?\Iartius,  about  20  feet  behind  the  Pantheon. 
In  1881,  on  the  removal  of  some  houses,  ruins 
were  found  of  a  great  hall  paved  with  marble 
and  lined  with  fluted  columns. 

Baths  of  Caracal'la,  one  of  the  most  mag- 
nificent of  the  Roman  thermae,  in  the  southeast 
part  of  the  city,  in  which  2,300  men  could  bathe 
at  the  same  time.  They  were  begun  in  206  .\.v. 
by  Caracalla,  and  completed  by  Severus.  There 
were  stadia  for  the  athletes,  galleries  for  the 
exhibition  of  paintings  and  sculpture,  libraries, 
conversation  halls,  lecture-rooms,  etc.  The 
mechanical  skill  displayed  in  their  construction 
was  very  great.  The  ruins  which  still  remain 
are  among  the  most  remarkable  in  Rome. 

Baths  of  Diocletian,  the  most  extensive  of 
the  Roman  thermae :  in  the  northeast  part  of 
the  city,  and  covering  most  of  the  ground 
between  the  Porta  Collina  and  the  Porta  Vimi- 
nalis.  Over  3,000  persons  could  bathe  in  them 
at  the  same  time.  They  contained  a  library, 
picture-gallery,  odeum,  etc.  Michael  Angelo 
transformed  the  great  hall  of  the  Tepidarium 
into  a  nave  for  the  Church  of  S.  Marie  degli 
Angeli.  One  of  the  laconica  (hot  rooms)  forms 
the  vestibule  of  the  church. 

Baths  of  Titus,  a  structure  on  the  Esqui- 
Ime  Hill  in  Rome ;  built  by  the  Emperor  Titus. 
Considerable  ruins  are  found  northeast  of  the 
Coliseum. 

Bathsheba,  bath-she'ba,  or  bath'she-ba, 
wife  of  Uriah,  the  Hittite,  whose  story  is  told  in 
2  Sam  xi.  David  committed  adultery  with  her, 
then  caused  her  husband  to  be  slain,  and  after- 
ward took  her  to  wife.  These  sins  displeased 
Jehovah,  who  sent  the  prophet  Nathan  to  David 
with  the  parable  of  the  ewe  lamb.  David  bit- 
terly repented,  but  yet  was  punished.  Bathsheba 
was  the  mother  of  Solomon,  whose  succession 
to  the  throne  she  took  pains  to  secure.  She  is 
afterward  mentioned  in  the  history  of  Adonijah, 
in  the  title  of  Psalms  li.,  and  among  the  ances- 
tors of  Christ   (Matt.  i.  6). 

Bath'urst,  Allen,  (Earl),  English  states- 
man: b.  1684;  d.  1775.  He  was  a  zealous 
opponent  of  the  measures  of  Sir  Robert  Wal- 
pole's  ministry,  and  the  intimate  friend  of 
Bolingbroke,  Pope,  Addison,  and  other  great 
writers  of  the  time. 

Bathurst,  Henry  (2d  E.\rl),  son  ot  the  pre- 
ceding, English  statesman:  b.  1714;  d.  1794.  In 
1771  he  was  made  lord  high  chancellor  of  Eng- 
land.   He  wrote  "^Theory  of  Evidence,^   etc. 

Bathurst,  Henry  (3d  Earl),  son  of  the  sec- 
ond earl.  English  statesman:  b.  22  May  1762:  d. 
1834.  In  1807  he  became  president  of  the  board 
of  trade;  in  1809  secretary  for  foreign  affairs; 
and  in  1812  secretary  for  the  colonies,  a  post 
held  by  him  for  16  years.  He  was  also  presi- 
dent of  the  council  under  Wellington,  1828-30. 

Bathurst,  Ralph,  Englisti  clergyman:  b. 
1620;  d.  14  June  1704.  He  was  dean  of  Wells, 
and  wrote  some  elegant  Latin  poems,  and  was 
one  of  the  founders  of  the  Royal  Society  of 
London  (q. v.),  which  was  incorporated  in  1660. 

Bathurst,  Africa,  a  towm  on  the  island  of 
St.  Mary's,  near  the  mouth  of  the  Gambia,  and 
capital  of  the  British  colony  Gambia.     Its  trade 


is  chiefly  in  gum,  bees'-wax,  ground-nuts,  hides, 
ivory,  and  gold,  bartered  for  cloths  and  cutlery. 
Pop.  6,000. 

Bathurst,  Australia,  the  principal  town  in 
the  western  district  of  the  colony  of  New  South 
Wales,  on  the  south  bank  of  the  Macquarie 
River,  144  miles  west  of  Sydney,  2,153  feet  above 
sea-level,  and  surrounded  by  hills.  It  has  wide, 
well-laid-out  streets  crossing  each  other  at  right 
angles,  with  a  central  square  planted  with  trees. 
The  public  buildings  include  the  Anglican  and 
Roman  Catholic  cathedrals,  and  churches  for 
the  Baptists,  Congregationalists,  Wesleyans, 
Presbyterians,  and  others;  court-house,  jail,  and 
town-hall ;  post  and  telegraph  offices ;  a  hos- 
pital, numerous  schools,  a  school  of  arts,  etc. 
There  are  several  tanneries,  a  coach  factory, 
railway  workshops,  breweries,  and  flour  mills. 
Soap,  candles,  glue,  boots  and  shoes,  and  fur- 
niture are  also  extensively  manufactured.  Pop. 
(1900)   9,069. 

Bathurst  Inlet,  an  inlet  of  the  Polar  Sea, 
projecting  due  south  about  75  miles  out  of 
Coronation  Gulf.  It  is  in  a  direct  line  between 
the  magnetic  pole  and  Great  Slave  Lake,  and 
about  300  miles  from  each. 

Bathurst  Island,  the  name  of  two  islands: 
(i)  An  island  off  the  northeast  coast  of  Aus- 
tralia, just  west  of  Melville  Island,  and  sepa- 
rated from  the  mainland  of  Australia  by  Clar- 
ence Strait  on  the  south,  and  from  Melville 
Island  by  Apsley  Strait ;  (2)  an  island  in  the 
Arctic  Ocean,  discovered  by  Parry  in  1819,  lying 
due  south  of  Grinnell  Land,  and  the  most  east- 
ern of  the  group  called  Parry  Islands.  It  is 
separated  from  North  Somerset  on  the  south  by 
Barrow  Strait,  and  from  North  Devon  on  the 
east  by  Wellington  Channel. 

Batbyb'ius,  the  name  given  by  Huxley,  in 
1868,  to  a  supposed  organism,  a  bit  of  unorgan- 
ized protoplasm,  found  at  the  sea-bottom  at 
great  depths.  It  was  structureless,  and  con- 
tained numerous  calcareous  concretions.  Hux- 
ley abandoned  the  idea  that  it  was  a  living 
organism.  Afterward  Bessels  gave  the  name 
^'^protobathybius^'  to  a  similar  slimy  moss  dredged 
in  Smith's  Sound  in  92  fathoms,  possibly  the  re- 
mains of  protozoa  or  sponges.  Bathybius  was 
not  rediscovered  by  the  Challenger  expedition, 
and  Sir  John  Murray  suspected  that  the  sub- 
stance was  only  a  gelatinous  precipitate  of  sul- 
phate of  lime  from  sea  water  mixed  with  alco- 
hol. 

Bath'ycles,  Greek  artist,  supposed  to  have 
flourished  in  the  time  of  Solon,  in  the  7th  cen- 
tury B.C.  He  was  a  resident  of  Magnesia,  in 
Thessaly,  on  the  Mreander,  and  constructed  for 
the  Lacedaemonians  the  colossal  throne  of  the 
Amyclaean  Apollo,  at  Amyclae,  near  Sparta. 
Quatremere  de  Quincy,  in  his  ^Jupiter  Olym- 
pien,^  has  given  an  interesting  view  of  the 
splendid  god  and  his  sunerb  throne,  designed 
from  the   description  of  Pausanias. 

Bathym'etry,  the  art  of  measuring  depths 
in  the  sea,  especialh'  for  the  purpose  of  investi- 
gating the  vertical  range  of  distribution  of 
plants  and  animals.  An  extensive  series  of  stich 
bathymetric  measurements  was  made  by  H.  M. 
S.  Challenger  (1872-6),  the  deepest  sounding 
being  4,575  fathoms.  In  February  looo  the 
L^nited  States  surveying  ship  Nero  reported 
that  in  surveying  for  a  proposed  telegraphic 
cable  line  between  Honolulu  and  Manila  by  way 


BATISTE  —  BATRACHIA 


uf  Guam  and  Yokohama,  she  encountered  the 
greatest  ocean  depths  on  record;  two  casts 
showing  5,160  and  5,269  fathoms  respectively. 

Batiste,  ba-test,  a  fine,  white,  very  compact 
linen,  distinguished  by  its  delicate,  firm,  and 
uniform  threads  from  every  other  linen  texture. 
The  name  is  derived  either  from  the  Indian 
material  bastas,  or  from  one  of  the  early  manu- 
facturers of  it,  Baptiste  Chambray,  who  lived 
in  the  13th  century,  and  from  whom  it  was  also 
called  the  cloth  of  Chambray,  or  Cambray; 
hence  the  English  word  cambric. 

Batjan,  bat-yan',  one  of  the  Molucca 
Islands,  lying  southwest  of  Gilolo.  It  is  gov- 
erned by  a  native  sultan  under  Dutch  suzerainty. 
The  chief  industry  is  the  cultivation  of  spices. 
Area,  835  square  miles ;  population  from  12,000 
to  13,000,  of  which  the  majority  are  Malays  or 
Alfores. 

Batley,  England,  a  municipal  and  parlia- 
mentary borough,  in  the  West  Riding  of  York, 
eight  miles  south  of  Leeds,  and  just  north  of 
Dewsbury,  with  which  it  is  united  for  parlia- 
mentary purposes.  The  houses  are  chiefly  of 
stone,  and  rather  irregularly  built.  Batley  has 
an  ancient  parish  church  in  the  Early  English 
style,  a  town-hall,  a  grammar  and  a  technical 
school,  mechanics'  institute,  etc.  The  principal 
manufactures  are  heavy  woolen  cloths,  Batley 
being  the  chief  seat  of  the  manufacture  of  heavy 
woolens.  There  are  also  iron  foundries,  ma- 
chine-works, collieries,  etc.     Pop.  (1901)  30,300. 

Batlle,  bat-le,  Lorenzo,  Uruguayan  states- 
man :  b.  Montevideo,  1812.  He  commanded  a 
body  of  infantry  in  the  nine  years'  siege  of 
Montevideo;  was  minister  of  war  in  1866-8; 
president  of  the  republic  from  1868  to  1872, 
when  he  resigned  the  office  and  resumed  his 
place  as  general  in  the  army. 

Batna,  bat'na,  Algeria,  a  town  of  the  de- 
partment of  Constantine,  situated  at  the  foot  of 
Mount  Tugurt.  It  is  an  important  military  and 
trading  post.     Pop.  8,381. 

Baton,  bat-on,  or  ba-ton,  a  short  staflf  or 
truncheon,  in  some  cases  used  as  an  official 
badge,  as  that  of  a  field  marshal.  The  conductor 
of  an  orchestra  has  a  baton  for  the  purpose  of 
directing  the  performers  as  to  time,  etc.  In 
heraldry,  what  is  usually  called  the  bastard  bar, 
or  bar  sinister,  is  properly  a  baton  sinister. 

Baton  Rouge,  La.,  city,  parish-seat  of  East 
Baton  Rouge,  and  capital  of  the  State.  The 
name  is  derived  from  the  French,  meaning  red 
baton  or  stick.  The  city  is  situated  on  the 
eastern  bank  of  the  Mississippi  River,  90  miles 
northwest  of  New  Orleans,  and  is  on  the  Texas 
and  Pacific  and  the  Yazoo  and  Mississippi  Val- 
ley Railroad.  It  is  picturesquely  built  on  a  bluff 
commanding  an  excellent  view  of  the  surround- 
ing country.  The  houses  are  mostly  of  French 
and  Spanish  architecture.  The  river  below  the 
city  is  bordered  by  sugar-cane  plantations,  or- 
chards of  tropical  fruits,  private  gardens,  and 
villas.  It  was  the  capital  of  the  State  from  1847 
to  1864,  when  the  seat  of  government  was  re- 
moved to  New  Orleans.  On  i  March  1882. 
Baton  Rouge  was  again  selected  as  the  capital 
city.  The  State  capital  building  here  was  com- 
pleted in  1852  at  a  cost  of  $246,000.  It  was 
partially  burned  during  the  Civil  War  but  was 
rebuilt  in  1882.    The  Louisiana  State  University 


was  organized  here  in  i860.  The  city  also  (.ob- 
tains various  State  institutions,  orphan  asylum, 
penitentiary,  deaf  and  dumb,  and  blind  asylums. 
State  agricultural  and  mechanical  college,  and 
agricultural  experiment  station.  There  are 
among  other  public  buildings,  the  Court  House, 
City  Hall,  Post  Office,  Collegiate  Institute,  High 
School  building,  and  a  National  Soldiers'  Cem- 
etery. 

There  are  varied  and  extensive  manufactur- 
ing interests,  including  cotton  seed  products, 
lumber,  sugar,  molasses,  brick,  artificial  ice,  and 
agricultural  implements.  The  city  has  National 
and  State  banks,  several  daily  and  weekly  news- 
papers. There  is  a  large  and  growing  trade 
with  the  surrounding  cotton  and  sugar  growing 
regions.  The  city  has  a  real  property  assessed 
valuation  of  $2,000,000,  actual  valuation  $3,500,- 
000,  exclusive  of  the  valuable  City,  Parish  and 
State  property  which  is  exempt  from  assess- 
ment. In  addition  to  above  the  personal  as- 
sessed property  is  $1,000,000,  making  a  total  as- 
sessment of  $3,000,000,   real  value  $5,000,000. 

Baton  Rouge  is  governed  under  a  charter 
of  1898,  by  a  mayor,  elected  every  four  years 
and  a  city  council,  elected  every  four  years.  A 
majority  of  the  municipal  officers  are  selected 
by  the  council.  The  city  was  one  of  the  earliest 
French  settlements  in  Louisiana.  A  conven- 
tion which  met  here  21  Jan.  1861,  adopted 
the  ordinance  of  secession  on  the  26th ;  the 
city  was  taken  by  the  Federal  army  7  May 
1862.  On  5  August  the  same  year  a  Confederate 
force  numbering  5,000  under  command  of  Gen- 
eral John  C.  Breckenridge,  attacked  the  Federal 
garrison  under  General  Thomas  Williams,  but 
was  repulsed  after  a  fierce  contest  lasting  two 
hours.  Gen.  Williams  was  killed  and  both  sides 
lost  heavily.  The  city  was  shortly  afterward 
evacuated  but  a  month  later  was  re-occupied  by 
the  Federal  troops  who  remained  until  the  close 
of  the  war.  A  former  government  arsenal  here 
was  destroyed  during  the  war.  Pop.  (1900) 
11,269;  (1903  est.)   12,500. 

W.  H.  Bynum, 

Mayor  of  Baton  Rouge. 

Batoni,  ba-to'ne,  Pompeo  Girolamo,  Italian 
painter:  b.  Lucca,  1708;  d.  Rome,  1787.  The 
manner  in  which  he  executed  his  paintmgs  was 
peculiar.  He  covered  his  sketch  with  a  cloth, 
and  began  to  paint  the  upper  part  on  the  left 
hand,  and  proceeded  gradually  toward  the  right, 
never  uncovering  a  new  place  until  the  first 
was  entirely  finished.  Boni,  who  compares  him 
with  Mengs,  calls  the  latter  the  painter  of 
philosophy;  the  former,  the  painter  of  nature. 
Batoni  painted  many  altar-pieces  and  numerous 
portraits,  including  those  of  the  Emperor  Joseph 
and  the  Empress  Maria  Theresa  in  the  imperial 
gallery.  His  greatest  work  is  his  'Fall  of  Simon 
the  Sorcerer,^  which  was  ordered  by  Cardinal 
Albani  for  the  church  of  St.  Peter's  at  Rome, 
and  was  intended  to  be  executed  in  mosaic.  His 
< Magdalene,^  in  Dresden,  and  his  'Return  of 
the  Prodigal  Son,>  in  Vienna,  are  celebrated. 

Batrachia,  the  frogs  and  toads  of  the 
Anura  order  of  Amphibia  (q.v.),  comprising 
the  Ranidce  frogs,  the  Biifonida  ordinary  toads, 
the  Hylidce  tree  frogs,  the  Pipidce  Surinam  toads, 
and  similar  reptiles  with  the  distinguishing 
characteristic  of  development  frorti  the  tailed 
and  gilled  tadpole  state  to  a  tailless,  but  leg 
and  lung  provided  adult  condition. 


BxA.TTA  —  BATTERING  RAM 


Bat'ta,  Africa,  a  province  of  the  Congo 
Free  State,  formerly  independent.  Its  prin- 
cipal towns  are  Batta  and  Cangon. 

Batta,  Sumatra,  a  district  in  the  northern 
part  of  the  island,  stretching  between  Sinkell 
and  Tabuyong,  on  the  west,  and  the  Bila  and 
the  Rakan  on  the  east.  The  soil  is  fertile, 
and  produces  chiefly  camphor,  gum,  benzoin, 
cassia,  cotton,  and  indigo.  The  language  of 
the  Battas  is  a  settled  one,  and  extensively 
■written.  Bark  or  bamboo  staves  are  used  in 
place  of  books,  being  written  on  from  bottom 
to  top.  Their  literature  consists  chiefly  of 
tales  of  witchcraft,  riddles,  stories,  etc.  There 
are    three   dialects.     Pop.   about   300,000. 

Battalion,  the  tactical  unit  of  command  in 
infantry  —  that  is,  the  first  body  that  is,  as  a 
rule,  used  independently,  and  commanded  by 
a  field  officer  (major  or  lieutenant-colonel). 
In  the  United  States  army  eight  companies  of 
cavalry  and  artillery  and  10  of  infantry  con- 
stitute a  battalion ;  each  infantry  regiment  has 
one  battalion  and  those  in  the  cavalry  and  ar- 
tillery have  two. 

English  battalions  are  formed  of  10  com- 
panies for  administrative,  and  eight  for  tactical 
purposes.  The  first  25  regiments  have  two  bat- 
talions, the  remainder,  originally  of  one  battal- 
ion each,  are  linked  in  pairs  according  to 
their  territorial  derivation.  Linked  battalions 
are  interchangeable  as  regards  ofificers,  and 
each  shares  the  honors  and  advantages  of  the 
other.  Two  regiments  of  rifles  have  four  bat- 
talions each,  and  the  three  regiments  of  the 
Guards  seven  battalions  in  all.  The  peace 
strength  of  a  battalion  is  about  400  men,  but 
varies;  its  war  strength  in  the  field  is  1,000, 
with  one  lieutenant-colonel,  two  majors,  eight 
captains,  16  subalterns,  four  officers  of  the 
regimental  staff  (adjutant,  paymaster,  quarter- 
master, and  medical  officer),  and  50  sergeants. 
The  corporals  and  lance-corporals  fall  in  with 
the  privates  in  the  ranks,  and  therefore  num- 
ber among  the   rank   and   file. 

The  French  infantry  is  divided  into  (i)  in- 
fantry of  the  line;  (2)  regiments  of  zouaves; 
(3)  regiments  of  tirailleurs  Algericns;  and  (4) 
battalions  of  chasseurs  a  pied.  The  144  regi- 
ments of  infantry  of  the  line  have  each  four 
battalions;  a  battalion  (which  is  divided  into 
four  field  companies),  consisting  of  12  commis- 
sioned officers,  54  non-commissioned  officers, 
and  264  soldiers  — in  all  330  men,  raised  in 
time  of  war  to  1,000.  The  regiments  of  zou- 
aves have  in  peace  612  men  in  a  battalion,  and 
in  war  1,000.  The  tirailleurs  Alger iens,  who 
in  time  of  peace  are  stationed  in  Algeria,  have 
in  peace  652  men  in  a  battalion,  and  in  war 
1. 000.  Finally,  the  chasseurs  a  pied  have  in 
peace  468  men,  and  in  war  1,000. 

In  Germany,  with  the  exception  of  the  Ii6th 
(Hesse)  regiment,  the  148  line  regiments  have 
three  battalions.  The  yagers  are  formed  into 
26  separate  battalions.  To  each  line  regiment 
is  attached  a  landwehr  regiment  of  two  bat- 
talions, and  these  latter  bear  the  same  number 
as  the  regular  regiments  to  which  they  are 
affiliated.  The  five  Prussian  Guard  regiments 
have  22  officers  and  678  men  per  battalion  in 
peace  time,  the  remaining  regiments  having  18 
officers  and  526  men  per  battalion,  and  the 
yagers  22  officers  and  526  men.  On  mobiliza- 
tion   for    war    all    battalions    are    raised    to    a 


strength  of  22  officers  and  1,000  men,  with  a 
regimental  staff  of  one  commandant,  one  extra 
field  officer,  and  one  aide-de-camp.  Pioneer 
battalions  are  practically  field  engineer  bodies, 
and  are  divided  into  pontoniers  (for  bridg- 
ing), and  sappers  and  miners  (for  siege 
operations,  demolition  or  construction  of  arti- 
ficial defenses).  They  have  each  three  field 
and  one  depot  company ;  the  former  compris- 
ing 15   officers  and  650  men. 

Battenberg,  bat'en-barg,  Alexander,  Prince 

of,  Bulgarian  ruler:  b.  1857;  d.  17  Feb.  1893. 
He  was  the  second  son  of  the  morganatic  union 
between  Prince  Alexander  of  Hesse  and  the 
Countess  von  Hauke,  who  in  185 1  received 
the  title  of  Countess  of  Battenberg.  In  1879 
he  was  chosen  Prince  of  Bulgaria,  and  in  1885, 
without  consulting  Russia,  proclaimed  the 
union  of  eastern  P.umelia  with  Bulgaria.  This 
action  exasperated  both  Russia  and  Servia,  and 
the  latter  took  up  arms  against  Bulgaria,  but 
was  easily  defeated  by  Alexander  in  the  space 
of  two  weeks.  In  August  1886,  however,  Rus- 
sian partisans  overpowered  Alexander  in  his 
palace  at  Sofia,  forced  him  to  abdicate,  and 
carried  him  off  to  Reni,  in  Russian  territory. 
Set  free  in  a  few  days,  he  returned ;  but  after 
a  futile  attempt  to  conciliate  the  czar  he  ab- 
dicated in  September,  and,  assuming  the  title 
of  Count  Hartenau,   retired  to  Darmstadt. 

Battenberg,  Henry  Maurice,  British  sol- 
dier: b.  Milan,  5  Oct.  1858;  d.  20  Jan.  1896. 
He  was  the  third  son  of  Prince  Alexander  of 
Hesse  (see  Battenberg,  Alexander,  above), 
and  in  18S5  married  the  Princess  Beatrice  of 
England,  j'oungest  daughter  of  Queen  Victoria. 
He  joined  the  British  expedition  of  1895 
against  Ashanti,  and  while  on  his  way  home 
died  at  sea  of  a  fever  contracted  during  his 
military   service. 

Battenberg,  Louis  Alexander,  British 
naval  officer :  b.  Gratz,  24  May  1854.  He  was 
the  eldest  son  of  Prince  Alexander  of  Hesse 
(see  B.KTTENBERG,  ALEXANDER,  aDovc),  and  in 
1884  married  the  eldest  daughter  of  the 
Princess  Alice  Maud  Mary,  grand  duchess  of 
Hesse-Darmstadt,  and  second  daughter  of 
Queen  Victoria. 

Battenberg,  a  village  in  the  Prussian  pro- 
vince of  Hesse-Nassau,  from  which  the  sons 
of  Prince  Alexander  of  Hesse  (see  Batten- 
berg, Alexander,  above),  derive  their  title  of 
princes   of   Battenberg. 

Battens,  pieces  of  timber  of  different 
lengths,  used  for  making  floors,  and  also,  after 
being  divided  so  as  to  be  2%  inches  wide  and 
i]4  thick,  placed  against  walls  to  separate  the 
laths  on  which  plastering  is  to  be  put  from  the 
walls.  In  nautical  affairs,  battens  are  (i) 
strips  of  wood  nailed  down  over  the  tarpaulins 
which  cover  the  hatches ;  (2)  similar  strips 
fastened  to  portions  of  the  rigging  to  prevent 
injury  from  chafing;  (3)  light  frameworks 
placed  on  dining  tables  to  keep  the  dishes  from 
sliding  off  by  reason  of  the  ship's  motion,  also 
called  fiddles;  (4)  thin  strips  of  wood  placed 
in  pockets  on  the  leach  of  a  sail  to  prevent 
wrinkling  or  bagging. 

Battering  Ram  (Lat.  aries),  the  earliest, 
simplest,  and,  until  the  improved  usage  of 
artillery,  the  most  effective  machine  for  de- 
stroying stone  walls  and  the  ordinary  defenses 


BATTERSEA  —  BATTERY 


•of  fortified  towns.  Its  primitive  form  was  a 
.huge  beam  of  seasoned  and  tough  wood, 
hoisted  on  the  shoulders  of  men;  who,  running 
with  it,  at  speed,  against  the  obstacle,  wall, 
.gate,  or  palisade,  made  what  impression  they 
might  against  it.  The  ancients  employed  two 
•different  machines  of  this  kind  —  the  one  sus- 
pended, and  vibrating  after  the  manner  of  a 
pendulum,  and  the  other  movable  on  rollers. 
The  swinging  ram  resembled  in  magnitude  and 
form  the  mast  of  a  large  vessel,  suspended 
horizontally  at  its  centre  of  gravity,  by  chains 
■or  cords,  from  a  movable  frame.  Ligatures  of 
waxed  cord  surrounded  the  beam  at  short  in- 
tervals, and  cords  at  the  extremity,  opposite  to 
the  head,  served  for  the  purpose  of  applying 
human  force  to  give  the  oscillatory  motion. 
Other  cords,  at  intermediate  distances,  were 
-also  sometimes  employed.  The  rolling  ram 
was  much  the  same  as  the  above  in  its  general 
'Construction,  except  that  instead  of  a  pendulous 
motion,  it  received  only  a  motion  of  simple 
alternation,  produced  by  the  strength  of  men 
applied  to  cords  passing  over  pulleys.  This 
•construction  seems  to  have  been  first  employed 
at  the  siege  of  Byzantium.  These  machines 
were  often  extremely  ponderous.  Appian  de- 
clares that,  at  the  siege  of  Carthage,  he  saw 
two  rams  so  colossal  that  loo  men  were  em- 
ployed in  working  each.  Vitruvius  afiirms  that 
the  beam  was  often  from  lOO  to  120  feet  in 
■length ;  and  Justus  Lipsius  describes  some  as 
180  feet  long,  and  two  feet  four  inches  in  dia- 
meter, with  an  iron  head  weighing  at  least  a 
ton  and  a  half.  In  contrasting  the  effects  of 
the  battering-ram  with  those  of  the  modern  ar- 
tillery, we  must  not  judge  of  them  merely  by 
the  measure  of  their  respective  momenta. 
Such  a  ram  as  one  of  those  described  by  Lip- 
-sius  would  weigh  more  than  45,000  pounds, 
and  its  momentum,  supposing  its  velocity  be 
about  two  yards  per  second,  would  be  nearly 
•<)uadruple  the  momentum  of  a  40-pound  ball 
moving  with  a  velocity  of  i.Coo  feet  per  second. 
But  the  operation  of  the  two  upon  a  wall 
would  be  very  different.  The  ball  would  prob- 
ably penetrate  the  opposing  substance,  and 
pursue  its  way  for  some  distance;  but  the  ef- 
ficacy of  the  ram  would  depend  almost  entirely 
upon  duly  apportioning  its  intervals  of  oscilla- 
tion. At  first  it  would  produce  no  obvious 
-effect  upon  the  wall;  but  the  judicious  repeti- 
tion of  its  blows  would,  in  a  short  time,  give 
motion  to  the  wall  itself.  There  would  first 
be  a  barely  perceptible  tremor,  then  more  ex- 
tensive vibrations ;  these  being  evident,  the  as- 
sailants would  adjust  the  oscillations  of  the 
ram  to  that  of  the  wall,  till  at  length  a  large 
portion  of  it,  partaking  of  the  vibratory  im- 
pulse, would,  by  a  well-timed  blow,  fall  to  the 
earth  at  once.  This  recorded  effect  of  the  ram 
has  nothing  analogous  in  the  results  of  modern 
artillery. 

Battersea,  a  district  of  London,  in  Surrey, 
forming,  with  Clapham,  a  parliamentary 
borough,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Thames, 
across  which  there  is  communication  by  sev- 
eral bridges.  There  is  a  fine  public  park  in 
Battersea,  extending  over  185  acres,  and  con- 
taining a  considerable  sheet  of  water.  There 
is  a  Church  of  England  training  college  for 
schoolmasters  and  a  Wesleyan  for  schoolmis- 
tresses. Clapham  and  Wandsworth  Commons 
^re  fine  areas  of  unenclosed  ground.     Battersea 


and  Clapham  send  two  members  to  Parlia- 
ment —  one  for  each  division.  Battersea  par- 
ish is  a  borough  under  the  London  Govern- 
ment Act  (1 899). 

Battershall,  Jesse  Park,  American  chemist: 
b.  Troy,  N.  Y.,  26  May  1851 ;  d.  Poughkeepsie, 
N.  Y.,  12  Jan.  1891.  He  studied  chemistry  at 
the  Columbia  School  of  Mines,  Gottingen, 
Leipsic,  Geneva,  and  Tubingen.  In  1879  he  be- 
came head  of  the  analytical  department  of  the 
United  States  laboratory  in  New  York,  a 
position  held  until  his  death.  He  has  pub- 
lished a  translation  of  Naquet's  ^  Legal  Chem- 
istry' (1876)  ;  *Food  Adulteration  and  Detec- 
tioh>    (1887). 

Batterson,  Hermon  Griswold,  American 
clerg>'man :  b.  Marbledale,  Conn.,  28  May  1827; 
d.  New  York,  March  1903.  He  was  ordained 
to  the  ministry  of  the  Protestant  Episcopal 
Church  in  1866,  and  held  rectorships  in  San 
Antonio,  Texas ;  Wabasha,  Minn. ;  Philadel- 
phia, and  Church  of  the  Redeemer,  New  York, 
1891.  He  published  ^Missionary  Tune  Book' 
(1868);  ^Christmas  Carols,  and  Other  Verses' 
(1877);  'Sketchbook  of  the  American  Epis- 
copate' (1878,  2d  ed.  1884)  ;  <  Pathway  of 
Faith'  ;    'Vesper   Bells.' 

Batterson,  James  Goodwin:  b.  Bloomfield, 
Conn.,  23  Feb.  1823 ;  d.  Hartford,  Conn.,  18 
Sept.  1901.  He  was  educated  in  the  public 
schools  of  Litchfield,  Conn.,  and  in  1845  be- 
came an  importer  of  and  dealer  in  granite  and 
marble,  with  headquarters  in  Hartford.  His 
business  grew  into  one  of  the  most  extensive 
of  its  kind  in  the  United  States,  controlling 
large  granite  quarries  in  Westerly,  R.  I.  He 
took  important  contracts  for  public  and  pri- 
vate buildings  and  supplied  the  stone  for  the 
State  capitol  and  Connecticut  Mutual  build- 
ings in  Hartford,  the  Mutual  Life,  Equitable 
Life  Insurance  Companies'  buildings,  and  Van- 
derbilt  residence  in  New  York.  He  was  the 
first  to  use  machinery  for  polishing  granite 
and  devised  many  other  improvements.  In 
1863  he  founded  the  Travelers'  Insurance 
Company,  and  was  its  president  until  his  death. 
Throughout  his  life,  though  never  holding 
political  office,  he  was  one  of  the  foremost 
public  figures  of  his  city  and  State.  He  was 
an  enthusiastic  student  of  political  economy, 
and  wrote  numerous  articles  and  pamphlets  on 
the  money  question.  He  taught  himself  Greek 
and  became  an  acknowledged  master  of  it ; 
and  he  was  equally  accomplished  in  several  of 
the  modern  European  languages,  his  versatility 
and  capacity  for  work  being  extraordinary.  In 
the  last  year  of  his  life  he  wrote  a  poem  of 
some  length,  'The  Beginnings,'  dealing  \vith 
the  origin  of  the  universe  and  life.  Publica- 
tions: numerous  articles  in  'The  Traveler's 
Record'  ;  'Gold  and  Silver  as  Currency' 
(1896). 

Battery,  The,  a  park  of  21  acres  forming 
the  southernmost  point  of  New  York,  occupy- 
ing the  site  of  the  original  Dutch  fortifica- 
tions. In  the  early  days  of  the  city  the 
vicinity  of  the  Battery  was  a  very  aristocratic 
quarter,  and  some  of  the  old  houses  are  still 
standing.  The  park  now  contains  the  Barge 
Office  and  the  Aquarium,  formerly  Castle  Gar- 
den (q.v.). 


BATTERY 


Bat'tery,  in  electricity,  an  apparatus  for  the 
production  of  voltaic  (or  dynamic)  electricity, 
by  chemical  means,  or  by  the  direct  transforma- 
tion of  heat  energy  (as  in  the  thermopile).  It 
is  admitted,  that  the  first  electric  battery  was 
constructed  by  the  Italian  physicist  Volta, 
about  the  j'car  1800.  Some  20  years  before, 
Galvani,  a  professor  of  anatomy  at  Bologna, 
had  observed  the  convulsive  twitching  of 
frogs'  legs,  when  their  muscles  and  lumbar 
nerves  were  simultaneously  touched  by  differ- 
ent metals  that  were  themselves  elsewhere  in 
contact,  and  he  had  rightly  attributed  the  phe- 
nomenon to  electricity.  Galvani,  however,  was 
of  the  opinion  that  the  electricity  was  of 
physiological  origin,  its  seat  being  within  the 
frogs'  legs.  Volta,  on  the  contrary,  believed 
that  the  electricity  was  generated  by  the  con- 
tact of  the  dissimilar  metals,  and  in  this  belief 
he  constructed  the  apparatus  which  is  known 
as  his  couronne  de  tasses,  or  '■'■  crown  of  cups.'^ 
Placing  a  series  of  cups  in  a  circle,  he  par- 
tially filled  them  with  a  solution  of  salt  and 
water,  and  introduced  into  each  a  pair  of  me- 
tallic plates,  one  of  these  being  zinc,  and  the 
other  either  copper  or  silver.  He  connected 
the  zinc  plate  of  each  cup  with  the  copper 
plate  of  the  next,  completing  the  entire  circle 
in  this  way  except  at  one  place,  where  he  at- 
tached wires  to  the  terminals,  to  lead  away 
the  electricity  generated.  Very  shortly  after- 
ward he  constructed  the  "voltaic  pile'^  on  the 
same  general  principle,  except  that  he  formed 
it  of  disks  of  copper,  zinc,  and  wet  cloth, 
which  he  piled  up  in  the  order :  copper,  zinc, 
cloth,  copper,  zinc,  cloth,  etc.,  the  lowest  plate 
of  all  being  copper,  and  the  highest  zinc.  The 
wires  for  leading  off  the  electricity  were  then 
connected  at  the  top  and  bottom  of  the  ap- 
paratus. It  is  commonly  believed  that  the 
*'pile*^  of  zinc  and  copper  disks  was  the  first 
form  of  his  battery ;  but  according  to  Niaudet 
this  is  an  error,  the  column  battery  being  an 
afterthought,  made  with  a  view  to  produce  an 
instrument  that  might  be  easily  transported 
into  hospitals  for  medical  purposes.  The  phe- 
nomena exhibited  by  Volta's  **crown  of  cups* 
were  remarkable  enough  to  attract  the  atten- 
tion of  the  entire  scientific  world,  and  improved 
forms  of  battery  were  soon  devised.  Cruik- 
shank,  Wollaston.  Muncke,  Young,  Faraday, 
and  others  contributed  in  this  way,  but  the 
most  of  the  changes  that  were  made  related  to 
the  mode  of  arranging  the  plates  and  other 
similar  details,  and,  save  for  the  substitution 
of  dilute  sulphuric  acid  for  the  salt  solution, 
no  advance  of  a  fundamental  nature  was  made 
until  1836,  when  John  Frederick  Daniell,  an 
English  physicist,  invented  the  battery  that 
bears  his  name,  and  which,  in  some  respects, 
has  never  been  surpassed. 

The  earlier  forms  of  battery,  in  which  the 
plates  were  immersed  in  a  salt  solution  or  in 
dilute  sulphuric  acid,  gave  an  electrical  cur- 
rent for  a  short  time ;  but  hydrogen  gas  was 
deposited  upon  the  copper  electrode  by  the  pas- 
sage of  the  current,  thereby  lessening  the  area 
of  the  plate  in  contact  with  the  liquid,  and  so 
increasing  the  internal  resistance  of  the  cell. 
It  was  found,  too,  that  the  products  of  de- 
composition cut  down  the  electromotive  force 
of  the  cell,  by_  tending  to  establish  an  electro- 
motive force  in  the  opposite  direction  from 
that  in  which  the  battery  current  first  flowed  — 


a  discovery  that  has  since  been  put  to  good  use 
in  the  storage  battery  (q.v.).  To  remove 
the  hydrogen  film  that  was  deposited  upon  the 
copper  electrode,  various  artifices  were  adopt- 
ed, such  as  agitating  the  solution,  or  vibrating 
the  copper  plate  so  as  to  disengage  the  bubble.?, 
of  gas  and  allow  them  to  rise  to  the  surface 
of  the  liquid  and  escape  into  the  air,  or  rub- 
bing the  plate  with  a  brush  to  achieve  the 
same  end,  or  roughening  it  in  some  way  so 
that  the  hydrogen  bubbles  would  not  cling  to 
it  so  closely.  All  these  methods  were  trouble- 
some, and  it  was  reserved  for  Daniell  to  de- 
vise a  form  of  cell  in  which  the  hj'drogen  is 
removed,  automatically  and  very  perfectly,  by 
chemical  means.  Within  the  usual  containing 
vessel  of  glass,  he  placed  a  smaller  one  made 
of  unglazed  earthenware,  and  known  as  the 
''porous  cup."  The  outer  compartment  was 
filled  with  dilute  sulphuric  acid,  and  contained 
the  zinc  plate.  The  copper  plate  was  placed 
within  the  porous  cup,  and  the  space  around  it 
was  filled  with  crystals  of  copper  sulphate,  wa- 
ter or  dilute  sulphuric  acid  being  added  until 
the  liquid  stood  at  the  same  level  on  both  sides 
of  the  porous  wall  of  the  cup.  When  the  elec- 
tric current  passes  in  a  battery  of  this  type, 
the  chemical  action  may  be  described  in  the 
following  way :  The  sulphuric  acid,  H^SOj,  is 
decomposed  into  hydrogen,  and  the  radical  SO4 
(known  as  "sulphion*').  the  sulphion  going  to 
the  zinc  plate,  with  which  it  combines  to  pro- 
duce zinc  sulphate,  ZnS04,  a  salt  which  dis- 
solves as  fast  as  it  is  formed,  leaving  a  fresh 
surface  of  zinc  constantly  exposed.  The  hy- 
drogen of  the  primary  decomposition  goes  to 
the  copper  plate,  but  instead  of  being  deposited 
there,  as  in  earlier  forms  of  battery,  it  com- 
bines with  the  copper  sulphate  present,  reduc- 
ing it  to  metallic  copper  and  sulphuric  acid> 
according  to  the  formula 

CUSO4  +  2H  =  Cu  +  H=S04. 
It  is  evident  that  the  molecule  of  sulphuric 
acid  that  was  originally  decomposed  has  now 
been  re-formed  again,  so  that  the  total  quan- 
tity of  acid  present  in  the  cell  has  not  been 
diminished.  The  metallic  copper  that  is  set 
free  does  not  interfere  in  any  way  with  the 
continued  action  of  the  cell,  for  it  is  deposited 
upon  an  electrode  that  is  already  composed  of 
copper.  The  actual  chemical  phenomena  that 
occur  in  the  Daniell  battery  may  possibly  be 
more  complicated  than  here  indicated,  but  the 
final  results  are  the  same  as  those  given  above. 
The  valuable  feature  of  the  Daniell  cell  is 
the  remarkable  constancy  of  its  electromotive 
force.  In  some  other  respects,  however,  later 
forms  of  battery  are  superior  to  it.  Thus  its 
electromotive  force,  although  quite  constant, 
is  not  very  great  (about  1.07  volts).  In  1839 
Sir  William  Robert  Grove  modified  it  by  sub- 
stituting strong  nitric  acid  for  the  solution  of 
copper  sulphate,  and  (since  nitric  acid  will  at- 
tack copper)  platinum  plates  for  the  copper 
ones  in  Daniell's  form.  An  electromotive  force 
as  high  as  1.9  volts  has  been  observed  with 
this  type  of  battery,  the  hydrogen  that  goes 
to  the  platinum  electrode  being  oxidized  by 
the  nitric  acid,  with  the  formation  of  nitrous 
acid  and  water.  The  chief  objections  to 
Grove's  battery  are  the  nitrous  fumes  that  it 
gives  ofif,  and  the  expense  of  the  platinum  re- 
quired. In  1843  Robert  Bunsen  found  that  the 
latter   objection   could   be   readily   overcome  by 


BATTERY 


replacing  the  platinum  electrodes  by  plates  of 
carbon.  Except  for  this  substitution,  his  bat- 
tery is  identical  with  Grove's,  and  will  give 
substantially  the  same  electromotive  force.  It 
is  said  that  the  idea  of  using  carbon  instead 
of  platinum  occurred  to  Grove  himself,  and 
that  he  made  several  public  experiments  with 
carbon ;  but  these  were  not  entirely  successful, 
and  when  Bunsen  showed  the  feasibility  of 
using  it,  they  had  been  forgotten.  Many  mod- 
ifications of  the  Daniell  battery  have  been  pro- 
posed. Of  these  the  "gravity  battery'^  is  one 
of  the  most  interesting.  It  is  identical  in  gen- 
eral theory  with  the  Daniell  cell,  but  contains 
no  porous  cup,  the  liquids  being  kept  separate 
by  their  different  densities.  The  copper  elec- 
trode is  placed  in  the  bottom  of  the  cell,  and 
the  zinc  is  suspended  near  the  top.  The  con- 
taining vessel  is  nearly  filled  with  a  solution 
of  copper  sulphate,  a  small  quantity  of  solution 
of  zinc  sulphate  being  floated  on  the  top.  The 
copper  sulphate  solution,  being  the  denser,  re- 
mains in  the  lower  part  of  the  cell,  and  the 
surface  of  separation  of  the  two  liquids  de- 
scends, slowly,  as  the  batter)'  is  used,  owing  to 
the  gradual  diminution  of  the  quantity  of  cop- 
per sulphate  present,  and  the  corresponding  in- 
crease in  the  quantity  of  sulphate  of  zinc. 
Gravity  batteries,  if  carefully  installed,  are 
quite  serviceable,  and  need  but  little  attention. 
They  are  used  to  a  considerable  extent  for  tele- 
graphic purposes,  when  dynamo-electric  currents 
cannot  be  had  conveniently.  Batteries  in  which 
the  depolarizing  agent  is  a  salt  of  chromic 
acid  are  now  used  very  commonly  for  work 
in  which  a  large  current  is  wanted  for  a  con- 
siderable time.  Bichromate  of  potassium  is 
the  salt  commonly  employed  as  the  depolarizer, 
its  use  having  been  first  suggested  by  Johann 
Christian  Poggendorff,  a  noted  professor  of 
physics  at  Berlin.  Bichromate  of  potash  bat- 
teries are  made  in  various  forms,  some  with 
porous  cups  and  some  without.  The  com- 
moner type  has  no  cup,  but  consists  of  zinc  and 
carbon  electrodes,  immersed  in  a  solution  con- 
sisting essentially  of  one  ounce  of  bichromate 
of  potassium  and  one  fluid  ounce  of  concen- 
trated sulphuric  acid,  to  every  lo  ounces  of 
water.  It  is  well  to  add,  also,  about  i  grain 
of  mercurous  sulphate  to  each  ounce  of  the 
solution,  in  order  to  keep  the  zincs  well  amal- 
gamated. A  bichromate  battery  so  constructed 
has  an  electromotive  force  of  about  2  volts,  and 
can  be  run  on  a  comparatively  low  resistance 
for  some  time  without  greatly  falling  off  in  its 
voltage.  It  is  not  to  be  compared  for  con- 
stancy, however,  with  the  batteries  of  Daniell, 
Grove,  and  Bunsen.  All  the  batteries  thus  far 
described  should  have  their  zincs  well  amalga- 
mated, by  rubbing  with  dilute  sulphuric  acid 
and  mercury  till  a  bright,  mirror-like  surface 
is  obtained.  The  mercury  does  not  enter  into 
any  chemical  relations  with  the  other  contents 
of  the  cell,  but  it  has  the  power  of  dissolving 
zinc  in  preference  to  other  substances  that  may 
be  present  as  impurities  in  the  electrode  to 
which  it  is  applied,  and  so  keeping  a  fresh  sur- 
face of  the  pure  metal  constantly  exposed  to 
the  battery  liquid. 

The  sal  ammoniac  cell  invented  by  M. 
Georges  Leclanche  is  exceedingly  useful  for 
ringing  bells,  operating  telephones,  lighting  gas 
jets,  and  other  work  where  a  transient  current 
is  desired,  though  it  *runs  down''   (or  loses  its 


electromotive  force)  rapidly  when  used  for 
any  considerable  time  on  a  closed  circuit,  re- 
covering again  in  a  short  time  when  left  to 
itself.  In  its  original  form  it  contained  a  por- 
ous cup,  in  which  was  a  carbon  electrode,  sur- 
rounded by  a  mixture  of  pulverized  carbon  and 
manganese  dioxid.  The  outer  compartment 
contained  the  zinc  electrode,  and  the  liquid 
used  was  a  solution  of  sal  ammoniac  (am- 
monium chloride) .  In  recent  years  the  porous 
cup  has  been  commonly  omitted,  the  depolariz- 
ing mixture  of  carbon  and  manganese  dioxid 
being  compressed  into  blocks  and  bound  di- 
rectly to  the  carbon  electrode  by  means  of  rub- 
ber bands.  The  electromotive  force  of  the  Le- 
clanche cell  is  about  1.48  volts,  when  it  has 
been  left  at  rest  for  some  time.  In  the  place 
of  the  depolarizing  compound  given  above,  a 
mixture  of  55  parts  of  sulphur,  40  of  gas-coke 
powder,  and  5  of  shellac  is  also  used.  So- 
called  "dry  cells''  have  come  into  favor  greatly 
during  the  past  few  years.  These  cells  are  not 
really  dry,  except  in  the  sense  that  they  do 
not  contain  any  free  liquid  that  can  run  out  if 
the  cell  is  inverted.  They  contain  electrodes 
of  carbon  and  zinc,  the  space  between  which 
is  filled  with  a  paste  that  acts  as  a  depolarizer. 
Many  different  compositions  have  been  recom- 
mended for  the  paste,  among  them  the  follow- 
ing, which  is  said  to  give  excellent  results : 
Charcoal,  3  parts ;  graphite,  i  part ;  peroxide 
of  manganese,  3  parts ;  slaked  lime,  I  part ; 
"white  arsenic"  (arsenic  trioxide),  i  part;  a 
mixture  of  glucose  and  starch,  i  part ;  all  by 
weight.  These  are  to  be  intimately  mixed 
while  dry,  and  then  worked  into  a  smooth  paste 
with  equal  parts  of  a  saturated  solution  of  sal 
ammoniac  and  a  similar  solution  of  common 
salt,  to  which  one  tenth  (by  volume)  of  a  sat- 
urated solution  of  corrosive  sublimate  and  one 
tenth  (also  by  volume)  of  hydrochloric  acid 
have  been  added.  Dry  batteries  are  not  in- 
tended for  continuous  service,  but  (like  the 
Leclanche  element,  to  which  they  are  closely 
related)  for  the  production  of  transient  cur- 
rents, at   considerable  intervals. 

A  form  of  battery,  devised  by  Mr.  Latimer 
Clark  for  use  in  laboratories  as  a  standard  of 
electromotive  force,  is  now  commonly  employed 
for  this  purpose  in  all  exact  electrical  re- 
searches, where  the  precise  determination  of  an 
electromotive  force  is  important.  As  described 
in  his  original  paper  (<  Philosophical  Transac- 
tions' 1875),  the  cell  contains  zinc,  sulphate  of 
zinc,  sulphate  of  mercury,  and  mercury ;  the 
zinc  and  mercury  forming  the  respective  elec- 
trodes. All  the  materials  used  must  be  chemi- 
cally pure,  both  the  mercury  and  the  zinc 
being  distilled.  The  sulphate  of  mercury  used 
in  the  cell  is  the  mercurous  salt,  Hg^SQj, 
which  is  prepared  by  treating  pure  mercury 
with  an  equal  weight  of  pure  concentrated  sul- 
phuric acid,  the  mixture  being  warmed,  but 
kept  well  below  the  boiling  point  (212°  F.). 
The  white  solid  that  is  produced  should  be 
removed  before  all  of  the  mercury  disappears, 
in  order  to  avoid  the  formation  of  the  mercuric 
sulphate  (HgSOO,  which  is  detrimental  to  the 
battery,  and  which  may  be  recognized,  when 
present  in  any  considerable  quantity,  by  its 
transformation,  upon  addition  of  water,  into  a 
yellow  basic  salt  (perhaps  HgS04.2HgO), 
and  free  sulphuric  acid.  The  mercury  sul- 
phate should  be  thoroughly  washed,  before  use, 


BATTEUX 


to  remove  the  last  trace  of  free  acid.  The  zinc 
sulphate  is  used  in  the  form  of  a  saturated 
solution,  prepared  by  dissolving  the  compound 
in  boiling  water,  and  then  allowing  it  to  cool. 
The  sulphate  of  mercury  is  made  into  a  thick 
paste  with  the  zinc  sulphate  solution,  and  the 
whole  is  then  heated  to  212°  F.,  to  expel  any 
air  that  may  be  present.  The  bottom  of  the 
cell  that  is  to  be  used  is  then  well  covered 
with  mercury  (which  is  to  serve  as  the  posi- 
tive electrode),  after  which  the  paste  is  poured 
in.  The  zinc  is  suspended  in  the  paste,  and  the 
vessel  is  finally  sealed  with  melted  paraifin. 
The  positive  connection  is  made  by  sealing  a 
platinum  wire  into  the  bottom  of  the  cell,  or 
by  running  the  wire  down  through  the  paste 
to  the  mercury,  protecting  it  by  a  glass  tube. 
When  great  accuracy  is  desired,  numerous 
minute  precautions  must  be  observed  in  the 
manufacture  of  these  cells,  and  also  in  their 
subsequent  use.  Such  details  are  to  be  found 
chiefly  in  papers  that  have  appeared  in  the 
various  scientific  journals.  (See,  for  example, 
Glazebrook  and  Skinner,  ^Philosophical  Trans- 
actions, A,^  1892.)  There  is  still  some  small 
difference  of  opinion  among  the  various  au- 
thorities as  to  the  exact  electromotive  force 
of  the  Clark  cell,  but  it  is  certainly  very  close 
to  1.433  volts  at  60°  F.,  and  it  varies  about 
C.00061'  volt  per  Fahrenheit  degree,  being  lower 
at  higher  temperatures,  and  vice  versa.  Vari- 
ous attempts  have  been  made  to  devise  an  elec- 
tric battery  in  which  some  substance  other  than 
zinc  shall  be  consumed,  to  furnish  the  electrical 
energy.  Iron  has  been  used  with  some  degree 
of  success,  but,  for  one  reason  or  another,  iron- 
consuming  batteries  have  never  come  into  gen- 
eral favor.  Magnesium  batteries  have  also 
been  used  to  a  limited  extent ;  a  magnesium- 
carbon  element,  with  a  bichromate  of  potas- 
sium depolarizing  solution,  giving  an  electro- 
motive force  as  high  as  2.95  volts.  The 
expense  of  batteries  consuming  magnesium  is 
too  great,  however,  to  permit  them  to  be  used 
for  any  but  experimental  purposes. 

The  ideal  electric  battery  would  be  one  in 
which  carbon  is  the  substance  consumed,  and 
inventors  have  turned  their  attention  to  this 
particular  problem  with  great  energy,  but  with 
no  very  considerable  measure  of  success,  al- 
though there  does  not  appear  to  be  any  theo- 
retical reason  why  a  practical  and  serviceable 
battery  of  this  sort  may  not  be  ultimately  dis- 
covered. A  quarter  of  a  century  ago,  M. 
Jablochkoff  constructed  a  cell  in  which  the 
liquid  was  melted  nitrate  of  soda  or  nitrate  of 
potash,  the  negative  electrode  (or  electrode  to 
be  consumed)  being  of  coke,  while  the  posi- 
tive one  was  of  platinum  or  cast  iron.  The 
coke  electrode  is  brought  to  incandescence  over 
a  part  of  its  surface,  before  being  immersed 
in  the  liquid.  Upon  immersion  the  coke  then 
burns  fiercely,  obtaining  its  oxygen  from  the 
melted  nitrate,  and  sending  forth  large  vol- 
umes of  carbon  dioxid  gas.  While  the  com- 
bustion continues,  the  cell  is  capable  of  gen- 
erating quite  a  sensible  electric  current ;  but  it 
does  not  appear  that  its  electromotive  force 
has  been  determined  with  any  great  precision. 
M.  Jablochkoff's  carbon-consuming  battery 
cannot  be  regarded  as  more  than  a  scientific 
curiosity,  but  it  is  nevertheless  interesting,  be- 
cause it  demonstrates  the  possibility  of  a 
carbon-consuming     battery.     About     1895     Dr. 


William  W.  Jacques  devised  a  form  of  electric 
battery  which  was  thought,  for  a  time,  to  ob- 
tain its  energy  from  the  oxidation  of  carbon. 
Each  cell  consisted  of  a  cast-iron  pot,  which 
served  as  a  containing  vessel,  and  at  the  same 
time  as  the  positive  electrode.  The  negative 
electrode  was  a  stick  of  carbon,  suspended  cen- 
trally in  the  cell.  The  liquid  was  caustic  soda 
or  caustic  potash,  which  was  kept  in  a  state 
of  fusion  by  means  of  a  furnace,  and  through' 
which  a  stream  of  air  was  blown,  by  means  of 
a  kind  of  rose  nozzle  entering  at  the  bottom 
of  the  pot.  The  electromotive  force  of  a  sin- 
gle cell  of  this  battery  is  about  0.9  volt.  Dr. 
Jacques'  theory  of  the  cell  was  that  the  fur- 
nace merely  served  to  keep  the  caustic  melted, 
while  the  electric  energy  furnished  by  the  bat- 
tery had  its  origin  in  the  oxidation  of  the  car- 
bon rods  in  the  cells,  the  oxygen  needed  for 
this  oxidation  being  furnished  by  the  blast  of 
air.  In  the  course  of  some  tests  carried  out 
by  Dr.  Jacques  and  others  with  this  idea  in 
mind,  the  loss  in  weight  of  the  carbon  rods 
was  compared  with  the  output  of  electrical 
energy  yielded  by  the  battery,  the  result  being 
that  the  apparatus  showed  an  efficiency,  in  one 
case,  of  no  less  than  87  per  cent.  Unfortu- 
nately, investigations  made  by  others  do  not 
justify  Dr.  Jacques'  hypothesis  as  to  the  origin 
of  the  electrical  energy  in  his  battery.  Thus 
Mr.  C.  J.  Reed  showed  that  the  disintegration 
of  the  carbon  is  merely  incidental,  and  that  the 
carbon  can  be  replaced  by  iron,  brass,  copper, 
gernian  silver,  or  other  metallic  bodies,  with- 
out detriment  to  the  battery.  He  also  found 
that  the  cell  works  much  better  and  lasts  much 
longer,  if  the  caustic  potash  is  replaced  by  ni- 
trate of  potash ;  and,  finally,  he  proved  that 
a  blast  of  common  illuminating  gas  may  be 
substituted  for  the  air,  without  lessening  the 
electrical  yield  of  the  apparatus.  These  results 
established  the  fact,  beyond  doubt,  that  the 
Jacques  battery  is  not  a  galvanic  battery  at  all, 
but  a  form  of  the  thermo-electric  apparatus, 
drawing  its  energy  from  the  fuel  that  is  con- 
sumed in  the  furnace  below  the  pots.  The 
chemical  energy  of  the  coal  in  the  furnace  is 
first  transformed  into  heat,  and  only  later  into 
electrical  energy.  The  battery  is  therefore 
amenable  to  the  second  law  of  thermody- 
namics (q.v.),  which  is  the  great  obstacle  that 
the  successful  carbon-consuming  battery  must 
avoid.     See  Electricity  ;  Storage  Battery. 

In  lazv,  the  unlawful  beating  of  another,  or 
even  the  touching  him  with  hostile  intent. 
It  is  legitimate  for  a  parent  or  a  master  to  give 
moderate  correction  to  his  child,  his  scholar,  or 
his  apprentice.  A  person  who  is  violently  as- 
sailed by  another  may  strike  back  in  self- 
defense.  He  may  do  so  also  in  defense  of  his 
property.  But  to  strike  anyone  in  anger,  how- 
ever gently,  without  these  justifications,  ex- 
poses one  to  the  liability  to  be  prosecuted  for 
assault  and  battery,  the  assault  being  the 
menacing  gesture  and  the  battery  the  actual 
blow.  Wounding  and  mayhem  are  a  more  ag- 
gravated kind  of  battery. 

In  military  art.  any  work  in  which  one  or 
more  cannon  are  planted,  and  which  may  be 
permanent  or  temporary.     See  Fortification. 

Batteux,  ba-te,  Charles,  French  scholar, 
honorarv  canon  of  Rheims:  b.  Alland'huy,  1713: 
d.  14  July  1780.  He  displayed  his  gratitude 
to  this  city,  in  which  he  received  his  education, 


B  ATTH  YANYI  —  BATTLE 


hy  the  ode  "^In  Civitatem  Remensem^  (i739), 
which  was  much  admired.  In  1750  he  was  in- 
vited to  Paris,  where  he  taught  rhetoric  in  the 
colleges  of  Lisieux  and  Navarre.  He  was  after- 
ward appointed  professor  of  Latin  and  Greek 
philosophy  at  the  Royal  College.  In  1754  he 
became  a  member  of  the  Academy  of  Inscrip- 
tions, and  in  1761  of  the  French  Academ3^  Bat- 
teux  left  a  large  number  of  valuable  works.  He 
did  much  service  to  literature  and  the  fine  arts, 
by  introducing  unity  and  system  into  the  nu- 
merous canons  of  taste,  which  had  gained  a 
standing  among  the  French  by  the  example  of 
many  eminent  men,  particularly  in  regard  to 
poetry,  and  must  be  regarded  as  a  valuable 
writer  on  aesthetics,  notwithstanding  the  higher 
point  of  view  from  which  this  science  is  now 
considered.  Some  of  his  most  valuable  works 
are:  'Les  Beaux-Arts  reduits  a  unmeme 
Principe,^  (1747)  ;  and  *Cours  de  Belles- 
Lettres  ou  Principes  de  la  Litterature^  (1774). 
These  works  were  translated  into  several  other 
languages. 

Batthyanyi,  bot'ya-nye,  Count  Kasimir, 
Hungarian  statesman,  minister  of  foreign  affairs 
■during  the  Hungarian  revolution :  b.  4  June 
1807;  d.  Paris,  13  July  1854.  From  his  earliest 
childhood  he  took  a  lively  interest  in  public  af- 
fairs, and  after  having,  as  member  of  the  Hun- 
garian diet,  opposed  the  Austrian  government, 
he  became,  at  the  outbreak  of  the  revolution,  one 
of  the  prominent  champions  of  Hungarian  in- 
dependence, devoting  his  wealth  and  influence 
to  the  promotion  of  this  cause,  and  at  the  same 
time  distinguishing  himself  on  various  occa- 
sions by  his  courage  and  skill  on  the  battle- 
field. After  having  officiated  as  governor  of 
various  provinces,  he  became  minister  of  for- 
eign affairs,  under  the  administration  of  Kos- 
suth, and  subsequently  he  shared  his  exile  in 
Turkey  until  185 1,  when  he  repaired  to  Paris, 
where  he  died.  Although  sympathizing  with 
Kossuth  in  some  respects,  he  differed  from  him 
in  others,  and  addressed,  in  1851,  a  series  of  let- 
ters to  the  London  Times,  in  which  he  reflected 
rather  severely  upon  Kossuth's  character  as 
statesman  and  patriot. 

Batthyanyi,  Count  Louis,  Hungarian  pa- 
triot: b.  Pressburg,  iSog;  d.  6  Oct.  1849.  He 
entered  the  army  as  a  cadet  at  the  age  of  16, 
and  on  coming  into  possession  of  a  large  for- 
tune, abandoned  a  military  for  a  diplomatic 
career,  and  in  process  of  time  attained  the  rank 
of  leader  of  the  opposition  in  the  Hungarian 
diet.  Upon  the  breaking  out  of  the  commo- 
tions of  1848,  Batthj'anyi  took  an  active  part  in 
promoting  the  national  cause,  and  with  a  com- 
pany of  armed  vassals  came  forward  to  assist 
it  in  the  field.  On  the  entry  of  Windischgratz 
into  Budapest  in  January  1849,  he  was  arrested 
in  the  house  of  his  sister-in-law,  the  Countess 
Karolyi.  After  being  conveyed  to  various  places 
he  was  finally  brought  back  to  Budapest,  tried 
by  court-martial,  and  condemned  to  be  hanged. 
The  execution  of  this  sentence  he  prevented  by 
inflicting  several  wounds  with  a  poinard  on 
his  neck,  and  he  was  accordingly   shot. 

_  Batti'adae,  a  djmasty  of  Cyrene  which 
reigned  from  the  7th  to  the  5th  century  B.C. 
The  kings  of  this  dynasty  were:  Battus  I.,  the 
founder  of  Cyrene;  Arcesilaus  I.,  his  son;  Bat- 
tus II.,  son  of  Arcesilaus.  who  greatly  increased 
the    power   of   Cyrene;    Arcesilaus    II.,    son    of 


Battus  II.;  Battus  III.,  son  of  Arcesilaus  II.; 
Arcesilaus  III.,  son  of  Battus  III.,  who  sub- 
mitted to  the  Persian  king;  Battus  IV.,  son  of 
Arcesilaus  III. ;  Arcesilaus  IV.,  son  of  Battus 
IV.,  the  last  king  of  Cyrene,  killed  in  a  revolu- 
tion. He  is  celebrated  in  fourth  and  fifth 
Pindaric  odes. 

Battik,  an  oriental  production  of  the  na- 
tives of  the  Dutch  East  Indies,  who  decorate 
their  clothing  with  it ;  also  made  in  The  Hague 
for  local  use  and  export.  Upon  a  piece  of  linen 
various  designs  are  outlined  with  a  pencil. 
When  the  design  is  completed,  the  ornamented 
parts  of  the  fabric  are  covered  with  a  liquid 
which  possesses  the  quality  of  stiffening  after 
being  applied.  The  parts  not  ornamented  are 
dyed  the  desired  color.  After  the  entire  fabric 
has  been  ornamented  in  this  manner,  it  is  boiled 
in  hot  water  so  as  to  take  the  hard  stuff  out  of 
the  battik.  The  dyed  parts  will  then  hold  the 
d3'e  and  the  battik  is  ready.  The  Hague  peo- 
ple were  the  first  to  introduce  battik  into  Eu- 
rope It  is  made  on  linen,  silk,  velvet,  and 
leather,  and  is  exported  to  all  the  principal  cities 
of  Europe. 

Battle,  CuUen  Andrews,  American  military 
officer :  b.  Powelton,  Ga.,  i  June  1829.  He  was 
graduated  from  the  University  of  Alabama ; 
admitted  to  the  bar  in  1852  and  practised  till 
i860;  was  a  Breckenridge  and  Lane  Presiden- 
tial elector,  and  accompanied  William  L.  Yancy 
in  his  canvass  of  Alabama.  At  the  outbreak 
of  the  Civil  War  he  entered  the  Confederate 
army,  and  during  the  war  was  wounded  seven 
times,  promoted  brigadier-general  on  the  field 
of  Gettysburg,  and  major-general  in  October 
1864.  After  the  war  he  engaged  in  journalism 
in  Newbern,  N.  C. 

Battle,  Kemp  Plummer,  American  educa- 
tor :  b.  Franklin  County,  N.  C,  19  Dec.  1831. 
He  graduated  at  the  University  of  North  Caro- 
lina in  1849;  was  a  member  of  the  State  conven- 
tion of  North  Carolina  in  1861  that  passed  the 
ordinance  of  secession;  State  treasurer,  1866-8; 
president  of  the  University  of  North  Carolina 
1876-91  ;  and  afterward  professor  of  history 
there.  His  works  include:  ^History  of  the  Su- 
preme Court  of  North  Carolina^  ;  ^History  of 
Raleigh.  North  Carolina^  ;  ^Trials  and  Judicial 
Proceedings  of  the  New  Testament^  ;  ^Life  of 
General  Jethro  Sumner,'  as  well  as  numerous 
writings  relating  to  the  history  of  North  Caro- 
lina. 

Battle,  England,  a  market-town  in  Sussex. 
It  is  situated  in  a  valley  nearly  encircled  by 
wooded  hills,  seven  miles  northwest  of  Hast- 
ings, and  consists  chiefly  of  one  irregular  street, 
in  which  there  are  many  old-fashioned  build- 
ings ;  it  is  well  supplied  with  water,  and  lighted 
with  gas.  The  church  is  ancient,  and  contains 
some  fine  specimens  of  painted  glass  and  nu- 
merous antique  monuments.  There  are  places 
of  worship  also  for  Wesleyans,  Baptists, 
Roman  Catholics,  and  Congregationalists,  and 
endowed  schools.  Battle  was  long  celebrated 
for  the  manufacture  of  gunpowder.  The 
original  name  of  this  place  was  Senlac.  and  it 
received  its  present  name  from  the  battle  of 
Hastings  which  was  fought  here.  In  memory 
of  the  battle  William  the  Conqueror  erected  a 
great  abbey,  the  ruins  of  which  have  a  circum- 
ference of  about  a  mile.  This  building  has  al- 
most   entirel}^    disappeared,    but    interesting   re- 


BATTLE 


mains  of  a  subsequent  building  exist,  including 
the  gateway,  a  beautiful  specimen  of  the  dec- 
orated English  style.  One  portion  of  this 
building  now  forms  a  mansion,  which  until 
very  lately  was  the  residence  of  Lord  Rose- 
bery's  mother,  the  Duchess  of  Cleveland.  See 
Walcott,  ^History  of  Battle  Abbey^  (1867); 
Duchess  of  Cleveland,  <The  Roll  of  Battle  Ab- 
bey^   (1889).     Pop.   (1901)  2,996. 

Battle.  The  object  of  a  war  may  be  ob- 
tained in  two  different  ways :  one  party  either 
forces  the  enemy,  by  skilful  manoeuvres,  marches, 
demonstrations,  the  occupation  of  advantageous 
positions,  etc.,  to  quit  the  field  (which  belongs 
to  the  province  of  strategy)  ;  or  the  hostile 
masses  approach  each  other,  so  that  a  battle 
becomes  necessary  to  determine  which  shall 
keep  the  field.  Troops  may  either  meet  by  de- 
sign or  by  chance.  When  they  meet  by  chance, 
and  are  thus  obliged  to  fight,  it  is  called  a 
rencontre.  The  rules  for  insuring  a  successful 
issue,  whether  they  respect  the  preparations  for 
the  conflict,  or  the  direction  of  the  forces 
when  actually  engaged,  belong  to  tactics,  in 
the  narrower  sense  of  the  word  Strategy  also 
shows  the  causes  which  bring  armies  together, 
and  produce  battles  without  any  agreement  be- 
tween the  parties.  It  may  be  sufficient  to  say, 
in  general,  that  armies  in  their  marches  (and 
consequently  in  their  meeting)  are  chiefly  de- 
termined by  the  course  of  the  mountains  and 
rivers  of  a  country.  In  ancient  times  and  the 
Middle  Ages  the  battle-ground  was  often  chosen 
by  agreement,  and  the  battle  was  then  a  mere 
trial  of  strength,  a  sort  of  duel ;  but,  in  our 
time,  such  trifling  is  done  away  with.  War  is 
now  carried  on  for  the  real  or  pretended  interest 
of  a  nation,  or  of  a  ruler  who  thinks  or  pre- 
tends that  his  interest  is  that  of  the  nation. 
Wars  are  now  undertaken  for  the  purpose  of 
fighting,  and  battles  are  merely  the  consequence 
of  pursuing  the  purpose  of  the  war.  They  arise 
from  one  party's  striving  to  prevent  the  other 
from  gaining  his  object.  Every  means,  there- 
fore, of  winning  the  battle  is  resorted  to,  and 
an  agreement  can  hardly  be  thought  of.  In 
this  respect  a  land  battle  is  entirely  different 
from  a  naval  one.  The  former  is  intended 
merely  to  remove  an  obstacle  in  the  way  of 
gaining  the  object  of  the  war;  the  destruction  of 
the  enemy,  therefore,  is  not  the  first  thing 
sought  for.  But  the  object  of  a  naval  engage- 
ment is,  almost  always,  the  destruction  of  the 
enemy ;  those  cases  only  excepted  in  which  a 
fleet  intends  to  bring  supplies  or  reinforcements 
to  a  blockaded  port,  and  is  obliged  to  fight'  to 
accomplish  its  purpose. 

As  the  armies  of  the  ancients  were  not  so 
well  organized  as  those  of  the  moderns,  and 
the  combatants  fought  very  little  at  a  distance, 
after  the  battle  had  begun  manoeuvres  were 
much  more  difficult,  and  troops,  when  actually 
engaged,  were  almost  entirely  beyond  the  con- 
trol of  the  general.  With  them,  therefore,  the 
battle  depended  almost  wholly  upon  the  pre- 
vious arrangements,  and  the  valor  of  the 
troops.  Not  so  in  modern  times.  The  finest 
combinations,  the  most  ingenious  manoeuvres, 
are  rendered  possible  by  the  better  organization 
of  the  armies,  which,  thus,  generally  at  least, 
remain  under  the  control  of  the  general.  The 
battle  of  the  ancients  was  the  rude  beginning  of 
an  art  now  much  developed.   It  is  the  skill  of  the 


general,  rather  than  the  courage  of  the  soldier, 
that  now  determines  the  event  of  a  battle. 

Battles  are  distinguished  into  offensive  and 
defensive.  Of  course,  a  battle  which  is  offen- 
sive for  one  side  is  defensive  for  the  other. 
Tacticians  divide  a  battle  into  three  periods  — 
that  of  the  disposition,  that  of  the  combat,  and 
the  decisive  moment.  The  general  examines 
the  strength,  reconnoitres  the  position,  and  en- 
deavors to  learn  the  intention  of  the  enemy. 
If  the  enemy  conceals  his  plan  and  position, 
skirmishes  and  partial  assaults  are  often  ad- 
visable, in  order  to  disturb  him,  to  obtain  a 
view  of  his  movements,  to  induce  him  to  ad- 
vance, or  with  the  view  of  making  prisoners, 
who  may  be  questioned,  etc.  Since  the  gen- 
eral cannot  direct  all  these  operations  in  per- 
son, officers  of  the  staff  assist  him ;  single  scouts 
or  small  bodies  are  sent  out,  and  spies  are  em- 
ployed. Every  means  is  made  use  of  for  ob- 
taining information  regarding  the  enemy,  or 
the  ground  on  which  the  battle  is  likely  to  take 
place.  According  to  the  knowledge  thus  ac- 
quired, and  the  state  of  the  troops,  the  plan  of 
battle,  or  the  disposition,  is  made;  and  here 
military  genius  has  an  opportunity  to  display 
itself.  To  the  disposition  also  belongs  the  de- 
taching of  large  bodies  which  are  to  co-operate 
in  the  battle,  but  not  under  the  immediate  com- 
mand of  the  chief.  The  plan  of  the  battle 
itself,  the  position  of  the  troops,  etc.,  is  called 
the  order  of  battle  {ordre  de  bataille).  This  is 
either  the  parallel,  or  the  inclosing  (if  the 
enemy  cannot  develop  his  forces,  or  you  are 
strong  enough  to  outflank  him),  or  the  oblique. 
When  each  division  of  troops  has  taken  its  po- 
sition, and  received  its  orders,  and  the  weaker 
points  have  been  fortified  (if  time  allows  it), 
the  artillery  placed  on  the  most  favorable  points, 
all  chasms  connected  by  bridges,  villages,  woods, 
etc.,  taken  possession  of,  and  all  impediments 
removed  as  far  as  possible  (whicn  very  often 
cannot  be  done,  except  by  fighting),  then  comes 
the  second  period  —  that  of  the  engagement. 
The  combat  begins,  either  on  several  points  at 
a  given  signal,  as  is  the  case  when  the  armies 
are  very  large,  and  a  general  attack  is  intended, 
as,  for  instance,  at  Leipsic,  where  three  fire- 
balls gave  the  signal  for  battle  on  the  side  of 
the  allies;  or  by  skirmishes  of  the  light  troops, 
which  is  the  most  common  case.  The  artillery 
endeavors  to  dismount  the  batteries  of  the 
enemy,  to  destroy  his  columns,  and,  in  general, 
to  break  a  passage,  if  possible,  for  the  other 
troops.  The  forces,  at  the  present  day,  are 
brought  into  action  inostly  in  open  order,  and 
not,  as  formerly,  in  long  but  weak  lines.  Here 
the  skill  of  the  commanders  of  battalions  is 
exerted.  Upon  them  rests  the  principal  execu- 
tion of  the  actual  combat.  The  plans  and  or- 
ders of  a  general  reach  only  to  a  certain  point ; 
the  chiefs  of  battalions  must  do  the  great  work 
of  the  battle.  Before  the  battle,  the  general 
places  himself  upon  a  point  from  which  he  can 
see  the  conflict,  and  where  he  can  easily  receive 
reports.  A  few  men  are  near  him  as  his  body- 
guard ;  others  take  charge  of  the  plans  and 
maps;  telescopes  are  indispensable.  He  often 
sends  one  of  his  aides  to  take  command  of  the 
nearest  body  of  cavalry,  in  order  to  execute  a 
new  movement  quickly.  He  receives  the  reports 
of  the  generals  under  him  ;  disposes  of  the  troops 
not  yet  in  action ;  strengthens  weak  points ; 
throws  his  force  on  the  enemy  where  he  sees 


BATTLE  ABOVE  THE   CLOUDS  — BATTLE   CREEK 


them  waver ;  or  changes,  if  necessary,  with  a 
bold  and  ingenious  thought,  the  whole  order  of 
battle.  The  general  now  uses  every  means  to 
bring  on  the  third  period  of  the  battle  —  the 
decisive  moment. 

In  the  Austro-German  campaign  of  l866, 
and  the  still  more  important  Franco-German 
campaign  of  1870,  great  changes  were  developed 
both  in  strategy  and  tactics.  The  changes  in 
strategy  were  due  chieflv  to  the  ease  with  which 
the  general  could  direct  detached  bodies  of 
troops  over  a  wide  area  by  means  of  the  tele- 
graph, and  the  facility  with  which  troops,  pro- 
visions, and  ammunition  could  be  moved  from 
point  to  point  by  railway.  The  changes  in  tac- 
tics, again,  arose  chiefly  from  the  longer  range 
and  quicker  firing  capacity  of  modern  rifles,  and 
the  greater  importance  attached  to  the  massed 
hring  of  long-range  breech-loading  artillery. 
Still  greater  changes  in  tactics  and  strategy  have 
been  brought  about  by  such  recent  inventions  as 
those  of  smokeless  powder  and  lyddite  shells, 
and  in  the  Spanish-American  and  Anglo-Boer 
wars  these  changes  were  made  very  manifest. 
See  also  Strategy  ;  Tactics. 

Battle  Above  the  Clouds,  The,  the  name 
given  to  that  portion  of  the  battle  of  Chatta- 
nooga fought  on  Lookout  Mountain,  Tenn.,  24 
Nov.  1863.     See  Chattanooga,  Battle  of. 

Battle  Axe,  a  military  weapon  much  used 
in  the  early  part  of  the  Middle  Ages,  particu- 
larly by  those  who  fought  on  foot.  It  was  not 
uncommon,  however,  among  the  knights,  who 
used  also  the  mace,  a  species  of  iron  club  or 
hammer.  Both  are  to  be  seen  in  the  different 
collections  of  old  arms  in  Europe.  The  Greeks 
and  Romans  did  not  employ  the  battle  axe, 
though  it  was  found  among  contemporary  na- 
tions. In  fact,  the  axe  is  one  of  the  earliest 
weapons,  its  use  as  an  instrument  of  domestic 
industry  naturally  suggesting  its  application  for 
purposes  of  offense ;  but,  at  the  same  time,  it  has 
always  been  abandoned  as  soon  as  the  art  of 
fencing,  attacking,  and  guarding  was  cultivated ; 
because  the  heavier  the  blow  given  with  this 
instrument,  the  more  will  it  expose  the  fighter. 
It  never  would  have  remained  so  long  in  use 
in  the  Middle  Ages  had  it  not  been  for  the  iron 
armor,  which  protected  the  body  from  every 
thing  but  heavy  blows.  In  England,  Ireland, 
and  Scotland,  the  battle  axe  was  much  em- 
ployed. r\t  the  battle  of  Bannockburn,  King 
Robert  Bruce  clave  an  English  champion  down 
to  the  chin  with  one  blow  of  his  axe.  The 
Lochaber-axe  remained  a  formidable  weapon  in 
the  hands  of  the  Highlanders  to  a  recent  period, 
and  was  used  by  the  old  city  guard  of  Edin- 
burgh.   A  pole  axe  is  a  long-handled  battle  axe. 

Battle  of  the  Books,  The,  a  famous  work 
by  Jonathan  Swift,  written  in  1697,  but  re- 
maining in  manuscript  until  1704.  It  was  a 
travesty  on  the  endless  controversy  over  the 
relative  merits  of  the  ancients  and  moderns, 
first  raised  in  France  bv  Perrault.  Its  imme- 
diate cause,  however,  was  the  position  of 
Swift's  patron.  Sir  William  Temple,  as  to  the 
genuineness  of  the  ^Letters  of  Phalaris.^  The 
work,  was  not  taken  with  entire  seriousness  by 
Swift's  contemporaries. 

Battle  of  the  Salient.  See  Spottsvlvania 
Court  House,  Battles  of. 

Battle  Creek,  Mirh.,  a  city  of  Calhoun 
County,    situated   on   the    Kalamazoo    River   at 


its  junction  with  the  Battle  Creek,  and  on  the 
Grand  Trunk  Western,  Michigan  Central,  and 
Detroit,  Toledo  &  Milwaukee  Railroads,  121 
miles  west  of  Detroit  and  163  miles  east  of 
Chicago. 

Industries,  Banks,  Etc. —  Battle  Creek  is  lo- 
cated in  the  midst  of  the  best  farming  section 
of  the  State  and  agriculture  and  fruit-growing 
are  carried  on  extensively.  It  is  as  a  manu- 
facturing city,  however,  that  Battle  Creek  is 
best  known,  having  more  than  70  factories  m 
active  operation  employing  about  5,000  people. 
The  weekly  pay-roll  of  factories  alone  is  over 
$100,000.  There  are  large  plants  which  make 
more  threshing  machines,  traction  engines  and 
steam  pumps  than  are  made  in  any  other  city 
in  the  world.  There  are  also  planing  mills, 
boiler  works,  brick  yards,  flouring  mills,  found- 
ries, cigar  factories,  bof-ling  works,  ice 
plants,  ironworks,  candy  factories,  a  brewery, 
pipe-organ  factory,  etc.  The  city  is  also  noted 
for  the  manufacture  of  cereal  foods.  The 
Grand  Trunk  Western  shops  are  located  here, 
this  being  the  only  division  between  Port 
Huron  and  Chicago.  There  are  two  national, 
two  State  and  one  private  banks,  with  a  com- 
bined capital  of  $4SO,ooo,  surplus  $226,000,  and 
deposits  $4.216000. 

Societies,  Buildings,  Education,  Etc. —  Bat- 
tle Creek  has  over  50  secret  and  fraternal  so- 
cieties, a  Nature  Club,  a  Musical  Union,  a 
Woman's  Club,  a  Woman's  Lea^^ue  which  owns 
a  business  block  and  has  a  noon-dav  rest  and 
free  dispensary,  a  Y.  W.  C.  A.  and  Y.  M.  C.  A., 
a  company  of  State  militia  and  the  A.thelstan 
Club,  a  social  organization,  composed  of  busi- 
ness and  professional  men.  The  Young  Men's 
Christian  Association  building  is  the  gift  of 
the  late  Charles  Willard  and  cost  $40,000.  The 
new  public  library  costing  $70,000  is  also  the 
gift  of  Mr.  Willard.  A  fine  hospital  costing 
$35,000  was  presented  to  the  city  by  the  late 
John  Nichols.  Other  interesting  buildings  are 
the  Post  Theatre  (costing  $60,000),  Post 
Tavern,  the  Phelps  Sanatorium,  and  Battle 
Creek  Sanitarium  (q.v.).  The  city  has  over 
20  churches  and  is  known  as  one  of  the  largest 
centres  of  the  Seventh  Day  Adventists  (see 
Adventists).  There  are  10  public  schools,  100 
teachers  and  over  4,000  children  of  school  age. 
a  Catholic  parish  school,  and  three  business 
colleges.  Over  $90,000  was  spent  for  school 
maintenance  in  1903.  There  are  daily  and 
weekly  papers  and  a  number  of  monthly  publi- 
cations, some  of  them  published  in  foreign 
languages. 

History,  Government,  Etc. — Battle  Creek  was 
first  settled  in  1832  by  families  from  New 
York  and  New  England  and  has  always  been 
noted  as  a  distinctively  American  city,  the 
percentage  of  foreign  born  citizens  being  rela- 
tively small.  It  was  incorporated  as  a  ciry  in 
1859  and  its  government  is  under  a  general 
charter  and  a  council  of  10  members,  five  of 
whom  are  elected  each  year  for  a  term  of  twQ 
years.  The  city  owns  its  own  water  system 
with  a  capacity  of  over  1,500,000  gallons  of 
water  per  day;  has  paid  fire  and  police  depart- 
ments, electric  light  and  gas  plants,  and  two 
telephone  systems.  The  city  owns  a  splendid 
park  at  Lake  Goguac,  and  is  an  attractive  sum- 
mer resort  on  account  of  the  numerous  lakes 
in  the  vicinity.  Battle  Creek  stands  third 
among  the  cities  of  the    State   in  the   amount 


BATTLE  CREEK  SANITARIUM —  BATTLE-SHIP 


of  post-office  business,  exceeded  only  by  De- 
troit and  Grand  Rapids.  Pop.  (1904  census) 
22,213. 

Chas.  E.  Barnes, 
City  Editor  '^Journal.^ 

Battle  Creek  Sanitarium,  The,  is  a  phil- 
anthropic and  humanitarian  institution  operat- 
ing under  a  perpetual  charter  which  compels 
the  use  of  all  the  profits  gained  to  foster  the 
spread  of  humanitarian  work.  'Wore  than  60 
branches  of  the  parent  institution  have  been 
established  in  or  near  large  cities  in  different 
parts  of  the  world,  under  the  title  of  The 
American  Medical  Missionary  Association,  and 
each  of  these  branches  conducts  a  life-saving 
business  on  Good  Samaritan  principles.  The 
organization  began  its  work  in  the  year  1866, 
with  almost  no  capital  and  only  one  patient,  in 
a  small  two-story  frame  house,  in  the  then 
small  village  of  Battle  Creek,  Mich.  The 
incorporators  believed  that  Christianity  should 
be  expressed  in  works  as  much  as  in  faith,  in 
curing  the  sick  and  healing  the  wounded,  and 
thus  preparing  the  unfortunate  for  the  reception 
of  moral  and  spiritual  inspiration. 

The  Golden  Rule  is  the  foundation  princi- 
ple of  the  institution.  It  has  grown  from  a 
small  beginning  to  the  immense  proportions  of 
the  present  time,  with  one  of  its  buildings  nearly 
a  thousand  feet  in  length  and  six  stories  in 
height  and  numerous  other  buildings  radiating 
from  the  main  one  and  scattered  about  it  in  a 
finely  wooded  park.  Fire  destroyed  the  old 
building  and  all  its  contents,  but  it  was  soon 
rebuilt  larger  and  better  than  before,  and  has 
grown  to  its  present  proportions. 

Battle  Cry  of  Freedom,  The,  a  patriotic 
song  of  the  American  Civil  War  by  the  well- 
known  composer,  George  Frederick  Root 
(1861). 

Battle  of  Dorking,  The,  a  realistic,  mat- 
ter-of-fact description  of  an  imaginary  inva- 
sion of  England  by  a  foreign  power,  by  Charles 
Cornwallis  Chesney.  It  appeared  first  in  'Black- 
wood's Magazine^  in  1871,  and  has  since  been 
reprinted  under  the  title  <The  Fall  of  Eng- 
land.' After  the  ignominious  defeat  of  the 
French  at  Sedan,  Col.  Chesney,  professor  of 
military  history  at  Sandhurst,  foresaw  a  similar 
fate  for  his  own  country  unless  it  should  re- 
organize its  army.  He  urged  vigorous  measures 
of  reform ;  and  as  the  necessity  for  these  was 
not  perceived  by  the  country  at  large,  he  con- 
tributed to  the  press  various  articles,  both  tech- 
nical and  popular,  among  them  'The  Battle  of 
Dorking.'  The  fleet  and  army  are  scattered 
when  war  is  declared,  but  the  government  has 
a  sublime  confidence  that  British  luck  and  pluck 
will  save  the  country  now  as  hitherto.  To  uni- 
versal surprise  and  consternation,  the  hostile 
fleet  annihilates  the  available  British  squadron, 
and  the  enemy  lands  on  the  south  coast.  Vol- 
unteers are  called  out,  and  respond  readily;  but 
ammunition  is  lacking,  the  commissariat  is  un- 
organized, and  the  men,  though  brave,  have 
neither  discipline  nor  endurance.  The  decisive' 
battle  is  fought  at  Dorking,  and  the  British  are 
routed  and  England,  without  other  alternative, 
is  compelled  to  submit  to  the  humiliating  terms 
of  the  conqueror. 

Battle  of  the  Bloody  Angle.  See  Spottsyl- 
VANiA  Court  House,  Battles  of. 


Battle    of  the    Frogs   and   Mice,   The,   an 

ancient  Greek  mock  epic,  written  in  hexameters. 
Forriierly  attributed  to  Homer.  Modern  critics 
are  of  the  opinion  that  the  credit  of  authorship 
should  be  given  to  Pigres  (q.v.).  Only  316 
lines  are  now  extant. 

Battle-Ground,  Ind.,  a  town  in  Tippecanoe 
County,  where  the  famous  battle  of  Tippecanoe 
was  fought  between  the  United  States  troops 
under  Gen.  Harrison  and  the  Indians  under 
Tecumseh  and  his  brother,  "The  Prophet,"  7 
Nov.  181 1. 

Battle  Hymn  of  the  Republic,  The,  a  cele- 
brated poem  by  Mrs.  Julia  Ward  Howe,  pub- 
lished in  the  'Atlantic  Monthly'  in  1862,  and 
sung  to  the  air,  "John  Brown's  Body." 

Battle  of  the  Kegs,  The.  See  Hopkinson, 
Francis. 

Battle,  Law  of,  the  contest  between  male 
animals  for  possession  of  the  females,  among 
barbarous  nations.  Among  certain  tribes  of 
the  North  American  Indians  the  men  wrestled 
for  any  women  to  whom  they  were  attached. 
With  the  Australians  the  women  were  the  con- 
stant cause  of  war,  both  between  the  individ- 
uals of  the  same  tribe  and  between  distinct 
tribes.  In  mammals  the  male,  says  Darwin,, 
appears  to  win  the  female  much  more  through 
the  law  of  battle  than  through  the  display  of 
his  charms.  The  most  timid  animals,  even  the 
hare,  will  fight  desperately,  the  duel  only  end- 
ing by  the  death  of  one  of  the  parties.  Male 
m.oles,  squirrels,  and  beavers  have  been  seen 
fighting  for  their  mate. 

Battle  Monument,  a  monument  in  Balti- 
more, Md.,  erected  in  memory  of  those  who  fell 
in  defense  of  the  city  when  it  was  attacked  by 
the  English  forces  in  September  1814. 

Battle  of  the  Spurs,  a  battle  of  Guinegate, 
16  Aug.  15 13,  in  which  the  French  cavalry 
were  defeated  by  the  forces  of  Henry  VIII.  of 
England  and  the  Emperor  Maximilian.  It  was 
thus  named  on  account  of  the  numberless  gilt 
spurs  gathered  by  the  victors. 

Battle,  Trial  by,  or  Wager  of,  an  obsolete 

method  of  deciding  cases,  whether  civil  or 
criminal,  by  personal  combat  between  the  par- 
ties or  their  champions  in  presence  of  the  court.. 
A  woman,  a  priest,  a  peer,  or  a  person  physi- 
cally incapable  of  fighting  could  refuse  such  a 
trial.  This  mode  of  trial  ended  in  Scotland 
with  the  close  of  the  i6th  century.  See 
Stephen,  'History  of  the  Criminal  Law  of  Eng- 
land' (1883)  ;  Neilson,  'Trial  by  Combat^ 
(1890). 

Battledore  and  Shuttlecock,  a  popular 
game  invented  in  the  14th  century.  The  im- 
plements are  a  bat  shaped  like  a  tennis  racket 
and  strung  with  gut  or  covered  with  parch- 
ment, and  a  shuttlecock  consisting  of  a  cork 
stuck  with  feathers,  which  is  batted  to  and  fro 
between  the  players. 

Battleford,  the  chief  town  of  the  Saskatch- 
ewan district  of  the  Northwest  Territories  of 
Canada,  on  the  river  Battle  near  its  junction 
with  the  North  Saskatchewan,  about  100  miles 
from  Prince  Albert.  The  Riel  insurrection  be- 
gan near  Battleford.  It  was  the  capital  of  the 
Northwest  Territory,  1876-83.     Pop.   (1901)   797. 

Battle-ship.  See  Naval  Architf'^ture;, 
Warships,  Modern. 


BATWA  —  BAUDISSIN 


Batwa,  bat'wa,  a  tribe  of  pygmies  living 
in  the  Wissmann  Falls  district  of  southern- 
central  Africa.  They  are  sometimes  less  than 
four  feet  high,  but  well  shaped  and  well  de- 
veloped. They  live  in  villages  and  are  under 
the  protection  of  the  Bakuba.  Their  food  con- 
sists of  meat,  wild  roots,  and  a  few  vegetables 
which  they  cultivate.  Their  weapons  are 
knives,  bows  and  arrows,  poisoned  with  the 
juice  of  the  root  of  a  species  of  Euphorbia. 
Their  household  furniture  is  very  simple,  and 
they  do  not  make  pottery,  weave,  or  work  in 
metals. 

Bauan,  bow^'an,  or  Bauang,  Philippines,  a 
town  of  Luzon  in  the  province  of  Babangas, 
4  miles  northeast  of  the  town  of  Babangas, 
Pop.  39,659- 

Baucher,  bo-sha,  Frangois,  French  hippol- 
ceist :  b.  Versailles,  1796;  d.  Paris,  14  March 
1873.  He  is  remembered  because  of  his  method 
of  training  saddle  horses  and  his  book  'Meth- 
ode  d'  Equitation  basee  sur  des  nouveaux  ^rin- 
cepes^    (1842). 

Baucis,  in  mythology,  a  Phrygian  woman, 
the  wife  of  Philemon.  They  received  Jupiter 
and  Mercury  hospitably,  after  these  gods  had 
been  denied  hospitality  in  the  whole  country 
w^hile  traveling  in  disguise.  A  deluge  destroyed 
the  remainder  of  the  people,  but  Philemon 
and  Baucis,  with  their  cottage,  were  saved. 
They  begged  the  gods  to  make  their  cottage  a 
temple,  in  which  they  could  officiate  as  priest 
and  priestess,  and  that  they  might  die  together ; 
which  was  granted.  Philemon  and  Baucis  are, 
therefore,  names  often  used  to  indicate  faithful 
and  attached  married  people.      See  Philemon. 

Baudelaire,  bod-lar,  Charles  Pierre,  French 
poet;  b.  Paris,  9  April  182 1  ;  d.  30  Aug.  1867. 
In  early  life  he  resided  for  some  time  in  the 
East  Indies,  and  on  his  return  devoted  himself 
to  literature.  He  first  gained  some  reputation 
by  translations  from  the  works  of  Edgar  Allan 
Poe,  four  volumes  of  which  appeared  in  1856- 
65,  regarded  as  masterpieces  in  their  way.  A 
production,  however,  that  caused  greater  sensa- 
tion w'as  a  collection  of  poems  designated  'Les 
Fleurs  du  MaP  (1857),  which  had  to  be  ex- 
purgated as  the  result  of  proceedings  on  the 
part  of  the  police  authorities.  This  work  gave 
Baudelaire  a  high  position  as  a  writer  of  the 
romantic  school,  and  evidenced  at  the  same  time 
his  curious  inclination  for  repulsive  subjects. 
A  work  of  higher  tone  was  his  ^Petits  Poemes 
en  Prose^  ;  others  being  <Les  Paradis  Artifi- 
ciels^  ;  ^  Opium  et  Haschich^  ;  a  monograph  on 
Theophile  Gautier;  and  ^R.  Wagner  et  Tann- 
hauser  a  Paris. ^  Apart  from  his  verse,  how- 
ever, Baudelaire's  finest  work  is  contained  in  his 
^Little  Poems  in  Prose.^  All  of  these  are  ex- 
quisitely written,  and  in  many  of  them  the 
beauty  of  the  thought  is  equal  to  the  beauty  of 
the  language.  He  united  a  remarkably  keen  ana- 
lytic faculty  with  a  powerful,  sombre  imagina- 
tion. Brooding  melancholy,  curiously  tinctured 
with  irony,  inspires  the  solemn  music  and  dream- 
like imagery  of  his  best  verses.  The  writer 
whom,  in  many  respects  he  resembles  most 
strongly  is  Edgar  Allan  Poe.  See  James, 
< French  Poets  and  Novelists^  (1884)  ;  Assel- 
ineau,  <  Charles  Baudelaire  et  vie  et  son  oeuvre' 
(1889). 


Baudens,  bo-dan,  Jean  Baptiste  Lucien, 
French  surgeon:  b.  Aire,  3  April  1804;  d.  3  Dec. 
1857.  He  w-as  a  surgeon  in  the  French  army  in 
Algeria  1830-41  and  founded  a  hospital  there  in 
which  he  taught  surgery  for  nine  years.  He 
published  'Nouvelle  Methode  des  Amputations* 
(1842);  <La  Guerre  du  Crimee*  ;  *Clinique  des 
Plaies  d'Armes  a  Feu.^ 

Baudin,  bo-dan,  Nicolas,  French  sea-cap- 
tain and  botanist:  b.  on  the  island  of  Re,  1750; 
d.  16  Sept.  1803.  He  entered  the  merchant 
navy  at  an  early  age,  and  in  1786,  went  on  a 
botanical  expedition  to  the  Indies,  sailing  from 
Leghorn  under  the  Austrian  flag,  with  a  vessel 
under  his  own  command.  His  collections  in 
this  expedition,  and  in  a  second  which  he  made 
to  the  West  Indies,  were  presented  by  him,  on 
his  return  to  France,  to  the  government,  which 
promoted  him  to  the  rank  of  captain,  and  sent 
him,  in  1800,  on  a  scientific  mission  to  Australia. 
He  failed  to  penetrate  the  interior  of  that  coun- 
try, but  made  many  interesting  observations 
on  the  coast.  Half  of  his  men  died  of  fatigue 
and  exposure,  and  he  himself  soon  breathed  his 
last  at  the  Isle  of  France,  on  his  return.  Peron 
accompanied  him  and  wrote  an  account  of  the 
voyage. 

Baudin  des  Ardennes,  bo-daii-daz-ar-den, 
Charles,  French  vice-admiral:  b.  Sedan,  21 
July  1784;  d.  Paris,  7  June  1854.  In  1812 
he  conducted  a  small  fleet  safely  into  the  harbor 
of  St.  Tropez,  though  continually  pursued  by 
English  cruisers.  In  1816,  he  resigned,  and  en- 
tered the  merchant  service,  but  after  the  July 
revolution  re-entered  the  navy.  In  1838,  he  was 
promoted  to  the  rank  of  rear-admiral,  and  re- 
ceived the  command  of  the  expedition  against 
Mexico.  His  efforts  to  effect  an  amicable  set- 
tlement with  the  Mexican  government  proving 
fruitless,  he  bombarded,  27  Nov.  1838,  the  for- 
tress of  San  Juan  de  Ulloa,  which  surrendered 
on  the  following  day.  Baudin  treated  the  inhab- 
itants with  great  consideration,  and  permitted 
1,000  Mexican  soldiers  to  remain  in  the  city  to 
maintain  order,  but  on  the  Mexican  government 
sending  re-enforcements,  he  w^as  compelled  to 
resort  again  to  hostilities,  which,  on  5  December 
of  the  same  year,  resulted  in  the  disarming  of 
Vera  Cruz,  in  the  complete  defeat  of  the  Mexi- 
can army,  and  in  the  restoration  of  peace  be- 
tween the  two  countries.  On  his  return  to 
France,  he  was  for  a  short  time  minister  of 
marine  under  Louis  Philippe.  In  March  1848 
he  was  appointed  commander  of  the  French 
fleet  in  the  Mediterranean,  and  remained  sta- 
tioned for  some  time  during  the  Italian  out- 
break off  the  Neapolitan  and  Sicilian  coast. 
In  the  following  j-ear  he  retired  from  active 
service. 

Baudissin,  bow'dis-sTn,  Wolf  Friedrich 
Karl,  Count  von,  German  litterateur :  b. 
Rantzau,  30  Jan.  1789;  d.  Dresden,  4  April 
1878.  After  1827  he  resided  at  Dresden,  where 
he  collaborated  with  Tieck  and  Schligel  in  a 
noted  translation  of  Shakespeare.  The  trans-  " 
lations  contributed  by  Baudissin  are  those  of 
<Henry  VIII.^  ;  <Much  Ado  About  Nothing^  ; 
^Taming  of  the  Shrew*  ;  *  Comedy  of  Errors*  ; 
•^Measure  for  Measure*  ;  ^All's  Well  that  Ends 
Well*  ;  ^Antony  and  Cleopatra*  ;  ^Troilus  and 
Cressida*  ;  ^  Merry  Wives  of  Windsor*  ; 
'Love's  Labor's  Lost^  ;  ^Titus  Andronicus*  ; 
^Othello*;    <King   Lear.*     He   published    <Beo 


BAUDISSIN  —  BAUERNFELD 


Tonson  und  Seine  Schule'  (1836)  ;  and  trans- 
lations  from  Moliere   (1865-7). 

Baudissin,  Wolf  Wilhelm,  German  theo- 
logian: b.  Sophienhof,  Holstein,  26  Sept.  1847. 
He  was  professor  at  Strassburg,  1876-81,  at 
Marburg,  1881-1900,  and  at  Berlm  from  1900. 
His  publications  comprise  ^Translations  An- 
tiquse  Arabicae  Libri  Jobiquse  Supersunt^  (1870)  ; 
^Studien  Zur  Semitischen  Religionsgeschichte' 
(1870-8)  ;  ^Die  Geschichte  des  Alttestament- 
lichen  Priesterthums  untersucht^  (1889)  ; 
< August  Dillmann^    (1895). 

Baudrillart,  bo-dre-yar,  Henri  Joseph 
Leon,  French  political  economist:  b.  Paris, 
28  Nov.  1821 ;  d.  there,  24  Jan.  1892.  He 
edited  the  Constittitionncl  and  subsequently  the 
Journal  des  Economistes,  and  in  1881  was  pro- 
fessor in  the  Ecole  des  Ponts  et  Chausees. 
He  published  ^Des  rapports  de  la  Morale  et 
de  I'Economie  Politique^  (i860)  ;  ^Manuel 
d'ficonomie  Politique^  (1857)  ;  ^Publicistes 
Modernes*  (1862);  ^Histoire  du  Luxe^  (1878- 
80)  ;  'Les  Populations  Agricoles  de  la  France^ 
(1880-8). 

Baudry,  bo-dre,  Paul,  French  painter:  b. 
La  Roche-sur-Yon,' 7  Nov.  1828;  d.  17  Jan.  1886. 
He  studied  in  Paris  and  Rome.  Among  his  best 
known  works  are  ^Punishment  of  a  Vestal 
Virgin^  (1857),  and  the  ^Assassination  of 
Marat^  (1867).  He  was  for  10  years  employed 
m  decorating  the  foyer  of  the  Grand  Opera  in 
Paris.  His  famous  'Glorification  of  the  Law-* 
on  the  ceiling  of  the  Palace  of  Justice  gained 
him  the  medal  of  honor  in  1881  and  is  gen- 
erally ranked  as  his  masterpiece.  He  was 
elected  a  member  of  the  Academic  des  Beaux- 
Arts  in   1870. 

Bauer,  bow'er,  Bruno,  German  philoso- 
pher, historian,  and  Biblical  critic  of  the  ra- 
tional school:  b.  Eisenberg,  6  Sept.  1809;  d. 
Berlin,   15  April,   1882.     Among  his  works  are: 

*  Critique     of    the      Gospel    of    John'      (1840); 

*  Critique  of  the  Synoptic  Gospels'  (1840)  ; 
^History  of  the  French  Revolution  to  the  Found- 
ing of  the  Republic'  (1847)  ;  'History  of  Ger- 
many during  the  French  Revolution  and  the 
Rule  of  Napoleon'  (1846)  ;  'Critique  of  the 
Gospels'  (1850-1)  ;  'Critique  of  the  Pauline 
Epistles'  (1850)  ;  'Philo,  Strauss,  Renan,  and 
Primitive  Christianity'  (1874)  ;  'Christus  und 
die  Casaren'  (1877).  His  work  displays  equal 
learning  and  industry  but  his  conclusions  are 
far  from  harmonizing  with  evangelical  thought. 

Bauer,  Caroline,  German  actress:  b. 
Heidelberg,  29  March  1807 ;  d.  Ziirich,  18  Oct. 
1878.  She  made  her  debut  in  1822,  and  had 
achieved  a  brilliant  success,  in  comedy  and 
tragedy  alike,  when  in  1829  she  married  Prince 
Leopold,  afterward  king  of  the  Belgians.  Their 
morganatic  union  was  as  brief  as  it  was  un- 
happy; in  1831  she  returned  to  the  stage, 
which  she  quitted  only  in  1844,  on  her  marriage 
to  a  Polish  count.  An  English  translation  of 
her  'Posthumous  Memoirs'  appeared  in  1884. 

Bauer,  Edgar,  German  publicist,  brother 
of  Bruno  Bauer :  b.  Charlottenburg,  7  Oct. 
1820;  d.  Hanover,  18  Aug.  1886.  He  published 
various  works  of  an  historical  and  polemical  na- 
ture strongly  tinctured  with  radicalism,  and  spent 
five  years  in  prison  on  account  of  his  'Streit  der 
Kritik  mit  Kirche  und  Staat.^     Other  books  by 


him  are  'Die  Rechte  des  Herzogtums  Holstein^ 
(1863)  ;  'Die  Deutschen  und  ihre  Nachbarn* 
(1870). 

Bauer,  Louis  A.,  American  mathematician: 
b.  Cincinnati,  O.,  28  Jan.  1865.  He  was  astro- 
nomical and  magnetic  computer  for  the  United 
States  Coast  and  Geodetic  Survey,'  1887-92; 
docent  in  mathematical  physics  in  the  Univer- 
sity of  Chicago,  1895-6;  chief  of  division  of 
terrestrial  magnetism  of  Maryland  Geological 
Survey  since  1896.  He  became  assistant  profes- 
sor of  Mathematics  in  the  University  of  Cincin- 
nati in  1897.  He  is  an  honorary  member  of  the 
Sociedad  Cientifica  Antonio  Alzate  of  Mexico, 
and  a  member  of  the  Permanent  Committee  on 
Terrestrial  Magnetism  and  Atmospheric  Elec- 
tricity of  the  International  Meteorological  Con- 
ference. He  edits  and  publishes  the  'Terrestrial 
Magnetism.' 

Bauer,  Wilhelm,  German  inventor:  b.  Dil- 
lingen,  1822;  d.  Munich,  18  June  1875.  He 
served  as  an  artilleryman  during  the  Schleswig- 
Holstein  war  (1848),  and,  meanwhile,  conceived 
the  plan  of  a  submarine  vessel  for  coast  defense. 
From  1851  to  1855  he  vainly  sought  means  from 
Austria,  France,  and  England  to  complete  his 
experiment,  but  Russia  finally  adopted  his 
scheme.  He  afterward  made  improvements  in 
torpedoes  and  in  submarine  guns. 

Bauerle,  boi'er-le,  Adolf,  Austrian  drama- 
tist and  novelist:  b.  Vienna,  9  April  1786;  d. 
Basel,  20  Sept.  1859.  He  cultivated  with  much 
success  the  field  of  popular  comedy  and  local 
farce  in  Vienna,  where,  in  1804,  he  founded  the 
Vienna  Tlieatre-Gazette,  until  1847  the  most 
widely  read  paper  in  the  Austrian  monarchy, 
and  now  a  valuable  source  for  the  history  of  the 
stage  in  Vienna.  Of  his  numerous  plays  the 
following  became  known  also  outside  of  Aus- 
tria:  'Leopold's  Day'  (1814)  ;  'The  En- 
chanted Prince'  (1818)  ;  'The  Counterfeit 
Prima  Donna'  (1818)  ;  'A  Deuce  of  a  Fellow' 
(1820)  ;  'The  Friend  in  Need.'  Under  the 
pseudonym  Otto  Horn  he  wrote  the  novels 
'Therese  Krones'  (1855)  and  'Ferdinand  Rai- 
mund'  (1855),  full  of  the  personal  element  and 
local  anecdote. 

Bauernfeind,  bow'ern-fTnt,  Karl  Maximil- 
ian von,  German  engineer  and  geodesist:  b. 
Arzberg,  18  Nov.  1818;  d.  1894.  He  was  pro- 
fessor of  geodesy  and  engineering  in  the  engi- 
neering school  at  Munich,  and  long  a  director 
of  the  Technical  School  there  organized  accord- 
ing to  his  plans.  He  invented  the  prismatic 
cross  employed  in  surveying,  and  named  for 
him,  and .  wrote  'Elemente  der  Vermessvmgs- 
kunde'  (1S56-8)  ;  'Zur  Briickenbaukunde' 
(1854);   'Zur  Wasserbaukunde'    (1866). 

Bauernfeld,  bow'ern-felt,  Eduard  von, 
Austrian  dramatist:  b.  Vienna,  13  Jan.  1802;  d. 
Vienna,  9  Aug.  1890.  He  studied  law  and  en- 
tered the  government  service  in  1826,  but 
resigned,  after  the  revolutionary  events  of  1848, 
to  devote  himself  exclusively  to  his  literary  pur- 
suits. A  brilliant  conversationalist,  he  soon  be- 
came a  universal  favorite  in  Vienna  society. 
Intimate  from  childhood  with  the  genial  paint- 
er, Moritz  von  Schwind,  and  the  composer, 
Franz  Schubert,  he  also  kept  up  a  lifelong  inter- 
course with  Grillparzer.  Among  his  comedies, 
distinguished  for  their  subtle  dialogue  and 
sprightly  humor,  particularly  the  descriptions  of 


tJAUHIN  —  BAUMGARTEN 


fashionable  society  have  made  his  great  reputa- 
tion. The  best  known  and  most  successful  were 
^Reckless  from  Love'  (1831)  ;  ^Love's  Proto- 
coP  (1831)  ;  ^Confessions'  (1834);  ^Domestic 
and  Romantic'  (1835)  ;  <0f  Age'  (1846)  ;  <Kri- 
sen'  (1851);  ^A.us  der  Gesellschaft'  (1866). 
His  serious  dramas  were  less  popular.  His  col- 
lected works  were  issued    (1871-3). 

Bauhin,  bo-aii,  Gaspard,  Swiss  botanist 
.and  anatomist:  b.  Basel,  1560;  d.  1624.  He  was 
at  first  intended  for  the  Protestant  ministry,  but 
having  manifested  a  decided  inclination  for  med- 
icine and  botany,  was  allowed  to  follow  it,  and 
studied  first  at  Basel  and  then  at  Padua.  After 
finishing  his  studies  he  traveled  over  many 
parts  of  Europe,  and  in  1580  returned  to  Basel, 
bringing  with  him  a  reputation  which  imme- 
diately secured  him  the  chair  of  Greek,  and  in 
1589  that  of  anatomy  and  botaay.  His  fame 
rests  chiefly  on  his  two  works,  "^Pinax  Theatri 
Botanici*  and  'Theatrum  Anatomicum,  Botani- 
cum.^  Gaspard  and  his  brother,  Jean  Bauhin, 
have  been  happily  commemorated  by  Linnseus, 
who  gave  the  name  Bauhinia  to  a  genus  of 
plants. 

Bauhin,  Jean  John,  an  eminent  Sviriss 
botanist:  b.  Basel,  1541  :  d.  1613.  He  was  a 
brother  of  Gaspard  Bauhin,  and  distinguished 
himself  by  his  ardor  in  natural  history  pur- 
suits, in  prosecuting  which  he  traveled  over 
the  greater  part  of  the  Alps,  Italy,  and  the  south 
of  France,  preparing  materials  for  a  ^Historia 
Universalis  Plantarum  Nova  et  Absolutissima,' 
which  occupied  the  larger  portion  of  his  life,  but 
was  not  published  till  1650,  2,7  years  after  his 
death.  This  work,  in  which  he  describes  5,000 
plants,  divided  into  40  classes  or  books,  is  con- 
sidered the  first  in  which  an  attempt  was  made 
•to  give  a  regular  form  to  systematic  botany. 

Bauhinia,  a  genus  of  more  than  200  species 
of  tropical  trees,  shrubs  or  climbers  of  the  nat- 
ural order  Lcgiiminoscc  with  beautiful,  showy, 
white  to  purple  blossoms,  unlike  the  usual 
northern  type  of  legume  flower  ;  named  in  honor 
of  the  brothers  John  and  Gaspar  Bauhin  (q.v.). 
B.  porrccta,  a  West  Indian  tree,  is  called  moun- 
tain ebony  from  its  dark-colored  wood ;  B. 
racemosa,  the  maloo  climber,  and  several  other 
East  Indian  climbing  species  are  used  for  mak- 
ing ropes ;  B.  variegata,  a  Malabar  species  is 
used  in  tanning,  dyeing,  and  medicine,  and  its 
flower  buds  for  pickles.  In  southern  Florida 
-and  southern  California  several  species  are  very 
popular  as  ornamental  plants,  but  in  green- 
houses few  succeed  because  of  the  difficulty  of 
securing  a  dry  enough  atmosphere  without  in- 
jury to  the  plants.  B.  natalensis,  B.  variegata, 
and  B.  coryvibosa,  probably  the  most  satisfactory 
greenhouse  species,  may  be  treated  like  olean- 
ders during  the  winter  and  planted  out  of  doors 
in   spring. 

Baum,  bownii,  Friedrich,  German  military 
officer  in  the  British  service  in  the  Revolution- 
ary war.  He  arrived  in  Canada  in  1776,  and  in 
Burgoyne's  expedition  acted  as  lieutenant-col- 
onel of  the  Brunswick  dragoons.  He  was  sent 
out  with  800  men  and  two  pieces  of  artillery 
■on  a  foraging  expedition.  Near  Bennington, 
Vt.,  he  was  attacked  by  the  New  Hampshire 
militia  under  Stark,  and  utterly  defeated.  He 
himself  was  killed  16  Aug.  1777. 

\'ol.     2 26. 


Baum,  L.  Frank,  American  writer  of  pop' 
ular  juvenile  books:  b.  Chittenango,  N.  Y.,  15 
May  1856.  Among  his  publications  are  *  Amer- 
ican Fairy  Tales';  'Father  Goose:  his  Book': 
'Songs  of  Father  Goose'  ;  <The  Wonderful  Citj- 
of  Oz' ;  'Navy  Alphabet';  'Army  Alphabet.' 

Baumann's  bow'mans,  Cavern  (German, 
Bauiiia)ins  Hohle),  an  interesting  natural  cavern 
in  the  Harz,  about  five  miles  from  Blankenburg, 
in  a  limestone  mountain.  It  consists  of  six  prin- 
cipal apartments,  besides  many  smaller  ones, 
everywhere  covered  with  stalactites.  The  earthy 
ingredients  of  these  petrifactions  are  held  in 
solution  by  the  water  which  penetrates  the  rock, 
and  deposits  a  calcareous  stone.  The  name  of 
this  cavern  is  derived  from  a  miner,  who  entered 
it  in  1672,  with  the  view  of  finding  ore,  but  lost 
his  way,  and  wandered  about  for  two  days 
before  he  could  find  the  entrance. 

Baumbach,  bowm'ban,  Rudolf,  German 
poet :  b.  Kranichfeld,  Saxe-AIeiningen,  28  Sept. 
1840  ;  d.  22  Sept.  1905.  After  studying  natural 
science  in  Wiirzberg,  Leipsic,  Freiburg,  and 
Heidelberg,  he  lived  in  Austria  and  then  at 
Trieste,  where  he  devoted  himself  exclusively 
to  writing.  In  1885  he  removed  to  Meiningen. 
He  most  successfully  cultivated  the  poetical 
tale,  based  upon  ancient  popular  legends.  His 
epics  include  'Zlatorg,'  a  Slovenic  Alpine  leg- 
end (1875,  37th  ed.  1892)  ;  'Horand  and  Hilda' 
(1879);  'Lady  Fair'  (1881)  ;  'The  Godfather 
of  Death'  (1884);  'Emperor  Max  and  His 
Huntsmen'  (i88i8).  His  lyric  collections  are 
'Songs  of  a  Traveling  Journeyman'  (1878)  ; 
'Minstrel's  Songs'  (1882);  'From  the  High- 
way' (1882)  ;  'Traveling  Songs  from  the  Alps' 
(1883)  ;  'Adventures  and  Pranks  Imitated  from 
Old  Masters'  (1883):  'Jug  and  Inkstand' 
(1887)  ;  'Thuringian  Songs'  (1891).  He  has 
also  published  some  excellent  prose:  'False 
Gold'  (1878),  a  historical  romance  of  the  17th 
century;  'Summer  Legends'  (1881),  a  book 
of  fairy  tales;  and  'Once  upon  a  Time'    (1889). 

Baume,  bo-ma',  Antoine,  distinguished 
French  chemist  and  pharmaceutist:  b.  Senlis, 
26  Feb.  1728;  d.  15  Oct.  1804.  He  obtained  the 
professorship  of  chemistry  in  the  College  of 
Pharmacy  at  Paris  about  1752,  was  admitted  a 
member  of  the  Academy  of  Sciences,  chiefly 
in  return  for  some  excellent  memorials  com- 
municated to  that  body;  wrote  'Elements  of 
Theoretical  and  Practical  Pharmacy,'  which 
went  through  nine  editions  in  France,  and  was 
translated  into  most  European  languages,  and 
contributed  by  his  discoveries  to  numerous  im- 
portant improvements  in  the  arts,  particularly 
in  the  manufactures  of  sal  ammoniac,  soap,  and 
porcelain,  in  gilding,  and  the  bleaching  of  silk. 
His  name  is  familiar  from  the  areometer  which 
he  invented,  and  which  is  still  in  use. 

Baumeister,  bow'mls-ter,  Johann  Wilhelm, 
German  veterinarian:  b.  Augsburg,  1804;  d. 
1846.  In  1839  he  was  appointed  a  professor  in 
the  Stuttgart  School  of  Veterinary  Medicine. 
His  'Handbuch  der  Landwirtschaftlichen  Tier- 
kunde  und  Tierzucht.'  condensed  as  'Anleitung 
zur  Kenntnis  des  Aussern  des  Pferdes,'  attained 
a   seventh  edition   in   1891. 

Baumgarten,  bowm'gar-ten,  Alexander 
Gottlieb,  German  philosopher  of  the  school 
of  Wolff:  b.  Berlin.  1714;  d.  Frankfort-on-the- 
Oder,  1762.  He  studied  at  Halle,  and  was  for  a 
time  professor  extraordinary  there.     In  1740  he 


BAUMGARTEN-CRUSIUS  —  BAUR 


v;as  made  professor  of  philosophy  at  Frankfort- 
on-the-Oder.  He  is  the  founder  of  aesthetics  as 
a  science,  and  the  inventor  of  this  name.  He 
derived  the  rules  of  art  from  the  works  of  art 
and  their  effects.  Hereby  he  distinguished  him- 
self advantageously  from  the  theorists  of  his 
time.  (See  /Esthetics.)  His  ideas  of  this 
science  he  first  developed  in  his  academical 
discussion,  ^De  Nonnullis  ad  Poema  Pertinenti- 
bus^  (1735)-  George  Fr.  Meier's  ^Principles 
of  all  Liberal  Sciences^  (1748-50)  originated 
from  his  suggestions.  Eight  years  later,  Baum- 
garten  published  his  ^/Esthetica^  (1750-8),  a 
work  which  death  prevented  him  from  complet- 
ing. See  'Schmidt,  Leibnitz  und  Baumgarten' 
(1875). 

Baumgarten-Crusius,  bowm'gar-ten-kroo'- 
ze-us,  Ludwig  Friedrich  Otto,  German  theo- 
logian: b.  Merseburg,  31  July  1788;  d.  Jena.  31 
May  1843.  He  studied  theology  in  Leipsic;  be- 
came the  university  preacher  in  1810;  was  ap- 
pointed professor  of  theology  at  Jena,  in  1817; 
and  became  widely  known  as  a  foremost  cham- 
pion of  religious  liberty.  He  was  a  learned  and 
original  thinker,  but  his  writing  is  often  obscure. 
His  publications  include  'Introduction  to  the 
Study  of  Dogmatics^  (1820)  ;  'Manual  of  Chris- 
tian Ethics^  (1827)  ;  'Outlines  of  Biblical  The- 
olog}^  '(1828);  'Outlines  of  Protestant  Dog- 
matics^ (1830)  ;  'Text-book  of  the  History  of 
Doctrines^  (1832)  ;  'Schleiermacher,  His  Meth- 
od of  Thought,  and  his  Value*  (1834)  ;  'Con- 
siderations on  Certain  Writings  of  Lamennais^ 
(1834),  etc. 

Baumgartner,  Alexander,  Swiss  writer:  b. 
Saint  Gall,  1841.  He  became  a  member  of  the 
Society  of  Jesus  in  i860,  and  after  completing 
his  theological  studies  in  England,  made  a  study 
of  Scandinavian  literature  in  Stockholm  and 
Copenhagen.  He  has  published  'Goethe's  Ju- 
gend-*  (1879)  ;  'Longfellow's  Dichtungen^ 
(1878)  <Calderon,>  a  festival  play  (1881)  ; 
<Gorthe  und  Schiller*  (1886);  'Der  Alte  von 
Weimar*  (1886)  ;  a  translation  from  the  old 
Icelandic  of  Eystein  Asgninsson ;  and  a  history 
in  eight  volumes  of  the  world's  literature 
(1897). 

Baumgartner,  bowm'gart-ner,  Andreas 
von,  Austrian  statesman:  b.  23  Nov.  1793, 
at  Friedberg  in  Bohemia ;  d.  1865.  He  was 
connected  for  many  years  with  the  teaching 
of  mathematics  and  physics,  especially  after 
1823,  at  the  University  of  Vienna,  until  illness 
forced  him  to  relinquish  his  academical  pur- 
suits. Subsequently  he  became  connected  with 
the  direction  of  the  imperial  porcelain,  tobacco, 
and  other  manufactures  in  1841,  with  the  estab- 
lishment of  electric  telegraphs,  and  at  the  end 
of  1847  with  the  chief  management  of  the  con- 
struction of  railways.  After  the  revolution  of 
March  1848,  he  occupied  for  a  third  time  a  seat 
in  the  Austrian  cabinet  as  minister  of  the  min- 
ing department  and  of  public  works.  In  May 
1851,  he  became  minister  of  finance  and  com- 
merce, and  in  1855  was  made  president  of  the 
Austrian  academy  of  sciences.  In  1861  he  en- 
tered the  House  of  Peers  of  the  Reichsrath.  His 
principal  works  are  on  mechanical  science  ap- 
plied to  art  and  industry.  His  most  popular 
work  is  the  'Naturlehre,*  which  has  passed 
through  many  editions,  and  was  a  text-book  in 
all  the  schools  of  Austria. 


Baumgartner,  Herman,  German  historian! 
b.  28  April  1825 ;  d.  19  June  1893.  He  was  a 
professor  of  history  in  the  University  of  Strass- 
burg,  1872-89,  and  published  'Geschichte  Span- 
iens  zur  Zeit  der  Franzosischen  Revolution* 
(1861)  ;  'Geschichte  Spaniens  vom  Ausbruch  der 
Franzosischen  Revolution  bis  auf  unsere  Tag* 
(1865-71)  ;  'Karl  V.  und  die  Deutsche  Reforma- 
tion*   (1889). 

Baur,  bowr,   Ferdinand  Christian,  one   of 

the  most  celebrated  theologians  of  modern  Ger- 
many, founder  of  the  "New  Tiibingen  School  of 
Theology** :  b.  Blaubeuren,  where  his  father  was 
pastor,  21  June  1792;  d.  2  Dec.  i860.  At  the 
University  of  Tiibingen,  which  he  entered  in 
1809,  he  devoted  five  years  to  theological  studies, 
and  in  1817  became  professor  in  the  seminar/ 
at  Blaubeuren.  While  holding  this  position  he 
published  his  first  work,  'Symbolism  a:id  My- 
thology, or  the  Natural  Religion  of  Antiquity* 
(1824-5),  by  which  his  eminent  theological  abil- 
ities were  so  clearly  manifested  that  in  1826  he 
received  a  call  to  Tiibingen  as  ordinary  profes- 
sor in  the  evangelical  faculty  of  that  university. 
This  position  he  continued  to  occupy  till  his 
death.  His  chief  works  belong  to  the  two  de- 
partments of  the  history  of  the  Christian  dog- 
mas and  New  Testament  criticism,  in  both  of 
which  his  views  have  had  the  most  powerful 
effect  upon  the  theology  of  the  present  day. 
His  most  important  works  belonging  to  the  first 
class  are:  'The  Christian  Gnosis,  or  the  Chris- 
tian Philosophy  of  Religion*  (1835)  ;  'The 
Christian  Doctrine  of  the  Atonement*  (1838)  : 
'The  Christian  Doctrine  of  the  Trinity  and 
the  Incarnation*  (1841-3)  ;  'Compendium  ot  the 
History  of  Christian  Dogmas*  (1847).  To  the 
second  class  belong  'The  So-called  Pastoral 
Epistles  of  the  Apostle  Paul*  (1835)  ".  'Paul  the 
Apostle  of  Jesus  Christ,  His  Life  and  Labors, 
His  Epistles  and  His  Teaching*  (1845)  ;  'Criti- 
cal Inquiries  Concerning  the  Canonic  Gospels, 
their  Relation  to  One  Another,  their  Origin  and 
Character*  (1847).  He  also  wrote  the  'History 
of  Christian  Doctrine  from  the  Origin  of  Chris- 
tianity Down  to  the  End  of  the  i8th  Century, *" 
a  series  of  volumes  between  1853-63. 

Baur,  Frederick  Wilhelm  von,  Russian- 
military  engineer :  b.  Hanau,  Germany,  1735  ;  d. 
St.  Petersburg,  1783.  He  early  adopted  a  mili- 
tary life,  entered  the  British  service  in  1755  and 
in  1757  he  obtained  the  rank  of  general,  and' 
engineer-in-chief.  Frederick  II.  of  Prussia  en- 
nobled him.  In  1769  he  entered  into  the  ser- 
vice of  Catherine  II.,  empress  of  Russia,  and' 
was  employed  against  the  Turks.  The  empress 
had  a  high  notion  of  his  talents,  and  employed 
him  in  making  the  aqueduct  of  Tsarskoe-Selo, 
for  supplying  Moscow  with  water,  and  in  deep- 
ening the  canal  near  St.  Petersburg,  at  the  end' 
of  which  he  constructed  a  large  harbor,  and 
completed  other  important  undertakings.  Baur 
had  for  his  secretary  the  celebrated  Kotzebue, 
who  directed  in  his  name  the  German  theatre  at 
St.  Petersburg. 

Baur,  Gustav  Adolf  Ludwig,  German  the- 
ologian :  b.  Hammelbach,  1816 ;  d.  1889.  He- 
was  appointed  a  professor  at  Giessen  in  1847, 
and  in  1870  at  Leipsic.  He  belonged  to  the- 
Schleiermacher  school  and  was  the  author  of 
'Grundzijge  der  Homiletik*  (1848)  ;  'Boetius 
und  Dante*  (1874)  ;  'Die  Vorchristliche  Erzie- 
hung*   (1884). 


BAUSE  — BAVARIA 


Bause,  bow'ze,  Johann  Friedrich,  distin- 
guished German  engraver:  b.  Halle,  1738;  d. 
Weimar,  1814.  He  resided  chiefly  at  Leipsic, 
where  he  executed  many  highly  esteemed  en- 
gravings. He  was  a  member  of  several  acade- 
mies of  fine  arts. 

Bausman,  Benjamin,  American  Reformed 
(German)  clerg\'man :  b.  Lancaster,  Pa.,  28 
Jan.  1824.  He  founded  St.  Paul's  Reformed 
Church,  Reading,  Pa.,  1863,  and  has  been  its 
pastor  ever  since.  He  has  published  'Sinai  and 
Zion>  (i860;  7th  ed.  1885):  'Wayside  Glean- 
ings in  Europe^  (1876)  ;  'Bible  Characters^ 
(1893)  ;  'Catechetics  and  Catechetical  Instruc- 
tion' (1863)  ;  and  edited  The  Guardian 
(1867-82),  and  Refonnirtc  Hausfreimd  (1882). 

Bausset,  bo-sa,  Louis  Frangois  (Cardixal), 
French  ecclesiastic:  b.  Pondicherry,  India,  14 
Dec.  1748;  d.  Paris,  21  June  1824.  His  father, 
who  held  an  important  position  in  the  French 
Indies,  sent  young  Bausset  to  France  when  he 
was  but  12  years  of  age.  He  was  educated  by 
the  Jesuits,  and  became  bishop  of  Alais  in  1784. 
Having  signed  the  protest  of  the  French  bishops 
against  the  civil  constitution  of  the  clerg\%  he 
emigrated  in  1791,  but  in  the  following  year 
returned  to  France,  was  soon  arrested,  and 
imprisoned  in  the  old  Convent  of  Port  Royal, 
where  he  remained  until  after  the  fall  of  Robes- 
pierre. After  the  restoration  of  Louis  XVIIL, 
in  1815,  he  entered  the  Qiamber  of  Peers; 
the  following  year  he  became  a  member  of  the 
French  Academy;  and,  in  1817,  he  received  the 
appointment  of  cardinal.  He  wrote  the  'His- 
tory of  Fenelon'  (1808-9),  at  the  request  of  the 
Abbot  Emery,  who  had  in  his  possession  the 
MSS.  of  the  illustrious  Archbishop  of  Cam- 
bray.  The  work  had  great  success,  and  its 
author  was  awarded,  in  1810,  the  second  decen- 
nial prize  of  the  Institute,  for  the  best  biogra- 
phy. His  'History  of  Bossuet'  (1814)  was 
less  favorably  received. 

Bautain,  bo-tah,  Louis  Eugene  Marie, 
French  philosopher:  b.  Paris,  17  Feb.  1796;  d. 
18  Oct.  1867.  He  entered  the  Church,  and  be- 
came a  priest  in  1828 ;  resigned  his  professor- 
ship in  1830;  and  later  was  suspended  as  a 
priest  because  of  his  work,  'La  Morale  de 
I'Evangile  comparee  a  la  Morale  des  Philoso- 
phes'  ;  but  was  reinstated  in  1841.  He  was  made 
dean  of  the  Faculty  of  Letters  at  Strassburg 
in  1838,  and  subsequently  director  of  the  College 
of  Juilly.  At  a  still  later  period  he  was  trans- 
ferred to  Paris,  and  made  vicar-general  of  the 
I^Ietropolitan  Diocese.  He  was  also  appointed 
a  member  of  the  theological  facultj^  of  Paris. 
His  writings  include  'Philosophie-psychologie 
Experimentale'  (1839)  ;  'Philosophic  Morale' 
(1842)  ;  'Philosophic  du  Christianisme' 
(1835)  ;  'La  Religion  et  la  Liberte  considerees 
dans  leurs  Rapports'  (1848)  ;  'La  Morale  de 
I'Evangile  comparee  aux  divers  Systemes  de 
Morale'    (1855),  etc. 

Bautzen,  bowt'sen,  or  Baudissin,  bow'de- 
sen.  a  manufacturing  town  in  Saxony,  noted  for 
its  production  of  textile  fabrics,  leather,  paper, 
etc.  It  overlooks  the  River  Spree.  30  miles 
northeast  of  Dresden,  and  is  encircled  by  a 
wall  and  moat.  The  cathedral  church  of  St. 
Peter  is  used  by  both  Protestants  and  Roman 
Catholics,  it  being  divided  into  two  portions 
for  the  purpose.  The  town  contains  many 
schools,  a  museum,  art  gallery,  and  three  libra- 


ries. At  Bautzen  Napoleon,  with  130,000  men, 
defeated  the  allied  armies  of  Russia  and  Prus- 
sia, 20-21  May  1813.     Pop.  (1900)  26,000. 

Bauxite,  or  Beauxite,  bo'zit  (from  Baux, 
or  Beaux,  near  Aries,  France,  where  it  occurs), 
a  native,  hydrated  oxide  of  aluminum,  having 
the  formula  AI2O3.2H2O.  It  has  a  specific  grav- 
ity of  about  2.5,  and  its  hardness  ranges  from 
I  to  3.  It  occurs  massive,  in  concretionary  grains 
showing  a  concentric  structure,  and  in  clay-like 
deposits.  Sesquioxide  of  iron  is  usually  pres- 
ent in  considerable  quantity. —  sometimes  to  the 
extent  of  50  per  cent, —  part  of  it  replacing  alum- 
inum, and  part  occurring  merely  as  an  impurity. 
Bauxite  is  found  in  many  parts  of  the  world. 
One  of  the  most  important  deposits  is  at  Irish 
Hill,  near  Larne,  County  Antrim,  Ireland,  where 
it  occurs  in  the  iron  measures  together  with  lig- 
nite. At  this  place  three  layers  of  it  are  known, 
having  an  aggregate  thickness  of  about  50  feet. 
The  finest  grade  from  Irish  Hill  is  almost  free 
from  iron,  containing  as  little  of  that  metal  as 
good  china  clay.  Analyses  have  shown  that  the 
color  of  bauxite  is  no  criterion  of  the  freedom 
of  the  mineral  from  iron,  since  a  white  variety 
containing  3.67  per  cent  of  FcsOs  is  known, 
while  a  certain  strongly  red  variety  showed, 
upon  analysis,  but  3.75  per  cent,  and  a  yellow 
specimen  contained  14.39  per  cent.  In  the  United 
States  bauxite  occurs  in  considerable  quanti- 
ties in  Saline  and  Pulaski  counties,  Arkansas, 
and  in  a  deposit  extending  from  Calhoun  Coun- 
ty, Alabama,  eastward  into  Georgia.  Bauxite 
forms  the  principal  ore  of  the  metal  aluminum, 
which  is  obtained  from  it  by  the  electrolysis  of 
a  solution  of  bauxite  in  melted  cryolite  (see 
Aluminum).  The  American  deposits  of  baux- 
ite are  well  suited  to  the  production  of  alumi- 
num, as  ore  can  be  had  in  quantity  that  contains 
as  little  as  i  per  cent  of  iron  oxide,  and  3  per 
cent  of  silica.  Bauxite,  in  some  localities,  is 
undoubtedly  an  alteration  product  of  basaltic 
rocks,  while  m  other  localities  (especially  in  the 
United  States)  it  has  very  likely  been  deposited 
by  hot  springs.  In  addition  to  its  use  as  an 
ore  of  aluminum,  bauxite  forms  an  important 
source  of  alum.  Its  clay-like  form  is  known  as 
v.'ocheinite,  on  account  of  its  occurrence  at 
Wo'chein,  in  Styria.  (C.  Willard  Hayes,  'Baux- 
ite.' 'Sixteenth  Annual  Report  of  the  Lfnited 
States  Geological  Survey.'  Part  3  (Washington. 
1896)  ;  Branner,  'The  Bauxite  Deposits  of 
Arkansas,'  'Journal  of  Geology,'  Vol.  V.,  1897, 
p.  263). 

Bava'ria  (German.  Bayern;  French,  Ba- 
Z'ii-rc),  a  kingdom  in  the  south  of  Germany,  the 
second  largest  state  of  the  empire,  composed  of 
two  isolated  portions,  the  larger  comprising 
about  eleven  tw^elfths  of  the  monarchy,  bounded 
on  the  east  by  Bohemia  and  Upper  Austria  ;  on 
the  south  by  Salzburg  and  the  Tyrol :  on  the 
west  by  Wiirtemberg.  Baden.  Hesse-Darm- 
stadt, and  Hesse-Nassau  :  and  on  the  north  by 
Hesse-Nassau,  Weimar,  !Meiningen,  Reuss.  Co- 
burg,  and  the  kingdom  of  Saxony.  It  lies  be- 
tween lat.  47°  19'  and  50°  41'  N.,  and  Ion. 
8°  53'  and  13°  50'  E.  The  smaller  portion,  the 
Pfalz  or  Palatinate,  lies  west  of  the  Rhine,  which 
forms  its  eastern  boundary,  and  is  separated 
from  the  main  body  by  Wiirtemberg.  Baden,  and 
He??e-Darmstadt.  It  is  included  between  lat. 
48°  57'  and  49°  50'  N. ;  and  Ion.  7°  6'  and  8°  31' 
E. ;  and   is  bounded  south  by  Alsace-Lorraine, 


BAVARIA 


west  by  the  Prussian  Rhine  provinces,  and  north 
by  Hesse-Darmstadt.  Bavaria  is  estimated  to 
contain  an  area  of  29,286  English  square  miles, 
and  is  divided  into  eight  circles  (kreise),  vi^hich 
were  formerly  named  after  the  rivers  that 
watered  them ;  but  an  edict  of  29  Nov.  1837,  gave 
the  circles  new  names  and  new  boundaries.  The 
following  table  shows  their  names,  areas,  and 
populations : 


Circles 


Pop. 
1900 


Oberbaiern    (Upper   Bavaria).... 

Niederbaiern    (Lower   Bavaria).. 

Pfalz   (Palatinate) 

Oberpfalz  (Upper  Palatinate) 
and   Regensburg   (Ratisbon). .  . 

Oberfranken    (Upper   Franconia) 

Mittelfranken  (Middle  Fran- 
conia)      

Unterfranken  (Lower  Franco- 
nia)   and  Aschaffenburg 

Schwaben  (Swabia)  and  Neu- 
burg   


Total . 


6,175,153 


The  capital  is  Munich  (q.v.),  and  the  other 
principal  cities  are  Nuremberg,  Augsburg, 
Wiirzburg,  and  Regensburg  or  Ratisbon  (qq.v.). 

Mountains. —  Bavaria  is  a  hilly  rather  than 
a  mountainous  country.  A  large  portion,  more 
especially  south  of  the  Danube,  is  a  plateau 
country  of  considerable  elevation,  and  indeed, 
the  whole  of  the  main  portion  of  the  kingdom 
may  be  described  as  an  upland  valley,  averag- 
ing about  1,600  feet  above  the  sea-level,  inter- 
sected by  numerous  large  streams  and  ridges  of 
low  hills.  On  all  sides  it  is  surrounded  by 
hills  of  a  greater  or  less  altitude,  either  quite 
upon  the  frontier  or  only  at  small  distances 
from  it.  The  whole  southern  frontier  is  formed 
by  a  branch  of  the  Noric  Alps,  offsets  from 
which_  project  far  into  the  southern  plateau  of 
Bavaria.  Besides  numerous  peaks  which  this 
range  contains,  varying  from  4,000  to  8,000  feet 
high,  the  following  may  be  named  as  being  above 
the  latter  number  :  The  Zugspitze,  10.394  feet ; 
the  Watzmann,  9,470  feet ;  the  Hochvogel  8,460 
feet :  the  Madeler  Gabel,  8,650  feet.  Passing 
along  the  valley  of  the  Inn  and  across  the  Dan- 
ube, we  come  to  the  Bohemian  frontier,  formed 
by  the  Bohmerwald  mountains  running  south- 
east to  northwest  and  lowering  down  at  the 
valley  of  the  Eger.  The  highest  peaks  in  this 
range  are  the  Rachel,  5.102  feet,  and  the  Arber, 
5,185  feet.  Crossing  the  Eger  we  meet  with  the 
Fichtelgebirge,  presenting  the  Schneeberg,  3.750 
feet  high,  and  the  Ochsenkopf,  3,633  feet.  West 
from  this  range,  and  along  the  frontier  of  the 
Saxon  ducal  territories  and  Hesse-Cassel,  run 
hills  of  moderate  elevation,  under  various 
names,  Frankenwald.  Rhongebirge,  etc.,  no 
peaks  of  which  attain  an  elevation  of  more 
than  3.327  feet.  The  western  mountain  boun- 
dary of  the  Bavarian  valley  is  formed  north  of 
the  Main  by  the  Spessartwald  range,  and  in 
the  kingdom  of  Wiirtemberg  by  the  Alb  or 
Alp.  The  only  noteworthy  interior  ranges  are, 
in  the  northwest  the  Steigerwald :  and  in  the 
northeast,  running  in  a  southwesterlv  direction 
from  the  Fichtelgebirge.  the  Francoiiian  Jura; 
a  low  limestone  range,  containing  numerous  re- 
markable stalactitic  caves.  The  Pfalz  or  Palat- 
inate is  traversed  by  the  northern  extremitv  of 
the  Vosges.  the  highest  peak  in  this  locality 
bemg  the  Konigstuhl,  2,162  feet. 


Lakes. —  The  lakes  of  Bavaria  are  neither 
very  numerous  nor  of  very  great  extent,  though 
many  of  them  present  exceedingly  picturesque 
scenery.  The  larger  are  all  situated  on  the 
upper  part  of  the  southern  plateau ;  the  smaller 
within  the  range  of  the  Noric  Alps.  The  most 
remarkable  of  the  former  are.  Lake  Ammer, 
about  10  miles  long  by  2'/^  broad,  1,736  feet 
above  the  sea ;  Lake  Wiirm  or  Starnberg,  about 
12  miles  long  by  3  broad,  1,899  feet;  and 
Lake  Chiem,  9  miles  long  by  9  to  4  broad,  1,651 
feet  above  the  sea.  Of  the  smaller,  the  more 
remarkable  are  Lake  Tegner,  about  3  miles 
long,  2,586  feet ;  Lake  Walchen,  2,597  '<  ^^^  va- 
rious others  upward  of  2,000  feet  above  the 
sea-level.  Most  of  the  lakes  are  well  supplied 
with  fish. 

Rivers. —  Bavaria  belongs  wholly  to  the 
basins  of  the  Danube  and  the  Rhme,  with  the 
exception  of  a  very  small  portion  in  the  north- 
east corner,  wdiich  through  the  Eger  appertains 
to  the  basin  of  the  Elbe.  The  river  Danube 
intersects  the  main  portion  of  the  kingdom  west 
to  east  nearly  in  the  centre,  and  before  it  enters 
the  Austrian  dominions  at  Passau,  where  it  is 
still  925  feet  above  the  sea,  it  receives  on  its 
right  bank  the  rivers  Iller,  Lech,  and  Isar, 
which  have  their  sources  in  the  Noric  Alps,  be- 
sides numerous  smaller  streams ;  and  on  its  left 
bank,  the  Wornitz,  Altmiihl,  Nab,  and  Regen, 
besides  other  lesser  streams.  The  Main  tra- 
verses nearly  the  whole  of  the  northern  part 
of  this  portion  of  the  kingdom  from  east  to 
west,  and  is  navigable  for  steam  vessels  from 
Bamberg  to  the  Rhine.  Its  principal  affluents 
are  the  Regnitz  and  the  Saale.  In  the  Palat- 
inate there  are  no  streams  of  any  importance, 
the  Rhine  being  merely  a  boundary  river. 

Climate. —  If  we  except  the  valley  of  the 
Rhine,  and  the  valley  of  the  Main  in  lower 
Franconia,  Bavaria,  even  including  the  Pa- 
latinate, is,  in  comparison  with  other  German 
states,  a  cold  country.  The  average  tempera- 
ture of  the  year  is  about  47°  F. ;  winter,  30°  ; 
spring,  47°  ;   summer,  63°  ;  and  autumn,  47°. 

Soil,  Vegetation,  etc. —  Bavaria  is  one  of  the 
most  favored  countries  in  Germany  in  respect  of 
the  fruitfulness  of  its  soil,  due,  no  doubt,  in  a 
considerable  degree,  to  the  undulating  nature 
of  the  country,  to  the  numerous  streams  by 
which  it  is  watered,  and  to  being  nearly  wholly 
composed  of  Jura  limestone.  In  the  plains  and 
valleys  the  soil  is  capable  of  producing  all 
kinds  of  crops,  but  not  till  lately  were  the  nat- 
ural advantages  of  the  country  turned  to  good 
account.  Ignorance  and  idleness  opposed  a  bar- 
rier to  improvement,  which  it  took  the  utmost 
efiforts  of  an  enlightened  government,  aided 
by  the  general  spread  of  education,  to  remove. 
Now  a  spirit  of  agricultural  enterprise  pervades 
the  kingdom,  improved  methods  of  cultivation 
have  been  introduced,  and  large  tracts  of  waste 
land  have  been  reclaimed  and  brought  under 
the  plow.  The  principal  crops  are  wheat,  rye, 
barley,  and  oats ;  but  in  some  districts  rice,  spelt, 
maize,  and  buckwheat  are  also  raised.  To  these 
productions  of  the  soil  may  be  added  potatoes 
(the  cultivation  of  which  is  yearly  increasing), 
tobacco,  and  fruit,  of  which  large  quantities  are 
grown  in  the  valleys  of  the  Main  and  the  Rhine. 
In  the  circles  of  Mittelfranken  and  Schwaben- 
Neuburg,  the  hop  plant  is  cultivated  to  a  con- 
siderable extent,  the  quantity  varying  from  30,000 
to   40,000  hundredweight    per   annum ;    and  the 


BAVARIA 


vine  in  the  circles  of  Pfalz  and  Unterfranken. 
The  latter  produces  the  Franconian  wines;  the 
best  vvines  of  the  former  are  produced  near 
Deidesheim  and  Wachcnheim.  The  celebrated 
Steinwein  and  Leistenwein  are  the  produce  of 
the  southern  slope  of  the  Marienburg,  near 
the  town  of  Wiirzburg.  The  forests  of  Bavaria, 
composed  chiefly  of  fir  and  pine  trees,  cover 
nearly  a  third  of  its  entire  surface  and  yield 
a  large  revenue  to  the  state ;  much  timber  being 
annually  exported,  together  with  potashes,  tar, 
turpentine,  and  other  products  peculiar  to  these 
wooded  regions.  The  principal  mineral  products 
are  salt,  coal,  and  iron.  Some  of  the  mining 
works  belong  to  the  state,  and  contribute  some- 
thing to  the  public  revenue ;  but  the  minerals 
are  not  wrought  to  the  extent  they  might  be. 
Coal  mining  gives  employment  to  between  4,500 
and  5,000  hands.  Plumbago  is  found  in  several 
places  and  is  principally  manufactured  into  pen- 
cils. Porcelain  clay  of  the  linest  quality  like- 
wise abounds  in  some  localities,  the  best  being 
obtained  in  the  districts  of  Wunsiedel  in  the 
Upper  Main.  Lithographic  stones  are  another 
important  production.  In  the  rearing  of  cattle 
and  sheep  the  Bavarians  are  somewhat  back- 
ward. Swine  are  reared  in  great  numbers  in  all 
parts  of  the  country,  and  poultry  and  wildfowl 
are  abundant.  The  wolves  and  bears  with  which 
the  forests  of  Bavaria  were  at  one  time  infested 
are  nearly  extinct. 

Maniifactnrcs. —  The  manufactures  of  Ba- 
varia are  singly  not  very  important,  being  mostly 
on  a  small  scale  and  conducted  by  individuals 
of  limited  capital.  The  principal  articles  manu- 
factured are  linens,  woolens,  cottons,  silks, 
leather,  paper,  glass,  earthen,  iron,  and  stee! 
ware,  jewelry,  etc.,  but  the  supply  of  some 
of  these  articles  is  inadequate  to  the  home  con- 
sumption. Of  leather,  paper,  glass,  and  iron- 
ware rather  large  quantities  are  exported.  The 
optical  and  mathematical  instruments  made  at 
Munich  are  the  best  on  the  Continent,  and  are 
prized  accordingly.  But  the  most  important 
branch  of  manufacture  in  Bavaria  is  the  brew- 
ing of  beer  —  the  universal  and  favorite  bever- 
age of  the  country.  There  are  upward  of  5,000 
brewing  establishments  in  the  kingdom,  which 
have  been  calculated  to  supply  on  an  average 
about  20  gallons  a  year  to  every  individual  of 
the  population.  The  beer,  however,  is  not  con- 
sumed only  in  the  country  of  its  production,  but 
is  sent  to  all  parts  of  Germany,  and  even  as 
far  as  America  and  India.  Spirits  are  also 
largely  distilled.  A  large  portion  of  the  indus- 
trial population  maintain  themselves  by  weaving 
linen,  and  by  the  manufacture  of  articles  in 
wood  (some  of  which  are  of  beautiful  work- 
manship), and  by  the  felling  and  hewing  of 
timber.  Notwithstanding  its  favorable  geo- 
graphical position  and  other  natural  advantages 
the  trade  of  Bavaria  is  comparatively  limited. 
Among  the  exports  are  corn,  timber,  wine, 
cattle,  leather,  glass,  hops,  fruit,  beer,  iron,  and 
steel  wares,  machinery,  fancy  articles,  colors, 
lucifer  matches,  stoneware,  etc.  Among  the  im- 
ports are  coffee,  cacao,  tea,  cotton,  tobacco, 
drugs,  copper,  oil,  spices,  dyestuffs,  silk  and  silk 
goods,  lead,  etc. 

Transportation. —  From  its  position  Bavaria 
enjoys  a  considerable  portion  of  transit  trade, 
much  facilitated  by  the  good  roads  that  traverse 
the  country  in  all  directions.  The  means  of 
communication    are    now    very    complete.      The 


Danube,  the  Rhine,  the  Main,  the  Regnitz,  etc^ 
afford  ample  scope  for  inland  navigation,  be- 
sides the  Konig  Ludwig  Canal,  which  connects 
the  Main  at  Bamberg  with  the  Altmiihl  a  short 
distance  above  its  embouchure  in  the  Danube, 
thus  establishing  direct  water  communication 
through  the  Rhine  between  the  German  Ocean 
and  the  Black  Sea.  The  railway  system  ( now 
managed  as  a  part  of  the  imperial  system  of 
railways)  has  been  carried  out  on  an  extensive 
scale.  The  lines  are  partly  state  property, 
partly  private.  The  number  of  miles  in  opera- 
tion amounted  in  1899  to  4,062,  about  3,000  of 
this  total  being  state  railways,  the  remainder 
being  private  enterprises.  The  amount  of  debt 
contracted  for  railways  by  Bavaria  is 
$250,000,000,  forming  over  four  fifths  of  the 
total  debt  of  the  country.  The  receipts  from 
the  railways  are  now  generally  sufficient  to  pay 
the  interest  and  charges  on  account  of  this 
debt.     The  state  also  possesses  two  canals. 

Education  and  Art. —  The  Department  of 
Education  is  under  the  superintendence  of  the 
Superior  Board  of  Education  and  Ecclesiastical 
Aft'airs.  A  complete  system  of  inspection  is 
established  throughout  the  country ;  the  reports 
of  the  inspectors  including  not  only  the  number 
and  proficiency  of  the  scholars,  but  also  the 
conduct  of  the  teachers,  the  state  of  the  build- 
ings, and  the  nature  and  extent  of  the  funds 
available.  It  is  necessary  in  Bavaria,  before 
admission  can  be  obtained  into  any  higher 
school,  to  have  passed  a  satisfactory  examiuci 
tion  in  the  lower  school.  Not  only  must  all 
candidates  for  offices  under  the  state  pass  exam- 
inations, but  examinations  are  held  of  appren- 
tices in  trade  who  wish  to  become  masters,  and 
even  of  ofiicers  in  the  army  on  promotion. 
There  are  over  8,000  schools  in  Bavaria,  at- 
tended by  more  than  600,000  pupils.  Attend- 
ance on  school  is  compulsory  up  to  14  years 
of  age.  There  are  three  universities  in  Bavaria 
—  two  of  which  (^lunicli  and  Wiirzburg)  are 
Roman  Catholic,  and  one  (Erlangen)  Protes- 
tant. The  University  of  Munich  is  attended  by 
about  3,500  students,  and  has  about  170  pro- 
fessors and  instructors  ;  that  of  Wiirzburg  has 
80  professors  and  instructors,  and  about  1,350 
students;  and  that  of  Erlangen  67  professors 
and  instructors,  and  about  1,100  students. 
There  are  also  several  lycea,  a  number  of  gym- 
nasia, numerous  Latin,  normal,  and  polytechnic 
schools,  besides  academies  of  arts  and  sciences, 
fine  arts,  horticulture,  etc.  The  capital,  Munich, 
contains  a  library  of  800,000  volumes,  including 
25,000  AISS. ;  several  scientific  and  literarj'  insti- 
tutions, academies,  and  national  societies,  and 
extensive  collections  of  works  of  art. 

Bavaria  enjoys  the  honor  of  having  origi- 
nated a  school  of  painting  of  a  high  order  of 
merit,  known  as  the  Nuremburg  school,  found- 
ed about  the  middle  of  the  i6th  century  by 
Albert  Diirer,  a  native  of  that  town,  whose 
works  are  little,  if  at  all,  inferior  to  those  of 
his  great  Italian  contemporaries.  Hans  Hol- 
bein, who  excelled  Diirer  in  portrait,  though 
far  behind  him  in  historical  painting,  is  claimed 
by  Bavaria,  but  neither  the  precise  locality  nor 
the  date  of  his  birth  is  known  with  certainty  — 
Augsburg,  Basel,  and  Griinstadt  being  severally 
named  as  the  one,  and  the  dates  1495  and  1498 
as  the  other.  To  these  celebrated  names  have 
been  added  those  of  the  eminent  sculptors  Kraft 
and   Vischer,  both  also   Bavarians ;  the  former 


BAVARIA 


born  about  1435  and  the  latter  about  the  middle 
of  the  same  century.  The  masterpiece  of  the 
latter  distinguished  artist  is  the  bronze  shrine 
of  St.  Sebaldus  in  Nuremberg,  esteemed  a 
marvel  of  art  for  beauty  of  design  and  delicacy 
of  workmanship.  The  most  celebrated  of 
Kraft's  works  is  the  remarkable  tabernacle  in 
stone,  affixed  against  one  of  the  columns  of 
the  choir  of  the  Church  of  St.  Lawrence,  also 
in  Nuremberg.  The  restoration  of  Bavarian 
pre-eminency  in  modern  times,  in  connection 
with  the  fine  arts,  is,  in  a  great  measure,  if  not 
entirely,  owing  to  Louis  L,  whose  love  of  art 
and  liberal  patronage  have  rendered  the  capital 
one  of  the  most  celebrated  seats  of  the  fine  arts 
in  Europe. 

Religion. — The  religion  of  the  state  is 
Roman  Catholicism,  which  embraces  more  than 
seven  tenths  of  the  population.  The  remainder 
are  principally  Protestants  and  Jews.  The  pro- 
portion between  Catholics  and  Protestants  has 
scarcely  varied  during  the  last  three  quarters 
of  a  century.  All  citizens,  whatever  their  creed, 
are  equally  admissible  to  the  same  public  func- 
tions and  employments,  and  possess  the  same 
civil  and  political  rights.  The  articles  of  the 
concordat  concluded  with  the  Pope  are  subordi- 
nate in  their  application  to  the  fundamental 
law  of  the  state.  By  an  ordinance  of  Louis  L 
females  are  prohibitied  from  pronouncing  any 
monastic  vow  until  after  having  passed  their 
33d  year.  The  dioceses  of  Bavaria  comprise 
two  archbishoprics,  IMunich  and  Bamberg ;  and 
six  bishoprics.  Augsburg.  Ratisbon.  Eichstadt, 
Passau,  Wiirzburg,  and  Spires.  The  salaries 
pre  paid  by  the  government.  In  Bavaria  mar- 
riage between  individuals  having  no  capital 
cannot  take  place  without  the  consent  of  the 
principal  persons  appointed  to  superintend  the 
poor  institutions,  who,  if  they  grant  such  lib- 
erty where  there  are  no  means  of  supporting 
the  children  that  may  spring  from  such  mar- 
riage, render  themselves  liable  for  their  main- 
tenance. The  law  is  intended  to  prevent 
improvident   marriages. 

People. —  In  personal  appearance  the  Bava- 
rians are  stout  and  vigorous,  well  adapted  to 
bear  the  fatigues  of  war,  and  are  generally  con- 
sidered good  soldiers.  They  are  accused  of 
being  indolent  and  somewhat  addicted  to  drink- 
ing, but  are  brave,  patriotic,  and  faithful  to 
their  word.  Their  manners  and  customs  toward 
the  close  of  the  i8th  century  were  described  as 
very  coarse,  and  they  were  said  to  be  deeply 
imbued  with  superstitious  bigotry ;  but  since  the 
more  general  diffusion  of  knowledge  a  great 
change  for  the  better  has  taken  place.  Manj' 
of  the  peasantry  wear  long,  loose,  snuff-colored 
coats,  lined  or  edged  with  pink,  and  studded  in 
front  with  silver  or  white  metal  buttons,  thrown 
open  to  displaj-  a  smart  waistcoat  of  various 
and  brilliant  colors ;  their  hats  are  often  orna- 
mented with  artificial  flowers.  Many  of  the 
Bavarian  women  are  handsome,  lively  and 
graceful.  They  dress  smartly  and  display  much 
taste  in  their  attire.  Some  of  them  wear  black- 
silk  handkerchiefs,  decorated  with  flowers  or 
ribbons,  tied  tightly  round  their  heads,  some 
caps  of  silver  or  gold  tissue,  and  all  have  their 
hair  neatly  braided.  German  is  the  language 
spoken,  with  local  peculiarities ;  but  they  have 
never  been  conspicuous  for  the  cultivation  of 
their  native  tongue. 


Constitution. —  Bavaria  was  formerly  a 
member  of  the  Germanic  Confederation  and 
now  forms  part  of  the  German  empire.  The 
executive  is  in  the  hands  of  the  king.  The  legis- 
lature consists  of  two  chambers  —  one  of  sen- 
ators and  one  of  deputies ;  the  former  com- 
posed of  princes  of  the  royal  family,  the  great 
officers  of  state,  the  two  archbishops,  the  heads 
of  certain  noble  families,  a  bishop  named  by 
the  king,  the  president  of  the  Protestant  Gen- 
eral Consistory,  and  any  other  members  whom 
the  king  may  create  hereditary  peers ;  the  lat- 
ter, of  members  chosen  indirectly,  one  to  every 
31,500  persons  of  the  total  population.  The 
qualifications  are  that  the  candidate  shall  have 
completed  his  30th  year,  shall  be  a  free  and 
independent  citizen,  and  shall  be  a  member  of 
the  Catholic  or  the  Reformed  Church  and  pay 
direct  state  taxes.  The  members  are  chosen 
every  six  years  unless  the  house  is  dissolved 
by  the  king,  and  are  generally  convened  once 
a  year,  but  are  bound  to  assemble  at  least  once 
every  three  years.  Each  of  the  eight  circles  or 
provinces  has  a  provincial  government  consist- 
ing of  two  boards,  one  for  the  management  of 
the  police,  schools,  etc.,  and  the  other  for  the 
management  of  financial  affairs.  The  revenue 
for  the  financial  year  1900-1  was  estimated  at 
about  $105,000,000,  and  the  public  debt,  includ- 
ing railway  debt,  etc.,  was  $350,000,000.  The 
army  is  raised  by  conscription, —  every  man 
being  liable  to  serve  from  i  January  of  the  year 
in  which  he  completes  his  20th  year, —  and  it 
forms  an  independent  part  of  the  army  of  the 
German  empire.  In  time  of  peace  it  is  under  the 
command  of  the  king  of  Bavaria,  but  in  time  of 
war  it  is  piaced  under  that  of  the  emperor  of 
Germany  as  commander-in-chief  of  the  whole 
German  army.  The  period  of  service  is  three 
years  in  the  active  force,  four  in  the  reserve,  and 
five  in  the  landwehr ;  and  no  Bavarian  can  set- 
tle or  marry,  or  accept  of  any  definite  appoint- 
ment, till  he  has  fulfilled  his  military  liabilities. 
On  a  peace  footing  the  Bavarian  army  consists 
in  all  of  fully  63,000  men  and  2,600  officers;  on 
a  war  footing,  about  twice  this  number. 

History. —  The  Bavarians  take  their  name 
from  the  Boii,  a  Celtic  tribe  who  inhabited  the 
districts  which,  when  conquered  by  the  Romans, 
became  the  Roman  provinces  of  Vindelicia  and 
Noricum.  After  the  fall  of  the  Western  Empire 
this  territory  was  overrun  by  various  Germanic 
tribes  who  formed  themselves  into  a  confedera- 
tion like  that  of  the  Franks  and  Marcomanni 
and  called  themselves  Boiarii.  The  confederacy 
of  the  Boiarii  was  made  tributary  first  to  the 
Ostrogoths  and  then  to  the  Franks.  Finally 
the  sovereignty  over  them  was  assumed  by 
Charlemagne,  and  on  the  death  of  that  mon- 
arch the  kings  of  the  Franks  and  Germans  gov- 
erned it  by  their  lieutenants,  who  bore  the  title 
of  margrave,  afterward  converted  into  that  of 
duke,  and  latterly  (1623)  into  that  of  elector. 
In  1070  Bavaria  passed  into  the  possession  of 
the  family  of  the  Guelphs,  and  in  1180  it  was 
transferred  by  imperial  grant  to  Otho,  count  of 
Wittelsbach.  On  the  extinction  of  the  direct 
line  of  that  family  in  1777,  the  elector  palatine. 
Charles  Theodore,  added  the  Palatinate  and 
the  duchies  of  Juliers  and  Berg  to  the  Bava- 
rian dominions.  In  1799  the  Duke  Maximilian 
Joseph  of  Deux-Ponts  came  into  possession  of 
all  the  Bavarian  territories.  The  Peace  of  Lune- 
ville   (9  Feb.  1801)  essentially  affected  Bavaria. 


BAVIAD  AND  M^VIAD —  BAXTER 


While  it  lost  all  its  possessions  on  the  left 
ibank  of  the  Rhine,  and  also  the  lands  of  the 
Palatinate  on  the  right  bank,  it  obtained,  on 
the  other  hand,  by  an  imperial  edict,  an  indem- 
nification by  which  it  gained,  in  addition  to  the 
amount  lost,  a  surplus  of  2,109  square  miles 
and   216,000   inhabitants. 

In  1805  Bavaria  was  raised,  by  the  Treaty  of 
Presburg,  to  the  rank  of  a  kingdom,  with  some 
further  accessions  of  territory,  all  of  which 
were  confined  by  the  treaties  of  1814  and  1815, 
by  which  also  a  great  part  of  the  lands  of  the 
Palatinate  was  restored.  In  1848  the  conduct 
of  the  king  of  Bavaria,  in  maintaining  an  open 
liaison  with  Lola  ]\Iontez.  had  thoroughly 
alienated  the  hearts  of  his  subjects,  and  quick- 
•ened  that  desire  of  political  change  which  had 
previously  existed.  The  people,  early  in  March 
1848,  demanded  immediate  convocation  ot  the 
chambers,  liberty  of  the  press,  public  judicial 
trials ;  also  that  electoral  reform  should  be 
granted,  and  that  the  army  should  take  an  oath 
to  observe  the  constitution.  The  king  having 
refused  to  grant  these  demands,  tumults 
occurred,  and  King  Louis  announced  his  resig- 
nation of  the  sceptre  to  his  son,  Maximilian  II., 
under  whom  the  reforms  and  modifications  of 
the  constitution  were  carried  out.  Maximilian 
died  in  1864  and  was  succeeded  by  Louis  II.  In 
the  war  of  1866  Bavaria  sided  with  Austria,  in 
consequence  of  which  it  was  obliged,  by  the 
treaty  of  22  August  in  the  same  year,  to  cede  a 
small  portion  of  its  territory  to  Prussia,  and 
to  pa)"^  a  war  indemnity  of  $12,150,000.  Soon 
after  Bavaria  entered  into  an  alliance  with 
Prussia,  and  in  1867  joined  the  Zollverein  under 
Prussian  regulations.  In  the  Franco-German 
war  of  1 870-1  Bavaria  took  a  prominent  part, 
and  since  1871  it  has  been  one  of  the  constit- 
uent states  of  the  German  empire,  represented 
in  the  Bundesrath  by  6,  in  the  Reichstag  by  48 
members.  In  1886  King  Louis  II.  committed 
suicide  through  alienation  of  mind.  His  brother 
Otto  succeeded,  but  he  being  also  insane,  his 
uncle,  Leopold,  became   regent. 

Ba'viad  and  Maeviad,  The,  two  satires, 
by  William  Gift'ord.  It  was  through  these  that 
the  author,  who  later  w^as  the  first  editor  of  the 
^Quarterly  Review,'  became  known.  ^The  Ba- 
viad'  (1792)  is  an  attack  on  a  band  of  English 
writers,  who  had  formed  themselves  into  a  kind 
of  mutual  admiration  society.  It  is  an  imitation 
of  the  first  satire  of  Perseus,  and  in  it  the 
author  not  only  attacks  the  "Delia  Cruscans,'* 
but  all  who  sympathize  with  them.  The 
^Maeviad'  (i795)  is  an  imitation  of  the  loth 
satire  of  Horace,  and  was  called  forth,  the 
author  says,  "by  the  reappearance  of  some  of 
the  scattered  enemy." 

Bavieca,  ba-wya'ka,  the  favorite  horse  of 
the  Cid. 

Bavius,  Marcus  and  Maevius,  still  noto- 
rious as  two  miserable  poets  and  presumptuous 
critics,  satirized  by  Vergil.  The  words  are 
often  used  to  signify  bad  or  malevolent  poets. 

Bawbee,  bor-be'  (French,  bas  billon,  "low^^ 
or  "debased  billon*'),  a  coin  originally  minted  in 
Scotland  from  an  alloy  of  copper  with  a  very 
small  amount  of  silver,  called  billon,  and  hav- 
ing at  different  times  a  value  varying  from  i^^ 
to  3  cents.  The  coin  is  no  longer  issued,  but 
the  term  is  used  in  Scotland  to  mean  a  half- 
penny  (a  cent)   or  a  very  small  value. 


Bax,  Ernest  Belfort,  English  socialist:  b. 
Leamington,  23  July  1854.  He  was  educated  in 
London  and  Germany;  followed  journalism  in 
Germany  as  foreign  correspondent  in  1880-1  ; 
and  returning  to  England,  became  one  of  the 
founders  of  the  English  socialist  movement.  In 
1885  he  aided  in  starting  the  Socialist  Leag:ue. 
He  wrote  a  large  number  of  works  on  social- 
istic and  historical  subjects. 

Bax'ter,  Andrew,  Scotch  philosopher  and 
metaphysician:  b.  Aberdeen,  1686;  d.  1750.  He 
was  educated  at  King's  College,  Aberdeen,  and 
found  occupation  as  a  private  tutor.  About  1733 
he  published  an  'Inquiry  into  the  Nature  of  the 
Human  Soul ;  Wherein  the  Immateriality  of  the 
Soul  is  Evinced  from  the  Principles  of  Reason 
and  Philosophy.'  In  1741  he  went  abroad  with 
two  of  his  pupils,  and  remained  for  some  years 
at  Utrecht,  where  he  contracted  an  acquaintance 
with  some  of  the  Dutch  literati.  He  returned  to 
Scotland  in  1747.  and  resided  at  Whittingham, 
East  Lothian,  where  he  died.  He  was  the 
author  of  a  Latin  treatise  on  the  principles  of 
astronomy,  entitled  'Matho  sive  Cosmotheoria, 
Puerilis  Dialogus,'  which  he  afterward  trans- 
lated into  English  and  published  in  two  vol- 
umes, i2mo.  He  was  a  staunch  friend  and  cor- 
respondent of  John  Wilkes,  then  quite  a  young 
man. 

Baxter,  James  Phinney,  American  author : 
b.  Gorham,  Me.,  2;^  March  1831.  A  successful 
merchant  and  manufacturer ;  he  has  been  six 
times  mayor  of  Portland,  Me.,  to  which  he  pre- 
sented the  land  and  building  for  a  public  library. 
A  devoted  student  of  the  history  of  his  native 
State,  he  has  published:  'George  Cleeve  of 
Casco  Bay'  (1885);  'Journal  of  Lieut.  W. 
Digby'  (1888);  'Sir  Ferdinando  Gorges  and 
His  Province  of  Alaine'  (1890)  ;  'The  Pioneers 
of  New  France  in  New  England'  (1894).  He 
edited  Vols.  III.,  IV.,  V.  and  VI  of  the  <Docn- 
mentary  History  of  Maine'   (1889). 

Baxter,  Jere,  American  lawyer :  b.  Nash- 
ville, Tenn  ,  11  Feb.  1852.  He  traveled  in 
Europe,  studied  law,  and  reported  the  decisions 
of  the  supreme  court  of  Tennessee,  9  volumes 
He  was  prominent  in  railroad  enterprises,  par- 
ticularly in  schemes  devoted  to  the  opening  up 
of  the  mineral  and  timber  resources  of  his  State. 
He  was  president  of  the  Memphis  &  Charles- 
ton R.R.  before  reaching  the  age  of  30,  and  he 
organized  and  built  the  Tennessee  Central  R.R., 
of  which  corporation  he  w-as  president  He  was 
instrumental  in  the  founding  and  extension  of 
industrial  towns,  and  was  a  member  of  the 
Tennessee  Senate. 

Baxter,  Lucy  E.  (B.\rnes),  English  art 
writer :  b.  Mere,  Wiltshire,  about  1835  ;  d.  Flor- 
ence, Italy.  10  Nov.  1902.  She  was  the  daugh- 
ter of  William  Barnes,  the  Dorset  poet,  and 
wrote  over  the  pen  name  of  Le.\der  Scott. 
After  her  marriage  to  Mr.  S.  T.  Baxter  in  1867, 
she  resided  in  Italy,  where  she  was  made  an 
honorary  member  of  the  Accademia  delle 
Belle  Arti.  She  was  the  author  of  'The  Paint- 
er's Ordeal'  ;  'A  Nook  in  the  Apennines' 
(1S79)  ;  lives  of  Fra  Bartolommeo,  Andrea  del 
Sarto,  Fra  Angelico,  and  Lucadella  Robbia ; 
<The  Renaissance  of  Art  in  Italy'  (1882)  ; 
^Alesser  Agnolo's  Household,  a  Unique  Centa 
Florentine  Story'  (1882)  ;  'Ghiberbi  and  Dona- 
tello'  (1882)  :  <A  Bunch  of  Berries'  (1883)  ; 
^Sculpture,   Renaissance  and   Modern'    (1886)  ; 


BAXTER  — BAY 


<  Tuscan  Studies  and  Sketches^  (1887)  ;  <Life 
of  William  Barnes^  (1888);  <Vincigliata  and 
Mariano^  (1891):  <The  Orti  Orcellari^  (1893); 
'Echoes  of  Old  Florence'  (1894)  ;  *The  Castle 
of  Vincigliata\(i897)  ;  <The  Cathedral  Build- 
ers,' her  most  important  work  (1899)  ;  ^Filippo 
di  Ser  Brunellesco'    (1901). 

Baxter,  Richard,  English  divine:  b.  near 
Shrewsbury,  1615;  d.  8  Dec.  1691.  After  receiv- 
ing a  somewhat  desultory  and  defective  edu- 
cation he  was  sent  to  London  under  the  patron- 
age of  Sir  Henry  Herbert,  master  of  the  revels ; 
but  he  soon  returned  to  the  country  to  study 
divinity,  and  in  1638  received  ordination  in  the 
Church  of  England.  In  1640  he  refused  to  take 
the  oath  of  universal  approbation  of  the  doc- 
trine and  discipline  of  the  Church  of  England, 
usually  known  as  the  et  ccctera  oath,  and  in  the 
following  year  he  became  minister  at  Kidder- 
minster, with  the  best  results  to  the  morality 
of  the  town.  When  the  civil  war  broke  out  he 
sided  with  the  Parliament,  and  after  the  battle 
of  Naseby  accepted  the  appointment  of  chap- 
Iain  to  Col.  Whalle3^'s  regiment.  He  is  said  to 
have  been,  the  whole  of  this  time,  a  friend  to 
the  establishment,  according  to  his  own  notions. 
In  1647  he  retired,  in  consequence  of  ill  health, 
from  his  military  chaplainship,  and  when  he 
recovered  preached  against  the  Covenant.  He 
even  endeavored  to  persuade  the  soldiery  not 
to  encounter  the  Scottish  troops  who  came  into 
the  kingdom  with  Charles  II.,  and  did  not  hesi- 
tate to  express  an  open  dislike  to  the  usurpa- 
tion of  Cromwell.  The  fact  is  that  Baxter  held 
civil  liberty  to  be  of  secondary  consequence  to 
what  he  esteemed  true  religion,  and  appears,  from 
a  sermon  preached  before  Cromwell,  to  have 
deemed  the  toleration  of  separatists  and  sec- 
taries the  grand  evil  of  his  government.  After 
the  Restoration  he  was  made  one  of  the  king's 
chaplains  and  a  commissioner  of  the  Savoy 
Conference  to  draw  up  the  reformed  liturgy. 
The  active  persecution  of  the  Nonconformists 
soon  followed  ;  and  upon  the  passing  of  the  act 
against  conventicles  he  retired,  and  preached 
inore  or  less  openly  as  the  act  was  more  or 
less  rigidly  enforced.  After  the  accession  of 
James  II.,  in  1685,  he  was  arrested  for  some 
passages  in  his  ^Commentary  on  the  New  Testa- 
ment' supposed  to  be  hostile  to  Episcopacy,  and 
was  tried  for  sedition.  The  violence  of  Jef- 
freys, who  would  hear  neither  the  accused  nor 
his  counsel,  produced  a  verdict  of  guilty  on  the 
most  frivolous  grounds.  He  was  sentenced  to 
two  years'  imprisonment  and  a  heavy  penalty, 
which,  after  a  short  confinement,  the  king  remit- 
ted. Henceforward  Baxter  lived  in  a  retired 
manner  till  his  death.  His  wife  cheerfully 
shared  all  his  sufferings  on  the  score  of  con- 
science, both  in  and  out  of  prison.  The  charac- 
ter of  Baxter  was  formed  by  his  age ;  his  fail- 
ing was  subtle  and  controversial  theology;  his 
excellence,  practical  piety.  In  divinity  he  sought 
to  establish  a  resting  place  between  strict  Cal- 
vinism and  high-church  Arminianism,  by  the 
adrnission  of  election  and  the  rejection  of  repro- 
bation. Christ,  he  considered,  died  for  some 
especially  and  for  all  generally ;  that  is  to  say, 
all  possess  the  means  of  salvation.  A  body 
called  Baxterians  long  acknowledged  these  dis- 
tinctions;  and  the  Nonconformist  clergy,  after 
the  Revolution,  were  divided  between  this  body, 
the  pure  Calvinists,  and  the  high-church  passive- 
obedient  Arminians.     Baxter  was  a  voluminous 


writer;  his  ^Saints'  Everlasting  Rest,'  and  the 
'Call  to  .the  Unconverted,'  have  been  extraor- 
dinarily popular.  In  1830  an  edition  of  his 
'Practical  Works'  appeared  in  23  octavo  vol- 
umes. The  chief  authority  for  the  facts  of  his 
life  is  the  'Reliquiae  Baxterianse*  of  Sylvester, 
consisting  of  autobiographical   matter. 

Baxter,  Robert  Dudley,  English  political 
economist :  b.  Doncaster,  Yorkshire,  1827 ;  d. 
May  1875.  He  was  educated  at  Trinity  College, 
Cambridge,  and  in  1866  became  a  member  of 
the  Statistical  Society  of  London.  He  wrote 
and  published  'Railway  Extension  and  Its  Re- 
sults' (1866)  ;  'National  Income  of  the  United 
Kingdom'  (1868)  ;  'Taxation  of  the  United 
Kingdom'  (1869)  ;  'English  Parties  and  Con- 
servatism' (1870)  ;  'National  Debts  of  the 
World'    (1871),  etc. 

Baxter,  Sylvester,  American  journalist:  b. 
West  Yarmouth,  Mass.,  6  Feb.  1850.  While  on 
the  staff  of  the  Boston  Herald  he  was  promi- 
nent in  pushing  the  metropolitan  park  system 
and  advocating  a  "Greater  Boston."  He  has 
written:  'The  Cruise  of  a  Land  Yacht,  a  Boy's 
Book  of  Mexican  Travel'  ;  'Berlin:  a  Study  in 
Municipal  Government'  (1890)  ;  'The  Boston 
Park  Guide.' 

Baxter,  William,  American  clergyman  and 
author :  b.  Leeds,  England,  1820.  He  was  pres- 
ident of  Arkansas  College,  Fayetteville ;  when 
it  was  burned  in  the  Civil  War,  he  removed  to 
Cincinnati.  He  has  written  'The  Loyal  West 
in  the  Time  of  the  Rebellion'  and  'Pea  Ridge 
and  Prairie  Grove,  or  Scenes  and  Incidents  of 
the  War  in  Arkansas'  (1864).  His  'War 
Lyrics,'  originally  published  in  'Harper's 
Weekly'  were  very  popular  at  the  time  of  their 
publication. 

Baxterians.  See  Baxter,  Rich.\rd. 

Bay,  in  architecture,  a  term  used  to  signify 
the  magnitude  of  a  building.  Thus,  if  a  barn 
consists  of  a  floor  and  two  heads,  where  they  lay 
corn,  they  call  it  a  barn  of  two  baj's.  These 
bays  are  from  14  to  20  feet  long,  and  floors 
from  10  to  12  broad,  and  usually  20  feet  long, 
which  is  the  breadth  of  the  barn.  It  is  also  used 
to  denote  the  divisions  of  a  church  or  cathedral 
from  floor  to  roof,  as  indicated  by  the  pillars 
or   arches ;    as,   a  church   of  eight   bays. 

In  botany,  the  name  of  several  trees  and 
shrubs,  as  sweet  bay  (Laurus  nobilis)  the  laurel 
(q.v.)  of  the  poets,  used  for  crowning  heroes 
in  ancient  times  and  for  church  decoration  at 
the  present.  It  has  stiff,  dull-green  leaves  some- 
times used  to  flavor  culinary  dishes.  Its  sweet, 
fragrant,  aromatic,  cherry-like,  purple  fruits  are 
edible.  This  tree  is  widely  cultivated  for  orna- 
ment in  Europe  and  America,  and  is  probably 
the  most  popular  tub-plant  used  in  open-air 
restaurants,  esplanades,  etc.,  on  account  of  its 
ability  to  withstand  neglect,  abuse,  and  shear- 
ing. Several  hundred  thousand  specimens  are 
used  annually  on  the  two  continents.  The  bay 
laurel  is  better  known  as  the  cherry  laurel 
(Pruiius  lauroccrasiis).  Its  leaves  yield  prus- 
sic  acid,  and  were  at  one  time  extensively  used 
as  a  poison.  The  loblolly  bay  (Gordonia  lisi- 
anthus),  white  bay  (Magnolia  glauca),  and  red 
bay  (Persea  carolinensis),  are  well-known 
natives  of  the  southeastern  United  States.  The 
name  rose  bay  is  given  to  divers  evergreen  rho- 
dodendrons, to  oleander,  and  sometimes  to 
Epilobium  angustifolium.     The   California  bay- 


BAY-BIRDS  — BAY  CITY 


tree  is  Umbellularia  californica.  The  bay-tree 
from  which  bay  rum  (q.v.)  is  distilled  is 
Myrcia  acris.     See  Laurel;  AIagnolia. 

In  geography,  an  arm  of  the  sea,  extending 
into  the  land.  It  is  generally  applied  to  smaller 
bodies  of  water  than  gulfs,  of  the  same  general 
geographical  character,  though  the  terms  "gulf** 
and  "bay*  are  used  sometimes  interchangeably 
and  much  to  the  confusion  of  geographical 
science.  The  word  is  of  Saxon  origin  and  sig- 
nifies an  angle.  It  should  properly  be  applied 
only  to  arms  of  the  sea  which  are  widest  at 
their  departure  from  the  main  line  of  sea  coast, 
or  mouth,  while  "gulf*  should  be  applied  to 
such  bodies  of  water  as  the  Gulf  of  California, 
whose  width  is  nearly  the  same  throughout  a 
great  part   of  their   extent. 

Bay-birds,  or  Beach-birds,  a  sportsmen's 
name,  in  particular  use  along  the  south  shore 
of  Long  Island,  N.  Y.,  for  snipe,  curlews,  sand- 
pipers, avocets,  and  other  limicoline  birds  that 
frequent  the  shores  and  bays  of  estuaries.  Com- 
pare Shore-birds. 

Bay  City,  Mich.,  county-seat  of  Bay 
County,  is  located  on  the  south  bank  of  the 
Saginaw  River,  four  miles  from  its  mouth  on 
Saginaw  Bay,  from  which  it  takes  its  name, 
and  at  the  head  of  deep  water  navigation.  It 
is  connected  with  the  Michigan  Central,  Pere 
Marquette,  Grand  Trunk,  and  Detroit  &  i^Iacki- 
nac  Railway  systems,  and  io8  miles  northwest 
of  Detroit.  It  is  the  principal  market  town  of 
a  large  area  of  the  Saginaw  Valley  and  "Thumb'* 
region  of  the  lower  peninsula,  the  garden  of  the 
State  in  an  agricultural  sense.  The  Saginaw 
River  is  navigable  to  this  point  for  the  largest 
lake  vessels.  West  Bay  City  lies  on  the  north 
bank  of  the  Saginaw  River  and  directly  oppo- 
site Bay  City.  These  cities  will  become  one 
municipality  April  I,  1905,  an  act  of  the  legis- 
lature  having  made   this   provision. 

Manufactures. —  Bay  City  is  a  large  manu- 
facturing town,  the  principal  industries  being 
coal,  salt,  lumber,  sugar,  alcohol,  beer,  machin- 
ery, and  chemicals.  It  has  the  only  alcohol  plant 
in  the  State  which  produces  proof  alcohol  from 
the  refuse  molasses,  a  by-product  of  the  manu- 
facture of  beet  sugar,  and  one  of  the  largest 
chemical  plants  in  the  world,  manufacturing  al- 
kalis, soda  ash,  salt,  etc.  Three  large  beet  sugar 
factories  are  located  in  Bay  City  and  two  in 
West  Bay  City.  The  development  of  coal  min- 
ing in  the  Saginaw  Valley  is  of  comparatively 
recent  origin,  dating  back  only  ten  years,  but 
it  has  attained  large  proportions  in  Bay  County, 
a  dozen  mines,  being  in  operation  and  others 
being  established.  It  is  the  port  of  entry  of 
150,000,000  feet  of  rough  lumber  imported  an- 
nually from  Canada  and  Upper  Michigan  and 
Lake  Superior  district.  This  product  is  worked 
up  in  the  planing  mills,  box  factories  and  other 
wood  working  plants  of  which  there  are  more 
than  a  score.  A  dozen  saw  mills  are  in  opera- 
tion and  manufacture  more  than  100,000.000  feet 
of  lumber  annually,  the  logs  coming  in  by  rail. 
The  Michigan  Central  Railroad  alone  brings  to 
Bay  City  nearly  100.000.000  feet  of  saw-logs 
annually.  Large  quantities  of  forest  products 
are  distributed  by  rail,  fully  300,000.000  feet  of 
lumber  besides  vast  quantities  of  shingles,  cedar 
poles,  posts,  railroad  ties  and  hemlock  bark  being 
handled  in  and  out  of  the  city  annually.     The 


city  has  a  large  shade  roller  factory,  wind  mil! 
factory,  one  of  the  largest  industrial  works  in  the 
country,  turning  out  machinery,  another  large 
machinery  plant,  maple  flooring  plants,  the 
largest  woodenware  factory  in  the  world,  a  num- 
ber of  breweries,  a  large  flour  mill  and  elevator, 
two  feed  mills,  and  a  large  marine  engine 
plant,  yacht  building  plant,  and  a  large  chicory 
plant,  considerable  attention  being  paid  to  this 
industry.  The  city  has  87  incorporated  manu- 
facturing and  business  concerns  with  a  capital- 
ization of  nearly  $20,000,000. 

Trade  and  Commerce. —  The  growth  of  the 
commerce  of  Bay  City  has  been  steady.  It  has 
also  changed.  Up  to  20  years  ago  the  manu- 
facture of  pine  lumber  was  the  chief  industry  on 
the  Saginaw  River  and  there  was  produced  in  a 
narrow  strip  of  territory  18  miles  long  since  1851 
an  aggregate  of  24,000,000,000  feet  of  manufac- 
tured lumber.  Of  late  years  the  pine  industry 
declined  owing  to  the  exhaustion  of  the  pine 
timber  tributary  to  the  mills,  and  mixed  timber  is 
now  chiefly  manufactured.  The  lake  shipments 
of  lumber  which  have  exceeded  850,000,000  feet 
in  a  single  season  have  declined  and  lumber  is 
now  brought  in  instead  of  being  shipped  out  by 
water,  the  product  being  worked  up  in  factories 
and  shipped  to  consuming  points  by  rail  and 
water,  these  consisting  of  lumber  products,  fish, 
salt,  coal,  sugar  and  alcohol.  The  city  also  does 
an  extensive  business  in  wholesale  groceries, 
supplies  for  mills  and  machinery  generally.  The 
total  business  aggregates  $50,000,000  annually. 

Railroads  and  JVafcr  Communication. — Bay 
City  is  the  division  headquarters  of  the  Michi- 
gan Central  Railroad,  the  ]\Iackinaw,  Bay  City  & 
Detroit,  and  Bay  City  and  Jackson  divisions  cen- 
tering here.  It  is  also  the  northern  terminal 
of  the  C.  H.  D.  &  Pere  Marquette  system,  the 
northern  terminal  of  the  Grand  Trunk,  and  the 
southern  terminal  of  the  Detroit  &  Mackinac 
Railroad.  It  has  a  street  railway  system  of  35 
miles  and  an  interurban  road  extending  14  miles 
south  to  Saginaw.  Two  interurban  routes  are 
projected,  one  to  Lapeer,  Pontiac  and  Detroit, 
the  other  to  Caro,  Cass  City,  Bad  Axe  and  Har- 
bor Beach.  It  is  at  the  head  of  deep  water 
navigation  on  the  Saginaw  River,  and  is  reached 
by  the  largest  lake  vessels.  Opposite  Bay  City 
are  two  large  ship-building  plants  and  it  has 
also  an  extensive  dry  dock.  The  chief  water 
exports  are  lumber  products,  salt  and  coal,  and 
the  imports  are  lumber  products  and  merchan- 
dise. It  is  reached  by  navigation  from  all  ports 
on  the  great  lakes. 

City  and  County  Government. —  Bay  City  is 
the  seat  of  the  county  government  and  contains 
the  county  court-house  and  all  county  offices.  It 
has  a  fine  city-hall  building,  erected  at  a  cost  of 
$200,000.  The  charter  election  is  held  on  the 
first  Monday  in  April  of  each  year,  the  mayor 
holding  office  two  years,  the  comptroller  four 
years,  and  the  treasurer  and  recorder  two  years. 
The  total  expenses  of  the  city  government  in 
1903  were  $177,576.18,  and  the  valuation  as  as- 
sessed for  taxation  purposes  in  IQ04  is  $11,797,- 
875.  The  bonded  debt  of  the  city  is  $600,000, 
of  which  $342,000  are  waterworks  bonds.  The 
rate  of  taxation  on  $1,000  valuation  in  1904  was 
$18.19.  which  includes  the  school  tax  of  $3.9.1- 

Banks  and  Loan  Comf>anics. — Bay  City  has 
five  banking  institutions  with  an  aggregate  cap- 
ital  of  $600,000;   profits  $367,651,   and   deposits 


BAY  ISLANDS  — BAY  STATE 


amounting  to  $4,784,014,  according  to  the  state- 
ment of  6  Sept.  1904.  There  are  two  building 
and  loan  associations,  the  Mutual  Building  and 
Loan  Association  of  Bay  County,  capital  $2,000,- 
000;  and  the  Savings  Building  and  Loan  Associ- 
ation of  Bay  County,  capital  $1,000,000. 

Churches  and  Charities. — Bay  City  is  well 
represented  in  its  religious  and  charitable  insti- 
tutions. It  has  2>^  churches  and  missions  and  12 
private  and  parochial  schools.  There  are  three 
charitable  institutions,  the  Children's  Home,  Lu- 
theran Children's  Home,  and  Woman's  Home ; 
three  hospitals  —  the  Mercy  Hospital,  under  the 
auspices  of  the  Sisters  of  Mercy ;  the  Lewis 
Hospital,  and  the  Bishop  Hospital.  The  city 
also  has  66  aid,  benevolent,  social,  and  other 
societies,  and  87  secret  societies  and  lodges. 

Newspapers. — Bay  City  has  two  daily  news- 
papers and  several  weekly  publications. 

Education. — Bay  City  has  a  fine  high  school 
and  nine  other  school  buildings,  employing  in  all 
127  teachers,  including  the  superintendent  and 
principals  of  the  several  schools.  The  school 
census  of  1904  shows  9,506  children  of  school  age 
in  the  city.  A  county  normal  training  school 
and  kindergarten  schools  are  maintained  in  con- 
nection with  the  public  school  system.  The  city 
maintains  the  Bay  City  Business  College,  Holy 
Rosary  Academy,  conducted  by  the  Dominican 
Sisters;  Mercy  Hospital  Training  School  for 
Nurses ;  Oral  School  for  the  Deaf,  and  Lutheran 
and  Catholic  parochial  schools.  There  are  two 
libraries  —  the  Bay  City  Public  Library,  located 
in  the  city-hall  building,  and  having  24,000  vol- 
umes ;  the  Bay  County  Bar  Library. 

Buildings,  Parks,  Suburbs,  etc. — Bay  City  is 
noted  for  its  substantial  business  buildings,  its 
suburban  attractions,  and  the  beauty  of  its 
homes.  The  city-hall,  Masonic  temple,  and 
Federal  building  are  imposing  structures.  The 
Bay  City  Club  erected  in  1904  a  fine  club  house, 
the  Masonic  Club  meets  in  Masonic  Temple, 
the  Elks  Club  owns  its  own  building,  as  does 
the  Bay  City  Boat  Club,  and  there  are  a  num- 
ber of  private  clubs.  Bay  City  has  a  board  of 
trade  with  a  membership  of  over  200.  The  city 
has  six  public  parks,  and  has  an  abundant  sup- 
ply of  good  water,  obtained  from  Saginaw  Bay. 

History. — The  Saginaw  Valley,  in  the  lower 
portion  of  which  Bay  City  is  situated,  derived 
its  name  from  the  Indian  appellation  "0-saug- 
e-nong,^'  meaning  ^'land  of  the  Sauks,'^  a  tribe 
of  red  men  who  inhabited  this  locality  more 
than  350  years  ago.  Subsequently  the  Sauks 
were  nearly  exterminated  by  the  Chippewas, 
and  the  latter  ceded  the  territory  to  the  United 
States  in  1819.  The  first  settler  located  here  in 
1831,  he  being  employed  by  the  government  as 
an  Indian  farmer,  in  conformity  to  the  provi- 
sions of  the  treaty.  There  were  two  reserva- 
tions, one  of  2,000  and  one  of  1,000  acres, 
embraced  within  what  are  now  the  corporate 
limits  of  the  city,  the  reservations  being  to 
Stephen  V.  R.  Riley,  of  Schenectady.  N.  Y., 
who  had  resided  with  the  Indians  many  years, 
married  an  Indian  woman,  by  whom  he  had 
three  sens,  the  eldest,  John  Riley,  being  located 
on  the  reservations  referred  to.  In  1836  he  sold 
his  land  to  a  number  of  Detroit  business  men, 
who  organized  the  Saginaw  Bay  Company, 
which  began  to  lay  out  the  future  city.  A  large 
hotel  was  framed  and  a  dock  and  warehouse 
built,  but,  the  panic  coming  on  soon,  the  com- 


pany suspended  and  progress  ceased  for  some 
time.  In  1840  three  gentlemen  purchased  the 
stock  of  the  Saginaw  Bay  Company  and  became 
the  proprietors  of  what  was  known  as  Lower 
Saginaw.  There  was  a  steady  growth  after 
1844,  due  to  the  development  of  the  white  pine 
lumber  industry,  the  Saginaw  River  being  the 
outlet  for  streams  that  traversed  the  richest 
pine  forests  then  known  in  the  United  States. 
The  village  of  Bay  City  was  incorporated  in 
1859,  and  retained  its  village  organization  until 
1865,  when  it  was  given  a  city  charter. 

Population. — The  Federal  census  taken  in 
1900  gave  the  city  a  population  of  27,628,  and 
the  State  census  taken  in  1904  gave  the  city  a 
population  of  only  27,644,  figures  which  are  not 
accepted  as  accurate.  The  population  of  West 
Bay  City  slightly  exceeds  13,000,  so  that  when 
the  consolidation  becomes  effective,  i  April 
1905,  the  greater  Bay  City  will  have  a  popula- 
tion in  excess  of  40,000. 

E.   D.   COWLES, 
Editor  '^Bay  City  Tribune.'* 

Bay  Islands,  Honduras,  a  group  of  six 
islands  in  the  Bay  of  Honduras,  150  miles 
southeast  of  Belize,  known  as  Ruatan,  Guanaja 
(or  Bonacca),  Utilla,  Barbareta,  Elena,  and 
Morat.  They  were  discovered  by  Columbus,  30 
July  1502,  and  it  was  from  Guanja  that  he 
first  sighted  the  mainland  of  America.  Their 
ownership  was  long  a  matter  of  dispute  between 
Spain  and  England^  and  later  between  England 
and  the  republic  of  Honduras.  In  1852  the 
group  was  declared  a  colony  of  Great  Britain 
by  royal  warrant,  and  this  action  involved  the 
United  States  in  the  dispute,  that  government 
claiming  that  the  seizure  was  a  violation  of  the 
Clayton-Bulwer  treaty  (q.v.).  Negotiations 
dragged  along  slowly  for  several  years,  but 
finally  Great  Britain  recognized  the  claim  of 
Honduras  to  the  islands.  A  practical  protector- 
ate was,  however,  maintained  by  Great  Britain 
over  the  group,  and  the  inhabitants  (who  num- 
ber nearly  6,000)  avowed  British  allegiance.  In 
1903  Great  Britain  formally  renounced  all  juris- 
diction, and  title  to  the  Bay  Islands  is  now 
clearly  vested  in  Honduras. 

Bay  Lagoon,  Philippines,  a  freshwater 
lake  in  the  northern  part  of  Luzon.  This  lake 
is  connected  with  Manila  Bay  by  the  Pasig 
River,  and  from  its  centre  rises  a  high  vol- 
canic island.  It  is  about  20  miles  in  extent 
from  north  to  south,  and  about  47  miles  from 
east  to  west.  In  1899  it  was  made  a  naval  head- 
quarters for  the  United  States. 

Bay  Psalm  Book,  the  title  of  the  first  book 
published  in  the  American  colonies.  It  was 
printed  by  Stephen  Daye  at  Cambridge,  1640, 
and  was  the  product  of  the  joint  labors  of  Revs. 
Richard  Mather,  Thomas  Wilde,  and  John 
Eliot.  It  was  revised  in  1650  and  was  long  in 
use  in  New  England. 

Bay  Salt,  the  coarse-grained  salt  found  in 
salt-marshes  and  along  ocean  shores,  where  it 
is  formed  by  the  spontaneous  evaporation  of 
sea-water.  The  name  is  supposed  to  refer  to 
the  Bay  of  Biscay,  on  whose  shores  extensive 
deposits  of  ^'bay  salt^^  occur. 

Bay  State,  the  popular  name  of  Massachu- 
setts, which  prior  to  the  adoption  of  the  United 
States'  Constitution  had  been  known  as  the 
Massachusetts  Bay  Colony. 


BAYA  —  BAYARD 


Baya,  or  Baya  Sparrow,  a  sparrow-like 
weaver-bird  (Ploceus  phillippinns),  which  the 
people  of  India  and  the  Malay  countries  often 
keep  about  their  houses,  not  only  in  cages,  but 
as  a  free  pet  trained  to  do  a  variety  of  clever 
tricks,  even  to  find  small  articles,  to  carry  notes 
to  certain  places,  and  to  steal  ornaments  from 
the  hair  of  visitors.     See  Weaver  Bird. 

Bayad,  a  cat  fish,  Bagus  bayad,  a  large  edi- 
ble fish  found  in  abundance  in  the  river  Nile; 
distinguished,  however,  from  the  electric  cat- 
nsh  of  the  same  waters. 

Bayaderes,  ba-ya-darz,  in  the  East  Indies, 
yov.ng  girls,  from  lO  to  17  years  of  age,  who 
are  instructed  in  dancing,  singing,  and  acting 
little  plays.  They  are  trained  under  the  care  of 
women,  who  are  experienced  in  all  female  arts, 
and  particularly  in  that  of  pleasing.  These 
procure  from  the  lowest  classes  of  the  people 
the  most  beautiful  girls,  of  seven  or  eight  years 
of  age,  and  instruct  them  in  all  the  arts  of  their 
profession  (especially  dancing  and  singing),  the 
object  of  which  is  to  amuse  the  rich  and  minis- 
ter to  their  passions.  Their  presence  is  con- 
sidered necessary  even  at  the  smallest  public 
entertainments,  though  they  are  known  to  be 
mere  prostitutes.  After  their  17th  year,  when 
their  first  charms  have  faded,  they  retire  to 
a  pagoda  under  the  protection  of  the  Brahmins, 
who  scruple  not  to  pocket  the  gains  of  their 
prostitution.  This  word  is  from  the  Portu- 
guese word  bailadcira,  from  bailar^  to  dance. 

Bayamo,  ba-yii'mo,  Cuba,  a  town  whose 
name  is  indissolubly  connected  with  the  Ten 
Years'  war  and  the  revolution  of  1895.  Thus 
the  Cuban  national  air  received  the  name 
*Bayamese  Hymn.^  The  republican  movement 
of  1868  originated  here  and  in  the  neighboring 
town  of  Yara ;  and  here  Gen.  Garcia  received 
the  message  that  Lieut.  Rowan  delivered  to  him 
before  the  war  of  1898  between  the  United 
States  and  Spain.  Bayamo  was  founded  in  the 
early  years  of  the  Spanish  conquest.  It  is  situ- 
ated on  an  affluent  of  the  Canto,  Cuba's  largest 
river,   in  the  province  of   Santiago. 

Bayard,  bi'ard,  George  Dashiell,  Ameri- 
can soldier:  b.  Seneca  Falls,  N.  Y.,  18  Dec. 
1835;  d.  14  Dec.  1862.  Passing  his  boyhood  in 
Iowa,  he  entered  West  Point,  1852,  and  became 
a  cavalry  lieutenant ;  then  captain  in  August 
1861,  colonel  of  volunteers  in  September,  briga- 
dier-general the  following  April ;  and  after 
serving  in  the  Shenandoah  and  northern  Vir- 
ginia campaigns,  was  mortally  wounded  at 
Fredericksburg. 

Bayard,  James  Asheton  (ist),  American 
■statesman;  b.  Philadelphia,  28  July  1767;  d.  6 
Aug.  181 5.  He  was  the  son  of  Dr.  James  A. 
(see  Bay.\rd  F.vmily)  ;  was  adopted  by  his 
uncle.  Col.  John  (q.v.),  graduated  at  Prince- 
ton, 1784 ;  studied  law,  and  settled  in  Wilming- 
ton, Del.,  permanently.  In  1796  he  was  elected 
(Federalist)  Representative  in  Congress  and 
became  the  leader  of  the  party  in  the  House, 
noted  as  a  constitutional  lawyer ;  and  when  the 
peculiar  system  of  presidential  elections  at  that 
time  had  tied  Jefferson  and  Burr  for  the  presi- 
■dencj^  though  Jefferson  was  the  only  one  really 
voted  for.  Bayard  threw  his  vote  for  Jeffer- 
:son  and  elected  him  as  the  less  obnoxious  of  the 
two.  John  Adams  appointed  him  minister  to 
France,  but  he  declined.  He  served  in  the 
House  till  1803 ;  in  1804    he  was  elected  to  the 


Senate,  and  held  the  seat  till  1813,  voting  against 
the  War  of  181 2.  He  was  made  peace  commis- 
sioner in  1813  by  Madison,  and,  declining  the 
ministry  to  Russia,  was  one  of  those  who  con- 
cluded the  Treaty  of  Ghent,  December  1814- 
but  died  shortly  after  his  return. 

Bayard,  James  Asheton  (2d),  American 
statesman,  son  of  the  foregoing:  b.  Wilmington, 
Del.,  15  Nov.  1799;  d.  there,  13  June  1880.  He 
became  a  lawyer  of  high  rank  in  Wilmington, 
United  States  attorney  for  Delaware  under  Van 
Euren,  and  was  elected  United  States  senator, 
1851,  1857,  and  1863,  as  a  Democrat;  but  on  the 
last  occasion  the  "iron-clad"  oath  of  allegiance 
being  required  of  public  officers  at  that  time, 
Mr.  Bayard  entered  a  protest  against  it  as  a 
violation  of  State  rights,  and  resigned  his  seat 
at  once  on  taking  it.  His  successor,  George  R. 
Riddle  (q.v.),  dying  four  years  later  after  the 
war,  he  accepted  an  election  to  fill  out  his 
own  unexpired  term,  to  March  1869;  during 
most  of  the  time  was  chairman  of  the  Judi- 
ciary Committee,  and  gained  an  honorable  celeb- 
rity for  his  punctilious  sense  of  public  honor 
in  the  matter  of  the  Credit  Mobilier  (q.v.).  His 
son,  Thomas  F.  (q.v.),  was  chosen  to  succeed 
him  by  the  same  legislature  which  had  elected 
himself,  the  only  instance  of  the  kind  in  Ameri- 
can history.  He  lived  quietly  at  Wilmington 
during  the   remainder   of  his   life. 

Bayard,  John,  American  patriot:  b.  Bohe- 
mia Manor.  Md.,  11  Aug.  1738;  d.  7  Jan.  1807. 
(For  his  descent,  see  Bayard  Family.)  He 
was  a  prominent  Philadelphia  merchant,  mem- 
ber of  the  Sons  of  Liberty,  and  later  of  the 
Provincial  Congress,  1774-5,  and  of  the  Coun- 
cil of  Safety;  colonel  of  infantry  at  the  bat- 
tles of  Brandywine,  Germantown,  and  Prince- 
ton ;  member  of  the  State  board  of  war,  and 
speaker  of  its  House.  He  furnished  arms  to 
Congress  and  fitted  one  of  the  earliest  efficient 
privateers.  In  1785  he  was  elected  to  Congress. 
Somwhat  impoverished  by  his  sacrifices  in  the 
Revolution,  he  removed  permanently  to  New 
Brunswick,  N.  J.,  where  he  was  mayor,  county 
judge,  and  leading  magnate.  He  was  a  firm 
Federalist,  of  high  character. 

Bayard,  Nicholas,  American  colonial  offi- 
cial :  b.  Alphen.  Holland,  about  1644 ;  d.  New 
York,  1707.  (See  Bayard  Family.)  He  was 
double  nephew  ot  Peter  Stuyvesant,  by  blood 
and  marriage :  became  his  private  secretary  and 
surveyor  of  the  province,  secretary  of  it  after 
the  English  conquest,  and  mayor  in  1685.  He 
was  commander-in-chief  of  the  militia  of  the 
province,  and  one  of  the  three  resident  coun- 
cilors ;  and  had  to  flee  to  Albany  for  his  life 
on  Leisler's  usurpation  after  Andros'  over- 
throw, but  was  made  councilor  anew  on  Leis- 
ler's downfall.  On  Kidd's  arrest  for  piracy  in 
1699,  Bayard,  like  all  Gov.  Bellomont's  officials, 
was  accused  of  complicity,  and  visited  London 
to  clear  himself;  but  the  old  hates  of  the  Leis- 
ler  time  pursued  him,  and  on  charge  of  attempt- 
ing to  introduce  popery,  piracy,  and  slavery  into 
New  York  he  was  condemned  to  death  for  high 
treason.  William's  death  intervening,  however, 
he  was  released  and  restored  to  his  possessions 
by  an  order  in  council. 

Bayard,  ba-yar,  Pierre  du  Terrail  (Chev- 
alier de),  French  soldier:  b.  Chateau  Bayard, 
near  Grenoble,  1475;  d.  30  April  1524.  He  was 
descended  from  one  of  the  most  noble  families 


BAYARD 


in  Dauphiny,  and  at  the  age  of  13  became  page 
to  the  Duke  of  Savo\',  at  that  time  an  ally  of 
France.  Charles  VIII.,  struck  by  his  skill  and 
grace  in  riding,  asked  that  he  be  transferred  to 
his  service,  and  accordingly,  as  a  preparation 
to  being  attached  to  the  royal  suite,  j-oung 
Bayard  was  placed  in  the  household  of  Paul  of 
Luxembourg,  Count  de  Ligny.  where  he  was 
taught  all  the  feats  of  arms  and  niceties  of  chiv- 
alry which  were  then  held  necessary  to  consti- 
tute a  gentleman  and  a  soldier. 

His  first  experience  in  war  was  in  the  wild 
and  daring  march  of  Charles  VIII.,  with  a  small 
unsupported  army,  through  the  whole  length  of 
Italy,  to  invade  the  kingdom  of  Naples,  which 
was  won  and  lost  in  a  few  days  with  equal 
ease;  and  in  that  campaign,  he  greatly  distin- 
guished himself,  taking,  with  his  own  hand,  a 
stand  of  colors  in  the  battle  of  Verona.  After 
this,  while  serving  in  an  invading  army  in  Italy, 
after  a  battle  fought  near  i\Iilan,  in  the  heat  of 
pursuit  he  entered  that  citj^  pell-mell  with  the 
fugitives,  and  was  made  prisoner,  but,  in  con- 
sideration of  his  astonishing  valor,  was  sent 
back  without  ransom  by  Ludovico  Sforza, 
together  with  his  horse  and  arms.  In  Apulia 
he  defeated  a  Spanish  corps  commanded  by 
Alonzo  de  Soto-Mayor,  who  broke  his  parole 
and  slandered  Bayard,  in  return  for  which  the 
latter  challenged  and  slew  him  in  single  com- 
bat, and  afterward  covered  the  retreat  of  the 
whole  French  army,  and  defended  the  bridge 
over  the  Liris,  now  the  Garigliano,  single- 
handed  against  half  an  army.  For  this  feat  he 
received  an  augmentation  of  his  armorial  bear- 
ings, a  porcupine  bristling  with  spears,  with 
the  motto   Vires  agminis  u)ius  habct. 

A  real  type  of  the  ideal  knight-errant  of 
romance,  wherever  honor  was  to  be  won  or 
danger  incurred,  Bayard  was  there.  Desper- 
ately wounded  in  the  assault  of  Brescia,  he  was 
carried  to  the  house  of  a  nobleman  who  had 
fled,  abandoning  his  wife  and  daughters  to  the 
fate  which  befalls  women  in  a  sacked  city,  and 
from  which  the  wounded  enemy  alone  preserved 
them.  Half-recovered  from  his  wounds,  he 
joined  Gaston  de  Foix  before  Ravenna,  where 
with  his  own  hand  he  took  two  Spanish  standards 
and  converted  a  retreat  of  the  enemy  into 
a  rout.  In  the  subsequent  wars  with  Ferdinand 
the  Catholic  of  Spain  he  displayed  the  same 
chivalric  valor  and  the  same  generalship  among 
the  Pyrenees  which  he  had  displayed  in  his 
boyhood  among  the  passes  of  the  Alps  and 
Apennines.  In  the  dark  days  which  clouded  the 
latter  years  of  Louis  XII.,  when  Henry  VIII. 
brought  his  English  archers  to  back  the  Ger- 
man Maximilian  in  Flanders,  and  Terouanne 
and  Tournay  went  down,  with  but  feeble  resist- 
ance, before  the  allies,  Bayard  was  the  same  in 
adverse  as  he  had  been  in  prosperous  fortunes. 
Made  prisoner  at  the  disgraceful  battle  of  the 
Spurs,  it  was  again  his  glory  to  be  taken  under 
circumstances  of  such  honor  that,  once  more,  he 
was  dismissed,  with  his  horse  and  arms,  unran- 
somed.  It  was,  however,  in  his  noon  of  man- 
hood that  his  glory  shone  the  brightest.  When 
Francis  I.  invaded  Italy  after  his  accession  to 
the  throne  of  France,  it  was  Bayard  who  was 
the  precursor  of  his  march ;  who  made  Prosper 
Colonna,  at  the  very  moment  of  his  belief  that 
he  had  ambushed  and  surprised  him,  his  pris- 
oner :  who.  in  a  word,  paved  the  king's  wav  to 
the   magnificent   battle    of   Marignano.      In   that 


tremendous  conflict,  he  did  prodigies,  and  more 
than  any  or  all  beside  to  change  what  once 
seemed  a  lost  fight  into  a  victory.  At  its  close 
his  sword  conferred  the  accolade  on  the  shoul- 
der of  his  king,  Francis  I.,  who  deemed  it  honor 
enough  to  take  knighthood  at  the  hand  of  such 
a  paladin  as  Bayard.  The  fortunes  of  war, 
proverbially  fickle  and  changeful,  were  never 
more  so  than  at  this  epoch  ;  and  when,  a  short 
time  later,  Charles  V.  invaded  Champagne,  his 
wonderful  defense  of  the  open  town  of 
Mezieres  alone  prevented  his  penetrating  to  the 
heart  of  France,  of  which,  by  this  exploit,  he 
deserved,  as  he  obtained,  the  name  of  savior. 
His  next  war  was  his  last.  Genoa,  ever  an 
unwilling  conquest  of  the  French  arms,  revolted  ; 
and,  under  the  command  of  Bonnivet,  Bayard 
was  sent  to  reduce  the  city  to  obedience  and 
chastise  the  rebels.  In  the  first  instance  success 
attended  their  advance ;  but,  after  the  surrender 
of  Lodi  fortune  again  changed,  and,  foot  by 
foot,  the  French  were  beaten  out  of  their  con- 
quests. In  retreating  through  the  Val  d'Aosta 
the  French  rear  was  beaten,  Bonnivet  was 
severely  wounded,  and  the  safety  of  the  army 
was  committed  to  Bayard,  if  he  perchance  might 
save  it.  In  passing  the  river  Sesia  in  the  pres- 
ence of  a  superior  enemy,  as  Bayard  was  cover- 
ing the  rear  and  pressing  hard  upon  the  Span- 
iards, who  were  fast  giving  way  before  his 
impetuous  charge,  he  was  shot  through  the 
right  side  by  a  stone  from  an  arquebus,  which 
shattered  his  spine.  **Jesu,  my  God  !*  he  cried, 
"I  am  a  dead  man.^^  And  then  commanding 
that  he  should  be  placed  erect,  in  a  sitting  pos- 
ture, with  his  back  against  a  tree,  with  his  face 
to  the  Spaniards,  and  the  cross-hilt  of  his 
sword  held  up  as  a  crucifix  before  him,  he  con- 
fessed his  sins  to  his  esquire,  sent  his  adieux 
to  his  king  and  country,  and  died  in  the  midst 
of  weeping  friends  and  admiring  enemies.  With 
his  fall  the  battle  was  ended.  The  French  lost 
everything, —  standards,  drums,  baggage,  ord- 
nance,—  and  their  retreat  to  France  became  a 
flight.  But  there  was  most  grief  that  they  had 
lost  Bayard.  His  body  remained  in  the  hands 
of  the  Spaniards;  but  they  embalmed  and  re- 
turned it  to  France  unsolicited.  A  simple  bust, 
with  a  brief  and  modest  Latin  inscription,  in  the 
church  of  the  Minorites,  in  Grenoble,  erected  in 
1823,  is  the  only  monument  to  one  of  the  purest 
and  most  beautiful  characters  in  mediaeval  his- 
tory, the  chevalier  sans  peur  et  sans  rcproche. 

Bayard's  life  was  written  by  Symphorien 
Champier  in  1525,  and  two  years  later  by  his 
secretary,  Jacques  Jofifrey,  known  as  the  'Hoyal 
servitor."  Other  accounts  have  been  translated 
by  E.  Walford  (London,  1867). 

Bayard,  Richard  Henry,  American  sena- 
tor, elder  brother  of  James  A.  (2d)  :  b.  Wil- 
mington, Del.,  1796;  d.  4  March  1868.  He 
graduated  at  Princeton,  1814,  and  became  a 
lawyer  in  Wilmington.  He  was  United  States 
Senator  183^-45,  resigning  for  a  few  weeks 
in  1839  to  be  chief  justice  of  Delaware,  but  ac- 
cepting an  immediate  re-election ;  then  charge 
d'affaires  at  Brussels  1850-3.  Returning,  he 
lived  in  Philadelphia  till  his  death. 

Bayard,  Samuel,  American  jurist,  son  of 
Col.  John:  b.  Philadelphia,  11  Jan.  1767;  d.  12 
May  1840.  He  was  valedictorian  at  Princeton, 
1784.  and  practised  law  in  Philadelphia  till  1791, 
when  he  was  made  clerk  of  the  United  States 


BAYARD  —  BAYER 


iupreme  court.  From  1794  to  1798  he  was  in 
London  as  agent  to  prosecute  American  claims 
before  the  British  admiralty  court ;  after  his 
return  was  presiding  judge  of  Westchester 
County  till  1803,  lawyer  in  New  York  1803-6, 
then  removed  permanently  to  Princeton,  X.  J. 
He  was  one  of  the  founders  of  Princeton  Theo- 
logical Seminary,  the  American  and  New  Jer- 
sey Bible  societies,  and  the  New  York  Histori- 
cal Society. 

Bayard,  Thomas  Francis,  American  states- 
man, son  of  James  A.  (2d;  :  b.  Wilmington, 
Del.,  29  Oct.  1828;  d.  26  Sept.  1898.  He  was 
intended  for  a  business  career,  and  was  placed 
in  a  New  York  house,  his  elder  brother  being 
designed  to  carry  on  the  family  succession  for 
public  life;  but,  the  latter  dying  in  1848,  Thomas 
returned  to  Wilmington,  studied  law  with  his 
father,  and  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1851. 
He  was  appointed  United  States  district-attor- 
ney, but  resigned  the  next  year ;  removed  to 
Philadelphia  1855  and  practised  law  two  years, 
then  returned  permanently  to  Wilmington.  He 
and  his  father  were  peace  Democrats,  unalter- 
ably opposed  to  the  war,  publicly  denounced 
it,  and  gave  no  help  to  its  prosecution.  Elected 
to  the  Senate  to  succeed  his  father,  he  took  his 
seat  4  ^larch  1869,  and  served  by  successive  re- 
■elections  till  1885.  He  was  one  of  the  leading 
Democratic  figures,  member  of  the  Finance,  Ju- 
diciary, and  other  important  committees,  and 
its  president  pro  tern,  in  1881  ;  was  on  the 
Electoral  Commission  of  1876 ;  continued  to 
champion  the  party  doctrines,  and  was  one  of 
the  most  prominent  candidates  for  the  presi- 
dency before  both  Democratic  national  conven- 
tions of  1880  and  1884.  On  4  March  1885  he 
was  appointed  secretary  of  state  in  the  Cabinet 
of  President  Cleveland;  and  in  this  position  had 
his  share  of  important  and  vexatious  questions. 
such  as  the  Bering  Sea  seal-fishery  matter,  and 
treaties  with  Great  Britain  and  Russia.  He  was 
United  States  ambassador  to  Great  Britain 
1893-7,  in  Cleveland's  second  term,  the  first 
British  minister  to  hold  the  title  of  ambassador. 

Bayard  Family,  a  remarkable  succession 
of  American  public  leaders,  statesmen,  and  ju- 
rists, identified  for  two  and  a  half  centuries 
with  the  Middle  States  from  New  York  to 
Maryland,  and  for  a  century  and  a  quarter  al- 
most continuously  in  public  service.  They 
descended  from  a  family  of  French  Huguenot 
refugees,  whose  ancestor  was  a  Paris  theolog- 
ical professor  driven  to  Holland  to  escape  perse- 
cution about  1580.  His  son  Samuel  became  a 
•wealthy  Amsterdam  merchant  and  married^  the 
accomplished,  energetic,  and  capable  sister 
(Anna)  of  Peter  Stuj'vesant,  the  last  governor 
of  the  Dutch  New  Netherlands,  who  himself 
married  Bayard's  equally  accomplished  sister 
Judith,  a  great  lady  of  her  time.  Samuel  died 
in  Holland:  and  his  widow  with  her  three  sons 
accompanied  her  brother  to  Manhattan  Island, 
where  she  took  up  an  estate  of  200  acres,  includ- 
ing the  site  of  the  Astor  Library.  Of  these 
sons,  Nicholas  became  secretary  of  New  Nether- 
lands and  later  of  English  New  York  payor, 
commander-in-chief  of  the  colony's  militia,  and 
practically  the  head  of  the  colony  —  a  perilous 
honor  which  twice  brought  him  to  the  verge  of 
destruction.  His  brother  Peter,  however,  though 
not  personally  conspicuous,  became  the  ancestor 
of  the  distinguished   Bayards  of  the    18th  and 


19th  centuries.  Peter's  son  Samuel  joined  the 
Labadists  (see  Labadie,  Je.\n;,  a  sect  of  com- 
munists otherwise  much  like  the  Quakers,  and 
removed  to  Maryland.  Of  his  grandsons.  Col. 
John  was  a  leading  Philadelphia  merchant,  pa- 
triot, and  soldier,  representative  in  Congress, 
a  county  magnate  in  Marjdand  till  after  the 
Revolution,  later  judge  and  Federalist  pillar; 
his  son  Samuel,  lawyer,  clerk  of  the  supreme 
court,  United  States  claim  agent,  and  judge, 
was  one  of  the  founders  of  the  New  York 
Historical  Society  and  the  American  Bible  So- 
ciety. Col.  John's  twin  brother,  Dr.  James  A., 
was  father  of  James  A.,  the  noted  Federalist 
statesman  of  Jefferson's  and  Madison's  time, 
leader  of  the  Federalists  in  the  House  of  Rep- 
resentatives, and  the  one  whose  vote  gave  the 
presidency  to  Jefferson  instead  of  Burr,  senator, 
and  peace  commissioner.  The  two  sons  of  the 
latter  James  A.,  Richard  H.  and  James  A.  (2d), 
were  both  United  States  senators  of  distinction 
from  the  State  of  Delaware,  the  one  a  Whig  and 
the  other  a  Democrat  —  the  only  instance  of 
the  kind  in  United  States  history;  the  former 
also  chosen  chief  justice  of  Delaware.  The  son 
of  James  A.  (2d),  Thomas  F.,  was  also  senator 
to  succeed  his  father ;  so  that  father,  two  sons, 
and  grandson  represented  Delaware  in  the 
Senate  47  years  between  1805  and  1885.  Thomas 
F.  was  further  a  member  of  the  Electoral 
Commission  of  1876,  and  secretary  of  state 
under  Cleveland.  This  unique  record  of  distin- 
guished public  position  is  the  more  notable  that 
it  has  been  on  the  highest  plane  of  public 
character  as  well  as  capacity  —  conspicuous  for 
dignity,  probity,  and  scrupulous  sense  of  those 
official  proprieties  which  shun  the  appearance  of 
evil  and  therefore  bar  out  its  reality. 

Bayazid,  or  Bayezeed,  Turkey  in  Asia, 
a  town  in  the  pashalic  of,  and  140  miles  south- 
east from  Erzeroom,  southwest  of  Mount  Ara- 
rat, from  the  base  of  which  it  is  separated^  by 
a  lava-covered  plain  10  miles  wide.  It  is  situ- 
ated on  the  declivity  of  a  rugged  eminence,  the 
summit  of  which  is  fortified  and  surrounded 
bj^  a  wall  and  ramparts.  The  town  is  in  a 
ruinous  state;  most  of  the  houses  are  small 
and  ill  built,  and  the  streets  are  extremely 
filthy.  Besides  the  extensive  palace  of  the 
pasha,  the  town  contains  two  Christian  churches, 
three  mosques,  and  the  famous  monastery  of 
Kara-Keleeseh.  celebrated  for  its  beautiful  arch- 
itecture and  antiquity.  The  inhabitants  consist 
chiefly  of  Kurds  and  Armenians.  Kurdish  is 
the  common  language  of  the  place.  Some  trade 
is  carried  on  with  Persia,  on  the  frontiers  of 
which  the  town  is  situated.  It  was  occupied  and 
held  by  the  Russians  for  a  time  in  1877.  Pop. 
5,000.  ' 

Bayazid,  ba-ya-zed',  I.  and  II.  See  Baj.vzet. 

Baybay,  biiT'baT,  Philippines,  a  town  of  the 
province  of  Leyte,  situated  on  the  west  coast, 
40  miles  southwest  of  Tanaban.     Pop.   17)367- 

Bayberry.     See  Caxdle  Berry. 

Bayer,  bi'er.  Gottlieb  Siegfried,  German 
philologist,  grandson  of  Johann  Bayer:  b. 
Konigsberg,  1694:  d.  St.  Petersburg,  21  Feb. 
1738.  He  displayed  from  his  earliest  childhood 
a  singular  passion  for  Chinese  and  other  East- 
ern languages.  He  studied  the  Coptic  at  Berlin, 
under  La  Crosse,  Arabic  at  Halle,  under  Solo- 
mon Negri,  and  at  the  same  time  opened  _  a 
correspondence  with  the  missionaries  in  India, 


BAYER  — BAYLE 


in  order  to  obtain  more  information  about  the 
Sanskrit  and  Hindustanee.  On  the  foundation 
ot  the  academy  of  sciences  in  St.  Petersburg 
in  1726,  he  became  professor  of  Greek  and  Ro- 
man antiquities.  Besides  his  extraordinary 
knowledge  of  languages,  Bayer  was  an  eminent 
historical  and  archasological  scholar.  His  mon- 
ument is  his  work  published  in  1730,  ^Museum 
Sinicum,  in  quo  Sinicae  linguje  et  literaturse 
ratio  explicatur,^  containing  a  Chinese  grammar, 
a  grammar  of  the  dialect  of  Shin-Shu,  and 
many  interesting  notices  on  Chinese  literature. 

Bayer,  Johann,  German  astronomer:  b. 
Augsburg,  1572;  d.  1660.  He  is  celebrated  for 
a  large  work  published  in  1603,  under  the  title 
of  ^Uranometria,^  and  republished  in  1627 
under  the  title  of  *Coelum  Stellatum  Chris- 
tianum,^  which  contains  a  minute  description 
and  a  catalogue  of  the  constellations.  He 
changed  the  name  because  he  had  withdrawn 
the  heathen  names  of  the  constellations,  and 
supplied  their  names  by  others  taken  from  the 
Bible,  taking  those  of  the  northern  constellations 
from  the  New,  and  those  of  the  southern  con- 
stellations from  the  Old  Testament,  and  giving 
the  names  of  the  12  apostles  to  the  signs  of  the 
zodiac.  His  letters  were  adopted  by  Flamsteed 
and  others,  and  are  now  universally  used,  but 
the  heathen  names  have  kept  their  ground.  He 
contributed  much  to  the  simplification  of  astro- 
nomical science,  by  avoiding  the  old  unintel- 
ligible nomenclature  and  by  denoting  the  stars 
m  every  constellation  by  the  letters  oi  the 
Greek  alphabet  in  their  order.  Bayer  was  also 
a  good  student  of  law  and  an  able  theologian. 
He  was  settled  as  minister  over  different 
parishes,  and  so  zealous  in  his  advocacy  of 
Protestantism  that  he  was  called  "Os  Protestan- 
tium.*'     The  Emperor  Leopold  ennobled  him. 

Bayer,  Karl  Robert  Emerich  von,  German 
novelist,  who  wrote  under  the  pseudonym  of 
Robert  Byr:  b.  Bregenz,  15  April  1835.  He  is 
a  very  popular  and  exceedingly  prolific  story- 
teller, and  his  voluminous  fictions  have  had  a 
wide  circulation.  Among  his  best-known  novels 
are  <The  Struggle  for  Life>  ;  *  Masks'  ;  <  A  Se- 
cret Dispatch'  ;  ^The  Road  to  Fortune'  ; 
^Meadow  Maidenhair'  ;   ^The  Ironworm.' 

Bayeux,  ba-ye,  an  ancient  town  of  France, 
department  Calvados,  about  16  miles  northwest 
of  Caen.  It  possesses  many  antique  houses  of 
singular  appearance,  and  has  a  beautiful  cathe- 
dral dating  from  the  12th  to  the  15th  century, 
and  having  a  crypt  under  the  choir  several 
centuries  earlier.  Its  noble  portal  and  three 
towers  render  it  especially  noteworthy.  The 
local  industries  include  the  manufacture  of 
porcelain  and  lace,  bonnet-making  and  cotton 
spinning.  There  is  a  public  library  and  mu- 
seum, in  which  one  of  the  most  interesting  relics 
of  the  Middle  Ages  is  preserved.  See  Bayeux 
Tapestry.     Pop    (1896)    7,900. 

Bayeux  Tapestry,  a  celebrated  piece  of 
medieval  embroidery  of  sewed  work  originally 
found  in  the  cathedral  of  Bayeux,  in  the  library 
of  which  town  it  is  still  preserved.  The  fact 
that  such  a  tapestry  existed  was  brought  to 
light  by  M.  Lancelot,  who  communicated  a 
description  of  an  illuminated  drawing  of  a  por- 
tion of  it  to  the  Academy  of  Inscriptions  and 
Belles-lettres  in  1724.  This  led  to  the  discovery 
of  the  tapestry  itself  in  1728,  whereupon  various 
speculations  arose  as  to  its  date,  its  origin,  and 


its  purport.  According  to  tradition  it  is  a  con- 
temporary representation  of  the  invasion  and 
conquest  of  England  by  the  Normans,  and  the 
discussions  upon  it  have  proved  that  tradition 
is  right.  It  is  thus  not  only  valuable  as  a  relic 
of  the  art  of  the  Middle  Ages,  but  it  has  also 
great  historical  value,  inasmuch  as  it  supplies 
several  details  of  the  great  event  which  it  por- 
trays which  are  not  found  in  the  chroniclers, 
and  also  gives  us  an  exact  picture  of  Norman 
costumes  and  manners.  It  contains  1,512  figures 
with  inscriptions  in  Latin  giving  the  names  and 
subjects.  It  is  supposed  to  have  been  worked 
by  the  needle  of  Matilda,  queen  of  William  the 
Conqueror,  assisted  by  her  attendants,  and  tc 
have  been  presented  by  Odo,  bishop  of  BayeuX; 
the  half-brother  of  William,  to  the  church  in 
which  it  was  found.  Whether  this  be  so  or 
not,  it  is  regarded  as  certain  that  the  tapestry 
is  not  later  than  the  nth  century.  During  the 
French  Revolution  the  tapestry  was  in  great 
danger  of  being  destroyed.  In  1803  it  was 
removed  to  Paris  by  order  of  Napoleon,  and 
when  he  was  meditating  the  invasion  of  Britain 
he  caused  it  to  be  carried  from  town  to  town 
and  exhibited  between  the  acts  in  the  theatres. 
It  was  brought  back  to  Bayeux  in  1804,  when 
it  was  placed  in  the  hotel  de  ville,  instead  of 
the  cathedral,  its  former  resting-place.  The 
length  of  the  tapestry  is  230  feet,  and  its  height 
20  inches.  It  is  in  an  excellent  state  of  preser- 
vation. There  are  good  representations  of  it 
produced  photograpically.  Consult  J.  C.  Bruce's 
'Bayeux  Tapestry'    (1885).     See  Tapestry, 

Bayfield,  Matthew  Albert,  English  clergy- 
man:  b.  Edgbaston,  17  June  1852.  He  was  edu- 
cated at  the  King  Edward's  School,  in  Birming- 
ham, and  at  Clare  College,  Cambridge ;  was  assis- 
tant master  in  the  Blackheath  School,  1875-9, 
and  in  Marlborough  College,  1879-81 :  head- 
master's assistant  in  Malvern  College,  1881-90; 
headmaster  of  Christ  College,  Brecon,  1890-5, 
and  headmaster  of  Eastbourne  College,  1900. 
He  published  editions  of  'Ion,  Alcestis,  and 
Medea,'  and  also  'Septem  contra  Thebas'  (with 
Dr.  Verrall)  ;  'Iliad'  (with  Dr.  Leaf)  ;  'Latin 
Prose  for  Lower  Forms.'    etc. 

Bayle,  bal,  Pierre,  French  critic  and  phi- 
losopher: b.  Carlat,  near  Foix  (Languedoc), 
1647;  d.  Rotterdam,  28  Dec.  1706.  At  the  age 
of  19  he  entered  the  College  of  Puy-Laureps, 
to  finish  his  studies.  All  books  were  eagerly 
devoured  by  him;  his  taste  for  logic  led  him 
particularly  to  study  religious  controversies,  but 
Amyot's  'Plutarch'  and  'Montaigne'  were  iiis 
favorite  works.  In  Toulouse  he  studied  philos- 
ophy with  the  Jesuits.  The  arguments  of  his 
professors,  and  still  more  his  friendly  discus- 
sions with  a  Catholic  priest  who  dwelt  near 
him,  confirmed  his  doubts  of  the  orthodoxy  of 
Protestantism,  so  that  he  resolved  to  change  his 
religion.  His  family,  however,  tried  all  means 
to  regain  him,  and  after  17  months  he  returned 
to  his  old  faith.  To  escape  from  the  punish- 
ment of  perpetual  excommunication  which 
the  Roman  Catholic  Church  then  pronounced 
against  apostates,  he  went  to  Geneva,  and  thence 
to  Copet,  where  Count  Dohna  intrusted  him 
with  the  education  of  his  sons,  where  he  studied 
the  philosophy  of  Des  Cartes.  But  after  some 
years  he  returned  to  France  and  settled  in 
Rouen,  where  he  was  employed  in  tearhir.g. 
In   1675  he  obtained  the  philosophical  chair   at 


BAYLEN  —  BAYLISS 


Sedan,  where  he  taught  with  distinction  until 
the  suppression  of  this  academy  in  1681.  He 
was  alterward  invited  to  discharge  the  same 
duties  at  Rotterdam.  The  appearance  of  a  comet 
in  1680  induced  him  to  pubHsh,  in  1682,  his 
'Pensees  Diverses  sur  la  Comete,'  in  which  he 
discussed  various  subjects  of  metaphysics,  mor- 
als, theology,  history,  and  politics.  It  was  fol- 
lowed by  his  'Critique  Generale  de  I'Histoire 
du  Calvinisme  de  Maimbourg.^  This  work, 
received  with  equal  approbation  by  the  Catholics 
and  Protestants,  and  esteemed  by  Maimbourg 
himself,  excited  the  jealousy  of  his  colleague, 
the  theologian  Jerieu,  whose  *  Refutation  du  P. 
Maimbourg^  had  not  succeeded,  and  involved 
Bayle  in  many  disputes.  He  afterward  under- 
took a  periodical  work,  *Nouvelles  de  la  Repub- 
lique  des  Lettres,^   in   1684. 

The  death  of  his  father  and  of  his  two 
brothers,  together  with  the  religious  persecu- 
tions in  France,  induced  him  to  write  his  'Com- 
mentaire  Philosophique'  on  the  words  of  the 
Gospel :  ^'Compel  them  to  come  in'' ;  which  is 
not  equal  in  merit  to  his  other  works.  Bayle 
himself  was  unwilling  to  acknowledge  it ;  but 
Jurieu,  who  probably  recognized  its  author  by 
the  zeal  with  which  toleration  is  defended  in 
this  work,  attacked  it  with  violence,  and  his 
influence  was  sufficient  to  lead  the  magistrates 
of  Rotterdam  to  remove  Bayle  from  the  office  in 
1693. 

He  now  devoted  all  his  attention  to  the  com- 
position of  his  *Dictionnaire  Historique  et  Cri- 
tique,^ which  he  published  in  1696.  This  was 
the  first  work  which  appeared  under  his  name. 
Jurieu  opposed  him  anew,  and  caused  the  con- 
sistory, in  which  he  had  the  greatest  influence, 
to  make  a  severe  attack  upon  him.  Bayle 
promised  to  remove  everything  which  the  consis- 
tory deemed  offensive ;  but  finding  the  public 
had  other  views,  and  preferring  the  satisfaction 
of  his  readers  to  that  of  his  judges,  he  left  the 
work,  with  the  exception  of  a  few  trifles, 
unaltered.  He  found  two  new  enemies  in  Jac- 
quelot  and  Le  Clerc,  who  both  attacked  his 
religion :  others  persecuted  him  as  the  enemy 
of  his  sect  and  his  new  country. 

The  best  editions  of  his  ^Dictionnaire  His- 
torique' are  that  of  1740,  in  4  volumes  folio 
(Amsterdam  and  Leyden),  and  that  in  16  vol- 
umes, published  1820-4  at  Paris. 

Baylen,  bi-lan',  or  Bailen,  a  town  of  Spain, 
province  of  Jaen,  at  the  foot  of  the  Sierra  Mor- 
ena,  22  miles  north  of  Jaen.  It  commands  the 
road  leading  from  Castile  into  Andalusia,  and 
derives  its  celebrity  from  the  events  which  took 
place  in  its  vicinity  leading  to  the  "Capitulation 
of  Baylen,"  signed  20  July  1808,  when  Gen. 
Dupont,  and  about  20,000  French  troops  under 
his  command,  surrendered  to  the  Spaniards  on 
condition  of  their  being  conveyed  to  France  by 
the  Spanish  government ;  but  the  latter  stipula- 
tion was  not  carried  into  effect.  The  incapacity 
of  Dupont  was  mainly  instrumental  in  bringing 
about  this  result,  which  inspired  the  Spaniards 
with  confidence,  and  was  always  regarded  by 
Napoleon  as  the  principal  source  of  the  French 
disasters  in  the  Peninsula.     Pop.  (1887)  8,580. 

Bayley,  James  Roosevelt,  American  theo- 
logian: b.  New  York,  23  Aug.  1814;  d. 
Newark,  N.  J.,  3  Oct.  1877.  He  studied  at 
Trinity  College,  Hartford,  and  became  a  min- 
ister of  the  Protestant  Episcopal  Church;  but, 


in  1842,  was  converted  to  the  Roman  Catholic 
faith ;  and,  after  studying  at  Paris  and  Rome,, 
was  ordained  a  priest  in  1844.  He  accepted 
the  chair  of  belles-lettres  at  St.  John's  College, 
Fordham,  and  was  its  acting  president  in  1846. 
After  serving  as  secretary  to  Archbishop 
Hughes,  he  was  consecrated  the  first  Bishop 
of  Newark,  N.  J.,  in  1853.  In  1872  he  be- 
came Archbishop  of  Baltimore,  INId.  He  was 
the  founder  of  Seton  Hall  College  and  several 
other  institutions.  His  <  Pastorals  for  the  Peo- 
ple,' and  *  History  of  the  Catholic  Church  on 
the  Island  of  New  York,'  are  his  chief  writ- 
ings. 

Bayley,  Richard,  American  physician:  b. 
Fairfield,  Conn.,  1745;  d.  Staten  Island,  N.  Y.,. 
17  Aug.  1801.  After  studying  medicine  in  Eng- 
land, chiefly  in  the  London  hospitals  and  under 
Dr.  Hunter,  he  returned  to  America  in  1776 
as  a  surgeon  in  Gen.  Howe's  army,  but  settled 
in  New  York  the  following  year.  He  was  the 
first  professor  of  anatomy  in  Columbia  College 
(1792),  and  for  a  time  health  officer  of  the  port 
of  New  York,  where  his  vigorous  advocacy  of 
proper  quarantine  laws  was  finally  successful. 
A  careful  student  of  his  profession,  he  suggest- 
ed a  new  method  of  treatment  for  croup,  and 
maintained  (1797)  that  in  its  origin,  yellow 
fever  was  due  to  local  causes  and  was  not 
contagious.  He  published:  < Cases  of  the  An- 
gina Tracheatis,  with  the  Mode  of  Cure^ 
(1781)  ;  ^  Essay  on  the  Yellow  Fever'  (1797); 
^Letters  on  Yellow  Fever'    (1798). 

Bayley,  William  Shirley,  American  geolo- 
gist: b.  Baltimore,  Md.,  10  Nov.  1861.  He 
graduated  at  Johns  Hopkins  in  1883,  and  since 
1887  has  been  assistant  geologist  of  the  Lake 
Superior  division  of  the  United  States  Geolog- 
ical Survey,  and  since  1886  associate  editor  of 
the  ^American  Naturalist.'  He  is  the  author 
(with  Prof.  C.  R.  Van  Hise)  of  the  < Report 
on  the  Geology  of  the  Marquette  Iron  District 
of  Michigan'  and  has  been  a  frequent  contrib- 
utor   to    scientific   journals. 

Baylies,  ba'liz,  Francis,  American  states- 
man, member  of  Congress  from  Massachusetts 
for  several  sessions:  b.  1784;  d.  Taunton,  Mass., 
28  Oct.  1852.  In  the  presidential  contest  which 
finally  resulted  in  the  election  of  John  Q. 
Adams,  he  threw  the  only  electoral  vote  for 
Jackson  that  was  given  from  New  England. 
He  was  for  a  short  time  minister  to  Brazil. 
He  published  in  1828  a  history  of  the  old  colonj^ 
of   Plymouth. 

Bayliss,  Clara  Kern,  American  author:  b. 
near  Kalamazoo.  Mich.,  5  March  1848.  She  was 
married  to  Alfred  Bayliss  in  1871.  and  has  pub- 
lished ^In  Brook  and  Bavou'  (1897)  ;  'Lolami. 
the  Little  Cliff  Dweller'   (1901). 

Bayliss,  Jeremiah  Henry,  American  Meth-  ^ 
odist  Episcopal  clergyman:  b.  Wednesbury> 
England,  20  Dec.  1835 :  d.  Bay  View,  Mich.,  14 
Aug.  1889.  He  was  educated  at  Genesee  College, 
N.  Y.,  and  was  prominent  as  pastor  of  Park 
Avenue  and  Trinity  churches,  Chicago;  Roberti 
Park  and  Trinity  churches,  Indianapolis ;  Cen- 
tral Church,  Detroit ;  and  Walnut  Hills  Church, 
Cincinnati.  He  edited  the  Western  Christian 
Advocate  in  1884  and  1888. 

Bayliss,  Sir  Wyke,  English  artist:  b- 
Madeley,  21  Oct.  1835;  d.  London  6  April  1906. 
He  was  educated  at  the  Royal  Academy,  and  was 


BAYLOR  —  BAYNES 


president  of  the  Royal  Society  of  British  Art- 
ists from  1888.  His  paintings  inckide  <  La  Sainte 
Chapelle^  (1865);  *St.  Mark's,  Venice'  (1880); 
*St.  Peter's,  Rome'  (1888);  ^The  Cathedral, 
Amiens'  (1900)  ;  ^The  Golden  Duorno,  Pisa' 
(1892),  etc.  His  publications  include  "^The  Wit- 
ness of  Art'  (1876)  ;  '^The  Enchanted  Island' 
(1888)  ;  ^The  Likeness  of  Christ  Rex  Regum' 
(1898)  ;  "^Five  Great  Painters  of  the  Victorian 
Era'    (1902). 

Baylor,  Frances  Courtenay.  See  Barnum, 
F.  C.  B. 

Baylor,  Robert  Emmett  Bledsoe,  Ameri- 
can lawyer :  b.  Lincoln  County,  Ky.,  10  May 
1793;  d.  Gay  Hill,  Tex.,  6  Jan.  1874.  I"  the 
War  of  1812  he  served  under  Col.  Boswell  and 
took  part  in  the  engagement  near  Fort  ]^.Ieigs. 
Admitted  to  the  bar  in  Kentucky,  he  later  re- 
moved to  Alabama  (1820),  acquired  a  large 
practice,  and  became  prominent  in  politics,  being 
a  representative  in  Congress,  1829-31.  Later  he 
emigrated  to  Texas,  then  a  republic,  and  was 
a  district  judge  for  25  years,  A  loyal  member 
of  the  Baptist  denomination,  he  gave  largely  in 
money  and  land  to  establishing  one  of  its  col- 
leges at  Independence  (1845),  and  in  recogni- 
tion of  his  munificence  it  was  named  Baylor 
University    (q.v.). 

Baylor  University,  a  co-educational  insti- 
tution in  Waco,  Tex.,  controlled  by  the  Baptist 
Church.  It  was  founded  in  1845  on  a  charter 
granted  by  the  republic  of  Texas,  and  named 
for  Robert  E.  Baylor  (q.v.).  Its  first  location 
was  in  Independence,  Tex. ;  it  was  provided 
with  a  university  course  in  185 1  ;  in  1861 
President  Burleson  (who  had  been  its  head  for 
10  years)  and  the  entire  faculty  resigned  and 
organized  a  university  in  Waco,  Tex.,  giving 
it  the  name  of  that  city.  The  two  institutions 
were  consolidated  in  1882,  the  earlier  one  being 
removed  to  Waco,  and  President  Burleson  con- 
tinuing at  the  head  of  the  institution.  At  the 
close  of  1901  the  university  reported :  Profes- 
sors and  instructors,  47 ;  students,  436 ;  volumes 
in  the  library,  11,000;  grounds  and  buildings 
valued  at  $200,000;  benefactions,  $82,100;  in- 
come, $125,000;  number  of  graduates,  660. 

Bayly,  Ada  Ellen,  a  popular  English  nov- 
elist, best  known  as  Edna  Lyall  :  b.  Brighton, 
about  1859 ;  d.  Eastbourne,  9  February  1903. 
She  has  written  ^Won  by  Waiting'  (1879)  ; 
<Donovan'  (1882);  ^We  Two'  (1884);  ^n 
the  Golden  Days'  (1885);  <Knight  Errant' 
(1887);  ^Autobiography  of  a  Slander'  (1887); 
< Derrick  Vaughan,  Novelist'  (1889)  ;  <A  Har- 
dy Norseman'  (1889)  ;  ^Doreen'  (1894)  ;  ^How 
the  Children  Raised  the  Wind'  (1895);  ^Auto- 
biography of  a  Truth'  (1896)  ;  *^ Wayfaring 
Men'  (1897);  < Hope  the  Hermit'  (1898);  <In 
Spite  of  All'  (1901)  ;  'The  Hinderers'  (1902), 
•etc.  Although  her  novels  are  decidedly  ro- 
mantic, their  aim  is  to  depict  the  development 
•of   character. 

Bayly,  Lewis,  Welsh  prelate:  d.  26  Oct. 
163 1.  He  was  the  author  of  'The  Practice  of 
Piety,*  a  very  popular  religious  book  which  had 
great  influence  on  Bunyan.  It  not  only  passed 
through  many  English  editions,  but  was  also 
translated  into  the  Indian  language  by  John 
Eliot,  and  was  used  by  him  in  his  work  among 
the  Indians. 


Bayly,  Thomas  Haynes,  English  song- 
writer and  author :  b.  Bath,  England,  13  Oct. 
1797;  d.  London,  22  April  1839.  He  began  the 
study  of  law  under  his  father,  and  later  went 
to  St.  Mary  Hall,  Oxford,  in  order  to  prepare 
for  the  Church ;  but  abandoned  both  and  devoted 
himself  to  literature.  He  gained  great  popu- 
larity with  some  songs,  and  several  dramas  and 
novels  by  him  also  hit  the  public  taste.  With 
Henry  Bishop  he  published  'Melodies  of  Va- 
rious Nations.'  Among  his  songs  some  of  the 
best-known  are:  'I'd  Be  a  Butterfly'  ;  'The  Sol- 
dier's Tear'  ;  'We  Met — 'twas  in  a  Crowd'  ; 
and  'She  Wore  a  Wreath  of  Roses.'  His  best 
play  is  'Perfection';  among  his  novels  are 
'The  Aylmers'  ;  and  'A  Legend  of  Killarney.' 
'Loves  of  the  Butterflies';  and  'Songs  of  the 
Old  Chateau,'  are  volumes  of  songs  and  ballads; 
and  his  other  works  include  'Kindness  in 
Women,'  a  collection  of  tales;  'Parliamentary 
Letters  and  other  Poems,'  and  'Rough  Sketches 
of  Bath.' 

Bayly,  Thomas  Henry,  American  states- 
man: b.  Accomac  County,  Va.,  1810;  d.  22  June 
1856.  He  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1830,  and 
was  for  several  years  a  member  of  the  General 
Assembly  of  his  State.  In  1842  he  was  elected 
judge  of  the  circuit  superior  court  of  law,  an 
office  which  he  resigned  in  1844,  when  elected 
a  representative  in  the  national  Congress ;  and 
by  successive  re-elections  he  held  the  latter  po- 
sition till  his  death.  As  chairman  of  the  Com- 
mittee on  Ways  and  Means,  he  was  the  leader 
of  the  house  during  many  sessions,  and  was 
highly  respected  by  men  of  all  parties,  as  well 
for  his  urbanity  and  dignity,  as  for  his  ability. 
The  family  home  in  which  he  died  was  estab- 
lished by  his  ancestors  from  England  in  1666, 
and  it  is  remarkable  that  he  held  just  the  same 
public  offices  that  had  been  filled  by  his  father. 

Baynam,  William,  American  surgeon:  b. 
Caroline  County,  Va.,  1749;  d.  8  Dec.  1814.  He 
completed  his  medical  education  in  London, 
where  he  resided  for  16  years,  and  was  long 
assistant  demonstrator  to  the  professor  of  anat- 
omy and  surgery  in  St.  Thomas'  Hospital.  He 
was  probably  unsurpassed  in  his  time  as  an 
anatomist,  and  performed  many  remarkable 
operations.  He  furnished  some  excellent  prepa- 
rations in  the  museum  of  Cline  and  Cooper  in 
London,  and  wrote  various  papers  for  medical 
journals. 

Bayne,  Peter,  Scottish  writer:  b.  Fodderty, 
Scotland,  19  Oct.  1830;  d.  London,  10  Feb. 
1896.  He  studied  theology  at  Edinburgh  and 
philosophy  under  Sir  William  Hamilton,  and 
was  editor  successively  of  the  Glasgow  Com- 
vionwealth ;  Edinburgh  Jl'ituess;  London  Dial; 
and  Weekly  Rcvieiv;  and  associate  editor  of  the 
Christian  World.  He  was  author  of  'The 
Christian  Life:  Social  and  Individual'  (1855); 
'Essays  Biographical,  Critical,  etc'  (1859)  ;  'Life 
and  Letters  of  Hugh  Miller'  (1871);  'Testi- 
mony of  Christ  to  Christianity'  (1862)  ; 
'The  Days  of  Jezebel,'  a  drama  (1872)  :  'The 
Chief  Actors  in  the  Puritan  Revolution' 
(1878);  'Life  of  Martin  Luther'    (1887). 

Baynes,  Thomas  Spencer,  English  philos- 
opher: b.  Wellington.  Somersetshire,  March 
1823  ;  d.  29  May  1887.  He  was  educated  at  Bath, 
Bristol  College,  and  the  University  of  Edin- 
burgh, where  he  became  (1851-5)  assistant  to 
Sir  William  Hamilton,  then  professor  of  logic. 


BAYOMBONG  —  BAYRHOFFER 


In  1857  he  was  appointed  examiner  in  logic  and 
mental  philosophy  in  the  University  of  London; 
became  (1S57-154)  assistant  editor  of  the  Daily 
News,  to  which  he  contributed  many  noteworthy 
articles  on  the  American  Civil  War,  and  at 
this  time  wrote  for  several  literary  journals, 
such  as  the  ^Athenjeum'  and  the  'Literary 
Gazette.^  In  1864  he  was  elected  professor  of 
logic,  rhetoric,  and  metaphysics  in  the  Univer- 
sity of  St.  Andrews.  Besides  his  contributions 
to  reviews  he  published  a  translation  of  the 
'Port  Royal  Logic,^  with  notes  (1851);  and 
an  'Essay  on  the  New  Analytic  of  Logical 
Forms*  (1852).  He  was  appointed  editor  of 
the  ninth  edition  of  the  'Encyclopaedia  Britan- 
nica*  (being  subsequently  assisted  by  Prof. 
Robertson  Smith). 

Bayomboiig,  bi-yom-bong',  Philippines, 
the  capital  of  the  province  of  Nueva  Vizcaya, 
Luzon,  situated  on  the  Magat  River.  It  is  the 
centre  of  a  fertile  rice  and  tobacco  region.  Pop. 
3,691. 

Bayonet,  a  straight,  sharp-pointed  weapon, 
generally  triangular,  intended  to  be  fixed  upon 
the  muzzle  of  a  rifle  or  musket,  which  is  thus 
transformed  into  a  thrusting  weapon.  It  was 
probably  invented  about  1640,  in  Bayonne,  though 
this  is  doubtful,  but  was  not  universally  intro- 
duced until  after  the  pike  was  wholly  laid  aside, 
in  the  beginning  of  the  i8th  century.  About 
1690  the  bayonet  began  to  be  fastened  by  means 
of  a  socket  to  the  outside  of  the  barrel,  instead 
of  being  inserted  as  formerly  in  the  inside.  A 
variety  of  the  bayonet,  called  the  sword  bayonet, 
is  now  quite  widely  used,  especially  for  the 
short  rifles  of  the  light  infantry,  the  carbines 
of  the  artillery,  etc.  It  is  a  compound  of  the 
sword  and  the  bayonet,  as  its  name  indicates, 
having  a  sword-like  blade  with  only  one  edge, 
and  being  capable  of.  being  fastened  to  the 
muzzle  of  the  gun  like  the  bayonet.  The  bat- 
tle of  Spire,  in  1703,  was  the  first  in  which 
charges  of  infantry  were  made  with  fixed  bay- 
onets. Opinions  as  to  the  present  utility  of 
bayonets  differ  widely,  many  authorities  consid- 
ering them  of  little  importance,  while  others 
assert  just  the  contrary.  While  the  result  of 
a  battle  is  often  determined  by  che  employment 
of  smokeless  powder  and  long-range  and  rapid- 
firing  rifles  in  surprises  and  night  attacks  the 
bayonet  may  be  used  to  advantage  as  was  fre- 
quently proved  in  the  Boer  war  (1889-1902). 
See  also  T.\ctics. 

Bayonne,  ba-yon,  a  cathedral  town  in  the 
department  of  the  Basses-Pyrenees,  France.  It 
is  situated  at  the  confluence  of  the  Nive  and 
the  Adour,  about  four  miles  from  the  Bay  of 
Biscay.  These  rivers  form  a  harbor  capable  of 
admitting  vessels  of  considerable  size.  They 
divide  the  town  into  three  parts,  namely.  Great 
Bayonne  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Nive,  Little 
Bayonne  between  the  rivers,  and  St.  Esprit  on 
the  right  bank  of  the  Adour.  A  citadel,  built  by 
Vauban,  on  the  summit  of  an  eminence  in  the 
suburb,  commands  the  harbor  and  the  city.  The 
cathedral  is  a  beautiful  building  dating  from 
1213,  restored  in  the  iqth  century  and  furnished 
with  two  towers.  The  arsenal,  one  of  the 
finest  in  France,  and  the  mint  are  among  the 
other  buildings  of  Bayonne.  The  city  has  a 
considerable  trade  with  Spain,  Portugal,  and 
South  America,  and  masts  and  other  timber  for 
ship-building,  from  the  Pyrenees,  are  exported 
Vol.   2 — 27. 


to  Brest  and  other  ports  of  France.  The  hams 
of  Bayonne  are  famous.  Ships  are  built,  and 
woolens,  chocolate,  soap,  etc.,  are  manufac- 
tured. Among  the  lower  class  the  ancient  Bis- 
ca3-an  or  Basque  language  is  spoken.  Catherine 
de  Medici  had  an  important  interview  with  the 
Duke  of  Alva  in  Bayonne,  June  1565,  at  which 
it  is  said  the  massacre  of  St.  Bartholomew  was 
arranged.  The  meeting  of  Napoleon  with  the 
king  of  Spain,  Charles  IV.,  and  the  prince  of 
the  Asturias,  took  place  here  in  May  1808,  when 
the  latter  transferred  their  rights  to  the  Spanish 
territories  in  Europe  and  India  to  the  French 
emperor.     Pop.    (1896)    22,278. 

Bayonne,  ba-yon',  N.  J.,  a  city  in  Hudson 
County  on  New  York  harbor,  the  Kill  von  Kull, 
and  Newark  Bay,  and  the  Central  R.R.  of  N.  J. ; 
seven  miles  southwest  of  New  York.  It  was 
formed  by  the  union  of  a  number  of  former  vil- 
lages (Pamrapo,  Bayonne,  Centerville,  and  Ber- 
gen Point),  and  is  principally  engaged  in  coal- 
shipping  and  the  exporting  and  refining  of 
petroleum,  the  works  for  the  latter  being  con- 
nected by  pipe  lines  with  New  York,  Philadel- 
phia, Baltimore,  and  other  cities.  Other  indus- 
tries are  the  manufacture  of  chemicals,  ammonia 
and  colors.  The  residential  part  of  the  city  is 
very  attractive,  containing  fine  homes  of  New 
York  business  men.  Its  public  library  contains 
11,000  volumes.     Pop.    (1900)   32,722. 

Bayonne  Conference,  a  conference  held  at 
Bayonne,  June  1565,  between  Charles  IX.  of 
France,  the  queen  mother,  Catherine  de  Medici, 
Elizabeth,  queen  of  Spain,  and  the  Duke  of 
Alva,  envoy  of  Philip  II.,  to  arrange  plans  for 
the  repression  of  the  Huguenots. 

Bayonne  Decree.  On  17  April,  1808, 
Napoleon  directed  the  capture  and  sale  of  all 
vessels  entering  the  ports  of  Spain,  France,  Italy, 
and  the  Hanse  towns,  under  the  American  flag, 
and  by  the  provisions  of  this  declaration,  known 
as  the  Bayonne  Decree,  France  is  supposed  to 
have  confiscated  more  than  300  American  ves- 
sels. The  decree  was  issued  ostensibly  with 
the  view  of  helping  the  United  States  to  enforce 
the  embargo  of  1807  and  on  the  presumption 
that  all  such  vessels  must  be  sailing  under  false 
colors  and  thus  indirectly  benefiting  the  English 
cause. 

Bayonne,  Treaty  of,  a  treaty  of  peace 
agreed  to  4  May  1808,  and  signed  on  the  next 
day,  between  Napoleon  I.  and  Charles  IV.,  king 
of  Spain.  The  latter  resigned  his  kingdom,  and 
Napoleon  I.  engaged  to  maintain  its  integrity, 
and  to  preserve  the  Roman  Catholic  religion. 
His  son,  Ferdinand  VII.,  confirmed  the  cession 
10  IMay. 

Bayou,  bl'oo,  probably  a  corruption  of  the 
French  word  boyau,  a  "gut"  or  "channel."  Its 
strict  signification  is  a  stream  which  is  not  fed 
by  springs,  but  flows  from  some  other  stream  or 
from  a  lake ;  but  it  is  not  unfrequently  used 
in  America  as  synonymous  with  "creek."  The 
term  is  very  little  employed  except  in  the  States 
of  Louisiana;  Texas,  and  Arkansas. 

Bayou  State,  the  name  often  given  to  the 
State   of   ^Mississippi. 

Bayreuth,  bl'roit.    See  Baireuth. 

Bayrhoffer,  blr'hof-fer,  Karl  Theodor,  Ger- 
man Hegelian  philosopher  and  radical  politician: 
b.  Marburg.  1812;  d.  Jordan.  Wis.,  3  Feb.  1888. 
He   was   professor  of  philosophy   at    Marburg, 


BAZA  —  BAZIGARS 


taking  the  chair  in  1845,  but  in  1846  his  radical 
views  caused  his  expulsion.  During  the  brief 
rule  of  liberalism  in  Hesse,  he  was  chosen  presi- 
dent of  the  chamber;  but,  in  1853,  was  forced 
to  fl€e  to  the  United  States.  Among  other 
works  he  wrote  *^0n  Catholicism  in  Germany^  ; 
^Idea  and  History  of  Philosophy^  ;  ^Funda- 
mental Problems  of  Metaphysics,^   etc. 

Baza,  ba'tha  (ancient  Basti)  ,  a  city  of  Spain, 
in  the  province  of  and  53  miles  east-northeast 
from  Granada,  in  a  valley  north  of  the  Sierra 
Baza.  The  environs  yield  wine  and  hemp ; 
sheep,  cattle,  and  mules  are  reared ;  and  there 
are  some  manufactures.  Baza  is  farned  in  early 
Spanish  history,  more  especially  in  that  of 
Granada.  In  1489  it  was  taken  from  the  Moors 
by  the  Spaniards,  after  a  siege  of  nearly  seven 
months.  In  1810  the  French,  under  Marshal 
Soult,  here  defeated  the  Spaniards  under  Gen- 
erals Blake  and  Freire.     Pop.    (1897)   11,992. 

Bazaine,  ba-zan,  Frangois  Achille,  French 
military  officer':  b.  Versailles,  13  Feb.  1811  ;  d. 
28  Sept.  1888.  He  entered  the  army  in  1831, 
served  in  Algeria,  in  Spain  against  the  Carlists, 
and  in  the  Crimean  war.  He  joined  the  Mexi- 
can expedition  under  Gen.  Forey,  was  present 
at  the  siege  of  Puebla,  and  shortly  afterward 
was  the  first  to  enter  the  city  of  Mexico.  In 
1863  he  obtained  the  chief  command,  was  made 
a  marshal  of  France  in  1864,  and  remained  in 
Mexico  with  the  Emperor  Maximilian.  When 
Napoleon  III.  abandoned  the  emperor,  Bazaine 
tried  vainly  to  persuade  him  to  abdicate  the 
throne  voluntarily.  In  1870,  at  the  outbreak 
of  the  Franco-Prussian  war,  he  commanded 
the  3d  army  corps,  and  capitulated  at  Metz, 
after  a  seven  weeks'  siege,  with  an  army  of 
170,000  men.  For  this  act  he  was  tried  by 
court-martial  in  1871,  found  guilty  of  treason 
and  condemned  to  death.  This  sentence  was 
commuted  to  20  years'  seclusion  in  the  Isle  of 
St.  Marguerite,  off  the  south  coast  of 
France,  from  which  he  escaped  and  retired 
to  Spain.  His  widow,  who  had  clung  faith- 
fully to  him  in  his  adversity  and  had  plot- 
ted successfully  for  his  escape,  died  in  the  city 
of  Mexico,  8  Jan.  1900.  She  was  a  woman  of 
aristocratic  birth  and  much  beauty.  See  La 
Brugere,  'L'affaire  Bazaine^  (1874)  '■>  L'Heris- 
son,  <La  legende  de  Metz>    (1888). 

Bazalgette,  baz-al-jet',  Sir  Joseph  William, 
English  civil  engineer :  b.  Enfield,  England, 
1819;  d.  London,  i  March  1891.  As  chief  engi- 
neer of  the  London  board  of  works  he  built 
many  miles  of  sewers  and  embankments,  three 
of  the  Thames  bridges,  and  the  well-known 
Thames  embankments.  He  was  an  expert  au- 
thority on  questions  of  municipal  engineering. 

Bazan,  ba-zan,  Don  Caesar  de.     See   Don 

C^SAR   DE    BaZAN. 

Bazan,  ba-than',  Emilia  Pardo.  See  Par- 
do  Baz.\n,  Emilia. 

Bazancourt,  ba-zaii-koor,  Ce'sar  (Baron 
de),  French  military  historian:  b.  Paris,  1810;  d. 
there,  25  Jan.  1865.  He  was  official  historiog- 
rapher to  Napoleon  III.,  whom  he  accompanied 
in  several  campaigns.  He  published  'L'expedi- 
tion  de  Crimee  jusqu'a  la  prise  de  SebastopoP 
(1856)  ;  ^La  campagne  d'  Italie  de  1859^  ; 
*Les  expeditions  de  Chine  et  Cochinchine' 
(1861-2)  ;  ^Histoire  de  Sicile  sous  la  domination 
des     Normands^      (1846);     and     the     novels: 


<  Georges  la  Montagnard  (1851)  ;  <  Noblesse 
Oblige'  (1851);  *La  Princess  Pallianci'  (1852). 
Bazancourt,  Jean  Baptiste  Marin  Antoine 
Lecat  de,  French  general:  b.  Val-de-Molle 
(Oise),  19  March  1767;  d.  17  Jan.  1830.  He 
took  an  active  part  in  the  Italian  campaigns ; 
distinguished  himself  and  was  wounded  at  the 
siege  of  St.  Jean  d'Acre;  fought  in  the  battle 
of  Austerlitz,  and  was  a  member  of  the  court- 
martial  which,  on  21  March  1804,  pronounced 
the  sentence  of  death  upon  the  Duke  d'Enghien. 
In  1806  he  was  appointed  commander  of  the 
legion  of  honor,  and  in  1808  promoted  to  the 
rank  of  brigadier-general,  while  in  the  same 
year  he  was  created  baron  of  the  empire,  and 
went  as  commander  to  Hamburg  with  a  mission 
connected  with  the  continental  blockade.  He 
withdrew  from  service  in  1815. 

Bazar,  or  Bazaar,  a  market-place  in  the 
East,  the  word  being  Arabic  in  origin.  Some 
bazars  are  open,  some  covered  over.  As  the 
Orientals  live  almost  entirely  out  of  doors,  the 
bazars  of  populous  cities,  besides  their  mercan- 
tile importance,  are  of  consequence  as  places  of 
social  intercourse.  In  the  Oriental  tales, —  for 
instance,  in  the  ^Arabian  Nights,' — the  bazars, 
occupy  a  very  conspicuous  place.  The  word 
bazar  has  also  been  imported  into  Europe, 
where  it  is  used  in  much  the  same  sense  as  in 
the  East.  Among  English-speaking  people  it  is 
frequently  applied  to  a  temporary  sale  of  fancy 
goods  contributed  gratuitously,  and  sold  to 
raise  a  special  fund. 

Hazard,  ba-zar.  Saint  Amand,  French 
socialist :  b.  Paris,  1791  ;  d.  29  July  1832.  After 
the  Restoration,  he  helped  to  found  the  Revo- 
lutionary Society  of  the  ^'Amis  de  la  Verite,* 
and  in  1820  an  association  of  French  Carbonari. 
In  1825,  impressed  with  the  necessity  of  a  total 
reconstruction  of  society,  he  attached  himself 
to  the  school  of  Saint-Simon,  and  became  one 
of  the  editors  of  a  journal  termed  ^Le  Produc- 
teur.'  In  1828  he  delivered  at  Paris  a  series  of 
lectures,  the  substance  of  which  was  published 
in  the  'Exposition  de  la  Doctrine  de  Saint- 
Simon'  (1828-30),  of  which  the  first  part  was 
by  Bazard,  the  second  being  chiefly  the  compo- 
sition of  Enfantin.  He  and  Enfantin  became 
the  acknowledged  leaders  of  the  school.  After 
the  July  Revolution  (1830),  a  larger  scope  was 
afforded  to  the  Saint-Simonians.  The  masses 
were  attracted  by  the  doctrine  that  all  social 
institutions  ought  to  have  for  their  end  the 
moral,  intellectual,  and  physical  amelioration  of 
the  poor.  In  a  short  time,  Bazard  and  his 
friends  had  created  a  new  society,  living  in  the 
midst  of  the  old,  with  peculiar  laws,  manners, 
and  doctrines.  But  Bazard's  connection  with  it 
was  of  short  duration.  He  differed  from  En- 
fantin on  the  doctrine  of  the  emancipation  of 
women,  and  in  1831  seceded  in  disgust.  His  ef- 
forts to  found  a  school  of  his  own  proved  un- 
successful, and,  during  a  heated  discussion  with 
his  former  friend,  Enfantin,  he  was  struck  with 
apoplexy,  from  the  effects  of  which  he  died. 

Bazarjik,  ba-zar-jek',  a  town  in  eastern 
Bulgaria,  situated  north  of  Varna.  An  impor- 
tant fair  is  held  here  annually.  It  was  twice 
captured  by  the  Russians,  in  1774  and  1810. 
Pop.   (1888)   10,717- 

Bazigars,  ba-ze-garz',  a  tribe  of  nomadic 
Indians  dispersed  throughout  the  whole  of  Hin- 
dustan.    They    are    divided    into    seven    castes; 


BAZOCHE  —  BEACH 


their  chief  occupation  is  that  of  jugglers,  acro- 
bats, and  tumblers,  in  which  both  males  and  fe- 
males are  equally  skilful.  They  present  many 
features  analogous  to  the  gj'psies  of  Europe. 

Bazoche,  ba-zosch,  or  Basoche  (a  corrup- 
tion of  Basilica),  a  brotherhood  formed  by  the 
clerks  of  the  Parliament  of  Paris  at  the  time 
it  ceased  to  be  the  Grand  Council  of  the  French 
king.  They  had  a  king,  chancellor,  and  other 
dignitaries ;  and  certain  privileges  were  granted 
them  by  Philip  the  Fair  early  in  the  14th  cen- 
tury, as  also  by  subsequent  monarchs.  They 
had  an  annual  festival,  having  as  a  principal 
feature  dramatic  performances  in  which  satirical 
allusions  were  freely  made  to  passing  events. 
The  representation  of  these  farces  or  satires 
was  frequently  interdicted,  but  their  develop- 
ment had  a  considerable  effect  on  the  dramatic 
literature  of  France.  The  order  was  suppressed 
13  Feb.  1793. 

Baztan,  baz-tan',  or  Bastan,  a  Pyrenean 
valley  in  the  extreme  north  of  Spain ;  having 
a  length  of  nine  miles,  and  an  average  breadth 
of  four  miles.  It  is  inhabited  by  about  8,000 
people,  who  form,  under  Spanish  supervision, 
a  diminutive  republic,  at  the  head  of  which  is 
the  mayor  of  Elizondo.  The  citizens  of  this 
republic  rank  with  the  Spanish  nobility  and 
hold  special  privileges,  which  were  granted  them 
for  former  services  to  the  Spanish  crown. 

Bdellium,  del'li-um,  an  aromatic  gum 
found  in  different  countries,  but  brought  chiefly 
from  Arabia  and  India.  It  resembles  myrrh  in 
its  appearance,  and  is  hence  often  fraudulently 
substituted  for  it.  It  is  obtained  from  Balsa- 
modetidron  mokul  and  B.  ro.vburgii.  It  has  a 
sweet  smell  but  bitter  taste,  softens  readily  be- 
tween the  fingers  before  the  fire,  and  dissolves 
partially  in  alcohol  and  still  more  in  water.  A 
better  variety  of  bdellium  is  that  produced  by 
the  west  African  B.  africanum;  it  is  used  in 
plasters. 

The  bdellium  mentioned  in  Scripture,  in  He- 
brew bedholachh,  is  rendered  in  the  Septuagint 
of  Gen.  ii.  12,  anthrax  (literally,  ^'burning  coal") 
=  the  carbuncle,  ruby,  and  garnet  (Liddell  and 
Scott),  the  red  sapphire  (Dana)  ;  while  in 
Num.  xi.  7  it  is  translated  krystallos^=^rock. 
crystal.  Some  modern  writers,  following  the 
Septuagint  translation,  make  it  a  mineral,  as 
are  the  gold  and  onyx  stone  with  which  it  is 
associated  in  Gen.  ii.  12,  while  the  Rabbins 
Bochart  and  Gesenius  consider  that  it  was  a 
pearl  or  pearls. 

Beach,  Alfred  Ely:  b.  Springfield,  Mass., 
I  Sept.  1826;  d.  I  Jan.  1896.  He  was  a  son  of 
Moses  Yale  Beach,  and  after  receiving  an  edu- 
cation in  the  ]Monson  Academy  at  Monson, 
Mass.,  he  was  associated  with  his  fatlier  in  the 
publishing  business  of  the  New  York  Sun.  In 
1846  he  formed  a  partnership  with  his  life-long 
friend  and  schoolmate,  Mr.  Orson  D.  Munn,  of 
Monson,  Mass.,  and  purchased  the  <  Scientific 
American^  from  Rufus  Porter,  combining  with 
the  business  of  publishing  that  of  soliciting  pat- 
ents. In  1853  he  invented  the  first  typewriter 
which  printed  raised  letters  on  a  strip  of  paper, 
intended  for  the  blind,  and  was  awarded  a  gold 
medal  at  the  Crystal  Palace  Exposition.  In 
1867  he  constructed  a  suspended  tube  8  feet 
in  diameter  by  100  feet  long,  through  which 
passengers  were  carried  back  and  forth  in  a 
tightly  fitting  car,  as  the  air  was  exhausted  from 


or  forced  into  the  tube  by  a  rotating  fan.  He 
also  devised  means  for  transporting  letters 
through  a  tube  under  the  street,  by  which  they 
could  be  conveyed  directly  to  the  post-office 
when  dropped  into  a  street  letter-box. 

His  most  important  invention, —  a  shield  for 
tunneling  under  streets  or  rivers  without  dis- 
turbing the  surface, —  was  made  in  1868,  and 
became  known  as  the  Beach  shield.  It  resem- 
bled a  gigantic  hogshead  with  the  heads  re- 
moved, the  front  circular  edge  being  sharp,  and 
the  rear  end  having  a  thin  iron  hood.  This 
cylinder  is  propelled  slowly  forward  through  the 
earth  by  several  hydraulic  rams  forced  out 
from  the  rear  of  the  shield,  by  the  operation  of 
a  single  hydraulic  pump,  against  the  completed 
tunnel  in  the  rear.  By  this  method  only  the 
amount  of  earth  to  be  occupied  by  the  tunnel 
is  excavated.  After  the  shield  is  forced  for- 
ward the  hydraulic  rams  are  pushed  back,  and 
in  the  thin  hood  at  the  rear  a  new  section  of 
the  tunnel  is  constructed.  In  1869,  by  means 
of  such  a  shield,  Mr.  Beach  constructed  a  tun- 
nel nine  feet  in  diameter  under  Broadway,  New 
York,  from  the  corner  of  Warren  Street  south 
to  a  point  opposite  the  lower  side  of  Murray 
Street,  and  in  1870  a  car  was  sent  to  and  fro 
on  tracks  through  this  tunnel  by  pneumatic 
power  —  the  first  underground  transit  in  New 
York.  From  1872  to  1876  Mr.  Beach  edited  an 
annual  publication  entitled  "Science  Record," 
published  by  the  '^Scientific  American.^  In 
1876  he  originated  the  'Scientific  American  Sup- 
plement,^ devoted  to  the  publication  of  scientific 
matters  in  extenso,  taken  largely  from  exchanges 
and  foreign  publications.  He  was  also  instru- 
mental in  beginning  the  publication  of  the  'Sci- 
entific American  Builders'  Monthly.^ 

Beach,  Charles  Fisk,  American  clergy- 
man and  lawyer:  b.  Hunter,  N.  Y.,  5  Sept.  1827. 
He  studied  theology  at  Auburn  Theological  Semi- 
nary, N.  Y.,  was  pastor  of  Presbyterian  churches 
1854-73,  editor  and  publisher  National  Presby- 
terian 1873-95,  and  was  admitted  to  the  bar 
1896.  He  has  published  *The  Muzzled  Ox^ 
(1866)  ;  'The  Christian  Worker >  (1869)  ;  'Com- 
mentaries on  the  Law  of  Trusts  and  Trustees' 
(1897)  ;  'Monopolies  and  Industrial  Trusts' 
(1898). 

Beach,  Charles  Fisk,  Jr.,  American  legal 
writer :  b.  Kentucky,  4  Feb.  1854.  He  was 
called  to  the  bar  in  New  York  1881,  and  prac- 
tised in  that  city  till  1896,  but  since  the  last 
named  date  has  practised  in  London  and  Paris. 
His  especial  field  is  railway  and  corporation  law, 
and  he  has  published  treatises  on  'Receivers' 
(1887);  'Wills'  (1888);  'Railways'  (1890); 
'Private  Corporations'  (1891)  ;  'Modern  Equity 
Jurisprudence'  (1892);  'PubHc  Corporations' 
(1893)  :  'Modern  Equity  Practice'  (1894)  ;  'In- 
junctions' (1895)  ;  'Insurance'  (1895)  ;  'Con- 
tracts' (1897)  ;  'Contributory  Negligence'  (3d 
ed.   1899). 

Beach,  David  Nelson,  American  clergy- 
man :  b.  Orange,  N.  J..  30  Nov.  1848.  Enter- 
ing the  Congregational  ministry  he  was  suc- 
cessively pastor  of  Congregational  churches  in 
Westerly,  R.  I.,  1876-9;  Wakefield.  Mass., 
1879-84;  Cambridge,  Mass.,  1884-96;  Minneapo- 
lis (1896-8),  Denver  from  1899.  He  was  active 
in  banishing  the  saloon  from  Cambridge  and  has 
been  prominent  in  advocating  a  modified  Nor- 
wegian liquor  system  in  Massachusetts.     He  has 


BEACH  —  BEACH-FLEA 


written  <  Plain  Words  on  Our  Lord's  Work^  ; 
*The  Newer  Religious  Thinking^  ;  "^How  We 
Rose^  ;   *^The  Intent  of  Jesus.^ 

Beach,  Frederick  Converse,  American 
editor:  b.  New  York,  27  March  1848,  Li  1855 
he  removed  to  Stratford,  Conn.,  where  he  re- 
ceived an  education  at  public  and  private  schools. 
In  1864,  as  a  pastime,  he  began  the  practice  of 
photography  with  his  father,  Alfred  Ely  Beach 
(q.v.),  and  has  continued  his  interest  in  the  art 
ever  since.  In  1866  he  suggested  to  the  com- 
missioner of  patents  the  utility  and  practicability 
of  photo-lithographing  the  United  States  pat- 
ents, a  plan  which  was  subsequently  adopted. 
In  1868  he  graduated  from  the  Sheffield  Sci- 
entific School  of  Yale  University  with  the 
degree  of  Ph.B.  In  1869,  after  engaging  in  the 
business  of  patent  solicitor  at  Washington,  D.  C, 
he  returned  to  New  York  and  was  appointed 
assistant  superintendent  of  the  construction  of 
the  Beach  pneumatic  tunnel  under  Broadway, 
New  York.  (See  Beach,  Alfred  Ely.)  Sub- 
sequently he  took  up  the  manufacture  of  electri- 
cal instruments.  In  1877  he  entered  the  office 
of  the  ^Scientific  American,^  assisting  his  father, 
and  after  the  latter's  demise  he  became  one  of 
the  editors. 

He  has  made  extensive  experiments  in  pho- 
tography and  written  much  relating  to  the  art. 
In  1884  he  founded  the  Society  of  Amateur 
Photographers  of  New  York,  the  name  of  which 
was  afterward  changed  to  the  Camera  Club  of 
New  York.  In  1885  he  assisted  in  organizing 
the  American  Lantern  Slide  Interchange.  In 
1889  he  was  instrumental  in  establishing  a 
monthly  magazine  entitled  "-The  American  Ama- 
teur Photographer.^  In  1902  he  was  appointed 
editor-in-chief  of  the  ^Encyclopedia  Americana,^ 
the  policy  of  which  it  was  determined  should 
give  full  credit  to  all  matters  pertaining  to 
America  and  Americans. 

Beach,  Mrs.  H.  H.  A. (Amy  Marcy  Cheney), 
American  composer :  b.  Henniker,  N.  H..  5 
Sept.  1867.  She  studied  music  from  child- 
hood, and  made  her  first  appearance  in  public 
as  a  pianist  at  the  Boston  Music  Hall  when  16 
years  old.  She  has  composed  a  mass  in  E  flat ; 
'The  Rose  of  Avontown,^  a  cantata  for  female 
voices ;  a  Gaelic  symphony :  a  symphony,  an- 
thems, songs,  and  compositions  for  various  mu- 
sical instruments  and  full  orchestras. 

Beach,  Harlan  Page,  American  mission- 
ary: b.  South  Orange,  N.  J.,  4  April  1854.  He 
was  graduated  at  Yale  in  1878  and  at  Andover 
Theological  Seminary  in  1883.  During  1878-80 
he  taught  at  Phillips  Andover  Academy;  in 
1883  he  went  to  China  as  a  missionary,  remain- 
ing there  seven  years.  Soon  after  his  return  he 
became  head  of  the  School  for  Christian 
Workers,  Springfield,  Mass.,  and  in  1895,  edu- 
cational secretary  of  the  Student  Volunteer 
Movement  for  Foreign  Missions.  His  publica- 
tions include:  ^Dawn  on  the  Hills  of  T'ang* 
(1898);  'Knights  of  the  Labarum ;  or  Four 
Typical  Missionaries^  (1898)  ;  'New  Testament 
Studies  in  Missions'  (1899)  ;  'Protestant  Mis- 
sions in  South  Africa'  (1900)  ;  ^Geography  and 
Atlas  of  Protestant  Missions'    (1902). 

Beach,  Miles,  American  jurist:  b.  1840;  d. 
1902.  He  graduated  at  Union  College,  Schenec- 
tady, studied  law,  and  practiced  in  Troy. 
When  27  years  of  age  he  removed  to  New 
\"ork  and  in  1879  was  elected  judge  of  the  court 


of  common  pleas,  holding  that  office  till  1894, 
when  he  passed  to  the  bench  of  the  supreme 
court  of  the  State. 

Beach,  Moses  Sperry,  American  inventor 
and  editor:  b.  Springfield,  Alass.,  5  Oct.  1822; 
d.  25  July  1892.  He  was  the  son  of  Moses 
Yale  Beach  (q.v.),  and  in  1845  he  married 
Chloe  Buckingham,  of  Waterbury,  Conn.,  and 
in  the  same  year  became  joint  proprietor,  with 
George  Roberts,  of  the  Boston  Daily  Times. 
Soon  after  this  he  became  associated  with  his 
father  and  brother  in  the  publication  of  the 
New  York  Sun,  and  acquired  the  sole  owner- 
ship of  it  in  1851,  transferring  it  in  1868  to 
Charles  A.  Dana.  It  was  while  he  was  con- 
ducting the  publication  of  the  Sun  that  he 
invented  and  made  several  important  improve- 
ments in  printing-presses,  which  were  patented, 
a  few  now  being  in  use.  Among  them  were 
the  feeding  of  roll  paper  to  the  press  instead  of 
flat  sheets,  apparatus  for  wetting  the  paper  prior 
to  printing,  and  another  improvement  for  cut- 
ting ot¥  sheets  after  printing;  also  a  method  of 
adapting  newspaper  presses  to  print  both  sides 
of  the  sheet  at  the  same  time,  as  is  now  cus- 
tomary. In  1867  he  visited  the  Holy  Land,  on 
the  steamer  Quaker  City,  in  company  with  the 
distinguished  party  of  which  "Mark  Twain"  was 
a  member,  and  whose  experiences  formed  the 
basis  of  Twain's  book,  'The  Innocents  Abroad.' 
Mr.  Beach  brought  back  an  olive-tree  from  the 
Mount  of  Olives,  from  which  was  made  a  pul- 
pit stand  that  is  at  present  in  Plymouth  Church, 
Brooklyn. 

Beach,  Moses  Yale,  American  inventor 
and  pulalisher:  b.  Wallingford,  Conn.,  15  Jan. 
1800;  d.  17  July  1868.  He  received  a  common- 
school  education  and  before  he  was  21  married, 
and  with  a  partner  opened  a  cabinet  factory  at 
Northampton,  Mass.  In  1822  he  established 
himself  at  Springfield,  Mass.,  where  he  was  very 
successful.  He  expended  considerable  money  on 
a  stern-wheel  steamboat,  the  first  to  ply  on  the 
Connecticut  River  above  Hartford.  A  powder 
engine  intended  for  its  propulsion  proved  inef- 
fective. In  1829  he  obtained  an  interest  in  a 
paper-mill  and  removed  to  Saugerties,  N.  Y., 
where  his  inventive  faculty  produced  a  rag- 
cutting  machine,  which  he  patented  and  which 
is  still  used  in  all  paper-mills.  In  1835  he  pur- 
chased from  his  brother-in-law,  Benjamin  Day, 
the  New  York  Sun,  the  first  penny  paper  (then 
a  comparatively  new  sheet),  and  to  Mr.  Beach 
was  due  the  subsequent  growth  and  popularity 
of  that  newspaper.  In  1846  President  Polk  sent 
Mr.  Beach  on  a  secret  mission  to  Mexico.  In 
1857  Mr.  Beach  retired  from  active  business  and 
settled  in  his  native  town,  where  he  died. 

Beach.  See  Coastj  Dune;  Ocean;  Lake; 
Shore. 

BeacJi-flea,  one  of  a  group  of  small  amphi- 
pod  Crustaceans  {Orchestia  agilis)  which  abound 
under  sea  wrack  near  high-water  mark.  When 
the  dry  weed  is  lifted  they  will  be  seen  leaping 
like  fleas,  by  means  of  the  last  three  pairs  of 
abdominal  legs.  They  are  brown,  of  the  same 
color  as  the  weed  and  wet  sand  beneath,  about 
a  quarter  of  an  inch  in  length  or  about  one  half 
as  large  as  the  larger  and  more  southern  kind  of 
beach-flea  (Talorclicstia  longicornis) ,  which  is 
nearly  an  inch  long.  Consult:  Arnold,  ^Sea 
Beach  at  Low  Tide.' 


BEACH-GRASS  —  BEACONSFIELD 


Beach-grass.      See  Ammophila. 

Beach-pea,  a  leguminous  plant  growing  on 
beaches.     See  also  Lathyrus. 

Beach  Plants,  the  usually  sparse  vegeta- 
tion of  sea  and  lake  shores  above  the  water-line 
and  below  the  cliffs  or  dunes,  notable  for  its 
resemblance  to  the  vegetation  of  deserts.  The 
plants  of  sea  beaches  are  closely  similar  to 
those  of  fresh-water  shores,  and  not,  as  might 
be  inferred,  different  on  account  of  the  salt  con- 
tent of  the  soil  as  an  influencing  factor.  (See 
Halophytes).  Bordering  the  water  is  a  strip 
of  sand  or  gravel  where,  on  account  of  summer 
wave  action,  land  plants  cannot  gain  a  foot- 
hold, and  where,  because  of  exposure  to  sun  and 
air,  water  plants  are  unable  to  live.  Contiguous 
to  this  border  is  a  zone  of  vegetation  almost 
wholly  restricted  by  winter  wave  action  to  an- 
nuals. Still  farther  back  from  the  water  is  the 
region  of  perennials  especially  characterized  by 
rosette  plants  and  plants  with  underground  stor- 
age organs.  This  region  is  safe  from  wave  ac- 
tion at  all  times.  Beach  plants,  like  desert 
plants  (see  Xerophytes)  are  capable  of  with- 
standing more  intense  heat,  cold,  and  light,  and 
more  violent  winds  than  any  other  plants  of  or- 
dinary climates.  Other  common  terms  for  this 
vegetation  are  littoral,  shore,  and  strand  plants. 
See  Distribution  of  Plants. 


Beach-plum, 
Beach-robin. 


See  Plum. 
See  Brant-bird. 


Beaches,  Raised,  terraced,  level  stretches 
of  land,  consisting  of  sand  and  gravel,  and  ly- 
ing at  a  considerable  distance  above  and  away 
from  the  sea,  but  bearing  sufficient  evidences  of 
having  been  at  one  time  sea  beaches.  They  are 
quite  common  along  the  coasts  of  continents  in 
the  higher  latitudes.  In  California  such  terraces 
occur  as  high  as  1,500  feet  above  the  present  sea- 
level,  while  the  coasts  of  Scotland  are  marked 
by  a  series  of  terraces  succeeding  each  other  at 
distances  of  from  10  to  25  feet.  That  the  ma- 
terials composing  the  beaches  were  deposited 
beneath  the  sea  is  proven  by  the  marine  charac- 
ter of  the  fossils  which  are  often  found  in 
abundance.  The  existence  o*f  raised  beaches  is 
of  importance  to  the  geologist,  as  it  affords  di- 
rect evidence  of  changes  of  level  between  the 
sea  and  the  land  in  comparatively  recent  times, 
and  explains  the  widespread  occurrence  of  sedi- 
mentary rocks  over  continental  areas.  Many 
large  lakes  are  also  fringed  by  terraces,  but  in 
this  case  they  have  resulted  from  a  lowering  of 
the  water  level  and  not  from  coastal  movements. 
See  also  Lake;  Shore;  etc. 

Beachy  Head,  England,  a  promontory  on 
the  coast  of  Sussex,  about  three  miles  southwest 
of  Eastbourne ;  height  564  feet.  Here  a  com- 
bined Dutch  and  English  fleet,  under  Lord  Tor- 
rington  was  defeated  by  a  French  fleet,  under 
Tourville,  in  1690.  In  1828  a  revolving  light 
was  erected  here,  285  feet  above  the  level  of  the 
sea,  visible  in  clear  weather  from  a  distance  of 
28  miles. 

Beacon,  a  conspicuous  mark  or  signal 
either  used  to  alarm  the  country  in  case  of  in- 
vasion, or  as  a  guide  to  mariners.  The  alarm 
beacon  was  usually  fire  placed  on  the  tops  of 
high  hills,  the  flames  of  which  could  be  seen 
at  a  great  distance  by  night,  and  the  smoke  by 
day.  They  were  in  great  use  for  rousing  the 
Border  on  an  invasion  either  by  Scotch  or  Eng- 


lish. A  beacon  to  mariners  is  either  a  landmark 
erected  on  an  eminence  near  the  shore,  or  a 
floating  signal  moored  in  shoal  water. 

Beacon  Hill,  one  of  the  original  three  hills 
of  the  peninsula  of  Boston.  It  is  north  of  Bos- 
ton Common,  and  received  its  name  from  the 
fact  that  the  public  beacon  was  fixed  upon  its 
summit  in  the  earliest  colonial  period.  It  has 
been  much  reduced  in  height,  and  the  State 
House  now  occupies  its  highest  position.  Bea- 
con Street  extends  in  a  westerly  direction  over 
the  hill,  skirting  the  Common  and  Public  Gar- 
den,    See  Boston. 

Beaconsfield,  bek'ons-feld  or  be'kons-feld, 
Benjamin  Disraeli,  (Earl  of),  English  states- 
man: b.  21  Dec.  1804;  d.  19  April  1881.  He  was 
the  eldest  son  of  Isaac  DTsraeli  (see  DTsraeli, 
Isaac),  the  well-known  author  of  the  ^Curiosi- 
ties of  Literature^;  his  mother  also  being  of 
Jewish  race.  Little  is  known  of  his  early  edu- 
cation, though  it  is  certain  he  never  attended  a 
public  school  or  a  university.  In  1817  he  was 
baptized  into  the  Church  of  England.  He  was 
apprenticed  to  a  firm  of  attorneys,  but  did  not 
remain  long  in  this  uncongenial  occupation.  His 
father's  position  gained  him  an  easy  entrance  into 
society,  and  before  he  was  20  he  was  a  fre- 
quenter of  such  salons  as  those  of  Lady  Bless- 
ington. 

In  1826  he  published  ^Vivian  Grey,'  his  first 
novel,  a  work  which  became  very  popular,  and, 
considering  the  youth  of  its  author,  displays  re- 
markable cleverness  and  knowledge  of  the  world. 
He  now  traveled  for  some  time,  visiting  Italy, 
Greece,  Turkey,  and  Syria,  and  gaining  experi- 
ences which  were  afterward  reproduced  in  his 
books.  In  1831  another  novel,  ^The  Young 
Duke,'  came  from  his  pen.  It  was  followed  at 
short  interval?  by  'Contarini  Fleming,'  ^Alroy,' 
•^Henrietta  Temple,'  ^Venetia,'  ^The  Revolu- 
tionary'Epic'    (a  poem),  etc. 

His  father  having  acquired  a  residence  near 
High  Wycombe,  Buckinghamshire,  young  Dis- 
raeli attempted  to  get  elected  for  this  borough 
in  1832.  He  came  forward  as  a  Radical  or 
"people's"  candidate  as  against  the  Whigs,  and 
he  was  supported  by  the  Tories,  as  well  as  by 
Hume  and  O'Connell,  but  was  defeated.  At  the 
general  election  after  the  passing  of  the  Reform 
Bill  he  again  unsuccessfully  contested  High  Wy- 
combe, and  the  like  ill-fortune  attended  him  on 
another  attempt  in  1835,  as  also  at  Taunton  the 
same  year.  On  the  latter  occasion  he  appeared 
in  the  character  of  a  decided  Tory,  and  his 
change  of  political  opinions  naturally  occasioned 
a  good  deal  of  comment.  To  this  period  be- 
longs the  noted  passage  of  arms  between  him 
and  O'Connell.  which  was  signalized  by  a 
strength  of  language  happily  rare  between  public 
men  in  these  days. 

At  last,  however,  he  gained  an  entrance  to  the 
House  of  Commons,  being  elected  for  Maidstone 
in  1837.  His  first  speech  was  treated  with  ridi- 
cule ;  he  had  to  stop  abruptly  and  sit  down  but 
he  finished  with  the  prophetic  declaration  that 
the  time  would  come  when  the  House  would 
hear  him.  _  In  1839  he  married  the  widow  of  his 
colleague  in  the  representation  of  Maidstone,  a 
lady  15  years  older  than  himself.  At  the  gen- 
eral election  of  1841  he  was  sent  to  Parliament 
by  Shrewsbury.  He  had  now  gained  some  repu- 
tation, and  for  some  years  he  was  an  enthusias- 
tic   supporter  of   Sir   Robert    Peel.     About  this 


BEACONSFIELD  —  BEADS 


time  he  became  a  leader  of  what  was  known  as 
the  «Young  England*'  party,  the  most  prominent 
characteristic  of  which  was  a  sort  of  sentimental 
advocacy  of  feudalism.  This  spirit  showed  it- 
self in  his  two  novels  of  ^Coningsby;  or.  The 
New  Generation,^  and  'Sybil;  or.  The  New  Na- 
tion,' published  respectively  in  1844  and  1S45. 

For  some  years  previous  to  the  downfall  of 
Sir  Robert  Peel  in  1846  he  was  most  persistent 
and  bitter  in  his  hostility  to  this  statesman, 
whom  he  had  so  recently  supported,  being  the 
advocate  of  protection  against  the  free-trade  pol- 
icy of  Sir  Robert.  His  clever  speeches  of  this 
period  greatly  increased  his  reputation,  and  by 
1847  he  was  recognized  as  one  of  the  leaders  of 
the  Tory  party.  Having  acquired  the  manor 
of  Hughenden  in  Buckinghamshire,  he  was  in 
the  above  year  elected  for  this  county,  and  he  re- 
tained his  seat  till  raised  to  the  peerage  nearly 
30  years  later.  In  1847  he  published  his  novel 
of  'Tancred;  or.  The  New  Crusade,'  a  sorne- 
what  extravagant  production  containing  enig- 
matic allusions  to  the  great  "Asian  mystery." 

His  first  appointment  to  office  was  in  1852, 
when  he  became  chancellor  of  the  exchequer  un- 
der Lord  Derby.  The  following  year,  however, 
the  ministry  was  defeated,  and  Mr.  Disraeli 
again  became  leader  of  a  Conservative  Opposi- 
tion. He  remained  out  of  office  till  1858,  when 
he  again  became  chancellor  of  the  exchequer 
with  Lord  Derby  as  his  chief.  As  on  the  for- 
mer occasion  his  tenure  of  office  was  but  short ; 
a  reform  bill  which  he  had  introduced  causing 
the  defeat  of  the  government  and  their  resigna- 
tion after  an  appeal  to  the  country.  During  the 
next  six  years,  while  the  Palmerston  govern- 
ment was  in  office,  Mr.  Disraeli  led  the  opposi- 
tion in  the  lower  House  with  conspicuous  ability 
and  courage.  He  spoke  vigorously  against  the 
Reform  Bill  brought  forward  in  1866  by  the 
Russell-Gladstone  ministry;  but  when,  soon 
after,  he  came  into  power  along  with  his  chief, 
Lord  Derby,  the  demand  for  reform  was  so 
urgent  that  he  had  to  bring  in  a  reform  bill  him- 
self. Accordingly,  in  August  1867,  a  measure  by 
which  the  parliamentary  representation  was  re- 
formed became  law,  being  piloted  through  Par- 
liament by  Mr.  Disraeli  with  remarkable  tact 
and  dexterity. 

In  February  1868  he  reached  the  summit  of 
his  ambition,  becoming  premier  on  the  resigna- 
tion of  Lord  Derby,  but  being  in  a  minority 
after  the  general  election  he  had  to  give  up 
office  the  following  December.  In  1874  he  again 
became  prime  minister  with  a  strong  Conserva- 
tive majority,  and  he  remained  in  power  for  six 
years.  This  period  was  marked  by  his  elevation 
to  the  peerage  in  1876  as  Earl  of  Beaconsfield, 
and  by  the  prominent  part  he  took  in  regard  to 
the  Eastern  question  and  the  conclusion  of  the 
Treaty  of  Berlin  in  1878,  when  he  visited  the 
German  capital.  In  the  spring  of  1880  Parlia- 
ment was  rather  suddenly  dissolved,  and,  the 
new  Parliament  showing  an  overwhelming  Lib- 
eral majority,  he  resigned  office,  though  he  still 
retained  the  leadership  of  his  party.  Not  long 
after  this,  the  publication  of  a  novel  called 
^Endymion'  (his  previous  one.  ^Lothair,^  had 
been  publi.shed  10  years  before)  showed  that 
his  intellect  was  still  vigorous.  His  physical 
powers,  however,  were  now  giving  way,  and  he 
died,  after  an  illness  of  some  weeks'  duration. 
His  wife  had  died  in  1872  after  having  been 
created  Viscountess  Beaconsfield. 


Among  others  of  his  writings,  besides  those 
already  mentioned,  are:  'A  Vindication  of  the 
English  Constitution^  (1834)  ;  "^Alarcos,  a  Trag- 
edy' (1839)  ;  and  'Lord  George  Bentinck,  a  Po- 
litical Biography'  (1852).  Lord  Beaconsfield 
was  one  of  the  most  remarkable  men  of  the  19th 
century.  If  not  possessed  of  actual  genius  he 
was  endowed  with  great  intellectual  power,  and 
he  had  astonishing  tenacity  of  purpose  and 
showed  remarkable  tact  and  ability  in  managing 
men.  As  a  parliamentary  speaker  and  debater 
he  had  few  rivals,  and  in  wit,  sarcasm,  epigram, 
and  other  rhetorical  devices  he  was  a  master. 
His  novels  are  fatally  open  to  criticism  on  many 
grounds,  and  it  is  doubtful  if  they  will  long 
maintain  the  place  they  at  present  hold.  Their 
popularity  has  been  largely  owing  to  their  au- 
thor having  so  frequently  introduced  real  per- 
sons into  them  under  a  more  or  less  penetrable 
disguise,  and  presented  them  in  a  more  or  less 
favorable  light. 

Beaconsfield,  Africa,  a  town  of  Cape  Col- 
ony, in  Griqualand  West,  formerly  known  as  Du 
Toit's  Pan.  It  lies  a  little  to  the  east  of  Kim- 
berley,  with  which  it  is  connected  by  tramway, 
and  is,  like  it,  an  upgrowth  of  the  diamond 
fields.  It  is  well  supplied  with  churches,  schools, 
and  hotels.     Pop.   (1891)   10,478. 

Beaconsfield,  England,  a  market-town  in 
Buckinghamshire,  24  miles  west  by  north  of 
London.  It  is  situated  on  high  ground,  and  its 
name  is  supposed  to  have  originated  from  a  bea- 
con once  set  up  there.  The  remains  of  Edmund 
Burke,  who  resided  at  Gregories  in  this  parish, 
are  deposited  in  the  parish  church ;  and  the 
churchyard  contains  a  monument  in  honor  of  the 
poet  Waller,  to  whom  the  manor  belonged,  as  it 
still  does  to  his  descendant. 

Beadle,  (i)  An  officer  in  an  English 
university,  whose  chief  business  is  to  walk  with 
a  mace  in  a  public  procession.  The  universities 
of  Oxford  and  Cambridge  have  each  three  es- 
quire beadles  (or  bedels),  one  being  attached 
to  each  of  the  faculties  of  law,  medicine  and  arts, 
and  divinity.  The  former  university  has  also 
three  yeomen  beadles,  and  the  latter  one.  (2) 
An  inferior  parish  officer,  whose  business  is 
generally  to  execute  the  orders  of  the  vestry,  by 
whom  he  is  appointed.  These  parochial  beadles 
were  originally  officers  given  to  the  rural  deans 
to  cite  the  clergy  and  church-officers  to  visita- 
tions, and  for  other  purposes. 

Beads,  small  perforated  ornaments,  gen- 
erally of  a  round  shape  and  made  of  glass,  but 
also  of  gold,  silver,  and  other  metals,  paste, 
coral,  gems,  etc.  The  use  of  them  as  ornaments 
belongs  to  very  early  times,  and  this  use,  still 
continued,  has  made  them  an  important  article 
of  trade  with  savage  tribes.  Glass  beads  are 
supposed  to  have  been  manufactured  by  the 
Phoenicians  more  than  3,000  years  before  Christ. 
Beads  have  been  found  in  the  ruins  of  Assyrian 
temples,  also  as  decorations  of  Egyptian  mum- 
mies, and  in  the  graves  of  the  ancient  Greeks, 
Romans,  and  Britons.  The  manufacture  of 
glass  beads  was  introduced  into  modern  Europe 
by  the  Italians,  and  in  the  neighborhood  of 
Venice  it  is  still  an  important  branch  of  in- 
dustr3^  On  the  island  of  Murano  alone  several 
thousand  workmen  are  employed  in  this  manu- 
facture. Birmingham  is  the  chief  seat  of  the 
manufacture  of  beads  in  Great  Britain.  For 
their  use  in  religion,  see  Rosary. 


BEADS  — BEALE 


Beagle,  a  small  hunting  dog;  in  general 
appearance  a  diminutive  fox  hound,  solidly  built, 
well  set  upon  straight  fore  legs,  with  plenty  of 
bone  in  proportion  to  its  size,  good  hard  feet, 
and  a  broad,  deep  chest  with  ample  lung  capa- 
city. It  is  of  good  disposition,  and  clever  and 
industrious  in  the  field.  In  color  and  marking 
it  much  resembles  the  fox  hound,  black,  white, 
and  tan  being  the  more  common  colors,  and 
these  in  more  or  less  solid  or  pied  masses.  In 
its  original  home,  Great  Britain,  there  are  both 
rough  and  smooth  varieties,  but  the  typical 
American  beagle  is  smooth-haired.  Beagles  vary 
in  height  from  12  to  15  inches,  and  while  ex- 
cellent trackers  are  not  so  fast  but  that  they 
can  be  followed  on  foot,  a  very  common  sport  in 
Great  Britain.  Their  voices  are  exceedingly 
musical  and  justify  the  name  sometimes  given 
them  of  "buglers.*'  They  are  principally  used 
for  rabbit-hunting.  In  former  times  a  very  di- 
minutive breed  was  in  favor ;  according  to  one 
authority,  no  larger  than  well-grown  kittens  — ■ 
so  small,  in  fact,  that  it  is  said  a  whole  pack 
could  be  carried  afield  in  a  pair  of  panniers 
slung  across  a  pony's  back. 

Beagle,  The,  a  small  ship  of  the  British 
navy  which  in  1828-34  was  employed,  under  the 
command  of  Capt.  (afterward  Admiral)  Fitz- 
roy,  in  making  surveys  of  the  coast  of  Patagonia 
and  other  South  American  shores  and  waters, 
and  later  making  a  voyage  around  the  world. 
The  expedition  had  for  its  naturalist  the  fa- 
mous Charles  Darwin. 

Beagle  Island,  an  island  discovered  by 
Admiral  Fitzroy  during  a  voyage  in  H.  M.  S. 
Beagle  (q.v.).  The  channel  of  the  same  name 
is  on  the  south  side  of  the  island  of  Tierra  del 
Fuego. 

Beak,  or  Bill,  the  projecting  jaws  or 
snout  of  a  bird  or  other  animal,  when  prolonged 
into  an  instrument  for  seizing  or  penetrating  ob- 
jects, and  formed  of  hard  materials,  as  bone,  or 
covered  with  a  rigid  envelope,  as  of  horit  or 
chitin.  It  is  most  characteristic  of  birds,  where 
it  is  called  "bill"  or  "neb,**  and  forms  the  prin- 
cipal means  for  obtaining,  as  well  as  devouring 
food  (except  in  most  birds  of  prey),  and  where 
it  takes  on  a  great  variety  of  shapes  and  cha- 
racteristics adapted  to  special  habits  and  pur- 
poses. (See  Birds.)  A  more  or  less  similar 
prolongation  of  mouth-parts  occurs  in  many 
other  animals,  however,  and  receives  a  similar 
name.  Among  mammals,  the  duckbill  (q.v.)  is 
a  conspicuous  example  of  a  true  mammal  with 
the  lips  formed  into  a  horny  bill  much  like  that 
of  a  duck,  and  similarly  used.  The  turtles  have 
horny,  projecting,  parrot-like  jaws  of  the  same 
sort ;  and  a  curious  imitation  of  this  occurs 
among  cephalopod  mollusks.  The  prolonged 
jaws  of  various  fishes,  as  of  gars  ("billfish"), 
sturgeons,  etc.,  receive  the  term  (technically 
rostrum),  and  these  are  often  bird-like,  as  in  the 
case  of  the  spoon-billed  catfish  (q.v.).  The  term 
is  also  borrowed  by  entomologists  to  describe  the 
elongated  mouth-parts  of  many  insects,  such  as 
blood-sucking  flies;  juice-sucking  plant-bugs, 
weevils,  and  other  forms.  The  prolonged  tubu- 
lar or  trough-like  parts  (canals)  of  many  gas- 
tropod shells  protecting  the  siphon,  and  the 
prominent  umbos  of  such  bivalve  shells  as  the 
cockles,  clams,  and  fresh-water  mussels,  are  also 
lermed  "beaks.'^ 


Beal,    bel,    George    Lafayette,    American 

military  officer:  b.  Norway,  Me.,  21  May  1825; 
d.  II  Dec.  1896.  When  the  Civil  War  broke  out 
he  was  captain  of  the  Norway  light  infantry, 
and  with  this  company  was  mustered  into  the 
I  St  Maine  regiment  for  the  three  months'  cam- 
paign. At  the  end  of  this  service  he  was  com- 
missioned colonel  of  the  19th  Maine  infantry, 
which  took  part  in  the  battles  of  Cedar  Moun- 
tain and  Antietam  and  covered  the  retreat  of 
Gen.  Banks  from  Winchester  to  Williamsport, 
Va.  He  was  mustered  out  with  his  regiment 
in  May  1863  ;  volunteered  again  ;  was  made  colo- 
nel of  the  29th  Maine,  and  promoted  to  brigadier- 
general  of  volunteers  30  Nov.  1864,  for  his 
services  in  the  Red  River  campaign.  On  15 
Jan.  1866  he  was  mustered  out  of  service  with 
the  brevet  of  major-general  of  volunteers.  In 
1880-5  he  was  adjutant-general  of  Maine,  and 
in  1888-94,  State  treasurer. 

Beal,  Samuel,  English  Orientalist.  He 
was  educated  at  Trinity  College,  Cambridge, 
graduating  therefrom  in  1847.  Some  time  after, 
he  entered  the  royal  navy  as  chaplain,  and  in 
that  capacity  saw  active  service  in  China  and 
Japan.  He  made  a  close  study  of  the  Chinese 
and  Japanese  languages,  and  on  his  retirement 
from  the  navy  in  1877  was  elected  professor  of 
Chinese  at  University  College,  London.  His 
principal  work  was  tracing  the  early  history  of 
Buddhism  in  original  Chinese  records,  and  the 
results  of  his  work  were  given  to  the  world  in 
several  volumes,  notably:  ^The  Catena  of 
Buddhist  Scriptures^  (1872)  ;  <The  Legend  of 
Buddha'  (1876)  ;  < Buddhist  Records  of  the 
Western  World'  (1884)  ;  ^Life  of  Hienen- 
Fsiang'  (1888);  etc.  He  also  catalogued  a 
large  series  of  Japanese  Buddhist  works. 

Beal,  William  James,  American  botanist: 
b.  Adrian,  Mich.,  11  March  1833.  He  graduated 
at  the  University  of  Michigan  in  1859;  taught 
in  various  institutions  1859-70,  since  which 
tirne  he  has  been  professor  of  botany  in  the 
Michigan  Agricultural  College.  He  is  a  Fellow 
of  the  American  Society  for  the  Advancement 
of  Science,  and  was  president  of  the  natural 
history  section  of  this  society  in  1883  ;  first  presi- 
dent of  the  Association  of  Botanists  of  the 
United  States  Experimental  Stations  in  1888, 
etc.  His  works  include  ^Grasses  of  North 
America'  (2  vols.)  ;  <The  New  Botany'  ;  < Plant 
Dispersal'  ;  etc. 

Beale,  Dorothea,  English  teacher:  b.  Lon- 
don, 1831.  She  became  mathematical  tutor  in 
Queen's  College  in  1850,  and  later,  Latin  tutor 
in  the  school ;  head  teacher  in  the  Clergy  School, 
in  Casterton,  in  1857 ;  and  principal  of  Chelten- 
ham Ladies'  College  in  1858.  Her  publications 
include  ^Text-Book  of  English  and  General  His- 
tory' ;  'Chronological  Maps'  ;  'Report  on  Girls' 
Education  Commission  of  1864'  ;  'Work  and 
Play  in  Girls'  Schools.'  In  1880  she  became 
editor  of  the   'Ladies'  College  Magazine.' 

Beale,  Edward  Fitzgerald,  American  diplo- 
matist: b.  Washington.  D.  C,  4  Feb.  1822;  d. 
22  April  1893 ;  graduated  at  the  United  States 
Naval  Academy  1842,  and  at  the  beginning  of 
the  Mexican  war  was  assigned  to  duty  in  Cali- 
fornia under  Commodore  Stockton.  After  the 
war  he  resigned  his  naval  commission  and  was 
appointed  superintendent  of  Indian  affairs  for 
California  and  New  Mexico.  He  was  commis- 
sioned brigadier-general  in  the  army  by  Presi- 


BEALE  — BEAN 


dent  Pierce.  He  served  in  the  Union  army  in 
the  Civil  War,  and  at  its  close  engaged  in  stock- 
raising  in  Los  Angeles,  Cal.,  till  1876,  when 
President  Grant  appointed  him  United  States 
minister  to  Austria. 

Beale,  Lionel  Smith,  English  physician 
and  biologist:  b.  London,  5  Feb.  1828;  d.  28 
March  1906.  He  was  the  son  of  Lionel  John 
Beale,  M.R.C.S.  He  was  educated  at  King's 
College  School  and  King's  College,  London, 
later  becoming  an  honorary  Fellow.  In  1852  he 
established  a  laboratory  for  chemical  and  micro- 
scopical studies,  and  in  the  following  year  became 
professor  of  physiology  and  general  and  morbid 
anatomy  in  King's  College.  London.  In  the 
same  college  he  held  in  succession  the  professor- 
ships of  pathology  and  of  the  principles  and 
practice  of  medicine,  but  in  i8g6  he  retired  from 
the  latter  post.  He  was  a  Fellow  of  the  Royal 
Society,  and  for  some  years  acted  as  treasurer 
of  the  Royal  Microscopical  Society.  His  pub- 
lished works  deal  with  medical,  anatomical, 
physiological,  and  biological  subjects,  the  micro- 
scope, etc.  Among  the  most  important  are 
*How  to  Work  with  the  Microscope'  ;  ^Proto- 
plasm; or.  Life,  Matter,  and  Mind*;  <Life  and 
Vital  Action  in  Health  and  Disease'  ;  *The 
Physiological  Anatomy  and  Physiology  of  Man' 
(in  collaboration  with  Dr.  Todd  and  Sir  W. 
Bowman)  ;  *  Disease  Germs'  ;  'Life  Theories 
and  Religious  Thought'  ;  'The  Mystery  of 
Life'  ;  etc. 

Beall,  John  Young,  Confederate  guerrilla: 
b.  Virginia,  i  Jan.  1835 ;  d.  24  Feb.  1865.  He 
was  appointed  acting  master  in  the  Confederate 
naval  service  in  1863.  On  19  Sept.  1864  he  and 
a  number  of  followers  took  passage  on  the  Lake 
Erie  steamer  Philo  Parsons  and  at  a  given  signal 
took  possession  of  the  vessel,  making  prisoners 
of  the  crew.  They  also  scuttled  another  boat, 
the  Island  Queen,  and  tried  to  wreck  a  railroad 
train  near  Buffalo,  N.  Y.  In  spite  of  a  procla- 
mation of  Jefferson  Davis  assuming  responsibil- 
ity for  this  expedition,  Beall  was  hanged  on 
Governor's  Island,  N.  Y.,  on  the  ground  that,  if 
acting  under  orders,  he  should  have  shown  some 
badge  of  authority. 

Beam,  in  architecture,  a  long,  straight 
and  strong  piece  of  wood,  iron,  or  steel,  espe- 
cially one  holding  an  important  place  in  some 
structure,  and  serving  for  support  or  consolida- 
tion;  often  equivalent  to  girder  (q.v.).  In  a  bal- 
ance it  is  the  part  from  the  ends  of  which  the 
scales  are  suspended.  In  a  loom  it  is  a  cylin- 
drical piece  of  wood  on  which  weavers  wind  the 
warp  before  weaving ;  also  the  cylinder  on  which 
the  cloth  is  rolled  as  it  is  woven.  In  ship- 
building, one  of  several  strong  transverse  pieces 
of  timber  stretching  across  the  ship  from  one  side 
to  the  other,  to  support  the  decks  and  retain  the 
sides  at  their  proper  distance,  with  which  they 
are  firmly  connected  by  means  of  strong  knees, 
and  sometimes  of  standards.  They  are  sus- 
tained at  each  end  by  thick  stringers  on  the 
ship's  side  called  shelf-pieces.  The  main-beam 
is  next  abaft  the  main-mast.  The  greatest  beam 
of  all  is  called  the  midship  beam.  A  ship  is  said 
to  be  "on  her  beam-ends"  when  she  lies  en- 
tirely on  her  side,  so  that  the  beams  are  almost 
at  right  angles  to  the  surface  of  the  water.  An 
object  is  said  to  be  ''a-beam"  when  it  is  in  a  line 
with  the  beams  of  the  ship,  and  accordingly  at 
right  angles  to  its  length. 


Beam  Engine.     See  Steam  Engine. 

Beam-tree,  White  {Pyrus  aria),  a  Euro- 
pean and  Asiatic  tree  of  the  natural  order 
Rosacea,  rarely  exceeding  50  feet  in  height,  often 
cultivated  in  dry  and  exposed  situations  for 
its  ornamental  leaves,  which  are  bright  dark- 
green  above  and  light  beneath ;  and  for  its  large 
terminal  corymbs  of  flowers  which  appear  in  late 
spring  followed  by  showy  orange-red  or  scarlet, 
acid  and  astringent  fruits  which  resemble  those 
of  the  service-berry  (q.v.),  and  which  are  used 
to  make  a  kind  of  beer.  Its  hard,  fine-grained 
wood  is  made  into  cog-wheels.  It  is  closely  re- 
lated to  the  mountain-ash  (q.v.). 

Bean,  Nehemiah  S.,  American  inventor:  b. 
Gilmanton,  N.  H.,  1818;  d.  20  July  1896.  He 
learned  the  machinist's  trade,  and  in  the  winter 
of  1857-8  built  his  first  steam  fire  engine,  which 
he  named  the  Lawrence,  and  sold  it  to  the  city 
of  Boston.  In  1859  he  took  the  management  of 
the  Amoskeag  Locomotive  Works  in  Manches- 
ter, where  he  had  been  employed  in  1847-50. 
During  1859  he  built  the  ''Amoskeag  Steam  Fire 
Engine  No.  i,"  the  first  of  a  class  of  engines 
which  now  is  used  everywhere. 

Bean,  Tarleton  Hoffman,  American  ich- 
thyologist :  b.  Bainbridge,  Pa.,  8  Oct.  1846.  He 
graduated  at  Columbian  University,  Washington, 
D.  C,  1876.  He  was  editor  of  the  'Proceedings 
and  Bulletins'  of  the  United  States  National 
Museum,  Washington,  1878-86,  and  of  the  'Re- 
port and  Bulletin  of  the  United  States  Fish 
Commission,'  Washington,  1889-92;  was  assist- 
ant in  charge  of  the  division  of  fish  culture  in 
the  United  States  Fish  Commission,  1892-5,  and 
curator  of  the  department  of  fishes  in  the  United 
States  National  Museum,  1880-95.  I"  1893  he 
represented  the  United  States  Fish  Commission 
at  the  World's  Columbian  Exposition,  and  in 
1895  at  the  Atlanta  Exposition.  In  1895  he  be- 
came director  of  the  New  York  Aquarium,  and 
in  1899  was  appointed  director  of  forestry  and 
fisheries  of  the  United  States  Commission  to  the 
Paris  Exposition  of  1900.  His  works  include 
'The  Fishes  of  Pennsylvania'  ;  'The  Salmon  and 
Salmon  Fisheries'  ;  'Oceanic  Ichthyology'  (with 
George  Brown  Goode)  ;  etc.  He  has  also  con- 
tributed articles  to  'Forest  and  Stream.' 

Bean  (Jsl.  E.  bene,  ben;  A.  S.  bean,  a 
"bean"),  a  plant  of  the  natural  order  Legumino- 
sccc,  or  legumes.  Originally  the  smooth  kidney- 
shaped,  flat-sided  seed  of  the  broad  bean,  Vicia 
faba,  it  is  now  applied  to  various  genera,  usually 
with  a  specific  epithet,  as  Lima  bean,  etc. 

The  broad  bean  {Vicia  faba)  is  the  bean  of 
history.  Its  origin  is  doubtful,  but  it  is  probably 
a  native  of  southwestern  Asia  and  northern 
Africa.  It  is  much  grown  in  Europe,  especially 
in  England,  but  the  hot  dry  summers  prevent  ito 
cultivation  in  most  parts  of  the  L'^nited  States. 
It  is  grown  successfully  in  the  maritime  prov- 
inces of  Canada,  and  in  other  parts,  with  corn 
and  sunflowers,  to  make  ensilage.  It  is  an  an- 
nual plant,  growing  from  two  to  four  feet  high, 
erect,  with  thick  angular  stems ;  flowers  usu- 
ally white  with  black  on  the  wings.  The  pods, 
which  contain  the  thick  flattened  seeds,  vary 
from  two  to  four  inches  up  to  18  inches  long. 
The  common  varieties  are  the  Broad  Windsor 
and  Mazaj'an ;  they  are  quite  hardy  and  should 
be  sown  early.  The  soils  best  suited  are  heavy 
loams  and  clays.  The  green  seeds  are  eaten  as 
a  vegetable,  or,  if  allowed  to  mature,  are  ground 


BEAN 


and   used  as    feed   for  horses   and   cattle.     The 
straw  is  fed  to  cattle. 

The  kidney-bean  of  Europe  is  known  in  the 
United  States  as  the  bean  Phaseolus  vulgaris; 
it  embraces  all  the  common  field,  garden,  snap, 
and  string  beans,  both  bush  and  climbing.  The 
French  know  it  as  the  haricot.  It  is  probably 
a  native  of  South  America,  and  was  introduced 
into  Europe  during  the  i6th  century.  Over  150 
varieties  are  in  cultivation ;  the  growers  usually 
group  them  into  bush-  and  pole-beans.  The 
bush-beans  embrace  the  *'field  beans"  grown  for 
dry  shelled  seeds,  also  the  green-podded  and 
yellow-podded  garden,  string,  or  snap  beans. 
The  pole-beans  are  usually  grown  for  use 
while  green.  Bush-beans  do  well  on  a  good 
warm  loam.  The  yellow-podded  varieties  and 
pole-beans  require  a  richer  soil.  They  should 
not  be  planted  until  danger  from  frost  is 
over,  and  require  constant  cultivation  while 
growing.  Leading  field  varieties  are  white 
marrowfat,  nav}'  or  pea  bean,  medium,  and  the 
kidneys :  in  string-beans,  early  Valentine,  string- 
less  green-pod,  refugee,  etc. :  in  yellow-podded 
beans,  black  wax,  golden  wax,  kidney,  and 
white :  in  pole-beans.  Limas,  large  Lima,  dreer 
Lima,  etc.  See  Bulletins  87  and  115,  Cornell 
Experiment  Station.  For  forcing  pole-beans  un- 
der glass,  see  Bailey's  ^Forcing  Book'  ;  Bulle- 
tin 62,  New  Hampshire  Experiment  Station, 
Durham. 

The  Lima  bean  (P.  lunatus)  is  the  most  pop- 
ular pole-bean.  It  is  of  South  American  origin, 
but  is  now  grown  in  various  parts  of  this  coun- 
try, most  of  the  seed  being  raised  in  California. 
The  short,  flat,  slightly  kidney-shaped  seeds  are 
enveloped  in  flat,  broad  pods.  The  soy-bean 
(q.v.)  (Soja  hispida  or  Glycine  hispida)  is  a 
bushy,  erect,  hairy  plant  which  bears  pea-like 
seeds  in  small  pods.  It  is  a  native  of  China  and 
Japan,  where  it  is  largely  grown.  It  is  used  for 
forage  and  soiling.  The  cowpea  (q.v.)  (Vigna 
catjang)  is  generally  used  for  forage,  soiling, 
hay,  and  green  manuring.  The  scarlet  runner 
(P.  multiflorus)  is  a  perennial.  It  is  grown 
largely  for  ornament,  but  in  England  the  seeds 
and  pods  are  eaten  as  a  vegetable.  The  Adzuki 
bean  (P.  radiatus)  is  a  native  of  Japan,  and  a 
recent  introduction  in  America.  (See  Bulletin 
32,  Agricultural  Experiment  Station,  Kansas). 
The  frijole  {P.  spp)  is  grown  in  the  southwest- 
ern States  and  in  Mexico,  where  it  is  a  staple 
food. 

Other  important  Oriental  beans,  but  not  very 
cornmon  here,  are:  Mungo-beans  (P.  mungo)  ; 
various  species  of  Dolichos,  as  the  asparagus- 
bean  (D.  sesqiiipedalis)  ;  and  the  locust  or  carob 
bean(  Ceratonia  siliqua),  the  pods  of  which  are 
sold  by  confectioners  as  St.  John's  bread.  The 
sweet  pulp  which  surrounds  the  seed  is  eaten, 
especially  in  the  Mediterranean.  The  pods  and 
seeds  are  ground  and  used  extensively  as  feed 
for  cattle  and  other  animals.  The  velvet-bean 
(Muciina  utilis)  is  often  grown  for  ornament; 
also  for  forage  and  soil  renovation  in  the  south- 
ern States.  It  only  ripens  seed  in  the  Gulf 
States  and  Florida.  The  beans  and  pods,  when 
ground,  are  fed  to  cattle.  The  cooked  green 
beans  have  caused  illness  in  those  who  have 
eaten  them.  The  sea-beans  of  the  Florida  coast 
are  transported  bj^  ocean  currents  from  the 
tropics.  In  1809,  15.004  acres  of  green  beans 
were  grown,  yielding  1512.642  bushels,  or  an 
average   of    ICK).S   bushels   per    acre.     The    four 


leading  States  in  bean  cultivation  are  New  York, 
New  Jersey,  Florida,  and  Virginia.  These  fur- 
nish about  half  the  supply. 

Uses  and  Feeding  Values. —  The  seeds  and 
sometimes  the  pods  are  used,  either  green  or 
dry,  as  food  for  man  and  animals.  Some  spe- 
cies are  grown  for  forage,  hay,  or  green  manur- 
ing. Owing  to  their  nitrogen-gathering  pro- 
pensities they  all  aid  in  soil-renovation. 

The  average  percentage  composition  of: 


fi 

u 

u 

a 
'S 
0 

1     0 

J3 
< 

>  ^a 
-  0  a 

v*^  0 

3  0  a 

Dry  s 

lelled  beans.  .  . 

12.6 

22.  i; 

29.6 

T.8 

■^■'=^ 

1605  calories 

Fresh 

shelled  beans. . 

^«.q 

P  4 

29.1 

0.6 

7,0 

740      " 

Fresh 

string  beans. . 

89.2 

2-3 

7-4 

0-3 

0.8 

195       " 

With  man,  on  an  average,  90  per  cent  of  the 
dry  matter  is  digestible ;  80  per  cent  of  the  pro- 
tein ;  96  per  cent  of  the  nitrogen-free  extract ; 
and  80  per  cent  of  the  ether  extract.  String- 
beans  or  green-shell  beans  are  usually  boiled 
and  served  in  various  ways.  In  composition 
they  compare  favorably  with  other  vegetables. 
Dry  beans  are  baked  with  salt  pork  or  beef 
and  used  for  soups  and  other  dishes.  They  are 
a  cheap,  nutritious  food,  rich  in  starch  and  in 
the  proteid,  legumin ;  hence  they  may  be  used 
to  replace  meat  in  the  diet.  If  the  skins  are 
removed  they  are  easier  of  digestion  and  are 
not  so  liable  to  cause  flatulence;  the  latter  is  due 
to  the  production  of  methane  by  fermentation 
in  the  intestines.  Shell-  and  string-beans  are 
preserved  by  evaporation  or  canning.  String- 
beans  are  also  preserved  with  salt.  Cooked  dry 
beans  are  canned.  Bean  flour  consists  of  beans 
ground.  Bean  meal  is  used  in  Europe  as  feed 
for  horses,  cattle,  and  hogs.  Bean  cake  is  the 
residue  after  the  oil  has  been  extracted :  it  is 
fed  to  cattle  in  northern  China.  Bean  curd  is 
eaten  by  the  natives  of  northern   China. 

Bean  Diseases. —  Pod-rust ;  anthracnose 
(Colletotrichuni  lindeniuthianiim),  a  fungus 
which  attacks  the  stems,  leaves,  and  fruit.  The 
disease  may  be  carried  over  in  the  seed,  the 
affected  ones  may  be  recognized  by  the  yellow 
or  brown  discoloration.  A  black  discoloration 
with  ensuing  brittleness  marks  the  progress  of 
the  disease  on  the  leaves.  The  selection  of 
sound  seed,  immediate  removal  of  infected 
plants,  and  spraying  with  Bordeaux  mixture, 
are  recommended.  The  bean-rust  (Uromyces 
phaseoli)  appears  as  small  brown,  nearly  circu- 
lar, and  slightly  elevated  dots  on  the  leaves. 
These  discharge  a  brown  powder,  the  spores 
of  the  disease.  Spraying  with  Bordeaux  mix- 
ture is  recommended.  Blight  (Phytophtlwra 
phaseoli^  attacks  the  Lima  bean.  Spraying  with 
copper  compound  is  recommended.  The  bean- 
weevil  (Bruchus  obtectns)  may  injure  the  beans 
when  stored.  After  harvesting,  treat  the  seed 
two  or  three  times,  at  intervals  of  three  or  four 
weeks,   with  carbon  bisulphide. 

Consult:  De  Candolle,  ^Nativity  of  the  Bean'  ; 
Gray  and  Trumbull,  '^Origin  of  Cultivated 
Plants,''  ^American  Journal  of  Science.'  XX\^I., 
130:  Sturtevant,  ^American  Naturalist.'  (1887,  p. 
332;  Wittmack,  ^Ber.  der  Deutschen  Bot.  Gesell- 
schaft,'   VL  374   (1888). 

S.   Eraser. 


BEAN-GOOSE  —  BEARD 


Bean-goose  (Anser  segetum),  a  species  of 
European  wild  goose,  distinguished  from  the 
true  wild  goose  {A.  ferns)  by  its  comparatively 
small  and  short  bill,  which,  as  far  as  the  nos- 
tril, is  black,  and  above  it  of  a  reddish  flesh 
color,  whereas  that  of  the  gray  lag,  or  true  wild 
goose,  is  orange-red,  with  a  touch  of  grayish- 
white.  They  feed  generally  on  high  grounds, 
considerably  inland,  selecting  particularly  young 
wheat,  stubbles  sown  down  for  grass,  and,  in 
spring,  fields  sown  with  beans,  their  fondness 
for  which  is  supposed  to  have  given  them  their 
name.  They  breed  chiefly  within  the  Arctic 
Circle,  but  their  nests  are  often  found  in  large 
numbers  in  the  Hebrides.  The  bean-goose  be- 
ing rather  less  than  the  common  wild  goose,  but 
having  the  same  color,  is  sometimes  provincially 
called  the  small  gray  goose. 

Bean,  St.  Ignatius,  a  seed  vi^hich  yields 
strychnin. 

Bean  Weevil,  a  beetle,  Brunchus  ohtectiis, 
which  is  smaller  than  the  pea-weevil,  measuring 
.15  of  an  inch  in  length.  Compared  with  that 
insect  it  is  lighter  and  more  uniform  in  color, 
being  of  a  tawny  gray,  without  the  white  spots 
so  conspicuous  in  B.  pisi.  The  uniform  tawny 
gray  eljlra  are  spotted  with  a  few  oblong  dark 
spots,  situated  between  the  striae ;  tye  antennae 
also  differ  in  having  the  four  basil  joints  more 
reddish  than  in  B.  pisi,  while  the  terminal  joint 
is  red.  The  legs  also  are  much  redder.  The 
eggs  are  laid  on  the  outside  of  the  bean;  the 
young  hatch  and  bore  in,  and  there  may  be  8 
or  10  grubs  in  a  single  bean.  The  chrysalis 
lies  in  a  cavity  in  the  bean  just  large  enough 
to  receive  its  body.  The  best  remedy  is  to 
carefully  examine  the  beans  in  the  autumn 
and  before  sowing  time,  when  the  presence  of 
the  weevil  can  be  easily  detected  by  the  trans- 
parent spots  made  by  the  larva.  These  should 
be  burned  and  such  beans  as  are  apparently 
uninjured  should  be  soaked  for  a  minute  in 
boiling-hot  water,  so  that  no  beetles  be  over- 
looked. 

Bear,  or  Bere,  a  species  of  barley  (q.v.). 

Bear  Flag  War,  a  rising  against  the  Mexi- 
can government  in  1846,  by  a  small  body  of 
emigrants  from  the  United  States  who  had  set- 
tled in  California,  thought  to  have  been  incited 
by  Capt.  John  C.  Fremont.  He  was  then  com- 
manding a  small  detachment  of  American  troops 
in  California  and  a  few  Americans  having  pro- 
claimed a  republic  in  Sonoma  and  raised  a  flag 
on  which  was  a  figure  of  a  bear,  Fremont 
joined  the  insurgents  with  his  troops.  The 
Mexican  war  began  in  the  following  July  and 
the  Bear  Flag  war  then  became  a  part  of  the 
American  scheme  for  the  conquest  of  Califor- 
nia. 

Bear  Lake,  Great,  a  body  of  v^^ater  in 
Canada,  so  named  on  account  of  its  situation 
directly  under  the  Arctic  Circle,  and  therefore 
under  the  constellation  Ursa  Major.  It  is  of 
very  irregular  shape,  having  five  arms  project- 
ing out  of  the  main  body,  and  its  greatest  diame- 
ter is  150  miles.  The  principal  supply  of  the 
lake  is  Dease  River,  which  enters  it  from  the 
northeast.  Its  outlet  is  on  its  southwestern  ex- 
tremity, at  the  bottom  of  Keith  Bay.  through 
Bear  Lake  River,  which  empties  into  Mackenzie 
River.  The  surface  of  Bear  Lake  is  not  more 
than  200  feet  above  the  Arctic  Ocean;   conse- 


quently, its  bottom  must,  like  many  of  the  north- 
western lakes,  lie  considerably  below  the  level 
of  the  sea.  Great  Bear  Lake  abounds  in  fish 
of  many  varieties,  among  which  the  herring- 
salmon  is  noted.  The  second  land  expedition, 
under  Franklin,  in  1825,  wintered  on  the  western 
shore  of  this  lake,  near  its  outlet,  where  they 
built  Fort  Franklin.  Dr.  Richardson,  a  mem- 
ber of  the  expedition,  mentions  a  curious  cir- 
cumstance concerning  the  singing  of  birds  of 
this  lake,  that  when  they  first  appeared  after 
the  long  Arctic  winter  they  serenaded  their 
mates  at  midnight,  and  were  silent  during  the 
day.  The  waters  of  the  lake  are  so  clear  that 
a  white  substance  can  be  distinctly  discerned  at 
the  depth  of  90  feet.  This  lake  is  situated  about 
250  miles  east  of  the  Rocky  Mountains,  about 
the  same  distance  south  of  the  Arctic  Sea,  and 
400  miles  northwest  of  Slave  Lake.  It  is  the 
basin  of  a  water-shed  of  about  400  miles  di- 
ameter. 

Bear  Mountain,  the  designation  of  a  hill 
some  750  feet  in  height,  situated  in  the  north- 
eastern part  of  Dauphin  County,  Pa.  In  its 
vicinity  are  valuable  deposits  of  anthracite  coal. 

Bear  River,  a  river  in  Utah  about  400 
miles  long,  which  rises  in  a  spur  of  the  Rocky 
Mountains,  about  75  miles  east  of  Great  Salt 
Lake,  takes  first  a  northwesterly  and  then  a 
southeasterly  direction,  forming  nearly  a  letter 
V,  of  which  more  than  half  the  entire  length 
is  in  Oregon  territory,  and  finally  empties  into 
the  Great  Salt  Lake.  Its  valley  is  about  6,000 
feet  above  the  sea-level.  At  the  bend  of  the 
river  in  Oregon,  and  about  45  miles  from  Lewis 
River,  are  found  the  famous  Beer  and  Steam- 
boat springs,  which  are  highly  impregnated 
with  magnesia  and  other  mineral  substances. 

Bear  State,  a  popular  nickname  for  Ar- 
kansas. 

Bearberry,  the  name  of  the  Arctostaphylos, 
a  genus  of  plants  belonging  to  the  order  Erica- 
cecE  (heathworts).  It  includes  the  two  species, 
A.  uva  ursi  and  A.  alpina,  both  of  which  are 
American.  They  are  sometimes  ranked  under 
the  genus  Arbutus.  The  flowers  are  rose- 
colored,  the  berry  of  the  Uva  ursi  is  red,  while 
that  of  the  other  is  black.  The  INIanzanita  of 
California  is  A.  manzanita  or  A.  pungcns.  It 
reaches  a  height  of  30  feet,  and  forms  dense 
thickets,  impenetrable  by  man  or  cattle.  By 
reason  of  an  active  glycoside,  arbutin,  bearberry 
is  a  very  efficient  urinary  antiseptic,  useful  in 
cystitis,  pyelitis,  and  urethritis.  The  arbutin  is 
decomposed  in  the  urine  into  hydrochinon  and 
other  bodies.  Its  antiseptic  properties  are  due 
to  the  phenal  hydrochinon.  The  extract  of  the 
plant  is  used  for  dyeing  and  tanning  leather. 

Beard,  Charles,  English  Unitarian  clergy- 
man:  b.  Manchester,  England,  2y  July  1827;  d. 
Liverpool,  9  April  1888.  He  was  pastor  of 
Renshaw  Street  Chapel,  Liverpool,  editor  of  the 
Theological  Rcviciv,  1864-79,  and  author  of 
^Outlines  of  Christian  Doctrine^  (1859)  ;  ^The 
Soul's  Way  to  God>  (1875)  ;  'The  Hilbert 
Lectures,^  his  most  important  work  and  one 
much  esteemed  (1883)  ;  <The  Universal  Christ^ 
(1888);    'Martin  Luther>    (1889). 

Beard,  Daniel  Carter,  American  artist  and 
author:  b.  Cincinnati,  Ohio,  21  June  1850.  He 
first  engaged  in  civil  engineering  and  surveying; 
went  to  New  York  in  1878  and  studied  art,  and 


BEARD 


has  since  become  widely  known  as  a  book  and 
magazine  illustrator.  He  founded  and  became 
teacher  of  the  department  of  animal  drawing  in 
the  Woman's  School  of  Applied  Design,  believed 
to  be  the  first  class  of  this  character  in  the 
world.  Besides  his  illustrative  work  he  has 
published  *  Moonlight^  ;  ^Six  Feet  of  Romance'  ; 
*  American  Boys'  Handy  Book';  <  American 
Boys'  Book  of  Sport,*  etc. 

Beard,  George  Miller,  American  physician 
and  hygienic  writer :  b.  Montville,  Conn.,  8  May 
1839;  d.  New  York,  23  Jan.  1883.  He  made  a 
specialty  of  the  study  of  stimulants  and  nar- 
cotics, hypnotism,  spiritualism,  etc.  Among  his 
works  were:  'Our  Home  Physician'  (1869); 
^Eating  and  Drinking'  (1871)  ;  'Stimulants  and 
Narcotics'  (1871);  'American  Nervousness' 
(1881);   'Sea-Sickness'    (1882). 

Beard,  Henry,  American  painter:  b.  Ohio, 
1841 ;  d.  New  York,  19  Nov.  1889.  He  was  a 
son  of  James  Henry  Beard,  and  nephew  of  Wil- 
liam Holbrook  Beard ;  served  in  the  Union  army 
during  the  Civil  War;  at  its  close  applied  him- 
self to  painting,  particularly  animal  life ;  and, 
after  his  removal  to  New  York,  in  1877,  was 
chiefly  engaged  in  illustrating  books  and  peri- 
odicals. 

Beard,  James  Henry,  American  painter:  b. 
Buffalo,  N.  Y.,  1814;  d.  4  April  1893.  He  be- 
came a  portrait  painter  in  Cincinnati,  and  painted 
the  portraits  of  Henry  Clay  and  other  distin- 
guished men.  In  1846  he  exhibited  his  'Caro- 
lina Emigrants'  at  the  National  Academy  in 
New  York,  of  which  he  was  elected  an  honorary 
member  in  1848.  In  1870  he  removed  to  New 
York,  and  in  1872  was  elected  a  full  member 
of  the  National  Academy.  Subsequently  he  de- 
voted himself  to  animal  painting.  Among  his 
better  known  works  are:  'Mutual  Friend' 
(1875);  'Consultation'  (1877);  'Blood  Will 
Tell'  (1877)  ;  'Don  Quixote  and  Sancho  Panza' 
(1878);  'Heirs  at  Law'  (1880);  'Which  Has 
Pre-emption?'  (1881)  ;  'Detected  Poacher' 
(1884)  ;  'Don't  You  Come  Here'  and  'The 
Mississippi  Flood'  (1885)  ;  'A  Barnyard'  and 
<  'LI  Yer  Gimme  Some?  Say!'    (1886). 

Beard,  Richard,  American  theologian:  b. 
Sumner  County,  Tenn.,  27  Nov.  1799;  d.  Leb- 
anon, Tenn.,  2  Dec.  1880.  He  was  graduated 
from  Cumberland  College,  Princeton,  Ky.,  in 
1832;  was  professor  of  languages  there,  1832-8; 
president  1843-53.  Li  1854  he  was  called  to  the 
chair  of  systematic  theology  in  Cumberland 
University,  Lebanon,  Tenn.,  a  position  held  un- 
til his  death.  He  was  one  of  the  ablest  scholars 
and  most  conspicuous  figures  in  the  Cumberland 
Presbyterian  Church.  He  published  'Wiiy  I 
Am  a  Cumberland  Presbyterian'  (1874)  ;  'Sys- 
tematic Theology,'  a  standard  work  regarded  as 
the  crystallization  of  the  Cumberland  Presby- 
terian form  of  thought  and  faith. 

Beard,  Thomas  Francis,  commonly  known 
as  Frank  Be.\rd,  American  artist :  b.  Cincinnati, 
6  Feb.  1842 ;  d.  1905.  During  the  Civil  War  he 
served  in  the  7th  Ohio  regiment,  and  acted  as  a 
special  artist  for  the  Harper  publications.  As 
an  artist  he  devoted  himself  especially  to 
character  sketches.  From  the  age  of  12  he 
contributed  pictures  to  the  leading  American 
magazines.  As  a  lecturer  he  had  great  success 
before  Chautauqua  and  other  audiences.  He 
accompanied  his  talks  by  crayon  sketches  on  a 


blackboard.  The  title  of  his  first  lecture  was 
"Chalk-Talk,"  whence  the  word  originated.  In 
1881  he  occupied  the  chair  of  aesthetics  at 
Syracuse  University.  He  has  published:  'The 
Blackboard  in  the  Sunday-school'  (1880)  ;  and 
a  number   of   short    stories. 

Beard,      William      Holbrook,      American 

painter:  b.  Painesville,  Ohio,  13  April  1825;  d. 
New  York,  20  Feb.  1900;  brother  of  James  H. 
Beard.  He  was  a  traveling  portrait  painter 
from  1846  till  1851,  when  he  settled  in 
Buffalo,  N.  Y.  After  several  years  of  for- 
eign study  and  travel  he  settled  in  New 
York  in  i860.  In  1862  he  was  elected  a  mem- 
ber of  the  National  Academy.  His  works  in- 
clude genre  and  allegorical  pictures,  but  he  was 
most  popular  in  painting  animals,  especially 
bears,  whose  actions  he  humanized  in  a  satirical 
and  pleasing  manner.  He  made  many  studies 
of  decorative  architecture.  Among  his  most 
popular  works  are:  'Power  of  Death'  (1859); 
'Bears  on  a  Bender'  (1862)  ;  'Bear  Dance' 
(1865);  'March  of  Silenus'  (1866);  'Flaw  in 
the  Title'  (1867)  ;  'Darwin  Expounding  his 
Theories'  and  'Runaway  Match'  (1876);  'Di- 
vorce Court'  (1877)  ;  'Bulls  and  Bears  in  Wall 
Street'  (1879)  ;  'Voices  of  the  Night'  (1880)  ; 
'Spreading  the  Alarm'  (1881)  :  'In  the  Glen' 
(1882);  'Cattle  Upon  a  Thousand  Hills' 
(1883);  'Who's  Afraid?'  (1884);  'His  Maj- 
esty Receives'  and  'Office  Seekers'  (1886),  etc. 
He  published  'Humor  in  Animals,'  a  collection 
of  his  sketches  (1885). 

Beard,  the  hair  on  the  chin,  cheeks,  and 
upper  lip  of  men.  It  differs  from  the  hair  on 
the  head  by  its  greater  hardness  and  its  form. 
The  beard  begins  to  grow  at  the  time  of  pu- 
berty. The  connection  between  the  beard  and 
puberty  is  evident  from  this,  among  other  cir- 
cumstances, that  it  never  grows  in  the  case  of 
eunuchs  who  have  been  such  from  childhood ; 
but  the  castration  of  adults  does  not  cause  the 
loss  of  the  beard.  According  to  Caesar,  the  Ger- 
mans thought,  and  perhaps  justly,  the  late 
growth  of  the  beard  favorable  to  the  develop- 
ment of  all  the  powers.  But  there  are  cases  in 
which  this  circumstance  is  an  indication  of  fee- 
bleness. It  frequently  takes  place  in  men  of 
tender  constitution,  whose  pale  color  indicates 
little  power.  The  beards  of  different  nations 
afford  an  interesting  study.  Some  have  hardly 
any,  others  a  great  profusion.  The  latter  gen- 
erally consider  it  as  a  great  ornament ;  the  for- 
mer pluck  it  out ;  as,  for  instance,  the  American 
Indians.  The  character  of  the  beard  differs 
with  that  of  the  individual,  and,  in  the  case  of 
nations,  varies  with  the  climate,  food,  etc. 
Thus  the  beard  is  generally  dark,  dry,  hard,  and 
thin  in  irritable  persons  of  full  age ;  the  same 
is  the  case  with  the  inhabitants  of  hot  and  dry 
countries,  as  the  Arabians,  Ethiopians,  East  In- 
dians, Italians,  Spaniards.  But  persons  of 
very  mild  disposition  have  a  light-colored,  thick, 
and  slightly  curling  beard ;  the  same  is  the  case 
with  inhabitants  of  cold  and  humid  countries, 
as  Holland,  Britain,  Sweden.  The  difference  of 
circumstances  causes  all  shades  of  variety.  The 
nature  of  the  nourishment  likewise  causes  a 
great  variety  in  the  beard.  Wholesome,  nutri- 
tious, and  digestible  food  makes  the  beard  soft ; 
but  poor,  dry,  and  indigestible  food  renders  it 
hard  and  bristly. 


BEARD  MOSS  — BEARDSTOWN 


In  general  the  beard  has  been  considered 
with  all  nations  as  an  ornament,  and  often  as 
a  mark  of  the  sage  and  the  priest.  Moses  for- 
bade the  Jews  to  shave  their  beards.  With  the 
ancient  Germans  the  cutting  off  another's  beard 
was  a  high  offense :  with  the  East  Indians  it  is 
severely  punished.  Even  now  the  beard  is  re- 
garded as  a  mark  of  great  dignity  among  many 
nations  in  the  East,  as  the  Turks.  The  custom 
of  shaving  is  said  to  have  come  into  use  in  mod- 
ern times  during  the  reigns  of  Louis  XIII. 
and  XIV.  of  France,  both  of  whom  ascended 
the  throne  without  a  beard.  Courtiers  and  in- 
habitants of  cities  then  began  to  shave,  in  order 
to  look  like  the  kmg,  and,  as  France  soon  took 
the  lead  in  all  matters  of  fashion  on  the  con- 
tinent of  Europe,  shaving  became  general ;  but 
it  was  only  from  the  beginning  of  the  i8th  cen- 
tury that  shaving  off  the  whole  beard  became 
common. 

The  English  clergy  by  and  by,  probably  in 
imitation  of  those  of  western  Europe,  began  to 
shave  the  beard,  and  until  the  time  of  Wil- 
liam the  Norman,  the  whole  of  whose  army 
shaved  the  beard,  there  prevailed  a  bearded 
class  and  a  shaven  class,  in  short,  a  laity  and  a 
clergy,  in  England.  In  forbidding  the  clergy 
to  wear  beards  Gregory  VII.  (1084)  appealed 
to  the  custom  of  antiquity.  The  higher  classes 
indulged  in  the  moustache,  or  the  entire  beard, 
from  the  reign  of  Edward  III.  down  to  the 
17th  century.  The  beard  then  gradually  de- 
clined, and  the  court  of  Charles  I.  was  the  last 
in  which  even  a  small  one  was  cherished. 
Shaving,  among  many  ancient  nations,  was  the 
mark  of  mourning;  with  others  it  was  the 
contrary.  Plutarch  says  that  Alexander  intro- 
duced shaving  among  the  Greeks  by  ordering 
his  soldiers  to  cut  off  their  beards ;  but  it  ap- 
pears that  this  custom  had  prevailed  before 
among  the  Macedonians.  The  Romans  began 
to  shave  about  296  B.C.,  when  a  certain  Ticinius 
Mena,  a  barber  from  Sicily,  introduced  this 
fashion.  Scipio  Africanus  was  the  first  who 
shaved  every  day.  The  day  that  a  young  man 
first  shaved  was  celebrated,  and  the  first  hair 
cut  off  was  sacrificed  to  a  deity.  Hadrian,  in 
order  to  cover  some  large  warts  on  his  chin, 
renewed  the  fashion  of  long  beards ;  but  it  did 
not  last  long.  In  mourning  the  Romans  wore 
a  long  beard,  sometimes  for  years.  They  used 
scissors,  razors,  tweezers,  etc.,  to  remove  the 
beard.  The  public  barbers'  shops  (tonstrincc), 
where  the  lower  classes  went,  were  much  re- 
sorted to;  rich  people  kept  a  shaver  (tensor) 
among  their  slaves.  Army  regulations  gener- 
ally prohibit  the  wearing  of  beards,  while  in 
the  navy  beards  are  permitted.  Physicians  sug- 
gest that  the  beard  should  be  suffered  to  groM 
3n  the  chin  and  throat  where  tendencies  tc 
throat  diseases   exist. 

Beard  Moss  (usnea  harhata),  a  lichen  of 
gray  color.    See  also  Usnea. 

Beardslee,  Lester  Anthony,  American 
naval  officer :  b.  Little  Falls,  N.  Y.,  i  Feb. 
(838;  d.  near  Augusta,  Ga.,  11  Nov.  1903.  Ap- 
pointed acting-midshipman  5  March  1850,  he 
..eryed  in  the  East  Indies  in  1851-5,  partici- 
nating  in  one  battle  and  several  skirmishes 
with  the  Chinese  army  at  Shanghai.  Gradu- 
ating from  the  Naval  Academy  1856,  he  passed 
chrough  all  grades  of  the  service  to  rear-admiral 
1895,  and   was  retired  I   Feb.   1898.    During  the 


Civil  War  he  commanded  the  monitor  Nan- 
tucket in  the  attack  of  the  ironclad  fleet  on  the 
defenses  of  Charlestown  Harbor,  7  April  1863, 
and  captured  the  Confederate  steamer  Florida 
at  Bahia,  Brazil.  In  1870  he  took  the  steam-tug 
Palos  to  the  East  Indies,  carrying  on  her  the 
first  United  States  flag  through  the  Suez  Canal. 
In  1879-80  he  discovered,  surveyed,  and  named 
Glacier  Bay,  Alaska.  He  is  the  author  of  a 
number  of  valuable  official  reports,  especially 
those  on  ^The  Strength  of  Metals,'  *  Resources 
of  Alaska,'  and  'Present  Condition  of  Affairs 
in  Hawaii-"  (1897),  published  as  Senate  execu- 
tive documents;  "^The  Strength  of  Wrought 
Iron  and  Chain  Cables'    {li 


Beardsley,  Aubrey,  English  author  and 
illustrator:  b.  Brighton,  1874;  d.  Mentone, 
France,  16  March  1898.  After  receiving  a 
grammar  school  education,  he  began  working 
for  London  periodicals  and  publishers  in  1892 ; 
and  soon  became  widely  known  by  his  striking 
designs  for  posters  and  book  covers.  In  1894  he 
became  art  editor  of  'The  Yellow  Book,'  and 
while  supplying  it  with  illustrations,  contributed 
drawings  also  to  the  'Savoy'  and  'Le  Courrier 
Frangaise.'  He  illustrated  'Bons  Mots'  (1892)  ; 
Malory's  'La  Morte  d'Arthur'  (1893)  ;  Oscar 
Wilde's  'Salome'  (1894)  ;  'The  Rape  of  the 
Lock'  and  'An  Album  of  Fifty  Drawings' 
1896)  ;  and  wrote  and  illustrated  'The  Story  of 
Venus  and  Tannhauser'  (1895)  ;  and  a  novel, 
'Under  the  Hill'    (1896). 

Beardsley,  Eben  Edwards,  American  Epis- 
copal clergyman  and  writer :  b.  Stepney,  Conn., 
1808;  d.  22  Dec.  1891.  He  was  for  many  years 
rector  of  St.  Thomas's  Church  at  New  Haven. 
He  wrote  'History  of  the  Episcopal  Church  in 
Connecticut'  (4th  ed.  1883),  and  lives  of  'Sam- 
uel Johnson,  First  President  of  King's  College, 
New  York'  (1874)  ;  'William  Samuel  Johnson, 
President  of  Columbia  College'  (1876)  ;  and 
'Samuel  Seabury,  First  Bishop  of  Connecticut' 
(1881). 

Beardsley,  Samuel,  American  jurist:  b. 
Hoosic,  N.  Y.,  9  Feb.  1790;  d.  Utica,  N.  Y.,  6 
May  i860.  On  leaving  the  common  school  he 
took  up  the  study  of  medicine,  but  abandoned 
it  for  law.  In  1813  he  was  a  member  of  the 
militia  that  defended  Sackett's  Harbor.  Two 
years  later  he  was  admitted  to  the  bar,  and 
became  judge-advocate  of  the  militia.  In  1823 
he  was  State  senator  from  the  Fifth  District  of 
New  York.  He  was  appointed  attorney  for  the 
Northern  District  of  New  York  by  President 
Jackson,  and  was  a  member  of  Congress  in 
1831-6  and  1843-5.  From  1836  to  1838  he 
was  attorney-general  of  the  State  of  New  York. 
He  became  associate  judge  of  the  supreme  court 
of  New  York  in  1844,  and  three  years  later 
succeeded  Judge  Bronson  as  chief  justice.  On 
his  retirement  he  devoted  himself  to  the  prac- 
tice of  his  profession. 

Beardstown,  111.,  a  city  in  Cass  County, 
45  miles  northwest  of  Springfield,  on  the  Illinois 
River.  The  St.  Louis  division  of  the  Burlington 
Route  has  its  repair  and  other  shops  at  Beards- 
town.  There  are  manufactures  of  flour,  lum- 
ber, and  window  screens  as  well  as  important 
cooperage  works.  The  city  has  a  fine  park  and 
two  great  bridges  across  the  river.  It  was  set- 
tled in  1832  and  received  a  city  charter  in 
1896.     Pop.    (1900)    4,827. 


BEARER  COMPANY  — BEARINGS 


Bearing,  in  navigation  and  surveying,  sig- 
nifies the  angle  made  by  any  given  line  with  a 
north  and  south  line.  The  bearing  of  an  ob- 
ject is  the  direction  of  a  line  from  the  observer 
to  that  object. 

In  architecture,  the  space  between  the  two 
fixed  extremities  of  a  piece  of  timber,  or  between 
one  of  the  extremities  and  a  post  or  wall  placed 
so  as  to  diminish  the  unsupported  length.  Also 
and  commonly  used  for  the  distance  or  length 
which  the  ends  of  a  piece  of  timber  lie  upon 
■or  are  inserted  into  the  walls  or  piers. 

In  mechanics,  (a)  The  portion  of  an  axle 
•or  shaft  in  contact  with  the  collar  or  boxing, 
(b)  The  portion  of  the  support  on  which  a 
gudgeon  rests  and  revolves,  (c)  One  of  the 
pieces  resting  on  the  axle  and  supporting  the 
framework  of  a  carriage,  (d)  One  of  the  chairs 
supporting  the  framework  of  a  railway  carriage 
or  truck. 

In  Jieraldry,  a  charge;  anything  included 
within  the  escutcheon.  Generally  in  the  plural, 
as  armorial  bearings.) 

Bearer  Company,  a  British  organization 
■for  removing  wounded  soldiers  from  the  field 
of  battle  to  the  dressing  station  or  temporary 
hospital,  which  is  part  of  the  equipment  of  the 
bearer  company,  and  where  first  aid  can  be 
given  to  them.  The  bearer  company,  first  intro- 
duced into  the  British  army  in  1873,  comprises 
the  medical  and  other  officers  for  discipline  and 
supply  duties,  over  30  non-commissioned  officers 
and  men,  trained  as  sick  bearers  of  the  medical 
staff  corps,  about  100  attendant  untrained  bear- 
ers from  the  Militia  Reserve,  six  ^'batmen®  and 
drivers  of  the  Army  Service  Corps.  Tents  for 
the  personnel  and  for  the  dressing  stations  are 
•carried,  and  a  bearer  company  also  has  ambu- 
lances, surgery  wagons,  equipment,  supply,  and 
water  carts,  requiring  over  100  horses.  A  modi- 
fied organization  for  mountain  warfare  com- 
prises muleteers,  mules,  and  a  special  kind  of 
•cacolets  or  litters.  Half  a  bearer  company  is 
attached  to  each  army  corps  on  active  service, 
forming  the  link  between  the  battalion  stretcher 
bearers  and  the  field  hospitals. 

Bearings,  Anti  -  friction.  Anti  -  friction 
bearings  are  bearings  involving  the  principle 
of  rolling  friction,  as  distinguished  from 
sliding  friction.  An  ordinary  shaft  turning 
in  a  plain  journal  slides  around  on  a  layer 
of  some  lubricating  substance.  If  the  lubri- 
cant IS  good  and  properly  applied,  little  energy 
or  power  is  lost  in  the  heat  produced  by 
rubbing  friction.  If  not,  then  much  heat  is  pro- 
•duced,  often  to  such  an  extent  that  the  oil  or 
grease  is  set  on  fire,  dried  up,  thereby  causing  a 
so-called  "hot  box'*  or  journal.  The  starting 
friction  of  a  plain  journal  differs  very  greatly 
from  the  friction  of  motion.  The  reason  is  that 
while  at  rest  under  a  heavy  load,  the  film  of 
the  lubricant  is  penetrated,  and  contact  of  metal 
to  metal  is  established.  To  overcome  this  con- 
tact, until  the  bearing  has  moved  far  enough  to 
drag  the  film  of  oil  between  the  points  of  contact 
again,  requires  much  more  power.  Careful  tests 
show  the  coefficient  of  rest  to  be  from  .09  to 
.13,  as  compared  with  .05  to  .08  for  the  co- 
efficient of  motion.  Bearings  involving  rolling 
friction  are  entirely  different  in  this  respect. 
No  lubricant  other  than  enough  to  prevent  rust- 
ing is  needed.  Between  the  shaft  and  the  wheel 
or  other  bearing  is  interposed  some  shape,  made 


of  hardened  metal  that  rolls  between  the  two 
surfaces.  Rollers  and  balls  are  the  two  forms 
adopted  to  accomplish  this  purpose.  During  the 
last  decade  rapid  evolution  has  taken  place  in 
the  design  and  range  of  use  to  which  such  bear- 
ings are  applied.  Improved  manufacturing 
methods  in  the  way  of  production  of  large  balls 
are  bringing  this  "type  rapidly  to  the  front  for 
large  work,  such  as  trolley  and  steam  car  bear- 
ings, shafting,  and  many  other  uses  not  formerly 
possible  commercially,  because  of  cost. 

The  latest  improvements  have  also  very 
greatly  advanced  the  possibilities  of  the  bearing 
of  the  ball  type.  It  is  the  invention  of  C.  H. 
Chapman,  interposing  smaller  balls  between  the 
working,  or  load  carrying  balls,  in  such  a  way 
as  to  prevent  all  rubbing,  sliding  or  wedging 
tendencies,  thus  eliminating  all  wear,  and  indefi- 
nitely prolonging  the  life  of  a  bearing.  Ad- 
vanced designers  of  this  bearing  have  learned 
also  to  skilfully  combine  the  materials,  dimen- 
sions and  design  of  same  in  such  a  way  as  to 
successfully  perform  what  has  hitherto  been 
thought  too  heavy  work  for  ball  or  roller  bear- 
ings. The  saving  of  such  a  bearing  as  made 
by  the  American  Compound  Bearing  Company 
oyer  the  plain  journal  is  very  remarkable.  Tests 
give  the  following  comparative  results : 

Bearing  Starting  Friction  Running  Friction 


Plain 
Ball 


.100 
.009 


•OS 
.005 


It  is  seen  that  the  starting  friction  for  this 
ball  bearing  is  not  appreciably  greater  than  the 
running  friction,  and  that  under  all  conditions 
the  running  friction  of  this  compound  bearing 
(the  highest  refinement  of  anti-friction  bear- 
ing), is  less  than  one  tenth  of  the  friction  of 
the  best  lubricated  plain  journal. 


By  referring  to  the  cut  it  will  be  noted  that  B 
is  the  load-carrying  ball,  B'  the  idler,  P  the  re- 
taining tube  or  float  for  B' ,  C  the  cup,  K  the 
cone,  and  5"  the  journal  sleeve. 

The  idler  B'  is  so  placed,  that  its  centre  is 
coincident  with  a  line  connecting  the  centres  of 
each  of  the  adjacent  load-carrying  balls  B,  and 
is  positively  and  automatically  held  in  position 
by  a  loose  free  tube  F  that  floats  with  the  load- 
carrying  balls,  but  not  in  frictional  contact  with 
any  of  the  balls  when  the  same  are  under  load, 
during  which  time  the  idler  balls  are  maintained 


BEARN  — BEARS 


in  the  same  relative  position  by  rolling  contact 
with  the  load-carrying  balls. 

An  important  and  unique  function  of  the 
compound  features  of  the  bearing  is  the  differ- 
ential compensating  movement  of  the  journal 
between  the  shaft  and  the  balls,  insuring  a 
positive  revolution  of  the  load-carrying  balls 
under  all  conditions. 

For  the  class  of  journals  that  are  called  upon 
to  start  frequently,  the  saving  in  power  is  ex- 
ceedingly great,  and  the  necessity  of  saving 
power  is  bringing  about  the  very  general  use  of 
anti-friction  bearings.  Incidentally,  there  are 
other  very  important  advantages  in  the  decrease 
of  annoyance  and  expense  of  lubrication,  hot 
boxes  and  dirt  attending  the  use  of  all  plain 
journals.  The  use  of  anti-friction  bearings  as  a 
means  of  saving  power  in  all  transmission  prob- 
lems is  attracting  increased  attention  among  all 
mechanical   engineers. 

Henry  Souther, 
Engineer  of  the  American  Compound  Bearing 

Company. 

Beam,  ba-arn,  a  former  province  of 
France,  at  the  foot  of  the  Pyrenees,  with  the 
title  of  a  principality ;  about  42  miles  long  and 
36  broad.  It  now  forms  part  of  the  department 
of  the  Basses-Pyrenees.  It  belonged,  with  Na- 
varre, to  Henry  IV.,  when  he  obtained  the 
crown.  The  plain  country  is  very  fertile,  and 
the  mountains  are  covered  with  fir-trees,  while 
within  are  mines  of  copper,  lead,  and  'iron ; 
and  the  little  hills  are  planted  with  vines,  which 
yield  good  wine.  Pau  is  the  chief  town.  There 
is  a  peculiar  and  well-marked  dialect, —  the 
Bearnese, —  spoken  in  this  district,  which  has 
much  more  affinity  with  the  Spanish  than  with 
the  French.  It  contains  a  certain  number  of 
Greek  elements,  which  some  believe  to  have 
been  derived  from  the  ancient  Greek  colonists 
established  in  Gaul.  The  people  have  retained 
many  Old- World  manners,  customs,  and  super- 
stitions, as  well  as  their  old  costume.  See  Bor- 
denare,  'Histoire  de  Beam  et  Navarre^    (1873). 

Bears,  a  family  (Ursidce)  of  large,  heavy, 
long-haired,  plantigrade,  carnivorous  mammals, 
scattered  throughout  all  the  northern  hemi- 
sphere, and  some  parts  of  the  tropics.  They 
are  absent  from  Africa  (except  the  Atlas  Moun- 
tains, which  zoologically  belong  to  Europe), 
and  from  Australasia.  In  their  structure  and 
dentition  they  are  allied  to  the  dogs  on  one 
hand,  and  to  the  badgers,  weasels,  skunks,  etc., 
(Musfclidcc),  on  the  other.  The  head  is  broad, 
and  the  jaws  extended  and  rather  narrow,  but 
not  so  powerful  as  those  of  dogs  or  hyenas ; 
while  the  teeth  are  complete  and  large,  the 
molars  especially  being  broad  and  tuberculous, 
fitting  them  well  for  crushing  the  vegetable 
fare  so  largely  eaten  by  this  group.  The  skele- 
ton is  massive,  the  limbs  of  great  strength  and 
furnished  with  long  and  powerful  claws  for 
digging,  and  for  use  in  fighting.  The  whole  sole 
of  the  foot  rests  upon  the  ground,  leaving  a 
footprint  much  resembling  that  of  a  man.  Ordi- 
narily they  move  about  rather  slowly  and  clum- 
sily, yet  all  except  the  heaviest  bears  climb 
trees,  and  the  largest  scramble  over  rocks  or  ice 
with  surprising  agility;  and  all,  when  urged  by 
rage  or  fear,  can  get  over  the  ground  at  great 
speed,  their  gait  being  a  lumbering  but  effective 
gallop.  Their  ears,  though  small,  are  highly 
developed,  and  their  hearing  is  perhaps  of  more 


service  to  them  than  is  their  eye-sight ;  but 
neither  equals  in  keenness  the  nose,  which 
seems  to  be  extremely  sensitive.  In  respect  to 
food,  bears  are  truly  omnivorous,  taking  flesh, 
fish,  or  vegetable  materials  as  circumstances 
favor.  They  seize  such  small  animals  of  the 
woods  as  cannot  avoid  them,  and  near  settle- 
ments raid  the  herds  of  swine  and  flocks  of  sheep^ 
and  cattle,  especially  in  search  of  the  young 
ones.  All  bears  eat  fish,  and  some,  like  the 
Polar  and  the  Kadiak  bear,  live  almost  wholly 
upon  this  diet,  catching  the  fishes  cleverly  from 
the  shore  by  a  stroke  of  the  paw,  or  going  into 
the  water  after  them.  Reptiles,  crabs,  crayfish, 
etc.,  are  eaten  also ;  and  insects  form  a  large 
part  of  their  fare,  especially  ants  and  honey- 
making  bees  and  wasps.  They  dig  up  ant  hills- 
and  overturn  rotting  logs  and  stumps  for  the 
former,  and  search  out  and  tear  to  pieces  the 
combs  of  the  latter,  well  protected  against  stings 
by  their  long  hair.  They  also  eat  succulent 
leaves  and  herbage,  certain  roots,  fruit,  and  es- 
pecially sweet  acorns  and  berries,  of  which 
they  are  exceedingly  fond.  The  Rocky  Moun- 
tain Indians  used  to  burn  over  certain  tracts  of 
mountain-side  annually  in  order  to  keep  the 
oaks  low  and  promote  the  growth  of  certain 
berry-bearing  bushes  in  order  to  attract  the 
bears.  They  drink  a  great  deal  of  water,  enjoy 
going  into  it,  and  will  swim  long  distances. 

Bears  are  nowhere  very  numerous,  each  pair 
or  family  occupying  a  district  and  keeping  it 
fairly  well  to  itself.  When,  as  frequently  hap- 
pens, three  or  four  are  seen  together,  they  are 
likely  to  be  old  and  young  of  the  same  family. 
Their  home  is  usually  some  cave  or  crevice 
among  rocks,  a  hollow  tree,  a  tangle  of  wind- 
thrown  logs,  or  a  dense  thicket.  There,  in  the 
early  spring,  are  born  the  young,  usually  two, 
sometimes  four ;  and  in  the  case  of  the  Arctic 
species,  this  often  happens  under  the  snow,  be- 
fore the  female  is  released  from  her  hibernation. 
The  young  remain  with  the  mother  until  fully 
grown ;  and  when  they  are  little  she  guards 
and  controls  them  with  great  solicitude,  and 
will  rush  at  an  intruder.  At  other  times  bears 
are  rather  shy  and  will  usually  endeavor  to  re- 
treat, yet  when  brought  to  bay,  fight  with  great 
courage,  and  are  among  the  most  dangerous 
animals  men  can  encounter.  Their  attack  is 
made  with  both  teeth  and  claw,  striking  down 
or  clasping  the  foe  in  a  crushing  embrace,  and 
then  tearing  him  with  the  teeth.  They  can 
easily  be  tamed,  however,  remain  friendly  and 
prove  intelligent  and  docile  to  a  limited  ex- 
tent. They  submit  well  to  confinement,  endure 
change  of  climate,  and  breed  readily  in  captiv- 
ity. The  close  family  likeness  throughout  the 
group  has  made  their  distinction  into  natural 
species  a  matter  of  much  dispute  and  uncer- 
tainty. Everyone  recognizes  the  great  white 
^*Polar^*  or  *^ice'^  bear  of  the  Arctic  region 
(Ursus  maritiimts)  as  distinct.  Its  elongated 
body,  long,  pointed  head,  slender  limbs,  large, 
hairy-soled  feet,  and  cream-white  coat,  are  quite 
unlike  the  features  of  any  other.  Large  speci- 
mens are  nine  feet  or  more  in  length,  and  have 
enormous  strength.  These  bears  are  numerous 
throughout  the  icy  circumpolar  regions,  and 
wander  a  vast  distance  away  from  the  coast  on 
the  ice,  sometimes  swimming  many  miles.  They 
often  winter  and  their  young  are  born  on  the 
floes.  They  live  mainly  upon  seals,  young  wal- 
ruses,   and   fish,    which    they    scoop    out    of   the 


BEARS 


furf  and  from  the  coast  rivers  where  they  come 
to  spawn,  but  in  summer  obtain  various  other 
kinds  of  food,  including  marine  grass  and  shore 
herbage.  The  writings  of  Arctic  explorers 
abound  in  accounts  of  this  wide-spread  species, 
and  should  be  read  by  those  who  wish  to  know 
more  of  their  habits.  Another  sub-Arctic  bear 
that  seems  undoubtedly  distinct  is  the  glacier  or 
^'blue'*  bear  of  the  Mount  St.  Elias  Alps  on  the 
coast  of  Alaska  (q.v. )  first  described  by  Dall  in 
1895.  and  named  Ursiis  cmmonsi.  It  is  the 
smallest  of  all  bears  —  not  larger  that  a  half- 
grown  grizzl}',  and  bluish  black,  with  a  dorsal 
stripe,  the  ears  and  the  outer  surfaces  of  the 
limbs  jet  black;  black  and  silver  is  the  prevalent 
color  of  the  sides,  neck,  and  rump ;  the  belly 
and  inside  of  the  legs  are  white ;  sides  of  the 
nose  bright  tan  color.  Very  little  is  known  of 
its  habits,  or  of  the  extent  of  its  limited  range. 

The  other  American  bears,  called  black,  griz- 
zly, cinnamon,  Barren-Ground,  brown,  Kadiak, 
and  so  on,  are  so  confusingly  alike  that  some 
conservative  naturalists  regard  them  all  as 
merely  varieties  of  one  species,  altered  by  cli- 
mate and  food,  and  a  tendency  to  individual 
variation ;  and  it  has  even  been  said  that  there 
was  no  real  specific  distinction  between  them 
and  the  Old  World  bears,  which  also  present 
differences  that  blend  confusingly  together 
when  many  specimens  are  compared.  Others 
regard  the  differences  not  only  of  specific  value, 
but  even  place  some  of  the  forms  in  separate 
genera.  The  latest  monographer  of  the  Ameri- 
can UrsidcE  recognizes  no  less  than  eight  spe- 
cies on  this  continent,  besides  the  Polar  bear, 
and  the  spectacled  bear  of  the  Andes  {Ursus 
ornatus),  which  is  thought  by  others  to  be 
merely  an  isolated  variety  of  the  black  bear, 
that  somehow  has  acquired  whitish  rings  arovmd 
its  eyes.  The  black  bear  (Ursus  Amcricanns) 
is  the  most  wide-spread  of  these,  being  found 
in  all  the  forested  regions  of  the  continent 
north  of  -Mexico,  and  still  remaining  wherever 
a  large  patch  of  forest,  or  a  range  of  moun- 
tains or  rough  hills  give  it  a  harbor,  whence  it 
may  raid  the  pasture-lots  and  pig  sties  of 
frontier  farmers,  especially  in  early  spring, 
when  wild  food  is  scarce.  Black  bears  climb 
trees  easily,  travel  about  a  great  deal,  and  are 
often  captured  and  tamed.  They  are  timid  and 
secretive,  and  rarely  are  dangerous  unless 
wounded  or  cornered  and  enraged.  The 
color  of  this  bear  is  properly  black,  but 
brown,  reddish  ("cinnamon*'),  or  even  yel- 
lowish examples  are  frequently  seen.  The 
nose  is  always  tan-colored.  In  size  they 
average  about  five  feet,  and  never  reach  the 
dimensions  of  a  large  grizzly.  The  bears  of 
Florida  and  of  Texas  are  each  regarded  by 
some  as  separate  species,  but  most  naturalists 
consider  them  to  be  merely  geographical  races. 
The  Barren-Ground  bear  {Ursus  richardsoni) 
is  a  large  whitish-brown  species  dwelling  on 
the  brushy  plains  northwest  of  Hudson  Bay, 
which  there  is  good  reason  to  believe  is  an  iso- 
lated American  race  of  the  European  brown 
bear. 

The  grizzly  bear  (Ursus  Jwrribilis)  of  the 
mountains  of  western  North  America  is  one  of 
the  largest,  and  perhaps  the  most  to  be  feared, 
of  any  of  the  family.  It  is  found  from  the 
Black  Hills  and  the  Badlands  of  Dakota  west- 
ward to  the  Pacific  coast,  and  from  Mexico  to 
northern  Alaska.     A  large  specimen  is  nine  feet 


in  length,  and  will  weigh  1,000  pounds,  but  the 
size  varies  greatly.  So  does  the  color,  which 
ranges  from  reddish-brown  to  hoary  gray. 
Hence  several  varieties  are  recognized  by  hunt- 
ers, such  as  "cinnamons,"  "silvertips"  (in  which 
the  tips  of  the  hairs  are  white),  and  "grizzlies." 
The  typical  form  may  be  described  as  yellowish- 
brown,  with  a  reddish  mane,  black  dorsal  stripe, 
and  dark-colored  legs.  In  form  they  are  mas- 
sive, with  broad,  squarish  heads,  and  immensely 
muscular  bodies.  They  cannot,  or  at  any  rate, 
do  not,  climb  trees,  but  they  scramble  about 
the  roughest  mountains  or  through  a  dense 
forest  with  surprising  agility,  and  can  run  very 
rapidly  on  occasions.  They  seem  rarely  if  ever 
to  hibernate,  and  go  about  alone  or  in  pairs, 
eating  all  sorts  of  food,  but  seizing  and  pulling 
down  large  prey  when  an  opportunity  offers. 
In  former  days  even  a  bull  buffalo  was  unable 
always  to  resist  their  strength,  and  they  con- 
stantly attacked  them  and  the  deer.  At  pres- 
ent the  cattle  and  horses  upon  the  ranges  in 
some  parts  of  the  west  suffer  from  their  rav- 
ages. Though  so  mighty,  and  when  at  bay  or 
enraged  probably  not  less  dangerous  to  encoun- 
ter than  a  lion  or  tiger,  they  will  usually  avoid 
and  flee  from  man,  and  do  not  seem  quarrel- 
some, the  tradition  of  a  constant  enmity  be- 
tween them  and  the  black  bears  not  finding 
support  in  facts.  The  grizzly  is  easily  the  most 
terrible  of  the  game  animals  of  North  America, 
and  one  of  the  most  formidable  in  the  world  ; 
but  different  bears  vary  greatly  in  tempera- 
rnent  and  according  to  circumstances.  The  In- 
dians and  experienced  hunters  of  the  west,  how- 
ever, have  learned  to  hold  all  of  the  race  in  the 
highest  respect.  Much  the  same  statement  will 
apply  to  the  Barren-Ground  bear,  already  men- 
tioned, and  to  the  Alaskan  bears  to  be  spoken 
of  presently.  The  grizzly  is  still  to  be  found 
throughout  most  of  its  range,  though  no  longer 
numerous  except  in  the  wilder  parts  of  the 
Rocky  Mountains,  in  the  northern  parts  of  the 
Sierra  Nevada,  and  in  the  high  mountains 
northward  from  Oregon  to  Alaska,  where  the 
largest  ones  are  now  to  be  obtained.  The 
Kadiak  bear  is  a  brownish  species  or  variety 
(Ursus  middendoiiE)  dwelling  on  Kadiak  Is- 
land, Alaska,  and  the  neighboring  mainland. 
Specimens  of  it  exceeding  in  size  any  other  bear 
have  been  obtained,  and  weighing  1,200  pounds. 
Whether  it  will  prove  to  be  a  distinct  species 
remains  to  be  seen.  The  same  may  be  said  of 
Dalli  or  the  Sitka  bear  (Ursus  dalli).  Both 
are  dark-brown  or  grizzled,  and  difficult  to  dis- 
tinguish externally  from  other  bears  of  the 
north. 

The  bears  of  the  Old  World  have  been  di- 
vided into  many  species  by  earlier  naturalists, 
but  are  now  regarded  as  more  nearly  connected. 
The  best  known  is  the  common  brown  bear  of 
Europe  and  Asia  (Ursus  arctos).  It  is  of  large 
size,  reaching  about  eight  feet  in  length  in  the 
bigger  European  specimens,  and  is  usually  of 
some  shade  of  yellowish-brown,  reddish-brown, 
or  black,  but  varies  greatly.  It  is  exceedingly 
difficult  to  distinguish  from  the  American  bears, 
and  passes  by  indeterminate  variation  into  the 
so-called  species  of  Siberia,  Japan,  and  the 
Himalayan  region,  the  differences  being  such 
as  might  come  from  varying  climate  and  habi- 
tat ;  thus  those  of  the  high  Himalaya  are  small- 
er and  lighter  in  color,  etc.  Although  long  ago 
extinct   in   Great   Britain,   it   still  lingers   in  the 


BEAS  —  BEAT 


wilder,  more  mountainous  parts  of  Europe,  and 
is  numerous  in  the  forests  of  Russia,  the  Cau- 
casus, on  the  Lebanon  range  of  Asia  Minor 
(where  it  is  called  the  Syrian  bear),  in  the 
Atlas  Mountains  of  Morocco,  and  throughout 
Asia  north  of  the  Himalayas.  The  largest  are 
those  of  Kamchatka,  where  they  are  numer- 
ous and  bold,  and  live  in  summer  almost  wholly 
on  salmon,  as  do  the  Kadiak  and  other  Alas- 
kan bears  east  of  Bering  Sea.  This  is  the  bear 
most  often  seen  in  menageries,  where  it  breeds 
readily ;  and  which  is  led  about  by  "bear- 
tamers,**  and  taught  certain  clumsy  "dancing** 
tricks.  The  Thibetan  or  "blue**  bear  {Ursus 
pruinosus),  is  a  little  known  species  regarded 
as  distinct.  Two  other  quite  distinct  species  of 
bear  belong  to  the  Indo-Malayan  region.  One 
is  the  sloth-bear  or  honey-bear  of  India,  a 
large  animal  which  in  its  jungle  home  is  one  of 
the  most  dangerous  carnivores  of  the  Indian 
forests,  yet  is  often  tamed  and  led  about  the 
country  by  Hindu  jugglers,  who  called  it 
<<aswail,**  etc.  It  is  black,  unusually  shaggy, 
and  has  a  prolonged  mobile  snout,  a  very  long 
tongue  and  no  teeth  in  the  front  of  the  mouth 
(after  the  milk  teeth  drop  out),  making  its  fa- 
cial grimaces  very  comical.  Another  very  dis- 
tinctive feature  is  the  large  yellowish  crescent 
on  its  breast.  It  is  an  agile  climber,  and  ex- 
ceedingly fond  of  robbing  the  nests  of  honey- 
making  bees.  These  facts  are  recorded  in  its 
name  (Ursiis  or  Melurstts},  labiatus. 

The  Malayan  sun  bear,  or  "bruang**  (Ursus, 
or  Helarctos,  Maylayanus)^  is  a  smaller  species 
inhabiting  the  forests  of  the  Malayan  Peninsula, 
and  islands  eastward  to  Borneo.  Its  coat  is 
short  and  fine,  black  in  color,  marked  on  the 
breast  with  a  white  or  orange  crescent,  and  the 
lips  and  tongue  are  remarkably  long  and  flexi- 
ble. It  feeds  mainly  on  ants,  which  it  gathers 
with  its  glutinous  tongue  after  digging  up  their 
hills,  to  which  its  long  claws  are  well  fitted. 

Fossil  bears,  commonly  called  "cave  bears,** 
have  been  found  in  the  Quaternary  bone- 
breccia  .of  many  caves  of  Europe,  North 
and  South  America.  Some  are  closely  al- 
lied to  or  identical  with  living  species : 
others,  as  the  California  and  South  American 
cave  bears,  are  referred  to  a  distinct  genus, 
Arctotheriiim.  In  the  Tertiary  strata  of  the 
Old  World  occur  remains  of  a  series  of  animals 
{Amphicyon,  Hyacnarctos,  etc.)  which  appear  to 
connect  the  bears  with  primitive  Canidcc,  indi- 
cating that  they  are  an  offshoot  of  the  dog  fam- 
ily.    See  also  Cave   Bears. 

Bibliography. —  For  structure  and  relation- 
ships of  this  group,  consult :  Flower  and  Lydek- 
ker,  'Mammals,  Living  and  Extinct*  (1891). 
For  modern  and  contrasting  ideas  of  classifica- 
tion:  Lydekker,  'Proceedings  of  Zoological  So- 
ciety of  London,  for  1897,*  page  412 ;  Merriam, 
'Proceedings  Biological  Society  of  Washing- 
ton,* p.  65  (1896).  For  habits  and  hunting, 
such  general  works  as  Brehm.  'Thierleben*  ;  the 
Standard,  Royal,  and  Allen's  'Natural  His- 
tories* ;  Mayne  Reid,  'Bruin,  or  the  Grand 
Bear  Hunt*  (1864);  Aflalo,  'Sport  in  Europe* 
(1901)  ;  the  works  of  Jerdon,  Blanford,  and 
Bl3'th  on  the  mammals  of  Persia,  India,  and 
eastward ;  and  the  writings  of  sportsmen-natur- 
alists, especially  Baker,  Hornaday,  Kinloch,  Pol- 
lok.  Sanderson,  Shakespeare,  and  Wallace.  For 
American  bears,  consult  Richardson.  'Fauna 
Boreali     Americana^      (1829)  ;     Audubon     and 


Bachman,  'Quadrupeds  of  North  America^ 
(1846)  ;  Merriam,  'Mammals  of  the  Adiron- 
dacks*  (1882);  Marey  (editor),  'Sport  with 
Rod  and  Gun*  (1892)  ;  Shields  (editor),  'Big 
Game  of  North  America*  (1890)  ;  Porter, 
'Wild  Beasts*  (1897)  ;  and  the  writings  of 
sportsmen  in  the  Rocky  Mountains,  especially 
Baillie-Grohman,  'Fifteen  Years  of  Sport,  etc.* 
(1900). 

Beas,  be'as,  or  Bias  (the  ancient  Hypha- 
sis),  one  of  the  five  great  rivers  of  the  Punjab, 
having  its  rise  at  the  Ratanki  Pass,  on  the 
south  side  of  the  Santch  Mountains,  a  branch 
of  the  Himalaya  system,  in  lat.  32°  21'  N.  ;  Ion. 
^7°  22'  E. ;  where  the  former  attain  an  elevation 
of  13,300  feet.  Its  entire  course  is  about  215 
miles.  The  Beas  has  been  considered  larger 
than  the  Sutlej,  which  it  joins  35  miles  to  the 
southeast  of  Amritsar,  but  it  is  greatly  inferior 
to  that  river  in  the  length  of  its  course ;  and, 
though  they  have  about  the  same  breadth,  the 
Sutlej  has  the  greater  volume  of  water.  The 
united  stream,  below  the  point  of  junction,  is 
called  the  Ghara  or  Gharra. 

Beasts  of  Prey,  is  not  a  scientific  term, 
but,  as  in  the  case  of  the  phrase  "birds  of 
prey,**  represents  merely  the  idea  of  an  assem- 
blage of  such  mammals  as  prey  upon  other 
creatures.  The  greatest  number,  and  most 
prominent  examples,  belong  to  the  order  Carni- 
vora,  whose  members  subsist  mainly  upon  flesh, 
and  some  of  which,  as  the  cats,  bears,  and 
wolves,  are  the  most  powerful,  deadly,  and 
dangerous  animals  of  the  world.  These  have 
acquired  bodies  with  great  strength  and  endur- 
ance in  chasing  and  leaping,  seizing  and  hold- 
ing; teeth  adapted  to  cutting  and  piercing; 
sharp  muscular  claws ;  and  a  high  degree  of 
intelligence  in  the  wiles  of  hunting,  and  of 
courage  and  pertinacity  in  attacking  their  prey 
or  defending  their  gains  against  rivals.  Their 
digestive  organs  are  simplified  and  adapted  to 
the  assimilation  of  flesh,  of  which  a  less  quan- 
tity is  required  than  in  the  case  of  an  animal 
subsisting  on  vegetable  fare,  because  it  is 
already  in  a  concentrated,  partly  elaborated 
form ;  but  as  the  obtaining  of  it  is  occasional 
and  often  interrupted  by  long  intervals,  all 
beasts  of  prey  are  likely  to  kill  and  eat  exces- 
sively when  opportunity  offers,  in  instinctive 
preparation  for  a  possible  fast.  To  provide 
against  the  loss  of  heat  during  the  periods  of 
famine,  rather  than  as  a  provision  against 
low  temperature,  most  beasts  of  prey  are  clothed 
in  dense,  hairy  coats  of  hair,  or  "fur.**  Not 
all  the  beasts  of  prey  belong  to  the  Carnivora, 
for  animals  with  similar  structures  and  adapta- 
tions are  to  be  found  in  other  orders  of  mam- 
mals, whose  basal  structure  is  very  different. 
The  blood-sucking  bats,  for  example,  have 
teeth  roughly  similar  to  those  of  a  dog ;  and 
some  of  the  apes  are  savage  and  powerful  and 
have  carnassial  teeth.  The  most  precise  parallel, 
however,  is  found  in  the  predatory  marsupials  of 
Australia,  such  as  the  Zebra  wolf.  Tasmaniafl 
devil,  and  several  others,  which  have  the  equip- 
ment and  habits  of  true  beasts  of  prey. 

Beat,  in  music,  the  beating  or  pulsation 
resulting  from  the  joint  vibrations  of  two  sounds 
of  the  same  strength,  and  all  but  in  unison. 
Also  a  short  shake  or  transient  grace-note 
struck  immediately  before  the  note  it  is  intended 
to  ornament.    The  Greeks  employed  the  up  b^aa'* 


BEARS. 


.ii  American  Blaok.Bsar.(Ursus  Americanus). 
2.  Brown  Bear  (Ursus  arctos). 


3.  Black  Bear  of  the  Himalayan  Mountains  (.Ursus  torquatus). 

4.  Malay  Bear  (Ursus  Malayanusi. 


BEATIFICATION  —  BEATTIE 


(arsis)  to  denote  the  accented,  and  the  down 
beat  (thesis)  to  signify  the  unaccented  part  of 
the  measure,  but  in  modern  practice  the  down 
beat  denotes  the  accented  and  the  up  beat  the 
unaccented. 

Beatifica'tion,  in  the  Roman  Catholic 
Church,  an  act  by  which  the  Pope  declares  a 
person  beatified  or  blessed  after  his  death.  It 
is  the  first  step  to  canonization,  or  the  raising 
one  to  the  honor  and  dignity  of  a  saint.  No 
person  can  be  beatified  till  50  years  after  his 
or  her  death.  All  certificates  or  attestations  of 
virtues  and  miracles,  the  necessary  qualifications 
for  saintship,  are  examined  by  the  Congregation 
of  Rites  at  Rome.  This  examination  often 
continues  for  many  years,  and  embraces  a  num- 
ber of  different  steps  or  stages,  at  one  of  which 
a  functionary  known  popularly  as  the  "devil's 
advocate"  brings  forward  all  possible  objections, 
and  points  out  all  weak  points  in  the  evidence 
brought  forward  in  favor  of  the  reputed  saint. 
When  the  question  has  been  finally  debated  in 
successive  meetings  of  the  congregation,  the 
Pope  at  last  gives  his  decision,  and  the  beatifica- 
tion may  then  take  place  in  the  Vatican.  Beati- 
fication differs  from  canonization  in  this,  that 
"whereas  the  cultus  of  a  canonized  saint  belongs 
to  the  universal  Church,  and  churches  and  altars 
can  be  freely  erected  in  his  or  her  honor,  and 
images,  pictures,  or  statues  of  him  or  her  dis- 
played without  special  permission,  in  the  case  of 
one  of  the  Blessed  it  is  otherwise.  The  honor 
and  veneration  which  are  authorized  in  their 
regard  are  limited  and  partial ;  and  because  the 
cultus  of  one  of  them  is  permitted  to  one  coun- 
try, or  city,  or  order,  or  branch  of  an  order, 
it  does  not  follow  that  it  should  be  practised 
elsewhere ;  and  the  attempt  to  extend  it  with- 
out special  permission  is  condemned."  Compare 
Addis    &    Arnold's    Catholic    Dictionary.      See 

C.\N0NIZATI0X. 

Beating  the  Bounds,  a  periodical  survey 
or  perambulation  by  which  the  boundaries  of 
parishes  in  England  are  preserved.  It  is,  or 
was,  the  custom  that  the  clergyman  of  the  par- 
ish, with  the  parochial  officers  and  the  boys 
of  the  parish  school,  should,  on  Ascension  Day, 
march  to  the  boundaries,  which  the  boys  struck 
with  willow  rods.  A  similar  ceremony  in  Scot- 
land is  called  riding  the  marches.  In  the  New 
England  colonies  parallel  duties  were  performed 
by  "perambulators"  and  in  Virginia  by  "pro- 
cessioners."    The  custom  is  of  Teutonic  origin. 

Beatitude,  the  Christian  term  meaning  the 
highest  degree  of  happiness  of  which  our  nature 
is  susceptible,  and  applied  particularly  to  the 
state  of  the  elect  in  heaven.  It  was  a  favorite 
topic  of  discussion  among  the  scholastic  theo- 
logians, who  divided  it  into  subjective  and  ob- 
jective, perfect  and  imperfect,  and  made  our 
eternal  happiness  consist  in  the  vision  of  God 
perfecting  the  intellect  and  will  in  possessing 
Supreme  Truth  and  God.  Recent  theologians 
have  generally  made  beatitude  consist  in  honor- 
ing God  and  sharing  his  perfections,  a  sublime 
though  indefinite  conception.  Though  the  state 
of  beatitude  be  incomprehensible  to  us.  yet  the 
belief  in  it  is  a  motive  in  the  present  life  which 
begets  heroism  in  the  midst  of  misfortune,  and 
an  adherence  to  virtue  in  the  midst  of  evils. 
The  Beatitudes  is  the  name  given  particularly 
to  the  beginning  of  the  separate  clauses  in 
Christ's  Sermon  on  the  Mount. 
Vol.  2—28. 


Beaton,  David,  Scottish  prelate  and  cardi- 
nal:  b.  1494;  d.  St.  Andrew's,  29  May  1546.  He 
studied  at  St.  Andrew's,  Glasgow,  and  Paris,  was 
for  years  Scottish  resident  in  France,  and  in 
1537  was  consecrated  bishop  of  Mirepoix  in 
that  country.  Pope  Paul  III.  raised  him  to 
the  cardinalate  in  1538,  and  next  year  he  became 
primate  of  Scotland.  He  had  much  influence 
with  James  V.,  and  after  his  death  (1542)  set 
himself  to  oppose  the  English  party,  to  which 
the  Reformers  belonged.  Upon  the  coronation 
of  the  young  Queen  Mary,  he  was  made  chan' 
cellor,  and  became  also  legate  a  latere  from 
Rome.  He  now  began  to  renew  the  persecution 
of  heretics,  and  among  the  rest  the  famous 
Protestant  preacher  George  Wishart  suffered, 
being  strangled  and  burnt  at  the  stake,  on  the 
twofold  charges  of  sedition  and  heresy.  But  a 
conspiracy  had  been  formed  against  him,  and  he 
was  assassinated  at  his  own  castle  of  St.  An- 
drews. He  was  a  man  of  great  ability  and 
recent  historical  research  has  cleared  his  char- 
acter from  many  former  calumnies. 

Be'atrice,  a  wntty,  lively  character  in 
Shakespeare's  *^Much  Ado  About  Nothing,'  who 
marries  Benedick  by  the  contrivance  of  the 
friends  of  each. 

Beatrice  Cenci,  ba-a-tre'cha  chen'che,  a 
i6th  century  Roman  girl  whose  picture  was 
painted  by  Guido  Reni,  and  whose  career  is  the 
subject  of  Shelley's  tragedy  ^The  Cenci.' 

Beatrice  Portinari,  ba-a-tre'cha  p5r-te-na'- 
rc;  the  Beatrice  of  Dante's  poems:  b.  about 
1266;  d.  1290.  She  was  the  daughter  of  a 
wealthy  citizen  of  Florence,  and  wife  of  Simone 
de  Bardi.  She  was  but  eight  years  of  age,  and 
Dante  nine,  when  he  met  her  first  at  the  house 
of  her  father.  He  saw  her  only  once  or  twice, 
and  she  probably  knew  little  of  him.  The  story 
of  his  love  is  recounted  in  the  ^Vita  Nuova,' 
which  was  mostly   written  after  her  death, 

Be'atrice,  Neb.,  a  city  and  county-seat  of 
Gage  County,  on  the  Big  Blue  River,  and  sev- 
eral railroads ;  40  miles  south  of  Lincoln,  the 
State  capital.  It  is  the  seat  of  the  State  Insti- 
tution for  Feeble  Minded  Youth ;  and  has  a 
handsome  court-house.  United  States  govern- 
ment building.  Holly  system  of  waterworks, 
electric  light  and  street  railway  plants,  public 
library,  three  national  banks,  excellent  water 
power,  flour  and  planing  mills,  tile  and  barbed 
wire  works,  creamery,  iron  foundry,  and  manu- 
factories of  gasoline  engines,  wind  mills,  and 
farming  implements.  It  was  incorporated  as  a 
town,  187 1,  and  as  a  city,  1873.  Pop.  (1900) 
7.875. 

Beatrix  (be-a'triks)  Antelope,  an  Arabian 
oryx  Oryx  beatrix) ,  resembling  the  beisa  but 
without  black  markings  on  the  haunches.  See 
Oryx. 

Beattie,  be'ti,  Francis  Robert,  Canadian- 
American  educator :  b.  near  Guelph,  Ontario, 
1848.  He  was  educated  at  Toronto  University, 
studied  theology  at  Knox  College,  Toronto,  and 
at  the  Presbyterian  College  in  Montreal.  He 
was  pastor  at  Baltimore  and  Cold  Springs,  On- 
tario, in  1878-82.  and  at  Brantford  in  1882-8. 
In  1888  he  became  professor  of  apologetics  in 
the  Presbyterian  Theological  Seminary  in  Co- 
lumbia, S.  C.  where  he  remained  till  1893.  and 
then  accepted  the  chair  of  systematic  theology 
and  apologetics  in  the  Presbyterian  Theological 


BEATTIE  —  BEAUCLERK 


Seminary,  Louisville,  Ky.  His  writings  include 
<An  Examination  of  Utilitarianism^  (1884)  ; 
< Methods  of  Theism^  (1887)  ;  'The  Higher 
Criticism;  or,  Modern  Critical  Theories' 
(1888)  ;  'Radical  Criticism,  an  Exposition  and 
Examination  of  the  Radical  Critical  Theory  of 
the  Old  Testament  Scripture'  (1895);  'Presby- 
terian Standards'    (1896),  etc. 

Beattie,  ba'te,  James,  Scotch  poet:  b.  Kin- 
cardineshire, 25  Oct.  1735  ;  d.  Aberdeen,  18  Aug. 
1803.  He  obtained  a  scholarship  at  Aberdeen, 
and  subsequently  became  assistant  in  the  Aber- 
deen grammar  school,  and  married  the  daughter 
of  the  head  schoolmaster.  After  this  event  he 
began  to  be  distinguished  as  a  writer,  and  in 
1771  commenced  the  publication  of  his  work 
called  the  'Minstrel.'  This  obtained  for  him 
the  patronage  of  Lord  Errol,  and  caused  him  to 
be  appointed  professor  of  moral  philosophy  and 
logic  in  Marischal  College.  In  1765,  he  pub- 
lished a  poem,  the  'Judgment  of  Paris,'  which 
failed  of  any  celebrity.  The  work  which  gained 
him  the  greatest  fame  was  an  'Essay  on  the 
Nature  and  Immutability  of  Truth,'  in  oppo- 
sition to  sophistry  and  skepticism.  It  was  de- 
signed as  a  reply  to  Hume,  and  was  so  much 
in  demand  that  in  four  years  five  large  editions 
were  sold ;  and  it  was  translated  into  several 
languages.  He  was  urged  by  the  archbishop 
of  York  and  the  bishop  of  London  to  take 
orders  in  the  Church  of  England,  a  proposal 
which  he  declined.  While  in  London  he  be- 
came intimate  with  Dr.  Johnson,  Dr.  Porteus, 
and  other  distinguished  literary  characters.  In 
1783,  he  published  'Dissertations,  Moral  and 
Critical,'  and  the  'Evidences  of  the  Christian 
Religion,'  written  at  the  request  of  the  bishop 
of  London.  In  1790  he  published  the  first 
volume,  and  in  1793  the  second,  of  his  'Elements 
of  Moral  Science'  ;  subjoined  to  the  latter  was 
a  dissertation  against  the  slave  trade. 

Beatty,  John,  American  legislator:  b. 
Bucks  County,  Pa.,  10  Dec.  1749;  d.  Trenton, 
N.  J.,  30  May  1826.  He  was  educated  at 
Princeton,  and  took  up  the  study  of  medicine 
with  Dr.  Rush  of  Philadelphia.  He  fought  with 
distinction  through  the  Revolutionary  war, 
reaching  the  rank  of  colonel ;  was  delegate  to  the 
Continental  Congress  in  1783-5  ;  speaker  of  the 
House ;  served  in  the  convention  which  adopted 
the  Federal  Constitution ;  was  a  member  of  Con- 
gress in  1793-5  ;  and  secretary  of  State  of  New 
Jersey  in   i 795-1805. 

Beatty,  be'ti,  John,  American  military  offi- 
cer :  b.  Sandusky,  Ohio,  16  Sept.  1828.  He  fought 
on  the  Union  side  in  the  Civil  War,  rising  from 
private  to  brigadier-general,  and  showing  in- 
trepid courage  at  Stone  River,  1862-3.  He  was 
a  member  of  Congress  in  1868-74,  and  Republi- 
can presidential  elector-at-large  in  1884.  He  has 
written  'The  Citizen  Soldier;  or.  Memoirs  of 
a  Volunteer'  (1876);  'The  Belle  o'  Becket's 
Lane'    (1882). 

Beau  Brummel.  See  Brummel,  George 
Bryan. 

Beaucaire,  Monsieur,  the  principal  figure 
in  a  story  of  the  same  name  by  Booth  Tarking- 
ton  (1900),  drarnatized  1901.  Beaucaire  is  a 
French  prince  living  incognito  in  the  fashion- 
able society  of  Bath,  England,  nea'r  the  end 
of  the   18th  century. 


Beaucaire,  b5-kar,  a  small,  well-built, 
commercial  city  of  France,  in  the  department  of 
the  Card,  on  the  Rhone  opposite  Tarascon,  with 
which  it  communicates  by  a  fine  suspension- 
bridge,  at  the  commencement  of  the  Beaucaire 
and  Aigues-Mortes  Canal,  and  connected  with 
several  lines  of  railway.  It  has  a  commodious 
harbor  for  vessels  which  come  up  from  the 
Mediterranean,  seven  leagues  distant,  consider- 
able commerce  and  some  manufactures ;  but  is 
chiefly  famous  for  its  great  fair  (founded  in 
1217,  by  Raymond  II.,  Count  of  Toulouse),  held 
yearly  from  21  to  28  July.  Merchants  from 
all  parts  of  Europe,  and  even  from  the  coast  of 
Africa,  attend  with  their  goods ;  and  almost 
every  kind  of  article,  however  rare,  is  to  be 
purchased  here ;  though  silks,  woolens,  printed 
cottons,  leather,  wool,  wine,  brandy,  olive-oil, 
and  fruits,  are  the  chief  objects  of  sale.  Pop. 
(1890)  9,020. 

Beauchamp,  b5-shan,  Alphonse  de,  French 
historian  and  publicist:  b.  Monaco,  1767;  d. 
Paris,  I  June  1832.  Under  the  Directory  he  had 
the  surveillance  of  the  press,  a  position  which 
supplied  him  with  materials  for  his  'History  of 
La  Vendee'  (1806).  He  contributed  to  the 
'Moniteur'  and  the 'Gazette  de  France.'  Among 
his  chief  works  are  the  'History  of  the  Conquest 
of  Peru'  (1807)  ;  the  'History  of  Brazil' 
(1815)  ;  and  the  'Life  of  Louis  XVIII. '  (1821)  ; 
'Life  of  Julius  Caesar'  (1821).  The  'Memoirs 
of  Fouche'  is  also  with  reason  ascribed  to  him. 

Beauchamp,     bech'am,     William     Martin, 

American  clergyman  and  author :  b.  Coldenham, 
N.  Y.,  25  March  1830.  Ordained  to  the  Prot- 
estant Episcopal  ministry  in  1863,  he  filled  rec- 
torships at  Northville,  N.  Y.,  1863-5,  and  Bald- 
winsville,  N.  Y.,  1865-1900.  He  has  published 
'The  Iroquois  Trail;  or  Foot  Prints  of  the  Six 
Nations'  (1892)  ;  'Indian  Names  in  New  York' 
(1893)  ;  and  a  valuable  series  of  archseological 
studies  published  as  Bulletins  of  the  New  York 
State  Museum,  namely,  'Aboriginal  Chipped 
Stone  Implements  of  New  York'  (1897)  ;  'Pol- 
ished Stone  Articles  used  by  the  New  York 
Aborigines'  (1897)  ;  'Earthenware  of  the  New 
York  Aborigines'  (1898)  ;  'Aboriginal  Occupa- 
tion of  New  York'  (1900)  ;  'Horn  and  Bone 
Implements  of  the  New  York  Indians'  (1902)  ; 
'Metallic  Bone  Implements  of  the  New  York 
Indians'    (1902). 

Beauclerk,  bo'klark,   Topham,  one  of  Dr. 

Johnson's  favorite  friends:  b.  December  1739; 
d.  II  March  1780.  He  was  the  only  son  of 
Lord  Sidney  Beauclerk,  third  son  of  the  first 
Duke  of  St.  Albans,  and  in  general  appearance 
much  resembled  his  great-grandfather,  Charles 
II.  He  studied  at  Oxford,  and  his  conversa- 
tional talents  so  much  charmed  Johnson  that 
when  "The  Club"  was  founded,  in  1763,  he 
was  one  of  the  nine  members  who  originally 
formed  it.  When  he  went  to  Italy,  in  1762, 
Johnson  wrote  to  his  friend  Baretti,  warmly 
commending  Beauclerk  to  his  kindness.  In 
1765  he  accompanied  Johnson  on  a  visit  to  Cam- 
bridge. A  short  time  before  his  death,  Johnson 
said  of  him :  "He  is  always  ready  to  talk, 
and  is  never  exhausted"  ;  and  when  communicat- 
ing his  death  to  Boswell,  he  said :  "His  wit 
and  his  folly,  his  acuteness  and  maliciousness, 
his  merriment  and  reasoning,  are  now  over. 
Such  another  will  not  often  be  found  among 
mankind." 


BEAUFORT  —  BEAUHARNAIS 


Beaufort,    bo-for,    Frangois    de    Vendome 

(Due  de),  French  naval  officer,  grandson  of 
Henry  IV.:  b.  Paris,  January  1616;  d.  25  June 
1669.  He  is  peculiarly  known  by  the  conspicu- 
ous part  he  took  in  the  civil  war  of  the  Fronde. 
On  the  accession  of  Louis  XIV..  the  queen- 
regent  treated  him  very  favorably,  but  was  soon 
dissatisfied  with  his  impertinent  manners.  Her 
displeasure  threw  him  on  the  side  of  the  mal- 
contents, and  he  became  one  of  the  leaders  of 
the  Frondeurs.  He  was  extremely  popular  with 
the  Parisians,  and  was  consequently  called  le 
roi  des  Italics,  and  he  exercised  a  powerful 
influence  on  the  common  people  against  Car- 
dinal Mazarin,  who  was  twice  driven  out  of 
France.  In  1664  and  1665  he  successfully  led 
attacks  against  the  corsairs  of  Africa ;  in  1666 
was  at  the  head  of  the  fleet  which  was  to  join 
the  Dutch  to  make  war  against  England  ;  lastly, 
in  1669  he  went  to  the  assistance  of  the  Vene- 
tians, then  besieged  by  the  Turks  in  the  island 
of  Candia ;  fought  bravely  and  was  killed  in  a 
sally. 

Beaufort,  bu'fert,  or  bo'fert,  Henry,  Eng- 
lish cardinal,  natural  son  of  John  of  Gaunt,  and 
half-brother  of  Henry  IV.,  king  of  England ; 
d.  Winchester,  11  April  1447.  He  became  bishop 
of  Lincoln,  1398,  whence  he  was  translated  to 
Winchester,  and  in  1403  was  made  chancellor. 
In  1426  he  received  a  cardinal's  hat,  and  was 
appointed  legate  in  Germany.  In  143 1  he 
crowned  Henry  VI.  in  Paris.  Shakespeare  de- 
picts him  in  his  'Henry  VI.,^  but  it  is  ques- 
tionable whether  the  likeness  is  true  to  history. 

Beaufort,   Margaret,   English   countess:  b. 

^  1441  ;  d.  1509.  She  was  daughter  of  John,  first 
Duke  of  Somerset,  and  mother  of  Henry  VII., 
king  of  England.     She  was  three  times  married, 

-  namely,  to  Edward  Tudor,  Earl  of  Richmond, 
in  1455 ;  Henry  Stafford,  son  of  the  Duke  of 
Buckingham,  and  to  Lord  Stanley,  a  minister 
of  Edward  IV.  In  the  Wars  of  the  Roses,  she 
and  her  son  Henry  became  more  or  less  danger- 
ous to  the  Yorkists  and  were  for  a  long  time  in 
retirement  or  exile. 

Beautort,  bu'fert,  N.  C,  city,  port  of  entry 
and  county-seat  of  Carteret  County,  at  the 
mouth  of  Newport  River,  167  miles  east  of 
Raleigh.  The  harbor  here  is  the  finest  in  the 
State.  At  Cape  Lookout,  11  miles  to  the  south- 
east, is  a  lighthouse  156  feet  high.  Pop.  (1900) 
2,195. 

Beaufort,  S.  C,  a  town  and  county-seat 
of  Beaufort  County;  on  the  Port  Royal  River, 
and  the  Charleston  &  W.  C.  R.R. ;  15  miles 
from  the  ocean  and  80  miles  southwest  of 
Charleston.  It  is  midway  between  Charleston 
and  Savannah ;  has  an  excellent  harbor,  and 
is  the  centre  of  the  phosphate  trade  of  the 
State.  It  was  founded  in  171 1,  and  for  many 
years  prior  to  the  Civil  War  was  a  noted  health 
and  pleasure  resort,  especially  for  the  cotton 
planters    interested    in    the    plantations    on    the 

■  adjoining  Sea  Islands.  It  is  still  a  popular  sum- 
mer and  winter  resort,  principally  engaged  in 
phosphate  mining,  and  with  large  exports  of 
cotton,  yellow  pine  and  cypress  lumber,  rice, 
and  sweet  potatoes.  In  the  fiscal  year  ending  30 
June  1900,  the  imports  of  merchandise  here  ag- 
gregated in  value  $81,042,  and  the  exports, 
$181,908.     Pop.    (1900)   4,110. 

Beaufort  Scale,  an  instrument  for  measur- 
ing the   apparent   force  of   the  wind,   so  called 


from  Admiral  Beaufort  who  introduced  it  into 
the  English  navy  about  1805.  It  is  now  in 
common  use  among  navigators.  Twelve  num- 
bers are  embraced  in  the  scale. 

Beaugency,  bo-zhoh-se,  a  town  of  France, 
in  the  department  Loiret,  16  miles  southwest  of 
Orleans,  on  the  side  of  a  hill,  above  the  Loire, 
here  crossed  by  a  stone  bridge  of  26  arches. 
The  town  was  formerly  surrounded  by  a  wall 
flanked  by  towers  and  bastions,  parts  of  which 
still  remain.  The  square  donjon  tower  of  Beau- 
gency, 115  feet  high,  is  a  remarkable  structure 
of  high  antiquity,  probably  of  the  loth  or  nth 
century,  though  the  e.xact  date  of  its  erection 
is  unknown.  The  articles  manufactured  here 
are  principally  cloth  and  leather.  There  are  also 
some  distilleries  and  a  considerable  trade  in 
wine.  In  the  Franco-German  war  Gen.  Chanzy 
was  defeated  here  by  the  Grand-Duke  of  Meck- 
lenburg on  7  and  8  Dec.  1870.  Pop.  (1896) 
3.305- 

Beaugrand,  bo-graii,  Honore,  Canadian 
journalist:  b.  Lanoraie,  P.  Q.,  24  March  1849. 
In  1865  he  joined  the  French  army  in  Mexico 
under  Marshal  Bazaine,  and,  after  the  failure 
to  establish  Maximilian  as  emperor,  accompanied 
the  army  to  France.  In  1867  he  went  to  New 
Orleans,  where  he  engaged  in  newspaper  work. 
He  served  subsequently  as  a  journalist  in  Bos- 
ton and  St.  Louis,  and,  returning  to  Canada, 
founded  La  Patrie  in  Montreal  in  1879,  as  an 
organ  of  the  French  Liberal  Party.  He  sold 
this  paper  in  1897.  In  1887  he  established  a 
paper  in  the  English  language,  the  Montreal 
Daily  News.  He  was  mayor  of  Montreal 
1885-7,  and  a  delegate  from  Montreal  to  the 
Congress  of  the  World's  Chambers  of  Com- 
merce in  London  in  1896.  His  publications  in- 
clude 'Melanges;  Trois  Conferences^  (1888); 
*Lettres  de  Voyage^  (1889)  ;  and  a  novel, 
'Jeanne  la  Fileuse.^  He  was  decorated  with 
the  Cross  of  the  Legion  of  Honor  in  1885,  and 
became  commander  of  that  order  in  1889.  He 
is  also  an  officer  of  the  Academy  of  France; 
a  commander  of  the  Order  of  Nicham  Iftikar 
of  Tunis,  etc. 

Beauharnaus,  bo-ar-na,  Alexandre  (Vis- 
count de),  French  soldier:  b.  Island  of  Marti- 
nique, 1760;  d.  Paris,  23  July  1794.  He  served 
with  distinction  as  major  in  the  French  forces 
under  Rochambeau  which  aided  the  United  States 
in  their  Revolutionary  War,  and  married  Jo- 
sephine Tascher  de  la  Pagerie.  afterward  the 
wife  of  Napoleon.  At  the  breaking  out  of  the 
French  Revolution  he  was  chosen  a  member  of 
the  National  Assembly,  of  which  he  was  for 
some  time  president,  and  which  he  opened,  after 
the  king's  departure,  with  the  following  words : 
^'^Messicurs,  le  roi  est  parti  cette  nuit:  passons 
a  I'ordrc  du  jour?''  In  1792  he  was  general 
of  the  army  of  the  Rhine,  but  retired  in  1793, 
in  consequence  of  the  decree  removing  men 
of  noble  birth  from  the  army.  He  was  falsely 
accused  of  having  promoted  the  surrender  of 
Mainz,  was  sentenced  to  death,  and  guillotined. 
His  children,  Eugene  and  Hortense,  were  adopt- 
ed by  Napoleon  on  the  latter's  marriage  to 
Beauharnais's   widow, 

Beauharnais,  Eugene  de,  French  general: 
b.  3  Sept.  1781  ;  d.  Munich,  21  Feb.  1824.  He 
was  the  son  of  Alexandre  Beauharnais,  who 
was  guillotined  in  1794,  and  Josephine  Tascher 
de  la  Pagerie,  afterward  wife  of  Napoleon  and 


BEAUHARNAIS  —  BEAUMARCHAIS 


Empress  of  France.  During  the  French  Revo- 
lution Eugene  entered  the  mihtary  service,  and 
after  his  father's  death  joined  Hoche  in  La 
Vendee,  and  subsequently  studied  for  a  time  in 
Paris.  In  1796  Josephine  was  married  to  Napo- 
leon Bonaparte,  then  commander-in-chief  of  the 
army  of  Italy,  and  Eugene  accompanied  the 
great  warrior  in  his  campaigns  in  Italy  and 
Egypt.  In  1805  he  was  created  a  prince  of  France 
and  viceroy  of  Italy,  and  after  the  peace  of  13 
Jan.  1806,  married  the  Princess  Augusta  Amelia 
of  Bavaria.  In  1807  Napoleon  made  him  Prince 
of  Venice,  and  declared  him  his  heir  to  the 
kingdom  of  Italy.  He  administered  the  govern- 
ment of  Italy  with  great  prudence  and  modera- 
tion, and  was  much  beloved  by  his  subjects.  He 
conducted  himself  with  great  prudence  on  the 
occasion  of  the  divorce  of  Napoleon  from  his 
mother.  In  the  disastrous  retreat  from  Moscow 
he  did  not  desert  the  wrecks  of  his  division 
for  a  moment,  but  shared  its  toils  and  dangers 
with  the  soldiers,  and  encouraged  them  by  his 
example.  To  him  and  to  Ney  France  was  in- 
debted for  the  preservation  of  the  remains  of 
her  army  during  that  fatal  retreat.  On  the  de- 
parture of  Napoleon  and  Murat  he  was  left  in 
the  chief  command,  and  showed  great  talent  at 
that  dangerous  conjuncture,  and  at  the  battle  of 
Liitzen,  2  May  1813,  by  surrounding  the  right 
wing  of  the  enemy,  he  decided  the  fate  of  the 
day.  Napoleon  sent  him  from  Dresden  to  the 
defense  of  Italy,  and  after  the  fall  of  Napoleon 
he  concluded  an  armistice  with  Count  Belle- 
garde,  by  which  he  delivered  Lombardy  and  all 
upper  Italy  to  the  Austrian  s.  Eugene  then  went 
immediately  to  Paris,  and  thence  to  his  father- 
in-law  at  Munich.  He  was  at  the  Congress  of 
Vienna.  On  the  return  of  Napoleon  from  Elba 
he  was  obliged  to  leave  Vienna  and  retire  to 
Baireuth.  By  an  ordinance  of  the  king  of  Ba- 
varia, his  father-in-law,  he  was  created  Duke  of 
Leuchtenberg,  November  181 7.  The  Bavarian 
principality  of  Eichstadt  was  bestowed  upon  him, 
and  his  posterity  declared  capable  of  inheriting 
in  case  of  the  failure  of  the  Bavarian  line. 
Prince  Eugene,  under  a  simple  exterior,  con- 
cealed a  noble  character  and  great  talents. 
Honor,  integrity,  humanity,  and  love  of  order  and 
justice  were  the  principal  traits  of  his  character. 
Wise  in  the  council,  undaunted  in  the  field,  and 
moderate  in  the  exercise  of  power,  he  never 
appeared  greater  than  in  the  midst  of  reverses. 
See  Aubriet,  "^Vie  Politique  et  Militaire  d'Eu- 
gene  Beauharnais,  Vice-roi  d'ltalie.^ 

Beauharnais,  Frangois  (Marquis  de).  French 
nobleman:  b.  La  Rochelle,  12  Aug.  1756;  d. 
Paris,  10  Jan.  1819.  He  violently  opposed  the 
motion  of  his  younger  brother,  the  Viscount 
Alexandre,  to  take  from  the  king  the  chief 
command  of  the  army,  and  would  not  listen  to 
any  of  the  amendments  proposed,  saying,  ^'^11 
n'y  a  point  d'amcndenicnt  avcc  I'honnenr?^  He 
was  called  in  consequence  of  this,  Le  feal  Beau- 
harnais sans  Amcndcincnt.  In  1792  he  formed 
the  project  of  a  new  flight  of  the  royal  family ; 
but  the  arrest  of  his  companion,  the  Baron 
Chambon,  prevented  the  execution  of  the  plan. 
He  was  appointed  major-general  in  the  army 
of  the  Prince  of  Conde,  and  wrote,  in  1792, 
to  the  president  of  the  National  Assembly,  pro- 
testing against  their  unlawful  treatment  of  the 
king,  and  offering  to  appear  himself  among  his 
defenders.  When  Bonaparte  became  first  con- 
sul,   the  marquis    sent   him   a    letter,    in    which 


he  exhorted  him,  by  the  glory  which  he  would 
gain  by  such  a  course,  to  restore  the  sceptre  to 
the  house  of  Bourbon.  Having  at  last  recog- 
nized the  emperor  he  was  sent  by  him  as  ambas- 
sador to  Florence  and  Madrid ;  but  having  after- 
ward fallen  into  disgrace  he  was  banished. 

Beauharnais,  Hortense  Eugenie,  wnfe  of 
Louis  Bonaparte,  and  queen  of  Holland :  b. 
Paris,  10  April  1783 ;  d.  Arenenberg,  Switzer- 
land, 3  Oct.  1837.  She  was  the  daughter  of 
x-\lexandre  Beauharnais  and  Josephine,  after- 
ward wife  of  Napoleon.  She  was  to  have  mar- 
ried Desaix;  but  on  7  Jan.  1802,  in  compliance 
with  the  wish  of  Napoleon,  became  the  wife  of 
Louis,  who  also  gave  up  a  former  attachment 
for  the  marriage.  The  union  was  not  happy; 
and  Hortense  returned  to  Paris,  and  lived  a 
dissolute  life  there  apart  from  her  husband. 
Prominent  among  her  lovers  was  the  Comte  de 
Flahaut,  for  whom  she  composed  her  popular 
air,  '^Partant  pour  la  Syric/'^  as  he  was  leaving 
Paris  for  Germany,  and  Admiral  Veruel,  a 
Dutch  naval  officer.  The  former  is  believed  to 
have  been  the  father  of  M.  de  Morny,  universally 
recognized  as  the  illegitimate  half-brother  of 
Napoleon  III.,  whom  he  greatly  aided  in  becom- 
ing emperor ;  and  to  the  latter  is  attributed  the 
paternity  of  Napoleon  III.  himself.  It  is  known 
that  Louis  Bonaparte  had  a  warm  dispute  with 
his  brother,  the  emperor,  touching  this  child, 
which  he  averred  to  be  none  of  his,  and  that 
his  unwillingness  to  recognize  it  as  such  was 
only  overcome  by  the  most  decided  measures  on 
the  part  of  Napoleon.  After  the  separation  of 
Napoleon  and  Josephine,  Hortense  remained  on 
intimate  terms  with  the  former.  When  the 
Bourbons  came  back  in  1814,  she  alone  of  all 
the  Bonaparte  family  remained  in  Paris.  After 
the  Hundred  Days,  she  lived  in  Augsburg,  in 
Italy,  and  in  Switzerland,  devoted  to  her  sons, 
and  greatly  beloved  by  the  people  with  whom 
she  came  in  contact,  who  found  her  a  kind 
and  gentle  benefactress.  When  her  sons  had  to 
flee,  after  participating  in  an  unsuccessful  at- 
tempt at  revolution,  in  Italy,  in  1831,  she  went 
for  a  time  to  Paris,  and  was  kindly  received 
bj'  Louis  Philippe.  She  possessed  much  literary, 
as  well  as  social  talent. 

Beaulieu,  bo-lye,  Jean  Pierre,  Austrian 
military  officer:  b.  Namur,  26  Oct.  1725;  d. 
near  Linz,  Austria,  22  Dec.  1819.  He  served  in 
the  Seven  Years'  war;  was  promoted  a  major- 
general  for  his  successful  operations  against 
the  Belgian  insurgents  in  1789;  commanded  at 
Jemappes  in  1792;  was  defeated  by  Napoleon, 
in  1796,  while  commander-in-chief  of  the  forces 
in  Italy,  in  the  battles  of  Montenotte,  Millesimo, 
Montesano,  Mondovi,  and  Lodi. 

Beaulieu,  bu'li,  a  village  in  Hampshire, 
England,  six  miles  southwest  of  Southampton. 
It  contains  the  remains  of  an  abbey  founded 
by  King  John  and  much  visited  by  students 
of  mediaeval  architecture.  Within  the  limits  of 
Beaulieu  Manor  exemption  from  arrest  for  debt 
was  enjoyed  till  very  recent  years. 

Beaumarchais,  bo-mar-sha,  Pierre  Augus- 
tin  Caron  de,  French  dramatist:  b.  Paris, 
1732 ;  d.  May  1799.  He  was  the  son  of  a  watch- 
maker, who  destined  him  for  his  trade,  and 
early  gave  striking  proofs  of  his  mechanical  and 
also  of  his  musical  talents.  He  was  afterward 
the  teacher  of  the  harp  to  the  daughters  of 
Louis  XV.,  and  was  admitted  into  their  society. 


BEAUMARIS  —  BEAUMONT 


By  a  rich  marriage  he  laid  the  foundation  of 
the  immense  weahh  which  he  afterward  accumu- 
lated by  his  speculations,  and  which  was  also 
increased  by  a  second  marriage.  In  the  mean- 
time he  occupied  himself  with  literature  and 
published  the  dramas  of  *  Eugenie'  (1767),  and 
<Les  Deux  Amis^  (1770).  The  first  still  holds 
its  place  on  the  stage.  He  showed  all  his  talents 
in  his  lawsuit  against  Goezman  and  Lablache, 
when  he  wrote  against  the  former  (who  be- 
longed to  the  parlcnient  Maupeou,  so  called, 
which  was  engaged  in  a  dispute  with  the  minis- 
try) his  celebrated  ^Memoires^  (1774),  which 
entertained  all  France.  The  fame  of  his 
<Memoires>  alarmed  even  Voltaire,  who  was 
jealous  of  every  kind  of  glorj-.  ^The  Barber  of 
Seville'  (1775)  and  the  ^Marriage  of  Figaro' 
(1784)  have  given  him  a  permanent  reputation. 
In  1792  he  wrote  ^La  Mere  Coupable,'  but 
never  regained  his  former  fame.  His  last  work 
was  <Mes  Six  Epoques,'  in  which  he  relates 
the  dangers  to  which  he  was  exposed  in  a  revo- 
lution in  which  a  celebrated  name,  talent,  and 
riches,  were  sufficient  causes  of  proscription. 
He  still  possessed,  at  the  age  of  more  than  60, 
all  the  vigor  of  his  youth,  but  was  afflicted  with 
deafness.  He  lost  about  1.000,000  livres  by  his 
famous  edition  of  the  works  of  Voltaire  (1785), 
and  still  more  at  the  end  of  1792  by  his  attempt 
to  provide  the  French  army  with  60,000  mus- 
kets. In  1809  an  edition  of  his  works  appeared 
in  seven  volumes ;  a  later  edition  in  one  volume 
came  out  in  1835.  Beaumarchais  was  a  singular 
instance  of  versatility  of  talent,  being  at  once 
an  artist,  politician,  projector,  merchant,  and 
dramatist.  He  was  passionately  fond  of  celeb- 
rity. His  'Marriage  of  Figaro'  excited  one  of 
those  extraordinary  sensations  for  which  Paris 
has  always  been  remarkable.  The  English  mod- 
ifications and  versions  of  this  comedy  convey 
but  a  slight  notion  of  the  mischievous  subtlety 
and  deep  spirit  of  intrigue  in  the  original. 
See  Lomenie,  'Beaumarchais  et  son  temps'  ; 
'Beaumarchais  et  ses  oeuvres'  ("1887);  'Histoire 
de  Beaumarchais'  ('1886)  ;  Lescure,  'Eloge  de 
Beaumarchais'  (1887)  ;  Bonnefou.  'Etude  sur 
Beaumarchais'  (1887)  ;  Hallavs'  'Beaumarchais^ 
C1897). 

Beaumaris,  bo-mar'is,  a  seaport  town  of 
North  Wales,  Isle  of  Anglesey.  It  is  situated 
on  the  west  shore  of  the  Menai  Strait,  near  its 
junction  with  the  Irish  Sea,  where  it  expands 
into  a  good  roadstead  called  Beaumaris  Bay. 
It  consists  of  several  well-paved  streets ;  hovises 
in  general,  good,  particularly  in  the  principal 
street,  terminated  bv  the  ancient  castle  of  Beau- 
maris, erected  by  Edward  I. ;  while  many  mod- 
ern dwellings  of  very  handsome  aonearance 
have  lately  been  erected.  The  chief  public  build- 
ines,  exclusive  of  the  churches,  are  the  town- 
hall,  a  commodious  and  handsome  edifice,  the 
county-hall,  the  grammar-school,  police  office, 
and  public  libran,-.  The  chief  place  of  worship 
is  the  Church  of  St.  Mary,  a  spacious  and  ele- 
gant structure  in  the  later  style  of  Enrrlish  archi- 
tecture, with  a  lofty,  square,  embattled  tower ; 
and  several  chapels.  The  harbor  is  safe  and 
commodious,  and  may  be  entered  at  any  state  of 
the  tide.  Beaumaris  is  now  a  favorite  water- 
ing-place.    Pop.    (1901)  2,310. 

Beaumont.  Francis,  b.  1585;  d.  t6i6; 
Fletcher.  John.  b.    1576;   d.   1615  :   English  poets 


and  dramatists,  well  known  for  their  work  in 
collaboration. 

Francis  Beaumont,  third  son  of  Sir  Francis 
Beaumont  of  Grace  Dieu  in  Leicester,  one  of 
the  Justices  of  Common  Pleas,  was  admitted 
gentleman  commoner  at  Broadgates  Hall,  Ox- 
ford, in  1597,  and  was  entered  at  the  Inner 
Temple,  London,  3  Nov,  1600.  He  married  Ur- 
sula, daughter  of  Henry  Isley  of  Sundridge, 
Kent,  probably  in  1613,  and  left  two  daughters, 
one  a  posthumous  child.  He  was  buried  in 
Westminster  Abbey. 

John  Fletcher,  son  of  Richard  Fletcher, 
Bishop  of  London,  was  entered  as  a  pensioner 
at  Bene't  College,  Cambridge,  1591.  His  father, 
as  Dean  of  Peterborough,  attended  Mary  Qu<-"en 
of  Scots  at  Fotheringay,  and  was  later  rapidly 
promoted  to  the  sees  of  Bristol,  Worcester,  and 
London.  He  was  a  successful  courtier  and  a 
favorite  of  the  queen,  though  he  suffered  a  loss 
of  favor  shortly  before  his  death  in  1596.  The 
dramatist  received  by  bequest  a  share  in  his 
father's  books,  but  apparently  little  other  prop- 
erty. He  was  buried  29  Aug.  1625,  in  Saint 
Saviour's,  Southwark. 

Although  the  biographical  details  of  the 
friendship_  and  collaboration  of  the  two  dram- 
atists are  involved  in  uncertainty,  it  seems  prob- 
able that  Fletcher  began  writing  plays  for  the 
London  theatres  as  early  as  1604-5,  and  that 
his  friendship  with  Beaumont  was  established 
by  1607,  when  both  prefixed  commendatory 
verses  to  Jonson's  'Volpone,'  and  'The  Woman 
Hater,'  probably  by  Beaumont  alone,  was  pub- 
lished. In  1612,  in  the  address  to  the  reader 
prefixed  to  the  'White  Devil,'  Webster  praises 
"the  no  less  worthy  composures  of  the  both 
worthily  excellent  Master  Beaumont  and  Master 
Fletcher,"  ranking  them  on  equal  terms  with 
such  scholars  and  experienced  dramatists  as 
Chapman  and  Jonson,  and  apparently  above 
Shakespeare,  Dekker,  and  Heywood.  Before 
1612,  the  reputation  of  Beaumont  and  Fletcher 
as  dramatists  must  have  been  well  established. 

By  1612,  indeed,  the  work  of  their  collabora- 
tion was  accomplished,  for  there  is  no  direct 
evidence  that  Beaumont  wrote  anything  for  the 
public  stage  after  that  date.  The  most  famous 
collaboration  in  the  history  of  English  litera- 
ture, therefore,  comprises  only  some  half  dozen 
years.  During  this  time  the  dramatists,  we 
are  told,  lived  as  brothers,  sharing  everything 
in  common  ;  and  so  intimate  was  their  associa- 
tion as  writers  that  it  is  only  recently  that 
criticism  has  been  able  to  separate  their  shares 
in  the  authorship  of  the  plays  with  any  degree 
of  probability.  Fletcher's  energies  seem  to  have 
been  devoted  exclusively  to  the  theatre;  but 
Beaumont  wrote  verses  to  the  Countess  of  Rut- 
land, and  elegies  on  the  Lady  Markham,  Lady 
Penelope  Clifton,  and  the  Countess  of  Rut- 
land ;  and  also  a  masque  for  the  Lady  Eliza- 
beth's marriage  in  1613,  performed  with  great 
splendor  by  the  gentlemen  of  the  Inner  Temple 
and  Gray's  Inn.  'Salmacis  and  Hermaphro- 
ditus,'  1602,  may  possibly  have  been  written 
by  him ;  it  is  so  assigned  in  the  entry  of  1639 
in  the  Stationer's  Register.  Eight  plays  may  be 
assigned  to  this  period  before  1612  with  con=;id- 
erable  certainty,  each  being  the  result  of  collab- 
oration except  where  the  contrary  is  indicated: 


BEAUMONT 


*Tbe  Woman  Hater^  (by  Beaumont  alone)  ; 
<Tlie  Knight  of  the  Burning  Pestle >  (Beau- 
mont) ;  the  ^Faithful  Shepherdess^  (Fletcher)  ; 
<Philaster';  ^The  Coxcomb^;  <The  Maid's 
Tragedy*  ;  ^Cupid's  Revenge*  ;  <A  King  and 
No  King.*  Eight  other  plays  may  be  assigned 
before  1612  with  more  or  less  probability:  *The 
Woman's  Prize*  (Fletcher)  ;  *Wit  at  Several 
Weapons*  (first  version)  ;  *  Love's  Cure*  ; 
^Thierry  and  Theodoret*  ;  ^Monsieur  Thomas*  ; 
^Four  Plays  in  One*  ;  ^The  Scornful  Lady*  ; 
^The  Captain.  > 

The  brief  period  of  their  collaboration  came 
at  the  climax  of  the  astonishingly  rapid  and 
varied  development  of  the  Elizabethan  drama. 
It  was  during  these  years  that  Jonson  and 
Shakespeare  were  at  their  greatest ;  but  a  grow- 
ing critical  consciousness  among  the  dramatists 
themselves  and  an  increasing  patronage  from 
the  court  seemed  to  promise  for  the  drama  a 
future  even  greater  in  achievement  than  its 
past.  Gentlemen  by  birth  and  breeding,  at- 
tached to  the  court  rather  than  the  people,  Beau- 
mont and  Fletcher  naturally  joined  with  Jon- 
son in  viewing  the  plays  of  their  predecessors 
with  critical,  though  doubtless  appreciative 
minds,  and  in  seeking  for  a  more  cultivated 
audience  and  a  more  critical  art.  Their  atti- 
tude toward  the  preceding  drama  is  indicated 
by  their  abandonment  of  several  species  long 
popular  but  by  this  time  falling  under  Jonson's 
attacks.  Beaumont  and  Fletcher  in  their  col- 
laboration made  no  use  of  the  historical  matter 
of  the  chronicles  or  of  the  methods  or  specta- 
cles of  the  chronicle  play ;  nor  did  they  use  the 
story  of  blood  vengeance,  which  had  been  pop- 
ularized by  Kyd  in  <The  Spanish  Tragedy,^ 
transformed  by  Shakespeare  into  ^Hamlet,* 
and  was  still  the  prevailing  type  of  tragedy. 
Some  of  their  earlier  plays  were  experiments 
that  further  attest  their  reforming  attitude. 
Beaumont's  *^ Woman  Hater*  was  a  comedy  in 
Jonson's  manner;  and  his  ^Knight  of  the  Burn- 
ing Pestle,*  written  under  the  inspiration  of 
*Don  Quixote,*  was  a  burlesque  on  contempo- 
rary plays  of  adventure.  Fletcher's  'Faithful 
Shepherdess*  was  an  attempt  to  replace  the 
abortive  pastorals  of  earlier  playwrights  by  a 
genuine  and  elaborate  pastoral  tragi-comed}'  on 
the  model  of  ^11  Pastor  Fido.  *  These  plays 
won  the  praise  of  the  critical,  but  even  the  mani- 
fest genius  of  the  two  latter  was  impotent  to 
avert  the  disapproval  of  a  public  unused  to  such 
innovations. 

Their  other  plays,  though  hardly  less  novel 
in  character,  and  affording  full  opportunity  for 
the  authors'  gifts  of  invention  and  language 
succeeded  in  captivating  the  public.  These  suc- 
cesses, the  result  of  a  constant  attention  to 
theatrical  effectiveness,  comprised  two  distinct 
classes  of  plays,  the  comedies  and  the  heroic 
romances,  both  immediately  popular  and  both 
of  large  influence  on  the  later  history  of  the 
drama. 

Their  comedy  has  its  resemblances  and  con- 
nections with  preceding  drama ;  but  it  is  a  dis- 
tinct departure  from  Jonson's  comedy  of  "hu- 
mours," and  it  marks  out  a  line  of  development 
that  led  to  the  plays  of  the  Restoration.  A  lively 
plot,  abounding  in  surprises,  combines  in  a 
love  story  the  manners  of  the  day  and  the  ex- 
citements of  romance,  an  overflowing  wit  and 
tio    morals.     Its    full    development    belongs    to 


Fletcher's  later  years;  'The  Scornful  Lady* 
is  perhaps  the  best  representative  of  the  col- 
laboration. 

The  romances,  sometimes  tragic  and  some- 
times tragi-comic,  also  mark  important  innova- 
tions. The  period  immediately  preceding  them 
had  been  distinguished  by  Shakespeare's  trage- 
dies, the  prevalence  of  realistic  comedy,  and 
the  absence  of  sentimental  or  romantic  comedy 
or  tragi-comedy.  The  return  to  romance  seems 
to  have  been  established  by  'Philaster,*  and 
resulted  in  six  plays  that  form  the  most  dis- 
tinctive product  of  the  collaboration. 

Other  plays  of  the  collaboration  and  many 
later  written  by  Fletcher  might  be  grouped  with 
these;  but  the  six  plays,  'Four  Plays  in  One,* 
'Thierrj'  and  Theodoret,*  'Philaster,*  'The 
Maid's  Tragedy,*  'Cupid's  Revenge,*  <A  King 
and  No  King,*  serve  to  define  the  type,  and  re- 
fumble  one  another  so  closely  in  material,  con- 
struction, characterization,  and  style  that  a  single 
analysis  will  serve  for  all. 

Their  plots  are  usually  original,  and  are 
mgenious  complications  of  suspense  and  sur- 
prise. Like  most  preceding  tragedies,  they 
deal  with  royal  or  noble  persons,  foreign  local- 
ities, and  the  plots  and  passions  that  convulse 
kingdoms ;  but  there  are  no  battles  or  proces- 
sions, and  the  action  is  mainly  confined  to  the 
rooms  of  the  palace  or  an  adjoining  forest.  A 
story  of  gross  sensual  passion  is  usually  con- 
trasted with  one  of  idyllic  sentiment ;  and  a 
great  variety  of  incidents  are  designed  to  keep 
the  interest  at  fever  heat.  A  girl  disguised  as 
a  page  is  stabbed  by  the  man  whom  she  loves ; 
a  woman  accused  of  adultery  defies  her  ac- 
cusers ;  the  hero  is  saved  from  the  tyrant  by  a 
timely  insurrection  —  such  idyllic  or  melodra- 
matic material  as  this  is  skilfully  constructed 
into  a  number  of  telling  theatrical  situations, 
leading  through  a  series  of  surprises  to  start- 
ling climaxes  or  catastrophes.  In  the  ingenuity 
of  their  structure  even  more  than  in  the  choice 
of  their  material,  the  romances  marked  a  de- 
parture from  preceding  plays.  Their  dramatis 
pcrsoiicB  belong  to  the  impossible  and  romantic 
situations,  and  are  usually  of  certain  types,— 
the  sentimental  or  violent  hero ;  his  faithful 
friend,  a  blunt  outspoken  soldier ;  the  senti- 
mental heroine,  often  disguised  as  a  page  that 
she  may  save  the  hero ;  the  evil  woman  who 
makes  most  of  the  trouble;  and  the  poltroon, 
usually  a  comic  personage.  With  the  addition 
of  a  king,  some  persons  of  the  court,  and  some 
from  the  lower  ranks,  the  cast  is  complete. 
Even  at  their  best  such  plays  afford  little  that 
is  valuable  in  the  revelation  of  character  or  the 
criticism  of  life ;  yet  the  masterpieces  of  the 
class,  'Philaster*  and  'The  Maid's  Tragedy,* 
take  almost  if  not  quite  the  highest  rank  after 
Shakespeare,  because  of  the  skill  of  their  inven- 
tion and  the  felicities  and  vigor  of  their  poetry. 

Both  romances  and  comedies  delighted  their 
own  age.  and  the  young  authors  were  quickly 
established  among  the  poets  of  highest  rank  in 
bcth  critical  and  popular  estimation.  There  is 
evidence  that  their  heroic  plays  suggested 
Shakespeare's  change  from  tragedy  to  romance, 
and  tliat  'Philaster*  led  somewhat  directly  to 
'Cymbeline.*  Certainly  both  comedies  and  ro- 
mances were  much  imitated  by  dramatists  of 
the  next  30  years.  Their  freedom  in  versifica- 
tion,  their   emphasis    on   stage   situation    rather 


BEAUMONT 


than  interpretation  of  character,  their  heedless- 
ness of  morahty,  and  their  fondness  for  the 
abnormal  and  sensational,  all  led  to  the  deca- 
dence of  the  drama ;  but  much  of  what  is  worthy 
as  well  as  what  is  unworthy  in  the  drama  of 
the  17th  century  may  be  traced  back  to  their 
initiative.  They  were  ranked  above  Shakespeare 
and  Jonson  by  their  contemporaries,  and  their 
plays  remained  the  favorites  of  the  theatre  dur- 
ing the  Restoration.  By  the  beginning  of  the 
l8th  century,  pseudo-classicism  brought  them 
into  disrepute  with  the  critics,  and  a  chastened 
stage  condemned  their  immorality.  During  the 
two  centuries  since  they  have  never  recovered 
their  position  on  the  stage,  but  numerous  edi- 
tions of  their  plays  testify  to  their  continued 
favor  with  the  reading  public. 

After  1612  Fletcher  continued  for  13  years 
to  write  plays  with  unabated  energy,  display- 
ing even  greater  versatility  of  invention  and  wic 
than  when  writing  with  Beaumont,  but  becom- 
ing more  addicted  to  his  mannerisms  and  more 
careless  of  moral  decency.  About  1613  he  seems 
to  have  collaborated  with  Shakespeare  on 
*Henry  VIII. ^  and  *The  Two  Noble  Kinsmen, > 
and  the  association  with  the  great  master 
brought  forth  some  of  his  finest  passages.  He 
was,  indeed,  frequenth^  engaged  in  collaborating 
with  various  authors,  and  especially  with  Mas- 
singer.  *The  Queen  of  Corinth,*  <The  Double 
Marriage,*  *^The  Laws  of  Candy,*  "^The  Little 
French  Lawyer,*  *The  False  One,*  ^The 
Prophetess,*  and  ^The  Spanish  Curate*  are 
some  of  the  plays  most  certainly  to  be  ascribed 
to  this  partnership,  and  most  typical  of  the  two 
authors.  Fletcher,  however,  did  not  require 
collaboration  for  stimulus.  In  <Bonduca* 
he  produced  one  of  the  most  vivid  of  our  his- 
torical tragedies;  and  in  a  series  of  romances 
and  comedies,  of  which  ^The  Little  French 
Lawyer,*  *The  Chances,*  ^The  Wild  Goose 
Chase,*  and  ^The  Lo^'al  Subject*  are  among 
the  best,  he  gave  continued  evidence  of  his  ex- 
traordinary fertility  both  as  a  playwright  and 
as  a  poet. 

Most  of  the  characteristics  of  these  later 
plays  maj',  however,  be  traced  in  the  period  of 
Fletcher's  collaboration  with  Beaumont ;  and, 
though  modern  criticism  has  denied  to  the  latter 
a  share  in  the  majority  of  the  plays  long  pub- 
lished under  his  name  it  is  difficult  to  separate 
the  sentiments  and  opinions  of  the  two  friends 
or  to  divide  their  contribution  to  the  develop- 
ment of  the  drama. 

The  following  plays  were  printed  separately, 
many  of  them  several  times  before  1647,  wdien 
the  first  collected  edition  appeared.  The  dates 
are  for  the  first  editions.  'The  Woman  Hater,* 
1607;  ^The  Faithful  Shepherdess,*  1609  (?); 
*The  Knight  of  the  Burning  Pestle,*  1613 ; 
^Cupid's  Revenge,*  1615;  <The  Scornful  Lady,* 
1616;  <The  Maid's  Tragedy,*  1619;  <A  King 
and  No  King,*  1619;  <PhiIaster,*  1620;  'Thierry 
and  Theodoret,*  1621 ;  'The  Two  Noble  Kins- 
men,* 1634;  'The  Elder  Brother,*  1637;  'Rollo, 
or  the  Bloody  Brother,*  1639;  'Monsieur 
Thomas,*  1639;  'Wit  Without  Money,*  1639; 
'The  Coronation,*  1640;  'The  Night  Walker,* 
1640;  'Rule  a  Wife  and  Have  a«  Wife,*  1640. 
In  1647  appeared  the  first  folio  entitled,  "Come- 
dies and  Tragedies  written  by  Francis  Beau- 
mont and  John  Fletcher,**  and  containing  the 
following   plays    "never   before   printed** :    'The 


Mad  Lover,*  'The  Spanish  Curate,*  'The  Lit- 
tle French  Lawyer,*  'The  Custom  of  the  Coun- 
trj',*  'The  Noble  Gentleman,'  'The  Captain,* 
<The  Beggar's  Bush,*  'The  Coxcomb,*  'The 
False  One,*  'The  Chances,*  'The  Loyal  Sub- 
ject,* 'The  Laws  of  Candy,*  'The  Lovers' 
Progress,*  'The  Island  Princess,*  'The  Hu- 
morous Lieutenant,*  'The  Nice  Valour,*  'The 
Maid  in  the  Mill,*  'The  Prophetess,*  'The 
Tragedy  of  Bonduca.*  'The  Sea  Voyage,*  'The 
Double  Marriage,*  'The  Pilgrim,'  'The  Knight 
of  Malta,*  'The  Woman's  Prize,*  'Love's 
Cure,'  'The  Honest  Man's  Fortune,*  'The 
Queen  of  Corinth,*  'Woman  Pleased,*  'A  Wife 
for  a  Month,*  'Wit  at  Several  Weapons,*  'The 
Tragedy  of  Valentinian,*  'The  Fair  Maid  of 
the  Inn,*  'Love's  Pilgrimage,*  'Four  Plays  in 
One,*  'The  Mask  of  the  Inner  Temple'  and 
Gray's  Inn.*  In  1679  appeared  the  second 
folio,  containing  all  the  plays  of  the  1647  folic 
and  the  17  previously  published  and  also  '"The 
Wild  Goose  Chase'  (4to  1652).  'The  Faith- 
ful Friends'  and  'Sir  John  Van  Olden  Barna- 
velt*  remained  in  manuscript  and  were  not 
printed  until  the  19th  century.  With  the  ex- 
ception of  a  few  plays  already  noted  as  by 
Beaumont  alone,  Fletcher  seems  to  have  had 
at  least  a  share  in  all  of  these  plays  and  in 
'Henry  VIII.'  See  Drama;  Elizabethan  Lit- 
erature—  The  Drama. 

Bibliography. —  Collective  editions  of  Beau- 
mont and  Fletcher  w^ere  published  in  1711  ; 
1750,  edited  by  Theobald,  Seward,  and  Sym- 
son,  10  vols.;  1778,  10  vols.;  1812,  ed.  Henry 
Weber,  14  vols. ;  1843-6,  ed.  Alexander  Dyce,  I'l 
vols. ;  and  there  have  been  various  reprints  of 
these  editions.  Dyce's  edition  has  long  re- 
mained the  standard,  but  there  are  now  in 
course  of  publication  two  editions  of  the  com- 
plete works ;  one  of  which,  vol.  i.  appeared  in 
1904  under  the  general  editorship  of  A.  H. 
Bullen ;  vol.  i  of  the  other  in  1905,  under  the 
editorship  of  A.  R.  Waller. 

The  most  important  of  recent  critical  dis- 
cussions are:  'Francis  Beaumont,  a  Critical 
Study,*  by  G.  C.  Macaulay  (1883);  'The  In- 
fluence of  Beaumont  and  Fletcher  on  Shakes- 
peare* by  A.  H.  Thorndike  (1901);  'The 
Chronicle  of  the  English  Drama,*  by  F.  G. 
Fleay  (vol.  i,  pp.  164-229) ;  and  articles  by 
Robert  Boyle  in  Englische  Studicn  (1881-1887), 
and  by  E.  F.  Oliphant,  Englische  Studicn  (1890- 
92).  Separate  plays  with  critical  introductions 
and  notes  are  published  in  'Belles  Lettres 
Series*   (Boston). 

Ashley  H.  Thorndike, 
Professor  of  English,  Cohiuibia  University. 

Beaumont,  Sir  George  Rowland,  English 
art  patron:  b.  Dunmow,  Essex,  6  Nov.  1735;  d.  7 
Feb.  1827.  He  possessed  considerable  skill  as  a 
landscape  painter,  but  was  noted  more  especially 
as  a  munificent  patron  of  the  arts.  The  estab- 
lishment of  the  National  Gallery  was  mainly 
owing  to  his  exertions,  and  16  of  its  fine  paint- 
ings, chiefly  landscapes,  including  one  by  N. 
Poussin,  three  by  Claude,  and  the  'Blind  Fid- 
dler* of  Wilkie,  were  his  gifts.  Wordsworth 
dedicated  to  him  his  'Elegiac  Musings*   (1830). 

Beaumont,  bo-mon,  Gustav  Auguste  de  la 
Bonniere     de,    French    publicist :    b.     16    Feb. 


BEAUMONT 


1802;  d.  Tours,  6  Feb.  1866.  He  early  entered 
upon  the  legal  profession,  and,  in  1831,  was  sent 
with  De  loqueville  to  study  the  penitentiary 
system  of  the  United  States.  He  was  elected 
deputy  in  1839,  and,  in  1848,  vice-president  of 
the  Constituent  Assembly.  He  was  subsequently 
ambassador  to  London  and  Vienna.  Beaumont 
first  became  known  as  a  writer  by  his  publishing, 
in  conjunction  with  M.  de  Tocqueville,  *Traite 
du  Systeme  Penitentiaire  aux  Etats-Unis  et  de 
son  application  a  la  France^  (1832).  Among  his 
other  works  may  be  named,  *  Marie,  ou  I'Esclav- 
age  aux  Etats-Unis^  (1835) — a  work  some- 
what resembling  ^ Uncle  Tom's  Cabin*  ;  and 
^LTrlande  sociale,  politique,  et  religieuse* 
(1839)- 

Beaumont,  bo'mont.  Sir  John,  English 
poet:  b.  Leicestershire,  1582;  d.  about  1627.  He 
was  an  elder  brother  of  Francis  Beaumont,  the 
dramatist,  and  studied  at  Broadgate  Hall  (now 
Pembroke  College),  Oxford.  In  1605  he  suc- 
ceeded to  his  father's  estates  on  the  death  of 
his  elder  brother.  He  began  writing  poetry  at 
a  comparatively  early  age,  and  in  1602  published 
anonymously  a  mock-heroic  piece  entitled  *The 
Metamorphosis  of  Tobacco.*  He  was  created 
a  baronet  in  1626.  In  1629  his  son.  Sir  John, 
published  a  collection  of  his  poems  under  the 
title  ^Bosworth  Field,  with  a  Taste  of  the  Va- 
riety of  other  Poems  left  by  Sir  John  Beau- 
mont' 

Beaumont,  Joseph,  English  poet :  b.  Had- 
leigh,  Suffolk,  13  March  1616;  d.  23  Nov.  1699. 
He  was  educated  at  Peterhouse  College,  Cam- 
bridge, where  he  gained  great  distinction. 
Elected  a  Fellow  in  1636,  he  was  ejected  with 
others  in  1644  owing  to  royalist  sympathies, 
and  while  living  in  retirement  wrote  *^ Psyche,* 
an  epic  poem  (1648).  On  the  restoration  of  the 
monarchy  he  became  a  royal  chaplain,  and  after 
a  brief  term  as  master  of  Jesus  College  he  was 
appointed  in  1663  master  of  Peterhouse.  He 
received  the  regius  professorship  of  divinity  at 
Cambridge   in   1674. 

Beaumont,  William,  American  surgeon :  b. 
Lebanon,  Conn.,  1785;  d.  St.  Louis,  25  April 
1853.  He  is  principally  noted  for  his  discoveries 
regarding  the  laws  of  digestion  and  for  his 
experim.ents  upon  the  body  of  Alexis  St.  Mar- 
tin. In  1822  Beaumont  was  stationed  at  Michil- 
limackinac,  Michigan.  On  6  June,  St.  Martin,  a 
young  man  18  years  of  age,  in  the  service  of  the 
American  fur  company,  was  accidentally  shot, 
receiving  the  whole  charge  of  a  musket  in  his 
left  side,  from  a  distance  of  about  one  yard, 
carrying  with  it  portions  of  his  clothing,  and 
fracturing  two  ribs,  lacerating  the  lungs,  and 
entering  the  stomach.  Notwithstanding  the  se- 
verity of  the  wound,  Beaumont  undertook  his 
cure,  and  by  careful  and  constant  treatment  and 
attention,  the  following  year  found  him  enjoy- 
ing good  health  with  his  former  strength  and 
spirits.  In  1825  Beaumont  began  a  series  of 
experiments  upon  the  stomach  of  St.  Martin, 
showing  its  operations,  secretions,  the  action  of 
the  gastric  juices,  etc.;  these  experiments  he 
was  obliged  to  discontinue  after  a  few  months, 
but  renewed  them  at  various  intervals  until  his 
death ;  his  patient  during  so  many  years  pre- 
senting the  remarkable  spectacle  of  a  man  en- 
joying  good   health,    appetite,   and   spirits,   with 


an  aperture  opening  into  his  stomach  two  and  a 
half  inches  in  circumference,  through  which 
the  whole  action  of  the  stomach  might  be  ob- 
served. 

Beaumont,  Texas,  city  and  county-seat  of 
Jeflferson  county :  situated  on  the  west  bank  of 
the  Neches  River ;  on  the  So.  Pacific,  Sabine, 
and  East  Texas,  Gulf,  Colorado  and  Santa  Fe, 
Gulf  and  Interstate,  Kansas  City  So.,  and  Beau- 
mont, Sour  Lake  and  W.  R.R.'s ;  80  miles  north- 
east of  Houston  and  22  miles  distant  from  the 
Gulf    of   Mexico. 

Industries. — Beaumont  is  an  important  ship- 
ping point;  is  at  the  head  of  tidewater  naviga- 
tion and  has  a  number  of  important  industries, 
among  which  are  oil  refineries,  rice  mills,  stove 
and  iron  works  and  lumber.  Oil  was  discov- 
ered in  the  Beaumont  fields  in  1901,  when  there 
was  opened  up  a  series  of  gushers,  the  most  re- 
markable in  the  history  of  the  oil  industry. 
That  oil  was  there  had  long  been  known  and 
several  men  had  lost  fortunes  trying  to  get  at 
it,  but  it  was  not  until  the  wells  were  sunk  on 
Spindle  Top  that  success  came.  The  structure 
of  Spindle  Top  appears  to  be  that  of  a  dome 
with  steep  sides  and  rather  flat  summit.  The 
equipment  of  the  refineries,  the  pipe  lines,  and 
transportation  and  storage  facilities  for  this  in- 
dustry alone,  represent  an  investment  of  over 
$45,000,000.  The  lumber  industry  has  assumed 
great  proportions,  the  city  being  the  natural 
headquarters  for  this  business  and  the  annual 
output  now  exceeds  360,000,000  feet  of  yellow 
pine.  The  cultivation  of  rice  was  begun  some 
years  ago;  the  belt  extending  along  the  coast  of 
Louisiana  and  Texas  produces  more  rice  than 
is  consumed  in  this  country;  and  the  largest  rice 
mill  in  Texas  is  located  at  Beaumont. 

Public  Buildings,  Banks,  Churches,  etc.  — 
Among  the  most  notable  public  buildings  are 
the  new  Federal  Court-house  and  Post-ofifice, 
costing  over  $200,000,  the  Jefferson  County 
Court-house,  city  hall.  Y.  M.  C.  A.  building, 
and  the  Sisters  Hospital.  Religious  services  are 
held  in  churches  representing  nearly  all  de- 
nominations. A  theatre  has  been  erected  at  a 
cost  of  about  $100,000.  There  are  four  banks 
with  a  combined  capital  of  $600,000  and  doing 
an    annual    business    of    $25,000,000. 

Educational  Institutions  and  Public  Works. 
— For  the  public  education  there  are  a  fine  new 
high  school  with  manual  training  department 
and  several  ward  schools.  Bell  Austin  Institute 
is  located  there.  About  20  miles  of  street  are 
paved  with  brick  and  shell ;  a  complete  sewerage 
system  has  been  installed ;  a  new  waterworks 
system  has  been  completed  at  a  cost  of  over 
$300,000;  and  there  are  well  appointed  fire  and 
police  departments. 

History,  Government,  and  Pof^ulation. — Beau- 
mont was  first  settled  in  1836.  being  plotted  by 
John  Grisby,  Joseph  Pulsifer,  Henry  Millard, 
and  Thomas  B.  Huling.  It  was  incorporated 
under  the  general  law  in  1881  and  granted  a 
special  charter  in  1889,  the  affairs  of  the  com- 
munity now  being  administered  by  a  mayor  and 
council  of  six  members,  elected  biennially. 
About  80  per  cent  of  the  population  are  white, 
the  remainder  negroes.  Pop.  (1900)  9,427; 
(1905)    about  25,000.     Death   rate    13.4. 

H.  G.  Sp.\ulding. 
Secretary  Chamber  of  Coninicrce. 


GENERAL   P.    G.   T.   BEAUREGARD. 


BEAUNE  —  BEAUVAIS 


Beaune,  bon,  Florimond  de,  French  mathe- 
matician :  b.  Blois,  1601  ;  d.  there,  1652.  He 
materially  developed  the  Descartes  method  in 
geometry  and  was  the  first  to  treat  systemat- 
ically the  question  of  superior  roots  of  numerical 
equations.  What  is  styled  "Beaune's  Problem," 
solved  only  by  Jean  Bernouilli,  depends  on  the 
determination  of  a  curved  line  from  the  prop- 
erty of  its  tangent.  He  was  the  first  to  treat  in 
a  systematic  way  superior  and  inferior  roots  of 
numerical  equations. 

Beaune,  a  town  of  France,  in  the  depart- 
ment Cote  d'Or,  23  miles  south-southwest  of 
Dijon.  As  early  as  the  7th  century  it  was  a 
fortress  under  the  name  of  Belna.  It  is  sur- 
rounded with  planted  ramparts,  which  furnish 
a  pleasant  promenade ;  is  well  built,  and  has  a 
notable  Church  of  Notre  Dame,  dating  from 
tne  I2th  centur}'.  and  a  large  hospital,  founded 
in  1443  by  Nicholas  Rollin,  chancellor  of  Philip 
the  Good,  Duke  of  Burgundy.  Beaune  has  also 
a  public  library  containing  about  50,000  volumes 
with  500  manuscripts,  a  very  fine  public  garden, 
a  theatre,  etc.  The  trade  is  chiefly  in  Burgundy 
wines,  to  one  of  which  the  town  gives  its  name, 
and  in  agricultural  produce.  The  manufactures 
include  woolen  cloth,  cutlery  and  leather.  There 
is  a  statue  erected  in  1849,  to  the  celebrated 
mathematician  Monge,  who  was  born  there. 
Pop.   (1896)   11,808. 

Beauregard,  bo're-gard,  Pierre  Gustave 
Toutant,  American  Confederate  general :  b. 
New  Orleans,  28  May  1818;  d.  there,  20  Feb. 
1893.  After  studying  military  science  at  West 
Point  he  joined  the  artillery,  but  was  after- 
ward transferred  to  the  engineers.  In  the  Mexi- 
can war  of  1846-7  he  distinguished  himself,  and 
was  promoted  major.  On  the  outbreak  of  the 
Civil  War  he  resigned  in  order  to  enter  the 
Confederate  army,  and  was  placed  in  command 
of  the  city  of  Charleston,  South  Carolina.  On 
12  April  1861  he  reduced  Fort  Sumter,  and  later 
in  the  same  year  led  the  Confederates  to  victory 
in  the  battle  of  Bull  Run.  At  the  battle  of 
Shiloh  in  the  following  year  he  assumed  the 
command  on  the  death  of  Gen.  A.  S.  Johnston, 
but  though  very  successful  on  the  first  day  he 
was  ultimately  compelled  to  retreat  to  Corinth, 
Miss.,  which  he  had  to  evacuate  shortly  after- 
ward. From  September  1862,  till  April  1864, 
he  defended  Charleston  against  the  siege  opera- 
tions of  Gen.  Gillmore  and  Admirals  Dupont 
and  Dahlgren.  In  October  1864,  became  com- 
mander of  the  military  division  of  the  West, 
in  which  capacity  he  strove  without  success 
to  resist  Sherman's  victorious  advance,  and  in 
April  1865  he  and  J.  E.  Johnston  surrendered. 
He  was  afterward  a  railroad  director,  adjutant- 
general  of  Louisiana,  and  manager  of  the  Lou- 
isiana State  Lottery.  In  1866  the  chief  command 
of  the  Rumanian  army  was  tendered  him, 
and  in  1869  that  of  the  army  of  the  khedive  of 
Egypt,  both  of  which  he  declined.  He  published 
^The  Principles  and  Maxims  of  the  Art  of 
War'  (1863).  and  *  Report  of  the  Defense  of 
Charleston'    (1864). 

Beaurepaire-Rohan,  bo-r'-par-ro-an,  Hen- 
riques  de,  Brazilian  geographer  of  French 
extraction :  b.  province  of  Piauhy,  about  1818 ; 
d.  1894.  He  traveled  extensively  in  the  region 
south  of  Rio  de  Janeiro,  publishing  the  results 
of  his  tour  in  a  volume  called  ^Descripgao  de 
uma   viagem    de    Cuyaba'    ao    Rio    de   Janeiro' 


(1846).  The  Brazilian  government  subsequently 
employed  him  to  gather  statistics  relating  to  the 
interior  provinces,  and  he  was  at  one  time  lieu- 
tenant-general in  the  Brazilian  army.  His  Etu- 
dios  acerca  da  organizgao  da  Carta  geographica 
e  da  historia  physica  e  politica  do  Brazil'  (1877) 
is  a  work  of  great  importance. 

Beausobre,  bo-s6br,  Isaac  de,  French 
Protestant  historian:  b.  Niort  in  France,  1659; 
d.  Berlin,  1738.  He  was  at  first  intended  for  the 
law,  but  his  own  inclinations  were  decidedly  in 
favor  of  the  Church ;  and  in  1683  he  became 
Protestant  minister  of  Chatillon-sur-Indre.  In 
the  persecuting  spirit  of  the  time  the  Church 
had  been  closed  by  fixing  the  royal  seal  upon 
the  gate.  Beausobre  held  special  services  in 
his  own  house,  and  being  for  this  reason  obliged 
to  flee,  sought  an  asylum  at  Rotterdam.  Shortly 
after  he  became  chaplain  to  the  Princess  of 
Anhalt  at  Dessau,  which  he  quitted  in  1694, 
when  he  became  minister  to  French  Protestants 
at  Berlin.  He  enjoyed  much  of  the  favor  both 
of  Frederick  William  I.  and  of  the  crown- 
prince,  afterward  Frederick  the  Great.  His  most 
remarkable  work  is  the  ^Histoire  Critique  de 
Manichee  et  du  Manicheisme'  (1734)  ;  and  he 
also  wrote  ^Histoire  de  la  Reformation' 
(1785-6). 

Beautiful  Snow,  a  popular  poem  first  pub- 
lished in  *  Harper's  Weekly'  in  1858.  Its  au- 
thorship has  had  various  claimants  but  has 
been  definitely  assigned  to  John  W.  Watson. 

Beauty  and  the  Beast,  an  ancient  story 
very  evidently  a  myth  of  the  Sun  and  the  Dawn. 
In  all  the  variants  the  hero  and  the  heroine 
cannot  behold  each  other  without  misfortune. 
One  of  the  earliest  forms  of  the  story  is  the 
Vedic  myth  of  ^Urvasi  and  Puriiravas.'  An- 
other is  the  Sanskrit  Bheki,  who  marries  on  con- 
dition she  shall  never  see  water ;  thus  typifying 
the  dawn,  vanishing  in  the  clouds  of  sunset. 
In  Greek  myths  we  find  a  resemblance  in  some 
features  of  "^Orpheus  and  Eurydice'  ;  and  the 
name  of  Orpheus  in  its  Sanskrit  form  of  Arbhu, 
meaning  the  sun.  hints  quite  plainly  at  a  solar 
origin  of  this  cj'cle  of  tales.  A  more  marked 
likeness  exists  in  the  myth  of  Eros  and  Psyche 
by  Apuleius,  and  in  the  Scandinavian  tale  of 
the  ^Land  East  of  the  Sun  and  West  of  the 
Moon,'  related  by  ]\Iorris  in  <The  Earthly  Para- 
dise.' More  or  less  striking  parallels  are  seen 
in  the  Celtic  ^Battle  of  the  Birds'  ;  in  the  'Soar- 
ing Lark,'  by  Grimm;  in  the  Kaffir  'Stor\'  of 
Five  Heads'  :  in  Gaelic,  Sicilian,  and  Bengal 
folk-lore ;  and  even  in  as  remote  a  quarter  as 
Chile.  The  tale  is  told  in  Straparola's  *Piace- 
voli  notti'  (1550)  ;  in  Madame  Villeneuve's 
'Contes  Marines'  (1740),  and  is  the  basis  of 
Gretry''s  opera,  'Zemise  et  Azor.' 

Beauty.     See  Esthetics  ;  Art. 

Beauvais,  bo-va  (ancient  Bratuspantium, 
Bellovacum),  a  town  of  France,  capital  of  the 
department  of  Oise,  54  miles  north  of  Paris.  It 
stands  in  a  rich  valley  enclosed  by  wooded  hills, 
at  the  confluence  of  the  Avelon  with  the  The- 
rain ;  and  though  poorly  built,  derives  great 
interest  from  its  antiquity.  It  existed  in  the 
time  of  the  Romans,  and  in  1472  resisted  an 
army  of  80.000  Burgundians  under  Charles 
the  Bold.  The  principal  edifice  is  the  unfinished 
cathedral  of  Saint  Pierre,  consisting  of  choir 
and  transept.  It  has  the  loftiest  stone  vault  in 
the  world,    and  beautifully  painted   glass,   exe- 


BEAUVOIS  —  BEAVER 


cuted  by  the  most  celebrated  masters  of  the  art. 
The  choir  was  built  in  1225-72.  The  town-house 
is  the  finest  modern  structure.  The  principal 
manufacturing  establishment  is  the  Gobelins 
branch  tapestry  and  carpet  manufactory,  famed 
for  the  beauty  of  its  products,  and  employing 
about  400  hands;  and  there  are  also  manufac- 
tures of  woolens,  buttons,  brushes,  gold  and  sil- 
ver lace,  etc.  It  has  also  large  bleachfields,  tan- 
neries, and  dyeworks.  Beauvais  is  the  seat  of 
a  bishop,  and  had  a  population  in  1896  of 
16,371- 

Beauvois,  bo-vwa,  Ambrose  Joseph  Pali- 
sot  de,  French  naturalist:  b.  Arras,  1752;  d. 
1820.  He  visited  Africa,  the  West  Indies,  and 
America,  in  connection  with  his  favorite  pur- 
suits in  natural  history,  and  was  rewarded  by 
the  discovery  of  the  jaws  and  molar  teeth  of  the 
great  mastodon,  on  the  banks  of  the  Ohio.  He 
afterward  returned  to  France,  and  devoted  the 
remainder  of  his  life  to  the  arrangement  and 
publication  of  his  collections.  Comparatively 
few  of  them  had  arrived  in  safety,  but  out  of 
the  wreck  he  managed  to  procure  materials  for 
the  important  publications  on  which  his  fame 
chiefly  rests.  The  most  valuable  is  his  ^  Flore 
d'Oware  et  de  Benin. ^  One  of  the  most  curious 
plants  contained  in  it  has  been  named  after  him 
Belvisia. 

Beaux,  bo,  Cecilia,  American  artist:  b. 
in  Philadelphia.  She  studied  under  William 
Sartain,  and  at  Paris.  She  has  four  times 
gained  the  Mary  Smith  Prize  of  the  Pennsyl- 
vania Academy  of  Fine  Arts,  and  has  been 
awarded  the  same  academy's  gold  medal  and 
Temple  gold  medal.  She  has  received  similar 
honors  from  the  National  Academy  of  Design, 
the  Philadelphia  Art  Club,  Carnegie  Institute, 
and  the  Paris  Exposition  of  1900. 

Beaux-arts,    bo-zar,    Academic    des.     See 

Academy  of  Fine  Arts,  The. 

Beaux'  Stratagem,  a  well  known  comedy 
by  the  English  dramatist,  George  Farquhar 
(q.v.). 

Beaven,  Thomas,  American  Roman  Cath- 
olic prelate :  b.  Springfield,  Mass.,  1849.  He  was 
educated  at  the  Jesuit  colleges  of  Holy  Cross, 
Worcester,  Mass.,  and  Georgetown,  D.  C.  After 
holding  pastorates  at  Spencer  and  Holyoke, 
Mass.,  was  consecrated  Bishop  of  Springfield 
in  1892. 

Beaver,  James  Addams,  American  military 
officer  and  statesman :  b.  Millerstown,  Pa.,  21 
Oct.  1837.  He  was  graduated  at  Jefferson  Col- 
lege, Canonsburg,  Pa.,  in  1856 ;  and  for  a  time 
practised  law.  He  served  in  the  Federal  army, 
1861-4 ;  and  was  retired  v-^ith  the  rank  of  briga- 
dier-general of  volunteers  (22  Dec.  1864).  He 
then  resumed  the  practice  of  law  ;  became  major- 
general  of  the  Pennsylvania  State  militia ;  was 
defeated  as  Republican  candidate  for  governor 
in  1882;  elected  in  1887;  president  of  the  board 
of  trustees  of  the  Pennsylvania  State  College ; 
vice-moderator  of  the  Presbj^erian  General 
Assem.bly  in  1888  and  1895  ;  and  member  of  the 
President's  commission  on  investigation  of  the 
War  Department  in  1898. 

Beaver,  Philip,  English  naval  officer:  b. 
in  Lewknor,  Oxfordshire,  England,  28  Feb. 
1766;  d.  Table  Bay,  South  Africa,  5  April  1813. 
He  served  during  the  American  Revolutionary 
War  in  the  royal  navy.    After  the  war  he  under- 


took to  establish  an  agricultural  colony  on 
Bulama  Island,  on  the  west  coast  of  Africa, 
and  in  April  1792  left  England  with  three  ships 
and  275  white  colonists,  expecting  that  the  latter 
would  not  only  cultivate  the  soil,  but  would  do 
much  toward  civilizing  the  negroes.  The 
enterprise  proved  a  failure  and  he  returned  to 
England  in  1794.  Subsequently  he  distinguished 
himself  in  the  naval  service. 

Beaver,  Pa.,  a  borough  and  county-seat 
of  Beaver  County,  on  the  Ohio  River,  and  the 
Pennsylvania  and  the  Pittsburg  &  L.  E.  RR.'s ; 
28  miles  northwest  of  Pittsburg.  It  has  natural 
gas,  abundant  water  power,  large  coal  and  oil 
shipping  interests,  a  public  park,  national  bank, 
and  daily  and  weekly  newspapers,  and  is  the 
seat  of  Beaver  College  (Methodist  Episcopal). 
Pop.    (1900)   2,348. 

Beaver,  a  large  aquatic  rodent  animal 
of  the  northern  part  of  the  world,  named  by 
Linnaeus,  Castor  fiber,  and  representing  the 
family  Castoridcs.  It  is  distinguished  from  its 
nearest  relatives,  the  marmots,  not  only  by  adap- 
tation to  an  aquatic  life,  and  the  possession  of 
large,  fully  webbed  hind  feet,  which  form  the 
principal  instrument  for  swimming,  but  especial- 
ly by  its  extraordinary  tail,  which  is  exceedingly 
broad  and  covered  with  a  horny  integument 
resembling  scales.  A  large  beaver  is  about  two 
feet  in  length  from  the  root  of  the  tail  to  the 
nose,  and  the  tail  will  be  nearly  a  foot  long. 
Such  a  one  will  weigh  about  35  pounds.  Its 
flesh  is  edible,  but  not  particularly  good.  The 
fur  is  exceedingly  close  and  fine,  and  when  freed 
from  the  long  hairs  that  are  scattered  through 
it  and  overlie  the  under  coat,  forms  one  of  the 
most  valuable  furs  of  commerce  and  one  which 
figured  largely  in  the  early  history  of  North 
America.  It  is  owing,  indeed,  to  the  eagerness 
with  which  men  have  sought  for  this  valuable 
commodity,  going  farther  and  farther  into  the 
wilderness  in  search  of  the  animal,  that  the 
beaver  has  almost  disappeared  from  large  re- 
gions where  it  was  once  numerous.  Originally 
it  was  widespread  throughout  Europe  and  north- 
ern Asia,  but  became  extinct  in  the  British  Is- 
lands in  the  12th  century,  and  it  remains  else- 
where in  Europe  only  in  a  few  of  the  wilder 
streams  of  Norway  and  some  of  the  tributaries 
of  the  Rhone  and  the  Danube,  where  it  is  under 
roj'al  protection.  In  some  cases  colonies  of  cap- 
tives have  re-established  themselves  in  parks, 
notably  that  of  Lord  Bute,  in  England.  It  still 
exists,  however,  in  eastern  Siberia,  whence  a 
large  number  of  its  skins  are  annually  sent  to 
market. 

When  America  was  first  entered  by  Euro- 
peans, the  beaver  was  found  inhabiting  almost ' 
all  of  the  woodland  streams  of  the  whole  ' 
northern  continent,  from  the  Arctic  Circle  down 
to  Central  Mexico.  Its  temperament  and  man- 
ner of  life  made  it  an  easy  prey,  and  prevented 
it  from  adapting  itself  to  changed  conditions 
as  did  its  neighbor,  the  muskrat.  It  rapidly 
disappeared,  therefore,  wherever  civilization  pro- 
gressed or  trapping  was  systematically  carried 
on,  and  now  no  beavers  are  to  be  found  south  of 
the  rivers  that  flow  into  Hudson  Bay,  except  in 
the  northern  parts  of  the  Rocky  Mountains  and 
in  a  few  remote  and  scattered  places  like  the 
forests  of  Maine  and  the  Lake  Superior  region, 
where  they  are  more  or  less  protected  by  law. 
A  few  survive,  nevertheless,  in  the  wild  ranges 


BEAVER 


■of  the  southern  Alleghenies  and  along  the  bor- 
lers  of  Mexico.  The  principal  use  to  which 
6eaver  fur  was  put  was  for  the  making  of  hats ; 
and  it  is  probable  that  had  not  the  method  of 
tnaking  hat-coverings  from  silk  been  discovered, 
the  animal  would  long  ago  have  become  extinct, 
and  also  its  South  American  substitute,  the 
coypu  or  nutria. 

The  life  of  the  beaver  is  remarkably  interest- 
ing on  account  of  the  skilful  structures  by 
which  it  keeps  itself  surrounded  with  a  suffi- 
cient depth  of  water,  and  so  maintains  access  to 
a  continuous  supply  of  food.  The  food  of  the 
beaver  consists  mainly  of  the  bark  of  hard- 
wood trees,  such  as  the  maple,  linden,  birch, 
•poplar,  and  the  like.  It  never  eats  the  bark  of 
the  coniferous  trees,  and  beavers  are  not  found 
living  in  forests  composed  entirely  of  coniferous 
trees,  nor  are  beavers  able  to  live  in  a  treeless 
country.  They  are  gregarious  and  dwell  in 
colonies,  which  in  favorable  circumstances,  may 
persist  for  centuries.  From  time  to  time  a  pair 
of  young  beavers  will  wander  away  from  such 
a  colony  and  seek  a  new  place  in  which  to  start 
afresh.  They  will  choose  a  sluggish  stream  in 
the  woods,  preferably  where  the  ground  is  low 
and  level,  and  there  will  dig  for  themselves  a 
burrow  in  the  bank,  the  entrance  of  which  is 
Sselow  the  surface  of  the  water.  The  tunnel 
will  lead  upward  into  the  earth  above  the  level 
of  high  water,  and  there  be  enlarged  into  a 
chamber  in  which  will  be  placed  a  bedding  of 
grass,  etc.  They  are  likely  to  make  an  opening 
from  this  chamber  into  the  air,  and,  as  if  for 
defense  or  concealment,  will  pile  over  this  open- 
ing a  little  heap  of  brush,  in  which  perhaps  may 
be  seen  the  germ  of  the  architectural  ability 
which  the  species  have  so  highly  developed.  It 
is  necessary  to  their  scheme  of  life  that  the 
water  in  the  stream  should  never  fall  so  low  in 
summer  as  to  expose  the  entrance  of  the  bur- 
row ;  moreover,  it  is  necessary  that  this  water 
should  be  so  deep  that  in  winter  the  ice  will  not 
freeze  to  the  bottom,  but  that,  on  the  contrary, 
there  shall  remain  room  enough  between  the 
ice  and  the  bed  of  the  creek  for  them  to  store 
there  a  supply  of  winter  food.  In  order  to 
maintain  this  requisite  level  of  water  the  beav- 
•ers  throw  a  dam  across  the  stream  below  their 
settlement,  holding  the  water  back  to  a  sufficient 
height.  For  this  purpose  they  choose  a  place 
where  the  water  is  not  more  than  2^^  feet  deep 
and  the  bottom  is  firm,  and  beginning  in  the 
centre  of  the  channel  they  place  there,  length- 
wise of  the  current,  a  number  of  long  sticks 
which  they  hold  down  by  piling  upon  them  mud 
and  stones,  moved  into  place  with  their  dex- 
terous fore  feet.  They  procure  these  roles  by 
cutting  off  small  trees  with  their  front  teeth, 
which  are  exceedingly  large  and  strong  and 
are  faced  with'  a  hard  yellow  enamel.  As  the 
back  part  of  the  tooth  consists  of  softer  material, 
it  wears  away  more  rapidly,  leaving  the  front 
with  a  chisel-like  edge,  which  is  always  sharp. 
Standing  on  their  hind  feet,  they  gnaw  round 
and  round  the  stem  of  a  tree  until  it  falls ;  and 
are  able  to  cut  down  trees  i8  inches  in  diameter, 
"but  this  is  only  done  in  procuring  their  winter 
supplies.  From  its  foundation  in  the  centre  the 
■dam  is  carried  each  way  to  the  shore.  As  the 
beavers  increase  in  number  and  the  young  ones 
grow  up,  they  settle  in  the  immediate  neighbor- 
liood  until  after  a  few  years  a  considerable 
colony  will   have    arisen.     During  all   this   time 


work  progresses  upon  the  dam,  each  beaver 
gathering  drift-wood,  branches,  and  logs  from 
the  shore,  stones,  mud,  pieces  of  sod,  and  every- 
thing available  for  the  purpose,  and  working  it 
into  the  structure  of  the  dam.  The  work  is 
carried  on  only  at  night  and  especially  on 
pleasant  moonlight  nights,  when  they  seem  to  be 
extremely  busy  from  sunset  till  sunrise.  There 
is  no  superintendence,  but  each  one  possessed 
with  an  instinct  for  industry,  does  whatever 
seems  to  it  best.  The  result  is  a  mere  tangled 
heap,  having  a  long  slope  and  comparatively 
tight  surface  on  the  upper  side,  which  some- 
times in  a  low,  swampy  region,  will  stretch  for 
several  hundred  feet  and  hold  back  a  large 
pond  or  morass,  largely  grown  up  to  grass,  but 
having  many  channels  running  through  it. 
Meanwhile  each  family  of  beavers  has  erected 
for  itself  upon  the  bank  of  the  pond  or  upon 
some  islet  adjacent  to  one  of  the  channels,  a 
conical  house  or  lodge,  the  interior  of  which 
may  be  a  room  six  or  seven  feet  in  breadth, 
which  has  no  opening  into  the  air,  but  is  entered 
from  beneath  the  water  by  two  channels,  one  of 
v/hich  is  commonly  used,  while  the  other  forms 
a  means  of  escape  in  case  of  invasion  by  a  mink 
or  some  other  aquatic  enemy.  These  houses  are 
more  solidly  constructed  than  even  the  dam ; 
and  when  frozen  in  winter  are  so  thick  and 
strong  that  nothing  less  than  a  bear  is  able  to 
break  into  them.  These  houses  are  largest  and 
strongest  in  the  cold  northern  regions.  During 
the  summer  beavers  go  ashore  and  obtain  from 
time  to  time  such  bark  as  they  want  for  food, 
and  also  feed  largely  upon  the  roots  and  stems 
of  the  flags,  lilies,  and  other  water  plants.  In 
winter,  however,  when  the  pond  is  covered  with 
ice  and  the  banks  with  snow,  the  beavers  would 
be  unable  to  obtain  such  food,  and  to  escape 
starvation  are  obliged  to  store  in  the  autumn 
a  sufficient  supply  to  last  them  through  the 
winter.  They  do  this  by  felling  large  trees  near 
the  water's  edge  and  cutting  them  up  into  such 
portions  as  they  can  manage  to  roll  or  drag  into 
the  water.  These  are  floated  away  and  sunk  at 
the  doors  of  their  houses,  where  they  are  weight- 
ed or  stuck  into  the  mud  to  prevent  their  floating 
away,  imtil  a  sufficient  pile  has  been  procured. 
Piece  by  piece  this  store  is  taken  into  the  house 
during  the  winter,  and,  the  bark  having  been 
eaten  off,  the  sticks  are  thrown  out  to  be  used 
in  the  spring  as  material  for  repairing  and  ex- 
tending the  dam. 

It  will  be  apparent  that  a  colony  of  beavers 
would  soon  exhaust  the  supply  of  trees  bearing 
edible  bark  within  reach  of  the  shore  of  their 
stream,  unless  they  had  some  means  of  reach- 
ing new  and  more  distant  supplies.  In  truth, 
where  the  banks  are  steep,  this  soon  happens, 
and  the  beavers  must  then  seek  a  new  place. 
Where  the  forest  is  low  and  level,  however,  they 
w-ill  excavate  canals  which  are  gradually  ex- 
tended farther  and  farther  into  the  woods  on 
each  side  of  the  pond,  and  so  enable  themselves 
to  reach  more  and  more  fresh  trees.  In  some 
of  the  swampy  forests  about  the  headwaters  of 
the  Mississippi  which  was  perhaps  the  head- 
quarters of  beaver  life  in  this  country,  these 
canals  have  been  known  to  extend  several  hun- 
dred feet,  and  in  such  places  colonies  of  beavers 
have  maintained  an  existence  of  more  than  200 
years.  These  channels  are  kept  free  from  weeds 
and  of  a  proper  depth ;  and  the  most  important 
service  which  the  dam  renders  is   to  maintain 


BEAVER  DAM  — BEBEL 


the  right  level  of  water  in  these  canals,  so 
that  they  may  always  be  used  as  the  avenues  of 
the  industrious  community. 

The  American  beaver  seems  to  have  carried 
its  architectural  work  to  a  higher  degree  of 
perfection  than  the  European  beaver  was  ever 
known  to  do,  although  in  Siberia,  where  similar 
climatic  conditions  prevail,  and  it  is  necessary 
for  them  to  erect  houses  impervious  to  the  great 
cold  and  to  the  attacks  of  marauding  animals, 
they  come  near  to  equaling  their  American 
cousins.  There  is  little  record  of  such  struc- 
tures being  made  primitively  in  central  Europe, 
and  the  beavers  now  living  in  the  streams  of 
Germany  and  Austria  make  few  attempts  at 
either  dams  or  houses,  but  are  content  to  dwell 
in  their  bank-burrows. 

The  substance  called  castoreum  is  obtained 
from  two  glandular  pouches  in  the  beaver, 
closely  connected  with  the  organs  of  reproduc- 
tion, and  probably  of  service  in  attracting  the 
sexes  to  one  another  in  the  rutting  season.  It 
is  a  secretion  having  a  powerful,  peculiar,  pun- 
gent odor,  and  was  formerly  in  demand  for 
medicinal  purposes.  At  present  its  only  use  is 
as  a  scent-bait  for  traps.  Fossil  remains  of 
beavers  have  been  found  as  far  back  as  the 
middle  of  the  Tertiary  period.  Fossils  of  small- 
sized  species,  with  some  distinctive  peculiarities, 
occur  in  the  Miocene  rocks  of  the  western 
United  States;  and  a  huge  beaver  (Trogon- 
therium)  existed  in  Europe  in  the  Pliocene  age. 

Beaver  Dam,  Wis.,  a  city  of  Dodge 
County,  situated  on  Beaver  Dam  Creek,  and  on 
the  Chicago,  M.  &  St.  P.  R.R.  It  is  the  seat 
of  Wayland  Academy,  has  a  library  of  10,000 
volumes  and  several  parks.  It  is  in  an  agricul- 
tural district  and  has  a  considerable  trade;  it 
is  also  well  provided  with  water-power  and  has 
numerous  manufacturing  interests,  including 
flour  mills,  iron  works,  machinery  manufactures, 
etc.  Beaver  Dam  was  settled  in  1841  and  in- 
corporated in  1856.  The  revised  charter  of  1889 
provides  for  a  mayor  and  a  city  council,  to  be 
elected  biennially.     Pop.   (1900)  5,128. 

Beaver  Falls,  Pa.,  a  borough  in  Beaver 
County,  situated  on  the  west  bank  of  the  Beaver 
River,  about  four  miles  from  its  confluence  with 
the  Ohio  River,  and  seven  miles  north  of  Beaver, 
the  county-seat,  and  on  branches  of  the  Lake 
Shore  and  Pennsylvania  R.R.'s.  The  water- 
power  furnishes  excellent  facilities  for  manufac- 
tories ;  there  is  an  abundant  supply  of  coal  and 
natural  gas,  and  the  manufactures  consist  of  iron 
bridges,  axes,  saws,  glassware,  gas  engines,  and 
steel  products.  There  are  four  banks,  a  Car- 
negie library,  and  a  commodious  post-office 
building.  Beaver  Falls  is  also  the  seat  of  Ge- 
neva College  (Reformed  Presbyterian).  Re- 
ligious services  are  held  in  17  church  edifices. 
Beaver  Falls  was  settled  about  1800  by  a  few 
families  of  pioneers,  and  was  called  Brighton 
until  1868,  when  it  was  incorporated  as  a  bor- 
ough. The  affairs  of  the  community  are  admin- 
istered by  a  burgess  and  council  of  12  members 
elected  irregularly  every  three  years.  Until 
1868  the  town  was  only  a  small  village,  but  in 
that  year  the  Harmony  Society  bought  up  nearly 
the  entire  tract  of  land  and  laid  it  out  into  lots, 
thus  starting  the  growth  in  population,  until  it 
now  is  the  largest  town  in  Beaver  County.  Pop. 
(1900)   10,054. 


Beaver  Islands,  a  group  of  islands  situated 
in  the  north  part  of  Lake  Michigan  in  Charlevoix 
County,  and  interesting  as  the  scene  of  a  short- 
lived Mormon  colony.  The  largest  town,  Saint 
James,  on  Big  Beaver  Island,  was  settled  in 
1847  by  James  J.  Strang,  a  Mormon  elder,  driven 
away  from  the  parent  Mormon  community 
because  his  claims  conflicted  with  those  of  Brig- 
ham  Young.  In  the  little  colony  which  he  called 
Saint  James,  after  himself,  Strang  exercised 
the  authority  of  king  and  high  priest,  and  was 
implicitly  obeyed.  In  1849  he  introduced  polyg- 
amy, which  did  not  spread  rapidly  and  led  to 
withdrawals  and  troubles  with  the  ^'gentiles.*^ 
Strang  was  assassinated  in  1856  and  the  colony 
dispersed.  There  are  several  lighthouses  on 
the  island.  Pop.  of  Saint  James  (1900)  420;  of 
Peaine  township,  ^J"^- 

Beaver  State,  a  popular  designation  of 
Oregon. 

Beaverwood.      See  Magnolia. 

Bebber,  Wilhelm  Jakob  van,  Prussian: 
meteorologist  and  writer :  b.  Grietham-Nieder- 
rhein,  10  July  1841.  He  was  educated  at  Bonn 
University  and  for  several  years  was  a  teacher. 
He  became  rector  of  the  high  school  at  Weis- 
senburg-am-Sand  in  1875.  Since  1879  he  has- 
been  chief  of  the  weather  telegraphing  depart- 
ment of  the  German  Seewarte  at  Hamburg. 
Among  his  works  are  a  <  Hand-book  of  Prac- 
tical Meteorology >  (1885-6),  and  a  ^Manual  of 
Meteorology^    (1890). 

Bebee'rine,  an  uncrystallizable  basic  sub- 
stance, CiaHsiNOs,  extracted  from  the  bark 
of  the  bebeeru  or  greenheart-tree  (Nectandra 
rodicei),  of  Guiana.  In  pharmacy,  the  sulphate 
of  bebeerine  is  a  valuable  medicine,  being  used, 
like  quinine,  as  a  tonic  and  febrifuge.  Unfor- 
tunately, owing  to  the  supplies  of  the  bark  be- 
ing uncertain,  the  drug  is  sometimes  scarce  and 
difficult  to  obtain.  Bebeerine  is  thought,  by 
some  chemists,  to  be  identical  with  buxine. 

Bebee'ru,  a  tree  (Nectandra  rodicei)  of  the 
laurel  family.     See  Greenheart. 

Bebel,  ba'bel,  Ferdinand  August,  German 

socialist :  b.  Cologne,  1840.  He  was  apprenticed 
to  the  turner's  trade,  and  acquired  a  practical 
knowledge  of  the  difficulties  and  disabilities  of 
workingmen.  He  settled  in  Leipsic  in  i860, 
joined  various  labor  organizations,  and  became- 
one  of  the  editors  of  the  Volkstaat  and  of 
the  better  known  Voruidrts.  Membership  in  the 
North  German  Reichstag  was  followed  by 
his  election  to  the  German  Reichstag,  of  which 
he  was  a  member  from  1871  to  1881,  and  which 
he  entered  again  in  1883,  being  the  acknowledged 
leader  of  his  party  therein.  Bebel's  earnest- 
ness, large  sympathy,  and  wide  range  of  know- 
ledge impress  his  hearers,  although  his  appear- 
ance and  manner  in  the  Reichstag  did  not  at 
first  win  them.  These  qualities  are  also  charac- 
teristic of  his  books,  among  which  are:  *^Our 
Aims'  (1874)  ;  *The  German  Peasant  War* 
(1876)  ;  'The  Life  and  Theories  of  Charles 
Fourier'  (1888)  ;  'Women  in  Socialism,  the 
Christian  Point  of  View  in  the  Woman  Ques- 
tion'  (1893). 

Bebel,  Heinrich,  German  humanist:  b. 
1472;  d.  1518.  He  was  an  alumnus  of  Cracow 
and  Basel  universities,  and  from  1497  professor 


BEC  — BECHSTEIN 


•of  poetry  and  rhetoric  at  Tubingen.  His  fame 
rests  principally  on  his  *^Facetise'  (1506),  a  curi- 
ous collection  of  bits  of  homely  and  rather 
<,oarse-grained  humor  and  anecdote,  directed 
inainly  against  the  clergy ;  and  on  his  ^Triumph 
of  Venus,-*  a  keen  satire  on  the  depravity  of  his 
time. 

Bee,  a  celebrated  abbey  of  France,  in  Nor- 
mandy, near  Brionne,  now  represented  only  by 
some  ruins.  Lanfranc  and  Anselm  were  both 
connected  with  this  abbey. 

Beccafico,  bek-a-fe'ko,  the  Italian  name  of 
the  small  olive-brown  garden-warbler  (Sylvia 
hortnisis),  called  in  England  "pettychaps,'^ 
which  has  the  habit  of  pecking  holes  in  the  rind 
of  ripening  figs  and  other  fruits,  in  search  of 
small  insects.  The  damage  done  is  very  slight. 
These  birds  were  eaten  with  much  delight  by 
the  ancient  Romans,  and  are  still  in  high  favor 
on  Grecian,  French,  and  Italian  tables,  especially 
in  Venice.  An  annual  feast  made  on  beccaficos 
is  called  Beccaficata.  The  term  is  also  applied 
in  continental  Europe,  rather  indiscriminately, 
to  different  kinds  of  sylvan  warblers  when  fat 
and  in  condition  for  the  table. 

Beccafumi,  Domenico,  bek-ka-foo'me,  do'- 
tna-ne'ko,  surnamed  Mecherino,  Italian  painter : 
b.  near  Sienna,  i486;  d.  Sienna,  1551.  As 
a  shepherd  boy  amusing  himself  with  drawing 
figures  on  the  sand,  he  attracted  the  attention  of 
a  wealthy  man,  from  whom  he  takes  the  name 
of  Beccafumi,  who,  discerning  his  genius,  sent 
him  to  Sienna  to  study  drawing.  He  there  saw, 
admired,  and  tried  to  imitate  the  paintings  of 
Perugino,  but  having  heard  much  of  Raphael 
and  Michael  Angelo,  obtained  means  from  his 
patron  to  travel  to  Rome.  After  much  study  of 
the  masterpieces  of  the  Vatican  he  returned  to 
Sienna  and  enriched  its  churches  and  its  city 
with  many  noble  frescoes,  and  painted  an  altar- 
piece  in  the  museum  there.  He  drew  and  col- 
ored well,  possessed  strong  inventive  powers, 
was  thoroughly  acquainted  with  perspective,  and 
excelled  particularly  in  foreshortening,  but  he 
was  not  free  from  mannerism,  and  his  heads  are 
in  general  deficient  in  both  dignity  and  beauty. 
He  was  buried  with  pomp  in  Sienna  cathedral, 
among  some  of  the  finest  monuments  of  his 
genius.  His  paintings  include:  <St.  Catherine 
receiving  the  Stigmata^  (Sienna),  *^ Madonna 
and  Child>  (Berlin),  'Marriage  of  St.  Cath- 
erine' (Rome),  etc.  He  also  gained  distinction 
as  a  sculptor  and  engraver. 

Beccaria,  Cesare  Bonesana,  Marchese  di, 
bek-ka-re'a,  cha'sa're  bo-na-sa'na,  mar-ka'se 
de,  Italian  author:  b.  Milan,  1735  (or  1738)  5  d. 
November  1794.  He  was  early  excited  by  Mon- 
tesquieu's 'Persian  Letters,'  to  the  cultivation 
of  his  philosophical  talents,  and  was  afterward 
favorably  known  as  a  philosophical  writer  by 
his  noble  philanthropic  'Crimes  and  Punish- 
ments' (1764),  and  several  other  works.  With 
the  eloquence  of  true  feeling  and  a  lively 
imagination  he  opposes  capital  punishments  and 
torture.  This  work  led  to  the  establishment  of 
more  correct  principles  of  penal  law,  and  con- 
tributed to  excite  a  general  horror  against 
inhuman  punishments.  He  is  also  known  in 
Italy  as  the  author  of  a  philosophical  grammar 
and  theory  of  style,  'Ricerche  intorno  alia 
Natura  dello  Stilo'  (Milan  1770),  and  of  sev- 
eral   good    treatises    on    style,    rhetorical    orna- 


ment, etc.,  contained  in  the  journal  'II  Caffe,* 
edited  by  him  in  conjunction  with  his  friends, 
Visconti,  Verri,  and  others.  In  1768  a  chair  of 
political  philosophy  was  created  for  him  at 
Milan. 

Beccaria,  Giovanni  Battista,  jo-va'ne  bat- 
tes'ta,  Italian  philosopher:  b.  Mondovi,  1716;  d. 
27  April  1781.  He  went  to  Rome  in  1732,  where 
he  studied,  and  afterward  taught  grammar  and 
rhetoric ;  at  the  same  time  applymg  himself  with 
success  to  mathematics.  He  was  appointed  pro- 
fessor of  philosophy  at  Palermo,  and  afterward 
at  Rome.  Charles  Emanuel,  king  of  Sardinia, 
invited  him  to  Turin  in  1748,  to  fill  the  profes- 
sorship of  natural  philosophy  at  the  university 
there.  He  paid  much  attention  to  the  subject  of 
electricity,  and  published  'Natural  and  Artificial 
Electricity*  (Turin  1735),  besides  many  other 
valuable  works  on  this  subject.  In  1759  the 
king  employed  him  to  measure  a  degree  of  the 
meridian  in  Piedmont. 

Becerra,  Gaspare,  be-ther'ra,  gas-pa'ro, 
Spanish  artist:  b.  Baeza,  Andalusia,  1520;  d. 
Madrid,  1570.  He  studied  for  some  time  in 
Rome  under  Michael  Angelo  and  others,  and  on 
his  return  became  sculptor  and  painter  to  Philip 
II.  He  adorned  the  palace  of  Madrid  with  sev- 
eral frescoes,  and  also  executed  works  in  sculp- 
ture and  architecture. 

Beche,  bash.  Sir  Henry  de  la,  English 
geologist:  b.  1796;  d.  1855.  He  founded  the 
geological  survey  of  Great  Britain,  which  was 
soon  undertaken  by  the  government,  De  la 
Beche  being  appointed  director-general.  He 
also  founded  the  Jermyn  Street  Museum  of 
Economic  or  Practical  Geology,  and  the  School 
of  Mines.  His  principal  works  are:  'Geology 
of  Jamaica'  ;  'Classification  of  European  Rocks'  ; 
'Geological  Manual'  ;  'Researches  in  Theoreti- 
cal Geology'  ;  'Geology  of  Cornwall,  Devon, 
and  West  Somerset'  ;  etc. 

Beche-de-Mer,  bash-de-mar,  the  French 
name  for  the  dried  flesh  of  holothurians.  It  is 
largely  cured  in  the  South  Sea  Islands. 

Becher,  Johann  Joachim,  beH'er,^  yo'han 
yo'a-Him,  German  chemist :  b.  Speyer,  '1635 ;  d. 
1682.  He  traveled  and  resided  in  various  parts 
of  Germany,  Holland,  Italy,  Sweden,  and  Great 
Britain,  investigating  Cornish  and  Scotch  mines. 
He  wrote  a  number  of  works  on  chemistry,  the 
chief  of  which  is  entitled  'Physica  Subterranea.' 
In  it  he  expounds  his  views  on  the  composition 
of  inorganic  bodies,  the  constituents  of  which, 
according  to  him,  are  three  earthy  principles,  the 
vitrifiable,  the  combustible,  and  the  mercurial. 
The  metals  consist  of  these  three  earths  in  dif- 
ferent proportions,  and  whenever  a  metal  is 
calcined  the  combustible  and  mercurial  earths 
are  expelled,  and  the  vitrifiable  earth  forms  the 
residual  calx.  When  these  principles  are  com- 
bined with  water  different  salts  are  formed,  and 
a  fundamental  acid,  which  exists  in  all  the  others. 
This  theory  was  subsequently  developed  by 
Stahl,  who,  by  means  of  the  principle  of 
phlogiston  (q.v.)  explained  not  only  the  calci- 
nation of  metals,  but  the  phenomena  of  combus- 
tion in  general. 

Bechstein,  Johann  Matthaus,  beH'stin,  yo'- 
han ma-ta'oos,  German  naturalist :  b.  Waltcr- 
shausen,  Gotha,  1757;  d.  1822.  He  studied  the- 
ology for  four  years  at  Jena,  but  never  felt  in 
his  element  unless  hunting  in  the  fields  or  roam- 


BECHSTEIN  —  BECKE 


ing  the  forest.  After  teaching  for  some  time  he 
resolved  to  devote  himself  to  his  favorite  pur- 
suits, and  in  1800  the  Duke  of  Saxe-Meiningen 
made  him  director  of  the  Forest  Academj^  of 
Dreissigacker,  in  the  vicinit}-^  of  his  capital.  This 
academy,  under  Bechstein's  management,  became 
one  of  the  most  celebrated  establishments  of  the 
kind  in  Germany.  His  chief  work  is  his  ^Nat- 
ural History  of  Germany,^  in  four  volumes.  In 
Great  Britain  he  is  best  known  by  a  treatise  on 
singing-birds. 

Bechstein,  Ludwig,  loodViH,  German  poet 
and  novelist :  b.  1801  ;  d.  i860.  >  He  is  chiefly 
remembered  for  ^The  Legend  Treasure  and 
the  Legendary  Cycles  of  Thuringia^  (1835-8)  ; 
*  German  Fairy-Tale  Book'  (1845,  41st  ed. 
1893)  ;  and  others.  Among  his  epical  poems  are: 
<The  Children  of  Haymon'  (1830)  ;  ^The 
Dance  of  Death'  (1831);  <New  Natural  His- 
tory of  Pet  Birds'  (1846),  a  humorous  didactic 
poem;  and  ^Thuringia's  Royal  House'  (1865). 
Of  his  numerous  novels,  chiefly  historical,  the 
best  known  is  ^Journeys  of  a  Musician' 
(1836-7). 

Bechuanaland,  bet-choo-a'na-land,  Africa, 
an  extensive  British  territory  in  the  southern 
part  of  the  continent,  so  named  from  its  chief 
inhabitants,  the  widely  spread  race  of  people 
called  Bechuanas.  It  may  be  said  to  extend 
from  the  Orange  River  on  the  south  to  the 
Zambesi  on  the  north,  having  the  German  terri- 
tory on  the  west  and  the  former  South  African 
republic  (Transvaal),  etc.,  on  the  east.  The 
Bechuanas  belong  to  the  great  Kaffir  race,  and 
are  divided  into  tribal  sections,  each  of  which 
has  a  chief.  Many  of  them  live  in  villages  or 
towns,  some  of  which  are  of  considerable  size. 
They  work  with  skill  in  iron,  copper,  and  ivory, 
and  engage  in  husbandry,  cattle-breeding,  and 
hunting.  Bechuanaland  is  a  portion  of  an  ele- 
vated plateau  4,000  to  5,000  feet  above  the  level 
of  the  sea,  and  though  so  near  the  tropics,  is 
suitable  for  the  British  race.  In  winter  there 
are  sharp  frosts,  and  snow  falls  in  some  years. 
The  rains  fall  in  summer,  and  then  only  the 
rivers  are  full.  It  is  an  excellent  country  for 
cattle ;  sheep  thrive  in  some  parts,  and  there 
are  extensive  tracts  available  for  corn  lands; 
but  it  is  not  a  wheat  country  on  account  of  the 
summer  rains.  Though  apparently  subject  to 
droughts,  it  is  not  more  so  than  Cape  Colony, 
and  the  greater  portion  will  be  available  for 
farming  operations  when  the  necessary  dams 
have  been  constructed.  It  can  be  reached  from 
Cape  Town,  Fort  Elizabeth,  Durban,  Delagoa 
Bay,  and  the  Zambesi,  the  railway  from  the 
former  being  extended  to  Kimberley,  Vryburg, 
Mafeking,  Palachwe,  Tati,  and  Buluwayo.  There 
are  extensive  forests  to  the  northeast,  and  to 
the  west  lies  the  Kalahari  desert,  which  only 
requires  wells  dug  to  make  it  inhabitable. 

The  enormous  quantities  of  buck  which  roam 
over  the  land  attest  the  productiveness  of  the 
soil.  Gold  has  been  found  near  Sitlagoli,  and 
there  are  indications  of  gold-bearing  quartz 
reefs  in  many  directions.  Diamondiferous  soil 
is  also  said  to  exist  in  several  localities ;  indeed, 
diamonds  were  discovered  at  Vryburg  in  the 
autumn  of  1887. 

The  province  of  Stellaland  is  principally 
inhabited  by  Boers,  and  the  remainder  of  the 
country  by  Bechuanas.  The  Bechuanas  are  a 
black   race   possessing   a   language    in   common 


with  the  Bantu  races  of  South  Africa,  extend- 
ing as  far  north  as  the  equator.  Their  ancestors- 
are  said  to  have  come  from  the  north,  and  pro- 
gressing southwest,  met  the  Hottentots  from 
the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  journeying  north.  The 
Bechuanas  have  divided  up  within  the  last  15& 
years,  and  comprise  the  Bahurutse,  Bamang- 
wato,  Bakwena,  Bangwaketse,  Barolongs,  Bat- 
lapins,  and  Batlaros.  Each  tribe  has  an  animal 
as  an  emblem,  or  heraldic  sign,  which  it  is  said 
they  hold  in  esteem.  Since  1832  they  have  been 
at  enmity  with  the  Matabele,  and  in  later  years 
the  Transvaal  Boers  have  on  one  pretext  or 
another  endeavored  to  occupy  their  country. 
During  the  native  risings  in  1878  the  Bechuanas 
invaded  Griqualand  West,  and  were  in  turn 
subdued  by  British  volunteers  as  far  as  the 
Molopo.  When  the  British  government  with- 
drew from  Bechuanaland  in  1880,  the  natives, 
being  helpless,  were  left  to  the  mercy  of  the 
Boers  of  the  Transvaal,  whose  harsh  treatment 
in  1882  and  1883  led  to  the  Bechuanaland  expe- 
dition in  1884.  At  the  beginning  of  the  19th 
century  the  Bechuanas  were  further  in  advance 
in  civilization  than  other  nations  of  South 
Africa,  and  they  are  still  ahead  in  this  respect. 
The  system  of  government  among  the  Bechu- 
anas would  be  termed  in  Europe  local  govern- 
ment. All  important  matters  are  decided  in  the 
public  assembly  of  the  freemen  of  the  town,  but 
matters  are  previously  arranged  between  the 
chief  and  headmen.  During  the  Boer-British 
war  of  1899-1900,  Mafeking  was  ^.he  scene  of 
one  of  the  most  determined  and  successful 
defenses  in  history.     See  Baden- Powell. 

Beck,  James  Burnie,  American  law^yer:  b, 
Dumfriesshire,  Scotland,  13  Feb.  1822;  d.  3  May 
1890.  He  came  to  the  United  States  when  a 
youth  and  settled  in  Kentucky,  and  was  grad- 
uated at  the  law  school  of  Transylvania  Uni- 
versity in  1846.  He  practised  law  in  Lexington, 
Ky.,  for  20  years.  He  was  elected  a  Democratic 
representative  to  Congress  in  1866,  1868,  1870, 
and  1872 ;  and  United  States  senator  in  1876, 
1882,  and  1888. 

Beck,  Karl,  Austrian  poet:  b.  Baja.  Hun- 
gary, I  May  1817;  d.  Vienna,  10  April  1879, 
His  poems  reflect  the  passionate  temperament 
of  his  Hungarian  countrymen  in  sonorous 
verses  of  consummate  finish.  Among  his  works 
are  'Nights'  ^  (1838);  <The  Poet  Errant' 
(1838)  ;  'Janko'  (1842),  a  romance  in  verse; 
'Songs  of  the  Poor  Man'  (1847)  ;  'Jadwiga' 
(1863),  a  tale  in  verse;  'Mater  Dolorosa* 
(1854),   a  novel. 

Beck,  Lewis  Caleb,  American  scientist:  b. 
Schenectady,  N.  Y.,  4  Oct.  1798;  d.  Albany, 
N.  Y.,  20  April  1853.  A  man  of  remarkable 
and  wide  scientific  attainments,  he  graduated 
at  Union  College  1817.  and  became  professor 
of  chemistry  and  natural  history  at  Rutgers 
College  1830-37  and  1838-53 ;  professor  of  chem- 
istry and  pharmacy  at  Albany  Medical  College 
1841-53 ;  and  State  mineralogist  of  New  York 
1837.  His  publications  include  'Gazetteer  of 
Illinois  and  Missouri'  (1823)  ;  'Salt  Springs  at 
Salina'  (1826)  ;  'Mineralogy  of  New  York' 
(1842),  his  most  important  work;  and  'Botany 
of  the  United  States  North  of  Virginia'  (1848). 
Cf.   Gross,   'American   Medical   Biography.' 

Becke,  George  Louis,  Australian  author: 
b.  Port  Macquarrie,  New  South  Wales,  1848.  He 
went  to  sea  at  the  age  of  14  and  has  spent  his  life 


BECKENHAM  —  BECKET 


trading  in  the  South  Pacific.  His  publications 
are  *By  Reef  and  Pahn>  (1894);  ^ South  Sea 
Stories*  ;  The  Ebbing  of  the  Tide^  (1896)  ;  and 
with  W.  Jeffery,  ^A  First-Fleet  Family^ 
(1896);  ^Pacific  Tales^  (1897);  <Wild  Life  in 
Southern  Seas>  (1897);  <Ridan  the  DeviP  ; 
<Tom  Wallis>  (1900);  'Edward  Barry>  ; 
<Tessa,  the  Trader's  Wife\-  'By  Rock  and 
PooP  ;  Breackley  Black  Sheep*  ;  'York  the  Ad- 
venturer' (1901)  ;  'The  Strange  Adventure  of 
James  Shervinton*  ;  'The  Jalasco  Brig*  (1902)  ; 
'Rodman  the  Boat  Steerer ;  'Naval  Pioneers  of 
Australia*  and  'Admiral  Philip'  (1899)  ;  'The 
(Tapir  of  Banderah*    (1901). 

Beckenham,  England,  a  town  of  Kent, 
situated  southeast  of  London.  It  is  one  of  the 
English  municipalities  which  have  experimented 
in  "municipal  socialism,'*  as  it  owns  its  electric 
lighting  plant  and  public  ba4;hs,  and  has  charge 
of  the  work  of  a  technical  institute.  Pop. 
(1901)   26,300. 

Becker,  August,  German  poet  and  novelist: 
b.  1828;  d.  1891.  He  was  the  author  of  'Young 
Friedel,  the  Minstrel'  (1854),  a  lyrical  epic; 
and  of  the  novels  'The  Rabbi's  Bequest'  (1866)  ; 
'Proscribed'  (1868);  'The  Carbuncle'  (1870); 
'My  Sister'  (1876),  descriptive  of  the  doings 
of  Lola  Montez  and  the  events  of  1848  in 
Bavaria;  'Painter  Fairbeard'  (1878);  and  'The 
Sexton  of  Horst'    (1889). 

Becker,  Christiane  Luise  Amalie  Neu- 
mann, kris-te-an'  loo-es'  a-ma'le-e  noi'man, 
German  actress:  b.  Krossen,  15  Dec.  1778;  d. 
Weimar,  27  Sept.  1797.  She  was  the  daughter 
of  Johann  Christian  Neumann,  the  actor.  She 
performed  in  both  tragedy  and  comedy,  and 
was  a  friend  of  Goethe,  wiio,  after  her  death, 
made  her  the  theme  of  his  elegy,  '  Euphrosine.' 

Becker,  George  Ferdinand,  American  geol- 
ogist :  b.  New  York,  5  Jan.  1847.  He  graduated 
at  Harvard  University  in  1868;  was  instructor 
of  mining  and  metalurgj'  in  the  University  of 
California  in  1875-9;  was  attached  to  the  United 
States  geological  survey  since  1879,  and  special 
agent  of  the  loth  census,  1879-83.  He  \vas  ap- 
pointed a  special  agent  to  examine  into  the 
mineral  resources  of  the  Philippine  Islands  in 
1898.  His  publications  include  'Geology  of  the 
Comstock  Lode*  ;  'Statistics  and  Technology 
of  the  Precious  Metals*  (with  S.  F.  Emmons)  ; 
'Geology  of  the  Quicksilver  Deposits  of  the 
Pacific  Slope' :  etc. 

Bec"ker,  Karl  Ferdinand,  German  philolo- 
gist: b.  Liser,  14  April  1775;  d.  Offenbach,  5 
Sept.  1849.  He  was  the  author  of  'Ausfuhrliche 
Deutsche  Grammatik'  ;  'Handbuch  der  Deutsch- 
en  Sprache' ;  etc. 

Becker,  Karl  Ferdinand,  German  musi- 
cian: b.  Leipsic,  17  July  1804;  d.  Leipsic,  26  Oct. 
1877.  He  wrote  'Systematisch-chronologische 
Darstellung  der  Musikalischen  Literatur'  (1836- 
39);  'Die  Hausmusik  in  Deutschland'  (1840); 
etc. 

Becker,  Karl  Friedrich,  German  historical 
writer:  b.  Berlin,  1777;  d.  Berlin,  15  March 
1806.  He  wrote  various  popular  works  on  his- 
torical topics,  the  best  known  being  'The 
World's  History  for  Children  and  their  Teach- 
ers^   (1801-53.  a  truly  successful  undertaking. 

Becker,  Nikolaus,  German  song  writer: 
b.  Bonn,  8  Jan.  1809;  d.  28  Aug.  1845 :  known  as 
the   author    of   the    Rhine    song,    'They    Never 


Shall  Obtain  It,  the  Free,  the  German  Rhine,^ 
which  became  immensely  popular  throughout 
Germany,  and  provoked  Alfred  de  Musset's 
'We  Have  Had  it,  Your  German  Rhine,'  and 
Lamartine's  more  conciliatory  'Peace-Marseil- 
laise*   (1841). 

Becker,  Oskar,  political  fanatic:  b.  Odessa, 
Russia,  1839;  d.  Alexandria.  Egypt,  1868.  In 
1861  he  attempted,  at  Baden-Baden,  to  kill  King 
Wilhelm  I.  of  Prussia,  by  shooting  at  him  with 
a  pistol  at  a  distance  of  but  three  paces.  The 
king  fortunately  escaped  with  only  a  slight 
wound  in  the  neck.  Becker's  motive  for  the  act 
was  his  belief  that  the  king  was  unable  to  unite 
Germany.  Though  sentenced  to  20  years'  im- 
prisonmnent he  was  pardoned  by  the  king  on 
condition  of  living  out  of  Germany  ever  after. 

Becker,  Rudolf  Zacharias,  German  author: 
b.  Erfurt,  9  April  1752;  d.  28  March  1822.  He 
first  became  known  by  an  essay  on  the  theme, 
"Is  it  useful  to  deceive  the  people?"  which 
gained  a  prize  from  the  Berlin  Academy  of  Sci- 
ences in  1799.  His  theory  was  that  happiness 
depended  on  the  gratification  of  an  innate  desire 
for  improvement.  In  1782  he  took  charge  of  a 
school  at  Dessau  and  published  a  journal  for 
youth.  A  work  in  two  volumes,  entitled  'A 
Little  Book  of  Needful  Help ;  or.  Instructive 
Tales  of  Joy  and  Sorrow  in  the  Village  of 
Mildheim,'  became  such  a  favorite  with  the 
public  that  over  500,000  copies  were  soon  dis- 
posed of.  He  also  produced  other  works  and 
journals,  and  the  extensive  transactions  in  them 
led  him,  in  1797,  to  set  up  a  publishing  and 
bookselling  establishment  at  Gotha,  which  is 
still  continued  by  his  son.  On  30  Nov.  181 1  he 
was  arrested  by  Davoust  on  suspicion  of  con- 
spiring against  Napoleon,  and  was  imprisoned 
at  Magdeburg  till  April  1813.  On  this  impris- 
onment he  wrote  a  book,  which  still  has  a  his- 
torical value. 

Becket,  Thomas  a,  archbishop  of  Canter- 
bury, the  Saxon  hero,  priest,  and  martyr  of 
England  in  the  reign  of  Henry  II. :  b.  London, 
1 1 19,  or,  according  to  some  writers,  21  Dec. 
1 1 17;  d.  Canterbury,  29  Dec.  11 70.  He  was  the 
son  of  a  Saxon  and  a  Syrian  lady,  whose  union 
was  said  to  have  been  brought  about  in  the 
following  extraordinary  manner :  Gilbert,  the 
father  of  Thomas,  having  gone  to  the  Holy 
Land  in  the  second  crusade,  was  made  a  prison- 
er ;  but  while  in  durance  a  Syrian  damsel,  be- 
coming enamored  of  him  and  being  converted 
by  him  to  Christianity,  contrived  to  effect  his 
liberation,  after  which,  with  little  chivalry  or 
gratitude,  the  Saxon  crusader  returned  home 
as  best  he  might,  leaving  the  lady  by  the  sea- 
banks  of  Tyre.  But,  with  a  love  and  faith 
stronger  than  that  of  the  deserted  Carthaginian 
queen,  the  fair  Saracen  followed  her  recreant 
lover,  and,  although  she  knew  but  two  words 
of  any  European  language,  the  names  of  her 
lover  and  of  the  city  where  he  dwelt,  by  the 
repetition  of  those  two  words.  "London"  and 
"Gilbert,"  and  by  the  display  of  her  tears,  her 
beauty,  her  jewels,  and  her  gold,  she  at  length 
made  her  way  to  the  already  famous  metropolis, 
and  there,  with  well-deserved  good  fortune, 
found  her  Gilbert,  both  free  and  willing  to  re- 
ward her  undoubting  trust  by  taking  her  to  his 
home  and  to  his  heart,  all  of  which  is  pure  ro- 
mance. Of  so  strange  a  union  Thomas  was 
said   to  be  the  offspring;    but,   if  possible,   his 


BECKET 


own  fortunes  were  stranger  yet.  He  was  at 
first  educated  by  the  canons  of  Merton,  and 
continued  his  studies  in  the  schools  of  Oxford, 
London,  and  Paris.  On  the  death  of  his  father 
he  was  admitted  into  the  family  of  Theobald, 
archbishop  of  Canterbury,  and,  with  his  per- 
mission, went  to  the  Continent  for  the  purpose 
of  studying  the  civil  and  canon  law.  He  at- 
tended the  lectures  of  Gratian  at  Bologna,  and 
of  another  celebrated  professor  at  Auxerre. 
Concerning  his  early  life  little  more  is  known; 
but  it  is  recorded  that  his  first  appearance  at 
the  court  of  Henry  was  made  in  the  humblest 
guise,  bearing  his  fortunes  on  his  back  in  the 
shape  of  a  not  too  sumptuous  garb,  riding  a 
spavined  jade  with  galled  withers  and  bare  ribs, 
which  moved  the  insolent  mirth  of  the  Norman 
courtiers.  He  soon,  however,  obtained  high 
favor  with  the  king,  who,  it  was  alleged,  was 
in  some  sort  under  obligation  to  him,  as  if  he, 
acting  as  agent  for  Theobald,  had  obtained  from 
the  Pope  letters  prohibitory  of  the  crowning  of 
Eustace,  the  son  of  Stephen,  by  which  that  de- 
sign was  defeated.  This  service  not  only  raised 
Becket  in  the  esteem  of  the  archbishop,  but  in 
that  of  King  Henry  H.,  and  was  the  foundation 
of  his  high  fortune.  In  1158  he  was  appointed 
high-chancellor  and  preceptor  to  Prince  Henry, 
and  at  this  time  was  a  complete  courtier,  con- 
forming in  every  respect  to  the  humor  of  the 
king.  He  was,  in  fact,  his  prime  companion, 
had  the  same  hours  of  eating  and  going  to  bed, 
held  splendid  levees,  and  courted  popular  ap- 
plause. In  1 1 59  he  made  a  campaign  with  the 
king  in  Toulouse,  having  in  his  own  pay  700 
knights  and  1,200  horsemen;  and  it  is  said  he 
advised  Henry  to  seize  the  person  of  Louis, 
king  of  France,  shut  up  in  Toulouse  without 
an  army.  This  counsel,  however,  so  indicative 
of  a  Becket's  energy,  being  too  bold  for  the 
lay  counselors  of  one  of  the  boldest  monarchs 
of  the  age,  was  declined.  In  the  next  year  he 
visited  Paris  to  treat  of  an  alliance  between 
the  eldest  daughter  of  the  king  of  France  and 
Prince  Henry,  and  returned  with  the  young 
princess  to  England.  He  had  not  enjoyed  the 
chancellorship  more  than  four  years  when  his 
patron  Theobald  died,  and  King  Henry  was  so 
far  mistaken  as  to  raise  his  favorite  to  the 
primacy,  on  the  presumption  that  he  would  aid 
him  in  those  political  views,  in  respect  to 
Church  power,  which  all  the  sovereigns  of  the 
Norman  line  embraced,  and  which,  in  fact, 
caused  a  continual  struggle  till  its  termination 
by  Henry  VIII.  It  is  narrated  that  when  Henry 
announced  his  intention  of  having  Becket  pro- 
moted to  the  primacy  left  vacant  by  the  death  of 
Theobald,  Becket  prophetically  remarked:  «I  am 
certain  that  if,  by  God's  disposal,  it  were  to  so 
happen,  the  love  and  favor  you  now  bear  towards 
me,  would  speedily  turn  into  bitterest  hatred.» 

Becket  was  consecrated  archbishop  in  1162, 
and  immediately  assumed  an  austerity  of  con- 
duct which  formed  a  very  natural  prelude  to 
the  course  which  he  was  to  follow.  Pope  Alex- 
ander III.  held  a  general  council  at  Tours  in 
1 163,  at  which  Becket  attended  and  made  a 
formal  complaint  of  the  infringements  by  the 
laity  on  the  rights  and  immunities  of  the 
Church.  On  bis  return  to  England  he  began 
to  act  in  the  spirit  of  this  representation,  and  to 
prosecute  several  of  the  nobility  and  others 
holding  Church  possessions,  whom  he  also  pro- 
ceeded to  excommunicate.     Henry,  an  able  and 


politic  monarch,  was  anxious  to  recall  certain 
privileges  of  the  clergy,  which  withdrew  them 
from  the  jurisdiction  of  the  civil  courts;  and  it 
was  not  without  a  violent  struggle,  and  in  the 
interests  of  peace,  that  Becket  finally  acqui- 
esced. The  king  soon  after  summoned  a  con- 
vocation or  parliament  at  Clarendon,  to  the 
celebrated  ^constitutions'*  of  which,  although 
the  archbishop  swore  that  he  would  never  as- 
sent, he  at  length  yielded,  but  afterward  refused 
to  affix  his  signature,  and  by  way  of  penance 
suspended  himself  from  his  archiepiscopal  func- 
tions till  the  Pope's  absolution  could  arrive. 
Finding  himself  the  object  of  the  king's  dis- 
pleasure, he  soon  after  attempted  to  escape  to 
France;  but  being  intercepted,  Henry,  in  a 
parliament  at  Northampton,  charged  him  with  a 
violation  of  his  allegiance,  and  all  his  goods 
were  confiscated.  A  suit  was  also  commenced 
against  him  for  money  lent  him  during  his 
chancellorship,  and  for  the  proceeds  of  the 
benefices  which  he  had  held  vacant  while  in 
that  capacity.  In  this  desperate  situation  he 
with  great  diffiulty  and  danger  made  his  escape 
to  Flanders,  and,  proceeding  to  the  Pope  at  Sens, 
humbly  resigned  his  archbishopric,  which  was, 
however,  restored.  He  then  took  up  his  abode 
at  the  abbey  of  Pontigny,  in  Normandy,  whence 
he  issued  expostulatory  letters  to  the  king  and 
bishops  of  England,  in  which  he  excommuni- 
cated all  violators  of  the  prerogatives  of  the 
Church,  and  included  in  the  censure  the  princi- 
pal officers  of  the  Crown.  Henry  was  so  ex- 
asperated that  he  banished  all  his  relations  and 
obliged  the  Cistercians  to  send  him  away  from 
the  abbey  of  Pontigny ;  from  which  he  removed, 
on  the  recommendation  of  the  king  of  France, 
to  the  abbey  of  Columbe,  and  spent  four  years 
there   in  exile. 

After  much  negotiation  a  sort  of  reconcilia- 
tion took  place  in  11 70,  on  the  whole  to  the 
advantage  of  Becket,  who,  being  restored  to 
his  see  with  all  its  former  privileges,  forthwith 
prepared  to  return  to  his  lon^  vacant  see. 
After  a  triumphant  entry  into  Canterbury  the 
young  Prince  Henry,  crowned  during  the  life- 
time of  his  father,  transmitted  him  an  order  to 
restore  the  suspended  and  excommunicated  prel- 
ates, which  he  refused  to  do,  for  the  reason  that 
the  Pope  alone  could  grant  the  favor,  though 
the  latter  had  authorized  him  to  inflict  the  cen- 
sure on  them.  The  prelates  immediately  ap- 
pealed to  Henry  in  Normandy,  who  in  a  state 
of  extreme  exasperation  exclaimed,  ^*What  an 
unhappy  prince  am  I,  who  have  not  about  me 
one  man  of  spirit  enough  to  rid  me  of  a  single 
insolent  prelate,  the  perpetual  trouble  of  my 
life!*^  These  rash  and  too  significant  words 
induced  four  of  the  attendant  barons,  Reginald 
Fitz-Urse,  William  de  Tracy,  Hugh  de  Morville, 
and  Richard  Breto,  to  resolve  to  wipe  out  the 
king's  reproach.  Having  laid  their  plans,  they 
forthwith  proceeded  to  Canterbury,  and  having 
formally  required  the  archbishop  to  restore  the 
suspended  prelates,  they  returned  in  the  evening 
of  the  same  day  (29  Dec.  1170),  and,  placing 
soldiers  in  the  courtyard,  rushed  with  their 
swords  drawn  into  the  cathedral,  where  the 
archbishop  was  at  vespers,  and,  advancing  to- 
ward him,  threatened  him  with  death  if  he  still 
disobeyed  the  orders  of  Henry.  Becket,  without 
the  least  token  of  fear,  replied  that  he  was  ready 
to  die  for  the  rights  of  the  Church;  and  mag- 
nanimously added,  *I  charge  you  in  the  name  of 


BECKETT  —  BECKWITH 


the  Almighty  not  to  hurt  any  other  person  here, 
for  none  of  them  have  been  concerned  in  the  late 
transactions.**  The  confederates  then  strove  to 
drag  him  out  of  the  church ;  but  not  being  able 
to  do  so  on  account  of  his  resolute  deportment, 
they  killed  him  on  the  spot  with  repeated 
wounds,  all  which  he  endured  without  a  groan. 

The  perpetrators  of  the  deed  repented,  one 
of  them,  de  Tracy,  taking  a  voyage  to  Rome, 
and  expiating  the  enormity  in  the  Holy  Land. 
Henry  H.  did  penance  at  the  saint's  tomb. 

Thus  perished  Thomas  Becket  in  his  52d 
year,  a  martyr  to  the  cause  which  he  espoused, 
and  a  man  of  unquestionable  vigor  of  intellect. 
He  was  canonized  two  years  after  his  death,  and 
miracles  abounded  at  his  tomb.  In  the  reign 
of  Henry  HI.  his  body  was  taken  up  and  placed 
in  a  magnificent  shrine  erected  by  Archbishop 
Stephen  Langton ;  and  of  the  popularity  of  the 
pilgrimages  to  his  tomb  the  'Canterbury  Tales' 
of  Chaucer  will  prove  an  enduring  testimony. 
See  *Life,'  by  John  Morris,  and  ^Thomas 
Becket,'   by   R.  A.  Thompson. 

Beckett,  Arthur  William,  a,  English  jour- 
nalist and  novelist  (son  of  Gilbert  Abbot  a 
Beckett,  q.v. )  :  b.  Fulham,  25  Oct.  1844.  Beside 
fulfilling  other  journalistic  engagements  he  was 
on  the  staff  of  *^ Punch'  1874-1902,  edited  the 
Sunday  Times  1891-5,  and  the  'Naval  and 
Military  Magazine'  1896.  In  addition  to  sev- 
eral comedies  he  has  published  'Comic  Guide  to 
the  Royal  Academy,'  with  his  brother  Gilbert 
(1863-4)  ;  ^Fallen  Amongst  Thieves'  (1869)  ; 
<Our  Holiday  in  the  Highlands'  (1874)  ;  ^The 
Shadow  Witness'  and  'The  Doom  of  St.  Qui- 
rec,'  with  Burnand  (1875-6)  ;  'The  Ghost  of 
Grimstone  Grange'  (1877)  ;  'The  Mystery  of 
Mostyn  Manor'  (1878);  'Traded  Out';  'Hard 
Luck'  ;  'Stone  Broke'  ;  'Papers  from  Pump 
Handle  Court,  by  a  Briefless  Barrister'  C1884)  ; 
^Modern  Arabian  Nights'  (1885);  'The  Mem- 
ber for  Wrottenborough'  (1895)  ;  'Greenroom 
Recollections'  (1896)  ;  'The  Modern  Adam' 
(1899)  ;  'London  at  the  End  of  the  Century' 
(1900). 

Beckford,  William,  English  writer,  famous 
in  his  time  for  his  immense  wealth,  eccentrici- 
ties, and  literary  talents:  b.  London,  1761  ;  d. 
Bath,  2  May  1844.  When  only  10  years  old  he 
"was  in  receipt  of  an  income,  through  the  death 
of  his  father,  of  more  than  $500,000  a  year. 
Under  the  direction  of  Lord  Chatham  he  re- 
ceived a  careful  education,  and  at  an  early  age 
gave  evidence  of  unusual  abilities.  His  first 
work,  a  satirical  essay  entitled,  'Biographical 
Memoirs  of  Extraordinary  Painters,'  in  which 
he  ridiculed  the  English  artists  of  his  time,  was 
published  before  he  was  20  years  of  age.  After 
this  he  spent  some  time  in  traveling  on  the 
Continent,  an  account  of  which  he  published 
half  a  century  later  with  the  title,  'Italy,  with 
Sketches  of  Spain  and  Portugal'  (Lond.,  2  vols. 
1834).  On  his  return  to  England  he  entered  the 
House  of  Commons  for  a  short  time  as  mem- 
ber for  Hindon,  but  soon  became  tired  of  this 
career,  and  withdrew  to  Portugal,  where  he 
bought  an  estate  in  the  neighborhood  of  Cintra, 
and  lived  in  familiar  intercourse  with  the  royal 
family  of  Portugal.  After  the  lapse  of  some 
years  he  appeared  again  in  England,  and  began 
in  1796  to  erect  a  splendid  edifice  upon  his 
estate  of  Fonthill,  which  he  furnished  with 
more  than  royal  luxury,  and  continually  en- 
voi. 2 — 29. 


larged  with  new  buildings.  Here  he  resided  till 
1822,  when,  owing  to  the  loss  of  two  large 
estates,  which  had  been  successfully  claimed  in 
Chancery  by  other  owners,  he  was  obliged  to 
sell  Fonthill  for  £330,000.  He  then  settled  at 
Bath,  where  he  began  to  occupy  himself  anew 
with  building  and  collecting  works  of  art.  His 
literary  fame  rests  upon  his  eastern  tale  'Va- 
thek,'  which  he  wrote  in  French,  and  published 
at  Lausanne  in  1784,  and  which  made  a  remark- 
able impression  upon  Byron. 

Beckham,  John  Crepps  Wickliffe,  Ameri- 
can statesman :  b.  Bardstown,  Ky.,  1867.  In 
1893  he  began  the  practice  of  law ;  elected  to 
the  Kentucky  legislature  1894-7;  speaker  1898; 
elected  lieutenant-governor  1899,  and  became 
governor  upon  the  death  of  Goebel,  3  Feb.  1900; 
elected  governor  on  the  Democratic  ticket  in  the 
fall  of  the  same  year. 

Beckmann,  Johann,  German  writer  on  ag- 
riculture and  natural  history:  b.  Hoya,  Hanover, 
4  June  1739;  d.  Gottingen,  4  Feb.  1811.  He 
studied  theology  at  Gottingen,  but  soon  applied 
himself  to  natural  philosophy  and  chemistry. 
For  a  short  time  he  was  professor  of  natural 
philosophy  and  history  at  a  gymnasium  in  St. 
Petersburg.  He  resigned  this,  and  coming  back 
through  Sweden,  made  the  acquaintance  of 
Linn?eus  and  was  allowed  to  see  how  the 
Swedish  mines  were  worked.  Having  returned 
to  Gottingen,  he  was  made  professor  of  philoso- 
phy there  in  1766,  and  in  1770  ordinary  pro- 
fessor of  economy,  which  office  he  held  for  over 
40  years.  He  published  several  scientific  works, 
which  once  were  popular,  but  the  best  known 
of  his  productions  is  called  'Contributions  to 
the  History  of  Discovery  and  Inventions.'  of 
which  several  translations  have  been  published 
in  England,  where  (with  corrections  and  addi- 
tions extending  it  to  the  present  time)  it  con- 
tinues to  be  a  favorite  work. 

Beckwith,  Sir  George,  English  military 
officer:  b.  1753;  d.  London,  20  March  1823.  His 
scene  of  action  was  largely  in  America  —  in  the 
United  States  and  the  West  Indies.  He  fought 
with  the  English  in  the  American  Revolution  in 
1776-82,  and  was  entrusted  with  important  dip- 
lomatic commissions  in  1782-91,  as  there  was 
then  no  British  minister  to  the  United  States. 
In  1804  he  was  made  governor  of  St.  Vincent, 
and  four  years  later  governor  of  Barbados.  As 
England  was  then  at  war  with  France  he  or- 
ganized an  expedition  and  conquered  Marti- 
nique, for  which  he  obtained  the  thanks  of  the 
House  of  Commons.  Later  (1810)  he  con- 
quered Guadeloupe,  the  last  possession  of  the 
French  in  that  part  of  the  world.  When  he 
returned  to  England,  after  nine  years'  service  in 
the  West  Indies,  a  set  of  silver  plate  was  given 
to  him  by  the  legislature  of  Barbados,  and  the 
king  conferred  upon  him  armorial  distinction. 

Beckwith,  James  Carroll,  American  genre 
painter:  b.  Hannibal,  Mo.,  23  Sept.  1852.  He 
was  a  pupil  of  Carolus  Duran,  in  Paris,  and 
became  a  member  of  the  National  Academy  in 
1894.  Among  his  paintings  are  'Under  the 
Lilacs'   and  'The  Falconer.' 

Beckwith,  John  Watrus,  American  Epis- 
copal bishop :  b.  Raleigh,  N.  C,  9.  Feb.  1831 ;  d. 
24  Nov.  1890.  He  was  graduated  at  Trinity 
College,  Hartford,  in  1852;  ordained  priest  in 
1855;   labored  in   Mississippi  and  Alabama  till 


BECKX  — BED 


after  the  close  of  the  Civil  War ;  was  then  called 
to  the  rectorship  of  Trinity  Church,  New  Or- 
leans; and  while  there  was  elected  bishop  of 
Georgia,  being  consecrated  in  Savannah,  2  April 
1868.  He  was  an  eloquent  preacher,  and  pub- 
lished several  sermons  and  addresses. 

Beckx,  Pierre  Jean,  beks,  pe-ar  zhon, 
French  general  of  the  order  of  Jesuits :  b.  near 
Lou  vain,  Belgium,  8  Feb.  1795 ;  d.  Rome,  4 
March  1887.  The  success  of  the  Jesuits,  espe- 
cially in  non-Catholic  countries,  was  greatly 
due  to  his  tact  and  energy. 

Becky  Sharp,  the  heroine  in  Thackeray's 
^Vanity  Fair.^  She  has  been  accepted  as  the 
type  of  the  shrewd,  conscienceless  adventuress 
whose  sole  purpose  is  to  rise  in  the  world  and 
who  allows   nothing  to  interfere  with  it. 

Becque,  Henri  Frangois,  bek,  oii-re  fran- 
swa,  French  dramatist:  b.  Paris,  9  April  1837. 
He  was  the  pioneer  of  realism  on  the  Parisian 
stage,  producing  ^The  Prodigal  Son^  (1868)  ; 
*The  Abduction'  (1871)  ;  ^The  Ravens' 
(1882);  (The  Parisian'    (1885);  etc. 

Becquer,  Gustavo  Adolfo,  bek-kar',  goos- 
ta'vo  a-dol'fo,  Spanish  poet  and  novelist: 
b.  Seville,  17  Feb.  1836;  d.  Madrid,  22  Dec. 
1870.  His  lyrics,  chiefly  elegiac,  show  much 
feeling,  and  his  tales  and  legends  are  among 
the  best  creations  of  modern  Spanish  prose. 

Becquerel,  Alexandre  Edmond,  bek-rel, 
a-lex-aiidr  ad-nioh,  French  physicist:  b.  Paris 
(son  of  Antoine  Cesar  Becquerel,  q.v.),  24 
March  1820;  d.  Paris,  13  May  1891.  He  was 
decorated  with  the  cross  of  the  Legion  of  Honor 
in  1851,  and  was  appointed  professor  of  physics 
in  the  Conservatoire  des  Arts  et  Metiers  in  1853. 
Besides  his  conjoint  labors  with  his  father  he 
made  important  researches  on  the  nature  of 
light  and  its  chemical  effects,  on  phosphores- 
cence, and  on  the  conductivity  and  magnetic 
properties  of  many  substances.  He  wrote 
< Light,  Its  Causes  and  Effects'    (1868). 

Becquerel,  Antoine  Cesar,  an-twan  sa-zar, 
French  physician,  and  member  of  the  Institute: 
b.  Chatillon-sur-Loing,  7  March  1788;  d.  Paris, 
18  Jan.  1878.  In  early  life  he  served  in  the 
French  army  in  Spain  as  an  officer  of  engineers. 
In  1815  he  resigned  his  commission  as  chef  de 
bataillon  of  the  engineers  and  devoted  himself 
to  scientific  pursuits.  In  1829  he  became  pro- 
fessor of  physics  in  the  Museum  of  Natural 
History.  He  was  a  voluminous  writer  on  chem- 
istry and  electricity,  and  his  industry  in  the  col- 
lecting of  facts  was  remarkable.  His  principal 
works  are:  ^Traite  d'Electro-Chimie' ;  'Traite 
de  Physique  AppHquee  a  la  Chimie  et  aux  Sci- 
ences Naturelles'  ;  "^Elements  de  Physique  Ter- 
restre  et  de  Meteorologie'  (1847)  ;  and  *^Traite 
de  I'Electricite  et  du  Magnetisme'  (1855).  He 
invented  a  new   psychometer  in  1866. 

Becquerel,  Antoine  Henri,  6h-re,  French 
physicist:  b.  Paris,  15  Dec.  1852  (son  of  Alex- 
andre Edmond,  and  grandson  of  Antoine  Cesar 
Becquerel,  qq.v.).  In  1892  he  became  professor 
of  physics  in  the  Natural  History  Museum,  and 
in  1895  held  a  similar  position  at  the  Polytechnic 
School.  His  investigations  have  largely  dealt 
with  such  subjects  as  the  magnetic  rotation  of 
polarized  light,  phosphorescence,  the  ultra-red 
rays,  light-absorption,  etc.  He  is  perhaps  best 
known  in  recent  years  by  his  researches  con- 
cerning the  invisible  rays  given  off  by  uranium, 


radium,  thorium,  etc.,  called,  in  his  honor, 
Becquerel  rays  —  a  mixture  of  Roentgen  and 
cathode  rays. 

Becse,  bech'e,  Hungary,  the  name  of  two 
towns  situated  on  the  river  Theiss.  Old  Becse. 
is  on  the  right  bank,  48  miles  south  of  Szegedin. 
Pop.  (1901)  18,865.  New  Becse  is  on  the  left 
bank,  five  miles  east  of  Old  Becse.  Pop.  (1901) 
7,752.  Both  towns  carry  on  an  extensive  trade 
in  grain. 

Bed,  in  modern  domestic  use,  a  frame- 
work (bedstead)  supporting  a  mattress  or 
cushion,  with  coverings,  on  which  to  take  repose 
or  sleep.  Originally  a  bed  consisted  merely  of 
a  lair  or  hollowed-out  place  in  the  earth,  such 
as  is  made  by  a  wild  animal ;  then  the  skins  of 
beasts  were  employed  to  render  the  spot  more 
comfortable,  and  such  skins  form  the  beds  of 
many  savage  tribes  of  the  present  day.  Rushes, 
leaves,  husks,  twigs,  and  straw  came  in  time 
to  supplement  or  replace  the  skins,  and  when 
the  Romans  invaded  Britain  they  taught  the 
natives  to  sew  their  straw  within  sacks.  In  the 
progress  of  luxury  feathers  came  to  take  the 
place  of  the  harder  straw,  and  their  use  was 
made  the  basis  of  charges  of  effeminacy  against 
the  Roman  patricians.  The  feather  bed  still 
persists  among  the  older  nations  of  Europe,  but 
as  feathers  are  bad  conductors  of  caloric  they 
do  not  permit  that  free  radiation  of  heat  from 
the  body  which  is  essential  to  comfort  and 
health,  and  the  hair  mattress  has  very  largely 
supplanted  it.  The  feather  bed  was  particularly 
unserviceable  in  cases  of  sickness,  as  it  did 
not  permit  of  the  patient's  easily  changing  his. 
position.  Modern  mattresses  are  sometimes 
made  of  felt,  of  pure  hair,  or  of  layers  of  hair 
and  cotton,  stuffed  more  or  less  tightly  into  a 
casing  of  strongly  woven  material  called  tick- 
ing. Pillows  are  made  of  materials  similar  to- 
those  of  the  mattress,  and  the  bed-coverings  of 
almost  any  fabric  suited  to  the  taste  and  purse 
of  the  owner,  from  coarse  cotton  sheets  or 
blankets  to  the  finest  wool  or  silk.  In  the 
northern  countries  of  Europe  the  downy  feath- 
ers of  the  eider  duck  are  largely  used  for  bed- 
coverings,  their  slow  radiation  of  heat,  men- 
tioned above,  permitting  the  retention  of  the 
bodily  heat  combined  with  extreme  lightness. 

Bedsteads  have  for  thousands  of  years 
ranged  from  a  mere  platform,  designed  merely 
to  keep  the  bedding  off  the  floor,  to  enormous 
structures  of  solid  costly  woods  or  ivory,  mag- 
nificently decorated  with  carvings,  or  inlaid 
with  precious  metals  and  gems.  They  were 
frequently  surmounted  by  canopies,  and  sur- 
rounded with  curtains  to  keep  off  drafts,  or 
with  nettings  to  exclude  flying  insects.  The 
bedding  was  supported  within  the  framework  on 
a  network  of  cord,  which  later  was  supplanted 
by  cross-bars  or  slats  of  wood.  Sometimes  bed- 
steads were  built  with  such  lofty  platforms  that 
a  short  stepladder  was  necessary  for  ingress 
and  egress.  The  four-post  bedstead  held  its 
own  for  centuries,  but  within  the  last  50  years 
their  close  curtains,  valances,  and  canopies  have 
given  way  before  the  more  hygienic  iron  or 
brass  bedstead,  almost  entirely  free  from  drap- 
eries and  fitted  with  metallic  springs  or  woven- 
wire  mattresses,  some  of  the  latter  being  so 
elastic,  though  firm,  and  giving  such  general 
support  to  the  body,  as  to  render  thick  mat- 
tresses almost  unnecessary.     Wooden  bedsteads 


BED-SORE  —  BEDBUG 


are  still  in  considerable  use,  however ;  but  they 
are  mostly  free  from  the  objectionable  features 
of  the  four-post  bed. 

Folding-beds  have  had  considerable  vogue 
for  a  long  period,  being  designed  for  economy 
of  space  in  small  rooms.  Truckle  or  trundle 
beds,  were  formerly  used  for  similar  economic 
reasons,  and  consisted  of  a  low  platform  on 
wheels  to  admit  of  its  being  run  under  the 
larger  bed  by  day,  and  was  occupied  at  night 
by  children  or  servants.  Other  forms  of  space- 
saving  beds  are  folding  cots,  and  lounges  con- 
structed over  a  box-body  wherein  the  bedding 
may  be   concealed   by   day. 

Special  forms  of  bed  have  been  contrived  for 
the  benefit  of  sick  and  wounded  persons,  not- 
ably mattresses  of  material  impervious  to  air 
or  water  and  filled  with  those  fluids. 

In  French  history,  the  bed  of  justice  was 
the  throne  on  which,  before  the  Revolution  of 
1789.  the  king  used  to  sit  when  he  went  to 
Parliament  to  look  after  the  affairs  of  State, 
the  officers  of  Parliament  attending  him  in 
scarlet  robes.  As  this  interference  of  the  king 
with  the  Parliament  was  not  compatible  with 
free  government,  sitting  on  the  bed  of  justice 
came  to  signify  the  exertion  of  arbitrary  power. 

In  law,  a  divorce  from  bed  and  board  is 
the  divorce  of  a  husband  and  wife  to  the  extent 
of  separating  them  for  a  time,  the  wife  receiving 
support,  under  the  name  of  alimony,  during 
the  severance. 

In  mechanics,  a  bed  is  the  foundation  piece 
or  portion  of  anything  on  which  the  body  of  it 
rests,  as  the  bed-piece  of  a  steam  engine ;  the 
lower  stone  of  a  grinding-mill ;  or  the  box,  body, 
or  receptacle  of  a  vehicle. 

Bed-sore,  an  ulcer  due  to  long-continued 
pressure  on  certain  bony  prominences  of  the 
body,  due  to  protracted  maintenance  of  the  re- 
clining position.  The  buttocks,  shoulder-blades, 
and  heels  are  the  most  frequently  affected  sites. 
In  certain  diseases,  notably  in  myelitis,  or  in- 
flammation of  the  spinal  cord,  bed-sores  may 
develop  very  rapidly,  within  ten  days  to  two 
weeks.  Here  the  nerve-fibres  governing  the  tone 
of  the  skin  are  affected.  In  long-continued  dis- 
eases, however,  necessitating  the  reclining  pos- 
ture, bed-sores  develop  largely  from  lack  of 
careful  nursing.  A  due  amount  of  attention  paid 
to  absolute  cleanliness,  care  for  the  skin,  careful 
turning,  and  use  of  air-cushions  or  the  water- 
bed,  are  often  effective  in  preventing  them. 
Alcohol  and  water,  equal  parts,  is  one  of  the 
best  washes.  If  ulcers  develop  in  spite  of  all 
precautions,  they  should  be  surgically  treated. 
Oxid  of  zinc  ointment,  balsam  of  Peru,  aristol 
powder,  or  bismuth  powder,  may  all  be  used, 
alone  or  in  combination. 

Bed  of  Justice  (Fr.  Hi  de  justice),  formerly 
a  solemn  ceremony  in  France,  in  which  the  king, 
with  the  princes  of  the  blood  royal,  the  peers, 
and  the  officers  of  the  crown,  state,  and  court, 
proceeded  to  the  Parliament,  and  there,  sitting 
upon  the  throne  (which  in  the  old  French 
language  was  called  lit,  because  it  consisted  of 
an  under  cushion,  a  cushion  for  the  back,  and 
two  under  the  elbows),  caused  those  commands 
and  orders  which  the  Parliament  did  not  ap- 
prove to  be  registered  in  his  presence.  The 
Parliament  had  the  right  of  remonstrating  in 
behalf  of  the  nation  against  the  royal  com- 
mands and  edicts.    If  the  king,  however,  did  not 


choose  to  recede  from  his  measures,  he  first 
issued  a  written  command  (lettres  de  jussion) 
to  the  Parliament,  and  if  this  was  not  obeyed 
he  held  the  lit  de  justice.  The  Parliament  was 
then,  indeed,  obliged  to  submit,  but  it  after- 
ward commonly  made  a  protest  against  the  pro- 
ceeding. Louis  XV.  held  such  a  lit  de  justice 
in  1763,  in  order  to  introduce  certain  imposts, 
but  on  account  of  the  firm  resistance  of  the 
parliaments  was  finally  obliged  to  yield.  The 
last  lits  de  justice  were  held  by  Louis  XVI.  at 
Versailles,  6  Aug.  1787. 

Bedamar,  ba-da-mar',  a  character  (a  Span- 
iard of  noble  birth)  in  Saint  Real's  < Conjura- 
tion des  Espagnols  contre  la  Republique  de 
Venise,^  the  source  of  Otway's  ^Venice  Pre- 
served.^ 

Bedarieux,  ba-da-re-iir,  France,  a  town  in 
the  department  of  Herault,  on  the  left  bank  of 
the  Orb,  18  miles  north  from  Beziers.  It  is 
well  built,  and  is  one  of  the  busiest  and  most 
thriving  commercial  and  manufacturing  towns 
of  the  same  size  in  France.  It  has  manufactures 
of  fine  and  common  cloth,  woolen  stuffs,  floss 
silk,  worsted  and  cotton  stockings,  hats,  soap, 
olive-oil ;  tanneries,  dye-works,  paper  and  glass 
works,  and  a  brass  foundry.  It  has  also  a  trade 
in  wine  and  brandy.      Pop.    (1901)    5,802. 

Bedbug,  a  hemipterous  insect  {Cimex  or 
Acanthias  lectularius).  The  body  is  broad,  two 
and  a  half  lines  in  length,  flat  and  wingless; 
it  is  a  rust  red  color  with  fine  brown  hairs.  By 
its  shape  it  is  adapted  for  living  in  cracks  be- 
tween boards  in  furniture,  etc.,  and  by  its  long, 
slender  beak  it  sucks  the  blood  of  its  victim. 
This  insect  lays  eggs  throughout  the  warmer 
months  of  the  year,  the  generations  succeeding 
each  other  as  long  as  the  temperature  is  high 
enough.  The  eggs  are  oval,  white,  and  the 
young  bugs  hatch  in  about  eight  days,  escaping 
by  pushing  off  a  lid  at  one  end  of  the  shell. 
They  are  white,  transparent,  differing  from  the 
perfect  insect  in  having  a  broad,  triangular 
head,  and  short  and  thick  antennae.  The  bedbug 
is  said  to  live  as  a  parasite  on  domestic  birds, 
such  as  the  dove.  A  nest  of  swallows  swarming 
with  alleged  bedbugs  was  once  found  on  a  court- 
house in  Iowa.  Trestwood  states  that  the  bed- 
bug is  II  weeks  in  attaining  its  full  size;  it 
molts  about  five  times.  De  Geer  has  kept  full- 
sized  individuals  in  a  sealed  bottle  for  more 
than  a  year  without  food.  The  cockroach  is 
the  natural  enemy  of  the  bedbug  and  destroys 
large  numbers,  as  does  also  the  Reduvius  and 
certain  kinds  of  ants.  In  Europe  a  small  black 
ant,  Monomoriuui,  is  said  to  clear  a  house  o^ 
them  in  a  few  days.  Houses  have  been  cleaned 
of  them  after  being  thorough^  fumigated  with 
brimstone,  or  by  the  use  of  insect  powder 
blown  into  the  cracks  and  crevices  where  they 
live.  They  are  also  easily  destroyed  by  painting 
the  cracks  with  corrosive  sublimate  dissolved  in 
alcohol.  Temporary  relief  may  be  had  by 
sprinkling  insect  powder  over  the  sheets  of  the 
bed  one  is  to  occupy.  As  the  bedbug  was  known 
to  Aristotle,  who  supposed  it  arose  spontane- 
ously from  sweat,  it  is  probable  that  it  originated 
about  the  Mediterranean  Sea,  for  it  was  not 
known  to  have  occurred  in  England  before  the 
17th  century. 

Bibliography. —  Osborn,  ^Insects  Affecting 
Domestic  Animals^  (Dept.  of  Agriculture  Bulle- 
tin) ;  Sutherland,  H.,  <The  Book  of  Bugs.' 


BEDDOES— BEDE 


Beddoes,  Thomas  Lovell,  English  drama- 
author:  b.  Sliiffnal.  Shropshire,  1760;  d.  1808. 
He  distinguished  himself  both  at  school  and  at 
Oxford  by  his  knowledge  of  ancient  and  mod- 
ern languages  and  literature.  The  great  dis- 
coveries in  physics,  chemistry,  and  physiology 
irresistibly  attracted  him.  He  continued  his 
studies  with  success  in  London  and  Edinburgh. 
In  his  26th  year  he  took  his  doctor's  degree, 
afterward  visited  Paris,  and  formed  an  acquaint- 
ance with  Lavoisier.  On  his  return  he  was 
appointed  professor  of  chemistry  at  Oxford. 
There  he  published  some  excellent  chemical 
treatises,  and  observations  on  the  calculus, 
scurvy,  consumption,  catarrh,  and  fever.  Daz- 
zled by  the  splendid  promises  of  the  French 
Revolution,  he  offended  some  of  his  former 
admirers,  and  excited  such  a  clamor  against  him 
by  the  publication  of  his  political  opinions  that 
he  resigned  his  professorship.  He  then  com- 
posed his  ^Observations  on  the  Nature  of 
Demonstrative  Evidence,'  in  which  he  endeav- 
ored to  prove  that  mathematical  reasoning 
proceeds  on  the  evidence  of  the  senses,  and 
that  geometry  is  founded  on  experiment.  He 
also  published  the  'History  of  Isaac  Jenkins,' 
which  was  intended  to  impress  useful  moral 
lessons  on  the  laboring  classes  in  an  attractive 
manner.  After  his  marriage  in  1794  he  formed 
the  plan  of  a  pneumatic  institution  for  curing 
diseases,  particularly  consumption,  by  means  of 
factitious  airs  or  gases.  With  the  assistance  of 
the  celebrated  Josiah  Wedgewood,  he  succeeded 
in  opening  this  institution  in  1798.  As  super- 
intendent of  the  whole,  he  engaged  young 
Humphry  Davy,  the  foundation  of  whose  future 
fame  was  laid  here.  The  chief  purpose  of  the 
institution,  however,  was  never  realized,  and 
Beddoes'  zeal  gradually  relaxed,  so  that  he 
relinquished  it  a  year  before  his  death.  In  the 
last  years  of  his  life  he  acquired  considerable 
reputation  by  his  'Hygeia,'  in  three  volumes. 

Beddoes,  Thomas  Lovell,  English  drama- 
tist and  physiologist:  b.  Clifton,  20  July  1803; 
d.  Basel,  26  Jan.  1849.  He  published  'The 
Bride's  Tragedy*  while  an  undergraduate  at  Ox- 
ford, and  led  an  eccentric  life,  ultimately  com- 
mitting suicide.  His  work  was  largely  frag- 
mentary, but  his  posthumous  'Death's  Jest- 
Book;  or,  the  Fool's  Tragedy*  (1850)  received 
the  high  praise  of  such  judges  as  Landor  and 
Browning.  It  was  begun  in  1825,  and  occupied 
him  till  his  death,  being  mostly  written  while  he 
was  studying  medicine  in  Germany.  In  1890 
Mr.  Gosse  edited  an  edition  of  his  poetical 
works  in  two  volumes,  with  a  memoir. 

Bade,  Beda,  or  Boeda,  known  as  "The  Ven- 
erable Bede,**  English  historian  and  scholar,  was 
born  in  673  at  the  double  monastery  of  Wear- 
mouth  and  Jarrow,  in  the  county  of  Durham, 
and  died  in  the  same  monastery  in  735.  At 
the  age  of  seven  he  was  intrusted  to  Benedict 
Biscop,  abbot  of  Wearmouth,  and  one  of  the 
best  equipped  scholars  of  the  age,  who.  to- 
gether with  Ceolfrith,  abbot  of  Jarrow,  directed 
his  education.  All  the  rest  of  Bede's  life  was 
spent  in  the  monastery  of  Wearmouth  and  jar- 
row. In  his  nineteenth  year  he  was  made 
deacon,  and  in  his  thirtieth  year,  priest.  He  never 
held  positions  of  higher  dignitv,  refusing  the 
office  of   abbot  because   its   duties  would   have 


interfered  with  his  chosen  work  of  "learning, 
teachmg,  and  writing."  Under  Bede,  North-  • 
umbna  became  one  of  the  great  centres  of 
learning  in  Europe.  Bede  himself  gave  in- 
struction in  Latin,  Greek,  Hebrew,  astionomy, 
mathematics,  grammar,  rhetoric,  and  music,  in 
short  in  all  the  subjects  which  constituted 
the  learning  of  the  Middle  Ages.  His  knowl- 
edge was  encyclopedic  in  character,  and  though 
all  directed  towards  the  service  of  the  church, 
seems  to  have  been  imparted  with  a  vivacity 
and  charm  that  endeared  him  greatly  to  his 
pupils.  Besides  attending  to  his  monastic  duties 
and  his  work  as  teacher,  Bede  wrote  volumi- 
nously. In  a  brief  summary  of  the  main  events 
of  his  life  at  the  conclusion  of  his  'Historia 
Ecclesiastica,*  finished  in  731,  he  gives  a  list 
of  his  works  amounting  to  nearly  forty  titles. 
His  activities  did  not  cease,  however,  with  the 
completion  of  his  great  history,  and  at  the  very 
hour  of  his  death,  as  is  narrated  by  his  pupil, 
St.  Cuthbert,  he  was  engaged  in  dictating  a 
translation  of  the  Gospel  of  St.  John,  now  un- 
fortunately lost.  Cuthbert  states  that  Bede  was 
a  lover  of  Anglo-Saxon  poetry,  but  the  only 
extant  writings  in  the  vernacular  which  can  be 
connected  with  his  name  are  two  lines  of  a  poem 
known  as  Bede's  'Death  Song,*  quoted  by  Cuth- 
bert. The  body  of  his  writings  consists  of 
exegetical  treatises  on  the  books  of  the  Old 
and  New  Testaments,  and  of  treatises  on  scien- 
tific, rhetorical,  and  historical  subjects,  all 
written  in  Latin.  His  reputation  as  a  mathe- 
matician was  very  great,  and  for  five  centuries 
following  his  death,  his  works  were  standard 
throughout  Europe.  For  modern  readers,  how- 
ever, Bede's  most  interesting  and  important 
achievements  lie  in  the  field  of  history.  His 
greatest  work  is  his  'Ecclesiastical  History* 
(Historia  Ecclcsiastica  G cutis  Anglorum),  a 
history  of  England  from  the  earliest  Roman 
occupations  to  the  year  731.  It  is  written  in  a 
charmingly  simple  and  pure  style,  and  is  re- 
markable for  a  degree  of  critical  judgment  such 
as  one  would  not  expect  in  a  monk  of  the  8th 
century  who  had  never  lived  outside  his  monas- 
tery. It  was  translated  into  West  Saxon  by 
Alfred  the  Great,  or  under  his  direction,  and 
it  was  largely  used  for  the  earlier  entries  of  the 
'Anglo-Saxon  Chronicle.*  It  is  still  the  main 
source  of  our  information  concerning  England 
for  the  period  which  it  covers. 

Bibliography. — For  Bede's  works,  consult 
Migne,  'Pairologia;  Cursus  Completus,*  (vol. 
00)  ;  Giles,  'Opera  Omnia*  (London  1843). 
The  separate  edition  of  the  'Historical  Works,* 
by  Plummer  (Oxford  1896),  contains  much 
valuable  material,  among  other  things  the  letter 
of  Cuthbert  narrating  Bede's  death.  The  West 
Saxon  translation  of  the  'Historia*  is  printed 
in  Wiilker,  'Bibliothek  der  Angelsachsischen 
Prosa*  (vol.  IV.,  1899).  For  estimates  of  the 
character  and  work  of  Bede,  consult  Bright, 
'Chapters  of  Early  English  Church  History* 
(3d  edition  1897;  Brooke,  'English  Literature 
from  the  Beginning  to  the  Norman  Conquest* 
(1898);  Hunt,  'The  English  Church  from  its 
Foundation  to  the  Norman  Conquest*  (1899). 
George  P.  Kr.\pp, 
Trisfmcfor  in  English,  Columbia  University. 

Bede,  Adam,  a    character   in   the   novel   of 
the    same    name,    by    George    Eliot.      He    is    a 


BEDEAU  —  BEDFORD 


carpenter  with  some  knowledge  of  books.  He 
loves  Hetty  Sorel,  but  marries  Dinah  Morris 
(q.v.). 

Bedeau,  be-do,  Marie  Alphonse,  French 
general :  b.  Vertou,  near  Nantes,  1804 ;  d.  Nan- 
tes, 1863.  He  won  his  military  fame  in  Algeria, 
where  he  was  active  in  the  operations  against 
the  Algerians  and  became  general  of  brigade. 
He  was  in  Paris  at  the  outbreak  of  the  revolu- 
tion of  1848,  and  was  subsequently  vice-presi- 
dent of  the  constituent  assembly.  As  he  opposed 
Louis  Napoleon,  he  went  into  exile  after  the 
coup  d'etat  of  December  1851. 

Bedeguar,  bed'e-gjir,  or  Sweetbriar 
Sponge,  a  mossy  roundish  gall  somewhat  re- 
sembling a  chestnut  burr  in  size  and  form,  but 
generally  more  or  less  reddish  or  purplish.  It 
is  caused  by  a  poisonous  fluid  injected  into  the 
plant  by  a  gall-fly  (Rlwdites  rosce),  the  larvae 
of  which  may  be  found  feeding  upon  the  plant 
juices.  Like  many  other  vegetable  substances, 
it  was  believed  to  be  useful  in  medicine  in  cases 
of  sleeplessness,  diarrhoea,  scurvy,  stone,  worms, 
etc. 

Bedel,  be-del',  Timothy,  American  army 
officer:  b.  Salem,  N.  H.,  about  1740;  d.  1787.  In 
the  Revolutionary  War  he  was  in  command  of 
the  American  force  near  Montreal,  which  sur- 
rendered without  resistance  when  attacked  by 
Brant's  Indians.  He  was  sick  at  the  time,  and 
the  surrender  was  made  by  the  officer  second  in 
command,  yet  Arnold  placed  the  blame  on 
Bedel. 

Bedell,  be-del',  Frederick,  American  physi- 
cist:  b.  Brooklyn,  N.  Y.,  12  April  1868.  He 
graduated  at  Yale  in  1890,  and  at  Cornell  in 
1892,  and  was  assistant  professor  of  physics  at 
the  last  named,  1892-1900.  He  has  established 
a  high  reputation  for  his  investigations  in  alter- 
nating   currents     of    electricity.       Publications : 

*  Principles  of  the  Transformer^  (1896)  ;  with 
A.  C.  Crehore,  ^Alternating  Currents^  (4th  ed. 
igoi)  ;  and  numerous  special  articles  in  the  *^ Sib- 
ley  JournaP   and   ^Physical  Review.' 

Bedell,  Gregory  Thurston,  American  cler- 
gyman: b.  Hudson,  N.  Y.,  27  Aug.  1817;  d.  11 
March  1892  In  early  life  he  was  rector  of  the 
Protestant  Episcopal  Church  of  the  Ascension, 
New  York.  In  1859  he  was  consecrated  assis- 
tant bishop  of  Ohio,  and  in  1873  bishop  of  that 
State.  He  wrote  ^The  Divinity  of  Christ'  ; 
'The  Profit  of  Godliness'  ;  *The  Age  of  Indif- 
ference';  ^Episcopacy  —  Fact  and  Law';  'A 
Canterbury    Pilgrimage'  ;     ^A    Votive    Pillar'  ; 

*  Memorial  of  Bishop  Mcllvaine'  ;  and  ^Pastoral 
Theology.' 

Bedell,  William,  English  clergyman:  b. 
Black  Notley,  Essex,  1570;  d.  1642.  He  studied 
at  Cambridge,  became  minister  of  St.  Ed- 
mundsbury  in  Suffolk,  and  in  1604  went  to 
Venice  as  chaplain  to  the  ambassador.  Sir 
Henry  Wotton.  Here  he  remained  for  eight 
years  and  became  intimately  acquainted  with 
the  celebrated  Fra  Paolo  Sarpi,  who  taught  him 
Italian  and  was  taught  theology  in  return. 
While  here  Bedell  translated  the  English  prayer- 
book  into  Italian.  On  his  return  to  England  he 
resumed  the  duties  of  his  curacy,  but  left  it  in 
1615  for  the  living  of  Horingsheath.  Here  he 
remained  for  12  years,  and  quitted  it  to  become 
provost  of  Trinity  College,  Dublin.  He  under- 
took several  important  reforms,  and  successfully 
accomplished  them  through  the  admirable  man- 


ner in  which  he  tempered  firmness  with  pru- 
dence. In  1629  he  was  appointed  to  the  united 
sees  of  Kilmore  and  Ardagh,  but  thinking  the 
duties  of  one  sufficient,  he  retained  only  Kil- 
more and  insisted  on  resigning  Ardagh.  He 
next  turned  his  attention  to  the  Roman  Catho- 
lics, and  labored  assiduously  to  convert  them 
to  Protestantism.  He  caused  the  prayer-book 
to  be  translated  into  Irish  and  read  regularly 
every  Sunday  in  the  cathedral.  The  New  Testa- 
ment had  already  been  translated,  but  Bedell 
had  the  honor  of  perfecting  the  boon  by  pro- 
curing the  translation  of  the  Old  Testament. 
In  1641,  on  the  breaking  out  of  the  rebellion, 
his  house  was  for  some  time  the  only  English 
one  in  the  county  of  Cavan  which  remained 
uninjured;  but  at  last  he  was  so  far  involved  in 
the  common  fate  that  he  was  carried  off  to  the 
castle  of  Cloughboughter,  where  he  was  impris- 
oned with  many  others,  the  only  exception  in 
his  favor  being  that  he  was  not  put  in  irons. 
His  works  are  few  and  of  comparatively  little 
importance.  His  biography  has  been  written  by 
Bishop  Burnet. 

Beden,  the  Arabic  name,  in  Palestine,  of 
the  local  species  of  ibe.x  {Capra  sinaitica),  which 
ranges  throughout  Palestine  and  along  both 
shores  of  the  Red  Sea.  It  varies  little  from 
other  ibexes  except  in  having  the  great  horns 
of  the  bucks  more  compressed,  and  the  knobs 
on  their  front  at  less  regular  intervals.  The 
general  color  is  yellowish,  with  conspicuous 
dark  markings  on  the  front  of  the  fore  legs, 
chest,  and  back.     See  Ibex. 

Bedesman  (Saxon,  bead,  a  prayer),  was  a 
common  suffix  to  the  signature  at  the  end  of 
English  letters  in  the  15th  and  i6th  centuries, 
and  equivalent  to  petitioner.  The  Fasten  let- 
ters, 1460-80,  furnish  many  examples.  Sir 
Thomas  More,  writing  to  Cardinal  Wolsey, 
styles  himself  ®Your  humble  orator  and  most 
bounden  bedesman.''  Margaret  Bryan,  the  gov- 
erness of  Princess  Elizabeth,  signs  herself,  in 
writing  to  a  superior,  **Your  dayly  bede-wonian." 

Bedford,  Gunning,  American  patriot;  b. 
Philadelphia,  Pa.,  about  1730;  d.  Sept.  1797.  He 
was  a  lieutenant  in  the  French  war ;  entered 
the  Revolutionary  army  with  the  rank  of  major; 
was  wounded  at  White  Plains ;  became  niuster- 
master-general  in  1776;  was  a  delegate  to  the 
Continental  Congress ;  and  was  elected  governor 
of  Delaware  in  1796. 

Bedford,  Gunning,  American  lawyer;  b. 
Philadelphia,  Pa.,  1747;  d.  30  March  1812.  He 
was  graduated  at  Princeton  in  1771  ;  became  a 
lawyer ;  acted  for  a  time  as  aide-de-camp  to 
Gen.  Washington ;  represented  Delaware  in  the 
Continental  Congress  "  in  1783-6;  and  became 
attorney-general  of  the  State,  and  United  States 
judge   for  the  district  of   Delaware. 

Bedford,  Gunning  S.,  American  physician: 
b.  Baltimore,  Md.,  1806;  d.  New  York,  5  Sept. 
1870.  He  was  graduated  at  Mount  St. 
Mary's,  Emmittsburg,  Md.,  182;; ;  took  his  medi- 
cal degree  in  Rutgers  Medical  College,  1829; 
and  spent  some  years  in  special  study  in  Europe. 
In  1833  he  was  appointed  professor  in  the  medi- 
cal college  at  Charleston,  S.  C. ;  subsequently 
was  called  to  the  Medical  College,  Albany,  N.  Y. ; 
and  in  1836  settled  in  New  York.  He  made 
a  specialty  of  obstetrics ;  was  one  of  the  pro- 
jectors of  the  University  Medical  College ;  and 
introduced    into    the    United    States    obstetrical 


BEDFORD  — BEDFORD  MISSAL 


clinics  for  the  gratuitous  treatment  of  poor 
women.  His  principal  publications,  "^Diseases 
of  Women  and  Children'  and  ^Principles  and 
Practice  of  Obstetrics,'  have  had  a  large  cir- 
culation in  the  United  States  and  Europe. 

Bedford,  Jessie  (Elizabeth  Godfrey), 
English  novelist :  b.  Hampshire,  England.  Under 
the  pen  name  of  Elizabeth  Godfrey  she  has  pub- 
lished in  America  several  musical  novels  which 
have  been  popular.  Her  most  important  works 
are:  ^The  Harp  of  Life';  <Poor  Human  Na- 
ture';  'The  Winding  Road'    (1902). 

Bedford,  John  Plantagenet  (Duke  of), 
regent  of  France,  third  son  of  Henry  IV.  of 
England:  b.  20  June  1389;  d.  1435.  Shake- 
speare, who  calls  him  Prince  John  of  Lancaster, 
introduces  him  in  his  plays  of  Henry  IV.  as 
distinguishing  himself  by  liis  youthful  courage 
in  the  battle  of  Shrewsbury  in  1403,  and  forrn- 
ing  a  kind  of  moral  contrast  to  his  more  dissi- 
pated brother,  the  Prince  of  Wales.  During  the 
reign  of  Henry  V.  he  participated  in  the  farne 
acquired  by  the  conquest  of  France ;  but  his 
talents  were  fully  displayed  when,  after  the 
death  of  that  king,  he  became  regent  of  France, 
having  been  appointed  to  this  post  by  Henry  in 
his  will.  At  Verneuil,  in  1424,  he  displayed  his 
military  talents ;  and  the  difficulties  which  he 
experienced  in  endeavoring  to  maintain  posses- 
sion of  the  conquered  provinces  in  France 
afforded  frequent  occasion  for  the  manifesta- 
tion of  his  ability.  The  greatest  blemish  in  his 
character  is  his  cruel  execution  of  the  Maid  of 
Orleans  in  1431.  He  survived  this  event  about 
four  years,  and  dying  at  Rouen,  was  buried  in 
the  cathedral  of  that  city. 

Bedford,  John  Russell  (Duke  of),  English 
nobleman:  b.  1766;  d.  1839.  He  was  versed  in 
literature,  fond  of  science,  and  a  passionate 
lover  of  agriculture,  to  the  improvement  of 
which  he  devoted  years  of  his  life  and  the 
expenditure  of  vast  sums  of  money.  He  was 
the  father  of  the  celebrated  statesman,  Lord 
John  Russell   (q.v.). 

Bedford,  England,  a  parliamentary  and 
municipal  borough,  situated  on  the  Ouse,  county 
town  of  Bedfordshire.  The  chief  buildings  are 
the  law  courts,  a  range  of  public  schools,  a 
large  infirmary,  county  jail,  etc.,  and  several 
churches.  The  town  is  rich  in  charities  and  edu- 
cational institutions,  the  most  prominent  being 
the  Bedford  Charity,  embracing  grammar  and 
other  schools,  and  richly  endowed.  There  is  an 
extensive  manufactory  of  agricultural  imple- 
ments; lace  is  also  made,  and  there  is  a  good 
trade.  John  Bunyan  was  born  at  Elstow,  a 
village  near  the  town,  and  it  was  at  Bedford 
that  he  lived,  preached,  and  was  imprisoned. 

Bedford,  Ind.,  a  city  and  county-seat  of 
Lawrence  County,  65  miles  southwest  of  Indian- 
apolis on  the  Baltimore  &  O.  S.  W.  and  other 
R.EL's.  It  has  24  large  quarries  of  building- 
stone,  the  working  of  which  is  the  chief  industry, 
but  there  are  also  railroad  shops,  veneering-mills, 
etc.  The  court-house  and  other  public  buildings 
are  fine  stone  «difices.     Pop.  (1900)  6,1x5. 

Bedford,  Nova  Scotia,  a  village  of  Hali- 
fax County,  situated  on  the  Intercolonial  R.R., 
north  of  the  city  of  Halifax.  Its  site  is  very 
picturesque,  and  it  is  a  favorite  summer  resort. 
Pop.  about  1,500. 


Bedford,  Pa.,  the  county-seat  of  Bedford 
County,  situated  on  a  branch  of  the  Juniata 
River,  and  on  the  Pennsylvania  R.R.,  Bedford 
division,  94  miles  southwest  of  Harrisburg.  It 
is  a  place  of  considerable  historic  interest,  as 
it  was  for  some  time  an  important  military 
post,  was  once  Washington's  headquarters,  and 
in  1794  the  headquarters  of  the  troops  sent  to 
suppress  the  Whiskey  Rebellion.  Bedford 
Springs,  a  favorite  summer  resort,  is  located 
about  a  mile  from  Bedford.  The  chief  industry 
is  the  mining  and  manufacture  of  iron.  Pop. 
(1900)    2,167. 

Bedford,  Quebec,  a  town  in  Missisquoi 
County,  situated  near  the  northern  end  of  Lake 
Champlain,  on  the  Canadian  P.  R.R.  Its  chief 
manufactures  are  knitting-needles,  gloves,  and 
farming  implements.     Pop.    (1901)    1,364. 

Bedford  City,  Va.,  a  town  and  county-seat 
of  Bedford  County,  on  the  Norfolk  &  W.  R.R. 
It  has  a  picturesque  situation  at  the  base  of  the 
Blue  Ridge  Mountains,  with  an  elevation  of 
over  1,000  feet.  It  is  the  seat  of  the  Randolph 
Macon  Academy  (Methodist  Episcopal),  of  the 
Belmont  Seminary  (Presbyterian),  of  the  St. 
John's  Institute  for  Girls  (Episcopal),  and  of 
the  Jeter  Female  Institute  (Baptist).  It  is  in 
a  tobacco-growing  region,  is  ine  centre  of  the 
trade  for  its  district,  and  has  a  number  of  tobacco 
factories,  as  well  as  several  other  industries, 
including  a  woolen-mill,  flouring-mills,  and 
foundry.     Pop.    (1900)    2,416. 

Bedford  Level,  England,  a  large  tract  of 
low-lying  land,  comprising  about  400,000  acres 
in  Cambridge,  Norfolk,  Suffolk,  Huntingdon, 
Northampton,  and  Lincoln  counties,  formerly 
full  of  fens  and  marshes,  and  in  rainy  seasons 
for  the  most  part  under  water.  Peterborough 
Fen,  which  is  that  part  of  the  level  running  into 
Northamptonshire,  and  extending  between  Peter- 
borough and  Crowland,  contains  between  6.000 
and  7,000  acres.  One  seventh  part  of  the  level 
is  situated  in  Huntingdonshire.  Nearly  the 
whole  of  the  Isle  of  Ely,  which  forms  the  north- 
ern division  of  Cambridgeshire,  consists  of  thiv 
marshy  ground.  The  southeastern  part  of  Lin- 
colnshire, usually  termed  Holland,  extending  to 
the  river  Witham  on  the  north,  is  also  included 
in  the  Bedford  Level.  About  63,000  acres  i.re 
situated  in  Norfolk,  and  30,000  in  Suffolk.  It 
derives  its  name  from  Francis,  Earl  of  Bedford;, 
who  in  the  17th  century  expended  large  sums 
of  money  in  attempting  to  drain  the  district. 
Numerous  cuts  have  been  made,  intersecting 
everj^  part,  some  so  large  and  deep  as  to  serve 
as  navigable  canals.  In  the  Isle  of  Ely  two  of 
these  cuts,  the  Old  and  New  Bedford  rivers, 
running  nearly  parallel  to  each  other,  are  navi- 
gable for  over  20  miles.  Wind-mills  and  cteari- 
engines  raise  the  water  to  such  a  height  as  to 
admit  of  its  being  carried  off  to  its  proper 
channel;  but  the  expense  has  sometimes  greatly 
exceeded  the  value  of  the  land  reclaimed;  and 
the  great  cuts  and  embankments  constructed  in 
recent  times  have  rendered  the  drainage  nciw 
tolerably  effective.  A  great  part  of  the  level  is 
under  cultivation,  and  produces  grain  and  some 
other  crops  in  considerable  quantities ;  but  there 
is  still  enough  fen  to  form  shelter  for  vast  num- 
bers of  wild  fowl. 

Bedford  Missal,  a  book  made  for  John 
Plantagenet.  Duke  of  Bedford  (q.y.)  ar  d  his 
duchess.     This  rich  volume  is   11    inched  Jong, 


BEDIVERE  —  BEDSTRAW 


7J/2  broad,  and  2^  thick,  bound  in  crimson  vel- 
vet, with  gold  clasps,  on  which  are  engraved 
the  arms  of  Harley,  Cavendish,  and  Hollis, 
■quarterly.  It  is  embellished  with  59  large  mini- 
ature paintings,  with  over  1,000  of  a  small  size; 
and  among  them  are  to  be  seen  several  portraits 
•of  persons  of  eminence.  It  was  purchased  by 
Edward  Harley,  Earl  of  Oxford,  from  Lady 
Worsley,  great-granddaughter  to  W.  Seymour, 
second  Duke  of  Somerset,  who  figured  in  the 
reign  of  Charles  I. ;  and  descended  from  Lord 
Oxford  to  his  daughter,  the  Duchess  of  Port- 
land. In  the  year  1786,  when  the  collection  of 
the  duchess  was  brought  to  sale,  it  was  pur- 
chased by  a  Mr.  Edwards  for  $1,100,  and  was 
sold  again  at  the  sale  of  the  collection  of  that 
•gentleman,  in  the  year  1815,  when  it  brought 
$3>.350,  and  came  into  the  possession  of  the 
Duke  of  Marlborough.  On  coming  to  the  ham- 
mer once  more  it  strongly  attracted  the  atten- 
tion of  book-collectors  and  antiquaries,  and 
realized  the  unprecedented  sum  of  $5,350,  being 
sold  at  that  price  (June  1833)  to  Sir  John  Tobin 
of  Liverpool.  It  is  now  lodged  in  the  collec- 
tion of  the  British  Museum.  In  a  historical 
point  of  view  it  is  interesting  on  account  of  its 
pictorial  embellishments,  some  of  which  have 
been  engraved  by  Virtue  for  his  portraits  to 
illustrate  the  ^History  of  England.^  For  the 
antiquarian  and  the  student  of  the  fine  arts  it  is 
one  of  the  most  interesting  monuments  of  that 
age.  The  antiquarian  Cough  published  a  work 
describing  the  Bedford  Missal.  Dibdin,  in  his 
^Biblioniania,^  gives  an  account  of  it. 

Bedivere,  bed'i-ver.  Sir,  in  Arthurian 
legend,  one  of  King  Arthur's  most  trusted 
knights.  It  was  Sir  Bedivere  who  cast  the 
sword  Excalibur  into  the  lake  and  carried  the 
dying  Arthur  to  the  vessel  in  which  he  was 
borne  away  to  Avalon. 

Bedlam,  a  corruption  of  Bethlehem,  the 
name  of  a  religious  foundation  granted  in  1547 
by  Henry  VIII.  to  the  corporation  of  London, 
and  by  them  applied  to  the  purpose  of  a  hos- 
pital for  the  insane.  The  place  was  originally 
within  the  city  boundaries,  but  in  1814  a  new 
building  was  erected  in  St.  George's  fields,  on 
the  south  side  of  the  Thames,  which  was  called 
New  Bethlehem,  or  vulgarly,  Bedlam.  The 
patients,  who  had  been  discharged  partially 
cured,  and  went  about  begging,  were  called  Bed- 
lam beggars,  or  Tom-o'-Bedlams. 

Bed'lington,  a  coal-mining  town  of  Eng- 
land on  the  river  Blyth  in  Northumberland,  il 
miles  north  of  Newcastle.     Pop.   (1901)   18,750. 

Bedlington  Terriers.     See  Terrier. 

Bedloe's,  or  Liberty  Island,  an  island  in 
New  York  harbor ;  ceded  to  the  United  States 
government,  in  1800 ;  the  site  of  Fort  Wood, 
erected  in  1841  and  mounted  with  "j  guns.  It  is 
now  the  location  of  Bartholdi's  colossal  statue 
of  ^Liberty  Enlightening  the  World,'  presented 
by  France  to  the  United  States.  See  Liberty, 
Statue  of. 

Bedmar',  Alphonso  de  la  Cueva  (Marquis 
te),  Spanish  politician  and  cardinal:  b.  1572;  d 
Oviedo,  1655.  He  was  sent  in  1607  by  Philip 
III.  as  ambassador  to  Venice,  and  rendered  him- 
self famous  by  the  conspiracy  against  Venice 
■which  St.  Real  has  so  well  described.  Not- 
withstanding the  circumstantiality  with  which 
the    details    are    given    by    St.    Real,    the    very 


existence  of  the  conspiracy  is  still  considered  by 
many  a  very  difficult  historical  problem.  The 
probability  is  that  the  conspiracy  was  real,  but 
that  the  Senate,  satisfied  with  having  discovered 
it,  and  not  willing  to  break  altogether  with 
Spain,  did  not  think  it  advisable  to  give  it  much 
publicity.  It  forms  the  subject  of  Otway's 
tragedy,  ^Venice  Preserved.'  Bedmar  was 
obliged  to  save  himself  by  flight  to  avoid 
the  fury  of  the  populace,  but  he  did  not  lose 
the  favor  either  of  his  own  sovereign  or  of  the 
Pope.  By  the  former  he  was  appointed  gov- 
ernor of  the  Low  Countries,  where  his  severity 
and  rigor  made  him  universally  detested;  and 
from  the  latter  he  received  a  cardinal's  hat. 

Bednur,  bed-noor',  or  Bednore,  a  decayed 
city,  now  a  village,  of  Mysore,  India ;  in  the 
midst  of  a  basin  in  a  rugged  tableland  of  the 
Vi'estern  Ghats,  at  an  elevation  of  more  than 
4,000  feet  above  the  sea,  150  miles  northwest  of 
Seringapatam.  It  was  at  one  time  the  seat  of 
government  of  a  rajah,  and  its  population 
exceeded  100,000.  In  1763,  it  was  taken  by 
Hyder  Ali,  who  pillaged  it  of  property  to  the 
estimated  value  of  ii 2.000,000,  and  subsequently 
established  an  arsenal  here. 

Bedott',  Widow,  the  literary  name  of  Mrs. 
Francis  Miriam  Whitcher,  author  of  the  once 
famous  ^ Widow  Bedott  Papers.' 

Bedouin,  bed'oo-en  or  bed'oo-in,  the  name 
given  to  the  nomadic  Arabs,  as  distinguished 
from  those  settled  in  towns  and  villages  and 
engaged  in  agriculture  and  manufactures. 
The  Bedouin  inhabit  the  deserts  of  Arabia 
and  northern  Africa,  and  are  lean  and  short,  but 
very  active  and  capable  of  enduring  great 
fatigue.  They  live  mainly  by  'hunting  and  pas- 
toral occupations,  and  very  little  agriculture  is 
carried  on.  Their  food  consists  mostly  of  the 
produce  of  their  herds,  and  they  enjoy  excellent 
health.  Their  temperament  is  cheerful,  and 
they  are  honorable  in  their  dealings  with  one 
another  or  with  guests.  Many  of  them,  how- 
ever, partly  support  themselves  by  robbery,  but 
the  statements  regarding  their  marauding  pro- 
pensities seem  to  have  been  exaggerated  They 
live  in  tents,  but  frequently,  when  traveling,  they 
sleep  in  the  open  air.  Their  religion  is  pro- 
fessedly Mohammedan,  but  is  of  a  very  simple 
character.  The  women  grind  corn  and  weave 
coarse  cloths,  and  many  of  the  tribes  barter 
horses,  camels,  cattle,  etc.,  for  various  neces- 
saries, such  as  arms  and  cloth.  Some  tribes  gain 
part  of  their  subsistence  by  escorting  travelers, 
pilgrims,  etc.,  across  the  deserts.  They  are 
monogamous,  but  divorce  is  easily  obtained  and 
frequent.  Though  generally  very  ignorant,  they 
are  by  no  means  unintelligent ;  and  they  possess 
the  lively  fancy  of  most  Eastern  nations.  The 
head  of  a  tribe  is  the  shclk,  and  they  have  also 
judges  known  as  cadis.  See  Burckhardt,  ^ Notes 
on  Bedouins  and  Wahabys'  (1830)  ;  Blunt, 
<  Bedouin  Tribes  of  the  Euphrates'    (1879). 

Bedreddin  Hassan,  bed-red-den'  hjis'san, 
the  hero  of  the  amusing  cream  tart  story  in  the 
•^Arabian   Nights  Entertainments.' 

Bedstraw,  Galium,  a  genus  of  about  200 
annual  or  perennial  herbs  with  four-angled 
stems,  natives  mostly  of  the  colder  climates, 
whether  of  latitude  or  altitude,  in  the  northern 
hemisphere.  The  species,  which  are  mostly 
harsh-feeling  weeds,  are  often  attractive  for 
their  regular  whorls  of  leaves  and   their  pani- 


BEE  —  BEE-EATER 


cles  of  profuse  minute,  white,  yellow,  green  or 
purple  blossoms  which  in  some  species  are  used 
by  florists  to  add  *"misty  delicacy  and  airy 
grace^'  to  bouquets  especially  of  sweet  peas,  ana 
lo  cover  rock-work  in  and  out  of  doors.  The 
two  species  most  cultivated  for  this  purpose 
are  G.  mollugo  (European)  sometimes  called 
baby's  breath  (see  Gypsophila),  and  G.  boreale 
(American).  Yellow  bedstraw  or  cheese  ren- 
net (G.  vernutn),  a  species  with  yellow  flowers, 
is  used  for  curdling  milk.  Its  flower  sprays 
yield  a  yellow  dye  when  boiled  in  alum  solu- 
tions and  its  roots  a  red  one,  said  to  rival  mad- 
der as  a  wool  dye.  For  this  use  attempts  at 
cultivation  have  been  made  in  England.  This 
species,  together  with  G.  irifidum  and  G.  boreale, 
redden  the  bones  and  milk  of  animals  that  eat 
them  in  quantity.  Goose  grass  or  cleavers  (G. 
Aparinc),  a  troublesome  weed  common  to 
Europe,  Asia,  and  America,  yields  a  seed  some- 
times used  as  a  substitute  for  cofifee.  It  is  noted 
for  the  hooked  prickles  of  its  stems,  fruits,  and 
leaves.  In  China  B.  tuberosum  is  cultivated  for 
its  farinaceous  tubers.  Some  species,  for  in- 
stance, G.  mollugo  and  G.  rigidum,  have  been 
tried  in  cases  of  epilepsy  and  others  in  cutane- 
ous disorders. 

Bee,  a  name  applied  to  those  Hymenoptera 
which  stand  at  the  head  of  the  order,  and  are 
represented  by  the  bumblebee  and  the  honey- 
bee. They  differ  from  the  wasps  in  the  mouth 
parts  being  longer,  especially  the  tongue  or  pro- 
boscis. Each  hind  tibia  is  hollowed,  broad,  and 
so  modified  as  to  form  a  "honey-basket.^'  The 
hairs  are  more  or  less  spinulose  or  plumose, 
often  of  use  in  carrying  pollen.  Bees  are  soli- 
tary or  social  in  their  habits,  and  form  nests  con- 
sisting of  either  a  single  or  many  cells,  and  of 
varying  materials  and  degrees  of  complexity. 
There  are  two  families  of  bees:  (i)  Andrenidce, 
comprising  solitary  bees,  with  the  labian  or 
under  lip  flattened  and  very  short.  They  exca- 
vate nests  in  turf  and  in  grassy  sunny  fields, 
making  a  deep  pipe  or  hole,  with  short  lateral 
galleries  in  which  the  grub  feeds  and  grows. 
The  species  of  Halictus  and  Andrena  comprise 
the  most  common  wild  bees.  They  entertain 
guest  bees  (Nomada).     See  Guest-bees. 

The  family  Apidce  includes  the  species  of 
Bombus  (see  Bumblebee),  Xylocopa  (see  Car- 
penter Bee)  ;  stingless  bees  (Melipona),  and 
the  honeybee  (q.v.)  Apis  melliflca.  In  the  bees 
the  labium  is  usually  produced  into  a  long, 
slender,  hairy  proboscis,  which  is.  bent  under 
the  body.  It  is  very  long  in  Anthropora,  and  in 
Englossa  longer  than  the  body.  The  basal 
joints  of  the  labial  palpi  are  longer  than  the 
others.  The  mouth-parts  are  complicated  and 
adapted  for  manifold  purposes  connected  with 
nest-  or  cell-building  and  the  collection  of  nec- 
tar and  pollen.  Indeed  the  bees  stand  at  the 
head  of  the  insect  series,  whether  we  take  into 
account  their  structure,  mode  of  development, 
habits,  instincts,  and  differentiation  of  the  sexes, 
though  the  flies  (Diptera)  are  in  their  way 
more  specialized,  but  the  specialization  of  cer- 
tain parts  in  flies  is  accompanied  by  the  degen- 
eration and  atropy  of  others.  The  humble-bee 
besides  its  ordinary  use  in  nest-building  employs 
its  jaws  to  cut  holes  in  flowers  in  order  to  reach 
the  nectar. 

The  transformations  of  the  bee  are  complete. 


The  larva  is  a  footless  maggot  incapable  of  ex- 
tended locomotion  and  lives  in  its  cell  where  it 
is  fed  by  the  workers,  or  lives  on  pollen  or 
honey  stored  up  in  the  cell ;  the  food  is  always 
derived  from  plants  or  other  bees,  although 
honeybees  have  been  observed  licking  meat.  The 
cells  of  the  honeybee  are  open,  the  workers, 
feeding  the  larvse  with  a  mixture  of  honey  and 
pollen,  the  honey  being  specially  adapted  to  be 
digested  by  the  young.  The  larva  transforms 
into  the  pupa  within  its  cell,  previously  spinning 
a  slight  cocoon,  or  in  the  case  of  the  honeybee 
simply  closing  the  mouth  of  its  cell  with  a  cover 
of  silk. 

The  sting  of  the  queen  bee  is  curved,  of  the 
worker  straight ;  it  is  composed  of  three  pairs 
of  processes  arising  from  the  under  side  of  the 
segments  near  the  end  of  the  abdomen,  wherein 
is  the  poison-sac. 

Besides  male  and  female,  there  are  in  the 
social  species  numerous  barren  females  or  work- 
ers, in  which  the  ovaries  are  small  and  unde- 
veloped. Occasionally  worker  bees  are  capable 
of  laying  eggs  and  producing  young.  The  dif- 
ference between  the  workers  and  the  fertile  fe- 
males or  queen  is  now  known  to  be  due  to  the 
difference  in  the  food  given  to  the  larvae ;  that 
of  the  queen  larva  being  richer  in  nitrogenous 
substances  than  that  fed  to  the  larval  workers. 
Thus  heredity  has  nothing  to  do  with  the  mat- 
ter ;  the  larvse  of  the  workers  and  of  the  queen 
inherit  the  same  peculiarities;  the  barrenness 
and  smaller  size  of  the  worker  bee  is  the  result 
of  being  fed  with  different  food. 

Bees  are  essential  agents  in  the  fertilization 
of  flowers,  in  setting  fruit,  and  were  it  not  for 
them  it  is  now  supposed  that  we  should  not 
have  had  the  irregular  flowers  of  the  pea  and 
other  papilionaceous  plants.  ,  It  is  a  notable  fact 
that  the  incoming  or  origin  of  flowers  and  of 
the  bees  and  other  insects  which  visit  them 
was  geologically  about  the  same  time.  At  any 
rate  bees  ensure  the  existence  of  flowers  and 
the  latter  have  modified  bees. 

The  number  of  known  species  of  bees  is  up- 
ward of  5,000.  They  abound  in  all  parts  of 
the  world,  especially  the  tropics;  while  humble- 
bees  (Bombus)  reach  the  polar  regions  and  live 
as  alpine  forms  on  high  mountain  plateaux  and 
ranges.  For  the  different  kinds  of  bees,  see 
also  Bee-keeping;  Bumblebee;  Cabfenter  Bee; 
Honeybee;  Leaf-cutting  Bee;  Mason  Bee; 
Stingless  Bee;  also  Insect. 

Bee-birds,  birds  that  devour  bees,  especially 
the  honeybee.  Not  many  birds  have  this  habit, 
the  bees  being  protected  against  most  birds  by 
their  stings.  A  few  fly-catching  birds,  however, 
have  learned  how  to  avoid  being  stung,  and 
catch  not  only  bees  but  wasps,  take  them  to 
a  perch  and  beat  them,  so  as  to  kill  them,  and 
probably  get  rid  of  the  sting  before  swallowing 
them.  Notable  among  these  are  the  European 
and  African  bee-eaters  (q.v.).  The  American 
kingbirds  (q.v.),  also  catch  bees,  but  not  as 
frequently  as  is  popularly  supposed,  and  are 
known  in  the  southern  States  as  "bee-martins. '* 

Bee-eater,  a  small,  richly  plumaged,  and 
graceful  bird  of  southern  Europe  and  northern 
Africa,  whose  food  consists  almost  wholly  of 
bees  and  wasps,  and  which  haunts  the  neighbor- 
hood of  the  hives  of  honeybees  and  devours 
these  useful  insects  in  great  numbers.    The  bee- 


BEES. 


1.  Drone. 

2.  Queen. 

3 .  Worker,  with  front  view  of  each . 

4.  Italian  bee. 

5.  Egyptian  bee. 


6.  Comb  with  open  and  closed  cells, 

(a),  queen  cell. 

7.  A  swarm;     8-15,  Bee  enemies. 

8.  Hornet. 
0.  Bee  wolf. 

10.  Wasp. 


I  la,  Male;    iib,  female,   and   iic, 
larvae  of  the  May  worm. 

12,  12a.  Bee  beetle  and  larva. 

13,  13a.  Bee  fly  and  larva. 

14,  14a.  Wax  moth  and  larva. 

15,  Bee  louse,  enlarged. 


BEE-KEEPING 


Bee  on  the  wing. 


Bee  on   Red  Clover. 


eaters  are  related  to  the  kingfishers,  and  like 
them  dig  deep  nesting-holes  in  earthen  banks, 
and  lay  pure  white  eggs. 

Bee-keeping.  Few  persons  who  see  the  little 
boxes  of  honey  in  the  market  realize  the  import- 
ance and  extent  of  the  bee-keeping 
industry  of  this  country.  Careful 
estimates,  based  on  United  States 
statistics,  and  the  output  of  large 
factories  for  the  manufacture  of 
bee-hives  and  honey-boxes,  show 
that  at  least  125,000,000  pounds 
of  honey  is  annually  produced, 
making  an  aggregate  of  5,000  car- 
loads, or  a  train  35  miles  long.  The  aggregate 
value  of  this,  at  a  conservative  figure,  is  $10,- 
000,000.  When  it  is  remembered  that  Califor- 
nia alone,  in  a  good  year, 
can  produce  500  car- 
loads of  honey,  and  that 
a  good  many  of  the  other 
States  produce  from  50 
to  100  carloads,  one  can 
form  some  idea  of  the 
commercial  possibilities 
wrapped  up  in  so  small 
an  animal   as   the  bee. 

The  honey  resources  of 
the  great  West  are  very 
largely  dependent  on  al- 
falfa and  mountain  sage. 
In  the  north-central  and 
eastern  States,  clover  and 
basswood,  in  the  south- 
central,  tupelo,  palmetto,  catclaw,  mesquite,  and 
guajilla. 

There  are  several  races  of  bees  —  Apis  dor- 
sata,  or  the  giant  bee  of  India  and  of  the  Philip- 
pines ;  A.  Indica,  of  India ;  A.  Horca,  and  A. 
mellifica.  From  a  commercial  standpoint,  the 
last  mentioned  is  by  all  odds  the  most  im- 
portant. It  comprises  the  black  or  German 
bees  of  this  country ;  the  Italians,  from  the 
southern  part  of  Italy;  the  Syrians,  of  Palestine; 
the  Cyprians,  from  the  island  of  Cyprus ;  the 
Carniolans,  from  Austria ;  and  the  Tunisians, 
from  North  Africa.  But  the  most  important  of 
all  of  these  varieties  is  the  Italian.  They  are 
the  most  industrious  and  the  gentlest.  They, 
together  with  the  black  or  German  bees  and 
their  crosses,  incorrectly  termed  ^hybrids,*  are 
used  most  extensively  in  the  United  States  — 
in  fact,  throughout  almost  all  the  civilized  world. 
Three  Kinds  of  Hive  Bees. — There  are  three 
kinds  of  bees  in  the  hive ;  namely,  the  workers, 
or  undeveloped  females ;  the 
queen,  a  fully  developed  fe- 
male ;  and  the  drone,  or  the 
male  bee.  The  queen  lays  all 
the  eggs  of  the  hive,  and  may 
as  many  as  3,000  a  day. 
Notwithstanding  there  may  be 
from  10,000  to  100,000  bees  in 
a  single  colonj^  the  queen  will 
be  the  mother  o.f  the  whole 
colony.  The  drones  are  incapa- 
ble of  gathering  honey,  and 
serve  only  one  purpose  —  that  of  fertilizing  or 
fecundating  the  young  queens,  which  act  takes 
place  in  the  air.  The  workers  gather  all  the 
honey  and  pollen,  fill  all  the  combs,  and  rear 
the  young  or  baby  bees.    As  soon  as  the  mating 


season  is  over,  the  drones  are  shoved  out  of  the 
hives  and  allowed  to  starve^ 

How  to  Handle  Bees. —  There  is  a  general 
impression  to  the  effect  that  the  ordinary  honey- 
bees are  vicious,  ever  in  a  towering  rage,  ready 
to  attack  any  one  who  comes  near  their  hives. 
This  is  a  great  mistake.  Under  certain  condi- 
tions, when  their  habits  are  known,  they  can 
be  handled  almost  like  kittens ;  will  permit  one 
to  tear  their  hives  apart,  rob  them  of  their 
months  and  months  of  hard  earnings  —  the 
honey  and  the  wax  —  without  even  offering  to 
sting.     But  an  inexperienced  or  awkward  per- 


Queen  Bee. 


Bee-Smoker. 

son  may  infuriate  them  to  fearful  vengeance. 
To  bring  them  into  a  state  of  subjection  it  is 
only  necessary  to  blow  smoke  into  the  entrance 
and  over  the  combs,  when,  if  the  motions  about 
the  hive  are  careful  and  deliberate,  they  will 
offer  no  attack.  Smoke,  when  intelligently 
used,  disarms  opposition,  puts  the  bees  in  a  quiet 
state,  and  enables  their  owner  to  do  with  them, 
within  reasonable  limits,  whatsoever  he  will. 

The  bee-smoker  is  simply  a  smaU  bellows 
attached  to  a  sort  of  tin  cup  having  a  suitable 
snout  from  which 
the  smoke  is 
blown  by  the  ac- 
tion of  the  bel- 
lows, forcing  air 
through  the  cup  in 
which  there  is  a 
slow-burning  fuel. 
Besides  the  bee- 
smoker,  the  bee- 
keeper generally 
uses  a  bee-veil 
made  of  mo.squito- 
netting,  Brussels 
net,  or  any  suitable 
material,  the  same 
fastened  to  the 
rim  of  the  hat,  and  tucked  inside  of  the  coat, 
collar  or  under  the  suspenders.  Gloves  are 
sometimes  used  by  very  timid  persons  or  be- 
ginners; but  as  a  general  thing  all  work  with 
the  bees  is  performed  with  the  bare  hand. 
Stings  are,  of  course,  occasionally  received  ;  but 
beyond  a  sharp  momentary  pain  no  permanent 
effect  will  be  felt  after  the  first  season;  for  the 
system    of   the   bee-keeper    very    soon    becomes 


BEE-KEEPING 


inoculated  so  that  no  swelling  takes  place. 
There  are  many  who  receive  from  ten  to  twenty 
stings  a  da}%  without  any  ill  effects;  but  if  one 
will  work  carefully  he  will  receive  almost  no 
stings. 

Marketable  Products  of  the  Hive. — These  are 
beeswax,  comb  and  extracted  honey,  propolis  or 


Section  of  Comb  Honey. 

bee-glue  (sometimes  used  for  making  shoe 
polishes),  and  "apis  mellifica,**  a  homeopathic 
preparation  taken  from  the  poison  sacs  at  the 
root  of  the  stings  of  bees.  While  beeswax  is 
an  important  product,  and  commands  a  good 
price  in  the  United  States,  comb  and  extracted 
honey  are  the  main  sources  of  revenue  to  the 
bee-keeper. 

Comb  honey  is  usually  put  up  in  little  square 
or  oblong  boxes,  of  which  something  like 
50,000,000  are  made  and  used  in  the  United 
States  annually.  The  honey  in  these  boxes 
retails  all  the  way  from  12  to  20  cents.  Ex- 
tracted is  honey  in  the  liquid  form,  throw^n 
from  the  combs  by  means  of  centrifugal  force 
in  a  honey-extractor,  hence  the  name.  There 
are  bee-keepers  who  make  a  specialty  of  pro- 
ducing honey  in  the  comb,  and  others  the  same 
product  free  from  the  comb.  The  first  men- 
tioned can  not  be  adulterated  nor  manufactured, 
newspaper  reports  to  the  contrary.  One  bee- 
keeper of  considerable  standing  and  prominence 
has  had  a  standing  offer  of  $1,000  for  a  single 


Comb  Honey  Super. 

sample  of  artificial  comb  honey  so  perfect  as  to 
deceive  the  ordinary  consumer.  Notwithstand- 
ing that  this  offer  has  been  broadly  published 
over  the  United  States  for  over  twenty  years, 
no  one  has  ever  claimed  it. 


It  may  be  well  to  explain  that  a  partial  basis 
for  these  canards  lies  in  the  fact  that  bee-keep- 
ers use  a  commercial  product  known  as  "comb 
foundation,*'  which  is  nothing  more  or  less  than 
sheeted  wax,  about  an  eighth  of  an  inch  thick, 
embossed  on  both  sides  with  indentations  hav- 
ing the  exact  shape  and  form  of  the  bottom  of 
the  cells  of  honey-comb  —  hence  the  name.  It 
is  put  into  the  hive,  where  the  bees  draw  it 
out  into  comb.  This  is  as  far  as  the  skill  of 
man  can  go ;  hence  there  is  no  such  thing  as 
artificial  comb;  much  less,  artificial  comb  honey. 

The   business  of  producing  comb  honey  re- 


Bee  Hive  for  Comb    Honey. 

quires  some  knowledge  of  the  trade.  Hives  and 
supers  require  to  be  specially  constructed,  and 
so  arranged  that  the  little  boxes  containing 
strips  of  comb  foundation  shall  be  accessible  to 
the  bees  where  they  can  construct  the  founda- 
tion into  comb,  fill  the  cells  with  honey,  and 
seal  them  over.  When  their  owner  finds  that 
his   little   servants   are   busily    at    work   in   the 


Uncapping  Can. 

fields ;  that  the  combs  are  beginning  to  whiten 
and  to  be  bulged  with  honej^  in  what  is  called 
the  brood-nest,  he  puts  on  his   honey-boxes  in 


BEE-KEEPING 


the  part  of  the  hrVe  he  calls  the  "super.^^  These 
are  allowed  to  remain  on  during  the  height  of 
the  honey-flow  until  they  are  filled  and  capped 
over,  when  they  are  removed  and  others  put 
in  their  place. 

The  business  of  producing  extracted  (or 
liquid)  honey  requires  the  same  intelligent  care 
and  attention.  Instead  of  section-boxes,  how- 
ever, an  extra  set  of  combs,  or  "brood-frames,'' 
as  they  are  called,  are  put  in  the  upper  story, 
the  same  being  placed  above  the  lower  or  brood 
part  of  the  hive.  When  these  are  filled  with 
honejs  and  capped  over,  they  are  removed  from 
the  hive  by  first  shaking  the  bees  off,  taken  to 
the  extracting-house,  and  extracted.  The  thin 
film  of  wax  covering  the  comb  is  shaved  off 
with  a  thin-bladed  knife  specially  designed  for 
the  purpose.  After  the  combs  are  uncapped 
they  are  put  in  the  honey-extractor,  and  re- 
volved at  a  high  rate  of  speed.  The  honey  flies 
out  of  the  comb  by  centrifugal  force  against  the 


Honey  Extractor. 

sides  of  the  extractor,  when  the  combs  are  re- 
versed, exposing  the  other  surfaces,  which  are 
emptied  in  a  like  manner.  They  are  next  re- 
turned to  the  hive  to  be  filled  by  the  bees,  when 
the  process  may  be  repeated  as  long  as  the 
season  lasts. 

Stvarming. —  At  the  beginning  of  or  during 
what  is  called  the  honey-flow,  when  the  colony 
has  reached  a  high  state  of  prosperity,  and  the 
combs  are  being  filled  with  honey,  a  swarm  is 
liable  to  come  forth  between  the  hours  of  nine 
and  three  o'clock.  Three-fourths  of  the  bees, 
including  the  queen,  are  pretty  sure  to  come  out 
with  a  rush,  filling  the  air  with  thousands  and 
thousands  of  them.  The  bees  hover  about  in 
the  air  for  fifteen  or  twenty  minutes,  when  they 
will  in  all  probability  cluster  on  some  bush  or 
tree.  They  will  wait  here  for  two  or  three 
hours,  or  perhaps  as  many  days,  at  the  end  of 
which  time  they  will  take  wing  again  and  go 
direct  into  some  hollow  tree  or  cave  where  they 
will  take  up  new  quarters  and  start  housekeep- 
ing anew.  The  young  bees,  with  one  or  more 
young  queens,  are  left  to  take  care  of  the  old 
hive. 

In  ordinary  practice  it  is  a  custom  for  the 
bee-keeper  to  rehive  the  swarm  by  taking  the 
bunch  of  bees,  as  soon  as  it  clusters,  and  putting 
it  into  another  hive.      Or  he  can,  if  he  chooses, 


clip  the  old  queen's  wings,  preventing  her  flight 
with  the  swarm ;  and  when  the  bees  come  forth 
she  will  crawl  out  of  the  entrance  to  be  cap- 
tured by  her  owner;  and  as  soon  as  her  subjects 
return,  which  they  will  do  to  find  their  royal 
mother,  they  are  allowed  to  go  into  a  new  hive 
on  the  old  stand,  while  the  old  hive  is  carried 
to  another  location  in  the  bee-yard. 

Robbing. — There  are  certain  times  during  the 
season  when  no  nectar  is  secreted  by  the  flow- 
ers. It  is  during  such  periods  as  this  that  the 
bees  will  rob  each  other  if  they  can,  or  help 
themselves  at  candy-stands  or  to  the  house- 
wife's fruit-preserves  during  the  canning  sea- 
son. When  sweets  can  be  obtained  in  consider- 
able quantity,  either  from  a  weak  colony  unable 
to  defend  itself,  or  from  man,  the  bees  are  apt 
to  become  furious,  and  their  craze  is  not  unlike 
that  of  gold-hunters  when  gold  is  discovered  in 
large  quantities.  There  is  a  rush ;  and  when 
the  sweets  are  suddenly  cut  off,  the  bees  are  in- 
clined to  be  cross,  and  to  sting.  The  wise  and 
careful  bee-keeper  will  see  to  it  that  the  en- 
trances of  his  weak  colonies  are  properly  con- 
tracted so  that  the  sentinels  or  guards  can 
protect  themselves  from  intrusion  from  other 
bees. 

Feeding. — The  bee-keeper  may,  perhaps,  take 
all  the  honey  away  from  his  bees,  or  nearly  so, 
as  his  honey  will  bring  two  or  three  times  as 
much  as  any  cheap  syrup  costs  him.  Sometimes 
he  finds  it  profitable  to  take  the  honey  all  away 
and  give  them  syrup  made  of  granulated  sugar. 
The  purpose  of  this,  of  course,  is  to  keep  them 
from  starving  during  the  time  no  honey  is  com- 
ing in  from  natural  sources  or  during  the  win- 
ter. 

Uniting. — After  the  honey- flow,  and  just  be- 
fore winter  comes  on,  there  are  liable  to  be 
many  weak  colonies.  It  is  a  common  practice 
to  put  two  or  more  of  these  together  so  as  to 
make  one  strong  stock.  The  combs  from  two  or 
three  different  hives  are  put  into  one  hive,  and 
the  bees  are  confined  for  several  days  w-ith  wire 
cloth  over  the  entrance,  when  they  are  allowed 
to  fly.  Some  of  them  will  return  to  their  old 
stands,  but  the  majority  of  them  will  remain.  _ 

Wintering. —  Two  methods  are  in  vogue  in 
the  colder  portions  of  the  United  States.  One 
is,  to  put  the  colonies  in  double-walled  hives, 
packed  under  chaff  cushions,  and  contracting 
the  entrances  down  to  shut  out  as  much  cold  as 
possible.  The  other  is,  to  put  the  summer  hives 
into  a  dry  dark  cellar  as  soon  as  cold  weather 
comes  on,  leaving  them  there  till  spring. 

Diseases  of  Bees. —  Bees  are  subject  to  dis- 
eases, like  all  domestic  animals,  such  as  dysen- 
tery, paralysis,  and  foul  and  black  brood.  Dys- 
entery, as  its  name  signifies,  is  a  sort  of  bowel 
trouble  due  to  the  retention  of  the  feces  for  an 
extended  time  during  winter.  If  the  bees  are 
shut  up  without  a  chance  for  flight  (for  they 
never  void  their  feces  inside  of  the  hive  except 
when  confined),  their  intestines  become  dis- 
tended, and  this  finally  results  in  purging.  The 
only  remedy  is  warm  weather  and  a  flight. 
Paralysis  is  a  form  of  palsy  that  seems  to  affect 
the  adult  bees.  Their  bodies  become  swollen 
and  shiny,  the  affected  individuals  crawling  out 
of  the  entrance,  and  running  into  the  grass  to 
die.  The  remedy  is  to  sprinkle  powdered  sul- 
phur over  the  combs.  Foul  brood  and  black 
brood  are  germ-diseases  that  affect  bees  in  the 


BEE-KILLER  —  BEECH 


larval  or  imago  state.  The  little  maggots  be- 
come brown  or  black,  and  die,  the  dead  matter 
finally  assuming  a  sodden,  gelatinous,  or  ropy 
condition.  When  it  attacks  a  colony  shake  the 
bees  into  a  clean  hive,  and  put  them  on  frames 
of  foundation.  For  three  or  four  days  feed 
them  sugar  syrup.  The  old  combs,  including  the 
frames,  must  be  burned.  If  the  hive  has  been 
soiled  by  the  tainted  honey  or  dead  matter,  it 
must  be  scalded  out  or  held  over  flames  for  a 
few  seconds.  Any  honey  taken  from  the  hive 
may  be  rendered  safe  to  give  to  the  bees  by 
boiling  it  for  two  hours. 

Bibliograpliy.—  Root.  <A  B  C  of  Bee  Cul- 
ture>  (1903)  ;  Miller,  <Forty  Years  Among  the 
Bees;^  Langstroth,  ^The  Honey-Bee,>  revised 
edition  (1889);  Hutchinson,  ^Advanced  Bee 
Culture'  (1902)  ;  Cook,  < Manual  of  the  Apiary' 
(1902)  ;  Root,  ^Quinby,  New  Bee-keeping;' 
and  the  following  periodicals:  ^American  Bee 
Journal,'  published  in  Chicago,  111.;  ^Gleanings 
in  Bee  Culture,'  Medina,  Ohio;  *  Bee-keepers' 
Review,'  Flint,  Mich.:  < American  Bee-keeper,' 
Fort  Pierce,  Fla. ;  ^Progressive  Bee-keeper,' 
Higginsville,   Mo. 

E.  R.  Root, 
Author  of  ^A  B  C  of  Bee  Culture''  and  Editor 
of  '■Gleanings  in  Bee  Culture.' 

Bee-killer,  one  of  the  robber-flies  (q.v.),  of 
the  dipterous  family  Asilidcc,  some  of  which  are 
known  to  seize  with  their  sharp  lancet-shaped 
beak  bumblebees  and  honeybees,  and  suck  their 
blood.  This  species  Trupanca  apivora,  the  bee- 
killer,  captures  the  honeybee  while  on  the  wing, 
and  one  such  fly  has  been  known  to  kill  141  bees 
in  a  single  dav.  These  flies  are  stout-bodied, 
hairy  or  bristly,  with  a  long  abdomen ;  the 
mouth-parts  are  much  developed  and  adapted 
for  piercing.  The  maggots  live  in  the  soil,  prey- 
ing on  the  grubs  of  beetles,  or  on  the  roots  of 
plants. 

Bee-larkspur.  A  well-known  flowering 
plant.  Delphinium  grandiHorum. 

Bee-line.  The  shortest  route  to  any  place, 
that  which  a  bee  is  assumed  to  take ;  though,  in 
fact,  it  often  does  differently  in  its  flight  through 
the  air. 

Bee-louse  (Braula  coeca)  is  a  parasite  on 
the  honeybee,  occurring  on  the  thorax  espe- 
cially of  the  queen  bee  —  rarely  on  the  drones. 
Benton  states  that  he  has  at  one  time  removed 
as  many  as  75  from  a  queen,  though  the  num- 
bers do  not  generally  exceed  a  dozen.  It  is  the 
sole  member  of  a  family  (Braulidce)  of  flies 
closely  allied  to  the  horse  flies  (Hippoboscidcv) 
and  the  bat-ticks  (q.v.).  The  bee-louse  is  about 
one  twentieth  of  an  inch  in  length,  entirely  with- 
out wings,  and  somewhat  spider-like  in  appear- 
ance. On  the  day  the  maggot  or  larva  hatches 
from  the  egg  it  sheds  its  skin  and  turns  to  an 
oval  puparium  of  a  dark-brown  color.  It  has 
frequently  been  imported  to  this  country  on 
queens  with  attendant  bees  but  has  gained  no 
foothold. 

Bee  Moth,  or  Wax  Moth,  a  moth  belong- 
ing to  the  family  Gallcridce;  specifically,  Gai- 
leria  mellonella,  the  larva  of  which  feeds  on 
wax  in  hives.  The  worm  is  yellowish-white 
with  brownish  dots.  It  constructs  silken  galler- 
ies running  through  the  comb  of  the  bee-hive  on 
which  it  feeds.  When  about  to  transform  it 
spins  a  thick  white  cocoon     Two  broods  of  the 


moth  appear,  one  in  the  spring,  the  other  in  Au- 
gust, and  the  caterpillars  mature  in  about  three 
weeks.  It  may  become  a  most  troublesome  pest 
in  the  apiary. 

Bee-orchis,  the  name  of  a  species  of  orchis, 
the  Ophrys  apifcra  It  is  so  called  because  a 
part  of  the  flower  resembles  a  bee.  It  is  large, 
with  the  sepals  purplish  or  greenish-white,  and 
the  lip  brown  variegated  with  yellow. 

Bee-tree,  a  forest  tree  inhabited  by  honey- 
making  bees,  which  have  taken  possession  of 
some  natural  hollow  and  filled  it  with  combs. 
Such  a  tree  may  be  found  by  accident,  or  by 
deliberate  hunting.  Those  in  search  take  to 
the  edge  of  the  woods  a  box  of  diluted  honey, 
and  when  they  see  bees  near  them,  open  the 
bait  to  which  one  by  one  the  bees  will  be  at- 
tracted. The  direction  of  their  flight  is  then 
carefully  observed ;  the  bait  is  moved  to  an- 
other point,  and  new  observations  taken,  and 
the  converging  lines  followed  until  they  inter- 
sect at  the  tree.  As  most  of  these  bee  tree 
colonies  are  escaped  swarms  the  capture  of  the 
bees  themselves  is  more  important  than  merely 
to  get  such  honey  as  may  be  there.  The  best 
plan  is  therefore  to  climb  to  the  nest,  if  pos- 
sible, and  gather  the  combs  and  contents  to  be 
let  down  in  a  pail  or  basket,  or  else  saw  out 
the  whole  section  of  the  tree  containing  the 
nest  and  lower  it  to  the  ground.  Full  direc- 
tions for  this  complicated  proceeding  are  given 
by  Root,  ^A  B  C  of  Bee  Culture'   (1903). 

Beech,  a  small  genus  (Fagus)  of  handsome 
forest  trees  of  the  natural  order  Fagacece,  di- 
vided by  some  botanists  into  two  genera  :  Eufa- 
gus,  containing  five  species  natives  of  the  north- 
ern hemisphere ;  and  Nothofagus,  embracing  12 
species  indigenous  to  the  southern  hemisphere. 
The  American  beech  (Fagus  ferruginea),  and 
the  European  or  common  beecli  (F.  sylvatica), 
are  closely  similar.  They  often  attain  heights 
exceeding  80  feet,  and  diameters  greater  than  2>\ 
feet.  The  former  has  smooth,  light-gray  bark,  a 
broad  round  head,  and  leaves  which  turn  yellow 
before  they  fall  in  the  autumn ;  the  latter  has 
dark-gray  bark,  is  more  ovate  in  general  out- 
line and  has  shining  leaves  which  persist  during 
most  of  the  winter.  The  tree  scarcely  bears 
fruit  before  the  50th  year  of  its  age,  and  then 
not  every  year.  After  the  140th  year,  the  wood- 
rings  become  thinner.  The  tree  lives  for  about 
250  years.  Some  stems  are  fluted,  some  even 
twisted.  The  roots  stretch  far  away,  near  to 
the  surface  of  the  soil,  partly  above  it.  Young 
beeches  are  useful  for  live  hedges,  as  they  bear 
pruning,  and  as  their  branches  coalesce  by  being 
tied  together,  or  by  rubbing  each  other.  Ampu- 
tations of  limbs,  and  deep  incisions  in  the  tree, 
soon  become  obliterated  by  the  bark,  which  con- 
tains a  peculiar  periderma.  The  dead  leaves  are 
often  used  by  the  poor  of  Europe  for  stuffing 
beds  and  pillows.  Each  yields  pleasant,  edible, 
three-angled  nuts,  usually  in  pairs  in  prickly  in- 
volucres. These  nuts  are  eaten  by  swine,  deer, 
and  poultry,  and  in  France,  and  to  some  extent 
elsewhere,  are  pressed  to  extract  a  mild  culinary 
long-keeping  oil.  Both  species  thrive  in  light, 
limy  loams,  upon  which  formations  they  often 
become  the  leading  species  of  tree,  covering  large 
tracts.  They  do  not  grow  in  damp  situations. 
Their  reddi.sh-brown,  solid,  hard  but  brittle 
wood  makes  excellent  fuel,  and  is  largely  used 


BEECH  TREE  (Fagus  sylvatica). 


BEECH  DROPS  — BEECHER 


for  making  tool  handles  where  bending-  and 
twisting  are  not  expected.  The  wood  is  not  dur- 
able in  contact  with  soil,  but  since  it  is  remark- 
ably lasting  when  immersed  in  water,  it  is 
largely  used  in  dams,  water-mills,  sluices,  etc. 
The  wood  of  the  European  species  is  preferred 
to  that  of  all  other  species,  except  walnut,  for 
making  shoes  (sabots),  in  France,  since  it  is 
remarkably  resistant  to  the  entrance  of  water. 
The  bark  is  sometimes  used  in  tanning.  Both 
species  are  used  in  ornamental  planting  on  ac- 
count of  their  symmetrical  forms,  the  colors  of 
their  bark  and  foliage,  which  latter  is  remark- 
ably free  from  the  attacks  of  disease  and  insects. 
The  European  species  has  produced  a  large  num- 
ber of  varieties,  of  which  the  copper  or  purple 
beech  is  probably  the  best  known  in  America. 
F.  Sicboldi,  a  native  of  eastern  Asia,  is  some- 
times planted  for  ornament.  F.  Ciinninghami, 
the  "myrtle  tree'*  of  Tasmania,  is  a  large  tree 
with  leathery  birch-like  leaves.  F.  betuloidcs,  a 
Terra  del  Fuegian  species,  is  a  striking  feature 
of  the  winter  landscape  on  account  of  its  ever- 
green foliage.  Its  wood  is  used  for  flooring  ves- 
sels, and  is  exported  to  the  Falkland  Islands 
and  elsewhere  for  roofing.  Blue  or  water 
beech,  better  known  as  American  hornbeam 
(Carpiiins  aincricana),  is  a  common  tree  in  damp 
woods  and  along  streams.  It  is  not  a  member 
of  this  genus.     See  Hornbe.a.m. 

From  the  wood  of  the  beech  an  especially 
pure  form  of  creosote  is  obtained  that  is  largely 
employed  in  the  treatment  of  chronic  lung  dis- 
orders.    See  Creosote. 

Beech  Drops,  a  plant  parasite  on  beech 
tree  roots.     See  Cancer  Root. 

Beecher,  Catherine  Esther,  American  edu- 
cator and  philanthropist,  eldest  daughter  of  Ly- 
man Beecher:  b.  East  Hampton,  L.  I.,  6  Sept. 
1800;  d.  Elmira,  N.  Y.,  12  May  1878.  Her 
faith  and  life  were  nearly  wrecked  at  22  by  the 
loss  of  her  betrothed,  Prof.  A.  M.  Fisher  of 
Yale,  in  a  shipwreck,  and  she  lived  unmarried, 
plunging  into  work  as  a  relief ;  but  she  had  the 
Beecher  energy  which  could  hardly  have  re- 
mained quiet  in  any  case.  From  1822  to  1832 
she  managed  a  girls'  school  in  Hartford,  Conn., 
with  remarkable  success  and  repute ;  she  wrote 
some  of  her  own  class-books,  one  on  mental  and 
moral  philosophy  being  afterward  used  in  col- 
leges. From  1832  to  1834  she  kept  a  similar 
school  in  Cincinnati,  in  order  to  be  with  her 
father,  who  was  at  the  head  of  Lane  Seminary ; 
but  her  health  compelled  her  to  abandon  it.  For 
the  rest  of  her  life  she  worked  with  heart  and 
soul  to  advance  the  education  of  women  and 
girls,  physical  and  social,  as  well  as  intellectual 
and  moral,  for  she  believed  in  the  full  harmony 
of  all  inborn  human  qualities.  She  organized 
a  ^^National  Board  of  Popular  Education, »  to 
train  women  teachers,  especially  for  the  South 
and  West,  and  traveled  and  wrote  extensively 
in  this  behalf.  As  with  most  persons  of  much 
force,  she  had  many  ^^fads'^  and  eccentricities ; 
but  she  was  a  high-minded,  accomplished,  and 
charming  woman,  full  of  wit  and  executive 
capacity.  Her  first  work  was  on  the  ^Difficulties 
of  Religion^  (1836)  ;  among  others  were  ^True 
Remedy  for  the  Wrongs  of  Women^  (1851)  ; 
^Physiology  and  Calisthenics'  (1856)  ;  <^Common 
Sense  Applied  to  Religion'  (1857)  ;  ^Woman's 
Profession  as  Mother  and  Educator,  with  Views 
in  Opposition  to  Woman  Suffrage'   (1871). 


Beecher,  Charles,  American  clergyman, 
son  of  Lyman  Beecher :  b.  Litchfield,  Conn.,  7 
Oct.  1815  ;  d.  Haverhill,  Mass.,  21  April  1900.  He 
was  educated  successively  at  the  Boston  Latin 
School,  the  Lawrence  Academy  at  Groton,  Alass., 
and  at  Bowdoin  College,  graduating  1834.  He 
then  studied  theology  under  his  father  at  Lane 
Seminary,  Ohio,  and  in  1844  was  ordained 
pastor  of  a  Congregational  church  at  Fort 
Wayne,  Ind.  Leaving  there  in  185 1,  he  was  pas- 
tor in  Newark,  N.  J.,  till  1854,  and  in  1857  took 
charge  of  a  church  in  Georgetown,  Mass.  He 
lived  in  Florida,  1870-7,  and  was  State  superin- 
tendent of  public  instruction  there  for  two  years, 
and  was  stated  supply  at  Wysox,  Pa.,  in  1885. 
His  best  work  was  in  the  selection  of  the  music 
for  the  famous  ^Plymouth  Collection'  of  hymns, 
he  having  fine  musical  taste.  He  wrote  ^The  In- 
carnation' (1849)  ;  ^ David  and  His  Throne' 
(1855);  <Pen  Pictures  of  the  Bible'  (1855); 
'Redeemer  and  Redeemed'  (1864)  ;  'Spiritual 
Manifestations'  (1879);  and  'Eden  Tableau' 
(1880).  He  also  edited  his  father's  autobiogra- 
phy and  correspondence  (1863). 

Beecher,  Charles  Emerson,  American 
palaeontologist:  b.  Dunkirk,  N.  Y.,  9  Oct.  1856; 
d.  New  Haven,  Conn.,  14  Feb.  1904.  He  grad- 
uated at  the  University  of  Michigan  1878,  stud- 
ied under  Prof.  James  Hall  at  Albany,  N.  Y. ; 
in  1888  was  given  a  position  in  this  department 
at  Yale ;  in  1892  was  made  professor  of  histor- 
ical geology ;  and  in  1892  succeeded  Prof.  O. 
C.  Marsh  as  professor  of  palaeontology  and  cu- 
rator of  the  geological  collections.  He  has  writ- 
ten over  50  papers  for  scientific  periodicals,  and 
the  proceedings  of  scientific  societies,  chiefly  on 
evolution,  especially  as  illustrated  by  the  growth 
and  structure  of  trilobites,  and  on  the  classifi- 
cation of  trilobites  and  brachiopods ;  a  number 
of  these  and  similar  studies  on  other  organisms 
were  collected  as  'Studies  in  Evolution'  (1901)^ 
one  of  the  Yale  bicentennial  publications.  He 
also  published  a  memoir  on  the  Brachiospongida 
in  the  Yale  Peabody  Museum  IMemoirs  (i88q). 

Beecher,  Edward,  American  clergyman, 
son  of  Lyman  Beecher :  b.  East  Hampton,  L.  I., 
27  Aug.  1803;  d.  Brooklyn,  N.  Y..  28  July  1895. 
Graduating  at  Yale  1822,  he  studied  theology  at 
Andover  and  New  Haven,  and  in  1826  was  or- 
dained over  Park  Street  Church  in  Boston ;_ 
which  he  left  in  1830  to  take  the  presidency  of 
Illinois  College,  Jacksonville,  III.  a  theological 
school,  whence  many  of  Dr.  Beecher's  pupils 
went  to  be  pastors  and  teachers  in  the  new  West. 
He  returned  to  Boston  in  1844  as  pastor  of  the 
Salem  Street  Church  ;  in  1856  went  to  the  Con- 
gregational church  at  Galesburg,  111.,  remaining 
till  1872,  also  holding  for  some  j-ears  a  profes- 
sorship of  exegesis  at  Chicago  Theological  Sem- 
inary. He  had  been  a  regular  writer  for  the 
Christian  Union  since  1870,  and  in  1872  re- 
tired from  the  ministry,  removed  to  Brooklyn 
and  devoted  himself  entirely  to  writing  and 
missionary  work,  contributing  to  the  Christian 
Union,  and  editing  the  Congregationalist  for  six 
years.  Of  his  books,  the  two  most  discussed 
were  'The  Conflict  of  Ages'  (1853),  and  'The 
Concord  of  Ages'  (i860),  a  transference  into 
terms  of  Christian  theology  of  the  doctrines  of 
pre-existent  and  continuously  existent  souls  and 
the  dualism  of  good  and  evil,  the  struggle  of 
the  two  being  prolonged  into  a  future  life  and 
good  finally  triumphant.     Besides  sermons,  etc., 


BEECHER 


he  also  published  a  < History  of  the  Alton  Riots ^ 
(Cincinnati  1837);  *Baptism>  (r8so)  ;  ^Papal 
Conspiracy  Exposed^  (1855)  ;  ^History  of  Opin- 
ions on  the  Scriptural  Doctrine  of  Future  Retri- 
bution^   (1878). 

Beecher,  Henry  Ward,  American  clergy- 
man, eighth  son  of  Lyman  Beecher :  b.  Litch- 
field, 24  June  1813;  d.  Brooklyn,  N.  Y.,  8  March 
1887.  He  was  the  offspring  of  a  union  which 
has  produced  some  of  the  world's  greatest  in- 
fluences, and  in  theory  ought  always  to  produce 
them  —  of  a  stern,  energetic,  high-principled 
father,  with  a  sweet  and  beauty-loving  mother, 
giving  power  and  continuity  to  sensibility  and 
sympathetic  emotion.  Macaulay  and  Victor  Hugo 
are  notable  instances  in  this  respect.  He  had  a 
rather  bare,  hard  childhood,  under  a  father  and 
stepmother  who  both  considered  duty  and  en- 
joyment hardly  compatible.  The  great  genial 
orator  who  shouted  down  and  won  over  hostile 
mobs  was  a  shy  and  sensitive  boy ;  the  editor, 
author,  and  book-lover  had  a  wretched  inem- 
ory,  disliked  study,  and  wanted  to  go  to  sea. 
But  the  religious  atmosphere  was  around  him : 
^'converted'^  in  a  revival,  he  decided  to  train 
for  the  ministry,  entered  the  Boston  Latin 
School  in  1826,  then  the  Mount  Pleasant  School 
at  Amherst,  graduated  from  Amherst  College 
1834,  and  began  a  theological  course  under  his 
father  at  Lane  Seminary.  He  revolted  at  his 
father's  sulphurous  theology,  however,  and  for 
a  short  time  in  1837  was  editor  of  an  anti- 
slavery  paper  in  Cincinnati,  fervid  love  for 
humanity  holding  first  place  with  him  then  as 
always.  Later  in  the  year  he  took  charge  of  a 
country  church  at  Lawrenceburg,  Ind.,  and  mar- 
ried Eunice  White  Bullard,  of  West  Sutton, 
Mass.,  to  whom  he  had  been  seven  years  en- 
gaged. In  1839  he  was  called  to  a  church  in 
Indianapolis,  then  a  town  of  4,000  people,  re- 
maining there  eight  years  and  becoming  widely 
known  both  as  a  revivalist  of  great  power  and 
a  preacher  of  delightful  humor  and  originality. 
In  1847  he  was  called  to  Brooklyn  to  take 
charge  of  a  new  church  of  nine  members,  called 
Plymouth  Church.  He  held  this  pastorate  for 
40  years,  lacking  a  few  months;  and  for  the 
most  of  the  time  the  church  was  not  only  a 
Mecca  to  the  vast  class  seeking  to  retain  Chris- 
tianity while  forced  to  discard  very  much  in 
the  way  of  theology,  but  the  fountain  of  a  stream 
of  influence  acting  powerfully  on  the  moral  and 
social,  and  sometimes  the  political  tendencies, 
of  the  age.  He  preached  on  whatever  related 
to  the  public  welfare,  probed  every  evil  and 
championed  every  reform,  especially  of  intem- 
perance and  slavery.  His  outspoken  courage, 
strength  of  thought,  and  fe  :ity  of  expression, 
his  exhaustless  wealth  of  eloquent  rhetoric, 
humor  and  pathos,  dramatic  force,  and  apt 
analogy  and  illustration,  not  only  drew  to  hear 
him  one  of  the  largest  permanent  congrega- 
tions in  the  United  States  —  his  immense  church 
with  its  seating  capacity  of  nearly  3,000  being 
constantly  crowded  —  but  made  his  pulpit  one 
of  the  most  famed  and  influential  of  the  Eng- 
lish-speaking world ;  his  utterances  forming 
a  basis  of  action  for  many.  He  was  not  a  the- 
ologian m  any  sense,  and  his  influence  rested 
on  his  abstinence  from  credal  logic:  he  was 
the  spokesman  of  those  who  fear  that  if  they 
compute  their  doctrinal  latitude  they  may  dis- 
cover much  more  than  thev  wish  to' know    and 


prefer  to  keep  the  fruits  of  faith  by  evading 
exact  definition  rather  than  lose  them  by  a 
rigid  self-inquiry.  To  the  orthodox  of  his  day 
he  seemed  an  underminer ;  though  to  many  at  the 
present  he  seems  conservative  enough.  He  be- 
lieved in  the  divinity  of  Christ,  in  immortality, 
in  special  providences  and  miracles,  in  the  Bible 
as  a  divine  revelation  by  fallible  human  instru- 
ments ;  he  did  not  believe  in  eternal  punish- 
ment (which  he  publicly  denied  in  1878),  elec- 
tion and  reprobation,  the  fall  of  Adam,  the 
vicarious  atonement,  or  imputed  sin  and  right- 
eousness ;  and  he  declared  the  orthodox  Deity 
^*barbaric,  heinous,  hideous.^'  He  gave  his 
whole  soul  to  the  work  of  preaching,  often  de- 
livering several  discourses  in  a  single  day;  but 
such  was  his  physical  and  mental  vigor  that  he 
accomplished  work  in  several  other  directions 
sufiicient  in  each  case  for  an  able  and  lusty  man. 
He  was  one  of  the  giants  in  oratory  of  the 
anti-slavery  time ;  and  none  of  the  champions  of 
the  cause  was  more  hated  and  reviled  than  '*the 
abolitionist  Beecher,^'  whose  work  was  ex- 
celled only  by  that  of  his  great  sister,  and  who 
left  his  pulpit  in  the  Fremont  campaign  to 
denounce  the  Kansas  crime,  joining  the  Re- 
publican party  on  its  inception  and  traveling 
great  distances  to  speak  at  its  meetings.  Yet 
he  was  not  an  abolitionist  like  Phillips  and 
Garrison:  and  like  Lincoln  and  the  mass  of 
the  Republicans,  held  that  Congress  could 
not  interfere  with  slavery  in  the  South,  but 
only  prevent  its  extension.  The  pro-slavery 
party  drew  no  fine  distinctions,  however,  and 
the  northern  Democratic  papers  all  through 
this  period  are  filled  with  denunciation  and 
caricature  of  him.  His  series  of  speeches  in 
England  in  the  fall  of  1863  helped  to  turn  the 
tide  of  English  opinion  in  favor  of  the  North. 
The  prime  element  of  his  success  was  his 
enormous  physical  vitality :  he  tired  out  the 
mobs  which  howled  him  down,  by  actual  bodily 
endurance  and  power  of  lungs,  before  he  began 
the  splendid  addresses  which  made  them  at  least 
enthusiastic  admirers  of  himself,  if  not  perhaps 
converted  believers  in  the  Union.  He  had  the 
^^rapture  of  the  strife'^  which  Attila  knew :  he 
loved  to  be  the  target  of  a  ring  of  opponents  as 
well  as  John  Quincy  Adams,  though  without  his 
bitterness,  and  was  as  instant  and  unfailing  in 
retort ;  a  dozen  taunts  hurled  at  him  in  a 
breath  met  a  dozen  crushing  but  never  malicious 
answers.  He  was  for  many  years  one  of  the 
most  popular  lecturers  and  after-dinner  speak- 
ers in  America.  Of  his  set  orations,  those  at 
the  Burns  centennial  of  1859,  and  by  govern- 
ment request  at  Fort  Sumter,  in  April  1865,. 
on  the  anniversary  of  its  capture  by  the  Con- 
federates are  most  famous.  He  occupied  sev- 
eral editorial  positions:  editing  the  Independent 
1861-3 ;  founding  the  Christian  Union,  editings 
it  1870-81 ;  was  a  fertile  sketch  writer, 
and  wrote  a  novel  and  a  ^Life  of  Christ.'  Be- 
sides this,  he  was  an  enthusiastic  amateur  farmer,, 
and  loved  outdoor  nature  passionately,  as  well 
as  art  and  the  drama.  His  open,  impressible, 
sensitive  nature  responded  readily  to  all  things 
that  stimulate  the  intellect,  the  heart,  or  the 
soul.  He  was  essentially  a  man  of  impulses 
and  inspirations,  trusting  to  the  spontaneous 
suggestion  of  the  moment,  often  not  even  mak- 
ing notes  for  a  sermon ;  but  like  all  men  who 
make  any  impress  on  the  world,  kept  himself 
filled  with  material  for  inspiration  to  work  on. 


HENRY    WARD    BEECHER. 


BEECHER 


both  from  books  and  life.  He  always  lamented 
that  it  had  not  been  permitted  him  to  lead  a 
life  of  scholarship ;  but  in  fact  he  did  not  lead 
it  because  he  was  not  willing  to  pay  the  price 
for  it,  of  abstinence  from  leadership  in  the  politi- 
cal and  social  life  of  the  time.  He  never  lacked 
courage  to  take  a  side,  right  or  wrong,  and  often 
grieved  and  alienated  large  bodies  of  his  friends 
by  doing  so  when  passions  were  hot.  He  was 
a  firm  adherent  of  the  Seward-Johnson  policy  of 
reconstruction  in  1866,  despite  the  terrible  re- 
sults to  which  its  prematurity  led ;  sympathized 
with  the  Greeley  movement  in  1872;  and  braved 
a  threatened  disruption  of  his  church  in  1884 
by  voting  and  speaking  for  Cleveland.  He  be- 
lieved in  and  advocated  free  trade  and  woman 
suffrage.  So  brave  and  impulsive  a  nature  was 
always  shocking  the  conventions  of  his  order. 
Naturally,  he  was  forever  perpetrating  indiscre- 
tions in  speech,  to  the  delight  of  his  enemies 
and  the  discomfiture  of  his  friends.  Tact  was 
unfortunately  not  a  large  inheritance  of  most 
of  Lyman  Beecher's  children,  and  the  paucity 
of  Henry  Ward's  share  was  the  cause  of  many 
an  inept  and  unfortunate  public  utterance; 
while  his  fertility  of  comparisons  and  analogies 
often  led  him  into  pithy  exaggerations  and  a 
humorous  extravagance  of  language  which  his 
opponents  could  easily  disprove  in  the  letter. 

In  1874  Mr.  Beecher's  former  associate  and 
later  successor  in  the  editorship  of  the  Inde- 
pendent, Theodore  Tilton.  charged  him  with 
criminal  intercourse  with  Mrs.  Tilton.  A  com- 
mittee of  Plymouth  Church  examined  the  case 
and  exonerated  Mr.  Beecher ;  but  Tilton  had 
brought  suit  for  $100,000  against  him,  and  after 
a  six  months'  trial  the  jury  disagreed,  a  week's 
confinement  and  52  ballots  showing  three  for  the 
plaintiff  and  nine  for  the  defendant.  The  long 
public  scandal  seriously  affected  Beecher's  in- 
fluence with  the  outside  public,  but  his  own  con- 
gregation stood  loyal  to  him;  and  while  his  ^Life 
of  Christ^  was  unsalable,  and  the  last  two  vol- 
umes not  published  till  long  after  his  death,  his 
sermons  and  some  of  his  essays  remain  popular. 

Mr.  Beecher's  first  literary  work  was  done 
in  his  Indianapolis  pastorate,  where  he  edited 
an  agricultural  paper,  and  wrote  for  it  articles 
afterward  republished  as  "^Fruits,  Flowers,  and 
Farming^  ;  and  published  his  first  book,  ^Lec- 
tures to  Young  Men'  (1844).  For  20  years 
after  coming  to  Brooklyn  he  contributed  regu- 
larly to  the  Independent,  signing  with  a  (*), 
whence  the  two-volume  collections  of  1855  and 
1858  were  termed  "Star  Papers.*'  He  was  also 
for  some  time  a  regular  contributor  to  the 
New  York  Ledger  of  "Thoughts  as  They  Oc- 
cur,'* collected  in  1864  as  ^Eyes  and  Ears'  ;  and 
wrote  serially  for  it  his  one  novel,  ^Norwood' 
(1867).  His  sermons  were  reported  in  full 
after  1859,  and  the  collected  volumes  are  termed 
'Plymouth  Pulpit.'  A  two-volume  selection 
revised  by  the  author  was  issued  by  Lyman  Ab- 
bott in  1868;  other  compilations  from  them  are 
'Life  Thoughts'  and  'Notes  from  Plymouth 
Pulpit'  (1859);  'Pulpit  Pungencies'  and 
'Royal  Truths'  (1866)  ;  'Morning  and  Even- 
ing Devotional  Exercises'  (1870)  ;  and  'Com- 
forting Truths'  (1884).  For  some  years,  also, 
his  prayers,  of  great  charm  and  high  quality  as 
compositions,  were  taken  down  by  stenographers 
and  a  collected  volume  issued  in  1867.  Other 
of  his  works  are:  'Freedom  and  War'  (1863)  ; 
'Aids     to     Prayer'      (1864)  ;      'Lecture-Room 


Talks'  (1870)  ;  'Yale  Lectures  on  Preaching* 
3  vols.  1872-4)  ;  'Evolution  and  Religion' 
(1885).  Individual  sermons  and  addresses 
were  published  also,  such  as  'The  Strike  and  Its 
Lessons'  (1878)  ;  'Doctrinal  Beliefs  and  Un- 
beliefs' (1882),  'Wendell  Phillips'  (1884);  'A 
Circuit  of  the  Continent'  (1884).  He  also 
edited  the  famous  'Plymouth  Collection'  of 
hymns  (1855);  and  'Revival  Hymns'  (1858). 
His  life  was  written  before  his  death  by  Lyman 
Abbott  (1883),  and  Samuel  Scoyille  (1888); 
see  also  'Autobiographical  Reminiscences  of 
Henry  Ward  Beecher,'  by  T.  J.  Ellinwood,  who 
was  his  private  stenographer  for  30  years. 

Mr.  Beecher's  wife,  Eunice  White  Bul- 
LARD,  was  born  in  West  Sutton,  Mass.,  26  Aug. 
1812;  d.  Stamford,  Conn.,  8  March  1897.  She 
wrote  articles  for  periodicals,  some  of  them 
afterward  collected:  also  'From  Dawn  to  Day- 
light' (1859),  a  story  of  her  early  married  life; 
'Motherly  Talks  with  Young  Housekeepers' 
(1875);  'Letters  from  Florida'  (1878);  'AH 
Around  the  House'  (1878)  ;  and  'Home' 
(1883). 

Beecher,  James  Chaplin,  American  clergy- 
man, son  of  Lvman  Beecher :  b.  Boston,  Mass., 
8  Jan.  1828;  d.  Elmira,  N.  Y.,  25  Aug.  1886. 
He  graduated  at  Dartmouth  1848,  studied  the- 
ology at  Andover,  and  in  1856  was  ordained 
a  Congregational  clergyman ;  thence  till  1861 
was  chaplain  of  the  Seamen's  Bethel  in  Canton 
and  Hong  Kong,  China.  Entering  the  Civil 
War  as  a  chaplain,  he  rose  to  the  rank  of  brevet 
brigadier-general  and  subsequently  held  pasto- 
rates in  Owego,  N.  Y.,  1867-70,  Poughkeepsie 
1871-3,  and  Brooklyn  1881-2.  After  1864,  a  suf- 
ferer from  mental  troubles,  his  last  three  years 
were  passed  in  much  distress,  and  he  finally 
committed  suicide. 

Beecher,  Lyman,  American  theologian:  b. 
New  Haven,  Conn.,  12  Oct.  1775 ;  d.  Brooklyn, 
N.  Y.,  10  Jan.  1863.  He  was  a  blacksmith's 
son  and  himself  a  blacksmith's  helper  and  far- 
mer's lad  in  boyhood.  Entering  Yale  College 
at  18,  he  graduated  in  1797,  studying  also  the- 
ology under  President  Dwight  till  1798,  when 
he  became  supply  at  East  Hampton,  L.  I.,  and  was 
ordained  there  1799,  remaining  till  1810.  His  re- 
markable pulpit  oratory  gained  national  repute 
from  a  sermon  in  1804  on  Alexander  Hamilton's 
death  at  Burr's  hands  —  an  occasion  which  made 
more  than  one  reputation,  all  utterances  being 
eagerly  scanned  from  the  excitement  and  party 
feeling.  In  1810  he  was  called  to  Litchfield, 
Conn.,  the  seat  of  a  celebrated  law  school  and 
other  educational  institutions,  at  a  time  when 
New  England  was  the  intellectual  autocrat  of 
the  country,  and  towns  were  few  and  small ; 
and  soon  became  recognized  not  only  as  the 
foremost  man  in  the  Congregational  body,  but 
one  of  the  greatest  of  American  preachers. 
About  1814  a  half-dozen  sermons  of  his  against 
intemperance,  then  a  common  vice  among  even 
the  clerg\',  were  not  onh''  widely  read  in  America 
and  England,  but  were  translated  into  several 
foreign  languages.  He  also  took  a  foremost 
part  in  organizing  Bible  and  missionary  socie- 
ties, etc. ;  and  his  courage,  power,  and  energy 
made  many  look  to  him  for  guidance  and  suc- 
cor in  trouble.  This  came  in  a  flood  during  the 
next  decade,  when  the  Unitarian  movement, 
under  Channing  and  its  other  great  early  lead- 
ers, was  sweeping  the  Congregational  churches 


BEECHER 


around  Boston  off  their  feet;  and  Mr.  Beecher, 
in  1826,  at  the  urgency  of  intiuential  clergj^men, 
accepted  a  call  to  the  Hanover  Street  Church 
in  Boston  to  stem  the  tide,  which  his  polemic 
ardor  perhaps  aided  in  doing.  In  1832  he  ac- 
cepted the  presidency  of  Lane  (Theological) 
Seminary  near  Cincinnati,  Ohio,  which  had  been 
endowed  on  the  express  condition  of  his  taking 
charge  of  it,  to  strengthen  Calvinism  in  the 
rapidly  growing  West ;  he  remained  there  till 
1852,  holding  also  the  chair  of  sacred  theology, 
and  was  its  titular  president  till  death.  He  was 
also  pastor  of  the  Second  Presbyterian  Church 
in  Cincinnati  1832-42.  In  1833  the  famous  phi- 
lanthropist Arthur  Tappan,  the  chief  founder 
of  Lane,  sent  the  students  a  report  of  the  pro- 
ceedings of  the  Philadelphia  abolition  conven- 
tion of  that  year;  the  students,  partly  southern, 
at  once  fell  into  disputes  on  the  subject  of 
slavery.  The  trustees  vainly  tried  to  check  the 
meetings  and  discussions ;  Kentucky  slavehold- 
ers came  over  and  urged  violent  suppression  of 
these  meetings  and  threatened  the  destruction 
of  the  seminary.  The  trustees  in  terror  for- 
bade all  further  discussion  of  slavery,  and 
therefore  all  the  students  deserted  in  a  body. 
The  most  of  the  anti-slavery  wing  refused  to 
return,  and  their  supporters  founded  Oberlin 
College;  a  few  came  back,  and  Mr.  Beecher  and 
his  son-in-law  Calvin  E.  Stowe  tried  for  many 
years  to  build  up  the  seminary  again,  but  in 
vain.  Shortly  after  this,  in  1835,  he  was  tried 
as  a  heretic  and  hypocrite,  first  before  his  own 
church  and  then  before  the  Presbyterian  Synod, 
for  his  ^'moderate  Calvinism** ;  he  was  acquitted, 
but  the  Old  School  and  New  School  contro- 
versy finally  split  the  church  in  1838,  Mr. 
Beecher  adhering  to  the  New  School  party.  In 
1852  he  resigned  the  presidency  of  Lane  and 
returned  to  Boston,  to  prepare  his  works  for 
publication ;  but  was  striken  with  a  slow  paraly- 
sis of  the  brain,  which  enfeebled  his  mind  for 
many  years  before  his  death.  Despite  the  im- 
pressions of  the  extreme  orthodox  party,  he 
was  of  the  firmest  doctrinal  faith,  though  his 
theology  was  of  his  own  make,  and  his  humor- 
ous audacities  of  speech  often  shocked  digni- 
fied propriety.  His  boundless  energy,  boldness, 
unconquerable  will,  and  personal  magnetism, 
were  those  of  a  natural  leader  of  men ;  while  his 
unsurpassed  logical  power,  his  intense  and  com- 
pact expression,  and  above  all  his  entire  sin- 
cerity and  spirituality  of  purpose,  winged  with 
his  racy  and  picturesque  wit,  set  him  above 
every  other  American  clergyman  of  his  time 
in  popular  influence.  See  his  "^ Autobiography 
and  Correspondence,^  edited  by  his  son  Charles, 
1865. 

Beecher,  Thomas  Kinnicutt,  American 
clergyman,  son  of  Lyman  Beecher:  b.  Litch- 
field, Conn.,  10  Feb.  1824;  d.  Elmirr.,  N.  Y.,  14 
March  1900.  He  studied  at  Illinois  College,  of 
which  his  brother  Edward  was  president,  gradu- 
ating in  1843.  He  was  principal  of  a  Phila- 
delphia grammar-school  1846-8,  of  the  Hartford 
(Conn.)  High  School  till  1852.  He  then  re- 
moved to  Williamsburg  (Brooklyn).  N.  Y.,  and 
founded  a  Congregational  Church,  which  he  left 
two  years  later  for  the  pastorate  of  a  church 
in  Elmira,  N.  Y.,  where  he  spent  the  rest  of 
his  life,  well-known  as  an  unsectarian  philan- 
thropist and  moral  teacher,  writer,  and  lec- 
turer, editing  for  many  years  a  weekly  depart- 


ment in  Elmira  newspapers  to  discuss  current 
questions,  often  with  rasping  originality  and 
always  with  independence.  He  was  nominated 
for  a  variety  of  offices  by  nearly  every  known 
political  party,  but  never  elected.  He  was  a 
chaplain  in  the  Army  of  the  Potomac  four 
months  in  1863.  In  1870  he  published  a  series 
of  lectures  as  a  book,  entitled  *Our  Seven 
Churches*  (of  Elmira)  ;  and  in  1901  a  posthu- 
mous collection  of  his  juvenile  stories  was 
issued,   ^In  Tune  with  the  Stars.^ 

Beecher,  Willis  Judson,  American  clergy- 
man and  author :  b.  Hampden,  Ohio,  29  April 
1838.  He  was  graduated  from  Hamilton  Col- 
lege in  1858,  and  from  Auburn  Theological 
Seminary  in  1864,  and  filled  several  Presbyte- 
rian pastorates.  From  1865-9  he  was  professor 
of  moral  science  and  belles-lettres  in  Knox  Col- 
lege, 111.,  and  in  1S71  became  professor  of  the 
Hebrew  language  and  literature  in  Auburn 
Seminary.  He  has  published:  ^Farmer  Tomp- 
kins and  his  Bible'  (1874)  ;  '■Drill  Lessons  in 
Hebrew*  (1883)  ;  ^ Index  of  Presbyterian  Min- 
isters in  the  United  States  1706-1881'  (1883)  ; 
'Old  Testament  Notes'  (1897)  ;  and  hundreds 
of  articles  in  newspapers,  periodicals,  cyclopae- 
dias and  reference  books. 

Beecher  Family,  The,  an  extraordinary 
American  family  of  religious  and  humanitarian 
leaders,  mostly  of  such  salient  and  frequently 
eccentric  originality,  combined  with  immense 
energy  and  independence  of  thought,  that  the 
human  race  was  once  said  to  consist  of  ''men, 
women,  and  Beechers.**  They  were  all  de- 
scendants of  Lyman  Beecher  of  New  Haven, 
Conn.,  himself  one  of  the  most  notable  of 
them;  a  famous  clergyman,  orator,  and  con- 
troversialist, who  had  13  children,  so  many  of 
whom  rose  to  national  or  even  international 
distinction  that  he  was  said  to  be  "the  father 
of  more  brains  than  any  other  man  in  America.*' 
Eight  of  them  were  boys,  seven  living  to  ma- 
turity, and  nearly  all  of  them  to  extreme  old 
age,  all  becoming  Congregational  ministers ; 
and  the  greatest,  Henry  Ward,  said  of  them 
that  "only  one  tried  to  escape  the  ministry,  and 
he  did  not  succeed.*'  But  so  great  was  the  in- 
trinsic force  of  the  blood  that  the  daughters 
were  no  whit  inferior  in  persistence  of  energy 
and  originality  of  ideas,  that  marriage  did  not 
in  the  least  quench  their  outside  work  and  influ- 
ence, and  that  one  of  them  has  shown  the 
highest  creative  genius  and  left  the  most  en- 
during memorials  of  the  entire  family.  The 
difference  in  work  and  sympathies  of  father  and 
children  resulted  from  difference  of  generation 
rather  than  of  spirit.  Lyman  Beecher's  prob- 
lems were  mainly  religious.  He  lived  at 
the  threshold  of  the  new  material  development 
of  the  country,  when  it  seemed  that  the  en- 
grossing task  was  to  prevent  its  relapsing  to 
heathenism ;  at  the  beginning  of  the  great  lib- 
eralizing flood  of  new  scientific  knowledge, 
when  there  seemed  a  danger  of  all  Christianity 
being  swept  away  with  the  cosmology  it  rested 
on ;  and  before  the  humanitarian  questions  in 
this  prosperous  country  had  come  to  the  fore. 
He  was  nearly  60  when  the  slavery  problerr 
first  showed  signs  of  becoming  acute ;  more  than 
60  when  Father  Mathew  established  his  first 
temperance  society  across  the  water ;  and  at 
no  period  would  he  ever  have  favored  woman 
suffrage,  which  one  even  of  his  notable  daugh- 


BEECHEY  —  BEEF-TEA 


ters  wrote  against.  But  his  influence  was  in- 
tensely strong  in  creating  the  loftj'-  spirit  that 
fed  humanitarianism.  It  is  an  encouragement 
to  large  families,  as  so  often  in  history,  that  the 
greatest  of  his  children  were  among  the  younger 
ones :  Airs.  Stowe  was  the  sixth  and  Henry- 
Ward  Beecher  seventh,  while  the  most  forceful 
of  the  others,  Isabella  (Mrs.  Hooker),  was  the 
eleventh.  In  their  order,  the  ones  who  grew  up 
were  Catherine,  William  Henry,  Edward,  Mary, 
George,  Harriet,  Henry  Ward,  Charles,  Isa- 
bella, Thomas,  and  James.  Catherine,  robbed 
of  the  betrothed  of  her  youth,  gave  herself  to 
work  for  her  sex,  though  not  with  quite  the 
aspirations  of  most  recent  women  of  her  type, 
and  perhaps  did  as  much  good  in  training  culti- 
vated wives  and  mothers  as  if  they  had  remained 
unmarried  teachers.  William  Henry  was  a 
home  missionary  and  clergyman  in  Ohio,  and 
a  clergyman  in  the  East.  Edward  was  a  clergy- 
man, editor,  and  theological  writer,  who  tried 
to  pour  antique  Zoroastrianism  into  modern 
molds.  !Mary  married  in  Hartford,  Conn.,  and 
became  the  mother  of  Frederick  Beecher  Per- 
kins and  grandmother  of  Charlotte  Perkins 
Stetson.  George  died  by  accident  at  34,  while 
filling  a  western  pastorate.  Harriet,  author  of 
^ Uncle  Tom's  Cabin,^  and  of  a  mass  of  other 
works  which  would  give  any  other  author  one 
of  the  foremost  places  in  American  letters,  has 
a  secure  immortality  from  her  masterpiece. 
Henry  Ward,  creator  of  the  greatness 
of  Plymouth  Church,  a  Moses  of  liberal  Con- 
gregationalism, anti-slavery  and  temperance 
leader,  ardent  in  all  work  for  humanity  and  the 
elevation  of  the  mass,  need  not  be  further  cha- 
racterized. Charles,  clergyman  and  admirable 
musician,  is  gratefully  remembered  for  his  work 
in  compiling  the  *  Plymouth  Collection^  of 
hymn-tunes.  Isabella  married  John  Hooker,  a 
Hartford  lawyer  fully  in  sympathy  with  her, 
and  has  been  for  many  years  one  of  the  stanch- 
est  champions  of  woman's  rights  and  upholder 
of  all  good  causes.  Thomas,  for  some  40  years 
located  in  Elmira,  N.  Y.,  was  noted  as  an  able 
and  independent  thinker  on  all  public  questions, 
which  he  discussed  with  ability  and  high- 
mindedness.  James  C.  was  clergyman,  soldier, 
and  clergyman  again,  till  shadows  overclouded 
his  mind  and  brought  on  a  tragic  death.  Al- 
together, the  family  is  one  of  the  most  useful 
as  well  as  distinguished  of  the  American  intel- 
lectual aristocracy. 

Beechey,  Frederick  William,  English  ad- 
miral, the  son  of  Sir  William  Beechey  the 
painter:  b.  London  1796;  d.  28  Nov.  1856.  He 
entered  the  navy  at  the  age  of  10,  and  in  181 1 
was  present  in  an  engagement  off  Madagascar, 
in  which  three  French  frigates  were  captured. 
In  1818  he  accompanied  Lieut,  (afterward  Sir 
John)  Franklin  in  an  expedition  to  discover  the 
northwest  passage,  and  the  following  year  took 
part  in  a  similar  enterprise  with  Capt.  Parry. 
In  1821  he  was  commissioned,  with  his  brother 
H.  W.  Beechey,  to  exainine  by  land  the  coasts 
of  north  Africa.  During  the  years  from  1825 
to  1828  he  was  engaged  as  commander  of  the 
Blossom  in  another  Arctic  expedition,  by  way 
of  the  Pacific  and  Bering  Strait.  Of  this  he 
published  an  account:  ^Narrative  of  a  Voyage 
to  the  Pacific  and  Bering  Strait'  (1831), 
and  subsequently  a  description  of  the  botany 
and  zoology  of  the  regions  visited.  In  1854  he 
was  raised  to  the  rank  of  rear-admiral. 
Vol.  2 — 30. 


Beechey,  Sir  William,  eminent  English 
portrait  painter :  b.  Burford,  Oxfordshire,  12 
Dec.  1753;  d.  Hampstead,  28  Jan.  1839.  He  en- 
tered a  conveyancer's  office,  but  soon  abandoned 
it,  and  determined  to  make  painting  his  profes- 
sion. In  1772  he  was  admitted  to  the  Royal 
Academy.  A  large  equestrian  picture  of  George 
HI.  secured  his  election  as  a  Royal  Academician 
and  procured  him  the  honor  of  knighthood. 
He  was  afterward  constantly  and  lucratively 
employed.  He  died  in  1839  at  the  advanced  age 
of  86.  His  attitudes  and  expression  are  gen- 
erally good,  but  marks  of  carelessness  are 
apparent  in  some  of  his  latest  pictures.  Two 
portraits  by  him  are  contained  in  the  Metropoli- 
tan Museum  of  Art  in  New  York. 

Beeching,  Henry  Charles,  English  clergy- 
man and  author:  b.  15  May  1859.  He  was  edu- 
cated at  Balliol  College,  Oxford,  was  rector  of 
Yabbendon,  Berkshire,  1885-1900,  and  has  been 
professor  of  theology  at  King's  College,  London, 
from  1900.  He  has  published  editions  of  Mil- 
ton, Vaughan,  Daniel,  Drayton,  and  several 
anthologies  of  verse,  and  is  author  of  ^Love  in 
Idleness'  (1883)  ;  'Love's  Looking  Glass' 
(1891)  ;  *^ Seven  Sermons  to  Schoolboys'  (1894)  ; 
'In  a  Garden  and  Other  Poems'  (1895)  ;  'Pages 
from  a  Private  Diary'  (1898)  ;  'Conferences 
on  Books  and  ]\Ien'  (1900)  ;  'Inns  of  Court 
Sermons'  (1901)  ;  'Religio  Laici'  (1902)  ; 
'Jane  Austen'  (1902)  ;  'Two  Lectures  on 
Poetry.' 

Beef.    See 'Meat. 

Beef-eater.    See  Buffalo-bird. 

Beef-eaters,  a  popular  name  for  the  yeomen 

of  the  guard  of  the  sovereign  of  Great  Britain,  a 
body  instituted  in  1485.  There  are  now  one 
hundred  in  service,  and  seventy  supernumeraries. 
They  are  dressed  after  the  fashion  of  the  time 
of  Henry  VII.  The  warders  of  the  Tower 
of  London,  who  wear  a  similar  uniform,  are 
also  so  called. 

Beef-tea,  a  preparation  made  from  raw 
beef  and  often  employed  in  nursing.  It  is  ser- 
viceable for  stimulation  or  for  nourishment 
largely  according  to  the  method  of  its  prepara- 
tion. As  usually  made,  or  as  prepared  from 
ready-made  beef  extracts,  it  has  very  little  food 
value,  but  is  a  strong  heart  stimulant.  When 
fresh  beef  is  finely  chopped  and  its  juice 
squeezed  from  it  and  flavored,  to  take  away  the 
raw  taste,  the  extract  obtained  is  rich  in  the 
muscle  juices  and  is  highly  nutritious.  It 
is  often  thus  prepared  for  infants  and  invalids. 
If,  however,  the  juice  thus  obtained  is  mixed 
with  water  and  the  compound  is  boiled,  as  ie 
the  usual  manner,  all  of  the  muscle  proteids 
are  coagulated,  as  a  scum,  and  the  muscle  salts, 
or  extractives  remain  in  solution.  The  nutri- 
tious portions,  the  scum,  is  thrown  away  and 
the  extractives  retained  in  the  tea.  In  this  form 
the  nutritive  value  is  slight  unless  the  coagula- 
ted proteid  is  retained.  Ordinary  meat  extracts 
are  mixtures  of  the  meat  extractives,  xanthin, 
hypoxanthin,  creatin,  creatinin,  etc.  These  are 
heart  tonics  but  not  nourishing.  Their  use  is 
contraindicated  in  irritable  hearts,  in  gout, 
and  in  any  condition  in  which  it  is  thought  that 
the  patient  is  not  breaking  down  the  normal 
amount  of  proteid  matter.  Broths  are  made 
of  other  meats.     See  also  Dietetics;  Foods  for 


BEEF-WOOD  —  BEERS 


Beef-wood,  a  popular  name  for  the  wood 
of  several  Australian  trees  of  the  genus  Casua- 
rina  (q.v.),  which  forms  the  type  of  a  family 
CasuarinacecE.  The  trees  have  been  compared 
to  gigantic  horse-tails.  They  have  pendent 
leafless  branches,  and  apetalous  monoecious 
flowers,  the  male  ones  being  in  spikes,  and  the 
female  in  heads.  The  wood  is  of  a  reddish 
color  (whence  the  name),  hard,  and  close- 
grained,  and  used  chiefly  for  fine  ornamental 
work. 

Beehive  Houses,  the  archaeological  desig- 
nation given  to  ancient  dwellings  of  small  size 
and  somewhat  conical  shape,  found  in  Ireland 
and  Scotland.  They  are  formed  of  long  stones 
without  cement,  each  course  overlapping  that 
on  which  it  rests.  Sometimes  they  occur  singly, 
at  other  times  in  clusters,  and  occasionally  have 
more  than  one  apartment.  Some  of  them  are 
found  near  ancient  oratories,  and  were  therefore 
probably  priests'  dwellings,  and  certain  groups 
are  encircled  bj'  a  stone  wall  for  defense.  They 
are  assigned  to  various  dates  between  the  "th 
and  the  12th  century. 

Beelzebub,  be-el'ze-bub  (Hebrew,  ^^the  god 
of  flies"),  a  deity  of  the  Moabites  or  Syrians. 
This  term  is  applied  in  the  Scriptures  to  the 
chief  of  the  evil  spirits  (Matt.  xii.  24;  Mark  iii. 
22,  etc.).  The  correct  form  is  probably  Beelze- 
bul,  but  in  the  Syriac  and  Vulgate  the  final  let- 
ter is  b.  The  alteration  in  that  letter  from  b 
to  /  may  have  been  due  to  euphonic  reasons,  or, 
as  has  also  been  maintained,  zebul  may  have 
signified  "dwelling^^  or  "dung."  In  order  to 
conceive  how  this  name  came  to  be  given  to 
one  of  the  greatest  of  the  imaginary  spirits  of 
evil  it  must  be  remembered  what  a  terrible  tor- 
ment insects  often  are  in  the  East.  We  find 
that  almost  all  nations  who  believe  in  evil 
spirits  represent  them  as  the  rulers  of  disgust- 
ing, tormenting,  or  poisonous  animals  —  flies, 
rats,  mice,  reptiles,  etc.  The  Greeks  wor- 
shipped several  of  their  chief  deities  under  the 
character  of  protectors  against  these  animals ; 
for  instance,  Apollo  Smintheus,  the  destroj^er 
of  rats.  Christ  was  charged  by  the  Jews  with 
driving  out  demons  by  the  power  of  Beelzebub 
(Matt.   xii.   24).     Compare  2   Kings   i.  2. 

Beer,  bar,  Adolf,  Austrian  historian:  b. 
Prossnitz,  Moravia,  27  Feb.  1831.  His  publica- 
tions include:  ^History  of  International  Com- 
merce^ (1860-64;  '•Holland  and  the  Austrian 
War  of  Succession*  (1871)  ;*^  The  First  Partition 
of  Poland-*  (1873-4)  '>  "'The  Austrian  Commer- 
cial Policy  in  the  Nineteenth  Century^    (1891). 

Beer,  Michael,  German  dramatist,  brother 
of  the  composer  Meyerbeer :  b.  Berlin,  1800 ;  d. 
Munich,  22  March  1833.  He  became  known  to 
the  literary  world  by  five  tragedies,  of  which 
his  ^Struensee-*  is  the  best.  His  complete 
works  were  published  at  Leipsic  in  1835,  and 
his   *  Correspondence'   in  1837. 

Beer,  Wilhelm,  German  astronomer: 
brother  of  the  preceding:  b.  4  Feb.  1797;  d. 
27  March  1850.  He  was  a  Berlin  banker,  and  in 
1849  became  a  member  of  the  Prussian  Diet. 
His  astronomical  labors  were  associated  with 
those  of  the  astronomer,  Miidler.  He  built  an 
observatory,  chiefly  devoted  to  the  observation 
of  the  planet  Mars  and  the  moon.  The  crown- 
ing labor  of  the  two  astronomers  was  a  map 
of  the  moon,  published  in  1836,  upon  which  the 


Lalande  prize  was  conferred  by  the  French 
Academy. 

Beer,  be'er.    See  Ale  and  Beer  ;  Brewing. 

Beer-money,  in  the  British  army,  a  pay- 
ment of  one  penny  a  day.  formerly  given  to  non- 
commissioned officers  and  soldiers  when  on  home 
service,  instead  of  a  daily  portion  of  beer  and 
spirits.  The  custom  was  established  in  1800, 
and  abolished  in  1873,  when  the  stoppages  for 
rations  were  also  abolished. 

Beere,  be'er,  Mrs.  Bernard  (Fanny  Mary 
Whitehead),  English  actress:  b.  Norwich.  Eng- 
land, 1859.  She  was  the  daughter  of  Wilby 
Whitehead  and  began  her  stage  career  in  1878 
at  the  London  Opera  Comique.  On  her  mar- 
riage she  retired  a  short  time  from  the  stage, 
presently  returning  to  it  as  Mrs.  Bernard  Beere,. 
and  her  acting  in  *  Fedora*  and  "^Diplomacy*  at- 
tracted much  favorable  comment.  In  1892  she 
visited  the  United  States  professionally.  In  1900 
she  married  H.  C.  S.  Olivier. 

Beers,  be'erz,  Ethel  Lynn,  American  poet: 
b.  Goshen,  N.  Y.,  13  Jan.  1827;  d.  10  Oct.  1879. 
She  was  the  author  of  ^AU  Quiet  Along  the 
Potomac,  and  Other  Poems^  (1879),  and  was  a 
descendant  of  John  Eliot,  the  apostle  to  the  In- 
dians. 

Beers,  Henry  Augustin,  American  author: 
b.  Buffalo,  N.  Y.,  2  July  1847.  He  graduated 
from  Yale  in  1859;  became  tutor  there  in  1871, 
and  professor  of  English  literature  in  1880.  He 
has  published,  among  other  works,  ^A  Century 
of  x\merican  Literature*  (1878)  ;  ^The  Thank- 
less Muse.-*  poems  (1886)  ;  "^From  Chaucer  to 
Tennyson*  (1890)  ;  'Initial  Studies  in  American 
Letters*  (1892)  :  "^A  Suburban  Pastoral,  and 
Other  Tales'  (1894);  ^The  Ways  of  Yale' 
(1895)  ;  'History  of  English  Romanticism  in  the 
Eighteenth  Century'  (1899)  ;  'History  of  Eng- 
lish Romanticism  in  the  Nineteenth  Century' 
(1901). 

Beers,  Jan  van,  barz,  yan  van,  Flemish 
poet :  b.  22  Feb.  1821  ;  d.  14  Nov.  1888.  From 
i860  he  was  professor  at  the  Athenaeum  in  Ant- 
werp. His  principal  works,  full  of  sentiment  and 
melodious  quality,  are  'Youth's  Dreams' 
(1853);  ^Pictures  of  Life'  (1858),  and  'Senti- 
ment and  Life'   (1869). 

Beers,  be'erz,  Nathan,  American  soldier: 
b.  Stratford,  Conn.,  1753;  d.  New  Haven,  10 
Feb.  1849.  While  still  quite  young  he  went  with 
his  father  to  New  Haven  and  was  a  member  of 
a  military  company  formed  there  in  1774,  which 
was  commanded  by  Benedict  Arnold.  Imme- 
diately on  the  receipt  of  the  news  of  the  battle 
of  Lexington  the  company  was  called  together 
by  their  captain,  and  Beers  with  39  others  vol- 
imteered  to  accompany  him  to  the  seat  of  war. 
They  immediately  set  out,  and,  as  they  passed 
throuffh  Pomfret,  were  joined  by  Gen.  Putnam. 
Beers  received  a  lieutenant's  commission  in  the 
army  in  1777,  and  served  until  1783.  He  after- 
ward engaged  in  mercantile  afi^airs.  and  in  1798 
was  chosen  steward  of  Yale  College,  a  position 
which  he  resigned  in  1819. 

Beers,  William  George,  Canadian  dentist: 
b.  Montreal,  5  May  1843.  He  was  educated  in 
his  native  city,  and  having  entered  the  dental 
profession,  he  founded  the  first  dental  journal  in 
Canada,  and  remained  its  editor  for  several 
years.  In  1900  he  was  editor  of  'The  Dominion 
Dental   Journal'     (Toronto),   and    dean    of   the 


BEERSHEBA  — BEET  SUGAR 


Provincial  Dental  College,  as  well  as  professor 
of  dental  pathology,  therapeutics,  and  materia 
medica  in  McGill  University.  He  wrote  the  first 
book  on  the  game  of  lacrosse,  and  js  regarded 
as  its  originator.  He  organized  and  captained 
the  first  lacrosse  team  that  visited  England  in 
1876,  and  also  the  second  one  in  1883.  He  is 
noted  as  a  lecturer  and  public  speaker,  and  since 
1862  has  been  a  constant  contributor  to  the  prin- 
cipal American  magazines. 

Beersheba,  be-er-she'ba  (now  Bir-es-Seba, 
"the  well  of  the  oath"),  the  place  where  Abra- 
ham made  a  covenant  with  Abimelech,  and  in 
common  speech  representative  of  the  southern- 
most limit  of  Palestine,  near  which  it  is  sit- 
uated. It  is  now  a  mere  heap  of  ruins  near 
several  wells,  though  it  was  a  place  of  some 
importance  down  to  the  period  of  the  Crusades. 

Beeswax,  a  solid  fatty  substance  secreted 
by  bees,  and  containing  in  its  purified  state  three 
chemical  principles — -myricin,  cerin,  and  cero- 
lein.  It  is  not  collected  from  plants,  but  elab- 
orated from  saccharine  food  in  the  body  of  the 
bee.  It  is  used  for  the  manufacture  of  candles, 
for  modeling,  and  in  many  minor  processes. 

Beet  (AS.  bete;  Lat.  beta),  a  plant  of  the 
genus  Beta,  natural  order  Chenopodiaccc.  There 
are  several  species,  mostly  biennials,  with  stalked, 
smooth,  ovate  leaves,  with  flowers  borne  on  tall 
leafy  stems.  B.  vulgaris  is  generally  recognized 
as  the  only  species  of  economic  importance ;  the 
slender-rooted  variety,  or  sea-beet,  is  found 
growing  wild  in  sandy  soil,  near  the  sea,  in 
Europe  and  western  Asia.  De  Candolle  re- 
garded it  as  the  original  type.  It  has  been  in 
cultivation  since  200-300  B.C.,  and  to-day  the  nu- 
merous varieties  may  be  classified  under  one  of 
five  sections,  although  the  divisions  are  arbi- 
trary and  of  no  great  importance. 

Garden  Beets. —  These  usually  have  small 
tops,  with  turnip-shaped  to  tapering  roots  of 
medium  size,  fine-grained,  smooth,  regular,  gen- 
erally red  but  sometimes  yellowish  or  whitish  in 
color.  Among  popular  varieties  are  Early  Blood, 
Eclipse,  Bassano,  and  Egyptian  turnip.  The  soil 
best  suited  is  a  loose,  rich,  deep,  clean,  well- 
tilled  loam.  Well-rotted  barnyard  manure  with 
some  potassic  fertilizer  is  often  applied.  Seed 
is  sown  as  soon  as  possible  in  the  spring,  for  the 
early  crop,  with  other  sowings  until  June  to  en- 
sure a  succession ;  in  rows,  varying  from  one 
foot  apart,  where  intensive  gardening  is  prac- 
tised, to  three  feet  where  horse  labor  is  used. 
The  plants  are  thinned  from  four  to  six  inches 
asunder  in  the  rows,  care  being  taken  to  leave 
only  one  plant  in  a  place.  Thinning  is  often 
done  when  the  young  plants  are  large  enough  to 
sell  as  "greens. *  The  late  crop,  if  required  for 
winter  use,  must  be  stored  before  frost.  Beets 
are  sometimes  forced  under  glass. 

Mangold  Wiirsels  or  Mangels  are  a  large, 
coarse  form  raised  for  cattle-feeding.  Stand- 
ard varieties  include  Mammoth  long  red.  Golden 
tankard,  and  Globe.  Seed  is  sown  as  early  as 
possible  in  the  spring,  in  rows  two  to  three  feet 
apart,  and  the  plants  allowed  to  stand  12  to  16 
inches  asunder  in  the  row.  To  ensure  a  good 
crop  the  land  must  be  in  a  high  state  of  cultiva- 
tion and  well  supplied  with  plant-food.  They 
may  be  grown  on  alkali  soils. 

Sugar-Beeis. —  The  varieties  are  rather  small- 
growing,  and  nearly  always  yellowish  or  whit- 
ish in  color.    They  contain  a  high  percentage  of 


sugar,  which  has  been  increased  by  selection  and 
cultivation.  They  are  extensively  grown  in  Eu- 
rope and  in  the  northern  and  western  States. 

Chard  or  Swiss  Beets  have  comparatively 
large  leaves  with  succulant  leaf-stems,  which 
are  cooked  and  eaten  like  asparagus.    See  Chard. 

Foliage  Beets  are  grown  for  ornamental  pur- 
poses. The  luxuriant  foliage  is  of  many  colors 
and  varied  in  markings.  Brazilian,  Chilean,  Vic- 
toria, and  Dracena-leaved  are  well-known  va- 
rieties. They  may  be  raised  from  seed,  like  other 
beets,  and  the  roots  lifted  in  fall  and  kept  over 
winter. 

Uses  and  Feeding  Value. —  As  a  vegetable  the 
root  of  the  garden  beet  is  boiled,  pickled,  and 
used  as  a  salad ;  and  the  tops  are  boiled  as 
"greens.''  The  contain  on  an  average  88.5  per 
cent  water ;  1.5  per  cent  protein ;  8  per  cent  ni- 
trogen-free extract;  i  per  cent  ash;  o.i  per  cent 
ether  extract,  and  0.9  per  cent  crude  fibre.  Man- 
gels are  fed  to  cattle;  they  contain  from  7  per 
cent  to  15  per  cent  dry  matter,  of  which  about  88 
per  cent  is  digestible ;  an  average  percentage 
composition  may  be  taken  as:  water,  90.9;  pro- 
tein, 1.4;  nitrogen-free  extract,  5.5;  ether  ex- 
tract, 0.2;  ash,  I.I  ;  crude  fibre,  e.g.  About  77 
per  cent  of  the  protein  or  96  per  cent  of  the 
nitrogen-free  extract  is  digestible.  The  dry 
matter  of  mangels  and  corn  silage  are  of  about 
equal  value  for  feeding,  but  as  the  cost  of  pro- 
duction in  mangels  is  double  that  in  corn,  stock- 
men in  the  United  States  have  not  paid  much 
attention  to  them. 

Enemies. —  Beets  are  sometimes  injured  by 
the  beet-fly,  otherwise  they  have  few  insect  ene- 
mies. They  are  sometimes  attacked  by  rust,  rot, 
leaf-spot,  and  scab.  Spraying  with  Bordeaux 
mixture  will  prevent  the  leaf  diseases.  Scab  at- 
tacks the  root,  and  as  it  also  attacks  the  potato 
these  crops  should  not  be  grown  in  succession. 

Beet  pulp  is  a  by-product  of  sugar-beet  fac- 
tories, consisting  of  sliced  sugar-beets  after  the 
sugar  is  removed.  It  contains  about  10  per  cent 
dry  matter,  the  remainder  being  water,  and  in 
the  wet  condition  must  be  fed  at  once  or  held  in 
silos.  It  may  be  fed  to  milch  cows,  fattening 
steers,  and  sheep,  and  ranges  in  value  from  half 
to  two  thirds  the  value  of  corn  silage.  Some 
of  the  factories  have  erected  sheds  and  feed  larg'^ 
quantities  of  it  to  stock  with  the  addition  of  hay 
and  grain.  Samuel  Eraser, 

Instructor  in  Agronomy,  Cornell  University. 

Beet  Sugar,  the  sugar  obtained  from  the 
beet,  similar  to  cane  sugar ;  but  inferior  in  sweet- 
ening power.  The  discovery  of  sugar  in  the 
beet  was  made  by  a  German  chemist,  Mar- 
graff,  as  early  as  1747.  No  practical  re- 
sults followed  his  discovery,  however,  as  the 
cost  of  obtaining  sugar  from  the  beet  l^ 
laboratory  methods  was  too  high  as  com- 
pared with  that  of  cane  sugar.  Little  progress 
was  accomplished  until  about  SO  years  later, 
when  another  German  chemist,  Achard,  suc- 
ceeded in  extracting  sugar  from  the  beet  root  on 
a  comparatively  large  scale.  In  1812  a  manu- 
factory was  in  operation  in  Silesia,  in  which, 
under  Achard's  direction,  about  20  quintals  of 
beets  were  worked  up  daily,  and  about  five 
pounds  of  raw  sugar  extracted  from  every  quin- 
tal. The  high  price  of  sugar  prevailing  at  that 
time  all  over  the  European  continent  by  reason 
of  the  blockade,  and  the  great  interest  and  fa- 
vorable attitude  taken  by  the  different  continental 
governments  toward  the  new  experiment,  caused 


BEET-SUGAR  INDUSTRY 


it  to  be  a  success  for  a  short  time.  Napoleon  is- 
sued an  imperial  decree  in  the  early  part  of  his 
reign,  establishing  this  industry  in  France,  and 
in  1S12  he  ordered  the  building  of  10  factories 
and  placed  Delessert  in  charge  of  their  construc- 
tion. In  1830  attempts  were  made  in  the  United 
States  to  introduce  the  cultivation  of  the  sugar- 
beet.  It  was  not,  however,  till  1876  that  the 
first  successful  beet-sugar  factory  was  built,  be- 
ing erected  in  Alvarado,  Cal.,  since  when  the 
production  of  beet  sugar  in  the  United  States 
has  increased  by  leaps  and  bounds. 

Beet-sugar  Industry,  The.  The  produc- 
tion of  sugar-beets  and  of  beet  sugar  in  the 
United  States  is  now  assuming  such  proportions 
that,  with  the  increase  of  .factories  and  the 
marked  popular  interest,  it  has  become  one  of 
the  leading  subjects  demanding  consideration 
from  agriculturists.  There  is  probably  no  other 
industry  in  this  country  that  has  developed  so 
rapidly  and  now  absorbs  so  large  a  share  of 
public  attention  as  that  of  beet  sugar. 

Attempts  were  made  to  establish  the  industry 
in  Massachusetts  in  1841.  There  were  also  ef- 
forts in  this  direction  in  Illinois,  Wisconsin,  and 
California  between  1863  and  1876,  and  much  was 
claimed  for  the  industry  at  this  time  by  news- 
paper writers,  capitalists,  and  leading  farmers. 
In  California,  after  a  long  period  of  unprofitable 
production,  it  achieved  its  first  success.  The 
failure  of  these  early  attempts  seems  now  very 
natural  as  we  look  back  over  the  history  of  agri- 
cultural progress  in  the  United  States.  The 
beet-sugar  industry  belongs  to  the  domain  of 
agriculture,  and  the  problems  it  presents  are 
agricultural.  These  early  efforts  were  simply 
ahead  of  their  time  in  the  course  of  agricultural 
development,  and  they  failed  in  the  establishment 
of  the  beet-sugar  industry  for  want  of  the  proper 
methods  of  farming  and  the  proper  conditions 
underlying  the  farming  industry. 

At  the  time  of  the  first  attempts  at  sugar-beet 
production,  agriculture  comprehended  simply  the 
primary  features.  Its  products  were  confined 
mainly  to  cereals,  forage  crops,  and  live  stock, 
and  the  production  and  marketing  of  raw  ma- 
terials was  its  main  object.  The  farmer  in  those 
early  days  did  not  concern  himself  with  enter- 
prises dependent  on  the  concentration  of  efforts 
in  the  production  of  finished  products.  Land 
could  be  purchased  for  a  few  dollars  per  acre. 
If  the  prospective  farmer  did  not  have  the  money 
to  buy  the  land  he  could  enter  a  claim  on  Gov- 
ernment land.  His  whole  ambition  was  to  pro- 
duce something  quickly  and  pay  for  the  lands  and 
primary  improvements.  This  was  accomplished 
by  raising  corn,  wheat,  oats,  cattle,  and  hogs. 
The  open  public  domain  offered  a  free  pasture. 
Gradually  the  eastern  sections  became  more 
densely  settled,  and  farm  lands  became  more 
expensive.  Crude  production  was  accomplished 
more  cheaply  by  the  Western  farmer.  Later, 
owing  to  development  of  transportation  facilities, 
the  agriculture  of  this  country  had  to  compete 
with  the  cheap  labor  of  Europe.  The  colonial 
extension  of  European  countries  brought  areas 
into  competition  with  American  farms  in  turning 
out  crude  products,  and  with  labor  much  cheaper 
even  than  that  of  Europe.  The  problem  became, 
how  to  turn  crude  material  into  something  that 
would  represent  not  merely  the  labor  but  tlie  skill 
and  ingenuity  of  the  American  people,  thus  sup- 
plying our  own  markets  and  those  of  the  world 
with  finished  products.     The  American  farmers 


found,  as  the  manufacturers  had  found  before 
them,  that  their  success  depended  upon  the  su- 
perior skill  and  artisan  ability  of  Americans  as 
compared  with  Europeans  and  their  colonists. 
'^Necessity  is  the  mother  of  invention,**  and  de- 
mand and  necessity  united  in  the  evolution  of  a 
new  system.  This  began  in  the  East,  working 
westward,  in  the  production  of  butter,  cheese, 
prepared  meats,  flour,  eggs,  poultry,  etc.  Later 
came  the  establishment  of  other  industries,  work- 
ing up  crude  products  of  the  farm  into  finished 
articles.  We  became  producers  of  syrups, 
canned  vegetables,  canned  fruits,  etc.,  until  man- 
ufacturing reinforced  farming  from  ocean  to 
ocean.  When  all  this  was  accomplished,  the 
time  was  ripe  for  the  success  of  the  beet-sugar 
industry. 

Industrial  Features. —  It  is  one  of  the  marked 
features  of  American  industrial  life  that  the 
people  as  a  mass  have  always  shown  a  readiness 
to  forego  immediate  benefits,  and,  even  at  con- 
siderable expense  to  themselves,  to  encourage 
industrial  development.  As  a  result  this  country 
has  made  a  record  among  the  nations  of  the 
earth  unparalleled  in  rapid  development,  accumu- 
lation of  wealth,  and  hold  on  the  trade  of  the 
world. 

One  of  the  chief  items  of  cost  in  the  produc- 
tion of  anything  is  labor.  In  this  country  it  is 
contended  that  the  laborer  is  not  only  entitled 
to  earn  a  living,  but  to  live  comfortably,  to  be 
able  to  educate  his  family,  and  to  acquire  a  com- 
fortable home.  There  is  no  position  in  life,  so- 
cial, financial,  or  political,  to  which  the  laboring 
man  may  not  aspire.  While  this  means  much 
for  the  citizen,  it  adds  materially  to  the  cost  of 
production.  This  country  to-day  is  the  concern 
of  the  nations  of  the  earth  in  being  able  to  main- 
tain a  balance  of  trade  in  its  favor  through  its 
agricultural  and  industrial  productions,  and  this 
balance  is  constantly  increasing.  The  sugar  in- 
dustry is  supported  by  American  enterprise  and 
spirit,  and  under  this  American  policy  it  is  rap- 
idly assuming  a  prominent  position  in  the  long 
list  of  successful  industries. 

There  are  two  sides  to  the  proposition  of  es- 
tablishing a  sugar  factory  in  any  particular  com- 
munity: (i)  That  of  the  farmer,  involving 
agricultural  conditions;  and  (2)  that  of  the 
manufacturer  or  those  financially  interested  in 
the  enterprise. 

Problems  for  the  Farmer. —  The  leading  diffi- 
culties of  the  farmer  may  first  be  noticed.  To 
begin  with,  he  is  unacquainted  with  the  methods 
of  cultivating  the  sugar-beet  plant,  and  his  first 
experience  usually  proves  unsatisfactory.  He  is 
accustomed  to  certain  methods  in  farming.  As 
a  rule  he  is  conservative,  and  thinks,  from  his 
long  experience  in  farming,  that  he  knows  how 
to  farm.  He  undertakes  to  apply  methods  suc- 
cessful in  the  cultivation  and  production  of  other 
crops.  He  is  not  inclined  to  listen  to  those  who 
are  posted  in  methods  applicable  to  the  new  crop. 
Eventually  he  finds  out  his  mistake.  He  finds 
that  in  growing  sugar-beets  he  must  apply  prin- 
cipleSj  in  many  case,  the  reverse  of  those  neces- 
sary to  other  crops.  For  instance,  he  has  been 
accustomed  to  growing  large  ears  of  corn,  large 
hogs,  and  large  steers ;  but  in  the  case  of  sugar- 
beets  he  finds  that  the  first  question  is  not  one 
of  size,  but  of  quality.  He  must  grow  beets  of 
a  certain  size,  purity,  and  sugar  content.  In  or- 
der to  accomplish  this  he  must  give  careful 
attention   to   the    work   of   preparing   the    land, 


BEET-SUGAR  INDUSTRY 


planting  the  seed,  bunching,  thinning,  and  culti- 
vating. He  finds  that  attention  to  details  counts 
in  results  at  the  harvest  in  the  profits  on  the 
crop.  He  learns  that  the  whole  process  is  a  very 
laborious  and  expensive  one,  entirely  unlike  any- 
thing he  has  attempted  before.  To  be  successful 
he  must  apply  the  methods  of  the  gardener  to  a 
field  crop.  He  must  have  a  rich  soil,  and  the 
proper  rain  conditions  at  the  proper  time.  These 
facts  can  only  be  learned  through  experience. 

The  Question  of  Labor. —  The  labor  problem 
is  important  in  the  cultivation  of  sugar-beets. 
At  certain  stages  of  their  growth  they  require 
a  considerable  amount  of  labor.  This  labor  is 
very  tiresome.  As  a  rule,  the  farmer,  if  he 
grows  beets  to  any  extent,  does  not  have  on  his 
farm  sufficient  labor  to  do  the  work  of  thin- 
ning and  bunching,  hoeing,  and  harvesting  the 
sugar-beets ;  nor  does  any  farming  community 
possess  to  any  considerable  extent  the  labor 
necessary  to  grow  the  beets  that  a  factory  will  re- 
quire in  a  campaign.  It  will  cost  about  $30  an 
acre  in  sections  where  sugar-beets  are  grown 
under  rainy  conditions,  and  about  $40  to  $45  an 
acre  in  sections  where  beets  are  grown  by  irri- 
gation, to  cover  the  cost  of  seed,  preparation  of 
seed-bed,  bunching  and  thinning,  hoeing,  culti- 
vating, harvesting,  and  delivering  to  the  factory. 
These  estimates  apply  to  growing  sugar-beets 
when  it  is  properly  done.  In  the  farming  com- 
munities of  foreign  countries,  as  a  rule,  a  large 
amount  of  suitable  labor  can  be  secured  in  the 
neighborhood,  because  these  neighborhoods  are 
more  thickly  settled ;  the  whole  population  is 
willing  to  do  the  laborious,  tedious  work  re- 
quired, and  whole  families  work  at  it,  including 
the  father,  mother,  and  children.  In  this  coun- 
try, as  a  rule,  the  farmer,  his  older  sons,  and 
hired  hands  must  attend  to  the  outdoor  work. 
It  has  been  found  necessary  for  sugar-beet 
growers  to  resort  to  the  cities  and  towns  for  the 
extra  labor  required.  Most  of  this  work  comes 
about  the  time  the  public  schools  are  closed,  and 
boys  from  12  years  up  are  employed  for  bunch- 
ing and  thinning  the  beets,  for  hoeing  them 
during  the  season,  and  to  aid  in  the  harvesting 
by  pulling,  cleaving  the  tops,  and  loading  the 
beets  into  wagons.  In  the  cities  also  live  many 
foreigners  from  Holland,  Russia,  Sweden,  and 
other  places,  who  are  thoroughly  familiar  with 
this  kind  of  work.  These  people  are  willing  to 
move  out  into  the  fields  and  live  in  tents ;  they 
make  contracts  at  so  much  per  acre  for  bunching 
and  thinning,  hoeing,  weeding,  and  harvesting. 
Since  the  agitation  and  starting  of  the  beet- 
sugar  industry  in  this  country,  foreigners  are 
coming  here  with  a  view  to  securing  employment 
of  this  kind.  While  the  labor  question  is  a  seri- 
ous one,  it  is  one  capable  of  solution  by  careful 
and  detailed  attention. 

Proble)ns  for  the  Manufacturer. —  The  manu- 
facturer or  the  capitalist  who  builds  a  factory 
finds  that  he  has  even  more  problems  to  w^ork 
out  than  the  farmer,  and,  like  the  farmer,  he 
usually  discovers  that  he  is  entering  a  field  that 
is  entirely  new  to  him.  Before  establishing  his 
plant  the  prospective  manufacturer  must  thor- 
oughly investigate  certain  conditions:  (i)  The 
water  supply,  for  he  must  have  an  abundant  sup- 
ply of  pure  water  for  the  use  of  the  factory. 
(2)  The  fuel  supply,  as  the  factory  must  be  lo- 
cated in  a  section  where  cheap  fuel  can  be  se- 
cured (the  fuel  usually  used  is  coal,  but  on  the 
Pacific  coast  petroleum  is  used  to  a  large  extent, 


and  in  some  of  the  mountain  States  it  is  found 
that  wood  is  the  cheapest  fuel).  (3)  A  market 
for  the  product  (this  factor  should  be  thoroughly 
canvassed  and  settled  prior  to  establishing  a 
factory;  the  fact  that  the  manufacturer  is  pro- 
posing to  establish  a  factory  on  a  particular  line 
of  railroad  can  generally  be  used  to  secure  by 
contract  low  freight  rates  for  the  future  in  ship- 
ping both  beets  and  the  finished  product — • 
sugar).  (4)  The  supply  of  lime  (the  local 
quarries  of  lime  rock  must  be  investigated  to 
see  if  the  quality  is  suitable  and  the  supply  suffi- 
cient, as  a  large  amount  will  be  required). 

The  general  conditions  having  been  found 
satisfactory,  and  the  factory  being  built,  other 
problems  arise.  In  the  beginning  only  a  limited 
amount  of  skilled  labor  is  employed.  Eventually 
every  employee  of  the  factory  will  become  skilled 
in  his  particular  part.  After  two  or  three  cam- 
paigns have  passed  the  factory  will  have  worked 
out  the  details  of  producing  the  best  product  at 
the  least  cost  with  the  machinery  which  it  has. 
When  this  point  shall  have  been  reached  those 
interested  will  be  prepared  to  estimate  the  cost 
of  production  of  beet  sugar.  The  difference  in 
cost  of  production  at  a  new  factory  and  at  one 
operated  for  a  considerable  time  is  much  greater 
than  one  unacquainted  with  the  subject  would 
suppose. 

Statistics  of  the  Industry. —  The  recent  cen- 
sus shows  the  rapid  growth  of  the  beet-sugar  in- 
dustry in  this  country.  Thirty-one  factories  had 
been  established  before  the  end  of  the  century. 
Since  that  time  11  other  factories  have  been  put 
in  operation,  located  at  the  following  places, 
and  having  the  daily  capacities  named :  Lyons, 
N.  Y.,  600  tons;  Rockyford,  Col.,  1,000  tons; 
Sugar  City,  Col.,  500  tons ;  Bingham  Junction, 
Utah,  350  tons ;  Provo,  Utah,  350  tons ;  Lansing, 
Mich.,  600  tons  ;  Saginaw,  Mich.,  600  tons  ;  Salz- 
burg, Mich.,  400  tons;  Loveland,  Col.,  1,000  tons; 
Menomonee  Falls,  Wis.,  500  tons ;  and  Logan,. 
Utah,  400  tons. 

At  the  following  places  factories  are  either 
in  process  of  erection  or  preparations  have  been 
made  for  building  in  1902 :  Sebewaing,  Mich., 
600  tons ;  Carrollton,  Mich.,  600  tons ;  Mount 
Clemens,  Mich.,  600  tons ;  Crosswell,  Mich.,  600 
tons ;  Greeley,  Col.,  800  tons ;  Eaton,  Col.,  500 
tons;  Fort  Collins,  Col,  500  tons. 

At  the  following  places  companies  have  been 
organized  and  capitalized,  and  there  is  every  in- 
dication that  they  will  mature  their  plans  and 
erect  factories  in  time  to  engage  in  the  beet- 
sugar  campaign  of  1902  or  1903 :  Saginaw, 
Mich.,  two  factories,  500  tons  each ;  Chesaning, 
Badaxe.  Grand  Rapids,  and  Lapeer,  Mich. ; 
Sioux  City,  Iowa ;  Longmont,  and  Lamar,  Col. ; 
Bear  River  Valley,  Utah;  Phoenix,  Ariz.; 
Cheyenne,  Wyo. ;  Los  Angeles.  Cal.  . 

At  many  other  places  preliminary  organiza- 
tions have  been  formed  which  are  only  awaiting 
developments  assuring  more  settled  conditions 
affecting  the  sugar  industry. 

Methods  of  Groiving  Sugar-Beets. —  It  would 
be  quite  difficult  to  give  general  directions  and 
rules  for  growing  sugar-beets  applicable  to  all 
localities  and  conditions.  Often  expert  sugar- 
beet  growers,  at  public  meetings  and  in  the 
agricultural  press,  give  minute  directions  cov- 
ering all  the  details  of  this  intricate  process. 
Others,  each  well  versed  in  the  process  of  grow- 
ing sugar-beets,  get  into  arguments  and  disputes 
as  to  the   right  method.    In    such    cases    each. 


BEET-SUGAR  INDUSTRY 


may  be  correct  in  a  measure.  The  occasion 
for  such  disagreements  Hes  in  the  fact  that  each 
person  has  in  mind  the  right  method  for  a  par- 
ticular locaHty  or  set  of  conditions.  A  careful 
study  of  -the  different  sections  of  the  United 
States  where  sugar-beets  are  grown  will  lead 
to  the  conclusion  that  there  is  no  single  road 
to  success  in  growing  sugar-beets.  Every  local- 
ity has  settled  conditions  which  will  materially 
modify  any  set  of  methods  that  might  apply  to 
some  other  one.  There  are  some  settled  rules, 
of  course,  but  it  is  an  actual  fact  that  the  vari- 
ous agricultural  districts  of  this  country  will 
have  to  work  out  each  for  itself  the  right 
method.  The  person  who  argues  that  the 
ground  must  be  plowed  in  the  fall  in  order  to 
receive  the  benefit  of  winter  frosts  is  not 
offering  any  argument  to  the  Pacific  coast,  for 
instance,  where  many  beets  are  grown,  and  he 
who  insists  that  the  ground  should  be  rolled  in 
all  instances  after  planting  will  hazard  the  crop 
if  his  directions  are  followed  in  many  parts 
of  Nebraska  and  other  sections  where  the  soil 
is  sandy  and  there  are  strong  winds.  In  such 
cases  a  smooth  surface  offers  an  excellent  op- 
portunity for  the  wind  to  carry  along  the  sharp 
grains  of  sand,  cutting  off  the  plants  and  de- 
stroying the  crop. 

There  can  be  no  general  fixed  rules  applying 
to  the  kinds  and  application  of  fertilizers.  Gen- 
eral principles  are  all  right  when  accompanied 
with  the  underlying  reasons,  but  they  must 
always  be  modified  to  meet  local  conditions. 

With  the  development  of  the  industry  in  all 
the  sections  which  have  the  necessary  conditions, 
and  the  acquirement  of  ample  experience  both 
by  the  farmers  in  the  production  of  beets  and 
by  manufacturers  in  the  making  of  sugar,  there 
will  come  many  improvements,  and  eventually 
a  cheapening  of  production,  a  result  of  great 
importance  to  all  concerned  in  the  success  of 
the  industry,  because  eventually  the  beet-sugar 
industry  in  the  United  States  will  have  to  meet 
a  sharper  competition  with  foreign  sugar  pro- 
ducers. 

There  are  some  things  settled,  however,  about 
growing  sugar-beets.  It  will  generally  be  con- 
ceded that  the  ground  should  be  plowed  deep, 
and  in  most  instances  subsoiled.  Before  the 
seed  is  planted,  the  ground  must  be  thoroughly 
pulverized  by  harrowing  and  by  rolling,  even 
if  the  surface  has  to  be  afterward  roughened. 
Advantage  must  be  taken  of  the  general  and 
prevalent  rain  conditions.  The  ground  must  be 
moist  enough  to  germinate  the  seed,  either  by 
rainfall  or  irrigation.  Rainfall  is  best  when  it 
can  be  obtained.  In  some  localities  either  is 
used,  according  to  circumstances.  Seeds  are 
planted  at  depths  of  from  half  an  inch  to  two 
inches,  according  to  the  prevailing  conditions 
in  the  particular  locality.  The  beets  must  be 
planted  near  enough  together  to  produce  a  beet 
of  a  certain  size.  This  spacing  depends,  again, 
upon  the  locality  and  the  nature  and  fertility  of 
the  soil.  The  size  and  quality  of  the  beet  de- 
pend materially  on  the  right  kind  of  spacing. 
The  beets  must  be  thoroughly  cultivated,  hoed, 
and  hand-weeded,  because  cultivation  tends  to 
conserve  the  moisture  of  the  soil,  and  clean 
fields  permit  favorable  action  of  sun  and  air. 
This  close  cultivation  should  be  kept  up 
until  the  beet  tops  thoroughly  shade  the  ground 
and  reach  a  size  when  it  would  be  injuri- 
ous   to    operate    among   them    further    with    a 


plow  and  hoe.  The  beets  should  be  harvested 
as  soon  as  possible  after  they  are  ripe,  because 
then  they  contam  the  most  sugar  and  the  highest 
purity.  It  is  evident  that  the  entire  crop  of 
beets  in  the  neighborhood  of  a  factory  cannot  be 
harvested  at  once.  In  many  localities  some  will 
have  to  be  siloed.  Harvesting-time  will  depend 
a  great  deal  upon  circumstances  connected  with 
the  operation  of  the  factory.  The  sooner  the 
beet  is  harvested  after  it  is  ripe  the  better,  be- 
cause further  rainfall  may  start  a  new  growth, 
producing  new  lateral  roots  and  new  leaves, 
thus  greatly  reducing  the  sugar  content  and 
purity  of  the  beets. 

Benefits  to  the  Fanner. —  No  statement  of 
facts  with  reference  to  any  new  crop  would  be 
complete  or  would  indicate  the  advisability  of  its 
introduction  unless  it  showed  the  benefits  to 
be  derived.  Of  course,  profit  and  loss  in  any 
enterprise  is  the  first  consideration. 

It  has  already  been  stated  that  it  costs  about 
$30  per  acre  to  produce  sugar-beets  and  to 
market  the  crop  where  rain  conditions  prevail. 
This  is  without  taking  into  consideration  the 
rent  of  the  land,  but  it  includes  the  farmer's  time 
and  everything  else  that  enters  into  the  cost  of 
production.  The  average  j'ieid  is  about  12  tons 
per  acre.  Probably  this  cost  of  production  will 
be  gradually  reduced  because  of  improvements 
in  implements  and  methods.  The  beets  grown 
have  a  gross  value  at  the  factories  of  $4  to 
$4.50  per  ton  (in  States  paying  no  bounty). 
This  gives  a  gross  return  per  acre  of  $48  to 
$54,  and  a  net  profit  of  $18  to  $24.  It  must  be 
kept  in  mind  that  these  are  averages  of  gross 
and  net  proceeds.  It  is  never  very  encouraging 
to  consult  the  average  of  agricultural  crop  sta- 
tistics;  indeed,  it  is  often  said  that  ^*the  average 
crop  does  not  pay.**  If  one  should  take  the  fig- 
ures of  the  average  crop  of  corn  in  Iowa,  for 
instance,  or  the  average  crop  of  wheat  in  Min- 
nesota or  Kansas,  and  compute  the  proceeds  at 
the  average  market  price,  and  deduct  therefrom 
the  cost  of  production,  the  results  would  show 
a  very  small  remuneration  or  an  actual  loss, 
quite  discouraging  to  one  who  has  not  investi- 
gated this  subject. 

Taking  what  seem  to  be  the  most  authentic 
figures,  the  cost  of  producing  sugar-beets  in  sec- 
tions where  they  are  grown  by  irrigation  is 
about  $40  per  acre.  An  average  of  13  tons  per 
acre  can  be  produced,  having  a  higher  sugar 
content,  and  worth  $4.50  to  $5  per  ton,  making 
the  gross  proceeds  $58.50  to  $65,  and  the  net 
profit  $18.50  to  $25  per  acre.  These  figures  give 
to  the  farmer  in  each  case  a  profit  greatly  more 
satisfactory  than  in  the  case  of  other  crops. 
But  the  successful  farmer  will  never  be  satisfied 
with  the  average  proceeds  of  any  crop,  and  it  is 
to  him  we  must  look  for  the  results  that  give 
the  more  encouraging  inducements  to  beet  cul- 
ture. Many  growers  receive  as  high  as  $75  and 
some  as  high  as  $100  per  acre  for  their  beets, 
these  high  results  depending  upon  the  superior 
quality  of  the  land  and  the  superior  skill  of 
the  one  producing  the  beets.  If  a  farmer  has 
poor  land  or  is  a  poor  farmer,  he  is  not  in  a 
position  to  expect  much  in  planting  any  kind 
of  crop.  These  statements  are  sufficient  to  give 
a  farmer  who  is  experienced  in  all  other  kinds 
of  crops   a   fair   insight   into  the  situation. 

There  are  indirect  benefits  in  sugar-beet 
growing  that  the  farmer  must  take  into  consid- 
eration, along  with  the  direct,  as  follows :     He 


BEET-SUGAR  INDUSTRY 


learns  that  sugar-beets  are  a  very  valuable  crop 
to  grow  for  his  slock.  It  is  estimated  that 
they  are  worth  two  thirds  as  much  for  feeding 
as  for  production  of  sugar.  They  may  enter 
into  a  food  ration  for  any  kind  of  stock.  The 
farmer  growing  beets  for  a  sugar  factory  re- 
tains for  feeding  the  beets  that  have  been 
*' docked,**  or  that  are  liable  to  be.  He  con- 
structs root-cellars  and  stores  them  away,  and 
they  enter  largely  into  all  animal  food  rations 
for  winter  feeding.  For  stock-feeding  sugar- 
beets  have  both  a  nutritive  and  a  sanitary 
value. 

The  high  cultivation  that  must  be  given  to 
the  land  through  deep  plowing,  thorough  har- 
rowing, and  constant  weeding  and  cultivating 
finally  makes  the  land  of  superior  quality  for 
any  purpose.  It  will  grow  better  corn  or  wheat, 
and  at  a  less  expense,  on  account  of  the  ab- 
sence of  weeds  and  grass.  Finally,  through  ro- 
tation, other  fields  are  brought  under  this  high 
state  of  cultivation,  until  the  whole  farm  is  at 
its  best  condition  of  soil  fertility  and  produc- 
tiveness. 

The  method  that  has  brought  this  about 
serves  as  an  object-lesson  to  the  farmer  and 
the  farming  neighborhood.  A  better  cultivation 
will  prevail,  and  the  science  of  farming  will 
become  several  degrees  higher  on  account  of 
experience  in  sugar-beet  cultivation. 

After  the  beets  are  delivered  to  the  fac- 
tory, and  the  sugar  has  been  extracted,  it  is 
found  that  the  pulp  (which  will  amount  to  50 
per  cent  in  weight  of  the  beets  worked)  is 
almost  as  valuable  for  feeding  purposes  as  the 
original  beets  themselves.  It  is  a  very  cheap 
feed  and  sells  for  35  to  50  cents  per  ton.  It 
enters  naturally  and  profitably  into  the  food 
rations  of  all  kinds  of  stock.  It  is  especially 
valuable  for  steers,  lambs,  brood  mares,  and 
brood  sows,  but  reaches  its  highest  use  as  ani- 
mal food  when  fed  to  the  dairy  cow.  The 
farmers  in  the  neighborhood  of  a  beet-sugar 
factory  feed  large  quantities  of  it.  They  appre- 
ciate its  nutritive  and  sanitary  value.  Pulp 
feeding  gives  an  impetus  to  animal  industry  of 
all  kinds.  It  offers  a  stimulus  to  the  estab- 
lishment of  butter  and  cheese  factories,  to  the 
erection  of  feeding-pens,  and  to  the  whole 
stock-feeding  industry.  Its  use  is  one  of  the 
strong  reasons  for  establishing  the  industry. 

The  beet-sugar  industry  opens  up  at  once  a 
large  demand  for  labor,  not  only  in  the  factory 
itself,  but  on  the  farm.  It  is  one  of  the  things 
in  which  the  farmer  can  invest  with  the  assur- 
ance that  he  has  a  sure  market  and  a  fixed  price 
for  his  crop  to  begin  with. 

Benefits  to  Other  Industries. —  The  estab- 
lishment of  a  beet-sugar  factory  opens  up  not 
only  a  large  field  for  the  employment  of  labor, 
but  also  a  field  for  the  employment  of  capital. 
It  becomes  at  once  a  market  for  considerable 
crude  material  to  be  used  in  conducting  the 
business.  First  and  most  important  it  furnishes 
a  market  for  the  beets.  Then  the  factory  is  a 
large  consumer  of  coal,  and  as  the  factories  are 
often  established  in  communities  having  local 
coal  fields  they  become  at  once  local  markets 
for  a  local  product.  The  amount  of  coal  neces- 
sary to  work  up  a  certain  amount  of  beets  is 
generally  computed  at  about  17  per  cent  by 
weight,  or,  in  case  of  an  ordinary  factory  of  350 
tons  capacity,  about  60  tons  of  coal  per  day,  or 
6,000  tons  for  a  full  campaign  of  100  days.    A 


factory  also  consumes  a  large  amount  of  lime 
rock,  which  of  necessity  must  also  be  a  local 
product.  It  usually  consumes  lime  rock  to  the 
extent  of  about  10  per  cent  of  the  crude  weight 
of  beets  worked,  which  in  the  case  of  a  350-ton 
factory  would  be  35  tons  of  lime  rock  per  day, 
or  3,500  tons  for  the  campaign.  It  consumes 
about  one  fifth  as  much  coke  as  lime,  or  a  little 
less  than  700  tons  during  a  campaign. 

The  establishment  of  a  factory  in  a  commu- 
nity necessitates  considerable  transportation  of 
crude  products  —  beets,  coal,  and  lime  rock  — 
to  the  factory,  and  in  carrying  the  finished  prod- 
uct to  the  market.  It  stimulates  banking  and 
almost  all  kinds  of  mercantile  business  through- 
out the  community. 

The  Future  of  the  Industry. —  The  follow- 
ing figures  will  give  an  idea  of  the  possibilities 
for  the  expansion  of  the  beet-sugar  industry  in 
the  United  States : 

CONSUMPTION,    PRODUCTION,    AND    IMPORTATION    OF 
SUGAR. 

TONS. 

For    1 90 1    the  total   consumption   of   sugar   in 

the   United  States  was 2,372,000 

Adding  to  this  the  average  yearly  increase, 
based  on  an  estimate  for  twenty  years,  the 
consumption  of  sugar  for  1902  will  be....  2,478,000 
To  meet  annual  requirements  there  must  be 
imported  into  the  United  States  proper  this 
2,478,000  tons,  less  what  this  country  man- 
ufactures. The  home  production  for  1902 
should   be   about    as    follows: 

Cane  sugar  of  the  South 300,000 

Beet    sugar    of    the    North    and 

West 185,000 

485,000 

Balance    imported 1,993,000 

Requirements   from   outside    for    1902   will   be 

in    round    numbers 2,000,000 

Of  this  amount  from  insular  possessions,  free 
of  duty,  there  will  be  received  — 

From  Porto   Rico   about 100,000 

From    Hawaii    about 300,000 

400,000 

There    must    be    secured    from    strictly 

foreign  sources,  duty  paid 1,600,000 

It  is  the  ambition  of  those  encouraging 
the  beet-sugar  industry  to  establish  factories 
enough  at  least  to  furnish  this  foreign  importa- 
tion. Making  due  allowance  for  failure  of  facto- 
ries to  reach  in  actual  production  their  full  capa- 
city under  ideal  conditions,  it  would  require  500 
factories  having  a  daily  capacity  of  500  tons  of 
beets  to  produce  the  sugar  imported,  or  a  suf- 
ficient number  of  cane-sugar  factories  to  pro- 
duce an  equal  amount  of  sugar.  As  a  matter 
of  fact,  there  is  likely  to  be  a  rapid  increase  in 
both  beet-sugar  and  cane-sugar  factories.  But 
for  convenience  the  calculations  here  made  are 
based  on  the  supposition  that  the  increase  will 
be  in  beet-sugar  factories  only.  In.  order  to 
equip  and  build  these  factories  it  will  require 
an  investment  of  capital  of  $250,000,000.  This 
vast  sum  of  money  must  be  expended  in  this 
country  for  building  materials  and  machinery 
and  in  the  employment  of  the  labor  necessary 
to  construct  and  equip  the  factories.  The  an- 
nual requirements  of  these  factories  will  be  as 
follows : 

ANNUAL  REQUIREMENTS  OF  5OO  BEET-SUGAR 
FACTORIES. 

They  will  require  of  beets tons..    18,750,000 

pay  farmers  for  the  beets $84,375,000 

require   of   coal tons..      3,187,500 

pay   the    coal-dealers $  9,562,500 

require    of    lime    rock tons.  .      1,875,000 

pay  to  the  quarries  for  lime  rock.$  3,750,000 


BEETHOVEN 


They  will  require  of  coke tons.  .         375,oOo 

pay  to  the  coke-dealers  for  coke..$  3,000,000 
expend  for  labor  in  the   factories. $19,000,000 

In  addition  to  the  foregoing  list  large  amounts 
of  money  will  be  paid  for  mill  supplies, 
transportation,  etc.  As  working  capital  to  ope- 
rate these  factories  $135,000,000  will  be  required. 
This  sum  being  in  use,  however,  for  about  four 
months  in  the  year,  the  interest  charged  thereon 
is  equal  to  an  interest  charge  on  $45,000,000  for 
one  year.  It  should  be  remembered  that  the 
above  estimates  do  not  include  the  capital 
already  invested  in  the  business  and  the  opera- 
tions of  the  factories  already  built,  the  state- 
ment of  which  is  as  follows : 

PRESENT    DEVELOPMENT    OF   THE   BEET-SUGAR 
INDUSTRY. 

Capital  invested   in   factories,  equipment,  and 

grounds $30,000,000 

Beets   purchased    annually tons..      1,875,000 

Cash   paid    for   beets   purchased   annually ....  $  8,437,500 

Coal    consumed   annually tons..         318,750 

Cash  paid  for  coal  annually $      956,250 

Lime    rock    purchased    annually tons..  187,500 

Cash  paid  for  lime  rock  annually $      375,000 

Coke    purchased    annually tons..  37,500 

Cash   paid   for  coke  annually $       300,000 

Cash   paid   for   labor  annually $   1,900,000 

Operating  capital  annually  employed $   5,000,000 

Also  there  is  a  considerable  amount  an- 
nually expended  for  crude  material  and  various 
other  things.  It  hardly  seems  possible  that  an 
industry  which  affects  so  many  people  over 
such  a  wide  scope  of  country  can  fail  to  re- 
ceive anything  but  the  most  friendly,  careful, 
and  fostering  consideration  on  the  part  of  those 
who   shape   industrial   affairs. 

The  immensity  of  future  demands,  it  seems, 
answers  effectually  those  who  feel  that  the 
industry  might  be  overdone.  Attention  should 
be  called  to  the  fact  that  not  only  are  present 
demands  great,  but  that  the  rate  of  increase  of 
consumption  is  considerable.  According  to 
careful  statistics  for  the  last  19  years,  consump- 
tion of  sugar  in  this  country  has  been  increas- 
ing at  the  average  rate  of  about  dVs  per  cent 
annually.  Charles  F.  Saylor. 

Beethoven,  Ludwig  Van,  the  greatest  or- 
chestral composer  of  the  19th  century :  b.  Bonn 
16  Dec.  1770;  d.  Vienna  26  March  1827.  While 
classed  among  the  German  masters,  the  Dutch 
Van  in  his  name  (which  is  not  a  sign  of  no- 
bility) indicates  his  descent  from  a  family  in  the 
Netherlands,  the  world's  musical  centre  in  the 
15th  and  i6th  centuries.  This  family  moved  in 
1650  from  Louvain  to  Antwerp.  Beethoven's 
grandfather  was  a  bass  singer  and  a  conductor ; 
his  father  was  a  tenor,  who  did  not  lead  an  ex- 
emplary life ;  his  income  was  only  $150  a  year, 
wherefore  it  is  not  surprising  that  he  eagerly 
availed  himself  of  his  son's  musical  talent  and 
exploited  it.  He  personally  taught  Ludwig  to 
play  the  violin  and  the  clavier,  in  the  hope  of 
making  of  him  a  *wonder-child'^  like  Mozart. 
While  Ludwig  was  not  remarkably  precocious 
(he_  even  shed  tears  over  his  music  lessons), 
he  is  said  to  have  written  a  funeral  cantata  at 
II,  and  in  the  same  year  was  taken  on  a  concert- 
tour  by  his  father,  who,  to  make  his  perform- 
ances seem  more  remarkable,  represented  him  as 
being  two  years  younger.  Before  he  had  reached 
his  I2th_year  the  organist  Neefe  spoke  of  him 
as  ''■playing  with  force  and  finish,  reading  well 
at  sight,  and,  to  sum  up  all.  playing  the  greater 
part  of  Bach's  'Well  Tempered  Clavier,'  a  feat. 


which  will  be  understood  by  the  initiated.  If 
he  goes  on  as  he  began,  he  will  certainly  become 
a  second  Mozart.*' 

Mozart  himself  appears  to  have  been  of  this 
opinion,  for  when  he  heard  young  Beethoven 
improvise  in  Vienna  he  exclaimed  to  the  by- 
standers, "Keep  your  eyes  on  him !  He  will 
give  the  world  something  to  talk  about !"  This 
was  in  1787.  Beethoven  had  been  sent  to 
Vienna  in  the  hope  that  he  might  be  able  to 
take  lessons  of  Mozart;  apparently  he  did  take 
a  few,  but  the  illness  of  his  mother  made  him 
hasten  back  to  Bonn.  Although  Bonn  was  a 
small  town,  it  had  quite  a  musical  atmosphere, 
and  Beethoven  had  good  opportunities  to  be- 
come acquainted  with  the  operas  and  the  con- 
cert pieces  then  in  vogue.  He  was  only  13 
when  he  got  a  position  as  assistant  court  organ- 
ist, and  subsequently  he  played  the  pianoforte 
accompaniments  at  the  rehearsals  of  the  opera 
orchestra.  He  also  played  the  viola.  His  first 
salaried  position  ($63  a  year)  was  as  assistant 
organist  under  Reicha.  The  most  important 
occurrence  of  the  Bonn  period  was  the  forma- 
tion of  an  intimate  friendship  with  Count  von 
Waldstein,  to  whom  he  subsequently  dedicated 
one  of  his  best  sonatas.  The  Count  had 
promptly  recognized  his  genius,  and  it  was 
probably  owing  to  his  suggestion  that  the 
elector  of  Cologne,  Max  Franz,  decided  to  pro- 
vide the  young  musician  with  the  means  for 
going  to  Vienna  again  and  there  continuing  his 
studies  with  Haydn,  to  whom  Beethoven  had 
already  been  introduced  when  Haydn  stopped 
at  Bonn,  in  1790,  on  his  way  to  London.  It  was 
in  November,  1792,  nearly  a  year  after  Mozart's 
death,  that  Beethoven  entered  Vienna,  which 
was  to  remain  his  home  till  the  end  of  his  life. 
The  lessons  from  Ha3^dn  were  duly  arranged 
for  and  the  first  was  given  in  Havdn's  house 
en  Dec.  12,  the  payment  being  eight  groschen 
(about  20  cents).  But  Haydn,  like  most 
creators,  was  not  a  good  teacher  and  although 
Beethoven  took  lessons  of  him  more  than  a 
year,  he  soon  began  to  take  his  exercises  for 
correction  to  Schenk  before  showing  them  to 
Haydn.  He  subsequently  took  lessons  of  the 
pedantic  contrapuntist  Albrechtsberger,  who, 
however,  complained  that  his  pupil  was  unwill- 
ing to  "  do  anything  in  decent  style  "  and  had 
too  little  respect  for  rules  —  this  last  being  a 
peculiarity  which  he,  fortunately,  soon  began 
to  manifest  in  his  compositions.  To  these  com- 
positions he  was  so  lucky  as  to  be  able  to  devote 
nearly  all  his  time.  From  his  father  he  re- 
ceived no  pecuniary  assistance,  but  there  were 
several  sources  of  income.  Prince  Lichnowskj-^ 
gave  him  an  annual  stipend  of  600  florins,  and 
when,  in  1809.  an  attempt  was  made  to  entice 
him  to  Kassel,  where  a  position  as  Kapellmeister 
was  offered  him,  some  of  his  princely  friends 
gave  him  an  additional  annuity  of  4,000  florins, 
to  chain  him  to  Vienna.  This  lasted  only  till 
1811,  but  at  this  time  he  was  already  deriving 
a  considerable  income  from  the  sale  of  his 
works.  Many  of  his  letters  show  that  he  knew 
how  to  make  a  good  bargain.  Had  it  not  been 
for  a  spendthrift  nephew,  of  whom  he  was  very 
fond,  and  for  whom  it  was  found  at  the  time  of 
his  death  he  had  even  placed  7,000  florins  in  the 
bank,  he  would  have  never  suffered  any  financial 
tribulations  such  as  Mozart  and  Schubert  had 
to  endure  all  their  lives. 


BEETHOVEN. 


BEETHOVEN 


It  was  fortunate  that  the  Kassel  offer  was  re- 
fused, and  that  an  earUer  attempt  (in  1796)  to 
win  him  for  Berlin  had  also  led  to  naught; 
for  Vienna  was  the  proper  place  for  Beethoven. 
It  was  at  that  time  the  world's  musical  centre, 
owing  largely  to  the  unusual  interest  taken  in 
music  by  the  aristocratic  circles.  To  under- 
stand the  significance  of  this  fact  we  must  bear 
in  mind  that  at  that  time  there  were  few  public 
concerts ;  it  was  the  nobility  who  maintained  the 
orchestras  and  patronized  the  great  artists,  the 
audiences  being  invited  guests.  Beethoven 
brought  with  him  from  Bonn  letters  of  intro- 
duction to  leading  members  of  the  aristocracy, 
and  thus  found  himself  at  once  "  in  the  swim." 
He  had  not  yet  done  anything  very  remarkable 
as  a  composer  and  was  at  first  admired  chiefly 
for  his  improvisations  on  the  pianoforte;  but 
gradually  a  sense  of  his  greatness  dawned  on 
his  patrons,  who  bore  patiently  all  his  eccentrici- 
ties. While  recognizing  the  advantage  of  being 
intimate  in  the  houses  of  the  aristocracy,  he 
never  truckled  to  rank  and  refused  to  submit 
to  the  intricate  and  artificial  rules  of  court 
etiquette.  At  the  same  time  he  expected  the 
aristocrats  to  behave  like  ladies  and  gentlemen ; 
one  day  when  a  young  man  talked  loudly  while 
he  was  playing,  he  suddenly  stopped  and  ex- 
claimed :  "  I  play  no  longer  for  such  hogs.'' 
His  attitude  toward  wealth  is  illustrated  by  his 
once  sending  back  his  brother's  card  on  which 
*Johann  van  Beethoven,  land  proprietor*  was 
printed,  after  writing  on  the  back :  "  Ludwig 
van  Beethoven,  brain  proprietor." 

In  the  homes  of  some  of  his  aristocratic 
friends  he  gave  lessons'  to  the  women  and  girls. 
He  did  this  unwillingly,  looking  at  the  time  thus 
spent  as  filched  from  his  compositions.  He  often 
failed  to  keep  his  appointments  and  was  apt  to 
be  irascible  and  bearish ;  but  his  fair  pupiis 
were  only  too  glad  to  put  up  with  all  this  for 
the  sake  of  the  benefit  they  got  from  his  lessons. 
He  was,  at  the  same  time,  a  great  admirer  of 
women  and  often  in  love,  although  none  of  his 
infatuations  appear  to  have  lasted  more  than 
seven  months.  He  was  never  married,  for  al- 
though he  repeatedly  proposed  he  was  each  time 
refused.  These  love  affairs  call  for  mention 
because  they  had  an  influence  on  not  a  few 
of  his  compositions.  A  well-regulated  house- 
hold was  a  blessing  he  greatly  needed.  His 
eccentric  habits  were  forever  forcing  him  to 
change  his  lodgings  and  he  seldom  could  keep 
a  servant  longer  than  a  few  weeks.  If  his  cook 
brought  him  a  bad  egg  he  threw  it  at  her.  He 
often  got  angry  when  the  servants  laughed  at 
the  sight  he  presented  while  composing — tossing 
his  hands  about,  beating  time  with  his  feet,  and 
singing  or  rather,  growling.  His  rooms  pre- 
sented scenes  of  great  disorder.  His  gastro- 
nomic habits  were  unwise,  and  the  dyspepsia 
they  gave  rise  to  was  responsible  for  much 
melancholy  and  for  many  of  the  outbreaks  of 
ill-temper  for  which  he  became  notorious  as  he 
grew  older.  While  naturally  of  an  affectionate 
disposition  (as  instanced  in  his  fondness  for  his 
nephew)  and  alwaj^s  fond  of  jokes,  he  would, 
on  occasion,  insult  and  abuse  his  best  friends 
on  sliffht  provocation ;  but  these  outbursts  of 
irascibility  were  usuallj'  followed  by  the  most 
abject  apologies.  He  was,  in  short,  like  his 
music,  highly  emotional  and  regardless  of  rules. 


The  chief  cause  of  his  growing  moroseness 
and  irritability  was  the  difficulty  of  hearing 
which  began  in  1798  and  gradually  ended  in 
complete  deafness.  In  1802  (25  years  before 
his  death)  he  wrote  in  his  last  will:  **0  ye, 
who  consider  or  declare  me  to  be  hostile,  ob- 
stinate, or  misanthropic,  what  injustice  ye  do 
me !  Ye  know  not  the  secret  causes  of  that 
which  to  you  wears  such  an  appearance® ;  and 
he  proceeds  to  speak  of  his  hearing,  which  had 
been  growing  more  and  more  defective  for 
six  years,  and  which  made  him  „hun  people, 
as  he  did  not  wish  to  say  constantly :  "Speak, 
louder — bawl — for  I  am  deaf."  His  last  appear- 
ance in  public  in  concerted  music  was  in  1814. 
Two  years  lat^r  he  began  to  experiment  with, 
ear-trumpets,  his  collection  of  which  is  now  in 
the  Royal  Library  of  Berlin.  His  attempts  to 
conduct  after  this  usually  led  to  mortifying 
and  pathetic  scenes.  The  last  was  in  1824, 
when,  although  totally  deaf,  he  insisted  on  con- 
ducting his  ninth  symphony ;  he  could  not  even 
hear  the  applause  which  followed  it.  All  com- 
munication with  him  was,  in  the  last  years  of 
his  life,  carried  on  with  the  aid  of  pencil  and 
paper.  The  autopsy  showed  that  not  only  were 
the  auditory  nerves  practically  paralyzed,  but 
there  were  other  advanced  troubles  (the  liver 
was  tough  as  leather  and  shrunk  to  half  its 
normal  size),  which  made  it  remarkable  that 
he  should  have  retained  his  vitality  so  long. 
The  immediate  causes  of  death  were  inflamma- 
tion of  the  lungs  and  dropsy.  A  week  before 
his  death  he  was  still  busy  with  letters  and  with 
plans  for  new  compositions,  including  a  tenth 
symphony,  a  requiem,  and  music  to  Faust.  He 
died  during  a  violent  thunder  and  hail  storm, 
about  six  o'clock  on  March  26,  1827.  The 
Viennese,  who  had  been  neglecting  him  during 
the  last  few  years,  because  of  the  Rossini  furore 
(in  1823  no  operas  but  Rossini's  were  sung 
in  Vienna,  and  the  whole  musical  atmosphere 
was  affected  by  them),  now  realized  their  loss 
and  a  crowd  of  20,000  persons  attended  the 
funeral.  He  was  buried  in  the  Wahringer  Fried- 
hof,  but  in  1888  his  remains  were  transferred, 
with  those  of  Schubert,  to  the  Central  Ceme- 
tery. Statues  of  him  were  erected  at  Bonn  in 
1845,  in  Vienna  in  1880,  in  Brooklyn  in  1894, 
at  Leipsic  (Max  Klinger)  in  1902.  In  1815  the 
freedom  of  the  city  of  Vienna  had  been  con- 
ferred upon  him. 

A  certain  wildness  was  given  to  Beethoven's 
appearance  by  his  long,  abundant  hair,  which 
was  always  in  a  state  of  disorder.  He  was 
strongly  built  and  muscular,  but  below  rnedium 
stature,  his  height  being  five  feet  five  inches. 
His  small  black  eyes  were  bright  and  piercing, 
his  forehead  broad  and  high,  his '  complexion 
ruddy.  His  friend  Schindler  wrote  that  when 
a  musical  idea  took  possession  of  his  mind, 
<'there  was  an  air  of  inspiration  and  dignity  in 
his  aspect;  and  his  diminutive  figure  seemed  to 
tower  to  the  gigantic  proportions  of  his  mind.'^ 
Already  in  Bonn  his  friends  used  to  note  the 
occasions  when  he  was  "in  his  raptus?^  These 
moments  of  inspiration  would  come  to  him  at 
any  time  and  anywhere  —  in  his  room,  in  the 
streets  of  Vienna,  and  particularly  in  the  coun- 
try. He  was  extremely  fond  of  nature  and 
country  life,  and  spent  his  summers  in  the 
picturesque    regions    near    Vienna.      A    sketch 


BEETHOVEN 


book  was  always  in  his  pocket,  and  into  this  he 
•otted  his  ideas  as  they  came.  Afterward  he 
revised  and  re-revised  these  sketches.  "There 
is  hardly  a  bar  in  his  music*,  says  Grove,  **of 
which  it  may  not  be  said  with  confidence  that 
it  has  been  rewritten  a  dozen  times.  Of  the 
air  'O  hoffnung,'  in  <Fidelio,^  the  sketch 
books  show  i8  attempts,  and  of  the  concluding 
chorus  10.'^  These  sketches  have  been  collected 
by  Nottebohm  and  printed;  they  give  an  in- 
teresting and  instructive  insight  into  the  work- 
shop of  genius.  Another  curious  fact  regard- 
ing h's  creative  power  is  that  like  Wagner's,  it 
matured  slowly.  Mendelssohn  wrote  his  best 
piece,  the  <  Midsummer  Night's  Dream ^  overture 
at  the  •  age  of  17;  Schubert  was  18  when  he 
wrote  his  wonderful  ^Erlking;^  but  Wagner 
was  28  when  he  wrote  his  first  really  original 
opera  (^The  Flying  Dutchman^),  and  Beet- 
hoven 29  when  he  composed  his  first  symphony, 
and  that  might  have  been  almost  as  well  written 
by  Mozart  or  Haydn. 

It  is  customary  to  divide  Beethoven's  compo- 
sitions into  three  groups,  following  the  sugges- 
tions of  a  Russian,  W.  von  Lenz,  who,  in  1852, 
issued  a  book  entitled  "^Beethoven  et  ses  trois 
styles.'  The  first  group,  in  which  t'le  influence 
of  his  predecessors  is  still  more  or  less  obvious, 
includes,  among  many  other  things,  the  first 
two  symphonies,  the  septet,  the  first  six  string 
quartets,  the  aria  ^Ah  perfido'  the  song 
'Adelaide,'  etc.;  the  second,  which  shows  Beet- 
hoven in  the  full  vigor  of  his  manhood,  orig- 
inality and  creative  power,  begins  after  the 
year  1800,  and  includes  six  symphonies,  from 
the  third  (Eroica)  to  the  eighth,  the  opera 
^Fidelio,'  the  violin  concerto,  the  Coriolan 
overture,  the  Egmont  music,  the  Rasumovsky 
quartets,  the  Kreutzer  sonata,  the  'cello  sonata 
in  A,  14  sonatas  for  pianoforte,  etc. ;  the  third, 
which  begins  after  a  period  of  great  tribulation 
and  depression  in  his  life,  includes  the  last  five 
pianoforte  sonatas,  the  string  quartets  op.  127, 
130,  131,  132,  135,  the  ^Missa  solemnis,'  the 
ninth  symphony,  the  ^Ruins  of  Athens,'  etc. 
Concerning  some,  at  least,  of  the  works  of  this 
third  period  opinion  is  still  divided.  There  are 
critics  who  think  that,  partly  in  consequence  of 
his  deafness,  Beethoven  had  become  garrulous, 
incoherent,  and  vague,  whereas  others  profess  to 
find  in  the  compositions  of  this  period  the  high- 
est summit  of  all  musical  creativeness. 

A  better  way  than  Lenz's  of  considering  the 
achievements  of  Beethoven's  genius  is  to  cast 
a  glance  at  each  class  of  his  compositions  by 
itself.  The  eminent  English  critic,  Dr.  Hueffer, 
wrote  that  "Beethoven  is  in  music  what  Shakes- 
peare is  in  poetry,  a  name  before  the  greatness 
of  which  all  other  names,  however  great,  seem  to 
dwindle."  This  is  an  exaggeration.  There  is, 
in  reality,  only  one  department  of  music  —  the 
symphony — 'in  which  Beethoven  is  incontestably 
pre-eminent;  in  all  the  others  he  has  his  equals, 
and  in  some  his  superiors.  In  the  Lied,  or  art- 
song,  he  is  far  inferior  to  Schubert  and  half  a 
dozen  other  masters;  in  the  grandeur  of  choral 
writing  he  never  equalled  Bach  and  Handel; 
his  'Fidelio'  is  not  equal  to  the  best  operas  of 
Mozart,  Weber,  Wagner,  Gounod,  Bizet,  and 
Verdi ;  his  pianoforte  compositions  are  harmoni- 
cally less  fascinatinsr.  and  less  idiomatic  in  style, 
than  Chopin's  and  Schumann's,  and  in  the  realm 


of  chamber  music  there  are  works  of  Haydn 
Mozart,  Brahms,  and  particularly  Schubert  and 
Schumann,  quite  equal  to  the  best  of  Beet- 
hoven's. His  weakest  works  are  in  the  depart- 
ment of  vocal  music,  especially  the  Lied.  He 
once  said  to  Rochlitz :  "Songs  I  do  not  like 
to  write."  He  looked  on  them  as  bagatelles  into 
which  it  was  hardly  worth  while  to  put  his  best 
ideas.  Hence,  among  his  songs,  there  are  only 
a  few  which  show  his  genius  to  advantage. 
The  best  of  them  are  ^Adelaide,'  'Die  Ehre 
Gottes,'  and  'Li  questa  tomba.'  (Consult  Finck's, 
'Songs  and  Song  Writers,'  pp.  28-34.)  One 
of  the  most  judicial  biographers,  Wasielewski, 
remarks  :  "While  Beethoven  wrote  a  good  deal 
for  the  voice,  he  cannot  be  considered  a  vocal 
composer  in  the  proper  sense  of  the  word. 
Full  appreciation  of  the  real  nature  of  the  human 
voice,  the  subtle  knowledge  of  its  resources 
which  we  admire  in  Handel  and  Mozart,  he 
did  not  possess.  His  realm  was  instrumental 
music."  Nevertheless,  there  is  much  that  is  of 
great  beauty  in  his  vocal  works,  which  include 
the  opera  'Fidelio,'  the  oratorio  'Christus  am 
Oelberg,'  two  masses,  a  sonata,  66  songs  with 
pianoforte,  18  canors,  7  books  of  English, 
Scotch,  Irish,  Welsh,  and  Italian  songs  with 
pianoforte,  violin,  and  'cello;  etc.  He  himself 
considered  his  second  mass — -'Missa  solemnis' 
■ — •  his  most  successful  work,  but  the  musical 
world  is  much  more  enamored  of  his  'Fidelio.' 
which,  while  conventional  in  the  first  act,  rises 
in  the  second  to  such  a  sublime  level  of  drama- 
tic expressiveness  that  it  is  to  be  much  regretted 
he  never  found  time  to  execute  his  other 
operatic  plans,  which  included  a  Macbeth,  a 
Faust,  and  an  Alexander.  The  history  of 
'Fidelio'  and  its  four  overtures  is  of  particular 
interest,  but  the  limits  of  space  forbid  its  inser- 
tion. 

For  pianoforte  there  are  38  sonatas,  5  con- 
certos, 21  sets  of  variations,  and  more  than 
50  short  pieces  —  bagatelles,  rondos,  preludes, 
landlers,  etc.  Hans  von  Biilow  spoke  of  Bach's 
'Well-Tempered  Clavichord'  as  the  Old  Testa- 
ment of  music  and  Beethoven's  sonatas  as  the 
New,  "in  both  of  which  we  must  believe ;"  and 
he  declared  that  the  mere  technical  mastery  of 
these  sonatas  is  "the  task  of  half  a  life-time." 
They  mark  a  tremendous  advance  over  all  his 
predecessors  excepting  Bach.  In  wealth  of 
melodic  ideas  and  rhythmic  variety,  as  well  as 
in  structural  finish,  and  especially  in  emotional 
expressiveness,  they  far  surpass  all  previous 
works  of  their  kind;  yet  it  was  not  till  several 
decades  after  the  composer's  death  t'nat  they 
began  to  be  generally  appreciated  and  played 
in  public.  The  pendulum  then  swung  to  the 
opposite  extreme,  and  every  Beethoven  sonata 
was  supposed  to  be  a  peerless  masterwork 
which  is  far  from  being  true.  (Read  the  ad- 
mirable comments  on  all  these  works  in  chap 
VII  of  J.  S.  Shedlock's  'The  Pianoforte 
Sonata').  In  the  matter  of  form  Beethoven 
was  by  no  means  the  pedant  many  of  his  ad- 
mirers would  have  him.  The  orthodox  sonata 
is  supposed  to  consist  of  four  movements ;  but 
of  his  38  sonatas  only  15  have  four  movements ; 
II  have  3,  and  6  have  only  two;  moreover,  his 
two-movement  sonatas  are  by  no  means 
"torsos,"  as  some  have  foolishly  called  them ; 
they  include  op.  90  and  op.  11 1,  two  of  his  very 


BEETLE 


best  works,  the  op.  iii  being  in  fact,  his  last 
word  on  the  subject. 

The  chamber  music  includes  8  trios  for  piano 
and  'cello;  5  trios,  16  quartets,  and  2  quintets 
for  strings ;  10  sonatas  for  piano  with  violin, 
5  with  'cello,  1  with  horn,  3  sextets  and  i  septet 
for  strings  and  wind  instruments ;  2  octets  for 
wind.  The  quartets  have  been  made  tolerably 
familiar,  but  among  the  other  works  here  re- 
ferred to  there  are  many  gems  of  which  the 
public  is  still  unaware.  t>ut  it  is  when  we  come 
to  the  orchestral  works  —  the  11  overtures,  and 
9  symphonies  —  that  we  see  Beethoven  in  his 
real  grandeur.  Of  these  works  Richard  Wag- 
ner, who  worshipped  Beethoven,  has  written 
most  eloquently;  (see  index  to  vol.  I  of  Glase- 
napp's  ^Wagner  Encyclopadie,^  or  to  Ellis's 
translation  of  Wagner's  prose  works ;  Grove's 
'Beethoven's  Nine  Symphonies'  gives  an  excel- 
lent analysis  for  amateurs) .  Concerning  the  sym- 
phonic works,  Wagner  wrote:  "He  deveioped 
the  symphony  to  such  a  fascinating  fulness  of 
form  and  filled  this  form  with  such  an  unheard- 
of  wealth  of  enchanting  melody,  that  we  stand 
to-day  before  the  Beethoven  Symphony  as  be- 
fore the  boundary  line  of  an  entirely  new  epoch 
in  the  history  of  art;  for  with  them  a  phe- 
nomenon has  appeared  in  the  world,  with  which 
the  art  of  no  time  and  no  nation  has  had  any- 
thing to  compare  even  remotely. ''  It  is  not  only 
that  Beethoven's  symphonies  are  longer  than 
those  of  Haydn  and  Mozart,  or  broaaer  and 
richer  in  melody,  more  varied  in  rhythm,  and 
fuller  in  minute  details  of  elaboration ;  what 
particularly  distinguishes  them  is  their  greater 
emotionality  and  more  powerful  contrasts  of 
moods.  On  the  one  side  we  have  (as  in  the 
pianoforte  sonatas)  those  soulful,  tearful  adagios 
which  are  a  specialty  of  Beethoven;  on  tile  other 
the  humorous  scherzo,  which  he  put  in  place 
of  the  dainty,  graceful  minuet  of  his  predeces- 
sors. This  symphonic  scherzo  was  really  a 
new  thing  in  music,  for  while  there  is  much 
fun  in  Haydn,  it  is  of  a  much  lighter  quality. 
In  Beethoven's  there  are  elements  of  grimness 
and  the  grotesque;  with  an  undercurrent  of 
melancholia  as  in  the  scherzos  of  Chopin.  In 
the  art  of  dyeing  the  music  in  deeper  and  more 
varied  orchestral  colors  Beethoven's  sym- 
phonies and  overtures  also  mark  a  great  ad- 
vance over  his  predecessors. 

While  Beethoven  stands  at  the  head  of  com- 
posers of  the  classical  school,  an  almost  equal 
claim  to  distinction  lies  in  this  that  in  his  works 
are  to  be  found  many  of  the  germs  which 
Weber,  Schubert,  Mendelssohn,  Schumann,  and 
others  developed  iiito  the  German  roman- 
tic school.  Among  these  germs  are  his 
inclination  to  shatter  the  sonata  form  (particu- 
larly in  the  last  movement  of  the  ninth  sym- 
phony, which  is  epoch-making  in  its  bold  uncon- 
ventionality)  ;  his  disposition  to  allow  his  ideas 
to  shape  the  form  in  which  they  are  to  be  ut- 
tered ;  the  subjective  expressiveness  of  his  music, 
which  has  five  times  as  many  expression  marks 
as  Mozart's;  the  use  of  characteristic  (realis- 
tic) orchestral  colors ;  his  way  of  playing  the 
pianoforte  and  conducting  an  orchestra,  with 
tempo  rubato,  or  frequent  modification  of  pace ; 
and  above  all,  his  sanctioning  of  Programme 
music  by  his  'Pastoral  Symphony,^  which  il- 
lustrates episodes  in  the  country  —  a  scene  at 
a  brook,  the  merrymaking  of  peasants,  the  song 


of  birds,  and  a  thunderstorm.  It  is  also  signifi- 
cant of  his  romantic  inclinations  that  toward 
the  end  of  his  life  he  conceived  a  plan  of  giving 
poetic  titles  to  all  his  sonatas  and  even  to  the 
separate  movements.  Tae  'Moonlight  sonata,^ 
it  is  well  to  remember,  did  not  get  its  inap- 
propriate name  from  him.  Of  the  books  relat- 
ing to  Beethoven  several  have  already  been 
referred  to.  Of  the  biographies  the  best  was 
written  in  English  by  the  American  A.  W. 
Thayer  and  Dublished,  in  a  German  version 
only,  in  three  vols.  (1866-77).  An  English 
edition,  revised,  with  a  final  volume,  is  in  prepa- 
ration. Thayer  also  furnished  a  useful  'Chron- 
ologisches  Verzeichniss'  of  Beethoven's  works, 
of  which  a  complete  edition  was  printed  by 
Breitkoff  and  Hartel  in  1864-67.  Pending  the 
appearance  of  Thayer's  great  work,  the  best 
treatise  is  Grove's,  in  his  'Dictionary  of  Music 
and  Musicians ••  (vol.  I,  pp.  162-209).  Crowest's 
biography  is  a  fair  compilation  in  one  volume. 
Other  biographers  are  Wasielewski,  Schindler, 
Marx,  Nohl,  Wilder,  Wegeler,  and  Ries.  Nohl's 
'Beethoven  and  his  Contemporaries'  contains 
many  literary  "snap-shots."  Analyses  of  his 
sonatas  and  symphonies  have  been  written  by 
Elterlein  (English  version)  and  .  Reinecke. 
Kullak's  'Beethoven's  Piano-playing'  is  ex- 
cellent. Other  critical  and  analytical  works  are 
by  Ulibischeff,  Wagner  (essay),  Harding, 
Diirenberg,  Alberti,  Lorenz,  Helm,  Nottebohm, 
and  Frimmel.  His  letters  have  been  printed  in 
several  volumes  by  Nohl,  Kochel,  Schone,  Had- 
den.  They  are  not  nearly  so  interesting  as 
Schumann's,  Mendelssohn's,  Wagner's,  Liszt'?, 
and  Berlioz's.  Henry  T.  Finxk, 

Musical  Critic,   '-Evening  Post,''   N.   Y. 

Beetle,  an  insect  of  the  order  Coleoptera 
Beetles  are  distinguished  from  all  other  insects 
by  the  elytra  or  thickened  fore  wings,  which 
are  not  actively  used  in  flight,  the  hind  wings 
being  especially  adapted  for  that  purpose.  The 
elytra  cover  and  encase,  thus  protecting,  the 
posterior  segments  of  the  thorax  and  the  abdo- 
m.en.  The  prothoracic  segment  is  greatly  en- 
larged, often  exarated  in  front,  to  receive  the 
head.  These  characters  are  very  persistent. 
There  are  few  aberrant  forms  and  the  order  is 
remarkably  homogenous  and  easily  limited.  The 
head  is  free  from  the  thorax;  it  is  scarcely  nar- 
rowed behind,  and  its  position  is  usually  hori- 
zontal. The  eyes  are  usually  quite  large,  and 
there  may  be  one  or  two  oceli  —  not  more.  The 
antennae  are  usually  inserted  just  in  front  of  the 
eyes,  and  rarely  between  them.  They  are  either 
filiform  where  the  joints  are  cylindrical,  as  in 
the  ground  beetles  (Carabidcc),  not  enlarging 
toward  the  end,  or  serrate,  as  in  the  Elatcridcc, 
where  the  joints  are  triangular  and  compressed, 
giving  thereby  a  serrate  outline  to  the  inner 
edge ;  or  clavate  as  in  the  Silphidce,  where  the 
enlarged  terminal  joints  give  a  rounded,  club- 
shaped  termination ;  or  lamellate,  when  the  ter- 
minal joints  are  prolonged  internally,  forming 
broad,  leaf-like  expansions,  as  in  the  Scarabccida, 
while  the  geniculate  antenna  is  produced  when 
tlie  second  and  succeeding  joints  make  an  angle 
with  the  first.  The  mandibles  are  always  well 
developed  as  biting  and  chewing  organs,  be- 
coming abnormally  enlarged  in  the  stag-beetles 
(Lucanus),    while   in   certain  Scarabceida:   they 


BEETLE 


are  small  and  membranous.  The  maxillae  pre- 
pare the  food  to  be  crushed  by  the  mandibles. 
The  greatly  enlarged  prothorax  is  free  and 
movable. 

In  the  running  species,  as  carabidce,  the  hind 
wings  being  useless  are  aborted,  and  very  rarely 
in  some  tropical  Lampyridcc  and  Scarabaidce 
both  pairs  of  wings  are  wanting  in  both  sexes, 
though,  as  in  the  glow-worm  and  some  of  its 
allies  the  females,  are  apterous.  The  legs  are 
well  developed,  as  the  beetles  are  among  the 
most  powerful  running  insects ;  the  hindermost 
pair  of  legs  becoming  oar-like  in  the  swimming 
Dytiscidce  and  some  Hydropliilidcr,  while  in  the 
Gyrinidce  both  pairs  of  hind  legs  become  broad 
and  flat.  The  number  of  tarsal  joints  varies 
from  the  normal  number  five,  to  four  and  three 
joints,  the  terminal  joint  as  usual  being  two- 
clawed.  These  claws  are  known  to  be  wanting 
only  in  Phancnis,  a  scarabasid,  and  the  aberrant 
family,  Stylopida.  According  to  the  number 
of  the  tarsal  joints  the  families  of  the  Coleop- 
tera  have  been  grouped  into  the  Pentarnera 
(five-jointed)  the  Tcframera  (four-jointed),  the 
Trhnera  (three-jointed),  and  the  Heteromera, 
which  are  four-jointed  in  the  hind  pair,  while 
the  first  and  second  pairs  are  five-jointed.  The 
abdomen,  usually  partially  concealed  by  the 
wings,  is  sessile,  its  base  broad;  in  form  it  is 
usually  somewhat  flattened. 

A  few  genera  are  capable  of  producing 
sounds  by  rubbing  the  limbs  or  elytra  over  finely 
wrinkled  surfaces,  which  in  Trox  are  situated 
on  the  side  of  the  basal  segments  of  the  abdo- 
men, and  in  Strategus  on  the  tergum  of  the 
penultimate  segment  of  the  abdomen,  while  such 
a  surface  is  found  in  Higyriis  on  the  surface  of 
the  elytra. 

The  larvse  when  active  and  not  permanently 
enclosed  (like  the  curculio)  in  the  substances 
that  form  their  food,  are  elongated,  flattened, 
wormlike,  with  a  large  head,  well  developed 
mouth-parts,  and  three  pairs  of  thoracic  feet, 
either  horny,  or  fleshy  and  retractile,  while  there 
is  often  a  single  terminal  prop-leg  on  the  termi- 
nal segment  of  the  body  and  a  lateral  horny 
spine.  The  wood-boring  larvre  of  the  Ceramhy- 
cid(e  are  white,  soft,  and  more  or  less  c^dindrical, 
while  those  of  the  CurcnUonida;  are  footless  or 
nearly  so,  and  resemble  those  of  the  gall-flies, 
both  hymenopterous  and  dipterous. 

The  pupse  have  free  limbs,  and  are  either 
enclosed  in  cocoons  of  earth,  or,  if  wood-borers, 
in  rude  cocoons  of  fine  chips  and  dust,  united 
by  threads,  or  a  viscid  matter  supplied  by  the 
insect.  None  are  known  to  be  coarctate.  though 
so:7ie  CoccmeJl(P  transform  within  the  old  larva- 
skin,  not  rejecting  it,  as  is  usual  in  the  the  group, 
while  other  pnpre  are  enclosed  in  the  cases  in 
which  the  larva  lived.  In  some  Staphylinidce 
the  pupi  shows  a  tendency  to  become  obtected, 
the  limbs  being  soldered  to  the  body,  as  if  were 
enclosed  in  a  common  sheath.  Generally,  hov/- 
ever,  the  antennse  are  folded  on  each  side  of 
the_  clypeus,  and  the  mandibles,  maxillse  and 
labinl  palpi  appear  as  elongated  papillre.  The 
wing-pads  being  small  are  shaped  like  those  of 
the  adult  Meloe,  and  are  laid  upon  the  posterior 
femora,  thus  exposing  the  meso-  and  meta-thorax 
to  view.  The  tarsal  joints  lie  parallel  on  each 
side  of  the  middle  line  of  the  body,  the  hinder 
pair  not  reaching  to  the  tips  of  the  abdomen, 


which  ends  in  a  pair  of  acute,  prolonged,  forked, 
incurved  horny  hooks,  which  must  aid  the  pupa 
in  working  its  way  to  the  surface  when  about 
to  transform  into  the  beetle. 

The  number  of  known  living  species  is  be- 
tween 100,000  and  200,000,  and  over  10,000  spe- 
cies are  known  to  inhabit  the  United  States. 
About  1,000  fossil   species  are  known. 

Coleoptera  have  been  the  favorites  of  ento- 
mologists. They  have  been  studied  when  in 
their  perfect  state,  more  than  any  other  insects, 
but  owing  to  the  difficulty  of  finding  their  lar- 
vae and  carrying  them  through  the  successive 
stages  of  growth,  the  early  stages  of  compara- 
tively few  species  are  known.  The  metamor- 
phoses are  complete,  and  in  this  respect  the 
beetles  are  much  in  advance  of  the  orders  of 
net-veined  insects  in  which  the  transformations 
are  incomplete.  Many  beetles,  as  the  .species 
of  Cetonia,  etc.,  visit  flowers  to  collect  and  eat 
the  pollen,  and  in  doing  so  bring  about  the 
fertilization  of  those  flowers. 

ClassHication. —  The  systematic  arrangement 
of  the  Coleoptera  is  in  an  unsettled  state.  The 
tiger  and  ground  beetles  are  generally  consid- 
ered to  be  the  "highest''  Coleoptera,  but  in 
reality  they  appeared  to  be  allied  to  what  were 
the  more  prim.tive  and  generalized  types,  while 
what  are  by  some  authors  regarded  as  the 
"lowest''  beetles,  that  is,  the  weevils,  are  the 
most  specialized  or  most  highly  modified.  As 
all  our  classifications  begin  with  the  more  primi- 
tive or  earliest  forms,  and  end  with  the  most 
specialized,  we  should  begin  with  the  Carabi- 
dce  or  ground  beetles,  as  being  the  nearest  repre- 
sentatives of  what  are  supposed  to  be  the  earliest 
beetles.  We  would,  therefore,  adopt  provision- 
ally Sharp's  primary  divisions  of  Coleoptera, 
with  some  important  changes.  His  first  division 
or  series  comprises  the  lamellicorns  (May  beetle, 
etc.),  and  his  s-^cond  the  Adelphaga  or  ground 
beetles.     This  order  should  be  reversed. 

Series  i.  Adelphaga  {Carahidce  of  some  au- 
thors). Antenna;  long,  slender,  filiform;  tarsi 
five-jointed;  maxillae  highly  developed,  three- 
lobed,  the  outer  palpus  shaped.  (Ground  and 
tiger  beetles.) 

Series  2.  LamelUcornia.  Antennae  short,  the 
terminal  joints   leaf-like;   tarsi  five-jointed. 

Series  3.  Polymorpha.  Antennae  either  club- 
like or  serrated,  variable  in  shape,  as  are  the 
number  of  joints  of  the  tarsus.  (Buprestidcv, 
spring-beetles,   etc.,   including  many   families.) 

Series  4.  Heteromera.  Front  and  middle 
tarsi  five-jointed,  hind  tarsi  four-pointed;  other 
characters  very  variable.  Tenebrionidce,  Can- 
tharidcr,  or  blister-beetles    (q.v.),  etc. 

Series  5.  Phytophaga.  Tarsi  four-jointed 
but  with  a  small  additional  joint  at  the  base  of 
the  fourth  joint;  sole  usually  densely  pubescent. 
(Boring  or  longicorn  beetles ;  Cerambycidce, 
leaf-beetle,  potato  beetle.) 

Series  6.  Rhyncophora.  {Weevils.^  Head 
prolonged  in  front  to  form  a  beak ;  palpi  much 
reduced;  tarsi  four-jointed,  but  with  an  ad- 
ditional minute  joint  at  the  end  of  the  fourth. 
The  term  Isomer  a  was  applied  by  Le  Conte  and 
Horn  to  a  combination  of  series  i,  2,  3,  and  5. 
Phytogeny. —  The  Coleoptera  are  supposed  by 
Braver  and  also  Packard  to  have  descended 
from  some  tj'pe  allied  to  a  Campodea-Mke  an- 
cestor.    The   larvae   of  the  ground  beetles   are 


BEETLEHEAD—  BEGAS 


allied  by  their  long  legs  and  biting  mouth-parts 
to  the  common  Campodca-Uke  progenitor ;  they 
appear  to  have  undergone  the  least  modification 
from  the  shape  of  the  primitive  coleopterous 
larva ;  the  footless  grubs  of  boring  beetles, 
longicorns  and  weevils,  being  secondary  forms. 
Thus  the  Coratidcc  and  next  after  them  the 
rose-beetles  {Stapliylinidcc)  have  been  regarded 
as  the  nearest  to  the  earliest  type  of  beetles. 

Fossil  beetles. —  The  earliest  known  remains 
of  Coleoptera  are  five  specimens  from  the  car- 
boniferous strata  of  Silesia,  of  which  four  are 
wing  covers  and  one  is  a  pronotum ;  these  have 
been  referred  by  Karsch  to  the  families  Cara- 
bidcr  or  Tcncbrionida;.  In  the  lower  Jurassic, 
however,  comparatively  well  preserved  remains 
of  six  families  {Carabidce,  Dytiscidcc,  Elateridcc, 
Scarabccidce,  Ccramoycidcc,  and  ChrysomelidcB) 
have  been  detected  showing  that  early  in  the 
Mesozoic  era,  nearly  all  the  principal  types  of 
beetles  had  appeared ;  whence  we  naturally  sup- 
pose that  their  ancestors  evolved  during  the 
Carboniferous  period,  though  their  remains  have 
not  yet  been  discovered.  During  the  Tertiary 
age  beetles  became  more  abundant,  and  a 
greater  number  of  species  belonging  to  existing 
genera  have  been  found.  The  Oligocene  fresh- 
water deposits  of  Aix  and  Provence,  of  Floris- 
sant, Colorado,  contain  many  kinds  of  beetles, 
as  also  does  the  Miocene  amber  of  the  Baltic 
coast  in  Prussia,  and  the  lignite  of  Bohemia,  as 
well  as  the  fresh-water  marls  of  Germany,  Utah, 
and  Wyoming.  Of  the  weevils  350  Tertiary 
species  have  been  described,  their  hard  bodies 
accounting  for  their  preservation. 

Bibliography. —  The  writings  of  Say,  Harris, 
and  others;  especially  Le  Conte  and  Horn; 
^Rhynchophora  of  America  north  of  Mexico^ 
^Classification  of  the  Coleoptera  of  North 
America.' 

Beetlehead.    See  Black-bellied  Plover. 

Beets,  bats,  Nicolaus,  Dutch  poet  and 
writer:  b.  Haarlem,  13  Sept.  1814.  He  studied 
theolog}'  at  Leyden,  and  after  serving  at  Heem- 
stede,  near  Haarlem,  he  was  in  1854  appointed 
to  the  pastorate  of  Utrecht,  and  in  1874  to  the 
chair  of  theology  there.  His  poetical  works 
have  been  collected  (4  vols.,  1873-81).  Through 
the  earlier  pieces  runs  a  strong  vein  of  misan- 
thropic sentiment,  due  probably  to  Byron,  some 
of  whose  works  he  translated  into  Dutch  (2 
vols.,  1835-7).  His  prose  writings  include 
'Camera  Obscura'  (13th  ed.,  i38o),  a  series  of 
tales  and  sketches  of  life  and  scenery  in  Hol- 
land, published  under  the  pseudonym  of  Hilde- 
braxd;  they  display  keen  observation  and  con- 
siderable humor.  Besides  several  critical  works, 
he  published  in  theologv,  notes  on  the  life  of  St. 
Paul  (3d  ed.,  1858),  and  ^Stichtelijke  Uren' 
(new  ed.,  8  vols.,  1872). 

Befana,  ba-fa'na  (Italian,  Befania.  '^Epipli- 
eiiy^^),  a  figure,  generally  representing  an  old 
woman,  which  is  exhibited  in  Italy  on  the  day 
of  Epiphany  by  children,  or  in  shops,  etc., 
where  things  for  children  are  sold.  In  Ger- 
many presents  are  given  to  children  on  Christ- 
mas Eve,  and  in  France  on  New  Year's  even- 
ing, but  in  Italy  on  the  day  of  Epiphany,  and  it 
is  said  that  the  befana  brings  them  to  good 
children. 


Beg,  or  Bey,  ba,  a  title  of  honor  among  the 
Turks,  meaning  "lord.'*  The  beg  is,  in  some 
parts  of  the  empire,  inferior  to  a  pasha. 

Bega,  ba'ga,  Cornelius,  Dutch  painter :  b. 
Haarlem,  1620;  d.  16  Aug.  1664.  He  was  a 
pupil  of  Ostade,  whose  manner  he  imitated. 
The  subjects  of  his  paintings  are  commonly  the 
amusements  of  the  Dutch  peasantry  and  the  in- 
terior of  cottages  and  taverns.  When  the  plague, 
in  1664  visited  Holland,  a  young  ladj',  whom  hd" 
loved,  was  attacked  by  it,  and  was  abandoned 
by  her  friends.  Bega  remained  by  her  side, 
rendering  her  every  attention  till  her  last  mo- 
ment, but  caught  the  fatal  infection  and  died. 

Begarelli,  ba-ga-rel'le,  Antonio,  Italian  de- 
signer, styled  AxTONio  of  Modexa-:  b.  Modena, 
about  1498;  d.  1565.  By  his  contemporaries  he 
was  considered  the  greatest  designer  of  his  day. 
He  was  a  friend  of  Correggio  and  co-operated 
with  him  in  decorating  the  cathedral  at  Parma, 
furnishing  many  of  the  designs  and  models  for 
the  artist's  pictures.  His  groups  were  com- 
monly of  life  size  or  heroic,  and  were  greatly 
admired  by  Michael  Angelo.  He  influenced 
strongly  the  succeeding  Lombard  artists  in  the 
matter  of  design.  His  'Descent  from  the 
Cross,'  the  most  significant  of  his  remaining 
works,  still  adorns  the  Church  of  San  Fran- 
cesco at  Modena. 

Begas,  ba'gas,  Karl,  Prussian  painter :  b. 
Heinsberg,  near  Aix-la-Chapelle,  30  April  1794; 
d.  Berlin,  23  Nov.  1854.  He  studied  first  under 
Philippart,  and  in  Paris  under  Gros.  His  first 
work,  a  copy  of  the  Madonna  della  Sedia,  at- 
tracted the  attention  of  the  king  of  Prussia,  who 
appointed  him  painter  of  the  Prussian  court. 
His  productions  comprise  historical,  genre,  and 
portrait  paintings,  of  which  the  most  important 
are  'Henry  IV.  at  the  Castle  of  Canossa'  ;  the 
'Sermon  on  the  Mount'  ;  'Christ  on  the  Mount 
of  Olives'  ;  the  'Lorelei'  ;  and  the  portraits  of 
Humboldt,  Schelling,  Ritter,  Ranch,  Cornelius, 
and  Meyerbeer.  He  was  a  member  of  the  Berlin 
Academy  of  Fine  Arts. 

Begas,  Karl,  German  sculptor  (son  of  the 
preceding)  :  b.  1845.  He  studied  in  the  studio 
of  his  brother  Reinhold  and  at  the  Berlin  Acad- 
emy of  Art.  Among  his  most  important  works 
are  the  Franco-Prussian  memorial  unveiled  at 
Cassel  in  1898;  the  groups  in  the  Berlin  "Siega- 
salle,"  of  Alargrave  Otho  IV.  and  Frederick 
William ;  the  statue  of  Knobelsdorf  in  t'.ie  Ber- 
lin Museum,  and  those  of  Columbus  and  Aris- 
totle in  the  L^niversity  of  Kiel. 

Begas,  Oscar,  German  artist  (eldest  son  of 
Karl  Begas,  1 794-1854)  ;  b.  1828.  d.  1883.  He 
painted  portraits  with  astonishing  ability  at  the 
age  of  12,  and  in  1852  won  a  scholarship  which 
gave  him  two  years  of  study  in  Italy,  where 
he  painted  his  'Hour  of  Gossip,'  now  in  the 
Berlin  National  Gallery.  His  work  is  mainly 
portraiture. 

Begas,  Reinhold,  German  sculptor  (son  of 
Karl  Begas,  1794-1854)  :  b.  Berlin,  1831.  He 
studied  in  Rome,  and  in  1866  settled  in  Berlin, 
where  he  has  not  only  executed  many  important 
works  in  the  strict  line  of  his  profession,  but 
painted  many  portraits  of  women,  and  produced 
important  architectural  designs.  Among  his 
most  characteristic  works  are  a  statue  of  Schilr 


BEGG— BEGGING  THE   QUESTION 


ler  (1863)  ;  ^Borussia,'  a  colossal  statue  in  the 
Ruhmeshalle  in  Berlin  (1885)  ;  <The  Fountain 
of  Neptune/  in  the  Schlossplatz,  Berlin  (1882)  ; 
the  sarcophagus  of  Emperor  Frederick  III.,  in 
the  Potsdam  Mausoleum  (1892);  ^Germania/ 
a  colossal  equestrian  statue  on  the  new  Reich- 
stag building;  and  a  statue  of  Bismarck. 

Begg,  Alexander,  Canadian  author :  b.  Que- 
bec, 19  July  1840.  He  was  educated  in  Aber- 
deen, Scotland,  and  in  St.  John's,  P.  Q.  He 
was  the  pioneer  of  Canadian  trade  (1867)  in 
Manitoba  and  in  the  Northwest  Territories. 
During  the  rebellion  of  1869  he  advocated  rep- 
resentative government  for  the  people.  In  1878- 
84  he  was  deputy  treasurer  of  the  province  of 
Manitoba.  He  was  commissioner  for  Manitoba 
to  the  Dominion  Exhibition  in  1879,  and  had 
charge  of  the  Manitoba  exhibits  through  On- 
tario, Quebec,  and  the  Maritime  Provinces  in 
1879-80.  His  works  include  ^Dot  it  Down'  ; 
<The  Creation  of  Manitoba';  <A  Story  of  the 
Saskatchewan'  ;  '■A  Practical  Guide  to  Mani- 
toba';  ^Ten  Years  in  Winnipeg';  ^A  History 
of  the  Northwest'   (3  vols.),  etc. 

Begg,  James,  Scottish  Free  Church  theo- 
logian :  b.  New  Monkland,  Lanarkshire,  1808 ; 
d.  Edinburgh,  29  Sept.  1883.  Entering  the  min- 
istry in  1829  he  joined  the  Free  Church  ranks 
in  1843,  at  the  time  of  the  Disruption,  and  was 
minister  for  the  rest  of  his  life  at  Newington, 
a  suburb  of  Edinburgh.  He  was  one  of  the 
most  narrow  of  theological  leaders  and  bitterly 
antagonistic  to  anything  distantly  approaching 
liberality.  He  opposed  the  use  of  hymns  and 
church  organs  and  did  much  to  keep  the  Free 
, Church  as  unprogressive  as  possible.  Among 
'ihis  writings  are  *A  Handbook  of  Popery' 
(1852)  ;  <Seat  Rents  Brought  to  the  Test  of  the 
Scripture,  Law,  Reason,  and  Experience' 
(1838)  ;  "^The  Use  of  Organs  and  Other  Instru- 
ments of  Music  in  Christian  Worship  Indefen- 
sible'  (1866). 

Beggar-my-neighbor,  a  game  at  cards,  usu- 
ally played  by  two  persons,  who  share  the  pack, 
and,  laying  their  shares  face  downward,  turn  up 
a  card  alternately  until  an  honor  appears.  The 
honor  has  to  be  paid  for  by  the  less  fortunate 
player  at  the  rate  of  four  cards  for  an  ace,  three 
for  a  king,  two  for  a  queen,  and  one  for  a 
knave ;  but  if  in  the  course  of  payment  another 
honor  should  be  turned  up,  the  late  creditor  be- 
comes himself  a  debtor  to  the  amount  of  its 
value. 

Beggar-Tick,  a  troublesome  weed.  See 
Burr  Marigold. 

Beggars,  a  term  first  applied  to  the  300 
Protestant  deputies  under  Henri  de  Brederode 
and  Louis  de  Nassau,  who  protested  against  the 
establishment  of  the  Inquisition  in  Holland  in 
April  1566.  The  Dutch  patriots  assumed  this 
designation  when  they  rebelled  against  Spain  in 
1572. 

Beggar's  Lice,  a  coarse  weed  also  called 
Dog's  Tongue. 

Beggar's  Opera,  The,  a  play  by  John  Gay, 
was  first  presented  in  1728,  exciting  a  "tempest 
6f  laughter."  Its  object  was  to  satirize  the 
predatory  habits  of  *polite"  society  in  thief- 
infested  London,  and  to  hold  up  to  ridicule 
Italian  opera.     The  chief  characters  are  thieves 


and  bandits.  Captain  Macheath,  the  hero,  the 
leader  of  a  gang  of  highwaymen,  is  loved  by  the 
ladies  and  feared  by  all  but  his  friends  —  with 
whom  he  shares  his  booty.  Peachum,  the  "re- 
spectable" patron  of  the  gang,  and  the  receiver 
of  stolen  goods,  betrays  his  confederates  from 
self-interest.  Macheath  is  married  to  Polly 
Peachum,  a  pretty  girl,  who  really  loves  her  hus- 
band, and  remains  constant  under  many  vicissi- 
tudes. Macheath  engages  to  marry  others,  but 
this  gets  him  into  trouble.  Being  betrayed,  he  is 
lodged  in  Newgate.  His  escape,  recapture,  trial, 
condemnation  to  death,  and  reprieve,  form  the 
leading  episodes  in  his  dashing  career.  After  his 
reprieve  he  makes  tardy  acknowledgment  of 
Polly,  and  oromises  to  remain  constant  to  her 
for  the  future.  Polly  is  an  interesting  dramatic 
character,  at  least  three  actresses  having  at- 
tained matrimonial  peerages  through  artistic  in- 
terpretation of  the  part.  Gay's  language  often 
conforms  to  the  coarse  taste  and  low  standards 
of  his  time ;  and  the  opera,  still  occasionally 
sung,  now  appears  in  expurgated  form.  Its  best- 
known  piece  is  Macheath's  famous  song  when 
two  of  his  inamoratas  beset  him  at  once : 

"  How  happy  could  I  be  with  either 
Were  t'other  dear  charmer  away!" 

Beggarweed,  or  Tick  Trefoil  (Desmodi- 
um),  a  genus  of  about  150  species,  mostly  herbs 
of  the  natural  order  Lcguyninoscc,  natives  of 
warm  and  temperate  climates.  Some  of  the  spe- 
cies, notably  the  Florida  beggarweed  (£>.  tortuo- 
sum  or  molle)  are  used  in  Florida  and  else- 
where as  fodder  plants  and  as  green  manures  on 
light  soils.  Like  the  clovers  these  plants  can 
assimilate  free  nitrogen  from  the  air.  The  spe- 
cies mentioned  yields  heavy  crops  of  highly  nu- 
tritive hay  which  is  relished  by  stock.  At  the 
Louisiana  Experiment  Station  six  tons  of  hay 
per  acre  is  reported.  The  plant  is  an  annual 
from  3  to  10  feet  tall,  has  pinnate  leaves,  small 
flowers  in  racemes  and  flat,  jointed  pods  which 
adhere  to  clothing  and  animals  by  their  hooked 
hairs.  The  plant  has  been  found  to  do  well 
in  the  West  Indies  and  as  far  north  as  Virginia. 
About  10  native  species  worthy  a  place  in  the 
flower-garden  have  been  offered  for  sale  by 
dealers  in  native  plants,  but  not  generally  by 
seedsmen.  D.  gyrans,  the  telegraph  plant,  a  pur- 
ple flowered  perennial,  native  of  southern  Asia, 
is  sometimes  raised  in  hot-houses  on  account 
of  the  interesting  movements  of  its  leaflets  when 
exposed  to  favorable  temperature  and  sun- 
shine. 

Beggiatoa,  one  of  the  bacteria  of  the  fam- 
ily Beggiatoacccc.  They  are  of  sanitr-ry  interest 
as  indicating  the  character  of  the  water  in  which 
they  grow, —  it  usually  contains  sulphur, —  and 
their  presence  in  large  quantities  in  a  water 
supply  is  usually  held  to  mean  that  the  water 
is  contaminated  and  should  be  investigated. 
Their  growth  in  natural  sulphur  waters  is  to  be 
expected. 

Begging  the  Question,  in  logic,  is  the  as- 
sumption of  a  proposition  which  in  reality  in- 
volves the  conclusion.  Thus,  to  say  that  par- 
allel lines  will  never  meet  because  they  are  par- 
allel is  simply  to  assume  as  a  fact  the  very 
thing  you  profess  to  prove.  The  phrase  is  a 
translation  of  the  Latin  term,  petitio  principii, 
and  was  first  used  by  Aristotle. 


BEGONIA. 


Leaf  of  the  Countess  Pandolfini  Begonia. 


BEGIN  — BEH  AIM 


Begin,  ba-zhan,  Louis   Nazaire,  Canadian 

clergyman ;  educated  at  the  College  of  St.  Mi- 
chael de  Bellechasse,  the  Seminary  of  Quebec, 
Laval  University,  and  the  Grand  Seminary  of 
Quebec.  About  the  time  of  his  graduation  from 
the  last  institution  its  trustees  decided  to  found 
a  theological  department  in  connection  with  La- 
val University,  and  it  was  their  wish  that  the 
faculty  of  this  theological  school  should  be 
educated  in  Rome.  Therefore  Dr.  Begin,  who 
had  been  elected  a  member  of  the  faculty, 
was  sent  to  Rome  in  1863,  and  remained  abroad 
till  1868.  During  this  time  he  traveled  exten- 
sively and  studied  many  branches  of  theology. 
On  his  return  to  Quebec  he  was  appointed  pro- 
fessor of  dogmatic  theology  and  ecclesiastical 
history  in  Laval  University  and  held  the  chair 
till  1884.  He  became  principal  of  the  Laval 
normal  school  in  1885 ;  was  appointed  bishop 
of  Chicoutimi  in  1888;  coadjutor  to  Cardinal 
Taschereau,  with  the  title  of  archbishop  of  Cy- 
rene,  in  i8gi ;  and  in  1894  became  administra- 
tor of  the  Province  of  Quebec.  His  works  in- 
clude *La  Primaute  et  ITnfaillibilite  des  Souver- 
ains  Pontifes,*  ^La  Sainte  Ecriture  et  la  Regie 
de  Foi>    (1874);  <Le  Culte  Cfitholique^    (1875)- 

Beglerbeg,  ba-lcr-ba',  or  more  accurately, 
Beylerbegi,  ba-ler-ba'e,  "prince  of  princes,'' 
or  "lord  of  lords,"  is  the  title  among  the  Turks 
given  to  the  governor  of  certain  provinces,  but 
is  not  very  commonly  employed  at  the  present 
day.  The  governors  of  Rumili,  of  Anatolia,  and 
of  Svria,  in  particular,  have  this  title.  See 
Beg.  ' 

Begon,  Michel,  be-goii,  me-shel,  French  ad- 
ministrator :  b.  Blois,  France,  1638 ;  d.  Rochefort, 
4  March  17 10.  He  was  a  naval  ofificer,  and  suc- 
cessively intendant  of  the  French  West  Indies, 
of  Canada,  of  Rochefort,  and  La  Rochelle.  He 
is  celebrated  for  his  love  of  science,  and  the  well 
known  genus  of  plants.  Begonia,  was  named 
in  his  honor. 

Begonia,  Beefsteak  Geranium,  or  Elepliant's 
Ear.  A  genus  of  about  350  species  of  succu- 
lent tropical  herbs  or  under-shrubs  of  the  nat- 
ural order  Begoniacecc,  most  abundant  in  Mex- 
ico and  Central  and  South  America.  Since  the 
introduction  of  the  iirst  species  (B.  nitida)  into 
England  in  1777  about  150  species  have  been  util- 
ized by  horticulturists,  who  have  produced  thou- 
sands of  varieties  noted  for  the  superb  coloring 
of  either  or  both  their  flowers  or  foliage.  In 
general  the  plants  are  characterized  by  variable, 
lop-sided  (except  in  one  group),  alternate,  en- 
tire, or  lobed  leaves ;  axillary  cymes  of  usually 
large  monoecious  flowers,  varying  in  all  shades 
of  red,  also  white  and  j'ellow;  numerous  sta- 
mens free  or  basally  united ;  two  to  four  styles ; 
branched  or  twisted  stigmas  ;  and  three-winged 
capsular,  often  colored,  fruits  containing  nu- 
merous tiny  seeds.  The  cultivated  varieties  may 
be  grouped  into:  (i)  Summer-flowering  or  tu- 
berous-rooted, which  produce  large  single  and 
double  flowers  ;  (2)  winter-flowering  or  fibrous- 
rooted  ;  (3)  semi-tuberous  or  Socotrana.  with. 
peltate  leaves ;  (4)  ornamental-leaved,  or  rex, 
Asiatic  species  an-d  their  descendants,  with  re- 
markably handsome  or  striking  foliage.  There 
are  also  hybrids  between  members  of  these 
groups.  Each  group  demands  somewhat  difi^er- 
ent  cultural  treatment,  but  in  general  the  tu- 
berous sorts  are  started  from  seeds,  and  the 
tubers  thereafter  used  from  year  to  year ;  other 


varieties  are  usually  increased  by  means  of 
cuttings,  either  of  the  stem  or  of  the  leaf,  by 
various  methods  almost  confined  to  this  group 
of  plants.  The  varieties  are  usually  easy  to 
cultivate,  but  some,  especially  the  tuberous  sorts, 
are  somewhat  sensitive  to  dryness  of  atmos- 
phere and  hot  sun,  which  usually  accounts  for 
the  poor  behavior  of  these  plants  in  house? 
heated  by  hot  air,  steam,  or  hot  water.  For 
description  of  species  grown  in  America,  and  for 
details  of  propagation,  cultivation,  etc.,  consult 
Bailey  and  Miller,  'Cyclopedia  of  American  Hor- 
ticulture' (N.  Y.  1900-2).  Consult  also:  Dry- 
sander,  *The  Genus  Begonia,^  in  'Transactions 
of  the  Linnean  Society,'  Vol.  I  (1789)  ;  Klatsch. 
*Begoniaceen-Cattungen  und  Arten,'  12  plates 
(1855);  De  Candolle,  <Prodromus,'  Vol.  XV. 
(1864)  ;  Ravenscroft,  ^Begonia  Culture  for  Ama- 
teurs'   (1894);  Wynne,  *  Tuberous  Begonias.' 

Beguines,  beg-en',  Beguins,  beg-inz,  or 
Beguinae,  beg-wi-ne,  the  women  who  live  in 
communities,  the  members  of  which  dwell  not 
in  one  household,  as  in  convents,  but  in  a  group 
of  small  cottages  surrounded  by  a  wall,  with 
a  chapel  in  the  centre.  They  vow  poverty  and 
chastity  so  long  as  they  remain  in  the  beguinage 
as  their  village  is  called.  They  are  the  associa- 
tions of  praying  women  which  arose  in  the 
Netherlands  in  the  13th  century,  the  first  being 
formed  at  Nivelles,  Brabant,  in  1226,  and  spread 
rapidly  in  the  adjoining  countries.  They  said 
they  originated  from  a  certain  St.  Begga,  Duch- 
ess of  Brabant,  in  the  7th  century ;  but  it  is  be- 
lieved that  they  were  founded  by  Lambert  le 
Begue,  a  priest  of  Liege,  in  the  12th  century. 
Mosheim  rejects  both  statements.  They  used  to 
weave  cloth,  live  together  under  a  directress, 
and  leave  on  being  married,  or  indeed  whenever 
they  pleased.  They  still  exist  in  some  of  the 
Belgian  towns,  notably  at  Ghent,  also  in  Ger- 
many, and  at  least  in  one  beguinage  in  France, 
where  they  are  renowned  as  makers  of  lace, 
though  under  different  rules  from  those  formerly 
observed.  The  corresponding  communities  of 
men  were  called  Beghards,  but  these  were  sup- 
pressed in  1650  by  Pope  Innocent  X. 

Begum,  ba'giim  (a  feminine  form  corre- 
sponding to  beg,  or  bey),  an  Indian  title  of 
honor  equivalent  to  princess,  conferred  on  the 
mothers,  sisters,  or  wives  of  native  rulers.  The 
Begum  of  Oudh  is  well  known  in  Indian  his- 
tory. 

Behaim,  ba'him,  Martin,  a  famous  cos- 
mographer:  b.  Niiremberg  about  1430;  d.  Fayal. 
29  July  1506.  He  is  distinguished  as  one  of 
the  most  learned  mathematicians  and  astrono- 
mers of  his  age.  He  was  engaged  in  com- 
merce, and  traveled  for  the  purpose  of  carry- 
ing on  his  business,  from  1455  to  1479:  but 
also  devoted  himself  to  the  study  of  the  mathe- 
matical and  nautical  sciences.  He  w-ent  from 
Antwerp  to  Lisbon  in  1480,  where  he  was  re- 
ceived with  marks  of  distinction.  He  sailed 
in  the  fleet  of  Diego  Cam  on  a  voyage  of  dis- 
covery (1484-6),  and  explored  the  islands  on 
the  coast  of  Africa  as  far  as  the  river  Zaire.  He 
is  also  said  to  have  discovered,  or  at  least 
to  have  colonized,  the  island  of  Fayal,  where  he 
remained  for  several  years,  and  assisted  in  the 
discovery  of  the  other  Azores.  He  was  after- 
ward knighted,  and  returned  to  his  native  coun- 
try, where  he  constructed  a  terrestrial  globe  in 
1492,  which  bears   the  marks  of  the  imperfect 


BEHAM  — BEHN 


acquaintance  of  that  age  with  the  true  dimen- 
sions of  the  earth.  Some  ancient  Spanish  his- 
torians assert  that  he  made  many  discoveries, 
and  that  he  gave  to  his  friend  Columbus  the  idea 
of  another  hemisphere.  Robertson  (in  his  < His- 
tory of  America^ )  and  others  contradict  this 
slatement.     It  is  also  rejected  by  Irving. 

Beham,  ba'ham,  Bartel,  German  painter 
and  engraver:  b:  Niiremberg,  1496;  d.  Rome, 
1540.  He  studied  painting  under  Albert  Diirer 
and  later  in  Italy,  and  engraving  under  Marc 
Antonia  Raimondi.  Among  his  paintings  are 
*  Christ  Bearing  the  Cross,  ^  ^A  Woman  Raised 
from  the  Dead  by  the  True  Cross,^  and  *  Marcus 
Curtius  Leaping  into  the  Gulf.-*  Among  his 
prints  are  a  portrait  of  William,  Duke  of  Ba- 
varia,••  ^Adam,  Eve,  and  Death  Before  a  Tree,^ 
^The  Virgin  Suckling  a  Child, ^  "^Lucretia,^ 
<  Cleopatra,'  *^ Apollo  Causing  Marsyas  to  be 
Flayed,'  and  ^Christ  Giving  His  Charge  to  Saint 
Peter.  > 

Beham,  Hans  Sebald,  German  painter  and 
engraver:  b.  Nuremberg.  1500;  d.  Frankfort, 
22  Nov.  1550.  He  studied  under  Albert  Diirer, 
and  was  one  of  his  ablest  scholars,  but  rendered 
his  talents  worse  than  useless,  both  to  himself 
and  society,  by  employing  his  pencil  for  the  most 
profligate  purposes.  The  disgust  produced  by 
his  licentiousness  drove  him  from  his  native 
town  to  Frankfort-on-the-Main,  where  dissipa- 
tion made  his  downward  progress  very  rapid. 

Behar,  be-har',  an  extensive  province  of 
British  India,  now  a  part  of  the  presidency  of 
Bengal;  pop.  about  25,000000  in  1901.  It  was 
ceded  to  the  British  by  the  Mogul  shah  Alum 
in  1765,  on  condition  of  an  annual  payment  of 
26  lacs  of  rupees.  It  is  intersected  by  the  Gan- 
ges, and  produces  much  opium,'  indigo,  sugar, 
cotton,  and  saltpetre.  Gaya,  the  birthplace  of 
Buddha,  and  the  scene  of  one  of  Vishnu's  incar- 
nations, is  in  the  province,  and  is  visited  by 
vast  numbers  of  pilgrims.  Other  places  of  im- 
portance in  the  province  are  Baha,  Chapra,  and 
Patna. 

Be'hemoth,  the  name  of  an  animal  de- 
scribed in  Job  xl.  IS,  to  the  end.  It  is  evidently 
an  herbivorous  animal ;  but  commentators  and 
naturalists  are  not  agreed  as  to  the  particular 
species.  Bochart,  Gesenius,  and  the  generality 
of  English  commentators  think  the  description 
most  applicable  to  the  hippopotamus ;  others 
think  it  was  the  elephant.  Nor  would  it  mili- 
tate much  against  this  interpretation  that  the 
elephant  is  not  a  native  of  the  country  in  which 
the  scene  of  the  poem  is  laid.  The  author  of 
the  book  of  Job,  whether  ]\Ioses  or  not,  may 
have  been  familiar  with  life  in  Egypt  and  Arabia, 
and  if  so,  would  naturally  introduce  scenery 
and  adjuncts  Egyptiairor  Arabian,  or  both  com- 
hined ;  and  that  the  elephant  was  well  known  in 
Egypt  is  proved  not  only  by  the  use  of  ivory 
in  the  arts,  specimens  of  which  are  preserved  in 
abundance,  but  also  by  the  representation  of  the 
animal  itself  on  early  Egyptian  monuments. 

Behistun,  ba-his-toon',  a  mountain  near  a 
village  of  the  same  name,  not  far  from  Kerman- 
shah.  in  Persian  Kurdistan,  celebrated  for  the 
sculptures  and  cuneiform  inscriptions  cut  upon 
one  of  its  rocky  sides,  which  rises  almost  perpen- 
dicularly to  the  height  of  1,700  feet.  These 
works  are  about  300  feet  from  the  ground,  and 
were  executed  by  the  orders  of  Darius  I.,  king 
of  Persia.     The  inscriptions  set  forth  his  gene- 


alogy, enumerate  his  19  victories  obtained 
against  the  rebels  in  different  provinces  of  his 
empire,  and  proclaim  the  final  pacification  of  the 
latter,  and  his  gratitude  to  God.  The  sculptures 
consist  of  a  large  tablet,  on  which  are  repre- 
sented a  king  with  his  foot  upon  a  prostrate 
man,  two  long-speared  warriors  behind  him, 
nine  captives  chained  together  by  the  neck 
before  him,  and  above  the  whole  a  mythological 
figure.  The  inscriptions  are  executed  with  great 
neatness,  and  the  whole  monument  is  very  well 
preserved,  the  rock,  which  had  been  carefully 
polished,  having  been  coated  with  a  hard  sili- 
cious  varnish,  much  harder,  indeed,  than  the 
limestone  beneath.  The  mountain  was  well 
known  in  ancient  times,  being  mentioned  by 
Diodorus  under  the  name  of  Bagistanon.  The 
same  writer  states  also  that  an  inscription  and 
figures  were  engraved  upon  the  rock  by  the 
orders  of  Semiramis,  but  these  if  they  ever  ex- 
isted, have  now  disappeared.  Rawlinson  was 
the  first  to  copy  and  decipher  the  Behistun  in- 
scriptions. 

Behm,  bam,  Ernst,  German  geographer: 
b.  Gotha,  4  Jan.  1830;  d.  there,  15  March  1884. 
In  1856  he  became  Dr.  Petermann's  chief 
assistant  in  editing  the  famous  geographical 
periodical  *^Mitteilungen,'  to  the  editorship  of 
which  he  succeeded  on  his  chief's  death  in  1878. 
In  1872  he  began,  in  conjunction  with  H.  Wag- 
ner, the  useful  ^Population  of  the  Earth,'  in- 
tended as  a  statistical  supplement  to  the  'Mitteil- 
ungen'  ;  and  from  1876  he  undertook  the  sta- 
tistical department  of  the  '^Almanach  de  Gotha.' 
His  more  extended  writings  of  this  nature  are 
marked  by  fullness,  accuracy,  and  marked  lu- 
cidity of  arrangement. 

Behn,  ban,  Aphra,  or  Aphara,  English 
novelist  and  dramatist:  b.  Wye,  Kent,  1640;  d. 
London,  16  April  1689.  She  went  to  Surinam 
when  she  was  very  A'oung,  and  remained  there 
some  years,  during  which  time  she  became  ac- 
quainted with  the  American  prince,  Oroonoko, 
whom  she  made  the  subject  of  a  novel,  subse- 
quently dramatized  by  Sothern.  On  her  return 
to  England  she  married  Mr.  Behn,  a  London 
merchant,  but  was  probably  a  v/idow  when  se- 
lected by  Charles  II.  to  acquire  intelligence  on 
the  Continent  during  the  Dutch  war.  She  took 
up  her  residence  at  Antwerp,  and  it  is  said  that, 
by  means  of  one  of  her  admirers,  she  obtained 
notice  of  the  intention  of  the  Dutch  to  sail  up 
the  Thames,  and  transmitted  the  news  to  Eng- 
land. This  intelligence  being  discredited,  she 
returned  to  England,  and  devote.d  herself  to 
intrigue  and  writing  for  support.  She  published 
three  volumes  of  poems,  by  Rochester,  Etherege, 
Crisp,  and  others,  with  some  poetry  of  her  own ; 
and  wrote  17  plays,  the  heartless  licentiousness 
of  which  was  disgraceful  both  to  her  sex  and 
to  the  age  which  tolerated  the  performance  of 
them.  She  was  also  the  author  of  a  couple 
of  volumes  of  novels,  and  of  the  celebrated  love- 
letters  between  a  nobleman  and  his  sister-in- 
law  (Lord  Gray  and  Lady  Henrietta  Berkeley). 
Pope,  in  his  ^Character  of  Women,'  alludes  to 
INIrs.  Behn,  under  her  poetical  name  of  Astrea. 

'  The  stage  how  loosely  does  Astrea  tread, 
Who  fairly  puts  her  characters  to  bed.' 

She  was  buried  in  the  cloisters  of  Westminster 
Abbey.  An  edition  of  her  works  was  published 
in  1872. 


BEHRENDS  —  BEISA 


Behrends,  ba'rens,  Adolphus  Julius  Fred- 
srick,  American  clergyman:  b.  Nymwegen, 
Holland,  i8  Dec.  1839;  d.  Brooklyn,  N.  Y., 
22  May  1900.  He  was  successively  pastor  of  a 
Baptist  church  at  Yonkers,  N.  Y.,  1868,  and  of 
the  First  Baptist  Church  in  Cleveland,  Ohio,  1873  ; 
of  the  Union  Congregational  Church,  Providence, 
R.  I.,  1876,  and  of  the  Central  Congregational 
Church  in  Brooklyn,  1883-1900.  Hex  published 
*  Socialism  and  Christianity^  (1886)  ;  'Philoso- 
phy of  Preaching^  (1890)  ;  'The  Old  Testament 
Under  Fire^  ;  'The  World  for  Christ. ■•  He  was 
a  forcible  writer  and  very  popular  as  a  pulpit 
orator. 

Behrens,  ba'rens.  Bertha,  popular  German 
novelist,  who  has  written  over  the  signature, 
W.  Heimburg:  b.  Thale,  1850.  She  completed 
^Das  Eulenhaus,*  a  posthumous  novel  by  E. 
Marlitt,  whose  successor  as  contributor  to  Die 
Gartenlaube  she  became,  and  among  her  own 
novels  may  be  named  'Aus  dem  Leben  meiner 
Alten  Freunden^  (1878,  8th  ed.  1890)  ;  'Lum- 
penmijllers  Lieschen^  (1879)  ;  'Ihr  einziger 
Bruder'  (1882);  'Waldblumen'  (1882);  'Daz- 
umeP  (1887);  ^Trudchens  Heirat'  (1884); 
'Umfreund  Schuld^  O895)  ;  'Antons  Erben^ 
(1898). 

Behring,  ba'ring,  Emil  Adolf,  German 
physician :  b.  Hansdorf,  1854,  and  since  1895  di- 
rector of  the  Hygienic  Institute  in  Marburg.  He 
has  published  'Die  Blutserumtherapie'  (1892)  ; 
'Bekampfung  der  Infektionskrankheiten'  (1894) 
and  is  widely  known  for  his  discovery  of  diph- 
theria serum. 

Behring,  ba'ring  or  be'ring.      See   Bering. 

Beige,  a  light,  woolen  fabric,  made  of 
wool  of  the  natural  color;  that  is,  neither  dyed 
nor  bleached. 

Beijerland,  bi'er-lant,  a  fertile  island  in 
the  Netherland  province  of  South  Holland  at  the 
mouth  of  the  Maase.  It  produces  great  quanti- 
ties of  flax.     Pop.  13,300. 

Beilan,  ba-lan',  a  town  and  pass  in  the 
north  of  Syria,  on  the  Gulf  of  Iscanderoon. 
The  pass  has  more  than  once  been  of  military 
importance,  and  was  in  1832  the  scene  of  a 
battle  between  Turks  and  Egyptians.  The  town, 
1,584  feet  above  the  Mediterranean,  has  5,000 
inhabitants. 

Beilstein,  bil'stin,  Freidrich  Konrad,  Rus- 
sian chemist :  b.  St.  Petersburg,  1838.  In 
J866  he  became  professor  of  chemistry  in  St. 
Petersburg  Institute  of  Technology.  He  has 
\)ublished  'Anleitung  zur  qualitaten  Chemische 
Analyse,^  which  has  been  widely  circulated 
(1867)  ;  'Die  Chemische  Grossindustrie  auf  der 
Weltausstellung  in  Wien^  (1873)  :  and  a  cele- 
brated 'Handbuch  der  Organischen  Chemie^ 
(1800-1901). 

Beira,  ba'ra,  a  province  of  Portugal, 
bounded  chiefly  by  the  River  Douro  on  the 
north,  by  Spain  on  the  east,  and  by  the  Tagus 
and  Portuguese  Estremadura  on  the  south,  and 
by  the  Atlantic  on  the  west.  It  was  formerly 
divided  into  Beira  Alta  (High  Beira),  and  Beira 
Baixa  (Low  Beira).  Its  extent  is  9,248  square 
miles,  and  the  pop.  (1900)  1,518,406.  The  capi- 
tal is  Coimbra.  It  is  traversed  by  jhe  Serra 
d'Estrella,  and  well  watered  by  the  Douro, 
Vol.   2 — 31. 


Tagus,  etc.  Though  not  fertile  in  grain,  the 
produce  of' wine  and  olives  is  considerable.  The 
heir-apparent  of  the  Portuguese  crown  is  styled 
Prince  of  Beira.  For  purposes  of  administration 
the  province  is  subdivided  into  the  districts  of 
Aveiro,  Visien,  Coimbra,  Guarda,  and  Castello 
Branco. 

Beira,  a  seaport  on  the  coast  of  Portu- 
guese East  Africa,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Pungwe 
River,  a  little  to  the  north  of  Sofala.  It  is  the 
nearest  port  to  the  gold-fields  of  Mashonaland, 
and  a  railway  through  Fontesvilla,  Chimoio, 
Massikesse,  and  New  Umtali  to  Salisbury  was 
completed  in  1899.  Beira  has  a  good  harbor 
protected  by  a  sand-bank.  There  is  a  hospital, 
an  English  church,  and  about  1,600  inhabitants, 
of  whom  about  700  are  Europeans. 

Beiram,  ba'ram.     See  Bairam. 

Beirut,  or  Beyrout,  be-rut,  or  ba-root', 
(ancient  Berytus),  a  flourishing  seaport  of 
Syria,  60  miles  northwest  of  Damascus.  It  stands 
on  a  tongue  of  land  projecting  into  an  open 
bay,  and  spreading  out  toward  the  land  into  a 
beautiful  plain,  backed  by  the  mountains  of 
Lebanon.  It  consists  of  the  old  town,  com- 
posed generally  of  narrow  dirty  streets,  the  resi- 
dence of  the  poorer  classes,  and  the  business 
place  of  the  merchants ;  and  of  the  new  town, 
which  stretches  around  it.  The  latter,  with  its 
modern  houses,  carriage  roads,  and  gardens, — • 
its  churches,  colleges,  schools,  and  hotels, —  has 
little  or  nothing  of  the  Oriental  in  its  compo- 
sition. Beirut  has  rapidly  increased  since  1844 
when  its  population  was  only  8,000,  its  rise 
being  largely  due  to  the  extension  of  the  silk 
tidde,  of  which  it  is  the  centre.  The  better 
protection  afforded  both  to  foreigners  and  na- 
tives by  its  being  the  residence  of  the  consuls- 
general  has  also  contributed  to  its  prosperity. 
It  is  the  seat  of  a  consulate  of  the  United  States. 
Besides  silk  its  principal  exports  are  olive  oil, 
cereals,  sesame  seed,  tobacco,  and  wool.  Ship- 
building is  carried  on  here ;  an  English  company 
completed  waterworks  here  in  1875  and  gas 
works  were  built  by  a  French  comoany  in  1886. 
Besides  a  Scottish  school  for  Jews,  there  is  an 
American-Syrian  mission  in  Beirut,  printing  an- 
nually thousands  of  Arabic  Bibles  and  having 
a  school  and  hospital  connected  with  it.  In 
ancient  times  Beirut  was  a  large  and  important 
Phoenician  city,  and  under  the  Romans  was  long 
celebrated  for  its  school  of  jurisprudence.  The 
Byzantine  Emperor  Theodosius  II.  raised  it  to 
the  rank  of  a  metropolis.  After  being  destroyed 
by  an  earthquake  in  551,  it  again  rose  to  a  con- 
siderable town  in  the  time  of  the  Crusades.  In 
later  times  it  was  long  in  the  possession  of  the 
Druses.  It  was  bombarded  and  taken  by  the 
British  on  29  Aug.  1840.  There  is  a  railway 
to  Damascus.     Pop.  estimated  (1901)   120,000. 

Beisa,  bi'sa,  a  large  Abyssinian  antelope 
{Oryx  beisa).  dififering  from  the  gemsbok  prin- 
cipally in  lacking  the  tuft  of  hair  on  the  throat 
and  by  the  black  patch  on  the  front  of  the 
face  being  completely  separated  from  the  cheek 
stripe.  This  is  probably  the  animal  called  oryx 
by  the  ancients,  and  may  be  the  animal  from 
which  is  derived  the  legend  of  the  unicorns. 
Its  straight  horns  (about  36  inches  long)  when 
seen  in  profile  might  easily  appear  as  one. 
Herds  of  beisas  are  still  numerous  upon  the 
plains  of  Somaliland.     See  also  Gemsbok  ;  Oryx. 


BEISSEL  — BEKE 


Beissel,  bi'sel,  Johann  Conrad,  German 
mystic:  b.  Eberbach,  1690;  d.  Ephrata,  Pa.,  1768. 
He  studied  theology  at  Halle,  but  having  been 
banished  in  1720  for  his  Pietistic  opinions  he 
emigrated  to  Pennsylvania,  settling  first  at  Ger- 
mantown  and  later  in  Lancaster  County.  In 
1724  he  returned  to  Germantown  and  adopted 
the  Dunker  faith,  but  his  views  as  to  celibacy 
and  his  observance  of  Saturday  as  the  Sabbath 
were  unacceptable  to  his  neighbors,  and  he 
therefore  established  a  sect  of  Seventh  Day 
Dunkers.  He  attempted  a  hermit  life,  but  his 
fellow  believers  gathered  about  him  and  in  1735 
he  founded  the  famous  Settlement  of  Ephrata, 
Pa.  (q.v.),  and  remained  at  its  head  till  his 
death.  He  was  the  author  of  the  earliest  volume 
of  German  poetry  published  in  America,  ^Gott- 
liche  Liebes  und  Lobestone^  (1730),  and  pub- 
lished several  collections  of  hymns,  such  as 
*The  Voice  of  the  Lonely  and  Forsaken  Turtle 
Dove  —  that  is,  of  the  Christian  Church ;  by  a 
Peaceable  Pilgrim  traveling  to  Tranquil  Eter- 
nity^ (1747)  ;  and  ^Paradisiacal  Wonder-Play' 
(1766).  In  the  latter  are  found  the  ^Brother 
Song'  of  the  sect  with  its  215  stanzas,  and  the 
^Sister  Song'  with  250.  He  was  known  at 
Ephrata  as  Friedsam,  and  on  his  tomb  may  be 
read  the  inscription :  "Here  rests  an  outgrowth 
of  the  love  of  God,  "^Friedsam,'  a  solitary 
Brother,  afterward  a  leader,  ruler,  teacher  of  the 
Solitary  and  the  Congregation  of  Christ  in  and 
around  Ephrata."  See  *Chronicon  Ephrateuse' 
(1786)  ;  Sachse,  ^German  Sectarians  of  Penn- 
Bylvania'    (1899-1900). 

Beit,  Alfred,  German  colonial  financier: 
b.  Hamburg,  Germany,  1853 ;  d.  London,  Eng- 
land, 16  July  1906.  He  was  educated  in  the 
schools  of  his  native  city,  emigrated  to  South 
Africa  in  1873,  and  was  a  diamond  merchant  in 
Kimberley  1875-88.  He  became  partner  in  the 
hanking  firm  of  Werner,  Beit  &  Co.  in  1888. 
On  the  discovery  of  gold  in  the  Transvaal  he 
purchased  mining  lands  on  an  extensive  scale, 
and  prior  to  the  Boer  war  in  1899  was  chief 
partner  in  mines  producing  annually  $90,000,000 
of  gold.  He  was  a  director  of  the  Rand  and 
Bulfontein  mines,  of  the  Rhodesia  railways,  of 
the  Bechuana  Railway  Trust,  and  the  Trans- 
vaal Consolidated  Lands  Company.  His  busi- 
ness offices  were  in  Bishopsgate  Street,  London, 
and  his  wealth  was  estimated  at  over  $100,000,000. 

Beit-el-Fakih,  bat-el-fa'ke,  a  town  of 
Arabia,  in  Yemen,  32  miles  south-southeast  of 
Hodeidah,  and  "]-]  northeast  of  Mocha.  It  is 
celebrated  for  its  trade  in  Mocha  coffee,  which 
is  chiefly  grown  in  the  neighborhood.  Pop. 
about  8,000.  The  word  Beit,  signifying  a  house 
or  hut,  is  prefixed  to  the  name  of  various  other 
small  towns  and  villages  in  Arabia. 

Beitullah,  bat-ul'la,  the  name  of  the  build- 
ing in  Mecca  within  whose  enclosure  the  Caaba 
(q.v.)   is  located. 

Beitzke,  bits'ke,  Heinrich  Ludwig,  German 
historian:  b.  Muttrin,  15  Feb.  1798;  d.  10  May 
1867.  His  publications  include  ^History  of  the 
German  War  for  Freedom'  (1855)  ;  ^History 
of  the  Russian  War  —  Year  of  1812'  (1856); 
*  History  of  the  Year  1815'    (1865),  etc. 

Beja,  ba'zha  (anciently  Pax  Julia),  a  town 
of  Portugal,  in  the  province  of  Alemtejo,  85 
miles  southeast  of  Lisbon.  It  stands  on  a  height, 
surrounded  by  walls  flanked  with  40  towers,  and 


is  defended  by  an  old  fort.  It  was  founded  by 
the  Romans,  and  some  Roman  remains  are  still 
visible.  The  town  has  two  annual  fairs  and  has 
an  extensive  trade  in  cattle  and  agricultural 
products.     Pop.   (1900)  8,895. 

Bejapur,  be-ja-p6r'  (anciently  Vijayapura, 
the  impregnable  city),  a  town  of  Hindustan  in 
the  Bombay  presidency,  near  the  borders  of  the 
Nizam's  dominions,  about  245  miles  southeast 
of  Bombay,  and  near  the  right  bank  of  an 
afiiuent  of  the  Krishna.  From  the  great  extent 
of  the  ruins  here  it  would  seem  to  have  been 
formerly  one  of  the  largest  cities  of  India.  In 
its  present  state  it  may  be  described  as  two 
towns  adjoining  each  other  —  the  fort  on  the 
east,  and  the  old  town  on  the  west.  The  former, 
though  much  less  than  the  latter,  has  one  entire 
and  regular  street  50  feet  wide  and  nearly  3 
miles  long.  Some  of  the  mosques  and  mauso- 
leums of  Bejapur  are  elaborately  elegant,  but  the 
prevailing  character  is  solid  and  massive.  The 
great  dome  of  Mahomet  Shah's  tomb  is  visible 
far  ofif.  The  fretwork  on  the  ceilings  and  ver- 
andahs, the  panels  covered  with  passages  of  the 
Koran  in  bas-relief,  and  the  stone  trellises  pierced 
with  a  mesh-work  of  Arabic  characters,  are  all 
in  the  richest  style  of  Oriental  sculpture. 
Among  the  religious  structures  is  a  Hindu  tem- 
ple, built  in  the  earliest  style  of  Brahmanical 
architecture.  There  are  here  some  guns  of 
enormous  size;  one  cast  in  1549  is  the  largest 
piece  of  brass  ordnance  extant.  Bejapur  has 
become  the  chief  town  of  Kaladgi  district,  and 
some  of  the  old  palaces  are  now  used  for  public 
purposes.  Pop.  about  17,000.  See  Ferguson, 
"^Ancient  Architecture  in  Hindustan'  (1847)  ; 
Ferguson,  ^The  Study  of  Indian  Architecture' 
(1867). 

Bejar,  ba'jar,  a  town  of  Spain,  in  the 
province  of  Salamanca,  41  miles  south  of  the 
town  of  that  name.  It  is  surrounded  by  old 
walls,  and  has  considerable  manufactures  of 
cloth.  Lord  Hill  defeated  a  French  force  here 
in  1813.  In  its  vicinity  are  warm  sulphur 
springs.     Pop.    (1895)    12,140. 

Beke,  Charles  Tilstone,  English  traveler: 
b.  Stepney,  Middlesex,  10  Oct.  1800;  d.  Bromley, 
Kent,  31  July  1874.  In  his  20th  year  he  entered 
on  a  business  career,  and  was  thus  led  to  visit 
Italy.  On  his  return  he  studied  law  at  Lin- 
coln's Inn,  and  in  1834  he  followed  up  several 
archaeological  articles  in  periodicals  by  publishing 
^Origines  Biblicse,  or  Researches  in  Primeval 
History.'  In  1837-8  he  was  British  consul  at 
Leipsic,  and  in  1840  set  out  on  his  first  journey 
to  Abyssinia.  Returning  in  1843  he  was  awarded 
the  gold  medals  of  the  Royal  Geographical  so- 
cieties of  London  and  Paris,  and  again  engaged 
in  business.  He  subsequently  made  several 
efforts  to  open  up  commercial  intercourse  with 
Abyssinia,  and  in  1861-2  he  traveled  in  Syria, 
Palestine,  and  Egypt.  When  the  news  of  the 
detention  of  several  British  subjects  by  the  king 
of  Abyssinia  arrived  in  1864,  Beke  went  out  to 
secure  their  release,  and  was  temporarily  suc- 
cessful, but  ultimately  King  Theodore  had  to  be 
coerced  by  war.  In  the  direction  of  the  military 
operations  Beke's  knowledge  of  the  country 
proved  of  the  utmost  value,  and  in  1870  he 
received  a  civil  list  pension  of  $500  per  annum. 
In  1873  he  set  out  for  Egypt  in  order  to  explorf 
the  country  traversed  by  the  Israelites,  and  to 
locate  Mount  Sinai.     His  published  works  com- 


BEKES  —  BELA 


prise:  ^The  Sources  of  the  Nile^  (i860)  ;  <The 
British  Captives  in  Abyssinia'  (1865)  ;  ^King 
Theodore  and  Mr.  Rassam'  (1869)  ;  ^The  Idol 
in  Horeb'  (1871)  ;  ^ Jesus  the  Messiah'  (1872)  ; 
< Discoveries  of  Sinai  in  Arabia,  and  of  Midian' 
(1878). 

Bekes,  ba'kash,  a  market  town  of  Hun- 
gary, and  capital  of  the  county  of  the  same 
name,  at  the  junction  of  the  Black  and  White 
Koros,  41  miles  southwest  of  Grossvvardein ; 
formerly  strongly  fortified.  Chief  productions 
—  flax,  cattle,  wheat,  wine,  and  honey,  in  all  of 
which  the  trade  is  considerable.  Pop.  (1900), 
25,087. 

Bekker,  bek'ker,  Elizabeth,  Dutch  novel- 
ist: b.  Vlissingen,  24  July  1738;  d.  The  Hague, 
5  Nov.  1804.  She  married  Adriaan  Wolff,  a 
Reformed  Church  minister  at  Beemster,  who 
died  in  1777,  and  lived  afterward  in  closest 
friendship  with  Agathe  Deken,  who  also  collab- 
orated in  her  most  important  works,  ^History 
of  Sara  Burgerhart'  (1782)  ;  ^History  of  Wil- 
liam Leevend'  (1784-5)  ;  'Letters  of  Abraham 
Blankaart'  (1787-9)  ;  'Cornelia  Wildschut' 
(1793-6). 

Bekker,  Immanuel,  German  scholar,  dis- 
tinguished by  his  recensions  of  the  texts  of 
Greek  classics:  b.  Berlin,  21  May  1785;  d.  there, 
7  June  1871.  He  studied  in  Halle,  and,  in 
181 1,  became  professor  of  philology  in  his  native 
city.  The  results  of  his  researches  in  the  li- 
braries of  France,  Italy,  England,  and  Germany, 
appear  in  his  numerous  recensions  of  texts  de- 
rived solely  from  MSS.,  and  independently  of 
printed  editions.  The  writers  included  in  these 
recensions  are  Plato,  the  Attic  orators,  Aristotle, 
Thucydides,  Theognis,  Aristophanes,  as  well  as 
Livy  and  Tacitus. 

Bel,  bal,  Karl  Andreas,  Hungarian  histo- 
rian, son  of  Matthias  Bel  (q.v.)  :  b.  Presburg, 
1717;  d.  1782.  He  was  professor  of  poetry  at 
Leipsic  and  was  author  of  'De  Vera  Origine 
et  Epocha  Plunnorum,  Avarum  Hungaronum  in 
Pansonia'  (1757)  ;  'De  Maria  Hungarijc  non 
Rege  sed  Regina'    (1744). 

Bel,  Matthius,  Hungarian  historian:  b. 
Orsova,  1684;  d.  1749.  He  was  distinguished  as 
a  theologian  and  historian,  and  became  rector 
of  the  Protestant  schools  at  Neusohl.  He  wrote 
on  the  history  of  Hungary  alone,  and  achieved 
much  distinction.  His  writings  are  even  now 
much  valued  for  reference  purposes. 

Bel,  bel,  one  of  the  most  important  gods 
of  the  Babylonian  mythology ;  mentioned  in 
Scripture,  in  Is.  xlvi.  i  ;  Jer.  i.  2 ;  li.  44 ;  in  the 
Septuagint.  in  Baruch  vi.  40,  and  in  the  apocry- 
phal additions  to  the  Book  of  Daniel,  as  well 
as  by  classical  authors.  Much  light  has  recently 
been  thrown  on  Bel's  characteristics  and  position 
in  the  heavenly  hierarchy,  by  the  examination  of 
the  cuneiform  tablets  and  sculptures.  It  has 
been  ascertained  that,  prior  to  1600  B.C.,  the 
highly  interesting  Turanian  people  called  Acca- 
dians,  the  inventors  of  the  cuneiform  writing, 
who  wielded  extensive  authority  in  western 
Asia  before  the  Semitic  Assyrians  and  Babylon- 
ians had  come  into  notice,  worshipped  as  their 
first  triad  of  gods,  Anu,  ruling  over  the  heaven ; 
Elu,  Belu,  or  Bel,  over  the  earth ;  and  Ea,  over 
the  sea.  Bel's  three  children,  or  three  of  his 
children,  were  Shamas,  the  sun-god ;  Sin,  the 
moon-god ;    and    Ishtar,    the    Accadian    Venus. 


Sayce  shows  that  some  first-born  children  were 
vicariously  offered  in  sacrifice  by  fire  to  the 
sun-god.  From  the  Accadians  the  observance 
of  human  sacrifice  passed  to  various  Semitic 
tribes  and  nations.  Bel's  name  Elu  identifies 
him  with  the  Phoenician  El,  who,  in  a  time 
of  trouble,  offered  his  first-born  son,  ''the  be- 
loved," on  a  high  place,  by  fire.  It  is  not 
settled  whether  or  not  Bel  was  the  same  also 
as  the  Phcenician  Baal.  To  the  wrath  of  Bel  the 
deluge  was  attributed.  In  Scripture  times  he 
was  known  exclusively  as  a  Babylonian  divinity, 
being  distinguished  from  both  Nebo  and  Mero- 
dach.  In  the  later  Babylonian  empire,  however, 
Merodach  came  to  be  generally  identified  with 
Bel,  though  sometimes  distinguished  from  him, 
being  called  "the  lesser  Bel.'' 

Bel  and  the  Dragon,  certain  apocryphal 
chapters  added  to  the  canonical  Book  of  Daniel. 
The  Jews  do  not  consider  them  part  of  their 
Scriptures.  They  were  penned  probably  by  an 
Alexandrian  Jew,  the  language  used  being  not 
Hebrew,  nor  Aramaean,  but  Greek.  The  story 
of  Bel  and  the  Dragon  tells  how  Daniel  enlight- 
ened Cyrus,  represented  as  having  been  a  de- 
vout worshipper  of  Bel,  by  proving  that  the 
immense  supplies  of  food  laid  before  the  idol 
were  really  consumed,  not  by  it  or  by  the  inhab- 
iting divinity,  but  by  the  priests  and  their 
families.  On  Cyrus  urging  that  the  dragon, 
also  worshipped,  was  at  least  a  living  God, 
Daniel  poisoned  it,  for  which  he  was  thrown 
into  a  lion's  den,  where  the  Prophet  Habakkuk 
fed  him.  Ultimately  he  was  released,  and  his 
persecutors  put  to  death. 

The  above  narrative  must  not  be  confounded 
with  one  called  also  'Bel  and  the  Dragon,' 
translated  by  Fox  Talbot  from  the  cuneiform 
tablets.  Mr.  Talbot  believes  that  the  dragon, 
seven-headed,  like  the  one  in  Revelation,  would, 
if  the  tablets  were  complete,  prove  the  same 
being  that  seduced  some  of  the  heavenly  "gods," 
or  angels,  from  their  allegiance  (Rev.  xii.  4; 
Jude  vi),  for  which  he  was  slain  by  Bel.  The 
resemblance  is  not  to  the  apocryphal  book  now 
tmder  consideration,  but  to  the  combat  between 
Michael  and  the  Dragon  in  Rev.  xii.  7-17. 

Bela,  ba'16,  the  name  of  four  Hungarian 
kings  of  the  Arpad  dynasty.  Bela  I.,  son  of 
Ladislaf,  competed  for  the  crown  with  his 
brother  Andrew,  and  was  obliged  to  take  refuge 
in  Poland.  Having  there  obtained  assistance, 
he  returned  at  the  head  of  a  powerful  force, 
defeated  his  brother,  who  perished  in  the  action, 
and  mounted  the  throne  in  1061.  He  immedi- 
ately began  a  series  of  important  reforms,  and 
was  contemplating  others  when  he  was  sud- 
denly cut  oil  in  1063.  Bela  II.,  surnamed  the 
Blind,  because  his  eyes  had  been  put  out  in 
early  life  by  his  uncle,  succeeded  to  the  throne 
in  1 131,  and  at  first  seemed  inclined  to  act  with 
moderation  and  justice,  but  the  vindictive  spirit 
of  his  queen  involved  him  in  quarrels  with  his 
nobles,  and  his  own  intemperate  habits  brought 
on  a  disease  which  terminated  his  life  in  1141. 
Bela  III.  succeeded  his  brother,  Stephen  III., 
in  1 173,  and  held  the  reins  of  government  with 
a  strong  hand,  vigorously  correcting  the  abuses 
and  putting  down  the  turbulent  spirit  which 
the  troubles  of  previous  reigns  had  engendered. 
He  also  repelled  incursions  of  Bohemians,  Poles, 
and  Austrians,  and  retaking  the  towns  of  which 
the  Venetians  had  possessed  themselves,  com- 
pelled them  to  accept  of  peace  in  1189.    He  died 


BELARIUS  —  BELCHITE 


in  1 196,  and  was  succeeded  by  Emeric,  one  of 
two  sons  by  his  queen,  a  sister  of  Philip  Augus- 
tus, king  of  France.  Bela  IV.  succeeded  his 
father,  Andrew  II.,  in  1235,  and  was  shortly 
after  obliged  to  collect  an  army  to  oppose  the 
Tartars,  who  had  invaded  the  country.  In  the 
battle  which  ensued  he  was  signally  defeated, 
and  obliged  to  take  refuge  in  Austria,  where  he 
was  detained  prisoner,  and  only  recovered  his 
liberty  by  the  payment  of  a  heavy  ransom.  The 
Tartars  having  retired  in  1242  Bela  regained  his 
throne,  and  made  it  his  object  to  repair  the 
results  of  their  invasion.  He  subsequently  estab- 
lished his  rule  over  Bosnia  and  northern  Servia, 
and  died  in  1270. 

Bela'rius,  a  character  of  prominence  in 
Shakespeare's  ^Cymbeline.^  Exiled  by  King 
Cymbeline,  he  carries  away  with  him  the  two 
sons  of  the  monarch  and  rears  them  as  his  own. 

Belas'co,  David,  American  dramatist:  b. 
San  Francisco,  25  July  1859.  He  appeared  on 
the  stage  in  1874,  but  soon  forsook  it  for  play- 
writing.  Alone  and  in  collaboration,  he  is  the 
author  of  the  plays  *Lord  Chumley' ;  ^The 
Wife>  ;  (The  Charity  BalP  ;  <The  Girl  I  Left 
Behind  Me>  ;  <The  Heart  of  Maryland'  ; 
^Zaza'  ;  'May  Blossom'  ;  <Men  and  Women'  ; 
'La  Belle  Russe'  ;  'Valerie'  ;  Du  Barry'  ; 
'Hearts  of  Oak'  ;   'Naughty  Anthony'  ;  etc. 

Belbeis,  bel-bas',  a  town  of  Egypt,  29 
miles  north-northeast  of  Cairo,  near  the  rail- 
way to  Suez  and  on  the  border  of  the  desert, 
formerly  of  some  importance  as  being  on  the 
route  to  the  E^st.  The  ruins  of  the  ancient 
Bubastis  are  in   its   neighborhood.     Pop.   about 

8;000. 

Belch,  Sir  Toby,  a  roistering  character  in 
Shakespeare's  comedy,  'Twelfth  Night.' 

Belcher,  Sir  Edward,  English  admiral  and 
hydrographer :  b.  Halifax,  N.  S.,  1799;  d.  18 
March  1877.  Having  taken  part  as  midshipman  in 
the  defense  of  Gaeta  and  the  battle  of  Algiers,  he 
was  in  1819  appointed  to  the  Myrmidon  sloop, 
destined  for  the  African  station,  and  in  1825 
became  assistant  surveyor  to  the  Bering  Strait 
discovery  expedition  under  Capt.  Beechey.  In 
1829  he  was  promoted  to  the  rank  of  com- 
mander, and  served  on  the  coast  of  Africa,  and 
of  Portugal,  rendering  on  the  latter  occasion  valu- 
able services  to  the  British  residents  by  protect- 
ing their  property  during  the  political  troubles 
in  Portugal.  Subsequently  he  was  engaged  for 
a  number  of  years  in  a  voyage  round  the  world 
in  the  surveying  vessel.  Sulphur.  In  1841  he 
explored  the  inlets  of  the  Canton  River,  and 
materially  assisted  in  securing  the  triumph  of 
the  British  army.  In  acknowledgment  of  these 
services,  he  was  knighted.  Afterward  he  was 
employed  on  board  of  the  Samarang,  on  sur- 
veying service  in  the  East  Indies,  and  was 
severely  wounded  while  assisting  the  rajah  of 
Sarawak,  Sir  James  Brooke,  to  subdue  the 
pirates  of  Borneo.  From  1852  to  1854  he  com- 
manded the  expedition  in  search  of  Sir  John 
Franklin.  On  his  return  to  England,  he  was 
tried  before  a  court-martial  for  voluntarily  aban- 
doning the  ships.  The  case  against  him,  how- 
ever, was  not  legally  supported,  he  was  acquit- 
ted, and  his  sword  returned  to  him,  but  while 
some  of  the  other  officers  were  commended,  his 
name  was  passed  over  in  significant  silence.  In 
1872  he  became  rear-admiral.  He  published  'The 


Last  of  the  Arctic  Voyages'  (1855)  !  ^Narrative 
of  a  Voyage  to  the  East  Indies.' 

Belcher,  Jonathan,  colonial  governor  of 
Massachusetts :  b.  Cambridge,  Mass.,  8  Jan. 
1681 ;  d.  Elizabethtown,  N.  J.,  31  Aug.  1757. 
He  was  graduated  at  Harvard,  in  1699,  and 
spent  six  years  in  Europe  before  returning  to 
Boston,  as  a  merchant.  From  1730  to  1741  he 
was  governor  of  Massachusetts  and  New  Hamp- 
shire, a  dispute  over  his  salary  causing  his 
removal.  In  1747  he  was  made  governor  of 
New  Jersey  and  gave  it  a  successful  adminis- 
tration. He  enlarged  the  charter  of  the  Col- 
lege of  New  Jersey  (Princeton)  and  gave  that 
institution,  among  other  benefactions,  his  own 
valuable  library.  'The  Belcher  Papers'  were 
issued  by  the  Massachusetts  Historical  Society, 
1893. 

Belcher,  Thomas  Waugh,  Anglican  cler- 
gyman: b.  Bandon,  Ireland,  1831.  He  was  edu- 
cated at  Trinity  College,  Dublin,  and  in  the 
medical  schools  of  Faris  and  Vienna  and  sub- 
sequently took  orders  in  the  Established  Church. 
He  has  published  'Our  Lord's  Miracles  of  Heal- 
ing Considered  in  Relation  to  Some  Modern 
Objections  and  to  Medical  Science'  (1872)  ; 
'Hygienic  Aspects  of  Pogonotrophy'  (1864)  ; 
'Reformation  for  Drunkards'  (1862)  ;  'Is 
Christ  the  Head  of  His  Church  in  England' 
(1881);  'Apostolic  Contumacy';  'Life  of  Rob- 
ert Brett'  (1889).  He  has  been  rector  of 
Frampton-Cotterell,  Bristol,  from  1886. 

Belching,  the  raising  of  gases  from  the 
stomach.  There  is  always  a  certain  amount  of 
air  in  the  stomach,  taken  in  by  the  act  of  swal- 
lowing and  a  certain  amount  of  carbon  dioxid 
is  thought  to  be  formed  by  the  mucous  mem- 
brane of  the  stomach ;  but  under  abnormal  and 
diseased  conditions  new  gases  may  be  formed, 
causing  much  discomfort.  Rapid  eating,  bolting 
one's  food,  and  drinking  large  quantities  of 
water  very  rapidly  cause  an  abnormal  amount 
of  air  to  be  swallowed.  This  often  causes 
extreme  distress  imtil  it  is  belched  out.  In 
abnormal  states  of  digestion  quantities  of  gas 
are  formed  from  the  fermentation  of  the  food ; 
some  of  these  are  acetylene  gas,  carbon  dioxid, 
marsh  gas,  sulphuretted  hydrogen,  hydrogen, 
oxygen,  and  nitrogen.  Lack  of  free  hydro- 
chloric acid  is  one  of  the  most  important  factors 
in  this  gas  formation.  The  symptoms  are  usu- 
ally excessive  escape  of  gases  just  preceding 
or  closely  following  a  meal.  The  gases  gradu- 
ally begin  to  form  two  to  three  hours  after  the 
meals  eaten.  They  increase  in  amount,  cause 
distress,  and  may  be  belched  occasionally,  mak- 
ing one  taste  one's  meal.  While  eating,  the  new 
food  dilates  the  stomach,  causes  distress,  some- 
times attacks  of  palpitation  of  the  heart,  and 
when  the  stomach  is  overdilated  the  gases  are 
belched  forth,  sometimes  in  large  gusts.  The 
treatment  consists  primarily  in  more  careful 
eating,  but  if  one  deliberately  chooses  to  eat  and 
suffer  afterward,  various  digestants  such  as 
pepsin,  or  pancreatin,  sodimn  bicarbonate,  taken 
before  the  meal ;  weak  hydrochloric  acid  may  be 
be  taken  with  the  meal,  as  well  as  sips  of  very 
hot  water.  These  all  aid  somewhat  in  diminish- 
ing the  excessive  amount  of  fermentation.  See 
Indigestion. 

Belchite,  bel-che'ta,  a  Spanish  town,  22 
miles  south-southeast  of  Saragossa,  noted  as  the 
scene  of  a  victory  gained  18  June  1809,  by  the 


BELDEN  —  BELFAST 


French,  under  Sachet,  over  the  Spanish  forces 
under  Blake.  Belchite  has  some  manufactories 
of  woolens.     Pop.  (,i8g7)  3,409. 

Belden,  James  Jerome,  American  politi- 
cian :  b.  Fabius,  N.  Y.,  30  Sept.  1825 ;  d.  Syra- 
cuse, N.  Y.,  I  Jan.  1904.  He  received  a  com- 
mon school  education,  became  a  contractor  and 
amassed  a  fortune  in  building  railroads.  Enter- 
ing politics  he  became  a  local  and  State  Repub- 
lican leader;  was  elected  mayor  of  Syracuse; 
jelected  to  Congress  from  1887  to  1896;  and  was 
'chairman  of  the  National  Republican  Committee. 

•  Belding,  Mich.,  city  in  Iowa  County:  on 
the  Detroit.  L.  &.  N.  R.R. ;  139  miles  northwest 
from  Detroit.  It  has  silk  mills,  basket,  casket 
and  furniture  factories,  machine  shops,  paper 
box  factories  and  other  industries.  The  first 
silk  mill  in  the  West  was  erected  here.  Pop. 
(1900)  3,282. 

Belem,  ba-lln',  a  tow^n  of  Portugal,  on  the 
right  bank  of  the  Tagus,  two  miles  west-south- 
west of  Lisbon,  of  which  it  may  be  considered 
a  suburb.  It  contains  a  fine  church  and  a  mon- 
astery, the  former  containing  the  remains  of 
Camoens  and  Vasco  da  Gama. 

Belem'nites,  a  name  for  straight,  solid, 
tapering,  dart-shaped  fossils,  popularly  known  as 
arrow-heads,  thunder-bolts,  finger-stones,  etc., 
but  in  reality  the  internal  shell  or  skeleton  of 
a  molluscous  animal  allied  to  the  squid  or  sepia, 
and  the  type  of  an  extinct  family,  BelcrnnitidcE. 
The  fossil  remains  of  the  animal  are  met  with 
in  the  rocks  of  the  upper  secondary,  both  in  this 
country  and  other  parts  of  the  world ;  and  they 
are  particularly  abundant  in  the  strata  of  the 
green  sand  formation  in  New  Jersey.  The  part 
preserved,  often  detached  from  the  loose  strata, 
is  a  pointed  cone  sometimes  eight  inches  long, 
of  brown  color  and  stony  material,  resembling 
in  shape  the  head  of  a  dart  or  javelin,  whence 
their  name.  Belemnites  are  one  of  the  earliest 
known  fossils. 

Bele'rium,  or  Bolerium,  the  ancient  ap- 
pellation of  Land's  End  in  Cornwall,  England, 
but  the  origin  of  the  name  is  uncertain. 

Belfast,  the  chief  commercial  and  manu- 
facturing city  of  Ireland,  the  capital  of  the  prov- 
ince of  Ulster,  on  the  river  Lagan  at  the  head  of 
Belfast  Lough,  about  86  miles  north-northeast 
of  Dublin.  The  greater  part  of  it  is  built  on  low 
alluvial  land  on  the  banks  of  the  Lagan,  not 
more  than  six  feet  above  high-water  mark.  The 
country  around  is  extremely  beautiful ;  the  posi- 
tion of  the  town  renders  its  appearance  from  a 
distance  by  no  means  imposing,  but  the  Lough 
itself  presents  a  fine  scene ;  and  the  slopes  of  the 
hills  that  bound  it  and  partly  encircle  the  town 
are  thickly  studded  with  the  villas  and  country 
houses  of  the  merchants.  The  sewerage  has 
been  improved.  The  streets  are  spacious,  regu- 
lar, and  well  lighted  and  macadamized ;  the 
houses,  mostly  of  brick,  are  well  built  —  many 
of  them  very  handsome.  Tramways  and  the 
electric  light  have  been  introduced.  Four  bridges 
cross  the  river,  one  of  them  an  elegant  struc- 
ture of  five  arches,  each  of  50  feet  span.  The 
public  buildings  and  institutions  are  in  keeping 
with  a  city  of  its  size  and  importance.  Among 
the  numerous  churches  all  the  chief  religious 
bodies  are  represented,  the  Presbyterians  pos- 
sessing the  greatest  number  of  places  of  wor- 


ship. Many  of  the  churches  are  handsome  build- 
ings. Saint  Anne's,  the  oldest  of  the  Episcopal 
(Church  of  Ireland)  churches,  is  about  to  be 
removed  and  the  site  occupied  by  a  cathedral, 
of  which  the  foundation  stone  was  laid  in  1899. 
Trinity,  a  fine  specimen  of  Gothic ;  and  St. 
George's,  adorned  with  a  beautiful  portico,  are 
also  deserving  of  notice  among  the  Episcopal 
churches.  The  more  modern  of  the  Presby- 
terian churches,  as  well  as  those  of  other  denom- 
inations, display  increasing  taste.  St.  Pat- 
rick's serves  as  the  Roman  Catholic  Cathedral, 
but  is  architecturally  inferior  to  St.  Malachy's. 
The  secular  buildings  include  the  new  city  hall. 
Queen's  College,  a  massive  pile  in  the  later 
Gothic  style,  with  a  fagade  600  feet  in  length, 
erected  at  a  cost  of  £30,000;  the  Presbyterian 
Theological  College ;  the  Methodist  College,  a 
handsome  building  erected  in  1868  at  a  cost  of 
£30,000 ;  the  municipal  buildings ;  the  county 
court-house ;  the  commercial  buildings  and  ex- 
change ;  the  buildings  for  the  customs  and  inland 
revenue;  the  post-office;  the  offices  of  the  Ulster 
Bank,  the  Bank  of  Ireland,  the  Provincial  Bank, 
the  Belfast  Bank,  the  National  Bank,  the  Scot- 
tish Amicable,  Scottish  Provident,  and  North 
British  and  Mercantile  Assurance  companies; 
the  grand  opera  house  ;  the  Theatre  Royal ;  the 
county  jail ;  the  Ulster  Hall ;  the  Albert  memorial 
clock  tower,  143  feet  high ;  etc.  Of  the  educa- 
tional institutions  the  most  prominent  is  Queen's 
College,  first  opened  to  students  in  1849,  with  a 
president  and  over  20  professors  and  lecturers. 
Candidates  for  the  ministry  of  the  Presbyterian 
Church  of  Ireland  receive  a  training  in  the  Gen- 
eral Assembly's  Theological  College.  The  Meth- 
odist College  and  the  Campbell  College  (a  sec- 
ondary school)  are  important  institutions;  while 
the  Royal  Academy  and  the  Royal  Academical 
Institution  also  deserve  mention.  There  is  a 
free  public  library  belonging  to  the  city.  The 
charitable  institutions  are  very  numerous  and 
important.  In  the  city  there  are  six  extensive 
public  parks,  besides  the  borough  cemetery.  Bel- 
fast is  the  centre  of  the  Irish  linen  trade  and 
manufacture,  having  within  itself  the  great 
majority  of  the  spinning-mills  and  power-loom 
factories  in  Ireland,  some  of  them  of  immense 
size  and  of  imposing  appearance.  The  spinning 
of  flax  and  weaving  of  linen  are  indeed  the  sta- 
ple industries  of  the  city,  and  have  increased  at 
a  remarkable  rate  in  modern  times.  The  cotton 
manufacture,  once  of  importance,  is  now  of  little 
moment.  There  are  two  large  shipyards,  and  in 
their  yard  and  engineering  works  Messrs.  Har- 
land  and  Wolfif  employ  some  10,000  hands,  and 
have  turned  out  some  of  the  finest  vessels  afloat, 
one  of  their  triumphs  being  the  great  steamer 
Oceanic,  built  for  the  White  Star  line.  There 
are  also  breweries,  distilleries,  flour-mills,  oiL 
mills,  saw-mills,  foundries,  printing  and  litho- 
graphic works,  tan-yards,  chemical  works,  jerated 
waterworks,  rope  works,  tobacco  manufactories, 
felt  manufactories,  etc.  The  commerce  of  Bel- 
fast surpasses  that  of  any  other  Irish  seaport, 
and  is  rapidly  increasing.  By  its  customs  reve- 
nue it  is  the  fifth  port  in  the  United  Kingdom. 
Belfast  Lough,  which  forms  the  approach  by  sea, 
is  a  fine  sheet  of  water  between  the  counties  of 
Down  and  Antrim,  about  14  miles  in  length  and 
6  in  breadth  at  the  entrance,  narrowing  toward 
the  city.  By  dredging,  a  straight  channel  has 
been  provided  to  accommodate  large  vessels. 
New  docks  have  been  constructed,  giving  a  total 


BELFAST  —  BELGIOJOSO 


harbor  area  of  over  lOO  acres.  One  of  the  grav- 
ing docks  is  825  feet  long.  The  most  impor- 
tant branch  of  traffic  by  sea  is  across  the  channel. 
A  large  fleet  of  steamers  ply  regularly  between 
Belfast  and  London,  Plymouth,  Bristol,  Liver- 
pool, Fleetwood,  IMorecambe,  Barrow,  White- 
haven, Ardrossan,  Glasgow,  Dublin,  Waterford, 
etc.  There  is  also  an  extensive  direct  trade  with 
British  North  America,  the  Mediterranean, 
France,  Belgium,  Holland,  and  the  Baltic.  In 
1786  only  772  vessels  (34,287  tons)  entered  the 
port;  whereas  in  1899,  11,263  vessels,  with  a 
burden  of  2,539,199  tons,  entered  in  the  foreign, 
colonial,  and  coasting  trades,  while  11,172  ves- 
sels of  2,454,829  tons  were  cleared.  Over 
2,000,000  tons  entered  in  the  trade  with  Great 
Britain.  Much  of  the  inland  trade  is  carried 
on  by  the  Lagan  Navigation,  which  connects  the 
town  with  Lough  Neagh ;  the  Ulster  Canal,  con- 
necting Lough  Neagh  with  Enniskillen ;  and  by 
three  systems  of  railway,  namely,  the  Great 
Northern,  the  Belfast,  and  Northern  Counties, 
and  the  County  Down.  Belfast  is  comparatively 
modern.  In  1637  it  obtained  the  privilege  of 
levying  certain  duties  on  goods  and  became  a 
regular  seaport ;  but  its  prosperity  subsequently 
was  much  impeded  by  the  Civil  War.  Early  in 
the  i8th  century  it  was  described  as  a  hand- 
some, thriving  town,  but  its  period  of  modern 
prosperity  dates  from  about  1830.  The  harbor 
is  under  the  management  of  an  independent 
board.  Belfast  returns  four  members  to  Parlia- 
ment. An  American  consul  is  resident  here. 
Pop.  (1901)  348,965. 

Belfast,  Maine,  a  city  and  county-seat  of 
Waldo  County,  it  the  head  of  Penobscot  Bay, 
and  on  the  Maine  C.  R.R. ;  30  miles  from  the 
ocean,  and  132  miles  northeast  of  Portland.  It 
has  a  fine  harbor,  a  large  domestic  trade,  and 
important  manufactures,  including  iron  works, 
shoe  factories,  lumber  mills  and  chemical  works. 
The  public  library  contains  5,000  volumes.  The 
most  notable  industry  is  ship-building,  begun 
here  in  1793.  Belfast  was  settled  in  1770;  was 
invested  by  the  British  in  181 5,  and  was  given  a 
city  charter  in  1853.     Pop.   (1900)  4,615. 

Belfort,  bel-for,  a  fortified  town  of  France, 
department  of  Haut  Rhin,  on  the  Savoureuse, 
47  miles  northeast  of  Besangon.  It  is  well  built, 
and  has  an  ancient  castle  situated  on  a  lofty 
rock,  a  fine  parish  church,  barracks,  town  house, 
court  of  primary  resort,  public  library  contain- 
ing 20,000  volumes,  and  a  communal  college. 
Manufactures  —  hats,  clocks,  wax  tapers,  iron 
wire,  sheet  iron,  etc.  There  are  also  breweries, 
tanneries,  and  iron  furnaces.  The  principal 
trade  is  in  grain,  wine,  brandy,  and  liquors.  Iron 
is  extensively  worked  in  the  neighborhood.  In 
1814  Belfort  was  besieged  by  the  allies  without 
success.  In  the  Franco-German  war  it  was 
invested  by  the  Germans,  3  Nov.  1870,  and  after 
holding  out  with  great  bravery,  capitulated,  16 
Feb.  1871.  In  recognition  of  the  bravery  which 
the  garrison  had  shown  in  its  defense,  it  was 
allowed  to  march  out  with  full  military  honors. 
This  defense  is  commemorated  by  the  huge 
*Lion  of  Belfort'  in  front  of  the  citadel,  the 
work  of  Bartholdi.  Belfort,  with  the  district 
immediately  surrounding  it,  is  the  only  part  of 
the  department  of  Haut  Rhin,  which  remained 
to  France  on  the  cession  of  Alsace  to  Germany, 
26  Feb.  1871.     Pop.  (1896)  27,715. 


Belfry,  a  bell-tower  or  bell-turret.  A  bell- 
tower  ma}'  be  attached  to  another  building,  or 
may  stand  apart;  a  bell-turret  usually  rises  above 
the  roof  of  a  building,  and  is  often  placed  above 
the  top  of  the  western  gable  of  a  church,  the 
terms  bell-cote,  bell-gable,  being  also  used.  The 
part  of  a  tower  containing  a  bell  or  bells  is  also 
called  a  belfrj^.  Strictly  speaking,  a  belfry  is  a 
civil  and  not  an  ecclesiastical  one,  and  in  the 
Middle  Ages,  the  bells  in  the  municipal  belfry 
became  the  symbols  of  popular  freedom.  The 
detached  bell  tower  is  of  frequent  occurrence  on 
the  continent  of  Europe,  and  in  England  the 
cathedral  of  Chichester  and  a  few  parish 
churches  possess  such  an  adjunct.  In  the  United 
States  such  structures  are  infrequent,  but  in 
the  town  of  Waterville,  N.  Y.,  is  a  detached  belfry 
or  clock-tower  with  quarter  chimes,  and  Brown 
University  at  Providence  is  soon  to  have  a  hand- 
some detached  clock  tower  erected  within  its 
grounds. 

Belgae,  a  group  of  German  and  Celtic 
tribes  who  inhabited  the  country  extending  from 
the  Atlantic  Ocean  to  the  Rhine,  and  from  the 
Marne  and  Seine  to  the  southern  mouth  of  the 
Rhine,  which  is  united  with  the  Meuse.  From 
time  to  time,  until  the  period  of  Cjesar,  German 
nations  pushed  forward  beyond  the  Rhine,  partly 
expelling  the  Celts  from  their  seats,  partly  unit- 
ing with  them ;  and  from  this  union  sprang  a 
mixed  nation,  which,  in  its  language  as  well  as 
in  its  manners,  resembled  the  Germans  more 
than  the  Celts.  According  to  the  testimony  of 
Caesar,  they  were  the  most  valiant  of  the  Gauls. 
Belgic  tribes  seem  also  to  have  settled  in  early 
Britain. 

Belgard,  bel'gard,  a  town  of  Prussia,  in 
Pomerania,  at  the  junction  of  the  Leitnitz  with 
the  Persante,  with  an  old  castle.  Iron,  cloth, 
and  wood  are  manufactured,  and  there  is  an 
important  horse  market.     Pop.   (1895)   7,386. 

Belgaum,  bel-gam',  a  town  of  Hindustan, 
in  the  district  of  Belgaum,  Bombay  presidency, 
on  the  eastern  slope  of  the  western  Ghauts,  2,500 
feet  above  the  sea.  It  consists  of  a  native  town, 
fort,  and  cantonments,  and  contains  the  usual 
courts  and  offices,  a  school  for  the  children  of 
natives  of  rank,  and  various  other  schools.  In 
1818  the  fort  and  town  were  taken  by  the  British 
after  a  gallant  resistance  by  the  Peishwa's 
forces.  From  the  salubrity  of  the  climate  and 
the  purity  of  the  water,  Belgaum  has  been 
selected  as  a  permanent  military  station.  It  car- 
ries on  a  trade  in  salt,  dry  fish,  dates,  etc. ;  and 
cotton  is  manufactured.     Pop.  (1901)  26,200. 

Belgic  Confession,  a  credal  statement  put 
forth  in  French  in  1561  by  Guido  de  Bres  of 
Brabant  and  others,  and  sent  to  Philip  II.  of 
Spain  to  persuade  him  to  tolerate  the  Calvinistic 
faith.  In  1562  it  was  published  in  the  ver- 
nacular, and  subsequently  in  Dutch  and  German, 
and  was  acknowledged  by  the  synods  of  Ant- 
werp (1566)  and  Dort  (1619). 

Belgiojoso,  bel-j6-y6's6,  Cristina  (Princess 
of),  Italian  patriot:  b.  Milan,  28  June,  1808;  d. 
there,  5  July  1871.  She  took  a  prominent  part 
in  the  revolution  of  1830,  and  was  exiled  by 
the  Austrian  government.  She  lived  in  Paris 
for  several  years  and  then  returned  to  Italy  in 
1847,  and  in  the  revolution  of  1848,  offered  her 
whole  fortune  to  the  patriot  cause  and  equipped 
several  hundred  volunteers  at  her  own  expense. 
After  a  second  exile  of  some  years  she  returned 


BELGIOJOSO  —  BELGIUM 


under  the  amnesty  of  1856.  regained  her  prop- 
erty, and  supported  the  policy  of  Cavour.  She 
was  the  editor  of  several  different  periodicals 
in  the  interest  of  Italian  liberty,  and  was  the 
author  of  several  books,  among  them  <  Souvenirs 
of  Exile^  (1850)  ;  ^History  of  the  House  of 
Savoy^  (i860)  ;  and  ^Reflections  on  the  Actual 
Condition  of  Italy ^    (1869). 

Belgiojoso,  a  town  of  northern  Italy,  in 
the  province  and  eight  miles  southeast  of  Pavia. 
It  is  situated  in  a  beautiful  and  fertile  plain 
between  the  Po  and  the  Olona,  and  is  well  built, 
containing  a  parish  and  an  auxiliary  church. 
The  old  castle,  in  which  Francis  I.  was  tem- 
porarily lodged  after  being  taken  prisoner  at  the 
battle  of  Pavia,  in  1525,  has  been  converted  into 
a  magnificent  chateau,  surrounded  by  fine  gar- 
dens.     Pop.   4,000. 

Belgium  (French,  Belgique;  German,  Bel- 
gian), a  kingdom  of  Europe,  bounded  north  by 
Holland,  northwest  by  the  North  Sea,  west  and 
south  by  France,  and  east  by  the  duchy  of  Lux- 
emburg, Rhenish  Prussia,  and  Dutch  Limburg; 
greatest  length,  northwest  to  southeast,  165 
miles ;  greatest  breadth,  north  to  south,  120 
miles;  area,  about  11,400  square  miles.  Belgium, 
in  shape,  resembles  a  triangle,  which  has  its  ver- 
tex in  the  west ;  the  base  resting  on  Germany  on 
the  east,  the  shorter  side  facing  Holland  and  the 
sea,  and  the  larger  forming  the  frontier  of 
France.  For  administrative  purposes  it  is 
divided  into  nine  provinces  —  Antwerp,  South 
Brabant,  East  Flanders,  West  Flanders,  Hainaut, 
Liege,  Limburg,  Luxemburg,  and  Namur.  These 
provinces  do  not  differ  much  in  area,  and  are  so 
arranged  as  to  form  a  compact  and  commodious 
division  of  the  kingdom.  South  Brabant,  which 
from  containing  Brussels,  the  capital,  may  be 
considered  the  metropolitan  province,  occupies 
the  centre,  while  the  others  cluster  round,  and, 
with  the  exception  of  the  extreme  provinces  of 
Luxemburg  and  West  Flanders,  actually  touch  it. 

The  following  table  shows  the  areas  of  the 
different  provinces,  with  their  population,  on  31 
Dec.  1900: 


Provinces 

Area  in 
sq.   miles 

Pop- 
ulation 

1,093 
1,268 
1,158 
1,249 

1,437 
1,117 
931 
1,706 
1,414 

819,000 

1,263,807 

1,029,971 

805,236 

1,142,934 

820.175 

240,796 

219,200 

346,512 

Flanders,   West 

Luxemburg 

11,373 

6,687,651 

Physical  Features. —  A  general  idea  of  the 
surface  of  the  country  may  be  obtained  by 
regarding  it  as  an  inclined  plane,  somewhat  rug- 
ged, and  considerably  elevated  in  the  southeast, 
from  which  it  slopes,  more  or  less  gradually, 
north  and  west,  till  it  sinks  into  low  plains,  only 
a  few  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea.  The  ele- 
vated districts  are  formed  by  ramifications  of 
the  Ardennes,  which,  entering  Belgium  from 
France,  stretch  along  the  south  of  Namur, 
occupy  the  greater  part  of  Luxemburg,  and 
attain  their  culminating  point  in  the  southeast 
of  Liege  at  Stavelot,  in  the  neighborhood  of 
Spa,  where  the  height  exceeds  2,000  feet.  The 
rocks  appear  to  rest  on  primary  formations;  but 


those  which  reach  the  surface  generally  consist 
of  slate,  old  red  sandstone,  and  mountain  lime- 
stone. Proceeding  northwest,  in  the  direction 
of  the  dip,  these  rocks  take  a  cover,  and  the  coal 
formation  becomes  fully  developed.  This  coal 
field  is  a  continuation  of  that  of  the  north  of 
France,  and  stretches  through  Belgium  in  a 
northeast  direction,  occupying  the  greater  part 
of  the  province  of  Hainaut,  and  a  considerable 
part  of  that  of  Liege,  and  skirting  the  provinces 
of  Namur  and  Luxemburg.  It  contains  numer- 
ous workable  seams,  both  of  coal  and  iron. 
North  and  west,  beyond  the  limits  of  this  coal 
field,  a  more  recent  formation  is  found,  covered 
by  deep  beds  of  clay  and  sand,  the  former  pre- 
vailing more  in  the  interior,  and  the  latter  near 
the  coast,  where  it  has  been  drifted  into  hillocks 
or  downs,  and  forms  the  only  barrier  against 
the  encroachments  of  the  sea.  Some  of  the  clay 
in  this  district  is  fit  for  the  manufacture  of  fine 
pottery ;  but  the  greater  part  of  it  is  fit  only  for 
coarse  ware,  or  for  bricks. 

In  accordance  with  the  general  slope  of  the 
surface  already  mentioned,  the  main  streams  of 
Belgium  have  a  northern  direction ;  and  the 
whole  country  lies  within  the  basin  of  the  Ger- 
man Ocean.  In  the  southeast,  where  the  sur- 
face is  elevated  and  broken,  numerous  torrents 
descend  with  rapidity ;  and  becoming  confined 
within  rocky,  precipitous,  and  richly  wooded 
banks,  often  furnish,  if  not  the  grandest,  the 
most  picturesque  and  enchanting  of  landscapes. 
On  reaching  the  lower  country  their  speed  is 
slackened,  and  their  augmented  volume  moves 
along  in  a  slow,  winding  course.  Only  two  of 
them, —  the  Meuse  and  the  Scheldt, —  have  a 
magnitude  which  entitles  them  to  the  name  of 
rivers;  but  so  important  are  these  two  in  them- 
selves, and  so  numerous  their  affluents,  that  no 
country  in  Europe  is  better  supplied  with  water 
communication.  Besides  the  Scheldt  or  Schelde, 
and  Meuse  or  Maas,  the  navigable  streams  are 
the  Ambleve,  Demer.  Dender,  Darme.  Dyle, 
Lys,  Great  Nettie,  Little  Nethe.  Ourthe,  Rupel, 
Sambre,  Yperlee,  and  Yser.  The  climate  of  Bel- 
gium bears  a  considerable  resemblance  to  that 
of  the  same  latitudes  in  England.  Though  sub- 
ject to  sudden  change,  it  is  on  the  whole  tem- 
perate and  agreeable.  Luxemburg  and  Namur, 
where  the  surface  is  high,  and  the  numerous 
hills  and  dales  which  diversify  it  both  cheer  the 
animal  spirits  and  freely  circulate  an  air  at  once 
keen  and  pure,  are  most  favorable  to  health  and 
longevity.  The  only  parts  of  the  country  which 
can  be  considered  unhealthy  are  the  low  flats 
which  prevail  in  Flanders,  and  the  polders  or 
rich  alluvial  tracts  which  have  been  gained  from 
the  rivers  by  embankment,  chiefly  in  Antwerp. 
There  agues  and  other  diseases  engendered  by 
a  humid  and  sluggish  atmosphere  are  prevalent. 

Woods  and  Forests. —  Nearly  one  fifth  of  the 
whole  surface  of  the  kingdom  is  occupied  by 
wood.  The  distribution  of  it,  however,  is  by 
no  means  equal ;  and  hence,  while  the  two  Flan- 
ders and  Antwerp  fall  far  below  the  average 
amount,  Luxemburg  and  Namur  rise  far  above 
it,  and  are  very  densely  wooded.  In  these  prov- 
inces extensive  tracts  are  covered  with  natural 
woods,  in  which  the  wolf  and  wild  boar  still 
have  their  haunts.  These  woods  are  the  remains 
of  the  ancient  forest  of  Ardennes,  which  Caesar 
describes  as  stretching  far  out  into  France  from 
the  banks  of  the  Rhine.  They  consist  of  hard 
wood,  principally  oak,  which  is  often  of  great 


BELGIUM 


size,  and  furnish  large  quantities  of  the  most 
valuable  timber.  By  carefully  dressing  the  stools 
after  it  is  cut,  a  fine  oak  copse  is  raised,  the 
cuttings  of  which  annually  produces  many  tons 
of  bark,  which  not  only  supplies  the  tanneries 
of  the  country,  but  leaves  a  considerable  sur- 
plus for  exportation,  chiefly  to  England,  while 
the  wood  unfit  for  the  carpenter  is  partly 
employed  as  fuel  and  partly  converted  into 
charcoal  for  the  use  of  the  iron  works,  where 
the  superiority  of  the  iron  smelted  and  wrought 
by  it  is  well  known.  South  Brabant  also  pos- 
sesses several  fine  forests,  among  others  that 
of  Soignies,  with  which  the  field  of  Waterloo 
has  made  us  familiar.  In  the  other  provinces 
scarcely  anything  deserving  the  name  of  forest 
is  seen.  Wood  is  distributed  over  them  in  occa- 
sional patches,  and  more  frequently  in  the  form 
of  hedge-row.  The  timber  thus  grown  is  by  no 
means  small  in  aggregate  amount,  and  forms 
a  well-known  feature  in  the  rich  rural  land- 
scapes which  the  old  Flemish  masters  loved  to 
paint;  but  taking  into  account  the  injury  which 
the  cultivated  crops  sustain  from  it,  it  is  very 
questionable  whether  it  ought  to  be  regarded  as 
a  source  of  profit  either  to  individual  proprietors 
or  to  the  country  at  large.  The  timber  itself, 
consisting  principally  of  various  kinds  of  pop- 
lar, is  soft  and  of  an  inferior  description. 

Agriculture. —  The  greater  part  of  the  coun- 
try is  well  adapted  for  agricultural  operations, 
and  the  inhabitants  have  so  happily  availed 
themselves  of  their  natural  advantages  that  they 
early  began,  and  in  some  respects  still  deserve, 
to  be  regarded  as  the  model  farmers  of  Europe. 
In  the  high  lands  traversed  by  the  Ardennes  the 
climate  is  ungenial,  and  the  soil  so  shallow  and 
stony  as  almost  to  forbid  the  labor  of  the  plow. 
Here  the  occupants  display  their  skill,  not  so 
much  by  what  they  do,  as  by  what  they  refrain 
from  attempting.  Instead  of  vain  endeavors  to 
force  the  growth  of  corn  where  it  could  never 
yield  an  adequate  return,  they  have  been  con- 
tented to  turn  the  natural  pastyres  of  the  dis- 
trict to  the  best  account  by  employing  themselves 
chiefly  in  the  raising  of  stock.  In  particular 
they  produce  a  hardy  breed  of  horses,  which, 
being  admirably  adapted  for  light  cavalry,  are 
largely  exported  to  France  for  that  purpose, 
while  vast  herds  of  swine  are  fed  almost  at  no 
expense  on  the  mast  of  the  forests.  At  the  same 
time  no  part  of  the  surface  is  allowed  to  lie 
waste.  Where  arable  land  occurs  it  is  carefully 
applied  to  its  proper  use.  Even  the  vine  has  not 
been  forgotten,  and  sunny  slopes  on  which  little 
else  could  have  been  grown  have  been  made 
to  yield  a  tolerable  wine.  In  the  Ardennes  val- 
leys an  inferior  quality  of  tobacco  is  raised. 

In  the  opposite  extremity  of  Belgium,  chiefly 
in  the  province  of  Antwerp,  and  partly  in  that 
of  Limburg,  an  extensive  tract  occurs  which 
strikingly  contrasts  in  appearance  with  the  hilly 
districts  of  the  southeast,  but  is  perhaps  still 
less  adapted  for  the  ordinary  operations  of  agri- 
culture. This  tract,  known  by  the  name  of 
Campine,  is  a  vast  expanse  of  moorland  waste 
of  the  most  dreary  appearance,  a  dead  monoto- 
nous flat  composed  for  the  most  part  of  barren 
sand,  in  which  the  ordinary  heaths  and  lichens 
will  scarcely  grow.  The  greater  part  of  this 
tract  seems  destined  to  remain  forever  in  its 
natural  state,  but  whenever  a  patch  of  more 
promising  appearance  occurs  the  hand  of  indus- 
try has  been  at  work,  and  corn  fields  and  green 


pastures  have  become  not  infrequent  even  in  the 
Campine.  Agricultural  colonies,  partly  free  and 
partly  compulsory,  have  been  planted  in  different 
parts  of  the  district.  The  former  consist  of 
persons  generally  in  poor  circumstances  who 
have  voluntarily  engaged  in  reclaiming  barren 
tracts  as  the  means  of  procuring  a  maintenance 
and  saving  them  from  the  degradation  of  pau- 
perism. The  latter  consist  of  convicts,  who, 
liaving  forfeited  their  liberty,  give  compulsory 
labor  as  the  penalty  of  their  offenses.  By  the 
united  exertions  of  both  a  wondrous  improve- 
ment has  been  made,  and  on  parts  of  this  waste 
some  of  the  finest  cattle  of  the  country  are 
raised,  and  much  dairy  produce  of  excellent 
quality  is  obtained.  Still,  however,  about  300,000 
acres  remain  untouched. 

With  the  exception  of  the  two  districts  just 
described,  there  is  no  part  of  Belgium  in  which 
agriculture  does  not  flourish ;  but  the  hus- 
bandry which  has  been  so  much  lauded  is  seen 
in  its  greatest  perfection  in  the  two  Flanders. 
Its  excellence  is  owing  not  to  any  superior  know- 
ledge of  what  may  be  called  the  theory  of  agri- 
culture, nor  to  any  remarkable  ingenuity  in  the 
invention  of  implements  by  which  its  opera- 
tions are  more  efficiently  or  more  cheaply  per- 
formed, but  chiefly  to  an  innate  spirit  of  econ- 
omy and  industry  —  an  economy  which  carefully 
appropriates  every  gain,  however  small,  and  an 
industry  which  grudges  no  labor,  however  great, 
provided  it  is  possible,  by  the  application  of  it, 
to  obtain  an  additional  amount  of  valuable  prod- 
uce. In  fact,  the  Flemish  husbandry  partakes 
more  of  the  nature  of  garden  than  of  field  cul- 
ture. In  many  of  its  operations,  no  doubt,  horse 
labor  is  employed.  The  plow  and  the  harrow 
are  in  frequent  requisition,  but  the  implement  on 
which  the  greatest  dependence  is  placed  is  the 
earliest  and  simplest  of  all  —  the  spade.  To  give 
full  scope  for  the  use  of  it,  the  ground  is  par- 
celed, out  into  small  fields  of  a  square  form, 
which  have  their  highest  point  in  the  centre,  and 
slope  gently  from  it  in  all  directions  toward  the 
sides,  where  ditches  of  suiificient  size  carry  off 
the  superfluous  water  as  it  filters  into  them.  To 
promote  this  filtration  the  ground  is  trenched  to 
a  uniform  depth,  so  that  the  slope  of  the  sub- 
soil corresponds  as  nearly  as  possible  to  that 
of  the  surface.  In  performing  this  trenching  a 
considerable  degree  of  skill  and  ingenuity  is 
displayed.  The  performance  of  the  whole  at 
once  would  be  a  formidable  and  not  a  very  effi- 
cient process.  In  a  few  years  a  new  subsoil 
would  be  formed,  and  the  trenching  would 
require  to  be  renewed.  This  is  rendered  un- 
necessary in  the  following  manner :  The  land  is 
laid  out  in  ridges  about  five  feet  wide,  and  when 
the  seed  is  sown  it  is  not  covered  as  usual  by 
the  harrow,  but  by  earth  dug  from  the  furrows 
to  the  depth  of  two  spits,  and  spread  evenly  over 
the  surface.  By  changing  the  ridges  and  throw- 
ing the  furrow  of  the  previous  year  into  the 
ridge  of  the  next,  the  whole  ground  becomes 
furrow  in  the  course  of  five  successive  crops, 
and  is  consequently  trenched  to  the  depth  of 
about  18  inches.  This  process  of  trenching  never 
ceases,  and  is  unquestionably  one  of  the  most 
important  characteristics  of  the  Flemish  hus- 
bandry. 

The  only  other  process  particularly  deserv- 
ing of  notice  is  the  care  and  skill  manifested  in 
securing  an  adequate  supply  of  manure.  Every 
farm  is  fully  stocked,  and  the  cattle,  instead  of 


BELGIUM 


being  grazed  in  the  fields,  are  fed  at  home,  in 
winter  on  turnips  and  other  roots,  and  in  sum- 
mer on  green  crops  carefully  arranged,  so  as  to 
come  forward  in  regular  succession,  and  yield  a 
full  supply  of  rich,  succulent  food.  In  addition 
to  this,  every  homestead  has  a  tank,  built  and 
generally  arched  with  brick,  into  which  all  the 
liquids  of  the  cattle  sheds  are  conveyed,  and 
have  their  fertilizing  properties  mcreased  by  the 
dissolution  of  large  quantities  of  rape  cake.  This 
liquid  manure  is  of  singular  efficacy  in  promot- 
ing the  growth  of  fla.x,  which  enters  regularly 
into  the  Flemish  rotation,  and  is  perhaps  the 
most  valuable  crop  of  all,  the  produce  of  an 
acre  being  not  Infrequently  sold  for  $250.  As 
this  crop  is  one  of  the  most  exhausting  which 
can  be  grown,  and  requires  the  richest  manure, 
while  it  yields  none,  the  growth  of  it  to  any 
great  extent  must,  without  the  aid  of  the  tank, 
have  been  impossible.  At  present,  in  Flanders 
alone,  the  value  of  fla.x  annually  raised  has  been 
estimated  to  amount  to  $7,500,000. 

About  two  thirds  of  the  whole  kingdom  is 
under  cultivation,  and  nearly  eight  ninths  profit- 
ably occupied,  leaving  only  about  one  ninth 
waste.  Of  this  last  the  far  greater  part  belongs 
to  the  comparatively  barren  districts  of  the 
southeast  and  northeast,  already  described ;  and 
hence,  in  the  more  favored  provinces,  particu- 
larly those  of  South  Brabant,  the  two  Flanders, 
and  Hainaut,  the  quantity  of  waste  is  so  very 
small  that  the  whole  surface  may  be  regarded 
as  one  vast  garden.  It  is  an  error,  however,  to 
assert,  as  is  sometimes  done,  that  Belgium  raises 
more  corn  than  it  consumes.  For  many  years 
the  import  has  considerably  exceeded  the  export. 
Considerable  attention  has  been  paid  in  Belgium 
to  the  raising  of  stock,  and  the  breeds  both  of 
cattle  and  horses  are  of  a  superior  description. 
The  horses  of  Flanders  in  particular  are  admira- 
blj'  adapted  for  draught,  and  an  infusion  of 
their  blood  has  contributed  not  a  little  to  form 
the  magnificent  teams  of  the  London  draymen. 
In  general,  however,  Belgium  stock  of  all  kinds 
is  inferior  to  that  of  England. 

Mines. —  The  mineral  riches  of  Belgium  are 
great,  and,  after  agriculture,  form  the  most 
important  of  her  national  interests.  They  are 
almost  entirely  confined  to  the  four  provinces  of 
Hainaut,  Liege,  Namur.  and  Luxemburg,  and 
consist  of  lead,  manganese,  calamine  or  zinc, 
iron,  and  coal.  The  lead  is  wrought  to  some 
extent  at  Vedrin,  in  Liege ;  but  the  quantity 
obtained  forms  only  a  small  part  of  the  actual 
consumption.  Manganese,  well  known  for  its 
important  bleaching  properties,  is  obtained  both 
in  Liege  and  Namur.  The  principal  field  of 
calamine  is  at  Liege,  where  it  is  worked  to  an 
extent  which  not  only  supplies  the  home  demand, 
but  leaves  a  large  surplus  for  export.  All  these 
minerals,  however,  are  insignificant  compared 
with  those  of  iron  and  coal.  The  former  has 
its  seat  in  the  country  between  the  Sambre  and 
the  Meuse,  and  also  in  the  province  of  Liege. 
At  present  the  largest  quantity  of  ore  is  mined 
in  that  of  Namur.  The  coal  field,  already 
described,  has  an  area  of  above  500  square 
miles.  The  export  is  about  5,000,000  tons,  form- 
ing one  of  the  largest  and  most  valuable  of  all 
the  Belgian  exports.  Nearly  the  whole  of  the 
coal  thus  exported  is  taken  by  France.  There 
cannot  be  a  doubt  that  this  export  adds  largely 
to  the  national  wealth ;  but  a  question  has  been 
raised  as  to  the  policy  of  thus  lavishly  dispos- 


ing of  a  raw  material  which  is  absolutely  essen- 
tial to  the  existence  of  a  manufacturing  com- 
munity, and  the  quantity  of  which,  though 
great,  is  by  no  means  inexhaustible.  One  obvi- 
ous effect  of  the  great  foreign  demand  is  to 
raise  the  price,  and  thus  place  some  of  the  most 
important  manufacturing  interests  of  the  coun- 
try in  an  unfavorable  position  for  competing  suc- 
cessfully with  so  formidable  a  rival  as  Great 
Britain.  Besides  minerals,  properly  so  called, 
Belgium  is  abundantly  supplied  with  building 
stone,  pavement,  limestone,  roofing  slate,  and 
marble.  Of  the  last,  the  black  marble  of  Dinant 
is  the  most  celebrated.  In  1899  the  products 
of  1,601  quarries  were  valued  at  $11,100,000;  of 
the  iron  mines,  $200,000 ;  of  220  coal  mines 
(22,072,000  tons),  $54,900,000. 

Manufactures. —  'ihe  industrial  products  of 
Belgium  are  very  numerous,  and  the  superiority 
of  many  of  them  to  those  of  most  other  coun- 
tries is  confessed.  The  fine  linens  of  Flanders, 
and  lace  of  South  Brabant,  are  of  European 
reputation.  Scarcely  less  celebrated  are  the  car- 
pets and  porcelain  of  Tournay,  the  cloth  of 
Verviers,  the  extensive  foundries,  machine 
works,  and  other  iron  and  steel  establishments 
of  Liege,  Seraing,  and  other  places.  The  cot- 
ton and  woolen  manufactures,  confined  chiefly  to 
Flanders  and  the  province  of  Antwerp,  have 
advanced  greatly.  Other  manufactures  include 
silks,  glass  and  glassware,  hosiery,  paper,  beet 
sugar,  beer.  There  were  17  pig  iron  works  in 
operation  in  1899;  46  iron  manufactories;  15 
steel  works ;  123  sugar  factories,  and  25  refiner- 
ies ;  and  240  distilleries. 

Trade  and  Commerce. —  The  geographical 
positi(jn,  the  admirable  facilities  of  transport, 
and  the  indefatigable  industry  of  the  inhabitants, 
early  combined  to  place  Belgium  at  the  very 
head  of  the  trading  countries  of  Europe.  The 
gradual  rise  of  competitors  still  more  highly 
favored  has  deprived  her  of  this  pre-eminence, 
and  with  the  limited  extent  of  her  seacoast  it  is 
not  to  be  expected  that  she  can  ever  take  high 
rank  as  a  naval  state;  but  her  trade  is  still  of 
great  importance,  and  within  recent  years  has 
made  a  rapid  advance.  Her  coal  and  iron,  and 
the  numerous  products  of  her  manufactures,  fur- 
nish in  themselves  the  materials  of  extensive 
traffic;  while  the  possession  of  one  of  the  best 
harbors  in  the  world  (Antwerp),  situated  on  a 
magnificent  river,  which  directly,  or  by  canals, 
stretches  its  arms  into  every  part  of  the  king- 
dom, and  now  made  accessible  by  a  system  of 
railways  with  every  kingdom  of  central  Europe, 
naturally  renders  Belgium  the  seat  of  a  transit 
trade  even  more  important  than  that  which  it 
monopolized  during  the  Middle  Ages.  This  she 
owes  chiefly  to  the  admirable  system  of  rail- 
way communication  which,  in  the  exercise  of 
an  enlightened  policy,  was  early  established 
throughout  the  kingdom.  This  system  has  its 
centre  at  Malines,  from  which  a  line  proceeds 
north  to  Antwerp ;  another  west  to  Ostend ; 
another  southwest  through  IVIons,  and  on  to  the 
Northern  R.R.  of  France,  which  communicates 
directly  with  Paris,  and  another  southeast  to 
Liege,  and  on  into  Prussia,  where  it  first  com- 
municates with  the  Rhine  at  Cologne,  and 
thence  by  that  river  and  by  rail  gains  access 
both  east  and  south  to  all  the  countries  of  cen- 
tral Europe.  In  addition  to  these  great  trunks, 
one  important  branch  connects  Liege  with 
Namur  :\nd  Mons ;  and  another  from  Antwerp, 


BELGIUM 


after  crossing  the  west  trunk  at  Ghent,  passes 
Courtray,  and  proceeds  directly  toward  Lille. 
The  ramification  is  thus  complete ;  and  there 
is  not  a  town  in  Belgium  of  any  importance 
which  may  not  now,  with  the  utmost  facility, 
convey  the  products  of  its  industry  by  the  safest 
and  speediest  of  all  means  of  transport.  The 
railways  have  a  length  of  about  2,goo  miles, 
three  fourths  belonging  to  the  state.  The  value 
of  the  general  commerce  in  1900  was :  Imports, 
$718,885,000,  and  exports,  $659,501,950;  imports 
for  home  consumption,  $443,140,000;  exports  of 
Belgian  produce  and  manufactures,  $384,580,000; 
transit  trade,  $274,920,000. 

The  articles  of  import  for  home  consump- 
tion include  grain  and  flour,  raw  cotton,  wool, 
hides,  coffee,  tobacco,  chemicals,  oil-seeds,  yarn, 
timber,  petroleum,  etc.  The  exports  are  princi- 
pally coal,  yarn  (chiefly  linen  and  woolen),  cere- 
als, machinery,  flax,  woolens  and  cottons,  chemi- 
cals, steel  and  iron,  glass  and  glassware,  sugar 
(raw  and  refined),  zinc,  manure,  eggs,  etc.  The 
trade  with  Great  Britain  has  grown  considerably 
of  late  years ;  for  while  in  1869  the  exports  to 
Great  Britain  amounted  to  $46,957,015,  and  the 
imports  of  British  produce  from  Great  Britain 
to  $20,017,675,  these  were  in  1898  respectively 
$107,670,000  and  $69,254,500.  The  chief  exports 
to  Great  Britain  are  silks,  woolen  3^arn,  cottons, 
flax,  glass,  eggs ;  the  chief  imports  cottons, 
woolens,  raw  cotton,  metals,  and  machinery. 
The  trade  with  France  is  even  greater  than 
with  Great  Britain.  The  external  trade  is 
chiefly  carried  on  by  means  of  foreign  (Brit-ish) 
vessels,  and  the  great  bulk  of  the  shipping 
enters  and  clears  from  the  port  of  Antwerp.  Of 
the  tonnage  entered  in  1896  only  about  seven 
per  cent  belonged  to  the  Belgian  flag.  The  total 
burden  of  the  Belgian  mercantile  marine  is  over 
113,250  tons.  Important  results  are  expected 
from  the  Association  Belgo-Hollandaise,  an  in- 
ternational association  of  Belgian  and  Dutch 
manufacturers  and  business  men  founded  in 
1903  to  effect  a  closer  commercial  union  between 
the  two  countries.  The  trade  with  the  United 
States  is  important,  Belgium  being  classed  as 
fifth  in  the  value  of  its  imports  from  this  coun- 
try and  seventh  in  the  exports  it  sends  hither. 

People. —  The  Belgian  population  is  the 
densest  in  Europe,  and  is  composed  of  two  dis- 
tinct races  —  Flemish,  who  are  of  German,  and 
Walloons,  who  are  of  French  extraction.  The 
former,  by  far  the  more  numerous,  have  their 
principal  locality  in  Flanders;  but  also  prevail 
throughout  Antwerp,  Limburg,  and  part  of 
South  Brabant.  The  latter  are  found  chiefly  in 
Uainaut,  Liege,  Namur,  and  part  of  Luxemburg. 
The  language  of  each  corresponds  with  their  ori- 
gin —  the  Flemings  speaking  a  Germanic  dialect, 
and  the  Walloons  a  dialect,  or  rather  a  corrup- 
tion, of  French,  with  a  considerable  infusion  of 
words  and  phrases  from  Spanish  and  other 
languages.  This  distinct  mixture  of  races,  and 
the  repeated  changes  of  masters  to  which  they 
have  been  subjected,  have  necessarily  been  very 
unfavorable  to  the  formation  of  a  national  char- 
acter. Still,  in  some  leading  features  there  is  a 
remarkable  uniformity  in  the  population. 
Though  the  position  of  the  country  between 
.France  and  Germany  has  made  it  the  battle- 
field of  Europe,  the  inhabitants  show  few 
warlike  tendencies,  and  are  unwearied  in 
pursuing     arts     of     peace.       The     fact     bears 


strong  testimony  to  the  patient  endurance  of  the 
Belgians,  but  bespeaks,  perhaps,  a  deficienc}^  of 
physical    and   moral    courage. 

Almost  the  entire  population  belong  to  the 
Roman  Catholic  Church.  Protestantism  is  fully 
tolerated,  and  even  salaried  by  the  state,  but 
cannot  count  above  a  mere  fraction  (some 
10,000)  of  the  population  among  its  adherents. 
An  interesting  circumstance  connected  with  this 
state  of  matters  is,  that  Belgium  early  embraced, 
and  at  one  time  seemed  on  the  eve  of  being 
gained  to  the  Reformation.  Persecution  did 
what  perhaps  it  has  never  done  in  any  other 
part  of  the  world  —  not  only  forced  the  people 
back  to  a  religion  which  they  had  given  up,  but 
induced  them  to  return  to  it  as  willing  con- 
verts. The  country  is  divided  into  six  dioceses, 
each  of  which  possesses  an  ecclesiastical  semi- 
nary. Monks  and  nuns  are  numerous,  especially 
the  latter  (over  25,000).  Education  is  in  a  very 
unsatisfactory  state.  At  the  census  of  1890 
nearly  27  per  cent  of  the  population  above  15 
years  of  age  could  neither  read  nor  write.  By 
law  each  commune  must  have  an  elementary 
school,  and  the  expense  of  primary  instruction 
falls  partly  upon  the  communes,  partly  upon 
the  state.  In  all  the  towns  colleges  and  middle- 
class  schools  have  been  established,  where  a 
superior  education  may  be  obtained ;  while  a 
complete  course  for  the  learned  professions  is 
provided  by  four  universities,  two  of  them,  at 
Ghent  and  Liege  respectively,  established  and 
supported  by  the  state;  one  at  Brussels,  called 
the  Free  University,  foimded  by  voluntary  asso- 
ciation ;  and  one  at  Louvain.  called  the  Catholic 
University,  controlled  by  the  clergy.  French 
is  the  official  language  of  Belgium  and  in  gen- 
eral use  among  the  educated  classes,  and  there 
can  scarcely  be  said  to  be  a  national  literature. 
Of  late,  however,  patriotic  feelings,  to  which  the 
Belgians  were  too  long  strangers,  have  acquired 
new  strength;  and  one  of  its  first  manifesta- 
tions has  been  an  eager  desire  to  cultivate  the 
vernacular  Flemish,  which  differs  little  from 
Dutch. 

.  The  population  generally  is  moral,  and 
apparentl}'  in  comfortable  circumstances.  The 
far  larger  proportion  of  it  is  rural ;  and  though 
landed  property  is  ve'ry  much  subdivided,  the 
Belgians,  instead  of  exhibiting  the  wretchedness 
so  common  among  the  small  occupiers  in  Ire- 
land, manage,  by  a  happy  combination  of  agri- 
cultural with  other  industrial  employments,  to 
derive  from  their  little  holdings  all  the  neces- 
saries and  not  a  few  of  the  comforts  of  life.  It 
is  not  to  be  denied,  however,  that  in  some  of 
the  provinces,  particularly  in  Flanders,  popula- 
tion, in  so  far  at  least  as  it  can  be  maintained 
by  agricultural  resources,  has  reached  its  limit, 
and  that  a  deficiency  of  other  employment,  par- 
ticularly spinning  and  hand-loom  weaving,  has 
placed  large  numbers  on,  if  not  within,  the 
verge  of  pauperism.  In  Flanders  and  South 
Brabant  a  fourth  of  the  people  is  dependent  on 
total  or  occasional  relief ;  and  pauper  riots  have 
repeatedly  occurred.  Still  the  population  con- 
tinues to  move  on,  as  if  with  accelerated  pace. 

Government. —  The  Belgian  constitution  com- 
bines monarchical  with  a  strong  infusion  of  the 
democratic  principle.  The  executive  power  is 
vested  in  a  hereditary  king ;  the  legislative  in  the 
king  and  two  chambers, —  the  Senate  and  the 
Chamber  of  Representatives, —  the  former  elected 
for  eight  years,  the  latter  for  four,  but  one  half 


BELGIUM 


of  the  former  renewable  every  four  years,  and 
one  half  of  the  latter  every  two  years.  The 
senators  are  elected  partly  directly,  partly  indi- 
rectly (by  the  provincial  councils),  and  must  be 
40  j-^ears  of  age.  Their  numbers  depend  on  pop- 
ulation. The  deputies  or  representatives  are 
elected  directlj^  one  for  every  40,000  inhabitants 
at  most.  All  citizens  of  25  years  of  age  are 
electors,  and  according  to  certain  qualifications 
one  elector  may  have  three  votes.  Each  deputj^ 
is  allowed  $800  per  annum,  and  a  free  railway 
pass  between  his  place  of  residence  and  the 
capital.  The  army  is  raised  by  conscriptioi\,  to 
which  every  able  man  who  has  completed  his 
19th  year  is  liable,  and  also  by  voluntary  enlist- 
ment. The  peace  strength  of  the  army  in  1899 
amounted  to  51.270  officers  and  men;  in  time 
of  war  the  total  strength  is  about  140,000  men. 
Besides  this  standing  army  there  is  a  garde 
civique,  numbering  about  43,000  men  in  time  of 
peace,  in  addition  to  which  there  are  90,000  non- 
active  men  belonging  to  this  force.  The  navy 
is  confined  to  a  few  steamers  and  a  small  flotilla 
of  gunboats.  The  estimated  revenue  for  1902, 
chiefly  from  railways,  customs,  excise,  and  direct 
taxation,  was  $97,808,000;  the  estimated  expend- 
iture, $97,668,880.  About  one  fourth  of  the 
expenditure  is  in  payment  of  the  interest  of  the 
national  debt,  the  total  of  which  in  1901  was 
$530,179,630.  The  coins,  weights,  and  measures 
are  the  same,  both  in  name  and  value,  as  those 
of  France. 

History. —  The  history  of  Belgium  as  a  sepa- 
rate kingdom,  beginning  in  1830,  when  it  was 
constituted  an  independent  European  state, 
would  not  truly  represent  the  life  of  the  people, 
or  account  even  for  the  events  of  the  period 
embraced  in  it.  Situated  between  the  two  lead- 
ing states  of  Europe,  and  deeply  interested  in 
all  the  political  agitations  resulting  alike  from 
their  rivalries  and  their  alliances,  the  Belgian 
people  often  changed  masters.  Moreover,  the 
Belgian  territory  contained  within  itself  one 
leading  element  of  the  dissensions  which  raged 
around  it.  The  two  great  races  of  diff'erent 
origin  and  habits,  the  Celtic  and  Teutonic,  or 
Latin  and  German-speaking  peoples,  whose  dif- 
ferent policies  have  divided  Europe  from  the 
time  of  the  Romans,  were  combined  in  its  popu- 
lation, the  Walloon  provinces,  Hainaut,  Namur, 
Luxemburg,  being  nearly  allied  to  the  French, 
while  Flanders,  Brabant,  and  Limburg  approxi- 
mated more  in  character  and  language  to  the 
Germans.  Thus  not  only  were  the  great  rivalries 
of  Europe  represented  here  in  miniature,  but 
their  compression  within  the  narrow  limits  of 
what  is  now  one  of  the  smallest  of  European 
states,  has  resulted  in  the  formation  of  a  dis- 
tinct national  character.  While,  therefore,  the 
chief  events  in  which  Belgium  was  interested 
prior  to  1830  are  matters  of  European  history, 
a  brief  outline  of  them  is  needed  here  to  give 
a  distinct  conception  of  the  character  of  the 
people  which   they  contributed   to   form. 

The  territory  anciently  known  as  Belgian 
differed  considerablj^  from  that  which  has 
assumed  the  name  in  modern  times.  Accord- 
ing to  Caesar  the  territory  of  the  Belgje,  who 
were  one  of  the  principal  tribes  of  ancient  Gaul, 
extended  from  the  right  bank  of  the  Seine  to 
the  left  bank  of  the  Rhine,  and  to  the  ocean. 
This  district  continued  under  Roman  sway  till  the 
decline  of  the  empire,  and  subsequently  formed 
part  of  the  kingdom   of  Oovis,  who   subdued 


nearly  the  whole  of  Gaul  from  the  Rhine  to  the 
Mediterranean.  The  Franks  at  this  time  did 
not  recognize  the  law  of  primogeniture.  On 
the  death  of  a  monarch  his  dominions  were 
divided  among  his  sons,  the  more  ambitious  of 
whom  again  strove  to  reunite  them  under  their 
own  sway.  Thus  the  Frankish  kingdoms  under 
the  descendants  of  Clovis  were  subject  to  con- 
tinual vicissitudes,  in  which  the  Belgian  terri- 
torj^  shared,  forming  successively  a  portion  of 
the  kingdoms  of  Metz,  Soissons.  and  Austrasia, 
till  the  whole  was  reunited  under  Charlemagne 
or  Charles  the  Great.  This  great  conqueror  and 
administrator,  the  first  who  strove  to  unite  the 
states  of  Europe  in  a  civilized  commonwealth, 
was  of  Belgian  extraction.  It  was  at  Landen 
and  Herstal,  on  the  confines  of  the  forest  of 
Ardennes,  that  his  predecessors,  the  great  may- 
ors of  the  palace,  held  sway,  while  his  own 
capital  was  established  at  Aix.  Charlemagne 
in  great  measure  destroyed  his  own  work  by 
adopting  the  Frankish  custom  of  dividing  his 
kingdom  among  his  sons  at  his  death.  This 
practice,  which  had  proved  so  disastrous  to  the 
djmasty  of  Clovis,  was  continued  for  some  time 
in  his  family,  but  was  ultimately  abolished  in 
France.  It  long  prevailed  among  the  principalities 
of  Germany,  hindering  their  unity,  and  con- 
tributing to  the  ascendency  of  France  in  Europe. 
Thus  Belgium  fell  to  Lothaire,  the  grandson 
of  Charlemagne,  forming  part  of  the  kingdom  of 
Lotharingia,  which  was  dependent  on  the  Ger- 
man empire;  but  by  the  treaty  of  Verdun  (843) 
Artois  and  Flanders  were  united  to  France. 

For  more  than  a  centurj-  this  kingdom  was 
contended  for  by  the  kings  of  France  and  the 
emperors  of  Germany.  In  953  it  was  conferred 
by  the  Emperor  Otto  upon  Bruno,  Archbishop 
of  Cologne,  who  assumed  the  title  of  archduke, 
and  divided  it  into  two  duchies :  Upper  Lorraine, 
containing  modern  Lorraine,  Lu.xemburg,  and 
the  dioceses  of  Metz,  Toul,  Verdun,  and  the 
Palatinate ;  and  Lower  Lorraine,  containing  Bra- 
bant, Guelders,  the  bishoprics  of  Cologne,  Liege, 
and  Cambray.  These  duchies  were  temporarily 
reunited  under  Gonthelan  I.,  Duke  of  Lower 
Lorraine,  who  acquired  Upper  Lorraine  in  1033. 
Among  the  dukes  of  Lower  Lorraine  may  also 
be  mentioned  Godfrey  of  Bouillon,  the  great 
Crusade  leader,  who,  in  1099,  was  crowned  king 
of  Jerusalem. 

The  feudal  sj-stem,  which  had  established 
itself  over  the  greater  part  of  Europe,  likewise 
prevailed  in  the  Belgian  territory,  which  in  the 
nth  centiu-y  was  divided  into  duchies,  counties, 
and  marquisates,  under  the  sway  of  chiefs 
owing  allegiance  to'  the  empire,  or  other  of  the 
greater  princes,  but  exercising  an  almost  abso- 
lute dominion  over  their  own  subjects.  Thus 
were  formed  the  counties  of  Holland,  Brabant, 
Zealand,  Friesland,  Namur,  Hainaut ;  the  duchies 
of  Limburg,  Guelders,  Juliers,  Luxemburg;  the 
marquisate  of  Antwerp,  and  others.  In  the 
frequent  struggles  which  took  place  during  this 
period,  Luxemburg,  Namur,  Hainaut,  and  Liege 
were  usually  found  siding  with  France,  while 
Brabant,  Holland,  and  Flanders  commonly  took 
the  side  of  Germany.  The  princes  and  the  peo- 
ple, however,  particularlj^  of  Flanders,  were  not 
always  found  on  the  same  side. 

The  I2th  and  13th  centuries  were  distin- 
guished by  a  general  uprising  of  the  industrial 
communities,  which  had  begun  to  grow  in 
importance    throughout     Europe,     against     the 


BELGIUM 


feudal  system.  This  movement  was  very  strongly 
manifested  throughout  the  Netherlands,  less 
strongly  perhaps  in  Belgium  than  in  Holland. 
In  both  countries  prosperous  municipalities 
began  to  arise  and  assert  their  freedom ;  but  the 
spirit  of  centralization,  more  strongly  developed 
among  the  Latin-speaking  races,  prevailed  more 
in  the  southern  provinces,  while  the  love  of 
individual  liberty,  more  characteristic  of  the 
German  races,  was  more  strongly  manifested  in 
the  north.  Many  of  the  towns  of  Flanders  and 
Brabant,  however,  became  extremely  democratic. 
Ghent  in  particular  distinguished  itself  for  the 
violence  and  frequency  of  its  revolts  against  its 
rulers. 

From  this  time  the  popular  and  civic  element 
began  to  count  for  something  in- political  com- 
binations. If  one  potentate  secured  the  alliance 
of  a  count,  another  might  strengthen  himself 
by  secretly  encouraging  insurrection  in  his 
towns.  The  people  of  Flanders  often  allied 
themselves  with  the  English,  with  whom  their 
commercial  intercourse  and  their  love  of  free- 
dom gave  them  man}'  common  interests  and 
feelings,  and  both  their  own  counts  and  the 
French  monarchy  often  felt  the  effects  of  this 
alliance. 

The  battle  of  Courtray  in  1302  greatly  weak- 
ened the  feudal  authority,  but  the  ascendency 
of  the  popular  element  led  to  various  excesses. 
The  organization  of  popular  power  was  reserved 
for  a  later  age,  and  the  battle  of  Rosebeque, 
1382,  in  which  the  Ghentese  under  Philip  van 
Artevelde  (who  had  offered  the  crown  of 
France  to  Richard  II.  of  England  as  the  price 
of  his  assistance)  were  totally  defeated,  restored 
the  authority  of  the  nobles.  In.  1,384,  Flanders 
and  Artois  fell  to  the  house  of  Burgundy  by 
the  marriage  of  the  Duke,  a  scion  of  the  French 
crown,  with  Margaret,  daughter  of  Louis  II., 
Count  of  Nevers,  the  last  ruler  of  these  prov- 
inces. By  a  succession  of  happy  marriages,  by 
purchase,  or  by  force,  Holland,  Zealand,  Hain- 
aut,  Brabant,  Limburg,  Antwerp,  and  Namur 
had  all  by  1430  become  the  inheritance  of  the 
same  house.  In  1442  the  duchy  of  Luxemburg 
was  acquired,  and  in  1470  Guelders  and  Fries- 
land.  This  extraordinary  prosperity  induced 
Charles  the  Bold,  who  succeeded  in  1467,  to 
attempt  to  unite  his  territories  by  the  conquest 
of  Alsace,  Lorraine,  and  Liege,  and  raise  his 
duchy  to  a  kingdom.  The  details  of  this  enter- 
prise, which  forms  one  of  the  most  exciting  epi- 
sodes in  European  history,  belong  more  imme- 
diately to  the  history  of  France.  It  ended  in 
his  defeat  and  death  at  the  battle  of  Nancy  in 
1477.  His  daughter,  Mary,  who  succeeded  him, 
carried  the  fortunes  of  her  house  still  higher,  or 
rather  she  carried  them  into  a  house  still  more 
fortunate  than  her  own,  by  her  union  with  the 
Archduke  Maximilian,  son  of  the  Emperor 
Frederick.  Her  splendid  possessions  had  been 
coveted  by  many  potentates,  and  there  were  five 
candidates  for  her  hand,  among  whom  the  most 
important  were  the  dauphin,  son  of  Louis  XL, 
and   the  archduke. 

It  now  became  the  part  of  France  to  excite 
troubles  in  Flanders.  The  policy  of  Maximilian, 
conformably  to  the  traditions  of  the  house  of 
Austria,  was  directed  to  the  aggrandizement  of 
his  house.  He  was  frequently  at  feud  with  his 
Netherlandish  subjects,  whose  manners  he  took 
little  pains  to  understand,  and  for  whose  liber- 
ties he   had  little   respect.     Wars   and   leagues 


succeeded  each  other,  which  belong  to  the  his- 
torj'  of  the  great  states  of  Europe.  The  Nether- 
lands were  by  this  union  again  brought  under 
the  German  empire,  and  especially  under  the 
house  of  Austria,  destined  soon  to  become  the 
most  powerful  in  Europe.  In  1512  they  were 
formed  into  a  division  of  the  empire,  under  the 
title  of  the  circle  of  Burgundy.  East  Friesland 
was  included  in  the  circle  of  Westphalia.  On 
being  called  to  the  empire,  Maximilian  con- 
ferred the  government  of  the  Netherlands  on  his 
son,  Philip  the  Fair,  under  whom  they  began  to 
experience  the  material  advantages  of  an  alli- 
ance with  the  house  of  Austria.  The  vast  Euro- 
pean possessions  of  this  house  opened  up  to  its 
subjects  the  greatest  facilities  of  the  age  for 
commercial  intercourse,  while  the  discovery  of 
America  gave  them  in  addition  the  commerce  of 
a  new  world.  The  industrial  skill  and  enter- 
prise of  the  Netherlanders  fitted  them  much 
more  than  the  Spaniards,  whose  haughty  dis- 
position made  them  apt  to  substitute  rapacity  for 
industry,  to  derive  permanent  benefit  from  these 
opportunities.  Margaret,  the  aunt,  and  Mary, 
the  sister  of  Charles  V.,  who  succeeded  to  the 
government  of  the  Low  Countries,  exercised  it 
in  many  respects  wisely  and  well.  The  former, 
a  patroness  of  arts  and  letters,  kept  her  court 
surrounded  with  poets,  artists,  and  men  of 
learning.  A  Council  of  State,  consisting  of  the 
governors  or  stadtholders  of  the  17  provinces, 
assisted  them  in  the  administration  of  affairs, 
and  such  was  the  prosperity  of  the  country  that 
more  than  one  of  the  cities  of  the  Netherlands 
rivaled  in  extent  and  opulence  the  capitals  of 
the  greatest  European  kingdoms.  This  bright 
day  was  too  soon  clouded.  The  reign  of  Charles 
V.  is  less  distinguished  for  the  political  strug- 
gles excited  by  a  too  prosperous  ambition,  which 
shook  nearly  every  nation  of  Europe,  than  for 
the  religious  dissensions,  and  the  social  troubles 
resulting  from  them,  which  attended  the  dawn 
of  the  Reformation.  The  reformed  opinions 
made  great  progress  in  the  Netherlands :  but 
here  again  a  remarkable  illustration  was  afforded 
of  the  strength  of  those  differences  of  race, 
language,  and  sentiment  which  divided  their 
populations.  In  Holland,  as  in  Germany,  the 
Reformation  triumphed.  On  the  Belgian  terri- 
tory, especially  where  the  Walloon  or  French 
element  of  the  population  prevailed,  although 
these  opinions  spread  widely,  they  yielded  at 
length,  as  in  France,  to  the  force  of  authority, 
or  the  sentiment  of  unity.  In  1535  Mary  pub- 
lished at  Brussels  an  edict  condemning  all  here- 
tics to  death.  An  insurrection  excited  by  perse- 
cution was  suppressed  by  Charles  V.  in  1540, 
and  the  Netherlands  were  inseparably  united  by 
the  law  of  primogeniture  with  the  crown  of 
Spain.  No  union  could  have  been  more  unfor- 
tunate. The  bigotry  of  the  Spanish  branch  of 
the  Austrian  family  has  become  proverbial,  and 
a  country  torn  with  religious  dissensions  could 
not  have  found  itself  under  a  worse  rule. 

Charles  V.,  himself  a  Netherlander,  born  in 
Ghent,  and  still  more  his  son,  Philip  II.,  of 
Spain,  strove  to  extinguish  tlie  reformed  opin- 
ions among  the  Netherland  subjects  in  seas  of 
blood.  Philip  discarded  all  respect  for  the  liber- 
ties of  the  Netherlands,  and  subjected  them 
under  his  governors,  particularly  the  Duke  of 
Alva,  to  all  the  horrors  of  a  hostile  military 
rule.  Thousands  of  victims  perished  by  every 
variety  of  execution  which  a  barbarous  cruelty 


BELGIUM 


:COuld  devise,  hanging,  beheading,  burning, 
drowning,  interring  alive ;  to  which  tortures  and 
imprisonments  were  added  in  still  greater  num- 
ber. During  this  period  of  desolation,  great 
numbers  of  artisans,  abandoning  their  country, 
carried  elsewhere,  especially  to  England  and 
Germany,  which  sympathized  with  their  opin- 
ions, the  arts  which  had  enriched  their  own 
country,  and  which  now  acquired  through  them 
a  wider  scope,  and  contributed  to  the  industrial 
progress  of  Europe.  William  of  Orange,  the 
Silent,  now  made  himself  the  champion  of  the 
liberties  of  his  country.  Supported  chiefly  by 
the  northern  states,  thwarted  by  the  jealousy  of 
the  Flemish  nobles,  and  opposed  by  the  Walloon 
provinces,  which  remained  faithful  to  Spain,  and 
even  supplied  her  with  troops,  he  at  length  suc- 
ceeded in  freeing  the  seven  northern  states,  and 
forming  them  into  the  confederation  of  the 
United  Provinces,  whose  independence,  declared 
in  1 581,  was  ultimately  acknowledged  by  Spain. 
These  events  belonged  chiefly  to  the  history  of 
Holland. 

Requesens,  the  successor  of  Alva,  had  tried 
too  late  a  more  humane  policj'.  At  Antwerp  and 
Ghent  the  Spanish  soldiers  broke  out  into 
excesses.  The  confederates  assembled  in  the 
latter  town  signed  the  pacification  of  Ghent,  pro- 
claiming liberty  of  conscience,  and  convoking 
the  Estates-General.  The  Estates  called  in  the 
aid  of  France,  and  offered  the  crown  to  Henry 
HI.,  who  declined  to  accept  it,  dreading  the 
Roman  Catholic  league  in  his  own  country.  It 
is  a  special  feature  of  the  history  of  those  daj'S, 
that  while  the  great  rulers,  particularly  those  of 
France  and  Germany,  persecuted  their  reformed 
subjects,  each  was  ready  to  protect  the  Protes- 
tant subjects  of  the  others  when  opposed  to  their 
political  policy.  The  success  of  the  revolution- 
ary party,  consummated  in  the  north,  was  at 
length  checked  in  the  southern  provinces  bj'  the 
ability  of  Alexander  Fames,  Duke  of  Parma, 
the  Spanish  commander,  and  by  the  reactionary 
spirit  evoked  in  the  provinces  themselves, 
strengthened  by  the  emigration  of  many  influen- 
tial reformers  to  the  northern  states,  and  the 
Belgian  Netherlands  remained  attached  to  Spain. 
From  1596  to  1633  the  Spanish  Netherlands  were 
transferred  to  the  Austrian  branch  of  the  family 
by  the  marriage  of  Isabella,  daughter  of  Philip 
II.,  with  the  Archduke  Albert  of  Austria.  On 
the  death  of  Isabella  they  reverted  to  Spain. 
By  the  Treaty  of  Rastadt  in  1714  they  were 
again  placed  under  the  dominion  of  Austria. 
During  this  period  they  were  the  subject  of  con- 
tinual intrigues,  and  frequently  of  open  warfare 
among  the  European  states.  Twice  conquered 
Ijy  Louis  XIV.,  conquered  again  by  Marlbor- 
ough, coveted  by  Holland,  Spain,  Germany, 
France,  and  England,  they  lay  continually  open 
to  the  invasions  and  the  struggles  of  foreign 
armies,  and  it  was  at  this  period  especially  that 
they  were,  as  they  have  been  called,  the  battle- 
field of  Europe.  Some  portions  of  maritime 
Flanders,  Brabant,  and  Limburg,  which  had 
remained  to  Spain,  were  during  this  period  con- 
quered and  annexed  by  Holland,  while  France 
acquired  Artois  and  Walloon  Flanders,  the 
south  of  Hainaut,  and  part  of  Namur  and  Lux- 
emburg, including  the  important  towns  of  Douai, 
Lille,  Valenciennes,  Dunkirk,  and  many  others. 
From  1714  Austria  was  left  in  undisturbed  pos- 
;session  of  the  remainder  of  the  southern  Nether- 
lands.     Joseph    II.,    styled    the    Philosophical 


Emperor,  excited  by  his  reforms  a  revolt,  headed 
or  stimulated  by  the  monks  of  Flanders  and 
Brabant,  whom  he  had  dispossessed  of  their 
convents.  The  Estates  of  the  two  provinces 
refused  to  vote  the  imposts,  and  were  dissolved. 
The  populace  took  to  arms.  The  Virgin  was 
proclaimed  generalissimo  of  the  patriot  army. 
The  Austrian  army  concentrated  at  Turnhout 
was  totally  defeated.  After  applying  in  vain  for 
assistance  to  Holland  and  France,  neither  of 
which  could  be  expected  to  have  much  sympathy 
with  their  movement,  the  insurgents  were  at 
length  subdued,  and  the  Austrians  re-entered 
Brussels,  October  1790.  Soon  after  the  whole 
Netherlands  were  conquered  by  the  revolutionary 
armies  of  France,  and  the  country  was  divided 
into  French  departments,  a  change  which,  as 
might  be  expected,  provoked  as  much  resistance 
as  the  people  were  able  to  offer.  When  Napoleon 
ruled  France,  his  brother  Louis  became  king  of 
Holland. 

Just  before  the  battle  of  Waterloo,  fought  on 
Belgian  territory,  had  once  more  changed  the 
fate  of  Europe,  Belgium  was  united  by  the  Con- 
gress of  Vienna  to  Holland,  under  the  title  of 
the  kingdom  of  the  Netherlands.  This  fusion 
had  much  to  recommend  it.  The  ports  and 
colonies  of  the  north  formed  a  suitable  comple- 
ment to  the  arts  and  industry  of  the  south.  The 
Flemings  and  the  Dutch  spoke  the  same  lan- 
guage and  had  the  same  origin ;  but  there 
remained  outside  of  this  harmony  the  W^alloon 
provinces,  French  in  language  and  extraction. 
A  most  injudicious  measure  of  the  Dutch  gov- 
ernment, an  attempt  to  assimilate  the  language 
of  the  provinces  by  prohibiting  the  use  of 
French  in  the  courts  of  justice,  excited  an  oppo- 
sition, which,  encouraged,  by  the  success  of  the 
French  revolution  of  1830,  broke  out  into  revolt. 
The  electoral  system,  moreover,  gave  the  pre- 
ponderance to  the  northern  provinces,  though 
inferior  in  population,  and  the  interests  of  the 
provinces  were  diametrically  opposed  in  mat- 
ters of  taxation.  Belgium  was  agricultural  and 
manufacturing,  Holland  commercial ;  the  one 
wished  to  ta.x  imports  and  exports,  the  other 
property  and  industry.  In  the  chambers  three 
different  languages  were  spoken,  Dutch,  Ger- 
man, and  French ;  and  the  members  frequently 
did  not  understand  each  other.  Nothing  but  the 
most  skilful  government  could  have  overcome 
these  difficulties,  and  no  statesman  appeared  fit- 
ted to  grapple  with  them.  The  revolutionary 
movement  became  general  in  the  south,  and  the 
Dutch  troops,  at  first  successful  before  Brussels, 
were  finally  repulsed,  and  compelled  by  the  arri- 
val of  fresh  bands  of  insurgents  from  all  quar- 
ters, to  retire.  The  Flemings  saluted  the  volun- 
teers of  Liege,  Mons,  and  Tournay  by  the 
ancient  title  of  Belgians,  and  this  name,  which 
properly  distinguished  only  a  section  of  the  peo- 
ple of  the  southern  provinces,  became  henceforth 
recognized  as  the  patriotic  designation  of  the 
whole. 

A  convention  of  the  great  powers  assembled 
in  London  to  determine  on  the  affairs  of  the 
Netherlands  and  stop  the  effusion  of  blood.  It 
favored  the  separation  of  the  provinces,  and 
drew  up  a  treaty  to  regulate  it.  In  the  mean- 
time the  National  Congress  of  Belgium  offered 
the  crown  to  the  Duke  of  Nemours,  second  son 
of  Louis  Philippe,  and,  on  his  declining  it,  they 
offered  it,  on  the  recommendation  of  England, 
to  Leopold,  Prince  of  Saxe-Coburg,  who  acceded 


BELGOROD  —  BELIEF 


to  it  under  the  title  of  Leopold  I.,  on  21  July 
1831.  In  November  of  the  same  year  the  tive 
powers  guaranteed  the  crown  to  him  by  the 
Treaty  of  London.  Some  disputes  with  Holland 
in  regard  to  the  partition  of  territories  still 
remained.  A  convention  was  concluded  between 
France  and  England  to  bring  these  differences  to 
a  close,  and  in  1839  Holland  acceded  to  a  treaty, 
by  which  Belgium  surrendered  to  her  portions 
of  Limburg  and  Luxemburg,  which  she  had 
retained  since  1830. 

During  the  reign  of  Leopold,  a  prosperous 
period  of  34  years,  Belgium  became  a  united 
and  patriotic  community.  Arts  and  commerce 
flourished,  and  a  place  was  taken  in  the  family 
of  nations  upon  -which  the  Belgian  people  could 
look  with  complacency.  On  the  outbreak  of 
the  French  revolution  of  1848  Leopold  declared 
his  willingness  to  resign  the  crown  if  it  \vas 
contrary  to  the  wishes  of  his  subjects  that  he 
should  retain  it.  This  declaration  disarmed  the 
Republican  party,  and  confirmed  the  stability  of 
the  monarchy  at  a  critical  moment.  During  his 
reign  Belgium  concluded  various  treaties  of 
commerce,  with  Great  Britain  in  1851  and  1862, 
and  with  France  in  1861.  Leopold  H.  succeeded 
his  father  in  1865.  In  recent  years  the  chief 
feature  of  Belgian  politics  has  been  a  keen 
struggle  between  the  clerical  and  the  liberal 
party.  At  the  elections  in  June  1878,  the  lib- 
erals gained  a  majority,  which  they  lost  in  1884, 
and  failed  to  regain  in  1890.  Soon  after  fol- 
lowed a  revision  of  the  constitution,  and  at  the 
elections  in  1894  the  clericals  were  returned  with 
a  great  majority  over  liberals  and  socialists 
combined.  In  1885  Leopold  II.  became  sov- 
ereign of  the  Congo  Free  State  (q.v.). 

Bibliography. —  Balau,  ^Seventy  Years  of  the 
History  of  Belgium^  (1815-84)  ;  Banderkinken, 
'History  of  the  Formation  of  the  Belgian  Prin- 
cipalities in  the  Middle  Ages^  ;  Delplace,  'Bel- 
gium Under  French  Rule^  ;  'Belgium  in  the 
Reign  of  William  I.^  ;  Essars,  'History  of 
Banking  in  All  Nations ;  Banking  in  Belgium'  ; 
Juste,  'History  of  Belgium'  ;  'Memoirs  of  Leo- 
pold, King  of  the  Belgians'  :  Moke.  'History  of 
Belgium'  ;  Nothomb.  'Political  and  Historical 
Essay  on  the  Belgian  Revolution'  ;  Pirenne, 
'History  of  Belgium'  ;  'Thonissen,  'Belgium  in 
the  Reign  of  Leopold  I.'  ;  Van  Bruyssel,  'His- 
tory of  Commerce  in  Belgium.' 

Belgorod,  byel'  go-rot,  or  Bielgorod,  a 
town  in  Russia,  government  of,  and  76  miles 
south  from  the  town  of  Kursk,  on  the  Donetz. 
It  is  the  seat  of  an  archbishop's  see,  and  has 
important  fairs.    Pop.  (1897)  21,800. 

Belgrade,  the  capital  of  the  kingdom  of 
Servia,  situated  in  the  angle  formed  by  the  junc- 
tion of  the  Save  with  the  Danube,  overlooked 
by  a  citadel  on  a  rocky  eminence  about  160  feet 
high.  The  town  has  been  almost  entirely  trans- 
formed in  recent  times,  and  now  contains  a  num- 
ber of  fine  buildings  and  wide  streets,  being 
provided  with  the  electric  light,  tramways,  tele- 
phones, waterworks,  etc.,  and  having  generally 
the  aspect  of  any  modern  European  town.  It 
contains  the  roj'al  palace,  residences  of  various 
ambassadors  or  ministers,  the  chief  courts  and 
government  departments,  archiepiscopal  cathe- 
dral. Protestant  church  and  school,  high  school 
or  college,  gymnasia,  military  school,  national 
library  of  80,000  volumes,  national  museum,  etc. 
The  most  numerous  places  of  worship  are  the 


Greek-Catholic.  There  are  no  industries  of  any 
importance,  but  trade,  however,  is  active,  Bel- 
grade being  the  chief  emporium  of  the  king- 
dom, the  place  to  which  most  of  the  imports  and 
exports  of  Servia  are  brought,  and  through, 
which  a  large  transit  trade  passes  between  Aus- 
tria and  Turkey.  It  is  now  connected  by  rail- 
way with  Budapest  and  with  Constantinople  and 
Salonica.  and  carries  on  a  large  shipping  trade 
by  the  Danube,  and  also  the  Save.  Lender  the 
name  of  Singidunum,  Belgrade  was  the  station 
of  a  Roman  legion,  and  in  later  years  was  sev- 
eral times  destroyed  in  the  contests  of  the 
Byzantines,  Bulgarians,  and  Hungarians.  Being- 
the  key  of  Hungary,  it  was  long  an  object  of 
fierce  contention  between  the  Austrians  and  the 
Turks.  It  was  taken  by  the  latter  in  1521  and 
held  by  them  till  1688,  when  it  was  retaken  by 
the  imperial  army.  Two  years  afterward  it 
was  again  captured  by  the  Turks,  who  perpe- 
trated every  sort  of  atrocity  in  the  conquered 
city,  besides  killing  1,200  of  the  garrison.  From 
this  period  it  remained  in  possession  of  the 
Turks  till  1717,  when  it  was  besieged  by  Prince 
Eugene.  After  a  desperate  conflict  between  the 
contending  ai.nies  the  Turks  were  defeated.  In 
1739  the  Turks  came  into  possession  of  it  by 
treaty,  retaining  it  till  1789,  when  it  was  taken 
by  the  Austrians.  It  was  restored  by  treaty  to 
the  Turks  in  1791  ;  since  which  time  it  has- 
shared  the  varying  fortunes  of  Servia.  In  con- 
sequence of  a  quarrel  with  the  Servians  it  was 
bombarded  by  the  Turkish  garrison  in  1862.  In 
1867  it  was  evacuated  by  the  Turks  altogether, 
and  since  the  Treaty  of  Berlin  (July  1878).  has- 
been  the  capital  of  an  independent  state.  An 
American  consul  resides  here.  See  Servia, 
Pop.  (1900)  69,097. 

Belgrand,  bel-gran,  Marie  Frangois  Eu- 
gene, French  civil  engineer:  b.  Ervy,  23. 
April  1810;  d.  8  April  1878.  He  designed  the 
gigantic  sewerage  system  and  water  supply  sys- 
tem of  Paris,  and  published  'La  Seine'  ;  'Les 
Tranvaux  Souterrains  de  Paris'  ;  'Les  eaux 
Anciennes  de  Paris'  ;  etc. 

Belgravia,  the  name  given  to  the  fashion- 
able quarter  of  London  south  and  west  of  Bel- 
grave  Square.  Till  the  early  part  of  the  19th 
century  the  district  was  a  marshy  farm.  The 
district  was  drained  and  filled  in  about  1825. 

Belial,  be'li-al  or  bel'yal.  By  the  trans- 
lators of  the  English  Bible,  this  word  is  often 
treated  as  a  proper  name,  as  in  the  expressions, 
"son  of  Belial,"  "man  of  Belial."  In  the  Old 
Testament,  however,  it  ought  not  to  be  taken  as 
a  proper  name,  but  it  should  be  translated 
"wickedness,"  or  "worthlessness."  To  the  later 
Jews  Belial  seems  to  have  become  w'hat  Pluto- 
was  to  the  Greeks,  the  name  of  the  ruler  of  the 
infernal  regions  :  and  in  2  Cor.  vi.  15  it  seems 
to  be  used  as  a  name  of  Satan,  as  the  personifi- 
cation of  all  that  is  bad. 

Belief.  In  a  general  sense  belief  is  the 
assent  of  the  understanding  to  the  truth  of  a 
proposition,  but  in  a  technical  and  theological 
sense,  has  come  to  be  used  as  a  mental  exercise 
somewhat  depending  upon  the  volition  of  the 
individuaJ.  The  w-ord  is  used  to  mean  the  accept- 
ance of  a  proposition,  statement,  or  fact  as- 
true  on  the  ground  of  evidence,  authority,  or 
irresistible  mental  predisposition ;  the  state  oi 
trust  in  and  reliance  on  a  person,  thing,  or  prin- 
ciple; as  also  for  the  fact  believed,  and  some- 


BELINDA  —  BELIZE 


times  specifically  for  the  Apostles'  Creed.  Be- 
lief is  by  some  distinguished  from  knowledge, 
inasmuch  as  the  latter  rests  on  evidence,  while 
belief  rests  on  authority.  Belief  should,  some 
say,  not  be  used  of  facts  occurring  in  one's 
own  experience,  or  principles  of  which  the 
opposite  implies  absurdity,  such  as  the  axioms 
of  geometry.  These  we  know,  and,  according 
to  this  view,  the  term  should  be  limited  to  cases 
where  a  proposition  is  accepted  without  evi- 
dence, or  where  such  evidence  as  is  available 
implies  only  probability.  On  the  other  hand, 
the  psychologists  of  what  is  called  the  intuitive 
school  are  accustomed  to  regard  as  beliefs  the 
fundamental  data  on  which  reasoning  rests ;  and 
to  say  that  all  knowledge  rests  ultimately  on 
belief.  Belief,  they  say,  may  admit  of  all  degrees 
of  confidence,  from  a  slight  suspicion  to  full 
assurance.  There  are  many  operations  of  mind 
in  which  it  is  an  ingredient  —  consciousness, 
remembrance,  perception.  Kant  defined  opinion 
as  a  judgment  which  is  insufficiently  based,  sub- 
jectively as  well  as  objectively;  belief,  as  sub- 
jectively sufficient  but  objectively  inadequate; 
knowledge,  as  both  subjectively  and  objectively 
sufficient.  The  strongest  beliefs  may,  of  course, 
be  false ;  beliefs  in  ghosts,  astrological  prog- 
nostications, etc.,  are  usually  treated  as  supersti- 
tions. Beliefs  as  such  rest  on  grounds  regarded 
as  sufficient  by  the  person  believing,  who  is  pre- 
pared to  act  on  his  belief;  but  their  grounds  may 
have  absolutely  no  validity  for  any  other  per- 
son. Such  beliefs  are  nevertheless  very  real. 
On  the  other  hand  there  are  many  propositions 
accepted  traditionally,  and  spoken  of  as  beliefs, 
which  are  not  real,  vital  abiding  truths  for 
those  who  nominally  accept  them ;  which  have 
no  influence  on  character  or  mental  tone,  and  on 
which  those  w^ho  hold  them  would  not  be  pre- 
pared to  act.  Faith  is  a  word  used  in  very  much 
the  same  sense  as  belief,  but  especially  signifies 
the  acceptance  of  and  reliance  on  the  truths  of 
religion. 

Bibliography. —  Newman,  "^Grammar  of  As- 
sent^; <  Bain,  "<^ The  Emotions  and  the  WilP 
(1800);  Spencer,  <Psycholog}'>  (1881);  Mill, 
'Analysis  of  the  Phenomena  of  the  Human 
Mind'  (1869);  James.  ^Psychologj'^  (1890); 
Brentano,  'Psychologic'  (1874)  ;  Verbrot,  <Die 
Psychologic  des  Glaubens'  :  Balfour,  'The 
Foundations  of  Belief  ;  Hume,  'Inquiry'  (1894)  ; 
Ward,  'The  Wish  to  Believe'    (ir 


Belinda,  a  novel  by  Maria  Edgevvorth. 
Belinda  Portman  goes  to  spend  the  winter  in 
London  with  Lady  Delacour,  a  brilliant  and 
fashionable  woman;  at  her  house  she  meets 
Clarence  Hervey  for  the  first  time.  Various 
obstacles  keep  the  lovers  apart,  but  the  story 
ends  happily  with  the  marriage  of  Her\'ey  and 
Belinda. 

Belisa'rius,  famous  Byzantine  general:  b. 
about  505  ;  d.  565.  To  him  the  Emperor  Justinian 
chiefly  owed  the  splendor  of  his  reign.  Belisa- 
rius  first  served  in  the  bodyguard  of  the  emperor, 
soon  after  obtained  the  chief  command  of  an 
army  of  25,000  men  stationed  on  the  Persian 
frontiers,  and  in  the  year  530  gained  a  complete 
victory  over  a  Persian  army  of  not  less  than 
40,000  soldiers.  The  next  year,  however,  he  lost 
a  battle  against  the  same  enemy,  who  had  forced 
his  way  into  Syria  —  the  only  battle  w^hich  he 
lost  during  his  whole  career.  He  was  recalled 
from  the  army,  and  soon  became  at  home  the 


support  of  his  master.  In  the  year  532  civil 
commotions,  proceeding  from  two  rival  parties, 
who  called  themselves  the  green  and  the  blue, 
and  who  caused  great  disorders  in  Constanti- 
nople, brought  the  life  and  reign  of  Justinian 
into  the  utmost  peril,  and  Hypatius  was  already 
chosen  emperor,  when  Belisarius  with  a  small 
body  of  faithful  adherents  restored  order. 
Justinian,  with  a  view  of  conquering  the  domin- 
ions of  Gelimer,  king  of  the  Vandals,  sent 
Belisarius  with  an  army  of  15,000  men  to  Africa. 
After  two  victories  he  secured  the  person  and 
treasures  of  the  Vandal  king.  Gelimer  was  led 
in  triumph  through  the  streets  of  Constantino- 
ple, and  Justinian  ordered  a  medal  to  be  struck 
with  the  inscription  Belisarius  gloria  Roman- 
arum,  which  has  descended  to  our  times.  By 
the  dissensions  existing  in  the  royal  family  of 
the  Ostrogoths  in  Italy,  Justinian  was  induced 
to  attempt  to  bring  Italy  and  Rome  under  his 
sceptre.  Belisarius  vanquished  Vitiges,  king  of 
the  Goths,  made  him  prisoner  at  Ravenna  (540), 
and  conducted  him,  together  with  many  other 
Goths,  to  Constantinople.  The  war  in  Italy 
against  the  Goths  continued ;  but  Belisarius, 
not  being  sufficiently  supplied  with  money  and 
troops  by  the  emperor,  demanded  his  recall 
(548).  He  afterward  commanded  in  the  war 
against  the  Bulgarians,  whom  he  conquered  in 
the  year  559.  Upon  his  return  to  Constanti- 
nople he  was  accused  of  having  taken  part  in  a 
conspiracy.  But  Justinian  was  convinced  of  his 
innocence,  and  is  said  to  have  restored  to  him 
his  property  and  dignities,  of  which  he  had  been 
deprived.  His  history  has  been  much  colored 
by  the  poets,  and  particularly  by  Marmontel,  in 
his  otherwise  admirable  politico-philosophical 
romance.  According  to  his  narrative,  the 
emperor  caused  the  eyes  of  the  hero  to  be 
struck  out,  and  Belisarius  was  compelled  to  beg 
his  bread  in  the  streets  of  Constantinople.  Other 
writers  say  that  Justinian  had  him  thrown  into 
a  prison,  which  is  still  shown  under  the  appella- 
tion of  the  Tower  of  Belisarius.  From  this 
tower  he  is  reported  to  have  let  down  a  bag 
fastened  to  a  rope,  and  to  have  addressed  the 
passengers  in  these  words :  "Give  an  obolus  to 
Belisarius,  whom  virtue  exalted,  and  envy  has 
oppressed."  Of  this,  however,  no  contemporary 
writer  makes  any  mention.  The  blind  Belisarius 
forms  the  subject  of  a  noted  painting  by  Gerard. 
Tzetzes,  a  slightly  esteemed  writer  of  the  12th 
century,  was  the  first  who  related  this  fable. 
Certain  it  is,  that,  through  too  great  indulgence 
toward  his  wife.  Antonina.  Belisarius  was 
impelled  to  many  acts  of  injustice,  and  that  he 
evinced  a  servile  submissiveness  to  the  detestable 
Theodora,  the  wife  of  Justinian.  See  Hodg- 
kin,  'Italy  and  her  Invaders'  (1880-5)  ;  Bury, 
'Later  Roman  Empire'    (1893). 

Belize,  be-Iez'  (sometimes  written  Belice 
or  B.\lize),  the  capital  of  British  Honduras. 
Lat.  17°  29'  N. ;  Ion.  88°  8'  W.  It  has  been  sug- 
gested that  the  name  is  derived  from  the  French 
balise,  a  beacon,  but  more  probably  it  is  a  cor- 
ruption of  Wallace,  a  Scotch  buccaneer  named 
Peter  Wallace,  with  80  companions,  having 
erected  houses  enclosed  with  a  rude  palisade  at 
this  point  after  the  Spaniards  abandoned  Bacala, 
leaving  a  large  part  of  the  rugged,  uninviting 
north  coast  of  the  Gulf  of  Honduras  unoccu- 
pied, save  by  freebooters,  during  the  latter  half 
of  the  17th  century.  Accordingly  the  name 
Walls,    Balis,    or    Belize    was    applied    by    the 


BELKNAP  — BELL 


natives  and  Spaniards  to  the  settlement,  the 
river  on  which  it  was  situated,  and  subsequently 
to  the  whole  region  occupied  by  the  English 
(see  Bancroft's  "^History  of  Central  America,^ 
II.,  624).  Wood-cutting  was  the  chief  occupa- 
tion of  this  piratical  establishment.  The  value 
of  the  forests  attracting  other  settlers,  Belize 
was  attacked  by  the  authorities  of  Yucatan,  who 
sought  to  expel  them  as  trespassers,  in  1733. 
Various  unsuccessful  attempts  with  the  same 
object  were  made  in  subsequent  years,  the  most 
formidable  in  1754.  Again  in  1779,  war  existing 
between  England  and  Spain,  the  governor  of 
Yucatan  organized  an  expedition  against  Belize ; 
and  Spain's  last  effort  to  regain  possession  by 
force  was  made  in  1798.  Before  that  time  the 
settlers  had  organized  a  government.  It  is  an 
interesting  fact  that,  originating  as  it  did,  the 
town  has  become,  with  its  population  of  more 
than  5,000,  its  church,  schools,  and  hospital,  a 
centre  for  the  maintenance  of  good  order.  It 
has  the  characteristic  features  of  a  small  Eng- 
lish colonial  capital, —  the  governor's  house,  etc. 
See  Honduras,  British.  Marrion  Wilcox, 
Authority  on  Latin-America. 
Belknap,  George  Eugene,  American  naval 
officer :  b.  Newport,  N.  H.,  22  Jan.  1832 ;  d.  Key 
West,  Fla.,  7  April  1903.  He  was  appointed 
midshipman  in  the  navy  in  1852 ;  became  lieu- 
tenant-commander in  1862;  commander  in  1866; 
captain  in  1872 ;  commodore  in  1885  ;  and  rear- 
admiral  in  1889;  and  was  retired  in  1894.  He 
took  part  in  the  capture  of  the  Barrier  Forts 
on  the  Canton  River,  China,  in  1856 ;  and  in  the 
Civil  War  was  present  at  the  bombardment  of 
the  forts  and  batteries  in  Charleston  Harbor, 
and  in  both  of  the  attacks  on  Fort  Fisher.  In 
1873,  while  engaged  in  deep  sea  sounding  in  the 
north  Pacific  Ocean,  he  made  discoveries  con- 
cerning the  topography  of  the  bed  of  the  ocean 
that  found  high  favor  among  scientists.  He 
was  appointed  superintendent  of  the  United 
States  Naval  Observatory  in  1885,  and,  among 
other  works,  published  ^Deep  Sea  Soundings.^ 

Belknap,  Jeremy,  American  clergyman: 
b.  Boston,  Mass..  4  June  1744;  d.  there,  20  June 
1798.  He  graduated  at  Harvard  in  1762 ;  was 
pastor  of  the  Congregational  Church  in  Dover, 
N.  H.,  1767-86,  and  of  the  Federal  Street  Church, 
in  Boston,  1787-98;  and  was  active  for  the 
American  cause  during  the  Revolution.  The 
Massachusetts  Historical  Society,  organized  in 
1790,  recognizes  him  as  its  founder.  In  1792  he 
became  an  overseer  of  Harvard  College.  He 
was  the  author  of  a  ^History  of  New  Hamp- 
shire* (1784-92)  ;  <A  Discourse  Intended  to 
Commemorate  the  Discovery  of  America  by 
Columbus;,  with  Four  Dissertations'  (1792)  ; 
^An  Historical  Account  of  Those  Persons  Who 
Have  Been  Distinguished  in  America,'  gen- 
erally known  as  the  'American  Biography,'  etc. 

Belknap,  William  Goldsmith,  American 
military  officer:  b.  Newburg,  N.  Y.,  14  Nov. 
1794;  d.  near  Fort  Washita,  16  Nov.  1852.  He 
distinguished  himself  in  the  attack  on  Fort  Erie, 
in  August  1814;  was  retained  in  service  on  the 
reduction  of  the  army,  in  1822.  having  been,  in 
1818,  one  of  the  assistant  professors  of  tactics 
in  the  military  academy.  He  became  a  captain 
in  1822,  and  was  brevetted  for  faithful  service, 
10  years  afterward.  In  1842  he  was  appointed 
major  of  the  3d  infantry,  and,  having  .served  in 
Florida   during  the  war,   was  made  lieutenant- 


colonel  b}'  brevet.  He  served  on  the  general 
staff  at  Buena  Vista,  and  received  a  sword  of 
honor  from  the  citizens  of  his  own  State,  for  his 
services  in  that  battle.  He  also  received  the 
brevet  of  brigadier-general.  From  December 
1843  to  May  1851  he  was  in  command  of  his 
regiment,  and  of  the  troops  in  the  Cherokee 
nation  (Arkansas).  In  May  1851  he  was  ordered 
to  upper  Texas  for  the  purpose  of  keeping  the 
Indian  tribes  within  the  lines,  and  while  there 
contracted  a  fever,  of  which  he  died. 

Belknap,  William  Worth,  American  mili- 
tary officer,  son  of  Gen.  W.  G.  Belknap : 
b.  Newburg,  N.  Y.,  22  Sept.  1829;  d.  Wash- 
ington, D.  C,  13  Oct.  1890.  In  1861  he 
entered  the  Union  army  as  major  of  the  15th 
Iowa  Volunteers  and  was  engaged  at  Shiloh, 
Corinth,  and  Vicksburg;  but  became  most 
prominent  in  Sherman's  Atlanta  campaign.  He 
was  promoted  to  brigadier-general,  30  July 
1864,  and  major-general,  13  March  1865.  He 
was  collector  of  internal  revenue  in  Iowa  from 
1865  to  13  Oct.  1869,  when  he  was  appointed 
secretary  of  war,  which  office  he  occupied  till 
7  March  1876.  He  resigned  in  consequence  of 
accusations  of  official  corruption.  Subsequently 
he  was  tried  and  acquitted. 

Bell,  A.      See  Bell,  Nancy  R.  E.  M. 

Bell,  Acton.      See  Bronte,  Anne. 

Bell,  Alexander  Graham,  American  sci- 
entist, inventor  of  the  telephone :  b.  Edinburgh, 
Scotland,  3  March  1847.  He  was  a  son  of 
Alexander  M.  Bell  (q.v.),  and  was  educated  at 
the  Edinburgh  high  school  and  university,  and 
trained  by  his  father  in  the  latter's  system  for 
restoring  speech  to  deaf-mutes.  In  1870  he 
removed  with  his  father  to  Canada,  and  in  1872 
came  to  Boston  as  professor  of  vocal  physiology 
in  Boston  University,  where  he  taught  his  fath- 
er's system  with  success.  He  had  long  been 
experimenting  on  the  electrical  transmission  of 
sound,  had  designed  and  partly  constructed  a 
speaking  telephone  while  in  Canada,  and  on  14 
Feb.  1876  took  out  a  patent  for  it.  At  the  Cen- 
tennial Exposition  in  Philadelphia  that  year  he 
exhibited  it  to  multitudes,  including  foreign  sci- 
entists, who  applauded  it  warmly;  it  was  still 
crude,  but  a  company  was  formed  to  float  it, 
inventive  genius  was  turned  toward  perfecting 
it,  and  it  rapidly  assumed  a  practical  commer- 
cial form.  A  number  of  other  telephones  were 
almost  immediately  brought  forward,  with  claim 
to  priority  of  invention,  and  years  of  protracted 
and  costly  law  suits  followed ;  but  the  Bell  Com- 
pany finally  established  its  right  before  the 
United  States  Supreme  Court,  has  held  a  virtual 
monopoly  of  the  business  in  tjiis  country,  and 
has  made  its  owners  and  Prof.  Bell  very 
wealthy.  In  1880  he  invented  the  photophone, 
a  telephone  in  which  the  sound  is  conveyed  by 
a  vibratory  beam  of  light  instead  of  a  wire :  it 
has  transmitted  articulate  sounds  about  700  feet, 
but  has  not  been  practically  used.  He  has  also 
invented  the  graphophone,  a  form  of  the  phono- 
graph for  recording  and  reproducing  speech, 
which  is  coming  largely  into  use  for  the  teach- 
ing of  languages.  He  has  never  abandoned  his 
first  field,  however,  the  instruction  and  advance- 
ment of  deaf-mutes,  has  investigated  and  writ- 
ten much  on  this  subject,  and  published  his 
papers  through  the  Volta  Bureau,  which  he 
founded ;  and  has  been  president  of  the  Ameri- 
can Association  to  Promote  Teaching  of  Speech 


Copyright  by  the  Scientific  American. 

ALEXANDER  GRAHAM  BELL. 


BELL 


to  the  Deaf.  He  has  especially  urged  that  the 
poHcy  of  educating  deaf-mutes  in  asylums  is 
pernicious,  as  forcing  them  to  intermarry,  and 
increasing  the  births  of  children  so  afflicted. 
He  has  been  president  of  the  National  Geo- 
graphic Society,  and  regent  of  the  Smithsonian 
Institution.  The  French  government  in  1881 
awarded  him  the  Volta  prize.  Among  his  mono- 
graphs are  a  *  Memoir  on  the  Formation  of  a 
Deaf  Variety  of  the  Human  Race.-* 

Bell,  Alexander  Melville,  Scottish-American 
educator:  b.  Edinburgh,  i  March  1819;  d.  Wash- 
ington, D.  C,  7  Aug.  1905.  He  was  a  distin- 
guished teacher  of  elocution  in  his  native  city;  in 
1865  removed  to  London  to  act  as  a  lecturer  in 
University  College  ;  and  in  1870  went  to  Canada 
and  became  connected  with  Queen's  College, 
Kingston.  He  invented  the  system  of  « visible 
speech,  "  in  which  all  the  possible  articulations  of 
the  human  voice  have  corresponding  characters 
designed  to  represent  the  respective  positions  of 
the  vocal  organs.  This  system  has  been  success- 
fully employed  in  teaching  the  deaf  and  dumb  to 
speak.  Besides  writing  on  this  subject  he  wrote 
on  elocution,  stenography,  etc. 

Bell,  Andrew,  Scottish  educator,  author 
of  the  mutual  instruction  or  "Madras*  system 
of  education:  b.  St.  Andrews,  27  March  1753; 
d.  Cheltenham,  England,  27  Jan.  1832.  He  was 
educated  at  the  university  of  his  native  town, 
resided  for  seven  years  in  Virginia,  and  on 
returning  took  orders  in  the  Church  of  Eng- 
land. In  1787  he  went  to  India,  where  he 
became  manager  of  the  institution  for  the  edu- 
cation of  the  orphan  children  of  European  sol- 
diers at  Madras  established  by  the  East  India 
Company.  The  superintendence  of  this  asylum 
was  undertaken  by  Dr.  Bell,  who,  having  no 
object  in  view  but  the  gratification  of  his  benev- 
olence, refused  the  salary  of  1,200  pagodas 
(£480)  which  was  attached  to  it.  Failing  to 
retain  the  services  of  properl}^  qualified  ushers, 
he  resorted  to  the  expedient  of  conducting  his 
school  through  the  medium  of  the  scholars  them- 
selves. It  was  in  the  mode  of  conducting  a 
school  by  means  of  mutual  instruction  that  the 
new  method  of  Dr.  Bell  consisted ;  and  its 
value  as  an  abbreviation  of  the  mechanical  part 
of  teaching,  and  where  large  numbers  were  to 
be  taught  economically,  could  not  be  easily  over- 
estimated at  the  time.  His  system,  however,  is 
now  abandoned.  From  the  commencement  of 
his  experiment  he  made  the  scholars,  as  far  as 
possible,  do  everything  for  themselves ;  they 
ruled  their  own  paper,  made  their  own  pens, 
etc.,  while  the  teacher  only  directed  them.  1  he 
maxim  of  the  school  was  that  no  boy  could  do 
anything  right  the  first  time,  but  he  must  learn 
when  he  first  set  about  it,  by  means  of  his 
teacher,  so  as  to  be  able  to  do  it  himself  ever 
afterward.  After  superintending  the  school  for 
seven  years  he  found  it  necessary  for  his  health 
to  return  to  Europe.  On  his  arrival  he  published 
in  1797  a  pamphlet,  entitled  ^An  Experiment  in 
Education  made  at  the  Male  Asylum  of  Madras, 
in  which  he  gave  an  account  of  his  system.  The 
first  place  in  England  where  the  system  was 
adopted  was  the  charity  school  of  St.  Bo- 
tolph's,  Aldgate,  and  gradually,  especially 
through  the  influence  of  Joseph  Lancaster,  it 
was  widely  carried  out  in  England,  and  indeed 
in  almost  every  other  civilized  country.  Dr. 
Bell  acquired  in  later  life  the  dignity  of  a  pre- 
^'ol.  2 — 32. 


bendary  of  Westminster,  and  was  master  of 
Sherborn  Hospital,  Durham.  He  employed  him- 
self during  his  latter  years  in  writing  several 
works  on  education,  among  which  the  most  val- 
uable were:  *The  Elements  of  Tuition*;  ^The 
English  School*  ;  and  'Brief  Manual  of  Alutual 
Instruction  and  Discipline.-*  Before  his  death 
he  gave  over  to  trustees  £120,000  three  per  cent 
stock  for  education,  half  of  it  for  the  purpose 
of  founding  an  academy  in  his  native  city.  See 
'Life  by  Southey*  (1844)  ;  Meiklejohn,  <An 
Old  Educational  Reformer*    (1881). 

Bell,  Andrew  James,  Canadian  educator: 
b.  Ottawa,  12  May  1856.  He  was  educated  at 
the  University  of  Toronto,  and  at  Breslau  Uni- 
versity; became  professor  of  Latin  and  litera- 
ture in  Victoria  University  in  1889.  He  is  an 
active  member  of  the  Canadian  Institute,  and 
has  contributed  some  important  papers  to  its 
'  Tran.sactions.* 

Bell,  Benjamin  Taylor  A.,  Scotch-Cana- 
dian mining  expert :  b.  Edinburgh.  2  July  1863. 
He  went  to  Canada  in  1882,  and  became  editor 
of  the  'Canada  Mining  Review.*  and  of  the 
'Canada  Mining,  Iron,  and  Steel  Manual.*  In 
1890  he  was  appointed  by  the  Dominion  gov- 
ernment, with  Dr.  Selwyn,  to  conduct  the  excur- 
sions through  the  mining  and  industrial  centres 
of  Canada  of  the  Iron  and  Steel  Institute  of 
Great  Britain,  and  the  Verein  Deutscher  Eisen- 
hiittenleute.  The  same  year  he  organized  the 
General  Mining  Association  of  the  Province, 
and  in  1892  was  instrumental  in  uniting  the 
coal,  gold,  and  other  mineral  interests  of  Nova 
Scotia  into  a  like  organization. 

Bell,  Sir  Charles,  Scottish  anatomist:  b. 
Edinburgh,  November  1774;  d.  near  Worcester, 
England,  28  April  1842.  He  studied  anatomy 
under  his  brother,  John  Bell  (q.v.),  and  had 
scarcely  reached  manhood  before  he  had  proved 
himself  to  be  a  first-rate  anatomist  as  well  as 
an  excellent  lecturer.  In  1804,  being  already 
known  by  his  published  works,  he  went  to  Lon- 
don, and  in  181 1  published  an  essay  entitled  'A 
New  Idea  of  the  Anatomy  of  the  Brain,*  con- 
taining the  important  discovery  of  the  distinc- 
tion between  sensory  and  motor  nerves,  on 
which  his  fame  chiefly  rests.  It  at  once  attracted 
general  attention,  established  his  reputation,  and 
was  doubtless  the  main  ground  on  which,  on  the 
accession  of  William  IV.,  he  was  selected  for 
the  honor  of  knighthood.  In  1812  he  was 
appointed  surgeon  to  the  Middlesex  Hospital,  to 
whose  prosperity  he  afterward  greatly  contrib- 
uted. In  1824  he  accepted  the  chair  of  anatomy 
and  surgery  to  the  London  College  of  Surgeons, 
and  in  1836  that  of  surgery  in  the  University  of 
Edinburgh.  His  principal  works  are  'Anat- 
omy of  Expression*  (1806)  ;  'System  of  Opera- 
tive Surgery*  ;  'Anatomy  and  Physiology,*  with 
his  brother  John;  'Animal  Mechanics*  (1828)  ; 
'Nervous  Svstem*  (1830)  ;  and  the  Bridge- 
water  Treatise  on  the  Hand*  (1833).  There 
is  a  life  in  French  by  Pichot  (1859),  and  in 
1870  a  selection  from  Sir  Charles  Bell's  corre- 
spondence was  published. 

Bell,  Currer.     See  Bronte.  Charlotte, 

Bell,  Ellis.     See  Broxte,  Emily  Jane. 

Bell,  George  Joseph,  Scottish  lawyer, 
brother  of  Sir  Charles  and  John  Bell:  b.  Edin- 
burgh. 26  March  1770;  d.  1843.  He  passed  as 
advocate  in   1791,  and  became  one  of  the   first 


BELL 


authorities  on  the  subject  of  mercantile  jurispru- 
dence and  the  law  of  bankruptcy.  This  distinc- 
tion he  earned  for  himself  b>  the  publication  of 
a  work  which  first  appeared  in  1804,  under  the 
title  of  a  *  Treatise  on  the  Laws  of  Bankruptcy,^ 
but  in  subsequent  editions  was  extended  and  ap- 
peared as  'Commentaries  on  the  Laws  of  Scot- 
land and  on  the  Principles  of  Mercantile  Juris- 
prudence. ■"  This  work,  notwithstanding  recent 
changes  in  the  law,  is  still  a  standard.  Besides 
the  work  above  mentioned,  he  published  ^Prin- 
ciples of  the  Law  of  Scotland,^  the  loth  edition 
of  which  was  issued  in   1897;  and  other  works. 

Bell,  Henry,  Scottish  engineer,  the  first 
successful  applier  of  steam  to  the  purposes  of 
navigation  in  Europe :  b.  Torphichen,  Linlith- 
gowshire, 7  April  1767;  d.  Helensburgh,  14 
Nov.  1830.  He  practised  for  several  years,  at 
Glasgow,  the  craft  of  a  house  carpenter,  but  in 
1808  removed  to  Helensburgh,  where  he  contin- 
ued to  prosecute  his  favorite  task  of  mechanical 
scheming,  without  much  regard  to  the  ordinary 
affairs  of  the  world,  though  he  became  proprie- 
tor of  baths  there.  The  application  of  steam  to 
navigation  had  already  been  attempted  by  Mr. 
Miller  of  Dalswinton  (among  others),  who, 
in  1788,  had  a  vessel  constructed,  propelled  by 
a  small  engine  and  paddle-wheel,  the  scene  of 
operations  being  a  loch  on  his  own  propert}'' 
in  Dumfriesshire.  Some  further  experiments 
were  made,  yet  the  scheme  had  no  practical 
result  for  several  j-ears.  Henry  Bell  seems  to 
have  turned  his  attention  to  the  subject  before 
the  end  of  the  century,  and  in  January  1812 
produced  the  Comet,  a  vessel  40  feet  long, 
which  was  found  in  a  great  measure  to  answer 
the  purpose  contemplated.  This  vessel  could 
make  way  against  a  head  tide  in  the  river  at  the 
rate  of  five  miles  an  hour,  and  continued  to 
ply  on  the  Clyde  for  a  number  of  years.  It  may 
be  mentioned,  that  Mr.  Robert  Fulton,  an  Amer- 
ican engineer,  had  launched  a  boat  upon  this 
principle  in  1807,  and  that  it  performed  long 
voyages  upon  the  Hudson  River ;  but  it  has 
been  proved  that  Fulton  had  derived  assistance 
in  the  construction  of  his  vessel  from  Bell, 
who  must  therefore  be  allowed  the  praise  of 
having  done,  in  his  own  country,  what  all  other 
men,  notwithstanding  the  superior  advantages 
of  skill  and  capital,  had  failed  in  doing.  Bell 
lived  to  see  the  bosom  of  the  Clyde  dotted  far 
and  wide  by  innumerable  copies  of  his  own 
invention;  to  know  that  steamboats  promised  to 
give  a  new  turn  to  the  art  of  general  warfare ; 
yet  he  reaped  for  himself  little  advantage. 
While  mankind  at  large  were  enjoying  the 
blessings  which  he  had  pointed  out  to  them,  he 
approached  the  confines  of  old  age  with  the 
prospect  of  hardly  the  average  comforts  which 
attended  that  stage  of  existence  in  the  humbler 
walks  of  society.  Touched  by  his  condition,  a 
number  of  benevolent  individuals  instituted  a 
subscription  in  his  behalf,  and  it  is  creditable 
to  the  good  feeling  of  the  citizens  of  Glasgow 
and  other  places  that  a  considerable  sum  was 
raised.  The  trustees  on  the  river  Clyde  also 
gave  him  an  annuity  of  iioo,  which  he  enjoyed 
for  several  years,  the  half  of  which  sum  was 
continued  to  his  widow.  A  monument  was 
erected  to  his  memory  at  Douglass  Point  on  the 
Clyde. 

Bell,  Henry  Glassford,  Scottish  law5'er 
and   author:    b.    Glasgow,    1803;    d.    1874.     He 


founded  the  Edinburgh  ^Literary  JournaP  1S28. 
was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1832  and  became 
one  of  the  most  esteemed  Scottish  mercantile 
lawyers  of  his  day.  He  published  a  spirited 
defense  of  Mary  Queen  of  Scots,  (1830;, 
^Summer  and  Winter  Hours^  (1831)  ;  ^My  Old 
Portfolio^  (1832);  'Romances  and  Minor 
Poems'    (1866). 

Bell,  Henry  Haywood,  American  naval 
officer:  b.  North  Carolina,  1807;  d.  11  Jan. 
1868.  He  was  appointed  a  midshipman  in  1823, 
and  served  on  the  Grampus  when  she  was  en- 
gaged in  clearing  the  coast  of  Cuba  of  pirates. 
For  many  years  he  served  with  the  East  Indian 
squadron,  and  commanded  one  of  the  vessels 
of  the  squadron  which,  in  November  1856  de- 
stroyed four  forts  near  Canton,  China.  Shortly 
after  the  outbreak  of  the  Civil  War  he  became 
fleet  captain  of  the  Western  Gulf  squadron. 
He  commanded  one  of  the  three  divisions  of  the 
fleet  which  captured  New  Orleans,  and  was  sent 
to  raise  the  United  States  flag  over  the  custom 
house  and  the  city  hall.  In  1865  he  took  com- 
mand of  the  East  India  squadron  with  the  rank 
of  commodore :  in  1866  was  promoted  to  rear- 
admiral ;  and,  in  1867,  retired.  He  was  drowned 
at  the  mouth  of  the  Osaka  River,  Japan. 

Bell,  Henry  Thomas  Mackenzie,  English 
poet  and  critic :  b.  Liverpool,  2  IMarch  1852. 
His  collections  of  verse  include  'The  Keeping 
of  the  Vow^  (1879)  ;  'Verses  of  Varied  Life* 
(1882);  'Old  Year  Leaves*  (1883);  'Spring's 
Immortality*  (1896)  ;  'Pictures  of  Travel* 
(1898).  He  has  also  published  such  critical 
works  as  'Charles  Whitehead*  (1884)  ;  ^Chris- 
tina Rossetti*    (1898). 

Bell,  Hillary,  American  dramatic  critic: 
b.  Belfast,  Ireland,  1857;  d.  New  York,  9 
April  1903.  After  coming  to  the  United  States 
he  painted  portraits  for  some  years  and  subse- 
quently engaged  in  journalism  and  was  the 
dramatic  and  musical  critic  of  the  New  York 
Press.  He  also  edited  the  "^Insurance  Econo- 
mist,* and  was  a  vice-president  of  the  JMutual 
Reserve  Life  Insurance  Company.  The  life-size 
portrait  which  he  painted  of  Ada  Rehan  as 
Katharine  in  'The  Taming  of  the  Shrew,*  was 
presented  by  Augustin  Daly  to  the  Shakespeare 
Memorial  at  Stratford-on-Avon. 

Bell,  Isaac,  American  philanthropist:  b 
New  York,  4  Aug.  1814;  d.  there,  30  Sept.  1897. 
He  began  his  business  life  in  a  banking  house 
when  14  years  old,  and  in  1836  became  interested 
in  large  financial  and  other  concerns.  About 
this  time  he  began  to  devote  himself  to  the 
work  of  benevolent  institutions,  and  was  presi- 
dent of  the  department  of  charities  and  correc- 
tion 1857-73.  It  was  principally  through  his 
efforts  that  the  Bellevue  Hospital,  and  also  the 
Bellevue  Hospital  Medical  College,  were  found- 
ed. In  connection  with  the  first  institution  he 
established  the  system  of  ambulance  service. 
He  was  also  largely  instrumental  in  the  estab- 
lishment of  the  Normal  College,  and  was  re- 
sponsible for  the  schoolship  Mercury,  which 
came  under  the  control  of  the  department  of 
Charities  and  Correction,  and  of  the  St.  !Mary's, 
as  well,  loaned  by  the  Navy  Department  to  the 
Department  of  Education,  of  which  he  was  also 
for  a  long  time  a  member.  During  the  Civil 
War  he  was  active  in  raising  and  disbursing 
money  for  the  benefit  of  New  York  volunteers. 


BELL 


and    in    aiding    soldiers'    wives,    widows,    and 
orphans. 

Bell,  James,  Scotch  geographer:  b.  Jed- 
burgh, 1769;  d.  1833.  After  receiving  a  liberal 
education  he  served  an  apprenticeship  to  the 
weaving  business,  and  in  1790  commenced  the 
manufacturing  of  cotton  goods  upon  a  large 
and  respectable  scale.  In  the  universal  depres- 
sion occasioned  by  the  shock  of  the  French 
Revolution  in  1793,  he  was  reduced  to  the  con- 
dition of  a  common  warper ;  but  having  relin- 
quished that  line  of  life,  he  was  about  the  year 
1815  engaged  to  improve  the  *  Glasgow  System 
of  Geography,*  a  work  which  had  met  with  con- 
siderable encouragement,  and  was  now,  chiefly 
by  the  labors  of  Mr.  Bell,  extended  to  five 
volumes.  It  was  well  received  by  the  public, 
and  formed  the  basis  of  his  principal  work,  *A 
System  of  Popular  and  Scientific  Geography,' 
published  at  Glasgow  in  six  volumes.  His 
'Gazetteer  of  England  and  Wales'  was  in  the 
course  of  publication  at  the  time  of  his  death. 

Bell,  James,  Canadian  physician:  b.  North 
Gower,  Ont.,  10  Oct.  1852.  He  graduated  at 
McGill  University  in  1877 ;  became  house  sur- 
geon of  the  Montreal  General  Hospital  the  same 
year,  and  medical  superintendent  of  it  in  1881. 
In  1885  he  became  a  member  of  the  hospital 
staff  as  assistant  surgeon,  and  in  1886  full  sur- 
geon. In  1894  he  was  made  consulting  surgeon 
to  the  General  Hospital,  surgeon  of  the  Royal 
Victoria  Hospital  of  Montreal,  and  professor 
of  clinical  surgery  in  McGill  University. 

Bell,  James  Franklin,  American  soldier: 
b.  Shelbyville,  Ky.,  9  Jan.  1856.  He  was  grad- 
uated from  the  United  States  Military  Academy 
1878;  served  on  the  plains  in  the  7th  United 
States  Cavalr}-.  1878-94:  and  was  aid  to  Gen. 
J.  W.  Forsyth  in  California,  Arizona,  and 
Washington.  He  went  to  the  Philippines  with 
the  original  expedition  in  1898,  and  his  military 
career  there  has  been  of  the  most  daring  and 
brilliant  kind.  As  colonel  of  the  36th  regiment 
of  volunteers,  he  was  not  attached  to  any  brig- 
ade, but  acted  as  a  free  lance,  reporting  only 
to  his  division  commander.  He  received  a  medal 
of  honor  for  most  distinguished  gallantry  in 
action  9  Sept.  1899,  near  Porac,  in  Luzon. 
While  in  advance  of  his  regiment  he  charged 
seven  insurgents  with  his  pistol  and  compelled 
the  surrender  of  the  captain  and  two  privates 
under  a  close  and  hot  fire  from  the  remaining 
insurgents,  who  were  concealed  in  a  bamboo 
thicket.  In  December  1900  he  was  made  a 
brigadier-general  in  the  regular  army,  being 
promoted  over  more  than  500  captains,  200  ma- 
jors, 98  lieutenant-colonels,  and  TJ  colonels. 

Bell,  James  Montgomery,  American  sol- 
dier: b.  Williamsburg,  Pa..  I  Oct.  1837.  He 
entered  the  86th  Ohio  infantry,  and  served  with 
distinction  throughout  the  Civil  War,  being 
twice  brevetted  for  gallant  and  meritorious 
services  in  the  battles  of  the  Wilderness  and 
Ream's  Station,  Va.  Entering  the  regular  army 
as  2nd  lieutenant  in  7th  Cavalry,  1866,  he  took 
part  in  the  Cheyenne  and  Arapahoe  war, 
1867-9;  the  Sioux  wars,  1876-81,  and  the  Nez 
Perces  war.  1877.  He  received  a  brevet-com- 
mission of  lieutenant-colonel  for  gallant  services 
in  action  against  the  Indians  at  Canon  Creek, 
Montana.    13    Sept.    1877.     He    commanded    in 


southern  Luzon,  Philippine  Islands,  1900-1,  and 
was  appointed  brigadier-general  of  volunteers, 
Jan.  20,  1900. 

Bell,  John,  Scotch  traveler:  b.  Antermony, 
1691  ;  d.  there,  i  July  1780.  Having  gone  to 
St.  Petersburg  in  1714,  after  the  completion  of 
his  studies,  he  happened  to  be  in  that  city  when 
an  embass3'  was  being  sent  to  the  Sophy  of 
Persia,  and  was  appointed  medical  attendant 
to  the  ambassador.  On  his  return  from  Persia 
to  the  Russian  capital  in  1718  he  found  another 
embassy  preparing  to  set  out  for  China,  and 
through  the  influence  of  the  ambassador  whom 
he  had  attended  to  Persia  he  obtained  an  ap- 
pointment in  it  also.  The  embassy  arrived  at 
Pekin  *'after  a  tedious  journej'  of  exactly  16 
months."  The  embassy  returned  in  January 
1722.  The  war  between  Russia  and  Sweden 
was  now  concluded,  and  the  czar  had  determined 
to  undertake  an  expedition  into  Persia,  at  the 
request  of  the  sophy,  to  assist  that  prince  against 
the  Afghans,  his  subjects,  who  had  seized  upon 
Kandahar  and  possessed  themselves  of  several 
provinces  on  the  frontiers  toward  India.  Bell's 
former  journey  to  Persia  gave  him  peculiar 
advantages,  and  he  was  accordingly  engaged  to 
accompany  the  army  to  Derbend,  from  which 
he  returned  in  December  1722.  In  1737  he  was 
sent  to  Constantinople  by  the  Russian  chancel- 
lor, and  Mr.  Rondeau,  the  British  minister  at 
the  Russian  court.  He  seems  now  to  have 
abandoned  the  public  service,  and  to  have  set- 
tled at  Constantinople  as  a  merchant.  About 
1746  he  married  a  Russian  lady  and  returned  to 
Scotland.  The  only  work  written  by  him  is 
his  'Travels  from  St.  Petersburg  in  Russia  to 
Various  Parts  of  Asia'    (1763). 

Bell,  John,  distinguished  Scotch  surgeon: 
b.  Edinburgh,  12  May  1763;  d.  Rome,  15  April 
1820.  He  was  a  brother  of  Sir  Charles  and 
George  Joseph  Bell,  and  after  completing  his 
professional  education  traveled  for  a  short  time 
in  Russia  and  the  north  of  Europe;  and  on  his 
return  began  to  deliver  lectures  on  surgery  and 
midwifery.  These  lectures,  delivered  between 
1786  and  1796,  were  very  highly  esteemed,  and 
speedily  brought  him  into  practice  as  a  consult- 
ing and  operating  surgeon.  The  increase  of  his 
private  practice,  indeed,  rendered  it  necessary 
for  him,  in  1796,  to  discontinue  his  lectures,  and 
from  that  time  forward  he  devoted  himself  to 
his  patients,  and  to  the  preparation  of  the  sev- 
eral publications  of  which  he  was  the  author. 
Patients  came  to  him  from  all  quarters,  both  of 
Scotland  and  England,  and  even  from  the  Con- 
tinent ;  and  during  that  interval  he  performed 
some  of  the  most  delicate  and  difficult  operations 
in  surgery.  Early  in  1816  he  was  thrown  by 
a  .spirited  horse,  and  appears  never  to  have  en- 
tirely recovered  from  the  effects  of  the  accident. 
He  was  the  author  of  ^The  Anatomy  of  the 
Human  Body'  (1793-1802;  3d  edition,  with 
plates  by  Charles  Bell,  181 1)  ;  ^Engravings  of 
the  Bones,  Muscles,  and  Joints,'  illustrating  the 
first  volume  of  the  ^Anatomy  of  the  Human 
Body,'  drawn  and  engraved  by  himself  (1794, 
3d  edition)  ;  'Engravings  of  the  Arteries,' 
illustrating  the  second  volume  of  the  'Anatomy 
of  the  Human  Body'  (i8or)  ;  *  Discourses  on  the 
Nature  and  Cure  of  Wounds'  (1795)  ;  "^The 
Principles  of  Surgery'  (i 801-8)  ;  'Letters  on 
Professional  Character';  'Observations  oa 
Italv.' 


BELL 


Bell,  John,  American  statesman:  b.  near 
Nashville,  Tenn.,  15  Feb.  1797;  d.  Cumberland 
Iron  Works,  Tenn.,  10  Sept.  1869.  Graduating 
at  Cumberland  College  (now  University  of 
Nashville)  in  1814,  he  practised  law  until  1827, 
when  he  was  elected  to  Congress.  He  received 
successive  re-elections  until  1841  when  he  be- 
came secretary  of  war  in  President  Harrison's 
cabinet,  but  resigned  when  President  Tyler 
withdrew  from  the  Whig  party.  From  1847  to 
1859  he  was  senator  from  his  State.  He  was 
chairman  of  several  important  committees,  and 
vigorously  opposed  the  Kansas-Nebraska  bill 
and  the  Lecompton  constitution  framed  for 
Kansas.  In  May  i860  he  was  nominated  for 
President  by  the  Constitutional  Union  party 
(q.v.),  but  was  defeated.  During  the  Civil 
War  he  took  no  active  part  in  politics. 

Bell,  John,  English  sculptor:  b.  Hopton, 
Suffolk,  181 1 ;  d.  25  March  1895.  His  best- 
known  works  are  the  •■  Eagle  Slayer^  ;  *Una  and 
the  Lion^  ;  'The  Maid  of  Saragossa^  ;  'Imo- 
gen^ ;  '  Andromeda ■•  ;  statues  of  Lord  Falkland, 
Sir  Robert  Walpole,  Newton,  Cromwell,  etc., 
and  the  Wellington  Memorial  in  Guildhall.  He 
was  one  of  the  sculptors  of  the  Guards'  Monu- 
ment in  Waterloo  Place,  London,  and  the  Prince 
Consort  Memorial  in  Hyde  Park.  He  was  the 
author  of  several  professional  treatises  and  of 
a  drama,  "^Ivan:  a  Day  and  a  Night  in  Russia.^ 

Bell,  Lilian,  American  novelist:  b.  Ken- 
tucky, 1867.  In  1900  she  was  married  to  Arthur 
Hoyt  Boyne,  but  continues  to  write  under  her 
maiden  name.  Her  writings  include  'The  Love 
Affairs  of  an  Old  Maid^  (1893)  ;  *A  Little  Sis- 
ter to  the  Wilderness^  (1895);  'The  Under 
Side  of  Things^  (1896)  ;  'From  a  Girl's  Point 
of  View^  (1897)  ;  'The  Instinct  of  Stepfather- 
hood^  (1898)  ;  'As  Seen  By  Me'  (1900)  ;  'The 
Expatriates'  (1900)  ;  'Yessum'  (1901)  ; 
'Abroad  With  the  Jimmies'  ;  'Hope  Loring'  ; 
'Sir  John  and  the  American  Girl.' 

Bell,  Sir  Lowthian,  English  manufacturer 
and  politician:  b.  Newcastle-on-Tyne,  1816;  d.  20 
Dec.  1904.  He  was  mayor  of  his  native  city 
1854-62,  sat  in  the  House  of  Commons  for 
Hartlepool  1875-80,  and  was  made  a  baronet 
in  1885.  He  founded  the  Clarence  Iron  Works 
on  the  Tees.  His  publications  include  'The 
Chemical  Phenomena  of  Iron  Smelting'  (1872); 
'  Report  on  the  Iron  Manufacture  of  the  United 
States,  and  a  Comparison  of  It  with  That  of 
Great  Britain'   (1877). 

Bell,  Nancy  R.  E.  Meugens,  English  art 
writer :  b.  Lambelh,  London.  Until  her  mar- 
riage to  A.  G.  Bell  in  1882  she  wrote  over  the 
signature  N.  D.  Anvers.  She  has  published 
'Elementary  History  of  Art'  ;  'Masterpieces  of 
the  Great  Artists'  ;  'Life  of  Gainsborough'  ; 
'Representative  Painters  of  the  19th  Century'  ; 
'St.  Antony  of  Padua'  ;  'An  Old  Educational 
Reformer:  J.  M.  D.  Meiklejohn' ;  '^Memoirs  of 
Baron  Le  Jeune'  ;  'Science  Ladders  Series' 
(8  vols.)  ;  'Raphael'  ;  'Lives  and  Legends  of 
the  Saints'  ;  'The  Saints  in  Christian  Art.' 

Bell,  Robert,  Irish  journalist  and  miscel- 
laneous writer:  b.  Cork,  16  Jan.  1800;  d.  Lon- 
don. 12  April  1867.  He  settled  in  London  in 
1828,  edited  an  important  weekly  paper,  the 
Atlas,  for  several  years,  and  afterward  the 
'Monthly  Chronicle,'  'Mirror,'  and  'Home 
News.'     He  compiled  several  volumes  of  'Lard- 


ner's  Cabinet  Cyclopaedia'  ;  wrote  three  plays, 
'The  Ladder  of  Gold,'  a  novel  (1856)  ;  'Hearts 
and  Altar,'  a  collection  of  tales  (1852),  and  did 
a  great  deal  of  miscellaneous  literary  work ;  but 
is  best  known  by  his  annotated  edition  of  the 
'British  Poets,'  the  first  volume  of  which  ap- 
peared in  1854,  and  which  was  carried  through 
29  volumes. 

Bell,  Robert,  Canadian  geologist:  b.  To- 
ronto, Ont.,  3  June  1841.  He  was  educated  at 
McGill  and  Queen's  universities,  and  in  1867 
joined  the  Canada  Geological  Survey,  and  in 
1900  was  an  assistant  director  of  it.  In  1861  he 
was  elected  a  member  of  the  American  Institute 
of  Mining  Engineers;  in  1881  became  a  Fellow 
of  the  Royal  Society  of  Canada;  and  in  1888-9 
was  a  member  of  the  Ontario  Commission, 
which  reported  on  the  mineral  resources  of  that 
province.  During  his  connection  with  the  geo- 
logical survey,  he  made  more  extensive  explora- 
tions throughout  the  Dominion  than  any  other 
man.  He  was  the  author  of  about  130  reports 
and  papers,  a  list  of  which  is  found  in  the 
'Biblio  of  the  Royal   Societ3^' 

Bell,  Robert  Stanley  Warren,  English 
writer,  editor  of  'The  Captain'  :  b.  Long-Pres- 
ton, Yorkshire,  27  June  1871.  He  has  published 
'The  Cub  in  Love'  (1897)  ;  'The  Papa  Papers' 
(1898);  'Bachelorland>  (1899);  'Tales  of 
Greyhouse'  ;    'Love  the  Laggard'    (1901). 

Bell,  Samuel,  American  statesman:  b. 
Londonderry,  N.  H.,  9  Feb.  1770;  d.  Chester, 
N.  H.,  23  Dec.  1850.  He  passed  his  boyhood 
upon  his  father's  farm,  graduated  at  Dartmouth 
College  in  1793,  and  was  admitted  to  practise 
law  in  1796.  He  rapidly  achieved  distinction  in 
his  profession,  and  in  1804  was  elected  a  repre- 
sentative to  the  State  legislature,  an  office  to 
which  he  was  twice  re-elected  ;  and  during  his 
last  two  terms  held  the  position  of  speaker  of 
the  house.  He  declined  the  attorney-generalship 
in  1807,  after  v/hich  he  was  successively  a  mem- 
ber of  the  State  senate,  and  of  the  executive 
council,  a  judge  of  the  supreme  court,  and  in 
1819  governor  of  the  State.  To  the  latter  office 
he  was  re-elected  four  times  in  succession,  till 
in  1823  he  was  elected  to  the  senate  of  the 
United  States,  an  office  to  which  he  was  also 
re-elected.  He  retired  from  public  life  upon  the 
expiration  of  his  second  term  in  1835. 

Bell,  Samuel  Dana,  American  jurist:  b. 
Francestown,  N.  H.,  9  Oct.  1798;  d.  31  July 
1868.  He  was  graduated  at  Harvard  in  1816; 
studied  law  in  Exeter ;  and  began  practice  in 
Meredith.  He  became  a  member  of  the  legisla- 
ture about  1825,  and  was  the  clerk  of  that  body 
for  several  years.  In  1830,  1842,  and  1867,  he 
was  a  member  of  the  commissions  appointed  to 
revise  the  State  'Statutes.'  In  1855  he  was 
appointed  justice  of  the  supreme  court  of  New 
Hampshire,  and  in  1859,  became  chief  justice 
of  the  court,  which  office  he  held  till  1864.  He 
joined  the  New  Hampshire  Historical  Society 
soon  after  its  organization,  and  the  Manchester 
Public  Library  was  founded  largely  through  his 
efforts. 

Bell,  Thomas,  English  zoologist:  b.  Poole, 
Dorset,  1792;  d.  Selborne,  Hampshire,  1880.  He 
studied  medicine  at  Guy's  and  St.  Thomas' 
hospitals,  London,  became  a  member  of  the 
Roj'al  College  of  Surgeons  in  1815,  and  soon 
secured  a  large  practice  as  a  dentist.  In  1832 
he  was  appointed  professor  of  zoology  in  King's 


BELL-SMITH  —  BELL 


College,  London,  a  post  which  he  held  almost 
to  the  last.  Latterly  he  lived  for  a  number  of 
years  at  Selborne  in  the  residence  that  had 
belonged  to  the  celebrated  Gilbert  White.  His 
best-known  separate  works  are  his  histories  of 
^British  Quadrupeds^  ;  ^British  Reptiles'  ;  and 
^British  Stalk-eyed  Crustacea,'  published  in 
Van  Voorst's  series.  In  1877  he  published  an 
excellent  edition  of  White's  *  Natural  History  of 
Selborne.' 

Bell-Smith,  Frederic  Marlett,  English  art- 
ist :  b.  London,  26  Sept.  1846.  He  went  to 
Canada  in  1866,  and  was  for  seven  j-ears  art 
director  at  Alma  College,  St.  Thomas,  and 
teacher  of  drawing  in  the  public  schools  of  Lon- 
don, Ont.  About  1888  he  became  a  portrait  and 
figure  painter ;  but  he  is  best  known  as  a 
painter  of  landscapes.  In  1894  he  produced 
< Lights  of  a  City  Street,'  his  greatest  achieve- 
ment up  to  that  year,  and  later,  two  canvases 
depicting  incidents  connected  with  the  death  of 
Sir  John  Thompson. 

Bell,  a  hollow  vessel,  which,  by  its  vibra- 
tions when  struck,  gives  forth  sounds ;  whence 
its  name,  from  the  old  Saxon  word  hcllan,  to 
bawl  or  bellow.  It  is  an  instrument  of  great 
antiquity,  being  spoken  of  by  Hebrew  writers, 
as  in  Ex.  xxviii.,  in  which  golden  bells  are  pre- 
scribed as  appendages  to  the  dress  of  the  high 
priest,  that  notice  may  thus  be  given  of  his 
approach  to  the  sanctuary.  And  at  this  day  the 
bell  is  used  for  a  similar  purpose  before  the 
priest,  in  Roman  Catholic  countries,  as  he  pro- 
ceeds to  administer  the  Holy  Viaticum  to  the 
soul  that  is  passing  away ;  and  so  when  the 
bell  is  tinkled,  fn  administering  the  sacrament, 
by  the  same  priest,  it  is  in  pursuance  of  a  cus- 
tom, founded  on  the  ancient  Hebrew  use  of  the 
bell.  More  intimately  than  any  other  instru- 
ment are  bells  associated  with  the  religious  and 
imaginative,  as  also  with  the  most  joyous  and 
the  saddest  feelings  of  mankind.  The  metal 
from  which  bells  are  usually  made  (by  found- 
ing), is  an  alloy,  called  bell-metal,  commonly 
composed  of  80  parts  of  copper  and  20  of  tin. 
The  proportion  of  tin  varies,  however,  from 
one  third  to  one  fifth  of  the  weight  of  the  cop- 
per, according  to  the  sound  required,  the  size 
of  the  bell,  and  the  impulse  to  be  given.  The 
clearness  and  richness  of  the  tone  depend  upon 
the  metal  used,  the  perfection  of  its  casting, 
and  also  upon  its  shape ;  it  having  been  shown 
by  a  number  of  experiments  that  the  well-known 
shape  with  a  thick  lip  is  the  best  adapted  to  give 
a  perfect  sound.  The  depth  of  the  tone  of  a 
bell  increases  in  proportion  to  its  size.  A  bell 
is  divided  into  the  body  or  barrel,  the  ear  or 
cannon,  and  the  clapper  or  tongue.  The  lip  or 
sound  bow  is  that  part  where  the  bell  is  struck 
by  the  clapper. 

The  sound  of  a  bell  is  a  compound  tone,  pre- 
senting five  and  in  many  instances  more  notes 
to  the  ear.  There  is  a  great  difference  between 
the  harmonics  of  a  bell  and  of  a  vibrating  string. 
In  the  case  of  the  former  a  minor  third  is  not 
infrequently  one  of  the  loudest  tones  next  to 
the  fundamental  tone.  When  a  bell  is  properly 
struck  the  first  note  which  attracts  the  atten- 
tion of  the  ear  is  known  as  the  strike  note,  tap 
note,  or  fundamental,  and  forms  what  is  called 
<'the"  note  of  the  bell.  The  low  sound  heard 
after  the  strike  note  has  lost  its  intensity  is 
called  the  hum  note,  and  the  octave  above  the 


strike  note  the  nominal.  There  are  also  present 
a  minor  third  and  a  perfect  fifth  in  the  first 
octave,  and  a  major  third  and  a  perfect  fifth  in 
the  second  octave.  Very  few  bells  agree  with 
these  conditions.  Generally  the  hum  note  is  a 
sixth  or  seventh,  and  in  rare  cases  a  ninth 
below  the  strike  note.  The  nominal  is  some- 
where about  an  octave  or  a  ninth  above  the 
strike  note,  and  the  other  notes  diverge  accord- 
ingly. Bells  that  are  swung  are  more  likely  to 
conform  to  the  conditions  than  those  that  are 
struck. 

Bells  were  used  very  early  in  the  form  of 
cymbals  and  hand  bells  in  religious  services.  In 
Egypt  the  feast  of  Osiris  was  announcef 
through  the  ringing  of  bells.  Bronze  bells  have, 
been  found  in  Assyria.  Bells  of  gold  were  worn 
by  Aaron  and  the  high  priests  of  the  Jews  on 
the  border  of  their  robes,  and  in  Athens  the 
priests  of  Cybele  used  them  in  their  offering! 
The  Romans  also  used  bells  which  they  called 
tintinabula,  to  announce  the  public  assemblies, 
and,  according  to  Suetonius,  Augustus  had  a 
bell  suspended  before  the  temple  of  Jupiter.  In 
the  Christian  churches  a  similar  custom  early 
came  into  use,  though  it  is  not  known  that  in 
the  first  Christian  churches  divine  service  was 
announced  by  any  such  method.  They  were 
used,  however,  in  the  early  monasteries  to 
announce  the  hours  of  prayer.  Generally  they 
were  made  of  tubes  struck  with  a  hammer.  They 
are  said  to  have  been  first  introduced  into 
Christian  churches  about  400  a.d.,  by  Paulinus, 
bishop  of  Nola  in  Campania  (whence  campana 
and  nola  as  old  names  of  bells)  ;  although  their 
adoption  on  a  wide  scale  does  not  become 
apparent  until  after  the  year  550,  when  they 
were  introduced  into  France.  They  are  rung 
to  summon  monks  and  choir  nuns  to  the  office, 
and  the  people  to  mass,  to  announce  the  Angelus, 
to  toll  during  funerals,  and  peal  on  occasions  of 
joy.  They  are  blessed  with  elaborate  ceremo- 
nies and  consecrated  or  "baptized"  in  honor  of 
some  saint. 

Until  the  13th  century  they  were  of  com- 
paratively small  size,  but  after  the  casting  of  the 
Jacqueline  of  Paris  (6I/2  tons)  in  1400,  their 
weight  rapidly  increased.  Among  the  more 
famous  bells  are  the  bell  of  Cologne,  11  tons, 
1448;  of  Dantzic,  6  tons,  1453;  of  Halberstadt, 
714,  1457;  of  Rouen,  16,  1501  ;  of  Breslau,  ir, 
1507;  of  Lucerne,  7V2,  1636;  of  Oxford,  7^, 
1680;  of  Paris,  i2f/5,  1680;  of  Bruges,  io34, 
1680;  of  Vienna,  17^,  1711;  of  Moscow  (the 
monarch  of  all  bells),  193,  1736;  three  other 
bells  at  Moscow,  ranging  from  16  to  31  tons, 
and  a  fourth  of  80  tons,  cast  in  1819;  the  bell 
of  Lincoln  (Great  Tom),  55^2,  1834;  of  York 
Minster  (Great  Peter),  10^,  1845;  of  Montreal, 
131/3,  1847;  of  Westminster  (Big  Ben),  151/, 
1856;  (St.  Stephen),  1314,  1858;  the  great 
bell  of  St.  Paul's,  171^,  1882.  Others  are  the 
bells  of  Ghent  (5),  Gorlitz  (lO-M),  St.  Peter's, 
Rome  (8),  Antwerp  (7>4).  Olmutz  (18),  Brus- 
sels  (7),  Novgorod  (31),  Pekin  (53^)- 

Bells,  as  the  term  is  used  on  shipboard,  are 
the  strokes  of  the  ship's  bell  that  proclaim  the 
hours.  Eight  bells,  the  highest  number,  are 
rung  at  noon  and  every  fourth  hour  afterward, 
that  is,  at  4,  8,  12  o'clock,  and  so  on.  The  inter- 
mediary periods  are  indicated  thus:  12:30,  i 
bell ;  I  o'clock,  2  bells ;  i  :30,  3  bells,  etc.,  until 
the  eight  bells  announce  4  o'clock,  when  the 
series   recommences  4 :30,    i    bell ;    5   o'clock,   2 


BELL-BIRD  —  BELLA 


bells,  etc.  The  even  numbers  of  strikes  thus 
always  announce  hours,  the  odd  numbers  half 
hours.  See  Gatty,  <The  Bell:  Its  Origin  and 
Uses*  (1848)  ;  Lukis,  ^Church  Bells  and  Their 
Founders-'  (1857)  ;  Andrews,  *  History  of 
Church  Bells>  (188O  ;  Otte,  ^Glockenkunde* 
(1884)  ;  Tyack,  <A  Book  About  Bells'    (1899). 

Bell-bird,  the  name  given  to  birds  in  va- 
rious parts  of  the  world,  which  utter  bell-like 
notes;  especially  the  "campanero"  (Chasnwrliyn- 
CHS  niveus) ,  one  of  the  chatterers  of  the  South 
American  family,  Cotingidcc.  It  resembles,  in 
form  and  size,  the  North  American  wax-wing, 
but  is  pure  white,  and  has  a  remarkable  append- 
age upon  its  forehead.  This  consists  of  a 
fleshy,  tapering  caruncle,  which  is  black,  thinly 
covered  with  star-like  tufts  of  minute  feathers. 
This  caruncle  ordinarily  hangs  loosely  down 
at  the  side  of  the  beak,  but  in  moments  of 
excitement  becomes  swollen  and  much  extended, 
reaching  a  length  of  even  five  inches.  This 
seems  to  be  produced  by  air  forced  into  its 
elastic  tissues  from  the  bird's  lungs,  and  occurs 
whenever  the  characteristic  notes  are  uttered. 
The  bird's  voice  has  been  described  by  many 
travelers  as  like  the  sound  of  a  loud,  clear  bell, 
which  rings  out  over  the  forest  at  mid-day, 
when  most  other  birds  are  silent.  Waterton 
said :  ^*You  hear  his  toll  and  then  a  pause  for 
a  minute,  then  another  toll,  and  then  a  pause 
again,  and  then  another  toll,  and  so  on.'*  Others 
have  compared  the  sound  to  a  blow  upon  an 
anvil,  and  all  agree  that  it  can  be  heard  a  great 
•distance.  Several  other  species  exist  in  cen- 
tral and  southern  South  America,  all  of  which 
have  caruncles,  and  utter  extraordinary,  ring- 
ing notes ;  but  the  former  belief,  that  the  loud 
voice  was  aided  by  these  hollow  appendages,  is 
now  known  to  be  erroneous.  These  birds  go 
about  in  small  flocks,  which  flit  through  the 
tree-tops,  and  feed  mainly  upon  forest  fruits. 
They  have  been  particularly  studied  by  J.  J. 
Quelch,  a  naturalist  of  British  Guiana,  an 
account  of  whose  interesting  investigations  will 
be  found  in  ^The  Field'  of  London,  for  26  Nov. 
1892. 

In  Australia,  the  name  *bell-bird"  is  given  to 
one  of  the  honey-suckers  (q.v.),  whose  ching- 
ching  is  welcomed  by  travelers  in  the  forest  as 
an  indication  that  water  is  near.  The  "bell- 
bird*  of  New  Zealand  is  another  honey-sucker 
(Anthornis  inelanura),  whose  voice,  usually 
heard  in  chorus,  resembles  the  tinkling  of  a 
silver  bell. 

Bell,  Book,  and  Candle,  a  solemn  mode  of 
excommunication,  used  in  the  Roman  Catholic 
Church.  After  the  sentence  is  read,  the  book 
is  closed,  a  lighted  candle  thrown  to  the  ground, 
and  a  bell  tolled  as  for  one  dead.  See  also 
Excommunication. 

Bell-flower.      See  Campanula. 

Bell,  Liberty,  the  bell  in  Independence 
Hall,  Philadelphia,  that  was  rung  to  announce 
the  adoption  of  the  Declaration  of  Independence 
by  the  Continental  Congress.  The  bell  was  cast 
in  London  by  Robert  Charles,  and  cost  about 
$500.  The  specifications  provided  that  it  was  to 
be  made  by  the  best  workmen,  to  be  examined 
carefully  before  being  shipped,  and  to  contain, 
in  well-shaped  letters  around  it,  the  inscription : 
"By  order  of  the  Prov.nce  of  Pennsvlvania.  for 
the  State  House  in  the  City  of  Philadelphia. 
1752."    An  order  was  given  to  place  underneath 


this  the  prophetic  words  from  Leviticus  xxv. 
10:  "Proclaim  liberty  throughout  the  land  and 
to  all  the  inhabitants  thereof."  The  reason  for 
the  selection  of  this  text  has  been  a  subject  of 
much  conjecture,  but  the  true  reason  is  apparent 
when  the  full  text  is  read.  It  is  as  follows : 
"And  ye  shall  hallow  the  50th  j^ear  and  pro- 
claim liberty  throughout  the  land  and  to  all 
the  inhabitants  thereof."  In  selecting  the  text 
the  Quakers  had  in  memory  the  arrival  of  Wil- 
liam Penn  and  their  forefathers  more  than  half 
a  century  before.  In  August  1752,  the  bell  ar- 
rived, but  though  in  apparent  good  order,  it 
was  cracked  by  a  stroke  of  the  clapper  while 
being  tested.  It  could  not  be  sent  back  as  the 
captain  of  the  vessel  who  had  brought  it  over 
could  not  take  it  on  board.  Two  skilful  men 
undertook  to  recast  the  bell,  a  bell  being  pro- 
vided which  pleased  very  much.  But  it  was 
found  to  be  defective  also.  The  original  bell 
was  considered  too  high  in  tone,  and  in  an 
attempt  to  correct  this  fault,  too  much  copper 
was  added.  There  were  a  great  many  witticisms 
on  account  of  the  sound  failure,  and  the  ingen- 
ious workmen  undertook  to  recast  the  bell, 
which  they  successfully  did,  and  it  was  placed 
in  condition  in  June  1753.  On  Monday,  8  July 
(not  the  4th),  at  noon,  true  to  its  motto,  it 
rang  out  the  memorable  message  of  "Liberty 
throughout  the  land  and  to  all  the  inhabitants 
thereof."  For  j^ears  the  bell  continued  to  be 
rung  on  every  festival  and  anniversary,  until  it 
eventually  cracked  8  July  1835,  while  being 
tolled  in  memory  of  Chief  Justice  Marshall. 
An  ineffectual  attempt  was  made  to  cause  it  to 
continue  serviceable  by  enlarging  the  cause  of  its 
dissonance  and  chipping  the  edges.  It  was  re- 
moved from  its  position  in  the  tower  to  a 
lower  storj^  and  only  used  on  occasions  of 
public  sorrow.  Subsequently,  it  was  placed  on 
the  original  timbers  in  the  vestibule  of  Inde- 
pendence Hall,  and  in  1873  was  suspended  in  a 
prominent  position  immediately  beneath  where 
a  larger  bell,  presented  to  the  city  in  1866,  now 
proclaims  the  passing  hours.  In  1893  it  was 
taken  to  Chicago  and  placed  on  exhibition  at 
the  World's  Columbian  Exposition. 

Bell  Rock,  a  dangerous  reef  of  sunken 
rocks  on  the  east  coast  of  Scotland,  about  12 
miles  from  Arbroath,  and  directlj^  in  the  way 
of  vessels  making  for  the  firths  of  Forth  and 
Tay.  The  Inchcape  or  Bell  Rock  reef  was  long 
the  terror  of  seamen,  and  on  it  numerous  vessels 
were  wrecked.  At  a  very  early  period  the 
Inchcape  Rock  was  unhappily  too  well  known, 
and  tradition  has  it  that  one  of  the  Abbots  of 
Aberbrothock  succeeded  in  placing  a  bell  upon 
it  (hence  the  name),  in  such  a  way  as  to  be 
rung  by  the  motion  of  the  waves,  to  warn  sail- 
ors of  its  proximity.  The  legend  tells  us  that 
a  notorious  Dutch  sea  pirate  cut  the  bell  from 
the  rock,  and  on  returning  with  his  ship  laden 
with  spoils  from  one  of  his  piratical  expeditions, 
he  and  his  crew  perished,  as  an  old  historian  has 
it,  "by  the  righteous  judgment  of  God,"  for 
want  of  the  signal  which  he  had  so  wantonly 
removed.  On  this  legend  Southey  has  founded 
his  well-known  ballad  of  'Sir  Ralph  the  Rover.* 
The  lighthouse  on  the  rock  was  designed  by 
Robert  Stevenson  in  1800. 

Bella,  Stefano  Delia,  Italian  engraver:  b. 
Florence,  1610;  d.  1664.  In  1642  he  went  to 
Paris,    where    he    was    employed    by    Cardinal 


BELLADONNA  —  BELLANGE 


Richelieu.  Returning  to  Florence  he  became 
the  teacher  in  drawing  of  Cosmo,  the  son  of  the 
great  duke.  It  is  said  that  he  engraved  1,400 
plates. 

Belladon'na,  or  Dwale,  Deadly  Nightshade, 

{Atropa  Belladonna),  a  perennial  disagreeable- 
smelling  herb  of  the  natural  order  Solanacece; 
is  a  native  of  the  region  from  southern  Europe 
to  India,  but  widely  naturalized  in  civilized 
countries.  It  is  a  low,  spreading  plant  which 
sometimes  attains  a  height  of  six  feet;  has  en- 
tire, ovate  leaves ;  purple,  bell-shaped,  nodding 
axillary  flowers,  single  or  in  pairs  ;  and  shining, 
black,  sweetish  berries  as  large  as  large  currants. 
The  plant  has  long  been  reputed  poisonous  but 
is  used  in  medicine,  especially  by  oculists,  be- 
cause of  its  property  of  dilating  the  pupil  of 
the  eye.  It  is  said  to  derive  its  name,  belladonna 
(^'beautiful  laciy")>  from  its  use  as  a  cosmetic 
for  distending  the  pupil  and  giving  the  ej'e  a 
bright  glistening  appearance  and  also  from  the 
use  of  the  juice  for  staining  the  skin.  Its 
names,  deadly  night  shade,  and  dwale  (which 
latter  is  believed  by  some  to  come  from  the 
same  source  as  the  French  deuil,  sorrow,  and  by 
others  from  the  Anglo-Saxon  dull,  because  of  its 
stupefying  effects),  refer  to  popular  belief  in  the 
plant's  poisonous  properties.  The  generic  name 
came  from  Atropos,  the  fate  who  cut  the  thread 
of  life. 

Belladonna  Lily.      See  Amarvllidace.i:. 

Bellaire,  bel-lar',  Ohio,  a  city  in  Belmont 
County,  on  the  Ohio  River,  and  several  rail- 
roads ;  five  miles  south  of  Wheeling,  W.  Va. 
The  river  is  here  crossed  by  a  costly  iron  rail- 
road bridge.  Bellaire  is  the  centre  of  a  region 
rich  in  coal,  iron,  cement,  brick,  clay,  and  lime- 
stone, and  has  manufactories  of  stoves,  glass, 
carriages,  boilers,  and  foundry  and  machine  shop 
products.  The  city  has  a  national  bank,  high- 
grade  educational  institutions,  daily  and  weekly 
newspapers,  and  an  assessed  property  valuation 
of  over  $3,000,000.     Pop.    (1900)  9.912. 

Bel'lamont,  or  Bellomont,  Richard  Coote 

(E.\RL  of),  royal  governor  of  New  York  and 
Massachusetts:  b.  1636;  d.  New  York,  5  IMarch 
1701.  To  these  ofifices  he  was  appointed  in  May 
1695,  but  did  not  arrive  in  New  York  until 
May  1698.  He  went  from  New  York  to  Boston 
in  May  1699,  and  was  received  by  20  companies 
of  soldiers  and  a  vast  concourse  of  people.  His 
administration  was  uneventful,  his  time  having 
been  occupied  in  the  pursuit  of  the  pirates  who 
infested  the  coast,  one  of  whom,  the  notorious 
Kidd,  he  secured  and  sent  to  England  in  1700. 
He  was  disliked  by  the  aristocratic  party  in  New 
York,  but  very  popular  in  New  Hampshire  and 
Massachusetts.  Hutchinson  speaks  of  Bellamont 
as  being  a  hypocrite  in  a  pretended  devotion  to 
religion.  It  appears,  however,  that  while  living 
at  Fort  George,  in  New  York,  he  passed  much 
time  in  meditation  and  contrition  for  his  youth- 
ful excesses.  He  was  accompanied  to  America 
by  his  countess.  See  De  Reyster,  ^Life  and  Ad- 
ministration of  Richard,  Earl  of  Bellamont^ 
(1869). 

Bellamy,  Edward,  American  writer:  b.  in 
Chicopee  Falls,  Mass.,  29  March  1850;  d.  there, 
22  May  1898.  He  was  educated  in  Germany; 
admitted  to  the  bar;  was  on  the  staflf  of  the 
Evening  Post  of  New  York  in  1871-2:  and  on 
his  return  from  the   Sandwich   Islands   in   1877, 


founded  the  Springfield  News.  He  is  best 
known  by  his  novel  ^Looking  Backward'  (1888), 
a  socialistic  work,  of  which  an  immense  num- 
ber of  copies  were  sold  in  two  years.  This  led 
to  the  formation  of  Nationalist  clubs,  in  which 
work  Mr.  Bellamy  took  active  part.  His  other 
books  are  ^Six  to  One:  a  Nantucket  Idyl* 
(1878);  ^Dr.  Heidenhoff's  Process'  (1880); 
*^Miss  Ludington's  Sister'  (1884)  ;  ^Equality' 
(1897);  'The  Duke  of  Stockbridge'  (1901),  a 
sequel  to  'Looking  Backward.' 

Bellamy,  Elizabeth  Whitfield  ( C  R  0  o  m  ) , 
American  novelist,  writing  under  the  pseudonym 
Kamba  Thorpe:  b.  Quincy.  Fla.,  17  April  1838; 
d.  1900.  She  published  'Four  Oaks'  (1867)  ; 
'Little  Joanna'  (1876);  'Old  Man  Gilbert' 
(1888)  ;   'The  Luck  of  the  Pendennings.' 

Bellamy,  George  Anne,  English  actress: 
b.  1727;  d.  1788.  She  was  the  natural  daughter 
of  Lord  Tyrawley,  by  whom  she  was  educated. 
Having  forfeited  his  favor  by  going  to  live  with 
her  mother,  she  secured  an  engagement  at 
Covent  Garden  in  1744,  and  appeared  with  Quin 
as  Monimia  in  'The  Orphan.'  Mrs.  Bellamy's 
professional  career  was  brilliant ;  but  her  extrav- 
agance and  profligacy  were  notorious.  In  1785, 
after  many  alternations  of  fortune,  a  free  bene- 
fit released  her  from  the  debtors'  prison,  and  in 
the  same  year  she  published  an  ^Apology'  for 
her  life. 

Bellamy,  Jacobus,  Flemish  poet:  b.  Flush- 
ing, 1757;  d.  1786.  In  1772  the  second  secular 
festival  in  commemoration  of  the  foundation  of 
the  republic  was  celebrated  throughout  Holland. 
His  genius,  suddenly  inflamed  by  the  love  of  his 
native  land,  rendered  him  a  poet,  and  his  first 
productions  met  with  success.  He  studied  Latin, 
made  himself  better  acquainted  with  his  mother 
tongue,  and  composed  several  pieces  of  merit 
sufficient  to  induce  the  Society  of  Arts  at  The 
Hague  to  incorporate  them  in  its  collections. 
In  1785  he  published  his  patriotic  songs  under 
the  title  'Vaderlandsche  Gezangen,'  which  se- 
cured him  a  place  among  the  first  poets  of  his 
nation.  Bellamy  sung  likewise  the  praise  of  love. 
A  biographical  account  of  him  has  been  written 
by  G.  Kniper. 

Bellamy,  Joseph,  American  clergj-man 
and  educator:  b.  North  Cheshire,  Conn.,  20  Feb. 
1719;  d.  6  March  1790.  In  1740  he  became  pas- 
tor of  the  church  in  Bethlehem,  Conn.,  where 
he  remained  until  his  death.  About  1742  he 
established  a  divinity  school,  in  which  many 
celebrated  clergymen  were  trained.  Among  his 
published  works,  besides  his  'Sermons,'  are 
'True  Religion  Delineated'  (1750)  ;  <The 
Nature  and  Glory  of  the  Gospel'  (1762), 
and  'The  Half-Way  Covenant'    (1769). 

Bellamy,  Samuel,  a  notorious  pirate,  was 
wrecked  in  his  ship,  the  Whidah,  of  23  guns  and 
130  men,  off  Wellfleet,  on  Cape  Cod,  in  April 
1717,  after  having  captured  several  vessels  on 
the  coast.  Only  one  Indian  and  one  English- 
man escaped  of  his  crew.  Six  of  the  pirates, 
who  had  been  run  ashore  when  drunk  a  few 
days  previous,  by  the  captain  of  the  captured 
vessel,  were  hung  in  Boston  in  November  1717. 

Bellange,  bel-lan-zha,  Hippolyte,  French 
painter:  b.  Paris  1800;  d.  1866.  Attention  was 
first  directed  to  him  by  his  painting  of  'The  Re- 
turn of  Napoleon  from  Elba,'  exhibited  in  1834. 
He    was    director    of    the    museum    at    Rouen, 


BELLARMINO  — BELLE  ISLE 


1837-53.  Among  his  many  noted  battle  pieces 
are  ^Battle  of  Wagram^  (1837);  "^Kellerman's 
Charge  at  Marengo^  (1847)  ;  ^Battle  of  the 
Alma>  (1855);  ^Assault  on  Malakoff^  (1859); 
<The  Guard  Dies>   (1866;. 

Bellarmino,  bel-lar-me'no,  or  Bellarmine, 
Roberto  Francesco  Romolo,  Italian  cardinal 
and  celebrated  controversialist :  b.  Monte  Pul- 
ciano  in  Tuscany,  4  Oct.  1542;  d.  Rome,  17  Sept. 
1621.  At  the  age  of  18  he  entered  the  College  of 
Jesuits,  where  he  soon  distinguished  himself;  and 
his  reputation  caused  him  to  be  sent  into  the 
low  countries  to  oppose  the  progress  of  the  re- 
formers. He  was  ordained  in  1569  by  Jansenius, 
Bishop  of  Ghent,  and  placed  in  the  theological 
chair  of  the  University  of  Louvain.  After  a 
residence  of  seven  years  he  returned  to  Italy, 
and  was  sent  by  Sixtus  V.  to  France,  as  com- 
panion to  the  legate.  He  was  made  a  cardinal 
on  account  of  his  learning,  by  Clement  VIII., 
and  in  1602  created  Archbishop  of  Capua.  At 
the  elections  of  Leo  XI.  and  Paul  V.  he  was 
thought  of  for  the  pontificate,  and  might  have 
been  chosen  had  he  not  been  a  Jesuit.  Paul  V. 
recalled  him  to  Rome,  on  which  he  resigned  his 
archbishopric  without  retaining  any  pension  on 
it  as  he  might  have  done.  Bellarmino  had  the 
double  merit  with  the  court  of  Rome  of  sup- 
porting her  temporal  power  and  spiritual  su- 
premacy to  the  utmost,  and  of  strenuously  op- 
posing the  reformers.  The  talent  he  displayed 
in  the  latter  controversy  called  forth  similar 
ability  on  the  Protestant  side ;  and  for  a  num- 
ber of  years  no  eminent  divine  among  the  re- 
formers failed  to  make  his  arguments  a  particu- 
lar subject  of  refutation.  The  great  work  which 
he  composed  in  this  warfare  is- entitled  "^A  Body 
of  Controversy,^  written  in  Latin,  the  style  of 
which  is  perspicuous  and  precise,  without  any 
pretension  to  purity  or  elegance.  He  displays 
a  vast  amount  of  Scriptural  learning,  and  is 
deeply  versed  in  the  doctrine  and  practice  of  the 
Church  in  all  ages.  His  maxims  on  the  right 
of  pontiffs  to  depose  princes  caused  his  work 
on  the  temporal  power  of  the  popes  to  be  con- 
demned at  Paris.  On  the  other  hand,  it  did  not 
satisfy  the  court  of  Rome,  because  it  asserted, 
not  a  direct,  but  an  indirect,  power  in  the  popes 
in  temporal  matters ;  which  reservation  so  of- 
fended Sixtus  v.,  that  he  placed  it  among  the 
list  of  prohibited  books.  His  society  thought  so 
highly  of  his  sanctity,  that  proofs  were  collected 
to  entitle  him  to  canonization ;  but  the  fear  of 
giving  offense  to  the  sovereigns  whose  rights  he 
oppugned  has  always  prevented  a  compliance 
with  the  ardent  wishes  of  the  Jesuits.  His  con- 
troversial works  were  published  at  Prague  in 
1721,  and  again  at  Mayence  in  1842.  Of  his 
other  works  the  most  important  is  his  ^Chris- 
tians Doctrinae  Applicatio'  (1603)  — a  work 
originally  composed  in  Italian,  but  since  trans- 
lated into  all  European  languages.  He  left  an 
autobiography,  which  was  re-issued  and  an- 
notated by  Dollinger  and  Reusch  (1887). 

Bellary,  bel-la're,  or  Ballari,  a  town  in 
India,  in  the  presidency  of  Madras,  capital  of  a 
district  of  the  same  name,  280  miles  northwest 
of  Madras.  It  is  the  headquarters  of  the  troops 
belonging  to  the  districts  of  Bellary  and  Kada- 
pah,  and  possesses  two  forts,  one  built  on  the 
summit,  and  the  other  on  a  lower  eminence  of 
a  huge  granite  rock  about  two  miles  in  circum- 
ference, and  rising  to  the  height  of  about  450 


feet  from  the  ground.  Bellary  is  the  terminus 
of  a  branch  line  of  the  Madras  Ry.,  and  car- 
ries on  an  active  trade  in  cotton.  Pop.  (1901) 
57,700. 

Bellay,  be-la,  Joachim  du,  distinguished 
French  poet,  known  as  the  French  Ovid :  b.  about 
1524;  d.  1560.  He  joined  Ronsard,  Daurat,  Jo- 
delle,  Belleau,  Baif,  and  De  Tisard  in  forming 
the  ^Pleiad,*  a  society,  the  object  of  which  was 
to  bring  the  French  language  on  a  level  with 
the  classical  tongues.  Bellay's  first  contribution 
was  *La  Defense  et  Illustration  de  la  Langue 
Frangaise.-*  His  chief  publications  in  verse  are 
'Recueil  de  Poesie^  ;  a  collection  of  love-sonnets 
called  ^L'Olive^  ;  ^Les  Antiquites  de  Rome,^  a 
series  of  sonnets;  <Les  Regrets'  ;  and  'Les  Jeux 
Rustiques.^  In  1555  he  became  canon  of  Notre 
DaniQ,  and  a  short  time  before  his  death  he  was 
nominated  archbishop  of  Bordeaux.  A  statue  of 
Bellay  was  unveiled  in  Ancenis  in  1894.  Spencer 
translated  some  of  his  Roman  sonnets  into  Eng- 
lish; and  there  are  translations  of  poems  by 
him  in  Andrew  Lang's  ^Ballads  and  Lyrics  of 
Old  France.^  See  ^Life^  by  Seche>  (1880); 
Pator,  ^Studies  in  the  History  of  the  Rennais- 
sance'    (if 


Belle-Alliance,  bel-a-le-ans,  a  farm  13 
miles  south  of  Brussels,  famous  as  the  position 
occupied  by  the  centre  of  the  French'  army  in  the 
battle  of  Waterloo,  18  June  1815.  By  the  Prus- 
sians the  battle  was  called  that  of  Belle  Al- 
liance. 

Belle  Chocolatiere,  bel-sho-ko-la-tyar.  La, 
a  noted  portrait  by  the  artist  Liotard  of  the 
Princess  Dietrichstien,  who,  prior  to  her  mar- 
riage, was  a  waitress  in  a  cafe  in  Vienna.  The 
painting  is  now  in  the  Dresden  Gallery. 

Belle-Isle,     bel-el,     or     Belle-Isle-en-Mer 

(anciently  Vindilis),  an  island  in  the  Bay  of 
Biscay,  belonging  to  France,  in  the  department 
of  Morbihan,  eight  miles  south  of  Quiberon 
Point,  about  ii  miles  long,  and  6  miles  across 
at  the  widest  point.  The  soil  is  diverse,  con- 
sisting of  rock,  salt  marsh,  and  fertile  grounds. 
Palais  is  the  capital.  The  island  is  of  much  in- 
terest historically.  In  1747  the  French  fleet  was 
defeated  by  Admiral  Hauke  off  the  island,  and 
n  was  captured  by  the  English  in  1761.  Pilchard 
and  sardine  fishing  is  the  important  industry. 
Pop.  10,000. 

Belle-Isle,  an  island,  15  miles  north  of 
Newfoundland  and  northeast  of  the  Gulf  of  St. 
Lawrence,  about  21  miles  in  circuit.  On  the 
northwest  side  it  has  a  small  harbor,  called 
Lark  Harbor,  within  a  little  island  close  to  the 
shore.  At  the  eastern  point  it  has  another  small 
harbor  or  cove  that  will  only  admit  fishing  shal- 
lops. A  rescue  station  has  been  established  for 
persons  who  may  be  shipwrecked.  Its  area  is 
about  15  square  miles.  At  its  southern  end  is 
a  lighthouse  whose  light  is  470  feet  above  the 
sea,  and  visible  for  28  miles.  The  narrow  chan- 
nel between  Newfoundland  and  the  coast  of  Lab- 
rador is  called  the  Straits  of  Bell-Isle.  Steam- 
ers from  Glasgow  and  Liverpool  to  Quebec 
round  the  north  of  Ireland  commonly  go  by  this 
channel  in  summer  as  being  the  shortest  route. 

Belle  Isle,  Va.,  an  island  in  the  James 
River,  opposite  Richmond,  where  nearly  12,000 
Federal  prisoners  were  confined  in  1863. 


BELLE  JARDINERE  — BELLEROPHON 


Belle  Jardinere,  bel-zhar-de-nyar,  La,  a 
celebrated  painting  by  Raphaeij  now  in  the 
Louvre.  It  represents  the  Madonna  with  the 
holy  child,  and  the  infant  St.  John. 

Belle  Plaine,  Iowa,  town  in  Benton 
County,  on  the  Iowa  River  and  on  several  rail- 
roads ;  257  miles  west  of  Chicago.  It  has  flour- 
ing mills,  furniture  factories,  creameries,  ma- 
chine shops,  broom  factories  and  numerous  ar- 
tesian wells.  It  was  founded  in  1862.  Pop. 
(1900)    3,283. 

Belle  Savage,  an  old  inn,  on  Ludgate 
Hill,  London,  celebrated  in  coaching  days,  and 
frequently  mentioned  by  Dickens  and  other 
writers  dealing  with  that  period. 

Belleau,  be-16,  Remy,  French  poet:  b. 
Nogent-le-Rotrou,  1528;  d.  Paris,  16  March 
1577.  He  made  an  elegant  and  spirited  transla- 
tion of  ^The  Odes  of  Anacreon*  (15/6).  His 
^Bergerie^  (1572),  a  compound  of  prose  and 
verse,  is  of  unequal  merit ;  but  it  contains  some 
passages, —  for  example,  the  **April,^'  —  which 
are  of  great  beauty. 

Bellefontaine,  Ohio,  a  city  and  county- 
seat  of  Logan  County ;  on  the  Cleveland.  C,  C. 
&  St.  L.  R.R. ;  57  miles  northeast  of  Dayton. 
It  occupies  the  highest  elevation  in  the  State ; 
and  is  surrounded  by  an  agricultural  region.  It 
has  extensive  car-shops  and  other  railroad 
works ;  two  national  banks ;  daily  and  weekly 
newspapers ;  an  assessed  property  valuation  of 
$2,250,000 ;  a  total  debt  of  about  $200,000.  Pop. 
(1900)  6.649. 

Bellefonte,  Pa.,  a  borough  and  county- 
seat  of  Centre  County,  87  miles  northwest  of 
Harrisburg.  It  has  important  lime  quarries, 
iron  furnaces,  glass  works,  manufactories  and 
machine  shops,  and  was  incorporated  in  1800. 
It  is  a  summer  resort  much  visited  for  its  scen- 
ery and  noted  for  its  spring,  whose  waters  have 
supplied  the  borough  since  1807.  Pop.  (1900) 
4,216. 

Bellegarde,  bel-gard,  Henri  (Count  de), 
French  writer :  b.  Piri^e,  30  Aug.  1648 ;  d.  Paris, 
1707.  He  was  a  member  of  the  community  of 
priests  of  St.  Francis  de  Sales,  and  the  recog- 
nized author  of  the  'Universal  History  of  Voy- 
ages'  (1707). 

Belleisle,  bel-el,  Charles  Louis  Auguste 
Fouquet  (Comte  de),  marshal  of  France:  b. 
Villefranche,  22  Sept.  1684 ;  d.  Versailles,  26  Jan. 
1761.  He  distinguished  himself  during  the  fa- 
mous siege  of  Lille,  and  became  brigadier  in 
the  royal  forces.  After  the  conclusion  of  the 
war  of  the  Spanish  Succession  he  went  with 
Marshal  Villars  to  Rastadt,  where  he  displayed 
diplomatic  talents.  The  cession  of  Lorraine  to 
France  in  1735  was  principally  his  work.  Car- 
dinal Fleury  reposed  confidence  in  him ;  Louis 
XV.  made  him  governor  of  Metz  and  the  three 
bishoprics  of  Lorraine,  which  office  he  held  until 
his  death.  Before  the  breaking  out  of  the  war 
in  1741  he  visited  the  principal  courts  of  Ger- 
many with  the  design  of  disposing  them,  after 
the  death  of  Charles  VI.,  to  choose  the  elector 
of  Bavaria  emperor  of  Germany ;  and  he  dis- 
played so  much  address  on  this  occasion  as  to 
excite  the  admiration  of  Frederick  II.  After  his 
return  he  placed  himself  at  the  head  of  the 
French  forces  sent  to  oppose  those  of  Maria 
Theresa.  He  took  Prague  by  assault ;  but,  the 
king  of  Prussia  having  made  a  separate  peace, 
he  was  compelled  to  a   retreat   which   he  per- 


formed with  admirable  skill.  In  December  1744, 
when  on  a  diplomatic  journey  to  Berlin,  he  was 
arrested  in  Germany  and  sent  to  England,  but 
he  was  exchanged  in  1746.  In  the  following 
year  he  forced  Gen.  Browne,  who  had  entered 
the  south  of  France  from  Italy,  to  raise  the  siege 
of  Antibes  and  to  retreat  over  the  Var.  In 
1748  the  king  made  him  a  duke  and  peer  of 
France,  and  the  department  of  war  was  commit- 
ted to  his  charge.  He  reformed  the  army  by 
abolishing  many  abuses,  enlarged  the  military 
academy,  and  caused  an  order  of  merit  to  be 
established. 

Bellenden,  William,  Scottish  writer:  b. 
Lasswade  (?)  Midlothian,  about  1555;  d.  about 
1633.  He  was  educated  at  Paris,  where  he  was 
professor  of  belles-lettres  in  1602;  and  though 
he  was  made  master  of  requests  by  James  I. 
he  still  continued  to  reside  in  the  French  me- 
tropolis. He  was  distinguished  for  the  elegance 
of  his  Latin  style,  and  in  1608  he  published  a 
work  entitled  'Ciceronis  Princeps,'  containing  a 
selection  from  the  works  of  Cicero,  consisting  of 
passages  relating  to  the  duties  of  a  prince,  etc. 
He  afterward  published  'Ciceronis  Consul,' 
'Senator,'  etc.,  with  two  other  treatises,  from 
one  of  which  Conyers  Middleton's  'Life  of 
Cicero'  was  largely  compiled  —  a  plagiarism  de- 
nounced by  Dr.  Parr  in  a  Latin  preface  prefixed 
to  a  re-issue  of  Bellenden's  writings   (1787). 

Bellermann,  Ferdinand,  German  painter: 
b.  Erfurt,  14  March  1814 ;  d.  Berlin,  11  Aug. 
1889.  He  was  educated  at  the  academy  at  Wei- 
mar, and  studied  later  at  Berlin  under  Karl 
Blechen  and  Wilhelm  Schirmer.  He  traveled  in 
Norway,  the  Netherlands,  Venezuela,  and  Ital}-, 
and  in  1866  became  professor  of  landscape  paint- 
ing at  the  Berlin  Academy.  He  utilized  the 
results  of  his  travels  in  the  production  of  many 
magnificent  landscapes,  among  which  may  be 
mentioned  'Evening  in  the  Valley  of  Caracas'  ; 
the  'Guacharo  Cave,  Venezuela'*;  'Sierra  Ne- 
vada' ;  etc. 

Bellerophon,  bel-le'ro-fon,  son  of  Glaucus, 
king  of  Ephyre,  by  Eurymede,  at  first  called 
Hipponous.  The  murder  of  his  brother,  whom 
some  call  Alcimenus  and  Bellerus,  procured  him 
the  name  of  Bellerophon,  or  murderer  of  Bel- 
lerus. After  this  murder  Bellerophon  fled  to 
the  court  of  Prcetus,  king  of  Argos,  whose  wife 
became  enamored  of  him ;  and  because  he 
slighted  her  passion  she  sought  to  destroy  him. 
He  escaped  her  machinations,  was  introduced  to 
the  court  of  Jobates,  king  of  Lycia,  and,  after  a 
number  of  adventures,  in  one  of  which  he  con- 
quered the  Chim?era,  he  married  the  daughter  of 
Jobates  and  succeeded  to  the  throne  of  Ljxia. 
The  latter  days  of  Bellerophon  were  unfortunate. 
Attempting  to  soar  to  heaven  on  the  back  of 
Pegasus,  Zeus  sent  a  hornet  which  so  stung  his 
winged  steed  that  he  cast  his  rider  to  the  earth, 
where  lame  and  blind  he  wandered  lonely  in 
the  Aleian  fields,  a  prey  to  corroding  grief  and 
melancholy,  shunning  men,  and  hated  by  the 
gods. 

Bellerophon,  a  genus  of  gasteropodous 
mollusks,  typical  of  the  family  Bellerophontidci. 
The  species  are  all  fossil  shells  foimd  in  the 
limestones  of  the  Silurian,  Devonian,  and  Car- 
boniferous periods.  The  best-known  American 
species  are  found  in  the  coal  measures  of  the 
Mississippi  valley  and  the  southwest.    The  so- 


BELLES-LETTRES  —  BELLIARD 


called  B.  cilohahis,  a  fossil  characteristic  of  the 
Trenton  formation,  is  now  assigned  to  the  genus 
Protozvarthia. 

Belles-letti-es,  bel-letr,  the  French  term, 
for  which  the  English  equivalent  is  polite  litera- 
ture. It  is  impossible  to  give  a  satisfactory  ex- 
planation of  what  is  or  has  been  called  belles- 
lettres;  in  fact,  the  vaguest  definition  would  be 
the  best,  as  almost  every  branch  of  knowledge 
has  at  one  time  been  included  in,  at  another  ex- 
cluded from,  this  denomination.  The  most  cor- 
rect definition,  therefore,  would  be,  perhaps,  such 
as  embraced  all  knowledge  and  every  science  not 
merely  abstract  or  simply  useful.  In  the  division 
of  the  departments  at  the  Lyceum  of  Arts,  es- 
tablished at  Paris  in  1792,  the  belles-lettres 
comprehended  general  grammar,  languages,  rhe- 
toric, geography,  history,  antiquities,  and  numis- 
matics ;  while  philosophy,  mathematics,  etc., 
were  called,  in  contradistinction,   sciences. 

Belleval,  Pierre  Richer  de,  bel-val,  pe-ar 
re-cha  de,  French  botanist :  b :  Chalons-sur- 
Marne  c.  1564 ;  d.  1623.  He  was  the  first  person 
in  France  who  taught  botany  as  a  science  distinct 
from  medicine.  Henry  IV.  established  a  botani- 
cal garden  at  Montpellier,  and  created  a  chair  of 
botany.  Belleval  obtained  the  first  appointment 
in  1593,  and  immediately  began  a  collection  of  all 
the  plants  in  Languedoc,  in  order  to  the  produc- 
t-ion of  an  illustrated  flora,  for  which  about  500 
quarto  plates  had  been  engraved,  when  he  cjied. 
Through  the  carelessness  of  his  representatives, 
almost  all  of  these  were  lost. 

Belleville,  bel-vTl,  Canada,  town,  port  of 
entry,  and  county-seat  of  Hastings  County,  On- 
tario, on  the  Bay  of  Quinte,  at  the  mouth  of  the 
Moira  River.  It  is  on  the  Grand  Trunk  Railway 
and  60  miles  west  of  Kingston.  It  has  an  ex- 
cellent harbor,  and  the  Moira  affords  abundant 
water-power  for  manufacturing.  Belleville  is  in 
the  heart  of  the  finest  dairying  region  of  Can- 
ada; is  in  direct  steamboat  communication  with 
many  Canadian  and  United  States  points,  and 
enjoys  an  extensive  trade,  especially  in  lumber. 
It  has  13  churches.  It  is  the  seat  of  Albert  Col- 
lege, which  has  an  arts  course,  music,  etc.,  and 
was  established  in  1857.  The  Ontario  Business 
College,  Belleville  Business  College,  Saint  Agnes 
Ladies'  School,  public  and  high  schools,  deaf 
and  dumb  institute,  and  public  library  are  some 
of  its  institutions.  The  chief  manufactories  are 
lumber,  pottery,  cigars,  sash  and  blinds,  woolens, 
shirts,  mining  tools,  machinery,  lanterns,  and  tin- 
ware. A  short  distance  east  of  Belleville  are 
large  cement  works  for  the  utilization  of  a  lime- 
stone which  exists  in  great  abundance  in  the 
vicinity.  The  city  has  agencies  for  the  principal 
banks  of  Canada,  daily  and  weekly  newspapers, 
;'nd  is  the  seat  of  a' United  States  consulate. 
Pop.  C1901)  9,117. 

Belleville,  111.,  a  city  and  county-seat  of 
Saint  Clair  County;  situated  on  several  rail 
roads ;  14  miles  east  of  Saint  Louis,  Mo.  It  is 
in  the  midst  of  very  productive  coal  mines  ;  has 
a  large  trade  in  flour,  and  general  produce ;  and 
is  chiefly  engaged  in  the  manufacture  of  glass, 
stoves,  flour,  nails,  and  machinery,  and  has  one 
of  the  largest  rolling  mills  in  the  West.  The 
city  has  trolley  lines  to  Saint  Louis,  a  public 
library.  Saint  Peter's  Cathedral  (Roman  Catho- 
lic), convent,  four  national  banks,  and  an  as- 
sessed property  valuation  of  over  $2,250,000. 
Pop.   (1900)   17,484. 


Bellevue,  Ky.,  a  city  on  the  Ohio  River 
opposite  Cincinnati,  of  which  it  is  practically  a 
suburb.  It  is  almost  exclusively  a  city  of  resi- 
dences.    Pop.   (1900)  6,332. 

Bellevue,  bel-view,  Ohio,  a  village  on 
Lake  S.  &  M.  S.,  Wheeling  &  L.  E.,  and  Nickel 
P.  R.R.'s ;  situated  in  Huron  and  Sandusky 
counties ;  about  16  miles  south  of  Sandusky. 
It  has  manufactures  of  agricultural  implements, 
and  a  large  farming  trade.     Pop.  (1900)  4,100. 

Bellevue,  bel-vii  (French,  *fine  prospect'*), 

a  name  given  to  various  villas  and  palaces,  but 
particularly  to  a  beautiful  country  palace  in  the 
neighborhood  of  Paris,  situated  on  a  ridge  of 
hills  stretching  from  St.  Cloud  toward  Meudon. 
It  was  built  by  Mme.  de  Pompadour,  com- 
menced in  July  1748,  and  finished  in  November 
1750.  The  first  French  artists  of  the  time  had 
exerted  all  their  talents  in  embellishing  it;  so 
that  at  the  period  when  it  was  built,  it  was  con- 
sidered the  most  charming  in  all  Europe.  After 
the  Rev'olution  the  Convention  decreed  that 
Bellevue  should  be  kept  in  repair  at  the  expense 
of  the  nation,  and  devoted  to  public  amuse- 
ments. Nevertheless  it  was  publicly  sold  dur- 
ing the  highest  pitch  of  revolutionary  excite- 
ment, and  the  purchaser  had  it  demolished. 
There  is  a  pretty  village  on  its  site,  which,  dur- 
ing the  siege  of  Paris  (1870-1)  was  an  impor- 
tant strategic  point. 

Bellevue  Hospital,  New  York,  a  hos- 
pital situated  on  the  East  River,  between  26th 
and  27th  streets.  It  is  the  seat  of  a  medical 
school  of  high  rank,  and  has  accommodations 
for  about  1,300  patients. 

Belley,  bel-la,  France  (ancient  Bellica),  a 
town  in  the  department  Ain,  39  miles  southeast 
of  Bourg,  and  38  miles  southwest  of  Geneva ; 
situated  in  a  fertile  valley  watered  by  the  Furan. 
It  is  very  ancient,  having  been  a  place  of  note 
in  the  time  of  Julius  Caesar,  and  is  the  seat  of  a 
bishopric  founded  in  412.  It  contains  a  com- 
munal college,  has  an  agricultural  society,  and 
a  court  of  primary  resort.  The  episcopal  palace, 
the  belfry  of  the  cathedral,  the  college,  and  the 
rich  cabinet  of  medals  and  antiquities,  are  worth 
notice.  Silk  worms  are  reared;  and  lithographic 
stones,  reckoned  the  best  in  France,  are  ob- 
tained from  quarries  in  the  neighborhood.  Pop. 
(1896)  6,070. 

Belli,  Giuseppe  Gioachino,  bel'le,  joo-sep'pT 
jo-ke'no,  Roman  humorist  and  satirical 
poet:  b.  1791  ;  d.  1863.  He  wrote  in  the  popular 
dialect  of  the  Trastevere.;  and  in  early  life 
scourged  the  papacy  and  the  clergy  with  sting- 
ing, irreverent,  and  often  vulgar  satire.  Becom- 
ing afterward  a  zealous  convert  to  the  Roman 
faith,  he  endeavored  to  call  in  and  destroy  the 
indiscretions  of  his  youth.  In  his  last  years  he 
published  a  beautiful  translation  of  the  Roman 
Breviary.  His  published  sonnets  amount  to 
more  than  2,000;  his  other  published  Italian 
verses  fill  four  considerable  volumes  ;  while  two 
thirds  of  his  vast  remains  have  never  been  gath- 
ered and  edited.  Of  this  last,  much  is  clothed 
in  language  too  coarse  to  bear  the  light  of  mod- 
ern culture. 

Belliard,  Augustin  Daniel,  bel-yar,  6-goos- 
tah  dan-vel  (Count  de),  French  soldier  and 
diplomatist :  b.  Fontenay-le-Comte,  La  Vendee, 
1769;  d.  27  Jan.  1832.  He  entered  the  military 
service  very  early,  and  Dumouriez   soon  made 


BELLIGERENT  —  BELLINI 


him  an  officer  of  his  staff.  Under  Napoleon, 
serving  in  Egypt,  Germany,  Spain,  and  Russia, 
he  rose  to  great  military  distinction.  After  the 
emperor's  abdication  he  received  the  order  of 
Saint  Louis  from  Louis  XVIII.  and  was  made  a 
peer  and  major-general  of  the  French  army. 

Bellig'erent,  a  nation  or  a  large  section  of 
a  nation  engaged  in  carrying  on  war.  When  a 
revolted  party  of  great  numerical  strength  are 
able  to  lorm  a  regular  government  and  rule 
over  the  whole  or  part  of  the  territory  which 
they  claim,  humanity  dictates  that  they  should 
not  be  treated  as  rebels  guilty  of  treason,  but 
should,  if  captured,  be  regarded  as  prisoners  of 
war.  To  attain  this  result  it  is  needful  for 
those  who  have  risen  in  arms  against  the  gov- 
ernment to  make  every  effort  to  obtain  for  their 
party  the  position  of  belligerents.  In  the  con- 
test between  the  Federals  and  Confederates  in 
the  War  of  1861-5,  the  latter  section  of  the 
American  people,  at  the  very  commencement  of 
the  struggle,  claimed  the  privileges  of  belliger- 
ents. Their  demand  was  promptly  acceded  to 
by  the  British  government,  at  which  the  Federal 
authorities  took  umbrage,  contending  that  the 
recognition  had  been  premature,  while  the  Brit- 
ish maintained  that  it  could  not  have  been  re- 
fused or  delayed. 

Bellingham,  Richard,  royal  governor  of 
Massachusetts:  b.  1592;  d.  7  Dec.  1672.  He 
emigrated  to  the  colony  in  1634 ;  in  1635  was 
made  deputy-governor;  and  in  1641  was  elected 
governor  in  opposition  to  Winthrop  by  a  ma- 
jority of  six  votes.  He  was  re-elected  in  1654, 
and  after  the  death  of  Endicott  was  chosen 
again  in  May  1665,  and  continued  in  the  execu- 
tive chair  of  the  colony  as  long  as  he  lived,  hav- 
ing been  deputy-governor  13  and  governor  10 
years.  He  was  chosen  major-general  in  1664, 
in  which  year  the  king  sent  Nichols,  Cortright, 
Coon,  and  Moresick  as  commissioners  to  in- 
quire into  the  state  of  the  colony,  when,  accord- 
ing to  Hutchinson,  Bellingham  and  others  ob- 
no.xious  to  James  II.  were  required  to  go  to 
England  to  account  for  their  conduct.  The  gen- 
eral court,  however,  refused  obedience  and  main- 
tained the  authority  of  the  charter.  His  wife 
having  died,  in  1641  he  married  a  second  time, 
of  which  a  contemporary  speaks  thus  :  "A  young 
gentleman  was  about  to  be  contracted  to  a 
friend  of  his,  when  on  a  sudden  the  governor 
treated  with  her,  and  obtained  her  for  himself.** 
The  banns  were  not  properly  published,  and  he 
performed  the  marriage  ceremony  himself.  He 
was  prosecuted  for  a  violation  of  the  law,  but  at 
the  trial  he  refused  to  leave  the  bench,  sat  and 
tried  himself,  and  thus  escaped  all  punishment. 
In  his  last  will  he  provided  that  after  the  decease 
of  his  wife  and  of  his  son  by  a  former  wife,  and 
his  granddaughter,  the  bulk  of  his  estate  should 
be  spent  for  the  yearly  maintenance  "of  goodly 
ministers  and  preachers**  of  the  true  Church, 
which  he  considered  to  be  that  of  the  Congre- 
gationalists.  This  will  the  general  court  set 
aside  on  the  ground  that  it  interfered  with  the 
rights  of  his  family.  A  sister  of  his,  Anne  Hib- 
bens,  was  executed  at  Salem  in  June  1656,  dur- 
ing the  witchcraft  persecution. 

Bellingham,  Wash.,  city,  county  of 
Whatcom ;  on  the  eastern  shore  of  Bellingham 
Bay,  and  on  the  Great  Northern,  Northern 
Pacific,  Canadian  Pacific,  and  Bellingham  Bay  & 
British  Columbia  R.R.'s. 


History. —  The  first  settlement  was  made  in 
October  1852  by  Capt.  Henry  Roeder,  who  built 
a  saw-mill  on  what  is  now  Whatcom  Creek. 
The  Lummi  tribe  of  Indians  maintained  their 
chief  camp  on  the  beach  near  the  mouth  and 
falls  of  Whatcom  Creek,  and  called  the  camp  or 
rather  the  locality  ^HVhrap-cop^^  meaning  "the 
noisy  water**  or  "the  place  of  the  noisy  water.** 
The  white  men  retained  the  Indian  name  for 
their  town,  modified  as  indicated  by  the  spelling 
to  Whatcom.  This  remained  the  name  of  the 
town  until  the  consolidation  of  Whatcom  and 
New  Whatcom  in  1891  under  the  name  of  New 
Whatcom,  from  which  the  prefix  "New'*  was 
dropped  by  action  of  the  state  legislature  19 
Feb.  1901.  Fairhaven  is  the  English  interpreta- 
tion of  an  Indian  word  or  phrase,  '^See-see- 
leechel/^  meaning  "a  safe  harbor**  or  "the  shel- 
tered beach.**  The  town  was  platted  and  named 
in  1883  by  Daniel  J.  Harris,  the  original  dona- 
tion claimant.  In  1890  Fairhaven  and  the  ad- 
joining town  of  Bellingham  were  incorporated 
as  one  city  under  the  name  of  Fairhaven.  On 
27  Oct.  1903,  the  electors  of  Fairhaven  and 
Whatcom  voted  to  consolidate  the  two  cities 
under  the  name  of  Bellingham  and  the  con- 
solidation was  duly  consummated.  The  new- 
name  went  into  effect  28  Dec.  1903,  and  the  post- 
office  became  Bellingham  i  April  1904.  Belling- 
ham Bay  was  named  by  Vancouver  in  1792,  and 
the  consolidated  city  takes  its  name  from  that 
bay. 

Indxistries. —  The  city  is  the  commercial  cen- 
tre of  a  large  lumber  and  agricultural  region ; 
salmon  fishing  is  also  an  industry  of  great  im- 
portance, and  mining  and  quarrying  are  carried 
on  in  the  vicinity.  The  principal  manufactur- 
ing establishments  include  lumber  and  shingle 
mills,  salmon  canneries,  wood  working  and  iron 
working  plants,  and  brick  kilns.  There  are  four 
banks  with  a  combined  capital  of  $405,000. 

Churches  and  Educational  Institutions. — 
There  are  (in  1904)  27  established  churches  in 
Bellingham,  representing  practically  all  denom- 
inations. There  are  11  city  schools,  including  a 
high  school,  and  two  libraries,  the  Bellingham 
Bay  Library,  and  the  Carnegie  Library.  The 
city  also  contains  the  State  Normal  School,  and 
three  business  colleges. 

Government  and  Population. —  The  govern- 
ment is  vested  in  a  mayor,  elected  biennially, 
and  a  council  of  seven  members,  elected  al- 
ternately every  two  years.  Pop.  (Official  census 
1904),  22,632.  Frank  C.  Teck, 

Bellingham  Chamber  of  Commerce. 

Bellini,  Gentile,  jen-te'la,  the  elder  son 
of  Jacopo  (q.v.)  :  b.  1421 ;  d.  1501.  He  became 
much  more  distinguished  than  his  father,  but 
did  not  rival  his  younger  brother,  Giovanni. 
His  fame  attracted  the  notice  of  Moham- 
med II.,  conqueror  of  Constantinople,  and  Bel- 
lini visited  the  grand  seignor,  being  sent  by  the 
Senate.  He  painted  a  number  of  pictures  for 
Mohammed,  and  also  struck  a  medal  for  him, 
with  all  of  which  he  was  greatly  pleased,  and 
rewarded  the  painter  by  presenting  him  with  a 
gold  chain  and  3,000  ducats.  A  story  is  told 
of  his  exhibiting  to  IMohammed  a  picture^  he 
had  painted  of  the  head  of  John  the  Baptist  in  a 
charger,  and  the  emperor,  who  had  certainly 
great  experience  in  decapitation,  observing  that 
the  muscles  of  the  neck  were  not  correctly 
drawn,  sent  for  a  slave  and  had  his  head  cut 
off  in  the  presence  of  the  artist,  to  convince  hira 


BELLINI  —  BELLOT 


of  his  mistake.  Voltaire  ridicules  this  tale,  and 
Gibbon  altogether  rejects  it.  There  is  a  very 
fine  pen-and-ink  drawing  by  Bellini  in  the  Brit- 
ish Museum,  representing  Mohammed  and  the 
sultana  mother,  in  whole-length  figures  in  a  sit- 
ting position.  After  Gentile's  return  to  Venice, 
he  continued  to  paint,  honored  by  the  patronage 
of  the  state  and  of  private  individuals,  until  his 
death. 

Bellini,  Giovanni,  bel-le'ne,  jo-va-ni,  Ital- 
ian painter:  b.  1426;  d.  Venice,  29  Nov.  1516. 
He  was  the  second  son  of  Jacopo  Bellini  (q.v.) 
and  generally  regarded  as  the  founder  of  the 
Venetian  school,  though  he  himself  was  his 
father's  pupil.  Some  of  his  earliest  works  were 
portraits,  among  them  that  of  the  doge,  Leonardo 
Loredano,  now,  with  another  of  his  masterpieces, 
'Peter  Martyr,^  in  the  London  National  Gallerj'. 
Having  attracted  the  notice  of  the  government, 
he  was  emploj^ed  by  the  republic  to  decorate  the 
great  hall  of  the  council  with  a  series  of  mag- 
nificent paintings,  covering  the  entire  walls,  and 
designed  to  represent  the  proudest  historic 
glories  of  Venice.  These  were  worthily  accom- 
plished, but  were  destroyed  by  a  fire.  Among 
his  scholars  were  Giorgione  and  Titian,  and  it 
was  from  him  that  these  masters  acquired  their 
magnificent  coloring. 

Bellini,  Jacopo,  ya'c6-p6,  Italian  painter: 
b.  Venice  about  1405 ;  d.  1470.  He  was  a  pupil  of 
Gentile  da  Fabriano,  and  is  said  to  have  been 
taught  oil-painting,  which  was  then  a  secret,  by 
Andrea  dal  Castagno,  and  in  turn  taught  it  to 
his  sons  Gentile  and  Giovanni  (qq.v.).  The  first 
works  by  which  he  acquired  fame  were  portraits 
of  Catharine  Cornaro,  the  beautiful  queen  of 
Cyprus,  and  one  of  her  brothers ;  a  picture  repre- 
senting the  passion  of  Christ,  in  w-hich  many 
figures  were  introduced,  himself  among  the  num- 
ber ;  and  a  historical  picture  representing  a  Vene- 
tian legend  of  the  miracle  of  the  cross.  This 
cross,  containing  a  piece  of  the  true  one  on  which 
the  Saviour  died,  was  by  some  accident  thrown 
into  the  Grand  Canal  at  Venice,  and  although 
many  persons  plunged  in  after  it,  it  was  the 
will  of  God  that  only  the  guardian  of  the  broth- 
erhood to  whom  the  cross  belonged,  Andrea 
Vindramino,  could  take  it  out  again.  This  event 
was  represented  in  the  painting.  Almost  all  of 
Jacopo's  works  have  perished ;  one  supposed  to 
be  authentic  is  in  the  Manfrini  palace  at  Venice 
and  represents  the  portraits  of  Petrarch  and 
Laura. 

Bellini,  Vincenzo,  vin-chen'zo,  Italian 
composer:  b.  Catania,  Sicily,  1802;  d.  near  Paris, 
1835.  He  was  educated  at  Naples  under  Zinga- 
relli,  commenced  writing  operas  before  he  was 
20,  and  composed  for  the  principal  musical  es- 
tablishments in  Europe.  His  most  celebrated 
works  are  'Norma,^  'I  Puritani,'  and  'La  Son- 
nambula.'  He  is  remarkable  chiefly  for  sweet- 
ness of  melod3^  suitableness  of  harmony,  and  an 
adaptation  of  sound  to  sense,  and  stood  honor- 
ably distinguished  from  many  of  his  profession 
by  the  excellence  of  his  moral  character. 

Bellinzona,  bel-Tn-z6'na,  or  Belleny,  bel- 
a'ne,  Switzerland,  the  capital  of  the  canton  of 
Ticino  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Ticino,  about  five 
miles  from  its  embouchure  in  the  northern  end 
of  Lago  Maggiore.  It  occupies  a  position  of 
great  military  importance. 

Bellis.     See  Daisy. 


Bellman,  Karl  Mickel,  Swedish  poet:  b. 
Stockholm,  1740;  d.  1795.  He  grew  up  in  the 
quietude  of  domestic  life,  and  the  first  proofs  he 
gave  of  his  poetical  talents  were  religious  and 
pious  effusions.  The  dissipated  life  of  young  men 
at  Stockholm  devoted  to  pleasure  was  afterward 
the  subject  of  his  poems.  By  these  his  name 
was  spread  over  all  Sweden.  Even  the  atten- 
tion of  Gustavus  III.  was  attracted  to  him,  and 
he  received  from  the  king  an  appointment  which 
enabled  him  to  devote  himself  almost  entirely 
to  poetical  pursuits,  in  an  easy  independence,  un- 
til his  death.  His  songs  are  truly  national,  and 
love  and  liquor  their  most  common  themes. 

Bello,  Andres,  Spanish-American  diplo- 
matist and  author :  b.  Caracas,  Venezuela,  30 
Nov.  1780;  d.  Santiago,  Chile,  15  Oct.  1865.  He 
represented  Venezuela  in  London,  1810-28;  in 
1829  became  a^n  official  of  the  bureau  of  finance; 
in  1834  was  minister  of  foreign  affairs  for  Chile ; 
in  1842,  the  first  rector  of  Santiago  University. 
He  was  the  author  of  'Principles  of  Interna- 
tional Law^  (1832),  and  after  his  death  his  en- 
tire works  were  printed  at  the  expense  of  the 
state. 

Belloc',  Hilaire,  English  litterateur:  b.  27  July 
1870.  He  is  the  son  of  M.  Louis  Belloc,  a 
French  barrister;  was  educated  at  Balliol  College, 
Oxford,  after  serving  for  a  time  in  the  French 
artillery  at  Toul,  and  in  1906  was  elected  to  Par- 
liament as  a  Liberal.  He  has  published  'The 
Bad  Child's  Book  of  Beasts >  (1896);  'More 
Beasts  for  Worse  Children*  (1897) ;  'The  Modern 
Traveler'  (1898); 'The  Moral  Alphabet >  (1899); 
'Danton,'  a  much-admired  biography  (1899); 
'Lambkins  Remains'  (1900);  'Paris'  (1900); 
<  Robespierre'  (1901) ;  'The  Path  to  Rome'  (1902) ; 
'The  Old  Road'  (1905);  etc. 

Belloc.  Marie  Adelaide.    See  Lowndes,  M.A. 

Bellomont,  Earl  of.  See  Bellamont,  Rich- 
ard, Earl  of. 

Bel'lomont,  Earl  of.     See  Coote,  Richard. 

Bello'na,  the  goddess  of  war,  daughter  of 
Phorcys  and  Ceto.  She  was  called  by  the  Greeks 
Enyo,  and  is  often  confounded  with  Minerva.  She 
was  anciently  called  Ducllona,  and  was  the  sis- 
ter of  Mars,  or,  according  to  some,  his  daughter 
or  his  wife.  She  prepared  his  chariot  when  he 
was  going  to  war,  and  drove  his  steeds  through 
the  tumult  of  the  battle  with  a  bloody  scourge, 
her  hair  dishevelled  and  a  torch  in  her  hand. 
The  Romans  paid  great  adoration  to  her ;  but 
she  was  held  in  the  highest  veneration  b)'  the 
Cappadocians,  chiefly  at  Comana,  where  she  had 
above  3,000  priests.  ,Her  temple  at  Rome  was 
near  the  Porta  Carmentalis.  In  it  the  senators 
gave  audience  to  foreign  ambassadors  and  to 
generals  returned  from  Avar.  At  the  gate  w^as  a 
small  column,  called  the  "column  of  war,'* 
against  which  they  threw  a  spear  whenever  war 
was  declared.  The  priests  of  this  goddess  con- 
secrated themselves  by  making  great  incisions  in 
their  bodies,  and  particularly  in  the  thigh,  from 
which  they  received  the  blood  in  their  hands  to 
offer  as  a  sacrifice  to  the  goddess.  In  their  wild 
enthusiasm  they  often  predicted  bloodshed  and 
wars,  the  defeat  of  enemies,  or  the  besieging  of 
towns. 

Bellot,  Joseph  Rene,  bel-lo,  zho-sef  re-na, 
French  naval  officer  :  b.  Paris,  1826 ;  d.  1853.'  At 
the  age  of  16  he  entered  the  naval  academy  at 


BELLOT  STRAIT  — BELLOY 


Brest,  and  two  years  afterward  received  a  com- 
mission as  elcve  de  marine  on  board  the  Berceau. 
He  was  promoted  for  bravery  to  the  rank  of 
eleve  of  the  first  class,  and  also  created  a  cheva- 
lier of  the  Legion  of  Honor,  though  not  yet  20 
years  old.  On  his  return  to  France  in  1847  he 
was  made  a  sub-lieutenant,  and  shortly  after  a 
two-years'  voyage  to  South  America  in  the 
Triomphante  he  volunteered  his  services  on  the 
Royal  Albert  schooner,  fitted  out  by  Lady  Frank- 
lin, in  June  1851,  to  search  for  her  husband,  Sir 
John  Franklin.  The  expedition  failed  in  its 
main  object,  but  an  interesting  journal  of  it, 
kept  by  Bellot,  was  published  after  his  death. 
In  June  1853,  he  sailed  again  on  board  the 
Phoenix,  under  command  of  Capt.  Inglefield,  on 
a  new  Arctic  expedition,  the  principal  object  of 
which  was  to  convey  dispatches  to  Sir  Edward 
Belcher,  then  commanding  H.M.S.  Assistance  in 
the  Polar  seas.  Arrived  in  Erebus  and  Terror 
Bay,  where  lay  the  North  Star,  whose  com- 
mander. Capt.  Pullen.  was  absent  on  a  journey 
of  discovery,  Capt.  Inglefield  set  out  in  search  of 
him  ;  but  in  his  absence  it  became  desirable  to 
get  the  despatches  conveyed  to  Sir  Edward 
Belcher  —  a  duty  which  Lieut.  Bellot  undertook 
to  perform  by  crossing  the  ice.  Having  set  out 
with  four  sailors,  a  canoe,  and  a  sledge,  the 
party  got  separated  in  a  gale  of  wind  on  18  Aug- 
ust, and  Bellot,  with  two  others,  drifted  away 
on  a  piece  of  ice.  With  the  view  of  ascertain- 
ing the  direction  the  ice  was  taking,  he  crossed 
over  to  the  opposite  side  of  the  hummock  and 
was  never  seen  more.  A  handsome  granite 
obelisk  was  erected  to  his  memory  in  front  of 
Greenwich  Hospital,  and  a  provision  was  made 
for  his  sisters. 

Bellot  Strait,  the  passage  on  the  north 
coast  of  North  America  which  separates  North 
Somerset  from  Boothia  Felix  and  connects 
Prince  Regent  Inlet  with  Franklin  Channel.  Its 
eastern  entrance  was  discovered  in  1852  by  Lieut. 
Bellot  (q.v.).  After  four  unsuccessful  attempts 
it  was  explored  for  the  first  time  by  McClintock 
on  his  crowning  voj'age.  It  is  about  20  miles 
long,  and,  at  its  narrowest  part,  about  one  mile 
wide,  running  nearly  on  the  parallel  of  72°,  be- 
tween granite  shores  which,  everywhere  high, 
rise  here  and  there  to  1.500  or  1,600  feet. 
Through  this  funnel  both  the  winds  and  the  wa- 
ters have  full  play;  the  latter,  permanent  cur- 
rents and  flood  tides  alike,  coming  from  the 
west.  A  point  on  the  southern  shore,  71°  55' 
N.,  95°  W.,  is  the  most  northerly  point  of  the 
North  American  continent. 

Bellotto  Bernardo,  Italian  painter  and  en- 
graver: b.  Venice,  1724;  d.  Warsaw,  1780.  He 
studied  under  his  uncle,  Antonio  Canal,  and 
painted  perspective  and  architectural  views.  He 
passed  much  time  in  Germany  and  was  a  mem- 
ber of  the  Academy  of  Dresden,  where  many  of 
his  pictures  are  exhibited.  He  etched,  from  his 
own  designs,  views  of  Vienna,  Dresden,  and 
Warsaw.  His  pictures  are  called  by  the  name 
of  Canaletto,  which  he  assumed. 

Bellows,  Albert  F.,  American  painter:  b. 
Milford,  Mass.,  20  Nov.  1829;  d.  24  Nov.  1883. 
He  was  one  of  the  first  to  succeed  with  water- 
colors.  He  studied  in  Antwerp.  Paris,  and  Eng- 
land, becoming  a  National  Academician  (1861), 
and  an  honorary  member  of  the  Royal  Belgian 
Water  Color  Society  {il 


Bellows,  Henry  Whitney,  American  Uni-- 
tarian  clergyman  and  writer :  b.  Walpole,  N.  H., 
II  June  1814;  d.  30  Jan.  1882.  He  became  pastor 
of  All  Souls  Church,  New  York,  1839;  was  chief 
founder  and  long  editor  of  the  'Christian  In- 
quirer* (1846);  chief  originator  of  the  United 
States  Sanitary  Commission,  and  its  president 
during  the  Civil  War  (1861-5).  He  wrote 
*  Public  Life  of  Washington*  (1866)  ;  'Relation 
of  Public  Amusements  to  Public  Morality*  ; 
<The  Old  World  in  Its  New  Face*  (2  vols. 
1868-9),  a  record  of  travel  in  Europe.  He  was 
an  effective  preacher  and  public  speaker. 

Bellows,  a  machine  for  blowing  fire,  so 
formed  as,  by  being  dilated  and  contracted,  to 
inhale  air  by  an  orifice  which  is  opened  and 
closed  by  a  valve,  and  to  propel  it  through  a  tube 
upon  the  fire.  The  invention  of  bellows  is  as- 
cribed to  Anacharsis  the  Scythian,  though  prob- 
ably it  took  place  in  different  countries.  The 
forms  of  bellows  at  present  are  very  various,  as 
many  attempts  have  been  made  for  the  improve- 
ment of  this  highl}^  important  machine,  which 
becomes  necessary  wherever  a  powerful  flame 
is  required  in  the  arts.  As  mining  was  carried 
on  at  an  early  date  in  Germany,  and  great  heat 
is  required  in  smelting  the  ores  and  working 
the  metals,  various  new  kinds  of  bellows  were 
invented  in  that  country,  one  of  which  consists 
of  an  empty  box,  which  moves  up  and  down  in 
another,  partially  filled  with  water.  Between 
the  bottom  of  the  empty  box  and  the  surface  of 
the  water  is  a  space  filled  with  air,  which  is 
driven  out  by  the  descent  of  the  enclosed  box. 
Bellows  of  very  great  power  are  generally  called 
blowing-machines  (q.v.).  The  com^non  Qii- 
nese  bellows  consi.st  of  a  box  of  wood  about 
two  feet  long  and  one  foot  square,  in  which  a 
thick,  square  piece  of  board,  which  exactly  fits 
the  internal  cavity  of  the  box,  is  pushed  back- 
ward and  forward.  In  the  bottom  of  the  box, 
at  each  end,  there  is  a  small  conical  or  plug 
valve  to  admit  the  air,  and  valves  above  to  dis- 
charge it. 

Bellows  Falls,  Vt.,  a  town  in  Windham 
County,  on  the  Connecticut  River,  so  called 
from  several  rapids  and  cataracts  occurring 
there.  The  whole  descent  is  about  44  feet  It 
was  formerly  a  famous  place  for  spearing 
salmon.  A  canal  with  locks  has  been  cut  around 
the  falls,  through  the  solid  rock.  The  scenery 
is  romantic,  and  various  interesting  minerals  are 
found  in  the  vicinity.  The  town  contains  sev- 
eral mills  and  manufactories,  and  is  remarkable 
for  its  handsome  dwellings.     Pop.   (1900)   4.337. 

Bellows-fish.      See  Globe-fish. 

Belloy,  Pierre  Laurent  Buirette  de,  bel-lwa, 
pe-ar  16r-6n  bwe-rct  de,  French  dramatist:  b. 
St.  Flour.  Auvergne,  17  Nov.  1727;  d.  5  March 
1775-  The  first  French  dramatist  who  success- 
fully introduced  native  heroes  upon  the  French 
stage.  He  was  designed  by  his  uncle,  a  dis- 
tinguished advocate  in  the  parliament  of  Paris, 
who  reared  him  after  his  father's  death,  for  his 
own  profession,  but  while  he  applied  himself  to 
the  law  with  reluctance,  he  showed  much  genius 
for  the  drama.  His  uncle  opposed  this  taste, 
and  the  young  man  secretly  left  his  house.  He 
next  made  his  appearance  as  an  actor  under  the 
name  of  "Dormdnt  de  Belloy.**  Belloy  had 
hoped  to  reconcile  his  family  to  him  by  the 
success  of  his  first  tragedy,  'Titus.*  but  this 
hope    was    disappointed    by    the    failure   of   the 


BELL'S    PALSY  — BELMONTET 


piece;  and  the  author  went  to  St.  Petersburg. 
He  returned  to  France,  where  he  brought  out 
his  tragedy  'Zelmire,^  which  met  with  complete 
success.  In  1765  foliowed  his  ^  Siege  of  Calais,^ 
a  tragedy  which  produced  a  great  sensation,  and 
is  still  esteemed,  though  it  owes  the  applause 
bestowed  on  it  rather  to  its  subject  than  to  its 
poetical  merit.  He  received  the  medal  prom- 
ised by  the  king  to  those  poets  who  should  pro- 
duce three  successful  pieces,  and  which  was 
awarded  on  this  occasion  only,  the  'Siege  of 
Calais'  being  counted  as  two,  it  being,  in  fact, 
only  the  second  successful  piece  of  Belloy.  The 
city  of  Calais  sent  him  the  freedom  of  the  city 
in  a  gold  box.  Belloy  wrote  sundry  other  dra- 
matic pieces,  of  which  'Gaston  and  Bayard' 
procured  his  reception  into  the  Academy. 

Bell's  Palsy,  named  after  Sir  Charles  Bell 
(q.v.),  a  palsy  of  the  muscles  of  the  face  sup- 
plied by  the  seventh  or  facial  nerve,  and  due  to 
some  peripheral  lesion,  in  distinction  to  facial 
palsy  of  a  central,  or  of  a  nuclear  origin.  It  may 
occur  on  both  sides  of  the  face.  The  causes  are 
many,  but  exposure  to  cold,  such  as  sleeping  in 
the  open  with  the  wind  blowing  over  the  face,  or 
sitting  by  an  open  window  in  a  railway  train  or 
steamboat,  is  one  of  the  most  frequent  causes.  It 
may  also  occur  in  a  multiple  neuritis  that  is 
due  to  poisoning  by  alcohol,  lead,  arsenic,  or  the 
poison  of  diphtheria,  etc.,  and  in  rare  instances 
from  fractures  of  the  skull.  It  comes  on  sud- 
denly, the  patient  often  waking  in  the  morning 
to  find  one  side  of  his  face  stiff,  and  in  two 
or  three  days  the  palsy  has  developed.  There 
is  a  sense  of  discomfort  on  the  paralyzed  side. 
The  patient  cannot  close  one  eye  completely  and 
cannot  manage  his  food  on  the  affected  side. 
He  cannot  whistle,  and  his  speech  is  peculiar. 
The  wrinkles  of  the  paralyzed  side  are  smoothed 
out  and  every  motion  of  the  facial  muscles 
seems  to  be  an  exaggerated  one,  so  that  many 
patients  say  their  face  is  drawn  to  one  side. 
The  reality  being  that  it  is  the  opposite  side 
that  is  affected  and  immovable.  The  paralysis 
usually  gets  well  in  from  three  to  five  months, 
especially  if  the  treatment  is  begun  early  and 
per  sever  ingly  followed  out.  Some  patients 
never  entirely  recover,  although  much  improve- 
ment takes  place  in  practically  all.  The  treat- 
ment is  electrical,  massage,  and  general  tonics. 
Particular  attention  should  be  paid  to  the  care 
of  the  paralyzed  eyelid.  See  also  Facial 
Paralysis. 

Consult:  Starr,  ^Text-book  of  Organic  Nerve 
Diseases'    (1903). 

Belluno,  Italy,  a  northern  city,  capital  of 
a  province  of  the  same  name,  on  the  Piave,  48 
miles  north  of  Venice.  It  has  a  cathedral,  a 
handsome  theatre,  etc. ;  and  manufactures  of 
silk,  straw-plait,  leather,  etc.  Pop.  (1897) 
18,348. 

Bel'mont,  August,  American  banker:  b. 
Alzey,  Germany,  1816;  d.  24  Nov.  1890.  He 
was  educated  at  Frankfort,  and  was  apprenticed 
to  the  Rothschild's  banking  house  in  that  city 
when  14  years  old.  In  1837  he  went  to  Havana 
to  take  charge  of  the  firm's  interests,  and  soon 
afterward  was  sent  to  New  York,  where  he 
established  himself  in  the  banking  business  and 
as  the  representative  of  the  Rothschilds.  He  was 
consul-general  of  Austria  1844-50;  became 
charge  _d'  affaires  at  The  Hague  in  1853;  and 
was  minister-resident  there  in  1854-8.     He  was 


a  delegate  to  the  Democratic  National  Conven- 
tion in  i860,  and  when  a  portion  of  the  dele- 
gates withdrew  and  organized  the  convention 
in  Baltimore  he  was  active  in  that  body,  and 
through  it  became  chairman  of  the  National 
Democratic  Committee,  an  office  he  held  till 
1872.  He  was  an  active  worker  in  the  party 
till  1876,  when  he  closed  his  political  career. 

Belmont,  August,  American  banker:  b. 
New  York,  18  Feb.  1853  ;  son  of  the  preceding. 
He  was  graduated  at  Harvard  University  in 
1875 ;  at  once  entered  his  father's  banking  house, 
and  on  the  death  of  his  father  became  head  of 
the  firm  of  August  Belmont  &  Company,  also 
representing  the  European  banking  firm  of  the 
Rothschilds.  In  February  1900  he  organized  the 
Rapid  Transit  Subway  Construction  Company 
to  back  John  B.  McDonald,  who  had  been 
awarded  the  $35,000,000  contract  for  the  con- 
struction of  a  rapid-transit  system  in  New  York. 
The  house,  under  the  management  of  the  son, 
has  continued  to  exert  the  large  influence  in  the 
financial  and  railroad  affairs  of  the  city  and 
country   that    it   gained   under    its    founder. 

Belmont,  Perry,  American  lawyer:  b.  New 
York,  28  Dec.  185 1  (son  of  August  Belmont 
1816-90).  He  was  graduated  at  Harvard  Uni- 
versity in  1872,  and  at  Columbia  College  Law 
School  in  1876;  was  admitted  to  the  bar  and 
practised  in  New  York  till  1881,  when  he  was 
elected  as  a  Democrat  to  Congress  and  served 
till  1887,  being  a  member  of  the  Committee  00 
Foreign  Affairs,  and  in  that  capacity,  in  his 
first  term  in  Congress,  came  into  notice  by  his 
cross-examination  of  J.  G.  Blaine,  then  ex- 
secretary  of  state,  as  to  his  relations  with  a 
syndicate  of  American  capitalists  interested  in 
Peruvian  guano.  In  1885  he  was  appointed 
chairman  of  the  Committee  on  Foreign  Affairs, 
and  in  1888  United  States  minister  to  Spain. 
In  1889  he  was  commissioner  to  the  Universal 
Exposition  in  Paris,  and  for  his  services  re- 
ceived from  the  President  of  France,  in  1890, 
the  decoration  of  commander  of  the  Legion  of 
Honor.  He  was  one  of  the  principals  in  the 
rapid-transit  contract  in  New  York,  in  which 
his  brother  August    (q.v.)   was  interested 

Belmont,  Cape  Colony,  a  town  midway  be- 
tween Orange  River  Junction  and  Kimberley.  It 
was  the  scene  of  one  of  the  earliest  engagements 
in  the  war  of  1899-1900,  between  the  Boers  and 
the  British  under  Gen.  Lord  Methuen.  The 
town  was  attacked  by  the  British  on  23  Nov. 
1899,  while  on  the  march  to  the  relief  of  Kim- 
berley, and  the  battle  resulted  in  a  victory  for 
them.  Two  days  later  Lord  Methuen  took 
Graas  Pan,  10  miles  north  of  Belmont,  after 
again  defeating  the  Boers. 

Belmont  Park,  N.  Y.,  a  racing  field  on 
Long  Island,  15  miles  from  New  York  city, 
probably  the  most  magnificent  establishment 
devoted  to  horse-racing  in  the  world.  The  park 
covers  an  area  of  666  acres,  laid  out  in  groves 
and  gardens,  among  which  are  placed  the 
palatial  club  buildings  and  stables. 

Belmontet,  bel-mon-ta,  Louis,  French  poet 
and  publicist:  b.  Montauban,  26  March  1799;  d. 
Paris.  14  Oct.  1879.  He  studied  and  practised 
law  in  Toulouse  until  involved  in  difficulties 
with  the  magistracy  on  account  of  some  satirical 
poems,  when  he  went  to  Paris  and  there  pro- 
duced   his    principal    works:    'The    Sad    Ones* 


BELODON  —  BELSHAZZAR 


(1824),  a  cycle  of  elegies;  *^The  Supper  of 
Augustus*  (1828)  ;  and  with  Souniet,  "^A  Fes- 
tival of  Nero*  (1829),  a  tragedy  which  ex- 
ceeded 100  performances.  In  1830  he  edited  the 
Tribune  newspaper,  opposed  the  accession  of 
Louis  Philippe,  and  predicted  his  downfall  and 
a  second  revolution  in  a  bold  pamphlet  ad- 
dressed to  Chateaubriand,  for  which  he  was 
arrested.  In  1839  he  established,  together  with 
Messrs.  Laffitte  and  Mauguin,  a  manufactory, 
in  which  the  men  were  to  share  the  benefits 
with  the  employers.  In  1852  he  became  a  mem- 
ber of  the  legislative  assemblj'.  Subsequently 
he  became  an  ardent  partisan  of  Bonapartism, 
pleading  its  cause  as  a  journalist  and  poetically 
extolling  the  Napoleonic  dynasty  in  many  en- 
thusiastic odes. 

Belodon,  an  extinct  reptile  of  the  Triassic 
Period,  partly  intermediate  between  dinosaurs 
and  crocodiles,  but  with  many  archaic  charac- 
ters. The  body  was  protected  by  bony  plates, 
those  on  the  back  interlocking  by  a  peg-and- 
socket  joint.  The  snout  was  long  and  narrow, 
the  external  nares  behind  in  contrast  to  their 
position  in  modern  crocodiles,  where  they  are 
at  the  tip  of  the  snout.  The  limbs  were  longer 
than  those  of  modern  crocodiles,  but  the  propor- 
tions were  otherwise  similar.  Its  remains  have 
been  found  in  the  Triassic  coal-beds  of  North 
Carolina  and  Pennsylvania,  and  the  red  beds 
(estuarine  sediments)  of  New  Mexico,  as  well 
as  in  European  strata  of  corresponding  age. 

Beloe,  William,  English  clergyman  and 
writer:  b.  1756;  d.  1817.  He  was  educated  at 
Cambridge,  and  was  presented  to  the  rectory 
of  All-hallows,  London  Wall,  and  subsequently 
to  stalls  in  Lincoln  Cathedral  and  St.  Paul's. 
In  1803  he  became  keeper  of  the  printed  books 
in  the  British  Museum.  His  chief  publications 
are,  ^Anecdotes  of  Literature  and  Scarce 
Books*  (6  vols.  1806-12)  ;  a  translation  of 
Herodotus  with  a  commentary;  and  ^The  Sex- 
agenarian*   (1817). 

Beloit',  Wis.,  a  city  in  Rock  County,  on 
the  Rock  River,  and  the  Chicago  &  N.  W.  and 
Chicago,  M.  &  St.  P.  R.R.'s,  85  miles  southwest 
of  Milwaukee  and  91  miles  west  of  Chicago. 
The  city  derives  fine  power  for  manufacturing 
from  the  river ;  and  has  the  second  largest 
wood-working  machinery  plant  in  the  world, 
beside  manufactories  of  gas-engines,  windmills, 
iron,  paper-mill  machinery,  plows,  paper,  rye 
flour  (the  oldest  mill  of  its  kind  in  the  country), 
and  bicycles.  The  city  is  widely  known  as  the 
seat  of  Beloit  College  (q.v.).  It  was  first  set- 
tled in  1836.     Pop.    (1905)    12,855. 

Beloit  College,  a  co-educational  (non-sec- 
tarian) institution  in  Beloit,  Wis.;  organized  in 
1847  by  1-hc  Congregational  and  Presbyterian 
Churches ;  reported  at  the  end  of  1905 :  Pro- 
fessors and  instructors,  30;  students,  506;  vol- 
umes in  the  library,  32,000;  grounds  and  build- 
ings valued  at  $335,000;  productive  funds, 
$420,000;  income,  $28,000:  number  of  graduates, 
869 ;  president,  Edward  D.  Eaton,  LL.D. 

Beromancy,  divination  by  arrows,  prac- 
tised by  the  ancient  Scythians  and  other  nations. 
One  of  the  numerous  modes  was  as  follows : 
A  number  of  arrows,  being  marked,  were  put 
into  a  bag  or  quiver,  and  drawn  out  at  random ; 
and  the  marks  or  words  on  the  arrow  drawn 
determined  what  was  to  happen.  See  Ezek. 
xxi.  21- 


Beloochistan.      See  Baluchistan. 

Belot,  be-lo,  Adolphe,  French  novelist  and 
dramatist:  b.  Pointe-a-Patre,  6  Nov.  1829:  d. 
Paris,  17  Dec.  1890.  He  traveled  extensively 
and  settled  at  Nancy  as  a  lawyer.  He  won  rep- 
utation with  a  witty  comedy,  *The  Testament  of 
Cesar  Girodot*  (1859,  with  Villetard)  ;  and, 
being  less  successful  with  his  following  dra- 
matic efforts,  devoted  himself  to  fiction.  Of 
his  novels  may  be  mentioned:  *The  Venus  of 
Gordes*  (1867,  with  Ernest  Daudet)  ;  ^The 
Drama  of  the  Rue  de  la  Paix*  (1868)  ;  <  Article 
47*    (1870)  ;  all  of  which  were  dramatized. 

Belper,  England,  a  market  town  of  Derby- 
shire, on  the  left  bank  of  the  Derwent,  over 
which  there  is  a  handsome  stone  bridge  of  three 
arches;  seven  miles  north  of  Derby,  on  the  Mid- 
and  Railway.  It  has  three  churches,  besides  other 
places  of  worship,  a  public  hall,  with  reading- 
rooms,  library,  etc.  There  are  large  cotton- 
mills,  hosiery  works,  engineering  works,  and 
foundries.  It  is  a  thriving  town  and  has  been 
very  much  improved  since  about  1890.  Pop. 
(1901)    10,920. 

Berphegor.  i.  An  arch-demon  appointed 
by  Pluto  and  his  council  to  undertake  an  earthly 
marriage,  who  fled  unable  to  endure  female  com- 
panionship. He  has  been  made  the  subject  of 
one  of  La  Fontaine's  'Contes,*  and  also  of  an 
English   play   by  Wilson,  published   in    1691. 

2.  An  English  play  by  Charles  Webb^ 
translated  and  adapted  from  the  French 
'Paliasse,*  in  which  the  chief  character  i& 
Belphegor,  a  mountebank. 

3.  (Dne  of  the  deities  of  the  Moabites. 

Belsham,  Thomas,  English  Unitarian 
clergyman:  b.  1750;  d.  1829.  He  became  the- 
ological tutor  of  an  academy  at  Daventry  in 
1781.  At  this  time  he  was  a  Calvinist,  but  a 
change  of  views  unfitted  him  for  this  situation^ 
and  he  became  tutor  of  an  academy  which  had 
been  recently  established  at  Hackney.  This  in- 
stitution soon  failed  for  want  of  funds,  and 
Belsham  removed  first  to  the  Gravel  Pit  Chapel, 
which  had  been  occupied  by  Dr.  Priestly,  and 
afterward  to  Essex  Street  Chapel,  where  he 
oi^ciated  for  some  time  as  the  colleague  of 
Lindsey,  and  latterly  as  sole  pastor  till  his 
death  in  1829.  His  works  are  chiefly  of  a 
controversial  nature,  and  probably  attracted  at- 
tention as  much  from  the  celebrity  of  the  works 
which  they  attacked  as  from  their  own  merits. 
His  first  appearance  in  the  polemical  field  was 
as  an  opponent  of  Wilberforce,  of  whose 
celebrated  ^Practical  View  of  the  Prevailing 
Religious  Systems*  he  published  a  review.  He 
also  published  "^Memoirs  of  Mr.  Lindsey,*  which 
was  reviewed  by  the  celebrated  Robert  Hall. 

Belsham,  William,  English  writer:  d.  1827^ 
aged  75.  He  published  in  1789  "^Historical, 
Political,  and  Literary  Essays*  (2  vols.  8vo.)  ; 
and  he  subsequently  wrote  on  the  test  law,  the 
French  Revolution,  parliamentary  reform,  and 
other  subjects;  but  his  principal  work  is  a 
'History  of  Great  Britain,  from  the  Revolution 
to  the  Treaty  of  Amiens^  (1793-1806),  12 
vols.  8vo.). 

Belshazz'ar,  the  last  of  the  Chaldaean  dy- 
nasty who  reigned  at  Babylon.  He  is  supposed 
to  have  been  the  son  of  the  Nabonnedug  of  Be- 
rosus.  Labynetus  of  Herodotus,  and  Naboande- 
lus  of  Josephus,  and  to  have  been  adopted  by 


BELT  — BELZONI 


his  father  as  joint  king  some  time  before  the 
fall  of  Babylon.  He  perished  538  b.c.  during 
ihe  successful  storming  of  Babylon  by  Cyrus. 
The  interesting  circumstances  which  immedi- 
ately preceded  this  event,  and  are  recorded  at 
length  in  the  book  of  Daniel,  have  repeatedly 
furnished  subjects  to  painters  and  poets. 

Belt,  The  Great  and  Little,  two  straits  of 
Denmark,  connecting  the  Bailie  with  the  Cat- 
tegat.  The  former  runs  between  the  islands  of 
Zealand  and  Funen,  and  is  about  15  miles 
wide,  where  it  is  crossed  from  Nyborg,  m 
Funen,  to  Corsoer,  in  Zealand.  The  greatest 
breadth  of  the  strait  is  20  miles.  The  naviga- 
tion is  very  dangerous,  on  account  of  the  many 
small  islands  and  sandbanks  by  which  the  chan- 
nel is  impeded.  The  Little  Belt  is  between  the 
island  of  Funen  and  the  coast  of  Jutland,  and 
the  narrowest  part  of  the  strait  is  not  more 
than  a  mile  v.-ide.  At  this  place  stands  the 
fortress  Fredericia,  where  tolls  were  formerly 
paid.  The  fortress  complete!}'  commands  the 
entrance  from  the  Cattegat.  The  Sound,  be- 
tween Zealand  and  the  Swedish  coast,  is  pre- 
ferred for  all  large  vessels  entering  or  leaving 
the   Baltic. 

Belt,  in  astronomy,  a  varying  number  of 
dusky,  belt-like  bands  or  zones  encircling  the 
planet  Jupiter  parallel  to  his  equator,  as  if  the 
clouds  of  his  atmosphere  had  been  forced  into 
a  series  of  parallels  through  the  rapidity  of  his 
rotation,  and  the  dark  body  of  the  planet  was 
seen  through  the  comparatively  clear  spaces 
between. 

Beltane.     See  Baal. 

Belton,  Texas,  a  city  and  county-seat  of 
Bell  County,  situated  on  the  Leon  River,  north- 
east of  Austin  City,  and  on  the  Gulf  C.  &  S.  F., 
and  the  Missouri,  K.  &  T.  R.R.'s.  Baylor  Fe- 
male College  is  Tocated  here.  It  is  in  a  cotton- 
growing  district,  near  some  good  building-stone 
quarries,  and  has  a  considerable  export  trade; 
its  chief  manufactories  are  cotton-mills,  a 
cctton-seed  oII-itmH,  flour-mills,  and  foundries. 
Pop.    (iQoo)    3,700. 

Beltraffio,  bel-traf'yo,  or  Boltraffio,  Italian 
painter:  b.  Milan,  1467;  d.  1516.  He  was  a 
pupil  of  Leonardo  da  Vinci  and  imitated  him  in 
the  treatment  of  his  subject  and  in  the  use  of 
color.  Among  his  works  are  several  portraits 
and  a  ^Madonna  of  the  Casio  Family.^ 

Beltrame,  Giovanni,  bel-tra'ma,  j6-van'ne, 
Italian  philologist  and  missionary:  b.  11  Nov. 
1824  In  1854  he  was  sent  in  a  missionary 
party  to  Khartum  up  the  Blue  Nile  to  Fazogl ; 
m  1858  he  went  with  Knoblecher  and  other 
missionaries  up  the  White  Nile  to  Gondokoro, 
whence  he  made  several  journeys  into  a  country 
at  that  time  wholly  unknown.  He  returned  to 
Italy  in  1862  and  occupied  himself  principally 
with  researches  in  the  languages  of  the  Nile 
country.  Among  other  philological  works  he 
published  a  grammar  and  a  dictionary  of  the 
Denka  speech.  He  was  author  also  of  ^Di  un 
Viaggio  sul  Fiume  Bianco  nell'  Africa  Cen- 
trales ;  ^11  Sennaar  e  lo  Sciangallah^  ;  'II  Fiume 
Bianco  e  i  Denka, ^  and  'In  Palestina.* 

Beltrami,  Eugenio,  bel-tra'me,  yoo-jan'yo, 
Italian  mathematician :  b.  16  Nov.  1835 ;  d.  18 
Feb.  1900.  He  studied  at  Pavia.  In  1862  he 
was  professor  at  Bologna,  then  professor  at 
Fisa,   Rome,  and   Pavia,  and  in   1891  again  at 


Rome.  He  was  president  of  the  Academy  oi 
the  Lincei.  His  work  has  been  chiefly  in  non- 
Euclidian  geometry ;  also  in  electricity,  and 
magnetism.  His  'Mathematical  Works^  (1902), 
and  'Bibliography  of  Mathematics^  (i90i),were 
published  by  the  University  of  Rome  after  his 
death. 

Beltrami,  Giovanni,  jo-van-ne,  Italian  lapi- 
dary: b.  Cremona,  1779;  d.  1854.  He  was  self- 
educated  and  at  the  time  of  French  rule  in 
Italy  found  a  patron  in  Eugene  Beauhamais  for 
whom  he  made  a  chain  of  16  cameos,  illustrating 
the  story  of  Psyche.  Among  his  other  notable 
works  is  a  reproduction  of  the  'Last  Supper ^  of 
Leonardo  da  Vinci  on  a  topaz. 

Beluga,  be-loo'ga,  an  old  name,  adopted  as 
the  name  of  its  genus,  of  the  white  whale  (q.v.). 

Beluga,  or  Bielaga,  be-la'ga.  See  Stur- 
geon. 

Be'lus,  the  Roman  name  of  the  Assyrian 
and  Babylonian  divinity  called  Bel  in  Isaiah 
xlvi.   I. 

Belus,  a  Phoenician  river  at  the  base  of 
Mount  Carmel.  Its  fine  sand,  according  to  tra- 
dition, first  led  the  Phoenicians  to  the  invention 
of  glass. 

Belus,  Temple  of,  an  enormous  temple  in 
ancient  Babylon,  rebuilt  by  Nebuchadnezzar  about 
604  B.C.  Its  site  is  thought  by  some  authorities 
to  be  the  modern  Bers-Nimrud,  and  by  others, 
Babil,  both  situated  near  Hillah. 

Belvedere,  bel-ve-der',  or  It.  bal-va-da're 
(It.  "/zn(?  sight?^  See  Bellevue).  A  name 
given  in  Italy  to  buildings  destined  for  the  en- 
joyment of  prospects.  The  name  is  also  given 
to  small  cupolas  on  houses  built  for  the  advan- 
tage of  fresh  air,  or  of  the  view  which  they  af- 
ford. Many  of  the  buildings  in  Rome  are 
furnished  with  such  cupolas ;  yet  the  term 
"belvedere^s  is  generally  applied  only  to  those 
on  the  palaces  of  the  rich.  This  is  the  name 
also  of  a  part  of  the  Vatican  where  the  famous 
statue  of  Apollo  is  placed,  which,  on  this  ac- 
count,   is   called   Apollo    Belvedere. 

Belvidere,  bel-vi-der'.  111.,  a  city  and 
county-seat  of  Boone  County;  on  the  Kishwau- 
kee  River,  and  the  Chicago  &  N.  W.  R.R. ;  78 
miles  northwest  of  Chicago.  An  important 
farming  and  dairying  trade  centre,  and  con- 
tains railroad  shops,  one  of  the  largest  sewing- 
machine  and  bicycle  works  in  the  country, 
manufactory  of  sewing-machine  supplies,  flour- 
mills,  creamery,  and  other  industries ;  and  has 
two  national  banks,  several  daily  and  weekly 
periodicals,  and  a  property  valuation  of  about 
$2,000,000.     Pop.    (1900)   6,937. 

Belzoni,  Giovanni  Battista,  (John  Bap- 
tist), bel-z6'ne,  j6-van'  ne  ba-tes'ta,  Italian  trav- 
eler: b.  Padua,  1778;  d.  3  Dec.  1823.  Destined 
for  a  monastic  life  he  was  educated  at  Rome, 
but  left  the  city  when  it  was  occupied  by  the 
French,  and  in  1803  went  to  England,  where  he 
acted  in  Astley's  amphitheatre.  Here  he  ac- 
quired, besides  an  acquaintance  with  the  English 
language,  much  knowledge  of  the  science  of 
hydraulics,  the  study  of  which  had  been  his 
chief  occupation  in  Rome,  and  which  afterward 
carried  him  to  Egypt.  He  left  England  after  a 
residence  of  nine  years,  and  took  his  way 
through  Portugal,  Spain,  and  Malta,  to  Eg>'pt 
There  he  lived  from  1815  to  1819,  at  first  as  a 
dancer,    till   he   won   the   favor   of   the   pasha. 


BELZU  — BEMBO 


Belzoni  kept  the  rude  inhabitants  of  the  country 
in  awe  by  his  extraordinary  stature  and  strength. 
He  opened  the  second  of  the  pyramids  of 
Ghizeh,  known  by  the  name  of  Cephrenes.  In 
the  year  1816  he  succeeded  in  transporting  the 
bust  of  Memnon  from  Thebes  to  Alexandria, 
whence  it  was  taken  to  the  British  Museum.  In 
1817  he  entered  several  catacombs  near  Thebes, 
especially  one  in  a  fine  state  of  preservation  in 
the  valley  of  Biban  el  Molook,  which  is  con- 
sidered to  be  the  mausoleum  of  Psammetichus, 
and  from  which  he  took  the  splendid  alabaster 
sarcophagus  which  is  now  in  the  British  Mu- 
seum. On  I  August  in  the  same  year  he 
opened  the  temple  of  Ipsambul,  near  the  second 
cataract  of  the  Nile,  which  two  Frenchmen, 
Cailliaud  and  Drovetti,  had  discovered  the  year 
before,  but  had  not  succeeded  in  opening.  Bel- 
zoni discovered  a  subterranean  temple  in  its 
ruins,  which  until  that  tim,e  had  been  unknown. 
He  then  visited  the  coasts  of  the  Red  Sea  and 
the  city  of  Berenice,  discovering  the  emerald 
mines  of  Zubara  and  made  an  expedition  into 
the  Oasis  of  Jupiter  Ammon.  Belzoni  refuted 
Cailliaud's  assertion,  that  he  had  found  the 
famous  Berenice,  the  great  emporium  of  Europe 
and  India,  by  subsequent  investigations  on  the 
spot,  and  by  the  actual  discovery  of  the  ruins 
of  that  great  city  four  days'  journey  from  the 
place  which  Cailliaud  had  taken  for  Berenice. 
Belzoni's  ^Narrative  of  the  Operations  and  Re- 
cent Discoveries  within  the  Pryamids,  Temples, 
Tombs,  and  Excavations  in  Egj^pt  and  Nubia; 
and  of  a  Journey  to  the  Coast  of  the  Red  Sea 
in  Search  of  Berenice;  also  of  another  to  the 
Oasis  of  Jupiter  Ammon^  (Lond.  1820)  ;  ac- 
companied by  a  folio  volume  of  44  copper-plate 
engravings,  was  received  wath  general  approba- 
tion. Padua,  his  native  city,  requited  his  pres- 
ent of  two  Egy^ptian  statues  from  Thebes  with 
a  medal  by  Manfredini.  In  the  year  1823  this 
enterprising  traveler  had  made  preparations  for 
passing  from  Benin  to  Houssa  and  Timbuctoo, 
when  he  died  at  Gato,  on  his  way  to  Benin,  3 
Dec.  1823.  He  believed  the  Nile  and  Niger  to 
be  different  streams,  and  that  the  Niger  emptied 
its  waters  into  the  Atlantic  Ocean;  opinions 
which  have  long  been  proved  to  be  correct. 

Bel'zu,  Manuel  Isodoro,  ma'noo-el  e-s6- 
dor'o,  Bolivian  revolutionist:  b.  LaPaz,  1808; 
d.  March  1866.  He  led  the  revolutions  of  1847 
and  1848,  and  was  killed  in  a  street  battle  there 
while  leading  a  revolt   againt  Melgarijo. 

Bern,  Jozef,  a  distinguished  military  com- 
mander b.  Tarnow,  in  Galicia,  1795;  d.  Aleppo, 
Syria,  1850.  He  was  educated  at  the  University 
of  Cracov/,  and  in  1810  was  admitted  into  the 
corps  of  cadets  founded  at  Warsaw  by  Napoleon, 
afterward  entered  the  horse  artillery,  and  took 
part  as  lieutenant  in  the  expedition  of  the  French 
army  to  Russia.  For  the  bravery  here  dis- 
played by  him  he  received  the  decoration  of 
the  cross  of  the  Legion  of  Honor.  On  hearing 
of  the  outbreak  of  the  Polish  revolution,  he  at 
once  hurried  to  Warsaw,  and  during  the  whole 
of  the  Polish  struggle  he  displayed  great  gal- 
lantry and  military  skill.  On  the  night  of  7 
Sept.  1831,  he  held  the  bridge  of  Praga  with  his 
artillery,  but  the  following  morning,  on  hearing 
of  the  agreement  concluded  with  the  Russians, 
withdrew  to  ModHn.  After  the  fall  of  Warsaw 
he  went  to  Prussia,  and  in  1832  to  Paris,  where 
he  was  occupied  partly  with  political  schemes, 
^'ol.  2 — 33. 


partly  with  scientific  pursuits.  Upon  the  com- 
mencement of  the  Austrian  insurrection  in  1848, 
Bem  proceeded  there,  and  took  a  prominent  part 
in  conducting  the  defense  of  Vienna  against  the 
imperial  troops.  Toward  the  end  of  the  year  he 
received  a  commission  from  the  new  Hungarian 
government  to  undertake  the  conquest  of  Tran- 
sylvania, and  crossed  over  into  that  territory 
at  the  head  of  a  large  army,  raised  by  his  own 
exertions  in  an  incredibly  short  space  of  time. 
His  progress  here  was  marked  by  great  suc- 
cesses, with  occasional  checks ;  and  in  March 
1849  he  succeeded  in  driving  the  Austrians,  with 
their  Russian  auxiliaries,  into  Wallachia.  He 
subsequently  made  an  incursion  into  the  Banat, 
which  he  compelled  Puchner  to  evacuate.  Re- 
turning to  Transylvania,  he  found  himself  op- 
posed by  overwhelming  numbers,  and,  after  sev- 
eral reverses,  returned  to  Hungary,  where  he 
took  part  in  the  disastrous  battle  of  Temesvar. 
Shortly  after  he  went  to  Turkey,  became  a  con- 
vert to  Mohammedanism,  and  received  an  ap- 
pointment in  the  Sultan's  army  under  the  name 
of  Amurath  Pasha. 

Bema  (Gr.  bema,  a  stem),  the  name  applied 
in  the  Greek  Church  to  the  sanctuary  because  of 
its  position  above  the  rest  of  the  church.  The 
iconostasis  or  choir  screen  divides  it  from  the 
main  portion  of  the  church. 

Bembato'ka,  Bay  of,  a  safe  and  commo- 
dious bay  on  the  northwest  coast  of  Madagas- 
car, lying  in  lat.  16°  S.  and  Ion.  46°  E.  The 
river  Betsiboka,  with  the  Ikiopa,  drain  into  the 
bay;  the  former,  about  300  miles  long,  is  naviga- 
ble for  small  steamers  for  about  90  miles. 
Mojanga,  on  the  north  side  of  the  bay.  is  the 
second  town  in  the  island,  with  about  14,000 
inhabitants,   Bembatoka  being  but  a  village. 

Bemberg,  baii-bar,  Henri,  French  com- 
poser :  b.  Paris,  1861.  Besides  songs  and  piano- 
forte numbers  his  principal  works  are  'Le 
Baiser  de  Luzon,^  a  one-act  opera  (1888)  ;  and 
'Elaine,^  a  four-act  opera  successfully  produced 
in  London  1892,  and  in  New  York  1894. 

Bembecidse,  bem-bis'i-de,  a  family  of  wasp- 
like hymenopterous  insects  with  stings,  mostly 
natives  of  warm  countries,  and  known  also  as 
sand-wasps.  The  female  excavates  cells  in  the 
sand,  in  which  she  deposits,  together  with  her 
eggs,  various  larvse  or  perfect  insects  stung  into 
insensibility,  as  support  for  her  progeny  when 
hatched.  The  insects  are  very  active,  fond  of 
the  nectar  of  flowers,  and  delight  in  sunshine. 
Bembex  is  the  tj-pical  genus   of  the  family. 

Bembo,  Pietro,  a  celebrated  Italian 
scholar:  b.  Venice,  29  Alay  1470;  d.  18  Jan. 
1547.  At  Ferrara  he  completed  his  philosophi- 
cal studies,  and  after  visiting  Rome  went,  in 
1506,  to  the  court  of  Urbino,  at  that  time  one  of 
those  Italian  courts  where  the  sciences  stood 
highest  in  esteem.  In  15 12  he  went  to  Rome, 
where  Pope  Leo  X.  made  him  his  secretary. 
His  many  labors  arising  from  his  office,  as  well 
as  his  literary  pursuits,  and  perhaps  too  great 
an  indulgence  in  pleasure,  having  impaired  his 
health,  he  was  using  the  baths  of  Padua  when 
he  was  apprised  of  the  death  of  Leo  X.  Being 
by  this  time  possessed  of  several  church  bene- 
fices, he  resolved  on  withdrawing  entirely  from 
business,  and  on  passing  his  days  at  Padua  oc- 
cupied only  with  literature  and  science,  and 
enjoying    the    society    of    his    friends.     Bembo 


BEMBRIDGE  BEDS  — BEN-MUICH-DHUI 


collected  a  considerable  library:  had  a  cabinet 
of  medals  and  antiquities,  which  at  that  time 
passed  for  one  of  the  richest  in  Italy,  and  a 
fine  botanical  garden.  In  the  year  1529  the 
office  of  historiographer  of  the  republic  of  Venice 
was  offered  to  him,  which  he  accepted,  declining 
the  salary  connected  with  it.  At  the  same  time 
he  was  nominated  librarian  of  the  library  of  St. 
Mark.  Pope  Paul  III.,  having  resolved  upon  a 
new  promotion  of  cardinals,  from  the  most  dis- 
tinguished men  of  his  time,  conferred  on  him, 
in  1539,  the  hat  of  a  cardinal.  From  that  time 
Bembo  renounced  the  beUes-lettres,  and  made  the 
Fathers  and  the  Holy  Scriptures  his  chief  study. 
Of  his  former  labors  he  continued  only  the 
'History  of  Venice.^  Two  years  later  Paul  III. 
bestowed  the  bishopric  of  Gubbio  on  him,  and 
soon  after  the  rich  bishopric  of  Bergamo.  A 
collection  of  all  his  works  appeared  in  1729.  at 
Venice,  in  four  folio  volumes. 

Bembridge  Beds,  in  geology,  a  fossilif- 
erous  division  of  the  upper  Eocene  strata,  prin- 
cipally developed  at  Bembridge,  in  the  Isle  of 
Wight,  consisting  of  marls  and  clays  resting  on 
a  compact,  pale-yellow  or  cream-colored  lime- 
stone, called  Bembridge  limestone.  Their  most 
distinctive  feature  is  the  mammalian  remains  of 
the  Palasotherium  and  the  Anoplotherium.  The 
Anita  group  of  Colorado  and  Wyoming,  and  the 
gypsum  deposits  near  Paris,  are  supposed  to 
belong  to  the  same  epoch  as  the  Bembridge 
beds. 

Bementite,  a  mineral  occurring  at  Frank- 
lin Furnace,  New  Jersey,  in  radiated-stellate 
masses.  It  has  a  grayish-yellow  color  and 
pearly  lustre,  is  soft  and  has  a  specific  gravity 
of  about  3.0.  It  is  a  hydrous  silicate  of  manga- 
nese, having  the  approximate  formula  of 
2MnSi03.H20.  It  was  named  in  honor  of  C.  S. 
Bement,  whose  unrivaled  private  collection  of 
minerals  is  now  in  the  American  Museum  of 
Natural  History  in  New  York  city. 

Bemis,  Edward  Webster,  American  econ- 
omist: b.  Springfield,  Mass.,  7  April  i860.  He 
graduated  at  Amherst  College  in  1880 ;  was  a 
pioneer  lecturer  in  the  University  Extension 
System,  1887-8;  professor  of  economics  and  his- 
tor}',  Vanderbilt  University.  1889-92;  and  asso- 
ciate professor  of  economics.  University  of  Chi- 
cago, 1892-5.  In  1897  he  became  professor  of 
economical  science  in  the  Kansas  State  Agricul- 
tural College.  He  published  'History  of  Co- 
operation in  the  United  States'  (1888)  ;  'Muni- 
cipal Ownership  of  Gas'  (1891)  ;  'Local  Gov- 
ernment for  the  South  and  Southwest*  (1893). 

,  Bemis  Heights,  N.  Y.,  a  village  in 
j  Saratoga  County,  on  the  Hudson  River,  famous 
I  as  the  scene  of  the  first  battle  of  Stillwater,  19 
,  Sept.  1777.    See  also  Saratoga,  Battle  of. 

Bemmel,  Peter  von,  German  painter:  b. 
Nuremberg.  1685:  d.  1754.  He  was  educated 
by  his  father,  also  an  artist,  and  was  employed 
by  the  Prince  Bamberg,  Fran?:  Konrad  von 
Stadion  in  adorning  the  walls  of  his  palaces. 
Many  of  his  paintings  are  preserved  at  Bamberg 
and  Brunswick.  Of  the  Bemmel  family  14  were 
prominent  as  artists. 

Ben  (Hebrew,  son),  a  prepositive  syllable 
found  in  many  Jewish  names,  as  Bendavid, 
Benasser,  etc..  which,  with  the  Jews  in  Germanv, 
has  been  changed  into  the  German  sohn  (son). 


for  example,  Mendelssohn,  Jacobssohn,  etc. 
In  Arabic  the  plural  form  Beni  occurs  in  the 
names  of  many  tribes,  as  Beni  Omayyah  and  in 
those  of  places,  as  Beni-Hassan. 

Ben,  Beinn,  or  Bhein,  a  Gaelic  word  sig- 
nifying mountain,  and  prefixed  to  the  names  of 
many  mountains  in  Scotland  north  of  the  Firths 
of  Clyde  and  Forth,  as  Ben  Nevis  and  Ben 
MacDhui.  Pen,  which  occurs  in  Welsh  and 
Cornish  nomenclature  is  a  corresponding  term. 

Ben  Bolt,  a  noted  poem  by  Thomas  Dunn 
English  (1843)  set  to  an  old  German  air.  It 
had  been  partially  forgotten  when  it  was  re- 
vived by  its  effective  employment  in  Du  Mau- 
rier's  'Trilbj-.' 

Ben  Hur:  A  Tale  of  the  Christ,  a  popular 
novel,  by  Lew  Wallace,  published  1880.  The 
scene  of  the  story  is  laid  in  the  East,  principally 
in  Jerusalem,  just  after  the  Christian  era.  The 
first  part  is  introductory,  and  details  the  coming 
of  the  three  wise  men,  I\Ielchior,  Kaspar,  and 
Balthasar,  to  worship  the  babe  born  in  the  man- 
ger at  Bethlehem.  In  the  course  of  the  narra- 
tive, which  involves  many  exciting  adventures  of 
Ben  Hur,  hero,  John  the  Baptist  and  Jesus  of 
Nazareth  are  introduced,  and  Ben  Hur  is  con- 
verted to  the  Christian  faith  through  the  miracles 
of  our  Lord.  The  tale  has  been  successfully 
dramatized. 

Ben-Lawers,  a  huge  pyramidal  mountain 
of  Scotland,  Perthshire,  on  the  north  bank  of 
Loch  Tay,  3.984  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea, 
or  4,004  with  the  cairn  at  the  top.  Many  rare 
Alpine  mosses  and  other  plants  are  found  on  it, 

Ben-Ledi,  a  Scottish  mountain,  lying 
northwest  of  Callander,  Perthshire,  reaching  the 
height  of  2,875  feet  above  sea-level.  It  is  some- 
what difficult  of  ascent,  but  gives  a  splendid 
view\  High  up  on  it  there  is  a  small  loch.  It 
is  mentioned  in  Scott's  'Lady  of  the  Lake.' 

Ben-Lomond,  a  Scottish  mountain  at  the 
western  extremity  of  Stirlingshire,  on  the  east 
shore  of  Loch  Lomond.  The  ascent  is  divided 
into  three  great  stages,  and  the  top  has  an 
elevation  of  3,192  feet  above  sea-level.  On 
the  southeastern  side  it  presents  a  sheer  preci- 
pice of  about  2,000  feet.  From  the  hotel  at 
Rowardennan,  on  the  east  shore  of  the  loch,  to 
the  summit,  the  distance  is  four  miles.  The 
lower  part  is  well  wooded,  and  the  upper  affords 
excellent  healthy  pasture.  It  commands  a  most 
extensive  prospect  of  the  vale  of  Stirlingshire, 
the  Lothians,  the  Clyde,  Ayrshire,  Isle  of  Man, 
Hills  of  Antrim,  and  all  the  surrounding  high- 
land territory.  Like  Ben-Lawers  this  is  one 
of  the  botanical  gardens  of  the  highlands. 

Ben-More  (the  great  mountain),  a  conical 
hill  between  Loch  Dochart  and  Loch  Voil, 
western  part  of  Perthshire,  among  the  Braes  of 
Balquhidder.  It  rises  to  an  elevation  of  3.843 
feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea.  Several  other 
hills    also   bear    this   name. 

Ben-Muich-Dhui,  ben-mak-doo'e,  or  Ben- 
Mac-Dhui,  the  second  highest  mountain  in 
Scotland,  situated  in  the  southwest  corner  of 
Aberdeenshire,  on  the  borders  of  Banffshire. 
It  is  a  granitic  mass,  rising  to  the  height  of 
4.296  feet,  and  form?  one  of  a  cluster  of  lofty 
mountains,  among  which  are  Brae-riach,  Cairn- 
toul.  Cairngorm,  Ben-a-bourd,  and  Ben-A'an, 
Its  upper  parts  are  bare  of  vegetation.  The 
view  from  the  top  includes  the  Moray  Firth,  the 


BEN  NEVIS  — BENBOW 


hills  of  Caithness  and  Sutherland,  Ben  Nevis, 
Benmore,  etc. 

Ben  Nevis,  a  Scottish  mountain  now  as- 
certained to  be  the  most  lofty  height  in  Great 
Britain,  is  situated  in  the  southwestern  extrem- 
ity of  Inverness-shire,  immediately  east  of  Fort 
William  and  the  opening  of  the  Caledonian 
Canal  into  Loch  Eil.  It  rises  from  the  brink  of 
the  latter  piece  of  water  to  the  height  of  4,406 
feet.  In  clear  weather  a  view  can  be  obtained 
from  its  summit  across  nearly  the  whole  of 
the  north  of  Scotland  from  sea  to  sea.  It  con- 
sists principally  of  a  fine  brown  porphyry,  and 
contains  red  granite  of  a  beautiful  grain.  It  has 
some  very  lofty  precipices,  and  in  its  fissures  the 
snow  remains  unmelted,  even  in  the  warmest 
weather.  An  observatory  occupied  by  a  resident 
staff  was  established  on  the  top  of  the  mountain 
by  the  Scottish  Meteorological  Society  in  1883. 

Ben  Nut.     See  Ben,  Oil  of. 

Ben,  Oil  of,  the  expressed  oil  of  the  ben- 
nut,  the  seed  of  Moriiiga  aptcra,  the  ben  or 
horse-radish  tree  of  India.  The  oil  is  inodorous, 
does  not  become  rancid  for  many  years,  and  is 
used  by  perfumers  and  watchmakers. 

Benaiah,  be-na'ya,  the  name  of  12  different 
persons  mentioned  in  the  Bible,  the  most  im- 
portant being  a  son  of  Jehoida,  a  chief  priest. 
He  figures  as  a  mighty  and  valiant  warrior  who 
overcame  two  Moabite  champions,  slew  an 
Egyptian  giant  with  the  giant's  own  spear,  went 
down  into  a  dry  cistern  and  slew  a  lion  that 
had  fallen  in  while  it  was  covered  with  snow, 
and  killed  the  rebels  Adonijah  and  Joab.  He 
was  made  commander-in-chief  in  Joab's  place 
by  Solomon. 

Benalcazar,    ba-nal-ka'thar,    Sebastian    de, 

Spanish  leader,  the  first  conqueror  of  Popayan, 
New  Granada:  b.  about  the  end  of  the  15th 
century,  at  Benalcaz,  in  Estremadura,  Spain; 
d.  1550.  He  set  out  as  a  common  sailor  in  the 
train  of  Pedrarias,  the  newly  appointed  gover- 
nor of  Darien,  1514.  The  ability  and  daring  of 
young  Sebastian  gained  for  him  the  confidence 
of  Pizarro,  who  sent  him  against  the  Indian 
leader,  Ruminahui.  Sebastian  was  favored  at 
the  moment  of  engagement  by  a  happy  accident ; 
the  volcano  of  Cochabamba  suffered  an  eruption. 
The  frightened  Peruvian  army  fled  to  Quito  and 
Sebastian  then  possessed  himself  of  the  smoking 
ruins  of  this  city.  From  here  he  passed  north- 
ward and  conquered  the  territory  possessed  by 
a  chief  named  Popayan,  whose  name  he  pre- 
served to  designate  the  territory  over  which  the 
former  had  held  sway.  Inflamed  by  the  speeches 
of  an  Indian  captive,  who  spake  strange  words 
about  a  chief  farther  north,  anointed  with  gold 
powder,  Benalcazar  and  his  band  determined 
to  visit  and  conquer  this  El  Dorado,  or  chief 
of  gold.  After  traversing  vast  forests,  in  1534. 
he  arrived  at  the  country  which  afterward  re- 
ceived the  name  of  New  Granada.  Arrived 
there,  he  found  himself  forestalled  by  two  other 
Spanish  adventurers,  or  conquistadores.  He  re- 
turned to  Popayan,  and  was  made  governor  of 
this  province  by  a  decree  dated  ici8.  When  La 
Gasca  succeeded  in  supplanting  Diego  Pizarro, 
he  deprived  Sebastian  of  his  governorship. 

Benares,  be-na'rez,  a  division  in  the  north- 
western provinces  of  India,  with  an  area  of 
10.414  square  miles,  largely  made  up  of  rich 
cultivated    flats    on    each    side    of    the    Ganges. 


The  heat  in  summer  is  excessive,  but  in  winter 
fires  are  requisite.  Garden  stuffs,  grain  of  dif- 
ferent kinds,  flax  for  oil,  and  sugar,  are  the 
principal  objects  of  cultivation.  Rice,  for  which 
many  parts  of  the  soil  seem  well  adapted,  is 
seldom  grown.  Muslins,  silks,  and  gauzes,  salt» 
indigo,  and  opium,  are  made  very  extensively. 
The  principal  town  is  Benares.  Pop.  (1901) 
5,368,600,  and  the  Hindus  greatly  outnumbering 
the  Mussulmans. 

Benares  (in  Sanskrit,  Varanasi),  a  town  in 
Hindustan,  northwest  provinces,  in  the  division 
of  the  same  name,  on  the  left  bank  of  the 
Ganges,  from  which  it  rises  like  an  amphitheatre, 
presenting  a  splendid  panorama  of  temples, 
mosques,  palaces,  and  other  buildings,  with  their 
domes,  minarets,  etc.  Fine  ghauts  lead  down 
to  the  river.  It  is  built  of  freestone,  and  con- 
tains many  handsome  and  highly  decorated 
houses,  but  the  height  of  the  houses  and  narrow- 
ness of  the  streets  give  it  all  the  usual  incon- 
veniences of  an  Asiatic  town.  Kasi,  the  Splen- 
did, as  the  Hindus  commonly  call  it,  is  one  of 
the  most  sacred  places  of  pilgrimage  in  all  India, 
being  the  headquarters  of  the  Hindu  religion. 
To  die  at  Benares  is  the  greatest  happiness 
for  a  Plindu,  because  he  is  then  sure  of  imme- 
diate admission  into  heaven.  The  number  of 
pious  foundations  and  temples  is  exceedingly 
great.  There  is  a  continual  influx  of  wealthy 
pilgrims  into  the  city,  and  many  of  the  Hindu 
princes  have  a  town  residence  here.  The  prin- 
cipal temple,  called  Bisheswar,  is  dedicated  to 
Siva.  Aurungzebe  built  a  splendid  mosque  on 
the  highest  ground  in  the  city,  and  it  is  the 
most  prominent  object  from  the  river  side.  At 
the  end  of  the  17th  century  an  observatory  was 
erected  in  this  city  by  one  of  the  rajahs,  which 
still  exists.  One  of  the  temples  has  a  great 
number  of  sacred  monkeys  attached  to  it. 
Altogether  there  are  about  1,500  Hindu  temples. 
Among  the  municipal  structures  are  the  govern- 
ment college,  hospitals,  town-hall,  .asylums, 
swimming  baths,  and  waterworks.  Benares  car- 
ries on  a  large  trade  in  the  produce  of  the  dis- 
trict and  in  English  goods,  and  manufactures 
silks,  shawls,  embroidered  cloth,  jewelry,  etc. 
The  merchants  and  bankers  are  numerous  and 
wealthy.  There  are  few  English  inhabitants,  ex- 
cept the  government  officers,  and  the  members  of 
the  various  missions.  Kasi  was  ceded  to  the 
East  India  Company  by  the  Nabob  of  Oude  in 
1775.  During  the  mutiny  of  1857  a  serious  out- 
break occurred  here.  Pop.  (1901)  203,100.  See 
Sherring,  'Sacred  City  of  the  Hindus^   (1869). 

Benavente,  ba-nii-ven'ta,  a  town  of  Spain, 
in  the  province  of  Zamora.  on  the  western  bank 
of  the  Esla,  34  miles  north  from  Zamora.  It 
is  overlooked  by  a  huge,  half-ruined  castle,  and 
is  now  a  dull  and  poverty-stricken  place,  built 
chiefly  of  mud  cottage.-j.  It  was  here  that 
Moore's  retreat  commenced,  28  Dec.  1808. 

Benbow,  John,  famous  English  admiral* 
b.  Shrewsbury,  England,  1653;  d.  Jamaica,  <» 
Nov.  1702.  After  serving  for  some  time  in  the 
navy  he  entered  the  merchant  service,  and  fought 
.so  desperately  against  a  pirate  from  Sallee,  in 
one  of  his  trips  to  the  Mediterranean,  about  the 
year  1686.  as  to  beat  her  off,  though  greatly 
his  superior  in  men  and  metal.  He  re-entered 
the  navv  after  the  Revolution,  and  was  employed 
in  protectine:  the  English  trade  in  the  channel, 
which  he  did  with  great  effect.     His  valor  and 


BENCH  —  BENDALOU 


activity  secured  him  the  confidence  of  the  na- 
tion, and  he  was  soon  promoted  to  the  rank 
of  rear-admiral,  and  charged  with  operations 
against  Dunkirk  and  the  French  coasts.  In  1698 
he  was  sent  to  put  down  the  pirates  in  the  West 
Indies,  and  not  long  after  returning,  he  again 
sailed  to  the  West  Indies  with  a  small  fleet, 
having  accepted  a  command  previously  declined 
by  several  of  his  seniors,  from  the  supposed  su- 
periority of  the  enemy's  force  in  that  quarter. 
In  August  1702,  he  fell  in  with  the  French 
fleet  under  Du  Casse,  and  for  five  days  main- 
tained a  running  fight  with  them,  when  he  at 
length  succeeded  in  bringing  the  enemy's  stern- 
most  ship  to  close  quarters.  In  the  heat  of 
the  action  a  chain-shot  carried  away  one  of  his 
legs,  and  he  was  taken  below ;  but  the  moment 
the  dressing  had  been  applied  to  the  wound  he 
caused  himself  to  be  brought  again  on  deck, 
and  continued  the  action.  At  this  critical  in- 
stant, being  most  disgracefully  abandoned  by 
several  of  the  captains  under  his  command, 
who  signed  a  paper  expressing  their  opinion  that 
"nothing  more  was  to  be  done,*^  the  whole  fleet 
efi^ected  its  escape.  Benbow,  on  his  return  to 
Jamaica,  brought  the  delinquents  to  a  court- 
martial,  by  which  two  of  them  were  convicted 
of  cowardice  and  disobedience  of  orders,  and 
condemned  to  be  shot ;  which  sentence,  on  their 
arrival  in  England,  was  carried  into  execution  at 
Plymouth. 

Bench,  in  law,  the  seat  which  judges  or 
magistrates  occupy  officially  in  a  court  of  jus- 
tice; also  the  judges  or  magistrates  sitting  to- 
gether to  try  cases.  The  court  of  common 
pleas  in  England  was  formerly  called  Bancus, 
the  Bench,  as  distinguished  from  Bancus  Regis, 
the  King's  Bench.  It  was  also  called  Communis 
Bancus,  the  Common  Bench,  and  this  title  is 
still  retained  by  the  reporters  of  the  decisions 
in  the  court  of  common  pleas.  Mention  is 
made  in  the  Magna  Charta  "J^  jiisticiariis  nos- 
tris  de  Banco)^  which  all  men  know  to  be  the 
justices  of  the  court  of  common  pleas,  com- 
monly called  the  Common  Bench,  or  the  Bench. 
Viner,  Abr.  Courts   (n.  2). 

Bench-mark,  a  mark  placed  upon  some 
permanent  object,  as  a  stone  or  wall,  for  use 
in  tidal  observations  and  leveling  surveys.  Its 
position  above  the  zero  of  the  tide-gauge  or 
other  datum  level  is  made  a  matter  of  record 
and  any  level  once  established  may  be  readily 
ascertained  at  a  future  period.  See  also  Level- 
ing. 

Bench  Warrant,  a  warrant  issued  by  the 
court  before  which  an  indictment  has  been  found 
to  arrest  the  accused,  that  he  may  appear  and 
find  bail  for  his  appearance  at  the  trial.  Where 
a  bench  warrant  is  directed  to  the  sheriff  it  can- 
not be  executed  by  one  having  only  verbal 
authority  from  the  sheriff,  and  such  arrest  does 
not  discharge  the  recognizance.  A  bench  war- 
rant is  defective  which  does  not  direct  that  the 
party  shall  be  brought  before  some  judge  or  jus- 
tice. 

Benchers,  in  England,  senior  members  of 
the  Inns  of  Court,  who  have  the  entire  manage- 
ment of  their  respective  inns,  the  power  of 
punishing  barristers  guilty  of  misconduct,  and 
the  right  to  admit  or  reject  candidates  to  the 
bar.     See  alsc  Inns  of  Coubt. 


Bencoolen,  ben-koo'len  (Dutch,  Benkoe- 
Icn) ,  a  seaport  of  Sumatra,  on  the  southwest 
coast ;  Ion.  102°  19'  E. ;  lat.  3°  47'  36"  S.  The 
English  settled  here  in  1685,  and  in  1690  the 
East  India  Company  built  a  fort  here,  calling  it 
Fort  York.  In  1825  Bencoolen  was  yielded  up 
to  the  Dutch  in  exchange  for  the  settlements  on 
the  Mala}'-  Peninsula.  A  convenient  river  on  its 
northwest  side  conveys  pepper  out  of  the  in- 
land country ;  but  there  is  great  inconvenience 
in  shipping  it,  by  reason  of  a  dangerous  bar  at 
the  river's  inouth.  The  place,  which  is  almost 
two  miles  in  compass,  is  known  at  sea  by  a 
high,  slender  mountain,  which  rises  in  the  coun- 
try 20  miles  beyond  it,  called  the  Sugar  Loaf. 
It  is  inhabited  by  a  mixed  population.  The  me- 
dium heat  throughout  the  year  is  from  81°  to 
82°.  Pepper  is  the  chief  produce  of  the  adja- 
cent country,  which  is  mountainous  and  woody. 
The  place  is  unhealthy  and  subject  to  earth- 
quakes; storms  are  frequent.     Pop.  6,000. 

Benczur,  ben'tsoor,  Gsoila  (Julius),  Hunga- 
rian artist :  b.  Nyiregj-haza,  1844.  He  was  made 
professor  at  the  Academy  of  Munich  in  1880 
and  was  subsequently  director  of  the  Academy 
of  Budapest.  His  paintings,  which  are  of  the 
School  of  Piloty,  are  noted  for  their  splendid 
coloring.  Among  the  most  celebrated  are  ^Fare- 
well of  Ladislas  Hunyady'  (^1867)  ;  < Arrest  of 
Rakoczy^  (1701)  ;  *  Louis  XV.  in  the  Boudoir 
of  Dubarry^  ;  ^Family  of  Louis  XVI.  during  the 
Assault  on  Versailles'  (1872),  owned  by  D.  O. 
Mills,  New  York;  ^Baptism  of  St.  Stephen^ 
(1875);  <Bacchanti>  (1881)  ;  <The  Reconquest* 
of  Buda  by  Charles  of  Lorraine'    (1888). 

Bend,  in  heraldry,  one  of  the  nine  honor- 
able ordinaries,  containing  a  third  part  of  the 
field  when  charged,  and  a  fifth  when  plain, 
made  by  two  lines  drawn  diagonally  across  the 
shield  from  the  dexter  chief  to  the  sinister  base 
point.  The  bend  sinister  differs  only  by  cross- 
ing in  the  opposite  direction,  diagonally  from 
the  sinister  chief  to  the  dexter  base.  It  indi- 
cates   illegitimacy. 

Ben'da,  Franz,  German  violinist:  b.  Jung- 
bunzlau,  Bohemia,  1709;  d.  Potsdam,  1786.  He 
exhibited,  while  a  boy,  a  great  desire  to  learn 
the  violin,  which  he  could  gratify  in  no  other 
way  than  by  joining  a  band  of  strolling  musi- 
cians. He  found  means,  however,  to  acquire  an 
extraordinary  mastery  of  the  instrument,  and 
in  1732  entered  the  service  of  Frederick  the 
Great,  then  prince-royal,  with  whom  he  re- 
mained the  rest  of  his  long  life.  He  founded 
a  school  of  violinists,  whose  method  of  playing 
was  entirely  original  and  quite  effective.  He 
also  published  some  excellent  solos  for  the  vio- 
lin. 

Benda,  Georg,  German  musician,  the  most 
distinguished  of  a  notable  musical  family :  b. 
Jungbunzlau,  Bohemia,  1721 ;  d.  K5striz,  1795. 
He  was  bandmaster  to  the  Duke  of  Gotha 
(1748-87),  and  in  this  period  produced  several 
operas  and  cantatas,  such  as  ^Ariadne  auf 
Naxos'  and  "^ Medea.' 

Bendalou,  Paul,  a  soldier  of  the  American 
Revolutionary  army :  b.  Montauban,  France,  15 
Aug.  1755 ;  d.  Baltimore,  Maryland,  10  Dec. 
1826.  In  October  1776  he  embarked  at  Bor- 
deaux for  the  United  States,  as  a_  volunteer  in 
the  cause  of  liberty,  and,  on  reaching  the  head- 
quarters of  Washington,  received  a  lieutenant's 
commission.     Transferred    to   the   command    of 


BENDEMANN  —  BENEDETTI 


Pulaski,  he  was  captain  of  the  first  company  in 
his  famous  legion  at  the  siege  of  Savannah. 
There  he  carried  off  the  field  the  body  of  the 
generous  Pole,  and  preserved,  also,  the  standard 
of  the  legion,  which  had  been  wrought  and 
presented  by  the  wives  and  daughters  of  Mary- 
land. He  was  quartermaster-general,  with  the 
rank  of  colonel,  in  the  Maryland  militia  during 
the  War  of  1812,  and  for  many  years  United 
States  marshal  for  the  circuit  and  district  courts 
of  Maryland,  his  oihcial  conduct,  from  first  to 
last,  being  marked  with  exactness  and  integrity. 

Bendemann,  ben'de-man,  Eduard,  German 
painter:  b.  Berlin,  3  Dec.  181 1  ;  d.  Diisseldorf,  27 
Dec.  1889.  As  early  as  1832  his  great  picture  of 
the  'Captive  Jews^  was  exhibited  at  Berlin,  and 
in  1837  he  gained  the  gold  medal  at  Paris.  In 
1838  he  was  appointed  professor  of  the  Acad- 
erny  of  Art  at  Dresden.  Here  he  was  intrusted 
with  the  execution  of  the  larger  frescoes  in 
the  palace,  and  on  these  his  fame  chiefly  depends. 
In  1858  he  succeeded  his  father-in-law  as  di- 
rector of  the  Diisseldorf  Academy,  a  post  which 
he  held  until  1867.  He  afterward  produced  sev- 
eral large  canvases  and  frescoes,  some  of  which 
are  among  his  best  works.  Tytler,  *^Modern 
Painters  and  their  Paintings^    (1899). 

Bender,  Louis  Prosper,  Canadian-Ameri- 
can physician  and  author :  b.  Quebec,  30  July 
1844.  He  graduated  at  McGill  University  in 
1865,  after  having  interrupted  his  studies  by  a 
service  in  the  medical  department  of  the  Union 
army  during  a  portion  of  the  American  Civil 
War.  In  1884  he  settled  in  Boston,  Mass., 
where  he  established  himself  in  homoeopathic 
practice.  His  writings  include  ^Literary 
Sheaves,^  or  'La  Litterature  au  Canada-Fran- 
gais^  (1881);  'Old  and  New  Canada,  1753- 
1844,^  'Historic  Scenes  and  Social  Pictures,  or 
the  Life  of  Joseph  Frangois  Perrault*  (1882), 
etc.  He  has  frequently  contributed  to  American 
magazines. 

Bender,  a  city  of  Russia,  in  the  govern- 
ment of  Bessarabia.  It  is  situated  on  the  Dnies- 
ter, and  is  a  straggling  place,  chiefly  consisting 
of  low  houses  and  mere  huts.  It  formerly  pos- 
sessed a  strong  fortress,  but  this  was  dismantled 
in  1897.  Its  commerce  is  important.  After  be- 
ing several  times  taken  from  the  Turks  by  the 
Russians,  it  has  belonged  to  Russia  since  the 
Peace  of  Bucharest,  in  1812.   Pop.  (1897)  32,934. 

Bendigo,  formerly  Sandhurst,  Australia, 
a  city  in  Bendigo  County,  Victoria,  on  Bendigo 
Creek,  fully  100  miles  north-northwest  of  Mel- 
bourne, with  which  it  has  direct  railway  com- 
munication. It  is  one  of  the  chief  cities  in 
the  colony  and  an  important  railway  centre. 
Along  one  side  of  its  main  street  (Pall  Mall) 
there  are  fine  buildings  of  brick  and  stone,  and 
facing  these,  in  Rosalind  Park,  are  the  elegant 
government  buildings  and  the  law  courts,  which 
together  cost  nearly  i8o,ooo.  Other  buildings 
worthy  of  mention  are  the  handsome  town-hall, 
mechanics'  institute,  with  library  and  school  of 
mines ;  free  library ;  temperance,  masonic,  and 
other  halls ;  hospital,  benevolent  asylum ;  some 
fine  banks ;  Anglican,  Wesleyan,  Presbyterian, 
and  other  churches;  Roman  Catholic  Cathedral, 
in  course  of  erection ;  art  gallery,  jail,  state  and 
other  schools,  etc.  The  public  parks  comprise, 
besides  the  Rosalind  Park,  the  fine  Botanic 
Gardens  and  two  others  largely  used  for  sports. 
The  streets  are  lighte4  by  gas  and  electricity, 


and  there  is  an  excellent  water-supply  from 
large  reservoirs  near  the  town.  The  chief  indus- 
try of  the  district  is  gold-mining,  which  gives 
employment  to  5,000  miners.  Other  important 
industries  are  brewing,  iron-founding,  stone-cut- 
ting, granite-polishing,  tanning,  and  the  manu- 
facture of  pottery,  bricks,  tiles,  cordials,  etc. 
Agriculture  and  viti-culture  are  carried  on  in  the 
district,  and  there  is  a  trade  in  wine  and  fruits. 
Bendigo  was  founded  at  the  time  of  the  gold 
discovery  in  185 1.  Nearly  £70,000,000  worth  of 
gold  has  been  obtained  here,  much  of  it  from 
quartz  reefs.  Pop.  (1901)  31,020.  See  Mackay, 
'History  of  Bendigo'  (1901). 

Bendire,  ben-de're,  Charles  Emil,  German- 
American  military  officer  and  ornithologist :  b. 
Darmstadt,  Germany,  27  April  1836;  d.  1897. 
He  came  to  the  United  States  in  1852,  and 
entering  the  army  in  1854,  served  through  the 
Civil  War,  becoming  a  captain  in  the  ist  Cav- 
alry. After  the  war  he  was  transferred  to  the 
West,  and  was  retired  24  April  1886.  During 
his  stay  in  the  West  he  applied  himself  to  the 
study  of  ornithology,  and  collected  a  vast  amount 
of  material  in  various  branches  of  natural 
history.  In  1870  he  began  to  collect  the  eggs 
of  North  American  birds,  which  finally  numbered 
more  than  8,000  specimens,  and  this  collection 
he  presented  to  the  United  States  National  Mu- 
seum. He  is  the  author  of  'The  Life  Histories 
of  North  American  Birds,  with  Special  Reference 
to  their  Breeding  Habits  and  Eggs.' 

Bendzin,  beiid'zen,  the  capital  of  a  district 
in  Russian  Poland,  in  the  government  of  Piotr- 
kow,  situated  on  the  Black  Przemsza,  on  a  branch 
of  the  Warsaw  &  Vienna  R.R.  Its  chief  in- 
dustry is  the  zinc  works,  under  government 
control ;  there  are  also  coal  mines  in  the  vicin- 
ity.    Pop.  21,200. 

Bene,  ben'e,  the  plant  that  furnishes  oil 
of  sesamum. 

Ben'edek,  Ludwig  von,  Austrian  military 
officer:  b.  Odenburg.  Hungary,  14  July.  1804; 
d.  Gratz.  27  April  1881.  He  fought  against  the 
Italians  in  1848,  and  afterward  against  the  Hun- 
garian patriots.  He  distinguished  himself  at 
Solferino  in  the  campaign  of  1859;  and  in  the 
war  with  Prussia  in  1866  commanded  the  Aus- 
trian army  till  after  his  defeat  at  Sadowa,  when 
he  was  superseded. 

Benedetti,  ba-ne-det'te,  Vincent  (Count  de), 
French  diplomatist  of  Italian  extraction :  b. 
Bastia,  Corsica,  29  April  1817;  d.  Paris,  28 
March  1900.  He  was  educated  for  public  ser- 
vice, held  consulates  in  Cairo,  Palermo,  Malta, 
and  Tunis ;  and  as  secretary  of  the  Congress  of 
Paris  in  1856,  drew  up  the  protocols  of  the  treaty 
then  agreed  upon.  In  1861  he  was  appointed 
ambassador  to  Italy,  and  in  1864  to  Prussia.  In 
1870  great  excitement  was  aroused  throughout 
Europe  by  the  publication  in  the  London  Times 
of  the  alleged  draft  of  a  secret  treaty  between 
France  and  Prussia.  The  authenticity  of  the 
document  was  not  denied.  The  French  govern- 
ment declared  that  although  Benedetti  had  writ- 
ten the  document,  he  had  done  so  at  the  dic- 
tation of  Bismarck.  At  the  same  time  Bene- 
detti was  under  orders  to  protest  against  the 
candidature  of  Prince  Leopold  of  the  house  of 
Hohenzollern  for  the  crown  of  Spain.  He  be- 
came so  importunate  in  trying  to  carry  out  these 
orders  that  he  was  forbidden  to  seek  further 
interviews  with  King  William.     The  refusal  of 


BENEDETTO  —  BENEDICT 


the  king  to  again  receive  Benedetti  gave  great 
offense  in  France,  and  was  made  a  pretext  for 
declaring  war  within  a  few  days.  After  the  fall 
of  the  empire,  Benedetti  withdrew  from  public 
life.  In  1871  he  published  a  pamphlet  charging 
Bismarck  with  the  whole  responsibility  of  the 
secret  treaty,  to  which  the  latter  made  a  vigorous 
reply.  Benedetti  was  author  of  *^Ma  Mission 
en  Prusse^  (1871)  ;  and  ^Studies  in  Diplomacy,' 
an  English  translation  of  which  appeared  in 
1895- 

Benedetto,  ba-na-det'to,  da  Majano,  Ital- 
ian architect  and  sculptor :  b.  Florence  in  1442 ; 
d.  there,  1498.  He  began  his  career  as  a  worker 
in  wooden  mosaic,  and  with  his  brothers,  Giovan- 
ni and  Giuliana,  he  executed  the  'Madonna  dell 
Ulivo.'  His  own  work,  represented  in  the  'Ma- 
donna,' far  excels  the  work  of  his  brothers. 
His  most  celebrated  work  as  an  architect  was 
the  Palazzo  Strozzi,  began  in  1489.  In  1490,  he 
carved  the  busts  of  Giotto  and  Squarcilupo,  in 
the  Duomo  at  Florence.  In  1491,  the  monument 
lO  Filippo  Strozzi  was  erected  in  Santa  Maria 
Novella,  a  work  which  Strozzi  had  commissioned 
Benedetto  to  make  before  his  death.  It  is  the 
chcf-d'ccuvre  of  the  sculptor,  and  one  of  the  most 
notable  sculptures  of  the  15th  century. 

Benedicite,  ben-e-dis'i-te,  the  song  of  the 
'Three  Children'  in  the  fiery  furnace,  as  given 
in  the  Apocrypha  and  the  Septuagint  version  of 
Daniel,  which  is  a  part  of  the  Roman  Breviary 
in  the  office  of  lauds ;  it  is  also  a  part  of  the 
Anglican  morning  pra3'er,  to  be  used  when  the 
Te  Deum  is  not  sung,  usually  from  Septua- 
gesima  to  Easter  and  during  Advent. 

Benedick,  sometimes  spelled  Benedict,  a 
married  man;  from  the  Latin  beuedictiis  (a 
happy  man),  and  a  skit  on  the  order  of  St. 
Benedict,  famous  for  their  ascetic  habits,  and, 
of  course,  rigidly  bound  to  celibacy.  Shake- 
speare, in  'Much  Ado  About  Nothing,'  avails 
himself  of  this  joke  in  making  Benedick,  the 
young'  lord  of  Padua,  "rail  against  marriage," 
but  afterward  marry  Beatrice,  with  whom  he 
falls  in  love. 

Benedict,  Saint,  the  founder  of  the  first 
religious  order  in  the  West :  b.  Norcia,  Italy, 
480;  d.  21  March  543.  In  the  14th  year  of  his 
age  he  retired  to  a  cavern  situated  in  the  desert 
of  Subiaco,  40  miles  from  Rome,  and  in  515  drew 
up  a  rule  for  his  monks,  which  was  first  intro- 
duced into  the  monastery  on  Monte  Cassino,  in 
the  neighborhood  of  Naples,  founded  by  him 
(529)  in  a  grove  of  Apollo  after  the  temple  had 
been  demolished.  This  gradually  became  the 
rule  of  all  the  western  monks.  The  abbots  of 
Monte  Cassino  afterward  acquired  episcopal  ju- 
risdiction, and  a  certain  patriarchal  authority 
over  the  whole  order.  Benedict,  with  the  inten- 
tion of  banishing  idleness,  prescribed,  in  addition 
to  the  work  of  God  (as  he  called  prayer  and 
the  reading  of  religious  writings),  the  instruc- 
tion of  youth  in  reading,  writing,  and  ciphering, 
in  the  doctrines  of  Christianity,  in  manual  labors 
(including  mechanic  arts  of  every  kind),  and  in 
the  management  of  the  monastery.  With  regard 
to  dress  and  food,  the  rule  was  severe  but  not 
extravagant.  Benedict  caused  a  library  to  be 
founded,  for  which  the  aged  and  infirm  brethren 
{ordo  scriptorius)  were  obliged  to  copy  manu- 
scripts. By  this  means  he  contributed  to  pre- 
serve   the    literary    remains    of   antiquity    from 


ruin ;  for  though  he  had  in  view  only  the  copy- 
ing of  religious  writings,  yet  the  practice  was 
afterward  extended  to  classical  works  of  every 
kind ;  and  the  learned  world  is  indebted  for  the 
preservation  of  great  literary  treasures  to  the 
order  of  St.   Benedict. 

Bibliography. —  WolfBr,  'B.  von  Nursia  und 
seine  MonchsregeP  (1895)  ;  Henderson,  'His- 
torical Documents  of  the  Middle  Ages,'  pp.  274- 
314  (1892)  ;  'Die  historische  Voraussetzungen 
der  Regel  des  heiliges  Benedict  von  Nursia' 
(1895)  ;  Doyle,  'Teachings  of  Saint  Benedict' 
(1887).     See  Benedictines. 

Benedict,  the  name  of  fourteen  Popes. 
Benedict  I.,   succeeded   John   III.   575;    d. 
578,  and  was  himself  succeeded  by  Pelagius  II. 
Benedict   II.,    succeeded    Leo    II.   684:    d. 

685,  and  was  succeeded  by  John  V. 

Benedict  III.,  succeeded  Leo  IV.  855. 
During  his  pontificate,  the  Saracens  were  ravag- 
ing Apulia  and  Campania.  D.  858,  and  was  suc- 
ceeded by  Nicholas  I. 

Benedict  IV.,  succeeded  John  IX.  about 
900.  He  crowned  Louis,  son  of  Boson,  king  of 
Italy.     D.  903,  and  was  succeeded  by  Leo.  V. 

Benedict  V.,  succeeded  John  XII.  964, 
and  was  appointed  by  the  Romans  in  opposition 
to  Leo  VIII.  The  Emperor  Otho,  supporter  of 
Leo.  appeared  before  Rome  with  an  army,  re- 
duced the  city  to  famine,  and  a  new  assembly 
of  the  clergy  declared  to  be  null  the  election  of 
Benedict,  who  was  exiled.     D.  965. 

Benedict  VI.,   succeeded  John   XIII.   972. 

After  the  death  of  the  Emperor  Otho  I.,  the 
Romans  imprisoned  Benedict,  who  was  strangled 
in  the  castle  of  St.  Angelo,  in  974.  Owing  to 
the  mistake  of  later  chroniclers  in  confusing 
Dominus  Papa  with  a  supposed  proper  name, 
Donus  II.  appears  in  many  lists  of  the  Popes 
between  Benedict  VI.  and  Benedict  VII.  Geise- 
brecht,  in  his  'Year-Book  of  the  German  King- 
dom under  Otho  II.,'  has  clearly  shown  that 
no  such  Pope  as  Donus  II.  ever  existed. 

Benedict  VII.,  of  the  family  of  Conti, 
elected  in  975.  During  his  pontificate,  the 
Emperor  Otho  II.  came  repeatedly  to  Rome, 
where  he  died  in  984.  Benedict  died  about  the 
same  time,  and  was  succeeded  by  John  XIV. 

Benedict  VIII.,  of  the  same  family,  suc- 
ceeded Sergius  IV.,  in  1012.  In  1016,  the  Sara- 
cens from  Sardinia  having  landed  on  the  coast 
of  Tuscany,  Benedict  attacked  and  defeated 
them.  He  crowned  the  Emperor  Henry  II.,  and 
his  wife,  in  the  Church  of  St.  Peter.  D.  1024, 
and  was  succeeded  by  his  brother,  John  XIX. 

Benedict  IX.,  a  relative  of  the  two  preced- 
ing Popes,  succeeded  John  XIX.  in  1034.  He 
was  then  very  young,  some  say  only  18  years  old. 
He  was  deposed  in  1048,  and  died  in  a  convent 
in  1054,  being  succeeded  by  Leo  IX. 

Benedict  X.  was  elected  by  a  faction  after 
the  death  of  Stephen  IX.,  in  1058;  but  the 
Council  of  Siena  nominated  Nicholas  II.  Ben- 
edict did  not  submit  till  the  following  year,  when 
Nicholas   came  into  Rome.     D.   1059. 

Benedict  XL,  a  Dominican,  succeeded 
Boniface  VIII..  in  1303.  Contemporary  histo- 
rians speak  highly  of  his  character  and  virtues. 
He  died  1304,  and  was  succeeded  bv  Clement  V. 


BENEDICT  — BENEDICT  BISCOP 


Benedict  XII.,  Jacques  Fournier,  a  native 
of  France,  succeeded  John  XXII.,  in  1334,  the 
Popes  residing  then  at  Avignon.  He  put  a  stop 
to  many  abuses  in  the  distribution  of  ecclesias- 
tical patronage,  enforced  discipline  among  the 
monastic  orders,  and  insisted  that  temporal  rulers 
should  observe  their  compacts  with  the  Holy 
See.     D.  1342,  and  was  succeeded  by  Clement  VI. 

Benedict  XIII.,  Cardinal  Orsini,  succeeded 

Innocent  XIII.,  in  1724,  but  it  was  with  diffi- 
culty that  he  coud  be  made  to  accept  the  ponti- 
ficate. Benedict  lived  with  the  greatest  fru- 
gality, and  has  been  called  more  a  monk  than 
a  Pope.  He  managed,  however,  to  transact  an 
extraordinary  number  of  affairs.  His  great 
fault  was  his  implicit  confidence  in  Cardinal 
Coscia,  who  much  abused  it.  D.  February  1731. 
His  works  were  published  in  1728,  in  three 
volumes  folio.  He  was  succeeded  by  Clement 
XII. 

Benedict   XIV.,   Prospero   Lambertini:  b. 

Bologna,  1675;  d.  3  May  1758.  He  applied  him- 
self with  success  to  the  canon  and  civil  law,  and 
became  advocate  to  the  consistory  at  Rome. 
Afterward  he  was  appointed  promotor  fidei, 
and  wrote  a  valuable  work  on  the  ^Ceremonies 
used  in  Beatifications^  (1734).  He  was  pas- 
sionately fond  of  learning,  of  historical  re- 
searches, and  monuments  of  art,  and  also  asso- 
ciated with  the  distinguished  men  of  his  time; 
among  others  with  Father  Montfaucon,  who 
said  of  him,  *^Benedict  has  two  souls;  one  for 
science  and  the  other  for  society. ^^  He  also 
made  himself  familiar  with  the  best  poetical 
works,  whereby  his  mind  became  elevated  and 
his  style  animated.  Benedict  XIII.  made  him, 
in  1727,  bishop  of  Ancona ;  in  1728  cardinal,  and 
in  1732  archbishop  of  Bologna.  In  every  sta- 
tion he  displayed  great  talents,  and  fulfilled  his 
duties  with  the  most  conscientious  zeal.  He 
opposed  fanaticism  even  at  the  risk  of  his  own 
safety,  defended  the  oppressed,  and  expressed 
himself  with  the  greatest  frankness  to  Clement 
XII.  without  losing  his  favor.  When,  after  the 
death  of  Clement  XII.  in  1740,  the  election  of  a 
new  Pope  in  the  conclave  was  retarded  by 
the  intrigues  of  Cardinal  Tencin,  and  the  car- 
dinals could  not  agree,  Lambertini,  with  his 
usual  good  nature,  said  to  them,  "If  you  want 
a  saint,  take  Gotti ;  if  a  politician,  Aldobrandi ; 
if  a  good  old  man,  myself.^'  These  words, 
thrown  out  in  a  humorous  manner,  operated  on 
the  conclave  like  inspiration,  and  Lambertini, 
under  the  name  of  Benedict  XIV.,  ascended  the 
papal  throne.  His  choice  of  the  ministers  and 
friends  whom  he  assembled  around  him  does 
the  greatest  honor  to  his  judgment.  The  condi- 
tion of  the  Church  and  of  the  Roman  court  had 
not  escaped  his  penetration.  Since  the  Reforma- 
tion princes  no  longer  trembled  at  the  thunders 
of  the  Vatican.  '1  he  power  of  the  Popes  in 
temporal  affairs  had  notably  declined,  and  Lam- 
bertini knew  tb.at  respect  for  the  papal  authority 
could  be  maintained  only  by  a  wise  moderation. 
He  constantly  regulated  his  measures  by  this 
principle,  and  thus  succeeded,  even  in  difficult 
circumstances,  in  satisfying  not  only  the  Cath- 
olic but  even  the  Protestant  princes.  The  sci- 
ences were  a  special  object  of  his  care.  He 
established  academies  at  Rome ;  promoted  the 
prosperity  of  the  academy  at  Bologna :  caused  a 
degree  of  the  meridian  to  be  :neasured :  the  obe- 
lisk to  be  erected  in  the  Campus  Martins;  the 


Church  of  St.  Marccllino  to  be  built  after  a  plan 
projected  by  himself;  the  beautiful  pictures  in 
St.  Peter's  to  be  executed  in  mosaic ;  the  best 
English  and  French  works  to  be  translated 
into  Italian ;  and  commanded  a  catalogue  of 
the  manuscripts  contained  in  the  Vatican  library 
(the  number  of  which  he  had  enlarged  to  3,300) 
to  be  printed.  His  government  of  the  papal 
states  did  equal  honor  to  his  wisdom.  He 
enacted  severe  laws  against  usury,  favored  com- 
mercial liberty,  and  diminished  the  number  of 
holidays.  His  piety  was  sincere,  yet  enlightened 
and  forbearing.  He  strove  to  maintain  purity 
of  doctrine  and  of  morals,  giving  in  his  own 
character  the  most  praiseworthy  example.  The 
sole  reproach  brought  against  him  by  the 
Romans  was  that  he  wrote  too  much  and  gov- 
erned too  little.  His  works  compose,  in  the 
Venice  edition,  16  volumes  folio.  The  most  im- 
portant of  his  works  is  that  on  the  Synods,  in 
which  we  recognize  the  great  canonist. 

Benedict  Biscop,  Anglo-Saxon  ecclesiastic: 
b.  of  a  noble  Northumbrian  family  in  628  or 
629;  d.  Wearmouth,  12  Jan.  690.  He  spent  the 
first  years  of  his  life  at  court,  but  at  the  age  of 
25  he  relinquished  this  manner  of  life  and  accom- 
panied Wilfrid  on  a  pilgrimage  to  Rome  in  653. 
Here  he  lived  for  more  than  10  years,  when  he 
returned  to  England ;  but  not  very  long  after 
again  went  to  Rome,  on  a  mission  intrusted  to 
him  by  Alchfrid,  king  of  Northumbria.  On  his 
way  back  he  stopped  at  Lerins  in  Provence, 
where,  he  remained  for  the  next  two  years,  mak- 
ing himself  acquainted  with  the  rules  of  monas- 
tic life  in  the  monastery  of  Lerins,  of  which  he 
had  become  a  member.  In  668  he  made  a  third 
journey  to  Rome,  where  he  arrived  just  at  the 
time  when  the  Pope  was  about  to  appoint  some 
one  to  fill  the  see  of  Canterbury,  which  was 
then  vacant.  Having  fixed  upon  Theodore,  a 
Cilician  monk,  he  requested  Benedict  to  accom- 
pany him  to  England  to  assist  him  in  securing 
the  favor  of  the  Anglo-Saxons,  which  as  a  for- 
eigner he  might  have  difficulty  in  doing.  Berie- 
dict  agreed  to  do  this,  and  was  presented  with 
the  abbacy  of  St.  Peter's  in  Canterbury ;  but 
at  the  end  of  two  years  he  resigned  the  abbacy 
and  again  went  to  Rome.  On  this  occasion  he 
returned  to  England  with  a  valuable  collection 
of  books  and  a  large  number  of  relics,  which  he 
had  accumulated  during  his  previous  visits  to 
Rome.  With  these  he  proceded  first  to  Wessex 
with  the  intention  of  remaining  there,  but  find- 
ing that  the  king  of  Wessex  was  dead  he  turned 
northward  to  his  native  Northumbria.  and 
there  he  was  fortunate  enough  to  secure  the 
favor  of  King  Egfrid.  From  him  he  received  a 
donation  of  land  at  the  mouth  of  the  Wear,  on 
which  he  founded  the  monastery  of  Wearmouth. 
In  678  he  made  his  fourth  journey  to  Rome, 
and  brought  back  additional  stores  of  books 
for  his  library,  as  well  as  pictures,  images,  glass 
for  windows,  etc.,  with  which  he  decorated 
the  monastery  he  had  founded.  He  was  now 
presented  by  Egfrid  with  a  further  grant  of  land 
on  the  other  side  of  the  Wear,  where  he  founded 
another  monastery,  that  of  Jarrow,  dependent 
on  the  monastery  at  Wearmouth.  During  the 
remainder  of  his  life  he  continued  to  live  in  the 
latter  monastery,  except  on  the  occasion  of  a  fifth 
voyage  to  Rome,  made  in  685,  and  from  which 
he  derived  as  before  valuable  additions  to  his 
various  collections.  It  is  chiefly  by  these  col- 
lections that  his  services  to  learning  are  to  be 


BENEDICT  —  BENEDICTINES 


estimated,  and  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  his 
great  pupil,  the  "Venerable  Bede,*  who  was  a 
monk  in  the  monastery  of  Jarrow,  w^as  im- 
mensely indebted  to  them  for  the  learning  he 
acquired. 

Benedict,  David,  American  Baptist  clergy- 
man and  historian:  b.  Norwalk,  Conn.,  lo  Oct. 
1779;  d.  1874.  He  was  pastor  at  Pawtucket, 
R.  I.,  for  25  years,  and  preached  till  over  90 
years  of  age.  Among  his  chief  works  were 
'History  of  All  Religions^  ;  < Fifty  Years  Among 
the   Baptists,^    *  History  of  the  Donatists.^ 

Benedict,  Frank  Lee,  American  novelist :  b. 
Alexander,  N.  Y.,  6  July  1S34.  Among  his  nu- 
merous novels  are  <^John  Worthington's  Name^  ; 
'Miss  Van  Kortland*  (1870)  ;  'Her  Friend  La w- 
rence>  (1879);  'The  Price  She  Paid>  (1883). 
A  collection  of  his  verses  'The  Shadow  Wor- 
shipper and  Other  Poems^  appeared  in  1857. 

Benedict,  Sir  Julius,  German-English  pian- 
ist and  composer :  b.  Stuttgart,  1804 ;  d.  London, 
1885.  In  1821  he  went  to  Dresden  to  study 
under  Weber,  and  two  years  later  became  con- 
ductor at  a  Vienna  theatre.  His  first  opera, 
'Giacinta  ed  Ernesto,^  was  produced  in  Naples 
in  1829  without  success.  He  took  up  his  resi- 
dence in  England  in  1835,  and  was  knighted 
in  1871.  He  was  for  many  years  conductor  at 
the  Norwich  festival,  and  during  a  number  of 
seasons  acted  as  operatic  conductor  in  London, 
both  for  English  and  Italian  opera.  His  principal 
works  are  the  operas,  'The  Gipsy's  Warning^ 
(1838);  'The  Bride  of  Venice'  (1843).  ^The 
Crusaders^  (1846)  ;  'The  Lily  of  Killarney' 
(1862),  founded  on  Boucicault's  'Colleen  Bawn,^ 
and  'The  Bride  of  Song'  (1864)  ;  the  cantatas, 
'Undine'  (i860)  and  'St.  Cecilia'  (1866);  the 
fine  oratorio  'St.  Peter'  (1870)  ;  and  the  can- 
tata  'Graziella'    (1882). 

Benedict-Beuern,  be'ne-dikt-boi'ern,  for- 
merly an  abbey  situated  in  the  Bavarian  circle 
of  the  Iser,  about  40  miles  distant  from  the 
city  of  Munich,  on  the  descent  of  the  mountains 
toward  the  Tyrol.  The  convent  was  founded  as 
early  as  740,  and  was  abolished  in  1803.  The 
fine  abbey  church  still  remains.  The  Bavarian 
government  has  here  a  depot  for  army  horses, 
and  a  veterinary  establishment ;  and  there  is  also 
a  residence  for  invalids. 

Benedic'tine,  a  liqueur  originally  prepared 
by  the  Benedictine  monks  of  the  abbey  of  Fe- 
camp, in  Normandy,  consisting  of  spirit  (fine 
brandy)  containing  an  infusion  of  the  juices 
of  plants,  and  said  to  possess  digestive,  anti- 
spasmodic, and  other  virtues,  and  to  have  pro- 
phylactic efficacy  in  epidemics.  It  somewhat 
resembles  chartreuse  and  has  been  made  in  the 
same  way  since  15 10.     See  Liqueur. 

Benedictines.  From  the  6th  to  the  loth 
century  almost  all  the  monks  in  the  West  might 
be  so  called,  because  they  followed  the  rule  of 
St.  Benedict  of  Norcia.  The  rules  which  at  that 
time  the  monasteries  in  Spain  and  France  re- 
ceived from  their  bishops,  as  well  as  the  rule 
of  the  Irish  St.  Columba,  were  essentially  the 
same  as  those  of  St.  Benedict ;  and  in  the  pro- 
gress of  his  order  the  monasteries  in  Spain  and 
France,  as  well  as  those  of  the  order  of  Columba, 
united  themselves  with  it.  Monte  Cassino,  the 
magnificent  primitive  monastery  of  the  Benedic- 
tines, became  the  model  of  all  others.  At  that 
time  the  monasteries,  having  no  common  supe- 


riors, were  under  the  immediate  control  of  the 
bishops  in  their  respective  dioceses,  and  differed 
from  one  another  in  many  qualifications  of  the 
primitive  rule.  Not  even  the  color  of  their 
dress  was  the  same.  The  disciples  of  Columba 
wore  white  garments  like  the  first  Benedictine 
nuns,  who  originated  in  France  in  the  6th  cen- 
tury. After  the  unions  which  took  place  at  a 
later  period,  all  the  members  of  this  order  wore 
black,  as  the  founder  is  said  to  have  done.  The 
decline  of  monastic  discipline  after  the  8th  cen- 
tury occasioned  the  reforms  of  Benedict  of 
Aniana  in  France,  the  renewed  inculcation  of  the 
old  rule,  and  the  adoption  of  new  ordinances 
suited  to  the  times,  by  the  Council  of  Aix-la- 
Chapelle  (817),  as  well  as  the  particular  rules 
and  fraternities  of  the  celebrated  monasteries 
in  France,  Germany,  and  England,  which  in 
those  barbarous  times  became  seats  of  civiliza- 
tion and  finally  the  institution  of  the  Cluniacs,  a 
new  branch  of  the  Benedictines,  which  pro- 
ceeded from  the  convent  of  Clugny  in  Burgundy, 
founded  in  the  year  910.  The  Benedictine  mon- 
asteries, in  the  Middle  Ages,  were  often  asylums 
in  which  science  took  refuge  and  found  protec- 
tion. In  place  of  the  discordant  and  uncertain 
rules  which  had  hitherto  existed,  the  Cluniacs 
made  fixed  regulations  concerning  the  hours  of 
worship,  the  obedience,  discipline,  and  common 
government  of  all  the  monasteries  belonging 
to  their  order,  which  were  soon  imitated  in  all 
Europe.  In  the  12th  century  their  order  con- 
tained 2,000  monasteries,  whose  luxury  fre- 
quently called  for  reforms,  and  finally  became 
the  chief  cause  of  their  decline.  The  remains 
of  the  Cluniacs  united  themselves  in  the  17th 
century,  under  the  patronage  of  Richelieu,  with 
the  Benedictine  fraternities  of  St.  Vannes  and 
St.  Maurus,  the  latter  of  which,  founded  in 
1618,  had  in  the  beginning  of  the  i8th  century 
180  abbeys  and  priories  in  France,  and  acquired 
by  means  of  its  learned  members,  such  as  Ma- 
billon,  Montfaucon,  and  Martene,  merited  dis- 
tinction. To  this  family  belong  those  new  orders 
established  on  the  foundation  and  observ- 
ing the  rule  of  St.  Benedict,  which  have  origi- 
nated since  the  nth  century,  and  are  distin- 
guished from  the  proper  Benedictines  by  their 
dress,  names,  and  particular  regulations ;  for  ex- 
ample, the  Camaldulians,  the  monks  of  Val- 
lombrosa,  the  Sylvestrians,  the  Grandimontenses,. 
the  Carthusians,  the  Ccelestines,  the  Cistercians, 
and  Bernardines,  the  Trappists,  and  the  monks 
of  Fontevraud.  The  Benedictine  monasteries 
never  constituted  one  society,  constitutionally 
regulated  and  governed  under  an  aristocratical 
or  monarchical  form ;  on  the  contrary,  a  great 
many  monasteries  which  descended  from  the 
old  Benedictines  were  compelled  by  the  Council 
of  Trent  to  unite  themselves  gradually  into  par- 
ticular fraternities.  Among  these  the  Benedic- 
tines of  Monte  Cassino,  of  Monte  Vergine,  and 
Monte  Oliveto  (who  called  themselves  Olive- 
tans)  in  Italy  and  Sicily;  those  of  Valladolid 
and  Montserrat  in  Spain ;  those  of  Hirschau 
and  Fulda  in  Germany,  and  that  of  Molk  in 
Austria,  deserve  particular  notice  on  account  of 
the  extent  of  their  possessions,  the  magnificence 
of  their  churches,  and  the  mildness  of  their 
rules.  To  the  fraternity  of  Molk  (or  Melk), 
which  still  exists,  but  accommodated  to  the 
spirit  of  the  times,  the  rest  of  the  Benedictine 
convents  in  Austria  are  joined.  Many  of  the 
nunneries   of  this   order   are   reserved   for  the 


BENEDICTION  —  BENET 


nobility,  because  the  places  in  them  arc  equal 
to  the  most  lucrative  benefices.  During  the  first 
French  revolution  the  monasteries  of  the  Bene- 
dictines along  with  all  other  monastic  orders 
were  abolished ;  but  the  Benedictines  have  since 
partially  re-established  themselves  in  France.  In 
England  the  Benedictines  were  an  important 
body  at  the  dissolution  of  the  monasteries,  hav- 
ing then  i86  abbeys,  priories,  and  nunneries,  be- 
sides many  smaller  houses.  At  present  there  are 
eight  Benedictine  abbeys  in  England,  besides  an 
.extensive  establishment  at  Fort  Augustus  in 
'Scotland,  comprising  an  abbey  and  college.  In 
'the  United  States  there  are  13  abbots,  545  priests, 
133  clerics,  and  345  lay  brothers  in  the  order. 
The  Benedictines  have  charge  of  16  colleges  in 
the  United  States. 

Bibliography. — Chateaubriand,  *  Monks  of  the 
West>  ;  Taunton,  < English  Black  Monks  of 
Saint  Benedict'  ;  Digby,  ^Ages  of  Faith.' 

Benediction,  the  act  of  blessing,  of  wish- 
ing to  a  person  or  thing  the  grace  of  God.  It 
has  always  existed  as  a  custom  among  Jews 
and  Christians.  The  Jewish  priests  bestowed 
benedictions  upon  the  people  when  they  remained 
obedient  to  the  law,  and  maledictions  when  they 
neglected  it.  In  the  Catholic  Church  the  term 
is  generally  applied  to  the  religious  public 
service  at  which  the  priest  makes  the  sign  of 
the  cross  over  the  congregation  with  the  osten- 
sorium  containing  the  consecrated  Host.  The 
Anglo-Saxon  term  "blessing"  is  now  commonly 
used  to  express  the  benediction  invoked  with 
prayer,  sign  of  the  cross,  and  holy  water  upon 
religious  articles  such  as  prayer-books,  holy  pic- 
tures, rosary-beads,  etc.  In  Protestant  churches 
the  benediction  is  usually  given  in  words  similar 
to  those  prescribed  by  Moses  to  Aaron.  It  is 
often  accompanied  with  laying  on  of  hands, 
especially  in  the  celebration  of  marriages,  the 
ordination  of  pastors,  the  confirmation  of  con- 
verts, and  the  baptism  of  children. 

Benedic'tus,  the  song  of  Zacharias  used 
in  the  Roman  breviary  at  lauds  and  also  in  the 
Anglican   morning   service. 

Benedix,  ba'ne-diks,  Roderich,  German 
playwright  and  actor:  b.  Leipsic,  21  Jan.  181 1; 
d.  26  Sept.  1873.  In  1831,  he  became  an  actor, 
and  in  1838  staged  his  first  play  "^Das  Bemuste 
Haupt.-*  He  was  connected  with  the  manage- 
ment of  several  theatres  at  Cologne  and  Frank- 
fort-on-the-Main.  Among  his  plays  are  ^Dr. 
Wespe'  ;  ^Die  Hochzeitreise'  ;  ^Die  Manner- 
feinde'  ;  ^Der  Liebesbrief  ;  <Der  Prozess'  ;  and 
^Die  Sonntagsjager.'  His  dramatic  works  were 
collected  and  published  at  Leipsic  in  27  vol- 
umes. He  has  written  also  concerning  German 
folklore. 

Benefice  (Lat.  heneficiiim) ,  an  ecclesiastical 
living,  originally  including  every  species  of  pre- 
ferment, as  well  as  those  to  which  dignities 
and  offices  were  attached,  namely,  bishoprics, 
deaconries,  and  prebends,  as  the  lesser  sort, 
namely,  rectories,  vicarages,  perpetual  curacies, 
and  endowed  chaplainries ;  but  in  its  popular 
acceptation  it  includes  only  the  latter  class, 
and  the  distinction  is  recognized  in  recent  acts 
of  Parliament.  The  name  is  derived  from  the 
beneiiciiim  of  the  Romans,  a  grant  of  any  kind 
to  a  subject  by  the  sovereign.  It  was  afterward 
the  designation  of  a  grant  of  land  by  any  large 
proprietor  to  a  retainer  or  follower  as  a  reward 
of  services,  being  the  same  that  later  was  de- 


nominated a  fief  or  fee,  the  essential  incident 
of  which  was  perpetuity,  that  is  to  say,  it  was 
a  permanent  stipendiary  estate  held  of  a  supe- 
rior, and  usually  subject  to  some  condition  indi- 
cating vassalage.  The  principle  of  the  feudal 
tenure  was  applied,  in  the  Middle  Ages,  to  ec- 
clesiastical benefices  to  this  extent,  that  they 
were  held  of  the  Pope,  as  a  superior  lord,  though 
these  benefices  had  not  the  hereditary  character 
of  a  fee,  so  far  as  respected  the  office  or  dignity 
connected  therewith,  and  the  lands  or  emolu- 
ment conferred  by  a  grant  were  usually  attached 
to  such  office  or  dignity,  and  on  the  death  of 
the  incumbent,  reverted  to  the  ecclesiastical  supe- 
rior who  was  entitled  to  appoint  a  successor. 
This,  at  all  events,  was  the  claim  of  the  Popes, 
though  it  was  the  subject  of  contest  between 
them  and  the  principal  European  sovereigns. 

Benefit  of  Clergy,  in  English  criminal 
law,  the  privilegium  clericalc,  exemption  of  the 
clergy  from  penalties  imposed  by  law  for  certain 
crimes.  This  privilege  no  longer  exists,  but 
it  was  for  many  centuries  an  important  element 
in  the  administration  of  criminal  law,  and  still 
is  a  curious  and  instructive  part  of  the  history  of 
England.  The  origin  of  this  privilege  was  a 
claim  made  by  the  ecclesiastics  at  an  early  period 
for  the  entire  exemption  of  their  order  from  the 
jurisdiction  of  the  common  law  courts.  In  scat- 
tered instances  the  right  was  recognized  in  the 
colonies  of  Carolina  and  Virginia.  An  Act  of 
Congress  passed  30  April  1790  provided  that  ben- 
efit of  clergy  shall  not  be  allowed  for  any  of- 
fenses punishable  by  death.  See  Pollock  and 
Maitland,  ^History  of  English  Law'  (2d  ed., 
1899)- 

Beneke,  ba'ne-ke,  Friedrich  Eduard,  Ger- 
man philosopher:  b.  Berlin,  17  Feb.  1798;  dis- 
appeared I  March  1854 ;  found  drowned  in  a 
canal  at  Charlottenburg,  4  June  1856.  After 
serving  as  a  volunteer  in  the  campaign  of  1815, 
he  studied  theology  and  philosophy  at  Halle 
and  Berlin,  giving  special  attention  to  the  Eng- 
lish philosophers.  In  1820  he  lectured  in  the 
University  of  Berlin  as  a  private  teacher,  but 
the  continuance  of  his  lectures  was  forbidden  in 
1822,  on  account  of  his  departure  from  the  phil- 
osophical principles  of  Hegel.  He  then  taught 
for  a  few  years  in  Gottingen,  but,  returning  to 
Berlin  in  1827,  received  permission  to  lecture 
in  the  university,  in  which  he  was  elected  extra- 
ordinary professor  of  philosophy  after  Hegel's 
death,  in  1832.  The  starting  point  of  his  system 
is,  that  philosophy  must  be  founded  upon  a 
strict  and  careful  examination  of  the  phenomena 
of  consciousness.  He  thus  adopts,  in  mental 
philosophy,  the  method  observed  by  Bacon  in  the 
natural  sciences,  and  his  system  is  described  as 
an  empirical  psychology.  He  was  a  voluminous 
writer  and  among  his  chief  works  'Erfahrungs- 
seelenlehre,  als  Grundlage  alles  Wissens,  in  ihren 
Hauptziigen  dargelegt'  (1820)  ;  ^Neue  Grund- 
legungen  zur  Metaphysik'  (1822)  ;  ^Pragma- 
tische  Psychologic,  oder  Seelenlehre  in  der  An- 
wendung  auf  das  Leben'   (1850). 

Benet,  Stephen  Vincent,  American  military 
officer :  b.  St.  Augustine,  Fla.,  22  Jan.  1827 ;  d.  22 
Jan.  1895.  He  was  graduated  at  the  United 
States  Military  Academy  in  1849,  and  assigned 
to  the  Ordnance  Department ;  was  assistant  pro- 
fessor of  ethics  and  law  at  the  Military  Acad- 
emy in  1859-61 ;  instructor  of  ordnance  in 
1861-4;   became  brigadier-general  and  chief  of 


BENEVENTO  —  BENGAL 


ordnance  in  1874;  and  was  retired  in  1891.  He 
was  author  of  'Military  Law  and  the  Practice  of 
Courts  MartiaP  (1862);  < Electro-Ballistic  Ma- 
chines and  the  Schultze  Chronoscope^  (1866)  ; 
and  a  translation  from  the  French  of  Jomini's 
<The  Campaign  of  Waterloo.^ 

Beneven'to,  a  province  of  Italy,  with  an 
area  of  680  square  miles,  and  an  archiepiscopal 
city.  The  surface  of  the  province  is  hilly  but 
the  soil  fertile  in  corn,  fruit,  and  pasture.  Game 
is  very  abundant,  and  cattle,  grain,  wine,  oranges, 
and  dead  game  are  exported.  Benevento  was 
originally  called  Maleventum ;  but  this  was 
changed  to  Beneventum  by  the  Romans  when 
they  founded  a  colony  here  after  the  defeat  of 
Pyrrhus.  Before  it  came  into  the  hands  of  the 
Romans  it  belonged  to  the  country  of  the 
Samnites.  The  Lombards  in  571  made  it  a 
dukedom,  which,  long  after  the  extinction  of  the 
Lombard  kingdom,  remained  independent.  At  a 
later  period  it  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  Sara- 
cens and  Normans.  The  city,  however,  was  not 
conquered  by  the  latter,  because  Henry  HI.  had 
g-iven  it  to  the  Pope,  Leo  IX.  In  1418  Benevento 
became  part  of  Naples,  but  was  given  back  to 
the  Pope  by  Ferdinand  I.  In  17Q8  it  was  con- 
quered by  the  French,  and  handed  over  to 
Naples ;  and  then  in  1806  Napoleon  made  a 
present  of  it  to  his  minister  Talleyrand,  who 
received  thence  the  title  of  Prince  of  Benevento. 
In  1815  it  was  restored  to  the  Pope,  and  finally 
with  Naples  was  annexed  to  the  kingdom  of 
Italy.  The  city  of  Benevento  is  situated  on  a 
hill  between  the  rivers  Sabato  and  Calore,  is 
surrounded  with  a  wall,  has  narrow  dirty  streets 
and  some  interesting  buildings..  Since  969  it  has 
been  the  see  of  an  archbishop.  Few  cities  in 
Italy  deserve  so  much  attention  on  account  of 
the  antiquities  which  they  contain  as  Benevento. 
Almost  every  wall  consists  of  fragments  of 
altars,  sepulchres,  columns,  and  entablatures. 
Among  other  things  the  well-preserved,  magnifi- 
cent triumphal  arch  of  Trajan,  built  in  114, 
■deserves  particular  mention.  It  is  now  called 
Porta  Aurea  (the  golden  gate),  and  is  a  gate 
of  the  city.  The  cathedral  is  a  beautiful  build- 
ing in  the  Lombard-Saracenic  style.  Pop. 
(1901)   24,647. 

Benevolence,  a  forced  loan  or  contribution, 
.by  which  the  kings  of  England  were  wont, 
without  any  sanction  from  Parliament,  to  levy 
money  from  their  subjects.  Such  benevolences 
had  been  denounced  by  Magna  Charta ;  and 
even  Richard  HI.  had  allowed  the  only  Parlia- 
ment of  his  reign  to  enact  a  statute  declaring 
them  illegal ;  but  they  still  continued  under  some 
shape  or  other  till  finally  abolished  by  the  Bill 
of  Rights  in  1689. 

Benezet',  Anthony,  American  Quaker 
philanthropist;  b.  St.  Quentin,  France.  31  Jan. 
1713 ;  d.  Philadelphia,  3  May  1784.  His  family 
came  to  Philadelphia  from  London  in  1731.  He 
earnestly  opposed  the  slave  trade,  advocated  the 
emancipation  and  education  of  the  colored  popu- 
lation of  the  colonies,  and  himself  opened  an 
•evening  school  for  negroes.  Of  his  numerous 
tracts,  distributed  gratuitously,  the  most  impor- 
tant are:  'A  Caution  to  Great  Britain  and  Her 
Colonies,  in  a  Short  Representation  of  the 
Calamitous  State  of  the  Enslaved  Negroes  in  the 
British  Dominion'  (1767)  ;  *^Historical  Account 
of  Guinea'  (1772)  ;  'A  Short  Account  of  the 
Society  of  Friends  '  (1780)  ;  ^Dissertation  on  the 


Christian    Religion'     (1782)  ;    'Observations   on 
the  Indian  Natives  of  this  Continent'   (1784). 

Benfey,  ben'fi,  Theodor,  German  Oriental- 
ist and  comparative  philologist:  b.  of  Jewish 
parents,  Norlen,  Hanover,  28  Jan.  1809;  d.  26 
June  1881.  He  studied  in  Gottingen,  Munich, 
Frankfort,  and  Heidelberg,  devoting  himself 
especially  to  classical  and  comparative  philology. 
In  1862  he  was  appointed  to  the  chair  of  Sanskrit 
and  comparative  philology  in  the  University  of 
Gottingen,  which  he  held  till  his  death.  One 
of  his  earliest  literary  efforts  was  a  translation 
of  'Terence'  (Stuttgart  1837)  ;  after  this,  how- 
ever, he  turned  his  attention  almost  exclusively 
to  comparative  philology,  Oriental  languages, 
especially  Sanskrit,  and  mythology.  In  his  50 
years  devoted,  with  rare  enthusiasm  and  per- 
sistency, to  linguistic  studies,  he  did  more  than 
any  other  scholar  to  enlarge  the  boundaries  of 
Sanskrit  philology.  In  comparative  philology, 
though  an  adherent  of  Bopp,  he  deviated  from 
his  master  in  deriving  all  Indo-European  words 
from  mono-syllabic  primitive  verbs.  This  con- 
ception depends  on  his  theory  of  the  origin  of 
stem  suffixes.  These,  he  holds,  are  almost  all 
derived  from  a  fundamental  form,  ant,  which 
appears  in  the  present  participle  of  verbs  To 
support  this  view  he  assumes  the  most  violent 
permutations  of  sounds,  which  set  all  phonetic 
laws  at  defiance.  For  his  theory,  see  his  'Lexi- 
con of  Greek  Roots'  (1839)  ;  'Short  Sanskrit 
Grammar'  (1868),  and  numerous  essays.  In 
Sanskrit  he  laid  a  foundation  for  the  true  study 
of  the  Veda  by  editing  the  'Sama  Veda'  (1848), 
with  glossary  and  translation ;  and  this  work 
he  continued  by  a  scholarly  translation  of  the 
first  mandala  of  the  Rig  Veda  in  his  magazine, 
'Orient  und  Occident'  (1863-4).  His  Vedic 
grammar,  for  which  he  had  been  collecting  ma- 
terials for  many  years,  was  left  unfinished.  He 
also  published  a  'Complete  Sanskrit  Grammar, 
Crestomathy  and  Glossary'  (1854),  and  a  'San- 
skrit-English Dictionary'  (1866).  In  compara- 
tive folklore  his  principal  work  is  a  translation 
of  the  'Panchatantra,'  (1859).  It  is  accompa- 
nied with  elaborate  notes,  and  the  first  volume 
consists  entirely  of  an  introduction  in  which 
he  traces  the  course  of  these  Indian  stories  in 
their  wanderings  and  transformations  both  in 
eastern  and  western  literatures. 

Benga,  an  African  tribe,  living  on  the 
Spanish  island,  Corisco,  off  the  western  coast, 
having  moved  from  the  interior  within  a  few 
generations.  The  American  Presbyterian  Board 
of  Missions  have  Christianized  many  of  the 
Bengas  and  translated  books  into  their  language, 
which  closely  resembles  the  Kamerun  and 
Dualla. 

Bengal  (Hind.  Bangala,  Skt.  Vangalam, 
from  Vanga).  In  the  widest  application  the  name 
presidency  of  Bengal  is  extended  to  the  whole 
of  British  India,  except  what  is  under  the  gov- 
ernors of  Madras  and  Bombay ;  so  that  it 
includes  the  provinces  of  Ajmir  and  Meirwara, 
Coorg,  and  Berar.  which  are  under  the  direct 
administration  of  the  governor-general ;  the  lieu- 
tenant-governorships of  Bengal,  the  Northwest 
Provinces  and  the  Panjab  ;  the  chief  commission- 
erships  oif  Assam,  Central  Provinces,  and  Oudh, 
besides  various  native  states,  etc.  But  the 
name  is  now  usually  restricted  to  that  portion 
which  is  under  the  lieutenant-governor  of  Ben- 


BENGAL 


gal,  and  which  occupies  the  northeast  of  India, 
comprising  the   following  divisions: 


Divisions 

No.  of 
dists. 

Area 
in  sq.  m. 

Population 
in   1 89 1 

6 

5 
7 
4 
4 

7 
5 
5 
4 

47 

13,855 
12,029 
17,428 
15,000 
12,118 
23,647 
20,492 
9,053 
26,966 

16,145,310 
8,003,740 

Rajshahi    

13,965,230 

Patna       

24,284,370 
3,865,020 
4.645,590 

Chota  Nagpur 

Total     

150,588 

70,909,260 

The  total  population  in   1901  amounted  to  74,713,020. 

The  district  composed  of  the  first  five  of  the 
-above  divisions  forms  the  province  of  Bengal 
proper ;  Patna  and  Bhagalpur  form  the  province 
of  Bchar.  Besides  these  the  Heutenant-general- 
ship  includes  four  native  states  under  British 
protection,  namely,  Cooch  Behar,  Hill  Tipperah, 
Chota  Nagpur  (part  of),  and  Orissa  (part  of), 
having  a  total  area  of  37,515  square  miles,  and  a 
population  in  1891  of  3,428,390. 

The  general  physical  character  of  Bengal  is 
that  of  a  practically  level  country,  though  it  is 
surrounded  with  lofty  chains  of  mountains ; 
the  northern  part  rests  on  the  terraces  of  the 
Himalaya  Mountains,  the  east  is  bounded  by  the 
Garos  or  Garrows  chain,  and  the  west  is  ribbed 
with  offsets  of  the  Vindhya  Mountains.  It  is 
intersected  in  all  directions  by  rivers,  the  princi- 
pal of  which  are  the  Ganges  and  Brahmaputra, 
whose  annual  inundations  render  the  soil  which 
they  reach  extremely  fertile.  In  those  tracts 
where  this  advantage  is  not  enjoyed  the  soil  is 
thin,  seldom  exceeding  a  few  inches  in  depth. 
The  most  inhospitable  part  of  Bengal  is  what  is 
called  the  Sunderbunds  (from  being  covered 
with  the  soondru  or  sunder  tree),  that  portion 
of  the  country  through  which  the  numerous 
branches  of  the  Ganges  seek  the  sea,  or  the 
space  lying  between  the  Hoogly  River  and  Chit- 
tagong,  about  150  miles  from  east  to  west,  and 
about  160  from  north  to  south.  This  district 
is  infested  with  tigers,  is  traversed  in  all  direc- 
tions by  water-courses  or  nullahs,  and  inter- 
spersed with  numerous  sheets  of  stagnant  water 
•called  jhecls,  which  abound  with  fish  and  water- 
fowl, and  are  much  resorted  to  by  crocodiles. 

GcoloRy  and  Minerals. — In  the  northern  part 
of  Bengal,  at  the  foot  of  the  Himalayas,  is  a 
band  of  Tertiary  formation  ;  south  from  which, 
and  along  the  course  of  the  Ganges,  more  espe- 
cially east  from  that  river,  and  including  the 
greater  part  of  its  delta  and  that  of  the  Brahma- 
putra, the  country  is  wholly  composed  of  allu- 
vium or  modern  detritus.  Calcutta  stands  upon 
strata  of  the  transition  series,  which  stretch 
west  into  Bahar,  and  are  flanked  north  and  south 
by  tracts  of  crystalline  formation.  In  the  Garo 
Hills  coal,  iron,  and  limestone  are  found;  and 
nitre  effloresces  on  the  surface  around  Calcutta 
and  elsewhere.  Mineral  springs  are  not  numer- 
ous. 

Rivers. —  The  principal  rivers,  besides  the 
Ganges  and  Brahmaputra,  the  latter  of  which 
enters  the  province  at  its  northeast  extremity, 
and  falls  into  the  Bay  of  Bengal  near  the  prm- 
cipal  embouchure  of  the  Ganges,  are  the  Soo- 
bunreka,  which  falls  into  the  Bay  of  Bengal,  m 
lat.  21"  3S'  north,  south-southwest  _  of  the 
Hoogly;  the  Cosi  or  Coosee,  which  rises  near 


Khatamandoo  in  Nepal,  and  falls  into  the  Gan- 
ges near  Bhagalpur,  in  lat.  25°  20'  N. ;  and  the 
Dumooda,  which,  rising  in  Bahar,  falls  into  the 
Hoogly  about  22  miles  below  Calcutta.  There 
are  numerous  other  streams  of  less  note,  mostly 
tributaries  of  the  Ganges  and  Brahmaputra,  or 
their  larger  affluents. 

Climate. —  There  is  more  regularity  in  the 
changes  of  the  seasons  in  Bengal  than  perhaps 
in  any  other  part  of  India;  but  it  is  subject 
to  great  extremes  of  heat,  which,  added  to  the 
humidity  of  its  surface  and  the  heavy  dews  that 
fall,  render  it  generally  unhealthy  to  Europeans. 
The  prevalence  of  hot  winds,  which  are  some- 
times loaded  with  sandy  particles,  is  another 
source  of  disease.  The  seasons  are  distinguished 
by  the  terms  hot,  cold,  and  rainy.  The  hot  sea- 
son continues  from  the  beginning  of  March  to 
the  end  of  May,  within  which  period  the  ther- 
mometer frequently  rises  to  100°,  sometimes  to 
110°.  The  month  of  September  is  also  often 
intensely  hot,  and  when  so  is  the  most  unhealthy 
period  of  the  year  to  natives  as  well  as  Euro- 
peans, owing  to  the  profuse  exhalations  from 
stagnant  waters  left  by  the  inundations,  and 
from  a  rank  decaying  vegetation.  The  rainy 
season  commences  in  June,  and  lasts  till  Octo- 
ber. During  the  first  two  months  of  this  period 
the  rain  is  frequently  so  heavy  that  five  inches 
of  water  have  fallen  in  one  day,  the  annual 
average  being  from  70  to  80  inches.  It  is  in  this 
season  that  the  inundations  take  place,  and 
that  the  Ganges  overflows  its  delta,  covering  the 
land  with  its  waters  for  more  than  100  miles. 
The  cold  season,  the  most  grateful  and  healthy 
of  any  to  Europeans,  continues  from  November 
to  February,  during  which  period  north  winds 
prevail,  with  a  clear  sky. 

Forests. —  In  Bengal,  as  in  India  generally, 
.great  attention  has  been  paid  of  late  to  the 
management  of  forests.  Great  destruction  is 
caused  among  forests  by  fires,  which  are  some- 
times the  result  of  accident,  but  more  frequently 
made  purposely  by  the  natives  in  pursuance 
of  a  system  of  jungle  cultivation  that  appears 
to  prevail  throughout  India.  This  consists  in 
cutting  down  and  burning  a  patch  of  forest,  and 
raising  a  crop  in  the  open  space,  no  plowing 
or  digging  being  necessary.  The  next  year  this 
patch  is  abandoned,  and  another  treated  in  the 
same  way.  Another  cause  of  destruction  is  the 
wastefulness  of  those  who  use  the  timber.  The 
sunder-trees,  for  example,  which  furnish  the  best 
wood  for  the  boats  which  are  built  in  great 
numbers  throughout  Eastern  Bengal,  have  Ijeen 
cut  down  in  so  reckless  a  manner  that  the  west- 
ern parts  of  the  Sunderbunds  have  already  been 
to  a  large  extent  exhausted.  In  order  to  limit 
the  destruction  that  goes  on  by  such  .proceedings 
certain  portions  of  the  Indian  forests  are  re- 
served and  placed  under  the  entire  control  of  the 
government,  and  additions  are  made  to  these 
reserves  every  year.  Of  the  total  11,669  square 
miles  of  forest  in  Bengal,  in  1896  5,877  were 
reserved  and  3,437  protected. 

Animals. —  Among  the  wild  animals  are 
tigers,  elephants,  boars,  bears,  wolves,  foxes, 
jackals,  hyenas,  leopards,  panthers,  lynxes, 
hares,  deer,  buffaloes,  antelopes,  and  monkeys. 
The  most  formidable  of  all  these  animals  (and 
more  so  even  than  the  lion)  is  the  tiger,  which 
here  attains  its  utmost  size,  and  perhaps  also  its 
greatest  ferocity.  The  domestic  animals  include 
native  horses,  thin,  ill-shaped  animals,  and  not 


BENGAL 


well  adapted  for  any  kind  of  labor;  cattle,  of  a 
very  inferior  breed,  being  extremely  small  and 
miserable  looking;  sheep  likewise  of  diminutive 
size,  with  very  coarse  hairy  wool,  but  when 
well  fed  their  flesh  is  excellent.  Hogs  and  goats 
are  also  plentiful,  and  buffaloes  are  domesti- 
cated for  the  sake  of  their  milk.  Reptiles  are 
numerous  and  formidable,  including  gavials,  a 
kind  of  crocodile,  with  which  the  larger  rivers 
are  infested ;  and  among  the  serpent  tribe,  many 
of  which  are  highly  poisonous,  the  deadly  cobra- 
de-capello.  Turtles,  frogs,  and  lizards  also 
abound,  with  swarms  of  mosquitoes.  The  turtles 
are  chiefly  procured  from  the  island  of  Cheduba, 
in  the  Bay  of  Bengal.  Fish  are  so  exceedingly 
plentiful  as  to  be  within  the  reach  of  almost 
every  class  of  inhabitants.  Game,  poultry,  and 
water-fowl  of  all  descriptions  abound  in  Bengal, 
particularly  ducks,  of  which  there  is  a  great 
variety,  and  most  of  them  of  a  superior  kind. 
The  gigantic  crane,  commonly  called  the  adju- 
tant, from  the  stately  air  with  which  he  struts 
about,  frequents  the  towns  in  considerable  num- 
bers, performing  the  office  of  scavenger  by  clear- 
ing the  streets  of  garbage,  in  consideration  of 
which  duty  he  enjoys  an  entire  immunity  from 
all  disturbance;  his  principal  food  is  offal,  toads, 
lizards,  serpents,  and  insects.  Crows,  kites,  spar- 
rows, and  other  small  birds  are  numerous. 

Agriculture. —  The  staple  crop  of  Bengal  is 
rice,  which  is  cultivated  so  as  to  produce  three 
harvests  in  the  j^ear  —  spring  rice,  autumn  rice, 
and  winter  rice.  The  last  of  these  harvests  is 
by  far  the  most  important.  Besides  sufficing  for 
the  wants  of  the  population  the  rice  crop  leaves 
a  large  surplus  for  exportation.  Oil  seeds  are 
also  .largely  cultivated,  chiefly  mustard,  sesa- 
mum,  and  linseed.  The  jute  plant  ipdt)  has  long 
been  cultivated,  and  in  recent  times  the  cultiva- 
tion of  it  has  greatly  extended.  It  will  grow  on 
almost  any  description  of  land.  Part  of  this 
crop  is  cultivated  by  those  who  use  or  manu- 
facture it.  almost  all  the  Hindu  farmers  weav- 
ing cloth  from  it.  It  is  now  manufactured  also 
in  large  mills  under  European  management,  and 
jute  goods  are  now  an  export  of  some  impor- 
tance, though  not  nearly  so  much  so  as  jute  in 
the  raw  state  for  manufacture  in  Europe.  The 
sunn  plant,  somewhat  resembling  the  Spanish 
broom,  is  now  quite  extensively  cultivated  and 
exported  to  Great  Britain,  affording  excellent 
material  for  both  sails  and  cordage,  and  being 
made  into  fishing  nets  by  the  natives.  Cotton 
is  grown  over  all  India,  but  the  best  of  the 
herbaceous  kind  is  raised  in  Bengal  and  on  the 
Coromandel  coast ;  the  finest  grows  on  light 
rocky  soil.  The  cotton  of  India  is  generally 
inferior  to  that  of  the  United  States ;  but  this 
is  believed  to  be  wholly  owing  to  careless  culti- 
vation, and  to  the  slovenly  manner  in  which  it  is 
prepared  for  the  market.  The  cultivation  of 
the  date  palm  and  the  manufacture  of  date 
sugar  are  carried  on  to  a  considerable  extent, 
forming  a  profitable  business  for  the  cultivator. 
This  kind  of  sugar  forms  an  article  of  export. 
The  sugar  cane  is  cultivated,  but  not  nearly  to 
such  an  extent  as  might  be  expected.  There  are 
two  kinds  of  sugar  cane,  a  yellow  hard  cane, 
about  the  thickness  of  a  finger ;  the  other  much 
thicker  and  deeply  stained  with  purple.  The 
latter  is  the  most  productive,  but  the  most  trou- 
blesome to  cultivate,  and  therefore  avoided  by 
the  more  indolent  farmers.  Tobacco,  which 
requires  a  light  soil,  is  grown  in  three  different 


situations, —  in  rich  spots  of  land  contiguous  to 
the  farmer's  house, —  in  high  land  suitable  for 
the  growth  of  sugar  cane, — -and  on  the  banks  of 
rivers.  The  betel  leaf,  famous  for  its  intoxica- 
ting quality  and  largely  used  over  all  India  on 
that  account,  is  cultivated  in  what  is  called  a 
voroj  or  fort,  and  is  carefully  protected  from 
the  sun  and  wind.  Indigo  being  one  of  the 
principal  articles  of  foreign  commerce  with  Ben- 
gal, is  extensively  cultivated  in  that  province. 
The  opium  production  of  Bengal  was  a  govern- 
ment monopoly  under  jNIohammedan  rule,  and 
has  been  retained  as  such  by  the  British.  All 
the  juice  of  the  opium  poppy  must  be  sold  to 
the  government  at  a  fixed  price.  This  cultiva- 
tion is  carried  on  in  the  west  of  Bengal  in  the 
divisions  of  Chota  Nagpur  and  Patna.  Orchards 
of  mango  trees  are  to  be  found  in  every  part 
of  Bengal,  the  fruit  being  in  general  demand 
during  the  hot  months.  The  cinchona  tree  and 
the  tea  plant  have  both  in  recent  times  been 
added  to  the  agricultural  products  of  Bengal ; 
the  former  in  the  native  state  of  Sikkim,  the 
latter  especially  in  Cooch  Behar  (Darjiling), 
Chittagong,  and  Chota  Nagpur. 

The  luxuriance  of  vegetation  in  Bengal  is 
perhaps  unequaled  in  any  other  part  of  the 
world.  The  cultivation  of  the  land  requires  lit- 
tle effort,  and  large  crops  are  obtained  without 
the  application  of  any  other  manure  than  the 
sediment  or  mud  deposited  by  the  inundations. 
It  is  doubtful,  however,  how  far  this  facility  is 
good,  since  it  seems  to  have  had  the  effect  of 
preventing  all  attempts  at  improvement  either 
in  the  science  of  agriculture  itself  or  in  the 
implements  used  in  its  practice.  The  Indian 
plow  is  of  wretched  construction,  having  neither 
colter  nor  mold-board,  and  in  some  districts  it 
wants  even  the  share,  while  the  animals  by 
which  it  is  dragged,  two  oxen  or  cows,  are  mis- 
erable half-starved  creatures.  The  reaping  hook 
(kastya)  is  a  most  inefficient  implement, —  the 
curved  or  cutting  part  of  the  blade  is  six  inches 
long  by  one  and  a  half  broad,  with  teeth  like  a 
saw  —the  handle  is  about  four  and  a  half 
inches  long.  The  dengki,  by  which  the  husks 
are  separated  from  the  grain,  is  another  wretched 
implement,  and  so  ill  adapted  to  its  purposes 
that  one  fifth  part  of  the  whole  grain  is  sacri- 
ficed in  the  operation.  Nearly  all  the  other 
implements  in  use  are  of  an  equally  rude  and 
imperfect  description.  Rotation  of  crops  and 
the  use  of  fallows  are  unknown  to  the  farmers 
of  India  ;  the  land  is  generally  in  an  exhausted 
condition,  and  the  enclosures  everywhere  bad. 
Grain  is  trodden  out  by  oxen,  and  stacking  corn 
is  unusual,  the  corn  being  often  left  exposed  ta 
the  weather.  Irrigation,  however,  is  well  under- 
stood,—  necessity  giving  rise  to  invention, —  and 
is  accomplished  by  the  most  ingenious  and  effi- 
cient means. 

UTatiiifactures. — The  principal  manufacture 
of  Bengal  is  that  of  cotton  goods,  including  cot- 
ton piece  goods  of  various  descriptions,  calicoes, 
thread,  and  sail-cloth.  Muslins  of  the  most 
beautiful  and  delicate  texture  were  formerly 
made  at  Dacca,  a  city  in  this  province,  but  the 
manufacture  is  almost  extinct.  "Some  of  these 
fabrics,'^  says  Tavernier,  "were  so  fine  that  they 
could  hardly  be  felt  in  the  hand,  and  the  thread 
when  spun  was  scarce  discernible.'^  In  Ward's 
*  History^  of  the  Hindus  this  character  in  the 
muslin  of  Dacca  is  confirmed ;  though  perhaps 
in  both  cases  it  is  a  little  exaggerated.     "When 


BENGAL 


this  muslin  is  laid  on  the  grass,^'  says  the  lat- 
ter, "and  the  dew  has  fallen  on  it,  it  is  no  longer 
discernible.*'  The  extraordinary  fineness  and 
beauty  of  India  muslins,  manufactured  under 
the  disadvantages  of  rude  machinery  and  ill  pre- 
pared material,  is  attributed  to  the  exquisitely 
fine  sense  of  touch  possessed  by  the  Hindus,  and 
to  the  hereditary  continuance  of  a  particular  spe- 
cies of  manufacture  in  families  through  many 
generations. 

The  modern  decay  of  the  muslin  manufac- 
ture of  India  has  been  owing  in  a  great  measure 
to  the  successful  competition  of  Great  Britain, 
and  to  the  circumstance  of  British  fabrics  being 
subject  to  no  duty  in  Bengal,  while  high  duties 
were  levied  on  the  fabrics  of  Bengal  in  Gjeat 
Britain.  These  duties  are  now  abolished.  Large 
quantities  of  a  coarse  cloth,  manufactured  from 
jute,  are  made  in  various  districts  of  Bengal. 
Sericulture  is  carried  on  more  largely  in  Ben- 
gal than  in  any  other  part  of  India,  and  silk- 
weaving  is  still  a  leading  industry  in  many  of  the 
districts ;  but  of  late  years  there  has  been  a  seri- 
ous decline.  One  branch  of  this  industry,  how- 
ever, seems  more  flourishing  than  some  others, 
namely,  the  cultivation  of  tasar  or  wild  silk,  the 
worm  that  produces  it  feeding  upon  the  leaves 
of  the  sal  and  other  forest  trees.  On  the  other 
hand,  various  new  manufactures,  carried  on  by 
machinery,  are  rising  up.  The  most  important 
of  these  are  the  industries  connected  with  jute, 
cotton,  and  sugar.  These  are  already  affording 
employment  to  many  thousands,  and  the  natives 
are  said  to  show  great  aptitude  for  factory 
work.  The  jute  mills  alone  employ  nearly 
40,000  hands. 

Commerce. —  The  commerce  of  Bengal,  both 
mternal  and  external,  is  very  large.  Multitudes 
of  native  boats  and  other  craft  navigate  the 
rivers.  The  imports  to  Calcutta  from  the  interior 
have  been  valued  at  over  $13,000,000,  consisting 
of  rice,  tea,  jute,  indigo,  linseed,  mustard  seed, 
wheat,  etc.  The  foreign  trade  is  large  and 
increasing.  Almost  the  whole  of  it  passes 
through  Calcutta,  and  the  value  of  it  annually 
is  over  $275,000,000,  over  $170,000,000  being 
exports.  The  most  important  exports  are  opium, 
jute,  indigo,  oil  seeds,  tea,  hides  and  skins,  and 
rice;  the  chief  import  is  cotton  piece  goods.  The 
foreign  trade  is  chiefly  with  Great  Britain, 
China,  the  Straits  Settlements,  France,  the 
United  States,  and  Ceylon. 

Finance. —  The  total  revenue  of  the  lieuten- 
ant-governorship of  Bengal  in  the  year  ending 
31  ]\Iarch  1898,  was  (calling  the  rupee  25 
cents),  $101,442,465,  and  the  total  expenditure 
$51,620,525.  The  surplus  goes  to  meet  the 
expenses  of  the  general  government  of  India. 
The  principal  sources  of  revenue  are  land,  salt, 
opium,  excise,  stamps,  and  customs,  assessed 
taxes,  etc. 

Education,  Social,  and  Domestic  Conditions, 
etc. —  It  is  one  of  the  consequences  of  the  ex- 
treme povery  of  the  bulk  of  the  population  of 
Bengal,  that  education  should  be  there  at  a  very 
low  ebb.  The  proportion  of  boys  of  school- 
going  age  attending  school  is  only  abocit  28.6 
per  cent ;  of  girls  2  per  cent.  The  first  rudi- 
ments of  education  are  often  given  in  small 
schools  called  pathsalds.  in  which  the  fees  are 
extremely  low,  and  in  which  only  reading,  writ- 
ing, and  arithmetic  are  taught.  The  greater 
number  of  these,  although  private  establish- 
ments,  receive   aid    from    government.      In    the 


primary  schools  the  principle  of  keeping  the 
standard  of  instruction  as  low  as  possible  is 
adhered  to;  and  this  is  intended  to  be  done  till 
the  whole  of  the  poorer  classes  shall  have  been 
brought  under  some  kind  of  instruction.  In 
the  meanwhile,  all  who  have  time  or  means  for 
learning  more  are  encouraged  to  resort  to 
schools  of  a  better  class.  With  this  view  a  sys- 
tem of  intermediate  schools  was  established  in 
1875  between  the  primary  and  what  are  called 
the  middle  schools,  and  this  step  has  been 
rewarded  with  a  satisfactory  measure  of  success. 

In  addition  to  the  schools  already  mentioned 
there  are  various  educational  institutions  of  a 
higher  kind  connected  with  government.  The 
highest  of  these  institutions  is  the  Calcutta  Uni- 
versity, with  the  four  faculties  of  arts,  law, 
medicine,  and  engineering.  Affiliated  to  the 
university  are  a  number  of  general  and  pro- 
fessional colleges,  in  one  of  which  all  who  have 
passed  the  university  entrance  examination  and 
wish  to  proceed  to  a  degree  must  enroll  them- 
selves. The  majority  of  educated  Bengal  youths, 
according  to  official  information,  resort  to  two 
professions,  the  public  service  and  the  law,  in 
consequence  of  which  many  cannot  obtain  em- 
ploj-ment.  With  a  view  to  open  out  other  lines 
of  employment  the  government  is  endeavoring 
to  establish  technical  and  industrial  schools  of 
a  superior  kind  in  many  places.  A  healthy 
ambition  is  said  to  exist  among  the  natives  of 
Bengal  to  raise  themselves  by  education.  Almost 
every  Bengalee  youth  who  can  afford  the  means 
aspires  to  an  English  education  as  one  of  the 
main  objects  of  his  life.  One  result  of  the 
Prince  of  Wales'  visit  to  Bengal  at  the  end  of 
1875  was  that  the  wealthier  natives  raised  sub- 
scriptions to  commemorate  the  event  by  found- 
ing educational  institutions.  The  secondary 
schools  are  generally  divided  into  "English**  and 
vernacular.  Those  in  which  English  forms  part 
of  the  regular  course  of  study  of  all  the  schol- 
ars, or  at  least  of  all  in  the  higher  classes,  are 
reckoned  as  English;  if  English  is  optional  only, 
they  are  reckoned  as  vernacular.  In  the  com- 
mon languages  of  the  country  there  were  till 
lately  almost  no  books  to  be  had ;  but  the  Bible, 
or  parts  of  it,  has  now  been  printed  in  the  vari- 
ous languages  and  widely  circulated,  as  well  as 
a  number  of  other  works. 

The  private  houses  of  Bengal  are  huts,  with 
pentroofs  constructed  of  two  sloping  sides  which 
meet  in  a  ridge.  One  hut  of  this  kind  serves 
the  poor  man  for  himself,  family,  and  cattle; 
wealthy  men  increase  the  number  of  houses  with- 
out altering  the  plan,  and  without  having  any 
communication  between  the  different  apart- 
ments. The  walls  are  generally  made  of  mud, 
and  the  floor  is  raised  a  foot  or  two  above  the 
level  of  the  plain,  to  prevent  it  being  .flooded  in 
the  rainy  season,  which,  however,  is  not  always 
accomplished.  The  frames  of  the  houses  con- 
sist of  bamboos  tied  together  —  wooden  posts 
and  beams  being  used  in  the  construction  of  the 
houses  of  the  wealthy  only.  The  huts  collect- 
ively sufficient  for  the  accommodation  of  a  fam- 
ily are  usually  surrounded  by  a  common  fence. 
Farmers  have  in  general  larger  and  better  houses 
than  people  living  in  towns.  A  rich  farmer  will 
sometimes  have  as  many  as  12  or  14  huts  within 
his  enclosure.  The  food  of  the  class  just  above 
the  rank  of  common  laborers  consists  chiefly 
of  rice,  wheaten  flour,  fish,  vegetables,  and  but- 
ter,  with    various    condiments   and   seasonings. 


BENGAL  —  BENGALI 


In  the  case  of  the  laborer  there  is  neither  flour, 
fish,  vegetables,  nor  butter,  the  chief  food  of  that 
class  being  a  coarse  description   of   rice. 

History. —  The  English  first  got  a  firm  foot- 
ing in  Bengal  about  1644,  when,  through  the 
influence  of  an  English  medical  man  named 
Boughton,  a  favorite  of  the  emperor  of  Delhi, 
the  East  India  Company  obtained  permission  to 
locate  themselves  at  Hugli  or  Hoogly,  some  28 
miles  above  Calcutta.  In  1686  the  company's 
factors,  having  had  a  rupture  with  the  Moslem 
commander  at  the  place  where  they  were  located, 
removed  to  Calcutta,  then  the  village  of  Chut- 
tanutty,  where  they  continued  to  carry  on  their 
trade.  In  1700  the  viceroy  of  Bengal,  being  in 
want  of  money  to  dispute  the  succession  to  the 
Mogul  throne,  obtained  a  large  sum  from  the 
company  for  the  township  on  which  their  fac- 
tory stood  at  Calcutta,  and  some  adjacent  lands. 
Seven  years  afterward,  namely  in  1707,  Calcutta 
was  erected  into  a  presidency,  and  the  founda- 
tion of  British  power  in  India  laid  —  presenting 
a  striking  proof  of  the  energy  of  the  British 
character,  there  having  been  settlements  in 
India  by  the  Portuguese,  Dutch,  French,  and 
Danes,  previous  to,  and  contemporary  with,  the 
location  of  the  English  in  that  quarter  of  the 
world ;  but  the  mighty  achievement  of  obtain- 
ing the  supremacy  in  that  vast  empire  could,  it 
appears,  be  accomplished  only  by  the  British. 
For  nearly  half  a  century  the  company  pur- 
sued a  peaceful  and  profitable  commerce ;  but  at 
the  expiration  of  that  period,  1756,  Calcutta  was 
attacked  and  taken  by  the  Soubahdar  of  Bengal, 
who  threw  the  Englishmen  he  found  there,  147  in 
number,  into  a  dungeon,  the  well-known  "black- 
hole"  of  Calcutta,  where  123  of  them  perished  in 
II  hours.  In  the  ensuing  year  Calcutta  was  re- 
taken by  Lord  Clive  —  an  event  which  was  fol- 
lowed by  a  series  of  victories  on  the  part  of  the 
British,  that  terminated  in  the  entire  conquest 
of  India.  In  consequence  of  unprecedented 
drought  great  scarcity  of  food  prevailed  in  1873 
and  1874,  but  the  prompt  measures  of  the  gov- 
ernment were  sufficient  to  prevent  any  wide- 
spread mortality.  A  bill  conferring  upon  agri- 
cultural tenants  a  transferable  interest  in  their 
holdings  and  protecting  them  against  eviction 
was  passed  in  1885. 

Bibliography. —  Barton,  <^BengaP  ;  Hunter, 
^Statistical  Account  of  BengaP  ;  Rawlinson, 
*  England  and  Russia  in  the  East^  ;  and  official 
^Reports  on  the  Administration  of  Bengal,' 
appearing  annually. 

Bengal,  Bay  of,  that  portion  of  the  Indian 
Ocean  between  Hindustan  and  Farther  India,  or 
Burma,  Siam,  and  Malacca,  and  extending  south 
to  Ceylon  and  Sumatra.  It  receives  the  Ganges, 
Brahmaputra,  and  Irrawadi.  Calcutta,  Ran- 
goon, and  Madras  are  the  most  important  towns 
on  or  near  its  coasts.  On  the  west  coast  there 
are  no  good  harbors,  but  the  east  coast  has  a 
considerable  number,  among  them  being  Aracan, 
Cheduba,  Negrais,  Mataban,  and  Syriam.  On 
account  of  the  extreme  heat  the  rate  of  evapora- 
tion is  very  high,  sometimes  amounting  to  an 
inch  per  day.  The  tide  sometimes  rises  to  the 
height  of  70  feet.  In  summer  the  northeast 
monsoon  prevails,  and  in  winter  the  southwest 
monsoon. 

Bengal,  or  Bengola,  Light,  a  firework, 
giving  a  vivid  and  sustained  blue  light.  It  is 
used  for  signals  at  sea.     It  is  composed  of  six 


parts  of  nitre,  two  of  sulphur,  and  one  of  anti- 
mony tersulphide.  These  are  finely  pulverized 
and  incorporated  together,  and  the  composition 
pressed  into  earthen  bowls  or  similar  sh?llow 
vessels. 

Bengali,  ben-ga'le,  the  dealer's  name,  orig- 
inating in  a  mistake  as  to  their  origin,  for  any 
of  several  of  the  beautiful  little  African  wax- 
bills  (q.v.),  bred  and  sold  as  cage-birds;  espe- 
cially the  "blue-bellied  fincW^ (  Esirilda  bengala), 
which  is  ashy-brown  above,  with  the  wing  quills 
brown,  and  the  sides  of  the  head,  the  throat  and 
whole  lower  surface  azure  blue,  spotted  under 
and  near  the  wings.  They  add  to  this  charming 
dress  lively  manners  and  an  agreeable  song. 
Their  requirements  in  the  cage  are  like  those  of 
a  canary. 

Bengali  Era,  The,  one  of  the  chronologi- 
cal eras  of  the  Hindus,  supposed  to  have  been 
derived  from  the  Hegira.  The  Hindus,  how- 
ever, use  the  sidereal  year,  and  the  Mohamme- 
dans the  lunar,  hence  the  Mohammedan  epoch 
is  at  present  some  nine  years  in  advance  of  the 
Bengali. 

Bengali,  or  Gaura,  Language,  one  of  the 

five  modern  languages  of  Hindustan,  which  are 
derived  from  the  ancient  Sanskrit.  Its  name  is 
derived  from  Banga,  the  Sanskrit  name  of  the 
country,  with  the  Arabic  article  al  suflixed ;  the 
whole  being  corrupted  into  the  present  form. 
Gaura  is  derived  from  Gaur,  the  name  of  the 
ancient  metropolis.  It  is  spoken  by  42,000,000 
of  British  subjects,  of  whom  about  one  fourth 
speak  also  some  other  dialect.  It  extends  over 
the  regions  on  the  lower  Ganges,  from  Patna 
down  to  its  delta,  being  purest  in  the  province 
of  Bengal  and  in  the  eastern  regions.  This 
language  consists  of  an  aboriginal  basis,  with 
which  a  much  greater  portion  of  Sanskrit  and 
Pracrit  has  been  admixed  than  with  any  one 
of  its  cognates  ;  with  a  considerable  addition  of 
Afghan,  Persian,  Arabic,  Portuguese,  Malay, 
and  English  words.  Although  the  Sanskrit  ele- 
ment predominates  as  regards  the  words,  the 
grammatical  forms  of  the  language  differ  more 
from  the  Sanskrit  than  the  forms  of  the  Greek, 
Latin,  Gothic,  and  Persian ;  most  of  the  flexions 
of  nouns  and  verbs  having  been  lost,  and  their 
places  being  supplied  by  auxiliary  words  and  by 
circumlocution.  Notwithstanding  this,  it  admits 
in  the  higher  style,  many  of  those  forms  which 
are  intelligible  only  to  more  cultivated  persons. 
There  are  no  forms  of  gender,  and  only  few 
feminine  words  are  formed  by  the  suffixes  i  and 
ini.  There  are  seven  cases  made  by  suffixes  — 
nominative,  accusative,  instrumental,  dative, 
ablative,  genitive,  and  vocative.  The  plural  of 
nouns  is  m.ade  by  suffixing  dig  to  the  genitive 
singular.  It  delights  in  compound  words, 
formed  especially  by  means  of  a  sort  of  past 
participle ;  elegant  Sanskrit  compounds  being 
unidiomatic.  There  is  but  one  conjugation, 
whose  radical  is  the  imperative.  Compound 
tenses  are  made  by  the  auxiliaries,  meaning  to 
do,  to  be,  to  become.  The  singular  and  plural 
of  verbs  are  often  confounded ;  the  plural  with 
a  singular  noun  denoting  respect,  the  singular 
with  the  plural  noun  being  used  in  speaking  to 
inferiors.  There  are  three  simple  moods, 
infinitive,  indicative,  imperative;  four_  others 
being  periphrastic,  the  potential,  optative,  in- 
choative, and  frequentative.  Any  verb  is  con- 
jugable  negatively  by  the  suffix  na.    The  system 


EENGAZI  —  BENHAM 


of  writing  is  that  of  the  devandgat  i  of  the  San- 
skrit language,  but  the  forms  of  letters  are  more 
broken  and  twisted.  B  and  v,  however,  are 
written  by  one  character,  and  the  characters  of 
the  sounds,  s,  z,  sh,  are  interchangeable. 

No  book  written  in  Bengali  appeared  before 
1500  A.u.  After  the  settlement  of  Moslems  in 
Gaur,  the  Voisyas  and  Soodras  (agricultural 
and  servile  castes)  began  to  study  Persian,  to 
gain  a  livelihood,  and  were  well  rewarded  by 
the  conquerors.  Except  the  stories  of  Krishna's 
study,  the  rules  cf  arithmetic  in  verse,  and  a 
few  other  elementary  books,  the  vernacular  liter- 
ature was  very  poor,  until  Rajah  Krishnachan- 
dra  Roy  Bahadoor  restored  Hindoo  literature  in 
India,  by  bringing  in  pundits  and  endowing 
schools.  Owing  to  the  abundance  of  Sanskrit 
books,  and  the  prejudice  of  most  Brahmins 
against  the  Bengali,  this  was  neglected  until 
1800,  when  the  college  of  Fort  William  was 
founded,  and  the  study  of  Bengali  was  made 
imperative  and  collateral  to  the  Sanskrit.  Many 
Bengali  works  have  since  been  printed  at  Cal- 
cutta and  Serampore.  The  first  native  news- 
paper was  published  at  Serampore  in  1818.  Con- 
siderable change  has  been  made  since  in  the 
diction  and  composition  of  this  language,  which 
continues  to  be  enlarged  and  ennobled,  by  being 
capable  of  borrowing  indefinitely  from  the  ven- 
erable Sanskrit  mother.  Gilchrist,  H.  P.  Fors- 
ter,  Carey.  W.  Morton,  Hunter,  Mohun  Persaud, 
Tahur,  Tarachand  Chukruburti,  Sir  G.  C. 
Haughton,  have  publishea  Bengali  English  dic- 
tionaries and  vocabularies,  and  Ram  Comul  Sen 
has  translated  Todd's  edition  of  Johnson's  Eng- 
lish dictionary  into  Bengali. 

Bibliography. —  Beames,  "^Comparative  Gram- 
mar of  the  Modern  Aryan  Languages  of  India'  ; 

*  Grammar  of  the  Bengali  Language'  ;  Cust, 
*The  Modern  Languages  of  the  East  Indies'  ; 
Dutt,     "^The     Literature    of    Bengal'  ;     Nicolls, 

*  Manual  of  the  Bengali  Language'  ;  Yates 
Wingler,  <  Introduction  to  the  Bengali  Lan- 
guage.' 

Bengazi,  ben-ga'ze,  or  Benghazi,  a  town  in 
North  Africa,  capital  of  the  vilayet  Barca,  on 
the  east_  coast  of  the  Gulf  of  Sidrah.  Next  to 
Tripoli  it  is  the  most  important  seaport  on  this 
coast.  The  harbor  is  fast  silting  up,  and  admits 
only  small  vessels ;  but  there  is  still  a  consid- 
erable trade,  cattle,  corn,  etc.,  being  exported, 
especially  to  Malta.  It  is  sometimes  identified 
as  the  ancient  Hesperides  and  in  the  time  of 
Ptolemy  III.  Vv^as  called  Berenice.  Pop.  about 
15,000. 

Bengel,  beng'el,  Johann  Albrecht,  German 
theologian  and  philologist :  b.  Winnenden. 
Wiirteraberg,  24  June  1687;  d.  Alpirsbach,  2 
Nov.  1752.  He  studied  at  Stuttgart  and  Tiibin- 
gen,  and  became  pastor  and  head  of  a  school  at 
Denkendorf.  He  especially  applied  himself  to 
the  critical  study  of  the  Greek  Testament,  of 
which  he  published  an  edition  in  1723.  Am.ong 
Iiis  other  works  are  ^Apparatus  Criticus  Novi 
Tcstamenti,'  a  Avork  of  great  value  for  its  sug- 
c^estive  condensed  comments,  which  first  appeared 
in  1742,  and  has  been  several  times  reprinted, 
etc.  An  attempt  has  been  made  to  adaot  his 
'Gnomen'  to  English  readers  in  the  ^Critical 
English  Testament,'  by  Blackley  and  Hawes 
(1866). 

Benger,  beng'ger,  Elizabeth  Ogilvy,  Eng- 
lish historical   writer :   b.   Wells,   Somersetshire. 


1778;  d.  London,  9  Jan.  1827.  She  early  dis- 
played a  turn  for  literature,  but  her  straitened 
means  preventing  her  from  gratifying  this  taste 
by  the  purchase  of  books,  she  was  in  the  habit 
of  perusing  the  opened  books  in  a  bookseller's 
window,  and  would  return  day  after  day  to  see 
if  the  page  had  been  turned  over.  In  1802  she 
removed  with  her  mother  to  London.  Her  first 
literary  attempts,  including  a  poem  on  the  aboli- 
tion of  the  slave  trade,  and  two  novels,  attracted 
little  attention ;  but  she  was  more  successful 
with  her  < Memoirs  of  Mary  Queen  of  Scots,' 
and  of  < Elizabeth  Queen  of  Bohemia.'  She 
also  wrote  the  Lives  of  Anne  Boleyn,  Mrs. 
Elizabeth  Hamilton,  and  John  Tobin,  the  dra- 
matist. Her  chief  merits  are  a  clear  style  and 
industry  in  the  collection  and  arrangements  of 
facts. 

Bengough,  John  Wilson,  Canadian  poet: 
b.  Toronto,  5  April  1851.  In  1873  he  established 
the  Grip,  a  humorous  weekly  in  Toronto.  His 
political  cartoons  in  this  paper  were  highly  artis- 
tic. He  is  also  widely  known  as  a  lecturer  and 
a  poet.  His  publications  include:  'Ontario,. 
Ontario'  (a  famous  election  song)  ;  < Grip's  Car- 
toons' (1875)  ;  <  Popular  Readings,  Original  and 
Selected'  (1882);  <  Caricature  History  of 
Canadian  Politics'  (1886);  <  Motley:  Verses 
Grave  and  Gay'  (1895)  ;  ^The  Up  to  Date 
Primer:  A  First  Book  of  Lessons  for  Little 
Political   Economists'    (1896)  ;   etc. 

Benguela,  ben-ga'la,  or  Benguella,  a  district 
belonging  to  the  Portuguese  on  the  western  coast 
of  South  Africa,  forming  one  of  the  three  prov- 
inces of  Angola ;  bounded  north  by  the  province 
of  Loanda,  south  by  that  of  Mossamedes,  and 
west  by  the  Atlantic  Ocean.  The  interior  of  the 
country  is  mountainous,  the  direction  of  the  ele- 
vated lands  being  from  northeast  to  southwest. 
It  is  well  watered,  being  intersected  by  numer- 
ous rivers  and  streams.  Its  vegetation  is  luxuri- 
ant, and  it  possesses  extensive  forests.  Its 
products  are  those  of  tropical  Africa  generally. 
Coffee  grows  wild.  The  soil  in  parts  is  well 
adapted  for  the  production  of  grain ;  but  little 
is  grown.  The  larger  animals  of  Africa  are 
numerous,  such  as  lions,  elephants,  and  hippo- 
potami. The  minerals  include  copper,  sulphur, 
lead,  gold,  and  silver.  The  only  town  worth 
mention  is  the  seaport,  Benguela,  founded  in 
1617  as  San  Felipe  de  Benguela,  which  is  pleas- 
antly situated  and  fairly  healthy.  It  exports 
rubber,  coffee,  skins,  ivory,  etc.  A  short  rail- 
way starts  from  the  town,  the  population  of 
which  is  about  3,000.  The  population  of  the 
province  may  amount  to  several  millions. 

Benha'dad,  the  name  of  three  kings  of 
Syria,  all  mentioned  in  Scripture.  The  most 
conspicuous  is  the  second,  who  was  equally  re- 
miarkable  for  his  arrogance  in  prosperity  and  his 
craven  spirit  in  adversity.  He  first  sent  an  inso- 
lent message  to  Ahab,  claiming  himself  and  all 
his  subjects  as  his  slaves;  and  after  Ahab 
encountered  and  defeated  him,  Benhadad  sent 
a  message  abjectly  begging  his  life.  .'Xhab  was 
impolitic  enough  to  grant  it,  and  Benhadad,  dis- 
regarding all  his  promises,  proved  a  bitter  enemy 
to  his  successor.    He  was  murdered  about  890  b.c. 

Benham,  Andrew  EUicott  Kennedy,  Ameri-. 
can  naval  otticer:  b.  New  York,  10  April  1832; 
d.  at  Lake  Mahopac,  N.  Y.,  11  Aug.  1905. 
He  entered  the  navy  in  1847 ;  served  in  the  East 
India    and    the    Home    squadrons    in    1847-52; 


BENHAM  — BENIN 


attended  the  United  States  Naval  Academy, 
1852-3 ;  was  commissioned  lieutenant  in  1855 ; 
lieutenant-commander  in  1862;  commander, 
1866 ;  captain,  1875  ;  commodore,  1885  ;  and  rear- 
admiral  in  1890,  and  retired  in  1894.  During  the 
Civil  War  he  served  in  the  South  Atlantic  and 
West  Gulf  Blockading  squadrons.  In  April 
1893  he  commanded  one  of  the  divisions  in  the 
great  naval  display  at  New  York ;  in  1894,  as 
commander  of  a  squadron  at  Rio  de  Janeiro, 
Brazil,  he  forced  the  commander  of  the  insur- 
gents' squadron  to  raise  the  blockade  of  the 
city  and  to  discontinue  firing  on  American  mer- 
chant vessels ;  and  in  1898  was  naval  prize  com- 
missioner in  Savannah,  Ga. 

Benham,  Henry  W.,  American  military 
engineer:  b.  Cheshire,  Conn.,  1816;  d.  i  June 
1884.  He  was  graduated  at  the  United  States 
Military  Academy  in  1837 ;  and  became  brevet 
major-general,  United  States  army.  He  com- 
manded the  engineer  brigade  and  laid  several 
pontoon  bridges  under  fire  during  the  Chancel- 
lorsville  battles  ;  constructed  and  commanded  the 
defenses  at  City  Point ;  devised  the  picket 
shovel ;  and  made  many  improvements  in  the 
construction  of  pontoon  bridges,  in  which  he 
was  a  recognized  expert.  After  the  war  he  was 
in  charge  of  the  Boston  harbor  sea  wall  and 
later  of  the  New  York  harbor  defenses ;  retired 
from  active  service,   1882. 

Benham,  William,  English  clergyman  and 
author:  b.  West  Meon,  Hampshire.  15  Jan. 
1831.  He  was  vicar  of  Addington,  1867-73:  of 
Margate,  1873-80;  of  Marden,  1880-2;  and  rec- 
tor of  St.  Edmund's,  Lombard  Street,  London, 
from  the  year  last  named.  He  was  appointed 
canon  of  Canterbury  in  1885.  He  has  published 
among  other  works:  *^The  Church  of  the  Patri- 
archs* (1867)  ;  ^Catharine  and  Crawfurd  Tait*  ; 
<How  to  Teach  the  Old  Testament*  (1881)  ; 
< Annals  of  the  Diocese  of  Winchester*  (1884)  ; 
*A  Short  History  of  the  Episcopal  Church  in 
America*  (1884)  ;  ^The  Dictionary  of  Religion* 
(1887)  ;  <Life  of  Archbishop  Tait,*  with  David- 
son (1891).  He  has  edited  the  ^Ancient  and 
Modern  Library  of  Theological  Literature.* 

Beni,  ba'ne,  one  of  the  nine  departments  of 
Bolivia,  South  America.  It  is  in  the  northeast- 
ern part,  with  an  area  of  100,580  square  miles. 
It  is  a  level,  fertile  region,  growing  cocoa,  cof- 
fee, sugar-cane,  and  tobacco,  and  containing  vast 
forests  of  rubber-trees,  and  rich  deposits  of 
gold.    Pop.  26,750 ;  chief  town,  Trinidad. 

Beni,  a  river  of  South  America,  formed  by 
the  junction  of  several  streams  flowing  eastward 
from  the  Andes  in  about  18°  south.  Its  course 
is  north  and  northeast  through  Bolivia;  and  on 
the  border  of  Brazil  it  unites  with  the  Mamore 
to  form  the  Madeira,  by  which  its  waters  are 
carried  to  the  Amazon.  It  receives  several  trib- 
utaries of  importance,  the  chief  being  the  Madre 
de  Dios  from  Peru,  and  it  is  navigable  through- 
cut  a  great  part  of  its  course.  Its  length  is 
about  850  miles. 

Beni-Hassan,  ba'ne-has'san,  a  village  of 
middle  Egypt,  on  the  east  bank  of  the  Nile, 
remarkable  for  the  rock-hewn  tombs  in  the 
neighborhood,  supposed  to  have  formed  a 
necropolis  for  the  chief  families  of  a  city, 
Hermopolis,  on  the  opposite  bank,  and  exhibit- 
ing interesting  paintings,  and  hieroglyphics. 
The  paintings  portray  incidents  in  the  ancient 
life  of  Egypt,  and  the  inscriptions  are  of  great 


value  for  the  light  they  throw  upon  the  history 
of  the   I2lh  dynasty. 

Beni-Israel,  ba'ne-iz-ra-el,  a  race  in  the 
v/est  of  India  (the  Konkan  sea  board,  Bom- 
bay, etc.),  who  keep  a  tradition  of  Jewish  origin, 
and  whose  religion  is  a  modified  Judaism.  By 
some  persons  they  are  supposed  to  be  a  remnant 
of  the  10  tribes.  Their  number  is  estimated 
at  5,000,  and  in  feature  they  resemble  the  Jews  of 
Arabia. 

Beni  Israel,  a  small  antelope.  See 
Madoqua. 

Beni-Khaibir.  (sons  of  Keber),  an  Arabic 
tribe  supposed  to  be  a  remnant  of  the  ascetic 
tribe  of  Rechabites. 

Beni-Mzab,  a  race  or  tribe  of  Berbers  that 
dwell  in  the  Sahara,  near  its  northern  border, 
and  recognize  the  supremacy  of  the  French. 
They  number  some  60,000,  of  whom  about  15,000 
are  in  the  town  of  Ghardaya.  They  are  peace- 
fully disposed,  and  numbers  of  them  are  em- 
ployed in  Algiers  in  various  occupations. 

Beni-Suef,  ba'ne-swaf,  the  capital  of  a 
province  of  the  same  name  in  Egypt ;  is  pleasantly 
situated  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Nile,  70  miles 
south  from  Cairo,  with  which  it  is  connected  by 
railway.  It  is  the  entrepot  for  the  produce  of 
the  Fayoum,  and  contains  cotton  mills,  con- 
trolled by  the  state,  and  alabaster  quarries.  Pop. 
10,085. 

Benicarlo,  ba-ne-kar-lo',  a  seaport  of 
Spain,  in  Valencia,  in  the  province  of  Castellon, 
surrounded  with  walls,  having  an  old  castle,  a 
fine  church,  with  an  octagonal  tower,  and  some 
manufactures,  etc.  It  is  chiefly  noted  as  being 
the  place  of  export  of  the  red  wines  called  by  its 
name  which  are  produced  in  the  surrounding 
country.  These  are  chiefly  sent  to  Bordeaux  to 
be  mixed  with  clarets,  or  to  England  to  be  man- 
ufactured into  port.     Pop.  (1897)  7,900. 

Benic'ia,  Cal.,  a  city  in  Solano  County,  at 
the  mouth  of  the  Sacramento  and  San  Joaquin 
rivers,  and  on  the  Southern  P.  R.R. ;  30  miles 
northeast  of  San  Francisco.  It  contains  a 
United  States  arsenal  and  barracks ;  St.  Au- 
gustine College  (Roman  Catholic)  ;  St. 
Catherine's  Convent  (Roman  Catholic)  ;  exten- 
sive shipyards,  and  large  agricultural,  tanning, 
cement,  and  meat-packing  plants.  The  city  was 
once  the  capital  of  the  State.    Pop.  (1900)  2,751. 

Benicia  Boy,  a  popular  name  for  a  once 
noted  pugilist,  John  C.  Heenan,  whose  home  was 
in  California.  His  fight  with  Sayers  attracted 
wide-spread  attention. 

Benin,  be-nin',  Africa,  a  negro  country  or 
kingdom,  on  the  Bight  of  Benin,  Gulf  of  Guinea, 
extending  along  the  coast  on  both  sides  of  the 
Benin  River,  and  to  some  distance  inland,  but 
the  limits  are  not  accurately  known.  The  cap- 
ital is  Benin,  a  town  which  at  one  time  had  some 
15,000  inhabitants,  but  is  now  said  to  have 
greatly  decreased  in  population.  It  is  situated 
about  50  miles  from  the  coast,  and  consists  of 
clay-built  houses  neatly  thatched  with  reeds, 
straw,  or  leaves.  The  coast,  which  now  belongs 
to  the  British,  is  thickly  indented  with  estuaries, 
some  of  them  of  considerable  breadth  and 
studded  with  islands.  The  country  is  flat  for 
some  distance  inland,  when  it  begins  gradually 
to  rise  till  it  attains  a  height  of  over  2,000  feet- 
It  is  very  well  wooded,  and  being  likewise  well 
watered,  it  is  rich  in  all  the  vegetable  produc- 


BENIN  —  BENJAMIN 


tions  of  the  tropics.  Cotton  is  indigenous,  and 
is  woven  into  cloth  by  the  women.  Sugar-cane 
of  good  quality  is  grown ;  and  yams,  plantains, 
maize,  rice,  etc.,  are  cultivated.  The  religion  is 
Fetishism.  The  climate,  especially  at  the  mouths 
of  the  rivers,  is  very  unhealthy.  There  is  a  con- 
siderable trade  ia  palm  oil  and  other  products. 

Benin,  Bight  of,  Africa,  a  large  bay  on  the 
Avest  coast,  forming  a  portion  of  the  Gulf  of 
Guinea,  and  extending  from  the  Niger  delta 
westward  to  about  the  river  Volta.       * 

Beniowsky,  Moritz  August  von,  ba-ne-6ff'- 
ski,  mo'ritz  ow'goost  fon,  Hungarian  adven- 
turer: b.  Verbova,  Hungary,  1741  ;  d.  23  May 
1786.  The  son  of  an  Austrian  general,  he 
served  as  lieutenant  in  the  Seven  Years'  war 
and  in  the  Polish  war  against  Russia.  In  1769 
he  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  Russians,  who 
■exiled  him  to  Kamchatka.  Availing  himself  of 
a  knowledge  of  navigation,  he  succeeded  in  sav- 
ing from  wreck  the  vessel  which  was  to 
<:onvey  him  to  Siberia.  This  feat  won  for  him 
the  sympathy  of  the  governor  of  Kamchatka, 
which  was  still  more  strengthened  by  his  pro- 
ficiency in  chess,  and  he  appointed  him  tutor  of 
his  children.  One  of  his  pupils  fell  in  love  with 
him,  and  with  her  father's  consent  they  were 
married.  In  1771  he  effected  his  escape  from 
Kamchatka  with  the  assistance  of  his  wife,  who, 
although  she  had  since  learned  that  he  had 
another  wife  in  Hungary,  followed  him  to  For- 
mosa and  Moscow,  at  which  latter  place  she 
died.  On  his  return  to  Paris  he  undertook  to 
found  a  French  colony  at  Madagascar,  where 
he  arrived  in  June  1774.  founded  his  colony,  and 
in  1775  was  proclaimed  king  by  some  of  the 
native  tribes,  while  his  wife  was  proclaimed 
<iueen.  The  governor  of  the  Isle  of  France 
refusing  to  supply  him  with  men  to  support  his 
state,  Beniowsky  applied  directly  to  the  French 
government,  but  without  success.  Disgusted 
with  the  French  and  their  colonies,  he  now 
entered  the  Austrian  service,  and  was  com- 
mander in  the  battle  of  Habelschwerdt,  in  1778, 
against  the  Prussians.  His  subsequent  efforts 
to  interest  the  English  government  for  Mada- 
gascar were  fruitless,  but  with  the  support  of  a 
wealthy  firm  of  Baltimore,  U.  S.  A.,  he  effected 
a  landing  in  Madagascar,  but  was  killed  soon 
after  in  a  conflict  with  troops  from  the  Isle  of 
France.  He  wrote  his  autobiography  in  French  ; 
it  was  translated  into  German  by  George  For- 
ster,  into  English  by  William  Nicolson,  and 
into  various  other  languages.  Kotzebue  drama- 
tized his  character  and  career  in  his  play  entitled 
^The  Conspiracy  in   Kamchatka.' 

Benish'  Days,  days  (Mondays,  Wednes- 
days, and  Saturdays)  on  which  the  modern 
Egj'ptians  don  the  benish  (whence  the  name), 
or  ordinary  garment,  relax  their  religious  duties, 
and  engage  in  pleasures. 

Benjamin,  the  youngest  son  of  Jacob  and 
Rachel  (Gen.  xxxv.  16-18).  Rachel  died  imme- 
diately after  he  was  born,  and  with  her  last 
breath  named  him  Ben-oni,  "son  of  my  sorrow'^ ; 
but  Jacob  called  him  Benjamin,  "son  of  my 
right  hand.''  He  was  a  great  comfort  to  his 
father,  who  saw  in  him  the  image  of  the  wife 
Tie  had  buried,  and  of  Joseph,  whose  loss  he 
also  mourned.  He  could  hardly  be  persuaded  to 
let  him  go  with  his  brethren  to  Eg>'pt.  The 
tribe  of  Benjamin,  small  at  first,  was  almost 
exterminated   in   the    days    of   the   Judges,    but 

Vol.     2 34. 


afterward  it  greatly  increased.  On  the  revolt 
of  the  10  tribes  Benjamin  adhered  to  the  camp 
of  Judah ;  and  the  two  tribes  ever  afterward 
closely  united.  King  Saul  and  Saul  of  Tarsus 
were  both  Benjamites. 

Benjamin,  Charles  Henry,  American  en- 
gineer :  b.  Patten,  Me.,  29  Aug.  1856.  He  gradu- 
ated at  the  University  of  Elaine,  and  was  pro- 
fessor of  mechanical  engineering  there,  1880-6. 
Since  1889  he  has  been  professor  of  the  same 
subject  in  the  Case  School  of  Applied  Science, 
Cleveland,  Ohio.  Publications:  <  Notes  on 
Heat  and  Steam'  (1894)  ;  < Notes  on  Machine 
Design'  (1895)  :  ^Mechanical  Laboratory  Prac- 
tice' (1898)  ;  'Evolution  of  the  Machine  Tool' 
(1898)  ;  'Power  Losses  in  Machine-Shops' 
(1900)  ;  'Development  of  Fly  Wheels'  (1900)  ; 
and  nionographs  in  the  'Transactions'  of  the 
American  Society  of  Mechanical  Engineers, 
Vols.  XVTII.-XXL 

Benjamin,  Judah  Philip,  American  lawyer: 
b.  St.  Croix,  West  Indies,  11  Aug.  181 1  ;  d. 
Paris,  7  May  1884 ;  of  English  parentage  and  of 
Jewish  faith.  He  was  educated  at  Yale  College ; 
admitted  to  the  bar  in  New  Orleans  in  1832 ; 
and  elected  to  the  United  States  Senate  in 
1852  and  1858.  At  the  beginning  of  the  Civil 
War  he  resigned  from  the  Senate  and  declared 
his  adhesion  to  the  State  of  Louisiana.  In  1861 
he  accepted  the  office  of  attorney-general  in  the 
Cabinet  of  Jefferson  Davis,  and  afterward  be- 
came successively  Confederate  secretary  of  war 
and  secretary  of  state.  After  the  w-ar  he  went 
to  London,  England,  where  he  was  admitted  to 
the  bar  in  1866.  He  gained  a  successful  prac- 
tice, and  in  1872  was  formally  presented  wnth 
a  silk  gown.  He  wrote  a  'Treatise  on  the  Law 
of  Sale  of  Personal  Property'    (1868). 

Benjamin,  Marcus,  American  editor  and 
compiler:  b.  San  Francisco,  17  Jan.  1857.  He 
graduated  at  Columbia  School  of  Mines,  1878, 
and  was  chemist  at  the  United  States  Appraiser's 
Store,  New  York,  1883-5.  Since  1883  he 
has  been  a  reguar  contributor  to  'Appleton's 
Annual  Cyclopsedia'  and  the  'Cyclopaedia  of 
American  Biography,'  and  edited  a  number  of 
the  Appleton  guides  and  handbooks.  He  was 
on  the  editorial  staff  of  the  'Standard  Diction- 
ary' ;  'Encyclopaedic  Dictionary'  :  'Johnson's 
Universal  Cyclopaedia'  :  and  the  'International 
Year  Book'  ;  and  has  translated  Bertholet's 
'Explosive  Materials'  (1883).  Since  1896  he 
has  been  connected  with  the  United  States 
National  Museum. 

Benjamin,  Park,  American  journalist,  poet, 
and  lecturer:  b.  Demerara,  British  Guiana,  14 
Aug.  1809;  d.  New  York,  12  Sept.  1864.  He 
studied  law,  but  later  took  up  literary'  work, 
helping  to  found  'The  New  World'  in  New 
York.  His  poems,  of  a  high  order  of  merit, 
have  never  been  collected.  'The  Contemplation 
of  Nature,'  read  on  taking  his  degree  at  Wash- 
ington College,  Hartford,  1829;  the  satires. 
'Poetry'  (1843):  'Infatuation'  (1849):  'The 
Nautilus'  ;  'To  One  Beloved'  ;  and  'The  Old 
Sexton'  are  among  his  works.  He  was  asso- 
ciated editorially  with  Epes  Sargent  and  Rufus 
W.  Griswold. 

Benjamin,  Park,  American  lawyer,  editor, 
and  miscellaneous  writer,  son  of  the  preceding: 
b.  New  York,  11  May  1849.  A  graduate  of  the 
United  States  Naval  Academy  (1867),  he  served 
on  Admiral  Farragut's  flagship,  but  resigned  in 


BENJAMIN  —  BENNETT 


1869.  As  a  lawyer  he  has  been  a  patent  expert. 
He  edited  the  'Scientific  American'  (1872-8), 
and  Appleton's  *  Cyclopaedia  of  Applied  Mechan- 
ics'. He  has  written  *  Shakings:  Etchings  from 
the  Naval  Academy'  (1867)  ;  'The  Age  of  Elec- 
tricity' (1886)  ;  'The  Intellectual  Rise  in  Elec- 
tricity, a  History'  ;  'The  United  States  Naval 
Academy'    (1900)  ;   etc. 

Benjamin,  Samuel  Green  Wheeler,  Ameri- 
can traveler,  artist,  and  miscellaneous  writer : 
b.  Argos.  Greece,  13  Feb.  1837.  He  was  edu- 
cated at  Williams  College;  was  assistant  libra- 
rian in  the  New  York  State  Library,  1861-4 ; 
and  was  United  States  minister  to  Persia, 
1883-5.  Among  his  numerous  works,  both  in 
prose  and  verse,  are:  'Art  in  America'  ;  'Con- 
temporary Art  in  Europe'  (1877);  'Constanti- 
nople*   (i860). 

Benjamin,  William  Augustus,  American 
journalist,  poet,  composer:  b.  26  July  1865.  His 
most  prominent  poems  are:  'From  Then  Till 
Now'  (1889);  'The  Storm'  (1889);  'Musings 
of  Shadow-Silence'  (1890);  'Twilight  Fancies' 
and  'The  Tide  of  Life'  (1891)  ;  etc.  Of  his 
musical  compositions,  'The  Surge  of  the  Sea' 
(1890);  'The  Promise'  (1894);  and  'Go  to 
Sleep'    (1895). 

Benjamin  of  Tudela,  Jewish  traveler:  b. 
Tudela,  Navarre,  in  the  12th  century;  is  chiefly 
known  by  his  travels  over  large  portions  of 
Europe,  Palestine,  Mesopotamia,  the  East 
Indies,  and  Ethiopia.  As  the  first  European 
traveler  who  penetrated  far  into  the  East,  he 
furnishes  a  great  amount  of  interesting  informa- 
tion, and  though  not  free  from  error  or  fable, 
proves  himself  worthy  of  the  high  estimation  in 
which  he  has  always  been  held  among  his  Jew- 
ish countrymen  for  soundness  of  judgment  and 
extent  of  learning.  His  'Itinerary,'  first  printed 
in  Hebrew  at  Constantinople  in  1543,  has  been 
translated  into  many  languages.  The  edition 
of  Asher  (London  and  Berlin  1840-1)  contains 
an  English  translation. 

Benjamin-Constant,  Jean  Joseph,  bon-zha- 
man-kon-ston,  zhon  zho-sef,  French  painter: 
b.  Paris,  10  June  1847 ;  d.  there,  26  May 
1902.  He  studied  under  Cabanel,  and  exhibited 
in  the  salon  of  1869,  a  scene  from  'Hamlet.' 
His  taste  inclined  him  to  Oriental  subjects  and 
the  nude,  and  his  vivid  coloring  and  dramatic 
treatment  made  his  work  fashionable  in  Paris 
and  London.  His  work  displays  much  finished 
and  minute  detail,  but  he  paid  chief  attention 
to  harmony  of  effect  and  decorative  value. 
Among  his  Oriental  pictures  are  'Mahomet 
II.'  ;  'Les  Cherifas'  ;  'Les  Funerailles  de 
TEmir'  ;    'La   Justice   du   Cherif.' 

Benkulen.     See  Bencoolen. 

Benndorf,  Otto,  German  archaeologist:  b. 
13  Sept.  1838  ;d.  2  Jan.  1907.  He  studied  at  Er- 
langen  and  Bonn,  went  to  Italy  and  Greece, 
1864-8,  and  was  professor  of  archaeology  at 
the  universities  of  Gottingen,  Zurich,  Munich, 
Prague,  and  Vienna.  In  1875  he  made  a  second 
archaeological  tour  to  Samothracc;  in  1881  and 
1883  he  made  two  expeditions,  at  state  cost,  to 
southwestern  Asia  Minor;  in  1898  he  was  made 
director  of  the  Austrian  Archnsological  Institute. 
He  wrote  'The  Ancient  Sculptures  in  the  Lat- 
eran  Museum'  (in  conjunction  with  Schone) 
(Leipsic  1867)  ;  'Ancient  Historical  Flelmets 
and  Sepulchral  Masks'  (1878)  ;  'Travels  in 
Southwest  Asia  Minor'    (1884)  ;  etc. 


Benne  Oil,  a  valuable  oil  expressed  from 
the  seeds  of  Sesamum  orientdle  and  S.  iiuiicum, 
much  cultivated  in  India,  Egypt,  etc.,  and  used 
for  purposes  similar  to  those  of  olive  oil.  Also 
called  sesamum  oil  and  gingelly  oil.  See  Se- 
same. 

Bennet,  Elizabeth,  the  heroine  of  Jane 
Austen's  novel,  'Pride  and  Prejudice.'  See 
Howells,   'Heroines  of  Fiction'    (1901). 

Bennet,  Henry  (E.\rl  of  Arlington),  Eng- 
lish statesman:  b.  Arlington,  Middlesex,  1618; 
d.  28  July  1685.  He  was  devoted  to  the  cause 
of  Charles  I.,  and  was  appointed  under-secretary 
of  state ;  he  fought  in  several  battles,  and  was 
wounded  at  Andover,  but  after  the  battle  of 
Worcester  he  retired  to  Spain.  Upon  the  resto- 
ration he  returned  to  England,  and  was  ap- 
pointed keeper  of  the  privy  seal,  and  shortly 
afterward  secretary  of  state.  In  1664  he  was 
created  Baron  Arlington  ;  in  1670  became  noted 
as  one  of  the  famous  Cabal,  but  is  not  accused 
of  entertaining  their  extreme  sentiments ;  he  was 
created  Earl  of  Arlington  in  1672.  He  was 
one  of  the  plenipotentiaries  sent  to  LTtrecht  to 
negotiate  a  peace  between  Austria  and  France, 
but  the  mission  not  being  successful,  an  en- 
deavor was  made  by  his  colleagues  to  cast  the 
odium  of  the  failure  upon  him.  He  defended 
himself,  however,  before  the  House  of  Com- 
mons, and  was  acquitted.  The  war  with  Hol- 
land, which  is  said  to  have  been  caused  by  the 
machinations  of  the  Cabal,  lost  to  Arlington  the 
favor  of  the  king  and  people ;  but  in  spite  of 
this  he  received  the  office  of  chamberlain.  In 
1679  he  became  a  member  of  the  new  council, 
and  retained  his  office  of  chamberlain  on  the 
accession  of  James  II. 

Bennett,  Alfred  Allen,  American  chemist: 
b.  Milford,  N.  PL,  30  Nov.  1850.  He  graduated 
at  the  University  of  Michigan  1877;  became 
professor  of  chemistry  and  physics  in  Iowa 
Wesleyan  University;  and  since  1885  has  been 
professor  of  chemistry  in  Iowa  State  College. 
Publications:  'Text  Book  of  Inorganic  Chem- 
istry,' 2  vols.,  and  articles  in  the  'American 
Chemical   Society   Journal.' 

Bennett,  Charles  Edwin,  American  edu- 
cator :  b.  Providence,  R.  I.,  6  April  1858.  He 
graduated  at  Brown  University  1878;  pursued 
graduate  studies  at  Harvard  and  in  Germany 
1881-4;  was  professor  of  Latin  at  the  University 
of  Wi-sconsin  1889-91 ;  of  classical  philolog}^  at 
Brown  1891-2;  and  in  the  latter  year  was  elected 
professor  of  Latin  at  Cornell.  He  has  been  a 
frequent  contributor  to  classical  journals  and 
editor  of  classical  texts.  Publications:  'A  Latin 
Grammar'  (1895)  ;  'The  Foundations  of  Latin' 
(1898)  ;  'Critique  of  Some  Recent  Subjunctive 
Theories'*  (1808)  ;  'The  Quantitative  Reading 
of  Latin  Poetry'  (1899)  ;  'The  Teaching  of 
Greek  and  Latin  in  Secondary  Schools'  (1900). 
He  has  edited:  'Xenophon's  Hellenica,  Books 
V.-VIIL'  (1892)  :  'Tacitus,  Dialogus  de  Ora- 
toribus'  (1894)  :  'Cicero,  De  Senectute'  (1897)  ; 
and  'Cicero,  De  Amicitia'    (1897). 

Bennett,  Charles  Wesley,  American  ^Nleth- 
odist  clergvman  and  educator:  b.  East  Bethany, 
N._  Y.,  18  July  1828;  d.  17  April  1891.  He  was 
principal  of  Genesee  Wesleyan  Seminary  (1869- 
71)  ;  professor  of  history  and  logic  at  Syracuse 
University  (1871-8=;)  :  professor  of  historical 
theology,  Garrett  Biblical  Institute,  Evanston.  111. 


BENNETT 


(1885-91).  He  wrote  <  National  Education  in 
Italy,  France,  Germany,  England,  and  Wales* 
(1878)  ;  and  'Christian  Art  and  Archaeology  of 
the   First   Six  Centuries'    (i888j. 

Bennett,  Edmund  Hatch,  American  lawyer: 
b.  Manchester,  Vt.,  6  April  1824;  d.  2  Jan.  1898. 
He  was  graduated  at  the  University  of  Vermont 
in  1843,  and  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1847.  He 
practised  for  many  years  in  Taunton,  Mass.,  and 
was  mayor  of  that  city  1865-7,  and  judge  of  pro- 
bate and  insolvency  of  Bristol  County  1858-83. 
He  was  lecturer  at  Harvard  Law  School  1865- 
71,  and  afterward  professor  and  dean  at  the 
Law  School  of  Boston  University.  His  works 
include  30  volumes  of  'English  Law  and 
Equity  Reports'  ;  '9-12  Cushing's  (Mass.) 
Reports'  ;  'Massachusetts  Digest'  (3  vols.)  ; 
'Bingham  on  Infancy'  ;  'Blackwell  on  Tax 
Titles'  ;  'Leading  Criminal  Cases'  (2  vols.)  ; 
'Goddard  on  Easements'  ;  'Benjamin  on  Sales'  ; 
'Pomeroy's  Constitutional  Law';  'Indermaur's 
Principles  of  Common  Law'  ;  and  'Fire  Insur- 
ance Cases*  (5  vols.).  He  has  made  contribu- 
tions to  professional  journals,  and  has  been  co- 
editor  of  the  'American  Law  Register.* 

Bennett,  Emerson,  American  novelist :  b. 
Monson.  ^Nlass.,  16  March  1822;  d.  Phila- 
delphia, Pa.,  12  ^lay  1905.  He  began  to  write  at 
an  early  age  and  published  some  60  or  more 
extremelj'  sensational  tales  which  have  been 
popular  with  uncritical  readers.  Among  them 
are  'Prairie  Flower';  'The  Outlaw's  Daughter'; 
and  'The  Forged  Will.' 

Bennett,  James  Gordon,  American  journal- 
ist: b.  Newmill,  Keith,  i  Sept.  1795;  d.  i  June 
1872.  Trained  for  the  Roman  Catholic  priest- 
hood, he  emigrated  to  the  United  States  in  1819, 
where  he  became  in  turn  teacher,  proof-reader, 
journalist,  and  lecturer.  He  had  acted  as  casual 
reporter  and  writer  in  connection  with  several 
journals,  and  had  failed  in  one  or  two  journal- 
istic ventures  previous  to  the  issue  of  the  first 
number  of  the  New  York  Herald,  which  he 
founded  as  an  independent  newspaper,  6  May 
1835,  price  one  cent.  He  spared  no  effort  and 
expense  in  securing  news,  and  laid  the  founda- 
tion of  its  subsequent  enormous  success.  It  was 
the  first  newspaper  to  publish  the  stock  lists  and 
a   daily  money  article. 

Bennett,  James  Gordon,  American  journal- 
ist, (son  of  the  preceding)  :  b.  New  York,  10 
May  1841.  He  became  managing  editor  of  the 
New  York  Herald  in  1866.  and  became  its  pro- 
prietor on  the  death  of  his  father  in  1872.  In 
1870  he  sent  Henry  M.  Stanley  on  the  explor- 
ing expedition  which  resulted  in  the  finding  of 
Dr.  Livingstone,  and.  in  conjunction  with  the 
London  Daily  Telegraph,  supplied  the  means  for 
his  journey  across  Africa  by  way  of  the  Congo 
in  1874-8.  He  organized  a  system  of  storm 
prognostications  of  value  to  shipping-masters; 
fitted  out  the  Jeannette  Polar  exnedition ;  and 
in  1883  was  associated  with  John  W.  Mackay  in 
organizing  the  new  Commercial  Cable  Company. 
He  founded  the  Evening:  Telef^rnm  in  New  York, 
and_  established  daily  editions  of  the  Herald  in 
Paris  and  London.  He  early  gave  much  atten- 
tion to  yachting,  in  1866  taking  part  in  an  ocean 
yacht  race  from  Sandy  Hook  to  the  Needles, 
Isle  of  Wight,  which  was  won  by  his  schooner 
Henrietta  against  two  competing  yachts  in  13 
days.  21  hours.  55  minutes.  In  1870  he  raced  in 
his  yacht  Dauntless  from  Queenstown  to  Sandy 


Hook,  but  was  beaten  by  the  Cambria  by  two 
hours.  He  resides  mainly  in  Paris,  collecting 
foreign  news,  and  directing  by  telegraph  the 
management  and  policy  of  his  newspapers.  The 
New  York  Herald  was  incorporated  in  1899. 

Bennett,  John,  American  writer:  b.  Chilli- 
cothe,  Ohio,  17  May  18O5.  He  has  published 
'iMaster  Skylark'  (1892);  'The  Story  of  Bar- 
naby  Lee'    (1900). 

Bennett,  John  Hughes,  English  physician: 
b.  London,  31  Aug.  1812;  d.  Norwich,  25  Sept. 
1875.  He  graduated  at  Edinburgh  in  1837,  and 
after  four  years'  study  in  Paris  and  Germany 
settled  in  Edinburgh  as  an  extra-mural  lecturer. 
A  work  published  in  1841,  in  which  he  recom- 
mended cod-liver  oil  in  all  consumptive  diseases, 
first  brought  him  into  notice,  and  in  1848  he  was 
made  professor  of  the  institutes  of  medicine  in 
Edinburgh  University  —  a  post  which  he  held 
until  1874.  His  health  gave  way  in  1871,  and. 
most  of  his  last  3'ears  were  spent  abroad. 

Bennett,  Joseph  M.,  American  philanthro- 
pist: b.  Juliustown,  N.  J.,  16  Aug.  1816;  d.  2g 
Sept.  1898.  He  engaged  in  the  clothing  business 
in  Philadelphia,  Pa.,  when  16  years  old.  In 
1880  he  gave  40  acres  of  ground  in  what  is  now 
Fairmount  Park,  valued  at  $400,000,  for  a  Meth- 
odist Orphanage,  to  the  support  of  which  he 
afterward  largely  contributed.  He  also  estab- 
lished the  Hays  Home,  and  gave  valuable  prop- 
erties to  the  Deaf  and  Dumb  Institute,  the 
University  of  Pennsylvania,  and  the  Methodist 
Deaconesses.  His  property  was  said  to  be  worth 
$3,000,000,  and  it  is  estimated  that  he  gave 
$1,000,000  to  charity.  Lie  bequeathed  $500,000  ta 
the  University  of  Pennsylvania  for  its  proposed 
college  for  women. 

Bennett,  Mary  E.  (Eliz.\beth  Glover), 
American  writer :  b.  Connecticut,  1841 ;  a  writer 
of  New  Haven,  Conn.,  whose  writings  have  been 
publish^  over  the  pen  name  Elizabeth  Glover. 
They  mclude  'Cyril  Rivers'  ;  'Six  Boys'  ; 
'Asaph's  Ten  Thousand'  ;  'Talks  About  a  Fine- 
Art' ;  'Family  Manners';  'The  Children's 
Wing'  ;  'Jefferson  Wildrider'  ;  'The  Gentle  Art 
of  Pleasing.' 

Bennett,  Samuel  Crocker,  American  law- 
yer :  b.  Taunton,  ^Lass..  19  April  1858.  He  is  a 
son  of  Edmund  Hatch  Bennett  (q.v.),  and  in 
1898  succeeded  his  father  as  dean  of  the  law 
school  of  Boston  University.  He  is  one  of  the 
editors  of  'Federal  Decisions'  ;  'Smith's  Leading 
Cases'  ;  'Benjamin  on  Sales'  ;  'Cyclopedia  of 
Law  and   Procedure.' 

Bennett,  Sanford  Fillmore,  American  h\'m- 
nologist:  b.  Eden,  N.  Y..  1836;  d.  12  June  1898. 
He  settled  in  Elkhorn,  Wis.,  in  i860,  and  became 
editor  of  the  Independent.  Resigning  this  place, 
he  entered  the  40th  Wisconsin  Volunteers  and 
served  with  them  throughout  the  Civil  War.  In 
1867  he  aided  J.  P.  Webster,  the  composer,  in 
preparing  'The  Signet  Ring.'  a  Sunday-.school 
hymn-book,  to  which  he  contributed  about  loa 
hvmns.  'The  Sweet  Bye  and  Bye'  was  one  of 
tlie  first  of  these.  Many  of  Mr.  Bennett's  hymns 
and  songs  have  been  published  in  sheets. 

Bennett,  "William  Cox,  English  song- 
writer: b.  Greenwich.  14  Oct.  1820:  d.  Black- 
heath,  4  March  1895.  He  suggested  that  the 
bust  of  Longfellow  be  placed  in  Westminster 
Abbey,  and  formed  a  committee  of  500,  with  the 
Prince  of  Wales  at  its  head,  to  effect  k.     He 


BENNETT  —  BENOIT 


was  the  author  of  'Poems^  (1850)  ;  'The  Trial 
for  Salamis'  (1850)  ;  <  Endowed  Parish  Schools 
and  High  Church  Vicars>  (1853)  ;  'Queen 
Eleanor's  Vengeance,  and  Other  Poems^ 
(1856);  <War  Songs>  (1857);  'Songs  by  a 
Song- Writer'  (1858)  ;  'Baby  May,  and  Other 
Poems'  (1859)  ;  'Our  Glory  Roll,  and  Other 
National  Poems'  (1867)  ;  'Contributions  to  a 
Ballad  History  of  England,  etc'  (1869)  ; 
'School-Book  of  Poetry'  (1870);  'Songs  for 
Sailors'  (1872)  ;  'Narrative  Poems  and  Bal- 
lads' (1879)  ;  'Songs  of  a  Song-Writer' 
(1876);  and  'Sea  Songs'    (1878). 

Bennett,  Sir  William  Stemdale,  English 
composer:  b.  Sheffield  13  April  1816;  d.  Lon- 
don, I  Feb.  1875.  He  became  a  pupil  of  the 
Royal  Academy  of  Music  in  1826,  studying  un- 
der Cipriani  Potter,  Crotch,  and  Lucas,  and 
afterward  Moscheles.  By  the  advice  of  Men- 
delssohn, whose  friendship  he  had  gained,  he 
studied  in  Leipsic  from  1836  to  1838,  and  his 
performances  and  compositions  were  held  in 
high  esteem  by  the  younger  German  musicians, 
and  especially  by  Schumann.  After  a  period 
spent  in  teaching,  conducting,  and  composing, 
he  was  appointed  professor  of  music  at  Cam- 
bridge in  1856,  and  was  knighted  in  1871.  Li 
1868  he  became  principal  of  the  Royal  Acad- 
emy of  Music.  He  was  too  entirely  dominated 
by  Mendelssohn's  influence  to  do  great  original 
work.  He  is  best  known  by  his  overtures,  'Tlie 
Naiads'  and  'Parisina'  ;  his  cantatas,  'The  May 
Queen'  and  'Woman  of  Samaria'  ;  and  his  lit- 
tle musical  sketches,  'Lake,'  '^^lillstream,'  and 
'Fountain.' 

Bennigsen,  Levin  Augustus  (Baron  Von), 
Russian  soldier:  b.  Brunswick,  1745;  d.  3  Oct. 
1826.  He  entered  the  Russian  service  at  an 
early  age,  and  distinguished  himself  by  his 
bravery  in  the  war  against  Poland,  under  the 
Empress  Catherine  H.  In  1806  he  was  ap- 
pointed to  comm.and  the  Russian  army  which 
went  to  the  assistance  of  the  Prussians.  He 
afterward  fought  the  battles  of  Eylau  and 
Friedland.  After  the  Peace  of  Tilsit  he  retired 
to  his  estates.  In  1813  he  led  the  Army  of 
Poland  into  Saxony,  took  part  in  the  battle  of 
Leipsic,  and  blockaded  Hamburg.  He  was 
commander-in-chief  in  southern  Russia,  but 
finally  settled  in  his  native  country,  where  he 
died. 

Bennigsen,  Rudolph  von,  German  states- 
man :  b.  Luneberg,  Hanover,  1825 ;  d.  Bennig- 
sen, 7  Aug.  1902.  After  Hanover  became  a  part 
of  Prussia  he  was  elected  to  the  North  Ger- 
man Diet  and  the  Prussian  Assembly,  becom- 
ing vice-president  of  both.  Entering  the  Ger- 
man Reichstag  in  1871,  he  became  prominent  as 
leader  of  the  National  Liberals,  warmly  support- 
ing Bismarck  for  years,  but  later  opposing  his 
policy  toward  the  Socialists.  After  some  years 
spent  in  retirement,  Bennigsen  re-entered  poli- 
tics in  1887  and  continued  active  until  1898, 
when  he  resigned  his  position  as  president  of 
the  province  of  Hanover. 

Bennington,  Vt.,  town  and  county-seat  of 
Bennington  County,  on  the  Bennington  &  R. 
and  the  Lebanon  Springs  R.R.'s ;  36  miles  east 
of  Troy,  N.  Y.,  and  55  miles  southwest  of  Rut- 
land. It  contains  the  villages  of  Bennington, 
North  Bennington,  and  Bennington  Centre  ;  and 
has   large    woolen   and   knit-goods    factories ;    a 


Soldiers'  Home,  a  memorial  battle  monument, 
dedicated  on  the  centennial  of  the  admission  of 
the  State  into  the  L'nion,  19  Aug.  1891  ;  two 
national  banks,  public  library,  numerous 
churches,  and  graded  public  schools.  There  are 
valuable  deposits  of  brown  hematite  ore  in  the 
town.  The  government  consists  of  a  town  presi- 
dent and  a  board  of  trustees  elected  annually  at 
town  meetings  under  the  charter  of  1885.  The 
town,  which  was  named  after  Governor  Benning 
Wentworth  of  New  Llampshire,  was  settled  in 
1761,  and  for  many  years  before  Vermont  be- 
came a  State,  was  claimed  by  both  New  York 
and  New  Hampshire.     Pop.    (1900),  8,033. 

Bennington,  Battle  of,  one  of  the  early 
battles  of  the  Revolution,  fought  at  Bennington, 
Vt.,  16  Aug.  1777.  The  army  of  Gen.  Burgoyne, 
marching  to  the  south  from  Canada,  and  caus- 
ing the  abandonment  of  Ticonderoga  by  Gen. 
St.  Clair,  created  the  greatest  commotion 
throughout  New  England,  since  Boston  was 
supposed  to  be  its  point  of  destination.  Gen. 
Stark  chanced  to  be  at  the  time  at  Bennington, 
having  under  his  command  a  corps  of  New 
Hampshire  militia,  and  he  determined  to  con- 
front a  strong  detachment  of  the  enemy  sent 
out  under  Col.  Baum  to  procure  supplies.  He 
hastily  collected  the  continental  forces  in  the. 
neighborhood,  and  on  16  August  approached 
the  British,  whom,  after  a  hot  action  of  tv/o 
hours,  he  forced  to  a  disorderly  retreat.  The 
engagement  was  hardly  over  when  a  re- 
enforcement  arrived,  sent  by  Gen.  Burgoyne, 
and  the  battle  was  renewed,  and  kept  up  several 
hours  till  dark,  when  the  British  forces  re- 
treated, leaving  their  baggage  and  ammunition. 
The  loss  of  the  enemy  was  207  killed,  600  taken 
prisoners,  and  i,oco  stand  of  arms.  The  Amer- 
icans lost  only  14  killed  and  42  wounded. 

Benno,  Saint,  bishop  of  Meissen  (son  of 
the  Count  of  Bultenburg)  and  Apostle  of  the 
Slavs:  b.  Hildesheim,  loio;  d.  1106.  At  20 
years  of  age  he  became  a  monk  in  the  Bene- 
dictine convent  of  Saint  Michael  in  his  native 
town.  His  extraordinary  virtues  and  learning 
caused  his  brethren  to  elect  him  abbot  in  1042, 
but  the  dignity  and  office  he  resigned  three 
months  later.  During  the  minority  of  Henry 
IV.,  he  was  appointed  to  the  see  of  ^Meissen, 
and  during  his  episcopate  of  40  years  he  led 
the  life  of  an  ascetic.  In  the  quarrel  between 
Henry  and  the  Saxon  nobles  he  stood  by  th'i 
latter,  and  in  consequence  was  led  away  pris- 
oner when  Henry  passed  through  Meissen  in 
1075  after  his  victory  on  the  Unstrut.  He  sup- 
ported Pope  Gregory  VII.  in  the  long  dispute 
between  the  emperor  and  the  Pope.  He  died 
at  the  advanced  age  of  96  years  and  his  tomb 
in  the  Cathedral  of  Meissen  was  venerated  as  a 
shrine,  until  the  remains  were  transferred  to 
the  cathedral  in  Munich.  The  Bavarians  chose 
him  as  their  patron  saint  after  he  was  canonized 
by  Hadrian  VI.  in  1523.  See  his  'Life'  by 
Emser  in  the  Bollandists  for  June  3d,  also  his 
'Life'   by   Seyffort. 

Benoit,  Pierre  Leopold  Leonard,  be-nwa, 
pe-ar  la-6-p6ld  la-o-nar,  Flemish  musician 
and  composer:  b.  Harelbeke,  Belgium,  17  Aug. 
1834.  He  studied  under  Fetis.  He  has  held  the 
position  of  director  of  the  Flemish  School  of 
Music  in  Antwerp  since  1867,  and  has  written 
a  number  of  oratorios,  cantatas,  and  operas.     In 


BENOIT  — BENT 


the  first  class  of  these  compositions,  his  ^ Luci- 
fer, >  <The  Drama  of  Christ, >  and  <The  War,' 
should  be  mentioned. 

Benoit  de  Sainte-Maure,  de  sant-mor, 
French  trouvere  and  chronicler :  b.  Touraine ;  fl. 
in  the  12th  century.  He  wrote  in  about  42,300 
octosyllabic  verses  a  ^Chronicle  of  the  Dukes  of 
Normandy^  to  the  year  1135.  To  him  is  usually 
ascribed  the  ^Romance  of  Troy,^  founded  on  the 
story  of  the  siege  of  Troy  as  written  by  Dictys 
Cretensis  and  Dares;  it  w^as  translated  into  the 
languages  of  western  Europe.  Boccaccio,  Chau- 
cer, and  Shakespeare  would  seem  to  be  indebted 
to  Benoit  for  the  storj^  of  the  loves  of  Troilus 
and  Briseis  (Cryseyde  or  Cressida  being  origi- 
nally called  Briseida). 

Bensel,  James  Berry,  American  poet  and 
novelist:  b.  New  York,  2  Aug.  1856;  d.  3  Feb. 
1886.  He  lived  most  of  his  life  at  Lynn,  Mass., 
and  was  a  contributor  to  magazines.  He  wrote 
^King  Kophetua's  Wife^  (1884),  a  novel;  *In 
the  King's  Garden,  and  Other  Poems^    (1886). 

Benserade,  Isaac  de,  baii-s'rad,  e-sak  de, 
French  poet :  b.  Lyons-la-Faret,  Normandy, 
1612;  d.  Gentilly,  1691.  He  wrote  for  the  stage, 
and  composed  a  great  number  of  ingenious 
verses  for  the  king  and  many  distinguished  per- 
sons at  court.  In  the  first  half  of  the  reign  of 
Louis  XIV.  the  court  and  its  followers  patron- 
ized songs  of  gallantry,  rondeaux,  triolets,  madri- 
gals, and  sonnets,  containing  sallies  of  wit,  con- 
ceits, and  effusions  of  gallantry  in  the  affected 
style  then  prevalent.  No  one  succeeded  so  well 
in  this  art  as  Benserade,  who  was  therefore,  b)- 
way  of  eminence,  called  Ic  pocte  de  la  cotir. 
He  received  many  pensions  for  his  performances 
and  lived  at  great  expense.  Wearied  at  last  with 
the  life  he  led  he  retired  to  his  country-seat, 
Gentilly. 

Bensley,  Thomas,  English  printer:  d.  1833. 
He  is  much  known  for  an  edition  of  ^Lavater,^ 
printed  by  him  in  1789,  in  5  volumes  quarto,  and 
for  an  edition  of  the  English  Bible  between  1800 
and  1815,  in  7  volumes  quarto.  He  also  printed 
Shakespeare  in  1803,  in  7  volumes  octavo,  and  in 
1806  Hume's  *^  England^  in  10  volumes  folio, 
which  is  adorned  with  elaborate  portraits  and 
engravings  on  copper.  He  w^as  prominent  also  in 
the  construction  of  the  machine  printing-press 
invented  by  Koenig  and  applied  to  printing  the 
Times  newspaper  in  1814. 

Benson,  Arthur  Christopher,  English  au- 
thor: (son  of  Edward  White  Benson,  and 
brother  of  Edward  Frederic,  qq.v.)  b.  24  April 
1862.  He  was  educated  at  Eton  and  Cambridge. 
In  1885  he  was  appointed  master  of  Eton  Col- 
lege. He  is  the  author  of  several  volumes  of 
poems,  published  in  1893,  1895,  1896,  and  1900; 
and  also  of  'Memoirs  of  Arthur  Hamilton' 
(1886);  <Archbishop  Laud>  (1887):  'Men  of 
Might'  (with  Mr.  Tatham)  ;  'Fasti  Etonenses' 
(1899);  'Life  of  Archbishop  Benson'  (1899): 
'The  Schoolmaster'  (1902)  ;  and  'Tennyson' 
(in  the  'Little  Biographies'  Series). 

Benson,  Carl,  pseudonym  of  Charles  Astor 
Bristed   (q.v.). 

Benson,  Edward  Frederic,  English  author: 
(son  of  Edward  White  Benson  and  brother  of 
Arthur  Christopher  qq.v.)  b.  Wellington  Col- 
lege, 24  July  1867.  He  was  educated  at  King's 
College,  Cambridge :  worked  at  Athens  for  the 
British  Aichaeological  School    (1892-5),  and  in 


Egypt,  for  the  Hellenic  Society  (1895).  His 
writings  include  'Dodo'  (1893),  a  novel  of 
London  society;  'Six  Common  Things'  (1893)  ; 
'Rubicon'  (1894);  'Judgment  Books'  (1895); 
'Limitations'  (1896);  'The  Babe'  (1897); 
'Vintage'  (1898);  'The  Capsina'  (1899);  'An 
Act  in  a  Backwater'  (1904). 

Benson,  Edward  White,  Archbishop  of 
Canterbury:  b.  near  Birmingham,  1829;  d.  Ha- 
warden,  11  Oct.  1896.  He  graduated  at  Cam- 
bridge in  1852  as  a  first-class  and  senior  optime, 
and  was  for  some  time  a  master  at  Rugby.  He 
held  the  headmastership  of  Wellington  College 
from  its  opening  in  1858  to  1872,  when  he  was 
made  a  canon  and  chancellor  of  Lincoln  Cathe- 
dral. In  1875  he  was  appointed  chaplain  in 
ordinary  to  the  queen,  and  in  December  1876 
was  nominated  to  the  newly  erected  bishopric  of 
Truro.  Here  he  began  the  building  of  a  cathe- 
dral (1880-7),  most  of  the  first  cost,  £110,000, 
having  been  gathered  by  his  own  energ\'.  In 
1882  he  was  translated  to  Canterbury  to  suc- 
ceed Dr.  Tait  as  primate  of  all  England.  A 
high-churchman,  Dr.  Benson  was  frequently  se- 
lect preacher  at  both  universities,  and  published 
several  volumes  of  sermons,  a  small  work  on 
'Cathedrals,'  and  a  valuable  article  on  'St. 
Cyprian.'  A  distinguished  ecclesiastical  law- 
yer and  diplomatist,  he  gave  the  important  judg- 
ment in  the  Lincoln  case  on  ritual. 

Benson,  Egbert,  American  jurist  and  poli- 
tician:  b.  New  York,  21  June  1746;  d.  Jamaica, 
N.  Y.,  24  Aug.  1833.  He  was  graduated  at  Co- 
lumbia College  1765;  was  member  of  Congress 
1784-8,  1789-93,  and  1813-15;  judge  of  the  su- 
preme court  of  New  York  1 794-1 801  ;  and  be- 
came a  judge  of  the  United  States  circuit  court. 
He  wrote  a  'Vindication  of  the  Captors  of 
Major  Andre,'  and  'Memoir  on  Dutch  Names 
of  Places.' 

Benson,  Eugene,  American  artist  and  mis- 
cellaneous writer :  b.  Hyde  Park,  N.  Y..  1840. 
Residing  in  Rome,  Italy,  he  has  contributed  to 
American  magazines.  He  has  written  'Gaspara 
Stampa'  (1881),  a  biography,  with  selections 
from  her  sonnets;  'Art  and  Nature  in  Italy' 
(1882). 

Benson,  Frank  Weston,  American  painter: 
b.  Salem,  Mass.,  24  IMarch  1862.  He  was  edu- 
cated at  the  Museum  of  Fine  Arts,  Boston,  and 
in  Paris ;  became  a  member  of  the  Society  of 
American  Artists  in  1888.  He  won  the  Hall- 
garten  and  the  Clarke  prizes  at  the  National 
Academy  of  Design  in  1889  and  1891 ;  has  done 
nvich  in  figure  work  with  outdoor  effects,  but 
is  best  known  for  his  portraits. 

Bent,  James  Theodore,  English  traveler: 
b.  Liverpool,  30  March  1852 ;  d.  London,  6  May 
1897.  He  graduated  at  Oxford  University  in 
1875,  and  managed  excavations  in  Greece  for 
the  British  Museums  and  the  Hellenic  Society. 
His  publications  include:  'A  Freak  of  Free- 
dom, or  the  Republic  of  San  Marino'  (1879)  ; 
'Genoa:  How  the  Republic  Rose  and  Fell' 
(1880)  ;  'Life  of  Giuseppe  Garibaldi'  (1881)  ; 
'The  Cyclades,  or  Life  Among  the  Insular 
Greeks'    (1885). 

Bent,  Silas,  American  naval  officer:  b.  St. 
Louis,  10  Oct.  1820;  d.  1889.  He  entered  the 
navy  in  1836 ;  served  in  the  Seminole  war,  and 
was  with  Commodore  Glynn  and  Commodore 
Perry  on  several  cruises  to  Japan.  He  was 
always    especially    active   in    survey   work;    on 


BENT-GRASS  —  BENTHOS 


Perr3''s  Japan  expedition  he  had  charge  of  the 
hydrographic  survey,  and  his  excellent  work 
became  the  basis  of  the  surveys  undertaken 
later  by  the  Japanese  government.  His  most 
important  work  was  to  delineate  and  describe 
scientifically  the  Kuro  Shiwo,  or  Black  Tide,  the 
great  northward-tlowing  stream  of  the  Pacific, 
corresponding  to  the  Atlantic  Gulf  Stream. 

Bent-grass  (Agrostis),  a  genus  of  grasses 
usually  regarded  as  weeds  except  in  soils  which 
cannot  produce  better.  Common  bent-grass  or 
purple  bent  (A.  vulgaris)  is  a  fine-leaved  species 
with  trailing  stems  rooting  at  the  joints,  and 
small  thin  panicles  of  purplish  satiny  flowers. 
It  overruns  dry,  gravelly,  sandy  places  with  its 
wiry  stems,  and  becomes  a  troublesome  weed, 
only  to  be  got  rid  of  by  pulling  up  early  in  the 
season  before  the  seed  is  ripe,  or  by  frequent 
harrowing.  It  is,  however,  sometimes  sown  in 
warrens  and  in  places  where  nothing  better  will 
§row.  March  bent,  white  bent,  or  fiorin  grass 
{^A.  stolonifera).  has  broader  leaves  than  com- 
imon  bent,  a  much  closer  and  larger  panicle,  and 
green  or  pale  flowers.  It  is  very  common  in 
low,  damp  places,  which  it  overruns  with  its 
compact,  trailing,  rooting  stems,  and  is  a  useful 
grass  in  newly  reclaimed  bogs  or  land  liable  to 
inimdation.  Brown  bent-grass  {A.  canina)  is 
known  in  the  United  States  as  Rhode  Island 
bent-grass,  and  is  highly  prized  as  a  lawn  grass. 
Herd-grass  {A.  cormicopia  or  dispar)  has  large 
panicles  of  green  flowers,  which  form  an  almost 
level  top. 

Bentang,      See  Eriodendron. 

Benteen,  Frederick  William,  American 
soldier:  b.  Petersburg,  Va.,  24  Aug.  1834;  d.  22 
June  1898.  He  was  educated  in  his  native  state; 
and  at  the  outbreak  of  the  Civil  War  went  to 
Missouri  and  organized  a  company  of  Union 
volunteers.  He  became  first  lieutenant  of  the 
loth  Missouri  Cavalry,  i  Sept.  1861  ;  promoted 
captain,  i  Oct.  1861  ;  major,  18  Dec.  1862;  lieu- 
tenant-colonel, 27  Feb.  1864:  and  colonel  of  the 
138th  United  States  Colored  Infantry,  15  July 
1865 ;  mustered  out  of  volunteer  service  6  Jan. 
1866.  On  28  July  1866  he  was  commissioned 
captain  in  the  7th  cavalry;  promoted  major  of 
the  9th  cavalry,  17  Dec.  1882;  and  retired  7 
July  1888.  His  most  brilliant  service  after  the 
•war  was  in  his  campaigns  against  the  Indians. 

Benthal  Fauna,  the  abyssal  or  deep-sea 
fauna ;  the  great  assemblage  of  animals  living 
at  all  depths  below  150  fathoms  in  the  North 
Atlantic,  to  500  fathoms  in  the  tropics.  See  also 
Deep-sea  Life. 

Bentham,  George,  English  botanist; 
nephew  of  Jeremy  Bentham  (q.v.)  :  b.  near 
Plymouth,  22  Sept.  1800;  d.  10  Sept.  1884.  He 
was  privately  educated,  early  attached  himself  to 
botany,  and  having  resided  in  southern  France 
(where  his  father  had  an  estate),  1814-26,  he 
published  in  French  (1826)  a  work  on  *The 
Plants  of  the  Pyrenees  and  Lower  Languedoc.^ 
Having  returned  to  England  he  studied  law, 
and  on  this  subject,  as  well  as  logic,  he  de- 
veloped original  views.  Finally,  however,  he 
devoted  himself  almost  entirely  to  botany;  was 
long  connected  with  the  Horticultural  Society 
and  the  Linnsean  Society ;  and  from  1861  on- 
ward was  in  almost  daily  attendance  at  Kew 
(except  for  a  ffw  weeks  occasionally),  work- 
ing at  descriptive  botany  from  10  to  4  o'clock 
as  a  labor  of  love.    Along  with  Sir  J.  D.  Hock'"'- 


he  produced  the  great  work  of  descriptive  bot- 
any, ^Genera  Plantarum^  ;  another  great  work 
of  his  was  the  ^Flora  Australiensis^  (in  7 
volumes).  His  ^Handbook  of  the  British  Flora^ 
is  well  known. 

Ben'tham,  Jeremy,  English  jurist  and  pub- 
licist:  b.  London,  15  Feb.  1748;  d.  London,  6 
June  1832.  After  an  early  education  at  West- 
minster School  he  went  to  Oxford  in  his  13th 
year,  taking  his  bachelor's  degree  at  15,  and  his 
master's  degree  at  18.  He  studied  English  law, 
but  never  appeared  at  the  bar,  being  enabled  by 
easy  circumstances  to  devote  himself  entirely  to 
literary  compositions.  He  did  not,  however, 
publish  his  chief  works  himself.  They  were 
arranged  and  translated  into  French  by  his 
friend,  Etienne  Dumont,  and  printed  partly  in 
Paris  and  partly  in  London.  Among  them  are : 
'Treatises  on  Civil  and  Penal  Legislation' 
(Paris  1802,  3  vols.),  and  "^ Theory  of  Punish- 
ments and  Rewards'  (London  1801,  2  vols.). 
Bentham  advocated  a  thorough  correction  of 
civil  and  criminal  legislation.  His  *  Fragments 
on  Government,'  in  opposition  to  Blackstone, 
appeared  anonymously  in  1776,  and  with  his 
name,  London  1823.  In  France  his  literary 
labors  found  a  better  reception  than  in  England 
or  Germany.  A  small  pamphlet  on  the  liberty 
of  the  press  (London  1821)  was  addressed  by 
him  to  the  Spanish  Cortes  during  their  discus- 
sion of  this  subject;  and  in  another  ('Three 
Tracts  Relative  to  the  Spanish  and  Portuguese 
Affairs,'  London  1821)  he  refuted  the  idea  of 
the  necessity  of  a  house  of  peers  in  Spain,  as 
well  as  Montesquieu's  proposition  that  judicial 
forms  are  the  defense  of  innocence.  One  of 
his  latest  works  was  the  'Art  of  Packing'  (Lon- 
don 1821),  that  is,  of  arranging  juries  so  as  to 
obtain  any  verdict  desired.  His  previous  work, 
'Essay  on  Parliamentary  Practice.'  edited  from 
the  author's  papers  by  Dumont  (Geneva  1815), 
and  translated  into  German,  contains  many  use- 
ful observations.  His  'Introduction  to  the  Prin- 
ciples of  Morals  and  Legislation'  (London 
1823,  2  vols.)  treats  of  the  principal  objects  of 
government  in  a  profound  and  comprehensive 
manner.  Zanobelli  has  translated  Bentham's 
'Theory  of  Legal  Evidence'  into  Italian 
(Bergamo  1824,  2  vols.).  Among  the  earlier 
works  of  Bentham  was  his  'Defense  of  Usury.' 
showing  the  Impolicy  of  the  Present  Legal  Re- 
straints on  the  Terms  of  Pecuniary  Bargains' 
(1787).  At  his  death  Mr.  Bentham  bequeathed 
his  body  to  be  dissected  for  the  benefit  of  sci- 
ence. A  complete  edition  of  his  works,  with  a 
biography  by  Bowring,  was  published  in  London 
(11  vols.  1843).  He  was  a  man  of  primitive 
manners,  unblemished  character,  and  undoubted 
earnestnees  in  the  cause  of  the  people  at  large. 
He  is  considered  the  father  of  the  Utilitarians, 
or  those  moral  political  economists  who  view 
everything  as  it  is  aiifected  by  the  principle  of 
"the  greatest  happiness  of  the  greatest  number." 

Benthos,  the  constantly  or  periodically 
submerged  vegetation  attached  to  the  bottoms  of 
seas  and,  to  some  extent,  of  lakes,  distinguished 
from  the  floating  vegetation.  (See  Plank- 
ton.) Commencing  at  the  high-tide  line  and 
progressing  toward  the  low-tide  line  the  vegeta- 
tion gradually  becomes  more  abundant  and  lux- 
uriant, but  reaches  its  maximum  below  the  low- 
tide  mark  in  areas  wholly  submerged,  in  which 
;3t    medium    d^ths    individual    development    is 


BENTINCK  —  BENTLEY 


greater  than  at  greater  depths.  The  benthos  of 
the  frigid  zones  are  the  most  remarkable  of  the 
world.  The  leading  plants  of  such  formations 
are  green,  red,  and  brown  algaj,  eel-grass,  and 
rockweed. 

Ben'tinck,  Lord  William  Charles  Caven- 
dish, English  soldier  and  statesman  (second 
son  of  the  third  Duke  of  Portland)  :  b.  14  Sept. 
1774;  d.  Paris,  17  June  1839.  He  entered  the 
army  at  an  early  age,  and  served  in  the  Duke  of 
York's  campaign  in  Flanders,  and  also  in  Italy 
with  the  Russian  army  under  Suwaroff, 
1799-1801.  In  1803  he  proceeded  to  India  as 
governor  of  Madras,  returned  thence  in  1805, 
and  subsequently  went  to  Spain,  where  he  com- 
manded a  brigade  under  Sir  John  Moore  at 
Corunna.  In  1810  he  visited  Sicily  as  British 
plenipotentiary,  and  commander-in-chief  of  the 
English  troops.  The  most  noticeable  feature  of 
this  expedition  is  his  bestowment  on  the  Sicili- 
ans of  a  constitution,  which,  however,  was  over- 
turned on  the  restoration  of  the  Bourbons.  He 
conducted  in  1813  the  expedition  from  Sicily  to 
Catalonia,  and  in  1814  took  possession  of  Genoa 
on  the  revolt  of  the  inhabitants  from  French 
rule.  The  same  year  he  returned  to  England, 
and  subsequently  entered  Parliament  as  member 
for  Nottingham.  In  1827,  under  Mr.  Canning's 
administration,  he  was  sent  to  India  as  governor- 
general,  and  held  that  office  till  1835,  when  he 
returned  to  England.  Among  the  principal 
events  of  his  administration  are  the  abolition  of 
the  practice  of  suttee,  the  repeal  of  the  restric- 
tions which  prohibited  all  Europeans,  except 
servants  of  the  company,  from  settling  in  India, 
and  the  recognition  of  the  liberty  of  the  press. 
In  1836  he  again  entered  Parliament  as  mem- 
ber for  the  city  of  Glasgow,  but  was  now  unable 
from  ill  health  to  take  any  active  share  in  politi- 
cal matters. 

Bentinck,  Lord  William  George  Frederick 
Cavendish,  generally  known  as  Lord  George 
Bentinck,  English  statesman  (son  of  William 
Henry  Cavendish,  fourth  Duke  of  Portland)  ;  b. 
27  Feb.  1802;  d.  21  Sept.  1848.  He  entered 
the  army,  but  quitted  it  early  to  become  private 
secretary  to  Mr.  Canning,  who  had  married  his 
mother's  sister.  In  1827  he  entered  Parliament 
as  member  for  King's  Lynn,  and  continued  to 
represent  that  borough  for  the  rest  of  his  life. 
Up  to  1846  he  was  a  warm  adherent  of  Sir  Rob- 
ert Peel  and  his  measures ;  but  on  the  latter 
announcing  himself  in  that  year  a  convert  to 
free-trade  principles,  Lord  George  abandoned  his 
old  ally  and  came  forward  as  the  zealous  and 
indefatigable  leader  of  the  Protectionists  in  the 
House  of  Commons.  With  the  assistance  of 
Disraeli  he  maintained  this  position  for  two 
years,  and  though  often  illogical,  and  sometimes 
unscrupulous  in  his  statements,  he  nevertheless 
commanded  much  attention  by  the  vigor  and 
earnestness   of  his  oratory  and  deportment. 

Bentivoglio,  Cornelio,  ben-te-vol'yo.  cor- 
nal'yo,  Italian  ecclesiastic  and  poet :  b.  Ferrara, 
1668:  d.  Rome,  1732.  He  early  distinguished 
himself  by  his  progress  in  the  fine  arts,  litera- 
ture, philosophy,  theology,  and  jurisprudence, 
and  was  a  patron  of  the  literary  institutions  at 
Ferrara.  Pope  Clement  XI.  made  him  his 
domestic  prelate  and  secretary  to  the  apostolic 
chamber,  and  sent  him,  in  1712,  as  nuncioto 
Paris,  where,  during  the  last  years  of  the  reign 
of  Louis   XIV.,  he  acted  an  important  part  in 


the  affair  of  the  bull  Unigenitus.  The  Duke  of 
Orleans,  regent  after  the  death  of  Louis,  was 
not  favorably  disposed  toward  him ;  the  Pope 
therefore  transferred  him  to  Ferrara,  and  in 
1719  bestowed  on  him  the  hat  of  a  cardinal, 
and  employed  him  at  first  in  Rome,  near  his  own 
person,  then  as  legate  a  latere  in  Romagna,  etc. 
Poetry  had  occupied  his  leisure  hours.  Sonnets 
composed  by  him  may  be  found  in  Gobbi's  Col- 
lection, Vol.  III.,  and  in  other  collections  of  his 
time.  Under  the  name  of  Selvaggio  Porpora 
he  translated  the  *Thebais  of  Statius^  into 
Italian. 

Bentivoglio,  Guy  or  Guido,  ge'do,  Italian 
historian  and  ecclesiastic:  b.  Ferrara,  1579;  d. 
Rome,  1644.  He  studied  at  Padua  with  great 
reputation,  and  afterward,  fixing  his  residence 
at  Rome,  acquired  general  esteem  by  his  pru- 
dence and  integrity.  He  was  an  able  politician, 
and  his  historical  memoirs  are  valuable,  especi- 
ally his  ^History  of  the  Civil  Wars  in  Flanders,' 
written  in  Italian,  and  first  published  at  Cologne 
(1630),  a  translation  of  which,  by  Henry,  Earl 
of  Monmouth,  appeared  in  1654  (London,  folio). 
His  own  ^Memoirs'  and  a  collection  of  letters  are 
reckoned  among  the  best  specimens  of  epistolary 
writing  in  the  Italian  language  (an  edition  of 
which  was  published  at  Cambridge  in  1727). 

Bentley,  Charles  Eugene,  American  clergy- 
man: b.  Warner's,  N.  Y.,  30  April  1841.  He 
was  educated  at  Monroe  Institute  and  Oneida 
Seminary.  In  1866  he  removed  to  Iowa  and  in 
1878  to  Butier  County,  Neb.,  where  he  resided 
until  1890.  He  was  ordained  a  Baptist  clergy- 
man in  1880  and  was  in  charge  of  a  church  at 
Surprise,  Neb.  In  1884,  he  was  chairman  of  the 
Nebraska  Prohibition  Convention,  and  became 
the  unsuccessful  candidate  for  congress,  gover- 
nor, and  United  States  Senator  during  the  next 
eight  years.  When  the  Prohibition  party  divided 
in  1896,  he  became  presidential  candidate  of  the 
faction  known  as  the  Liberty  Party  (q.v.). 

Bentley,  Gideon,  American  soldier:  b. 
1751 ;  d.  Constantia,  Oswego  County,  N.  Y.,  Jan- 
uary 1858.  He  was  remarkable  for  his  longev- 
ity (107  years),  and  for  the  excellent  though 
humble  services  which  he  rendered  as  a  private 
soldier  in  the  Revolutionary  War, 

Bentley,  John  Francis,  distinguished  Eng- 
lish architect:  b.  Doncaster,  England,  1839; 
d.  Clapham,  London,  2  March  1902.  Upon  the 
rebuilding  of  the  great  parish  church  in  Don- 
caster,  about  1856,  Bentley  was  placed  in  the 
office  of  the  clerk  of  the  works,  his  architectural 
education  practically  beginning  at  this  time.  In 
1862  he  began  practice  as  an  architect  on  his 
ow-n  account,  and  his  patrons  froni  that  date 
onward  were  mainly  Roman  Catholics.  Among 
his  lesser  works  are  the  Roman  Catholic  church 
and  convent  at  Bocking,  Essex;  and  the  new 
Roman  Catholic  cathedral  in  Brooklyn,  N.  Y. ; 
but  the  building  with  which  his  name  will  be  in- 
separably associated  is  the  Roman  Catholic  cathe- 
dral at  Westminster,  a  structure  of  vast  propor- 
tions with  a  nave  wider  than  that  of  any  church 
in  England.  Bentley  left  nothing  in  the  way  of 
design  to  subordinates,  but  designed  and  directed 
everything  from  the  foundation  to  the  minutest 
decorative  feature.  Bentley's  death  took  place 
just  as  the  Royal  Institute  of  British  Architects 
had  voted  to  award  him  the  royal  gold  medal. 


BENTLEY  —  BENTON 


Bentley,  Richard,  English  divine,  classical 
scholar,  and  polemicist:  b.  near  Wakefield, 
Yorkshire,  1662;  d.  Cambridge,  14  July  1742. 
His  father  is  said  to  have  been  a  blacksmith. 
To  his  mother,  a  woman  of  strong  natural  abili- 
ties, he  was  indebted  for  the  rudiments  of  his 
education,  and  in  1776  he  entered  Saint  John's 
College,  Cambridge.  In  1682  he  left  the  uniyer- 
sit}^  and  became  usher  of  a  school  at  Spalding; 
a  year  later  he  took  the  position  of  tutor  to  the 
son  of  Dr.  Stillingfleet,  dean  of  St.  Paul's. 
He  accompanied  his  pupil  to  Oxford,  where  he 
availed  himself  of  the  literary  treasures  of  the 
Bodleian  Library  in  the  prosecution  of  his 
studies.  In  1684  he  took  the  degree  of  A.M.  at 
Cambridge,  and  in  1689  obtained  the  same  honor 
at  the  sister  university.  His  first  published 
work  was  a  Latin  epistle  to  Dr.  John  Mill  on 
an  edition  of  the  *^ Chronicle  of  John  Malela,^ 
which  appeared  in  1691.  It  displayed  'so  much 
profound  learning  and  critical  acumen  as  to  ex- 
cite the  sanguine  anticipations  of  classical 
scholars  from  the  future  labors  of  the  author. 
Dr.  Stillingfleet,  having  been  raised  to  the  bish- 
opric of  Worcester,  made  Bentley  his  chaplain, 
and  in  1692  collated  him  to  a  prebend  in  his 
cathedral.  He  was  chosen  the  first  preacher  of 
the  lecture  instituted  by  the  celebrated  Robert 
Boyle  for  the  defense  of  Christianity.  The  dis- 
courses against  atheism  which  he  delivered  on 
this  occasion  were  published  in  1694;  they  have 
since  been  often  reprinted,  and  translated  into 
several  foreign  languages. 

In  1693  he  was  appointed  keeper  of  the  Royal 
Library  at  Saint  James' —  a  circumstance  which 
incidentally  led  to  his  famous  controversy  with 
the  Hon.  Charles  Boyle,  afterward  Earl  of  Or- 
rery, relative  to  the  genuineness  of  the  *  Greek 
Epistles  of  Phalaris.^  In  this  dispute  Bentley 
was  victorious,  though  opposed  by  the  greatest 
wits  and  critics  of  the  age,  including  Pope, 
Swift,  Garth,  Atterbury,  Aldrich,  Dodwell.  and 
Conyers  Middleton,  who  advocated  the  opinion 
of  Boyle  with  an  extraordinary  degree  of 
warmth  and  illiberality.  In  1699  Bentley,  who 
had  three  years  before  been  created  D.D.,  pub- 
lished his  'Dissertation  on  the  Epistles  of  Pha- 
laris,^  in  which  he  proved  that  they  were  not 
the  compositions  of  the  tyrant  of  Agrigentum, 
who  lived  more  than  five  centuries  before  the 
Christian  era,  but  were  written  by  some  sophist 
under  the  borrowed  name  of  Phalaris,  in  the 
declining  age  of  Greek  literature. 

Soon  after  this  publication  Dr.  Bentley  was 
presented  by  the  Crown  to  the  mastership  of 
Trinity  College,  Cambridge,  worth  nearly  £1,000 
a  year.  He  now  resigned  the  prebend  of  Wor- 
cester, and  in  1701  was  collated  to  the  arch- 
deaconry of  Ely.  His  conduct  as  head  of  the 
college  gave  rise  to  accusations  of  various  of- 
fenses, including  embezzlement  of  college 
money.  The  contest,  lasting  more  than  20 
years,  was  decided  against  him,  a  sentence,  de- 
priving him  of  his  mastership,  being  passed ;  but 
Bentley's  superior  skill  and  mastery  of  legal 
forms  constantly  baffled  all  attempts  to  oust 
him.  In  171 1  he  published  a  quarto  edition  of 
Horace  at  Cambridge,  which  was  reprinted  at 
Amsterdam;  and  in  1713  appeared  his  remarks 
on  < Collins'  Discourse  on  Free-Thinking,^  un- 
der the  form  of  a  'Letter  to  F.  H.  (Francis 
Hare),  D.D.,  by  Phileleutherus  Lipsiensis.^  He 
was  appointed  regius  professor  of  divinity  in 
1716,  and  in  the  same  year  issued  proposals  for 


a  new  edition  of  t'.ie  Greek  Testament,  an  under- 
taking for  which  he  was  admirably  qualified,  but 
which  he  was  prevented  from  executing  in  conse- 
quence of  the  animadversions  of  his  determined 
adversai-y,  Middleton.  In  1726  he  published  an 
edition  of  Terence  and  Phaedrus  ;  and  his  notes  on 
the  comedies  of  the  former  involved  him  in  a  dis- 
pute with  Bishop  Hare  on  the  metres  of  Terence. 
The  last  work  of  Dr.  Bentley  was  an  edition  of 
Milton's  'Paradise  Lost,^  with  conjectural  emen- 
dations, which  appeared  in  1732,  but  this  proved 
a  failure.  He  died  at  the  master's  lodge  at  Trin- 
ity, and  was  interred  in  the  college  chapel.  The 
German  scholar,  J.  A.  Wolf,  wrote  an  excellent 
biography  of  Bentley ;  and  an  English  biography 
of  him  was  written  by  Monk  (London,  2  vols. 
1833).  See  also  Prof.  Jebb's  monograph  in  the 
'English  Men  of  Letters  Series'   (1882). 

Bentley,  "William,  American  clergyman  :b. 
Boston,  1758;  d.  29  Dec.  1819.  He  graduated  at 
Harvard  College  in  1777,  and  was  ordained  pastor 
of  a  church  in  Salem  in  1783.  He  was  distin- 
guished for  his  antiquarian  learning,  and  col- 
lected a  valuable  and  curious  library  and  cabinet, 
which  he  bequeathed  to  the  college  at  Meadville, 
Pa.,  and  to  the  Antiquarian  Society  at  Worcester. 
In  theology  he  was  regarded  as  a  Unitarian,  and 
he  left  several  published  sermons  and  discourses. 

Benton,  Angelo  Ames,  American  clergy- 
man :  b.  Canea,  Crete,  1837.  He  graduated  at 
Trinity  College,  Hartford,  Conn.,  1856,  and  at  the 
General  Theological  Seminary,  New  York  city. 
He  was  ordained  in  the  Episcopal  ministry  in 
i860.  Pie  was  professor  of  Latin  and  Greek  in 
Delaware  College,  Newark,  Del.,  1883-7,  and 
professor  of  dogmatic  theology  in  the  University 
of  the  South,  1887-94.  His  chief  publication  has 
been  'The  Church  Cyclopsedia :  A  Dictionary  of 
Church  Doctrine*    (Phila.  1884). 

Benton,  Dwight,  an  American  artist,  writer 
and  botanist :  b.  Norwich,  N.  Y.,  1834 ;  d.  Rome, 
8  May  1903.  After  close  of  the  Civil  War,  in 
which  he  fought  on  the  Northern  side,  he  estab- 
lished himself  in  Cincinnati  as  a  landscape 
painter.  From  there  he  went  to  Rome  where  he 
lived  25  years  almost  uninterruptedly.  In  1895 
Hawaii,  before  its  annexation,  appointed  him  its 
Consul-General  to  Italy.  His  most  famous  can- 
vases are  'Tombs  of  Keats  and  Shelly,'  'Sun- 
set in  the  Roman  Campagna,'  and  'A  Gloomy 
Day'  (giornata  de  Tristezza),  owned  by  the 
King  of  Italy.  His  work,  'Flora  of  the  Roman 
Campagna  and  Palatine'  is  his  most  important 
contribution  to  literature. 

Benton,  James  Gilchrist,  American  soldier 
and  inventor:  b.  Lebanon,  N.  H..  15  Sept.  1820; 
d.  Springfield,  Mass.,  23  Aug.  1881.  He  grad- 
uated at  West  Point  in  1842,  and  served  in  the 
ordnance  department  throughout  his  life.  He 
was  in  command  of  the  Washington  Arsenal  and 
principal  assistant  to  the  chief  of  ordnance  dur- 
ing the  Civil  War,  at  the  close  of  which  he  was 
transferred  to  the  Springfield  (Mass.)  Arsenal. 
For  signal  bravery  in  rescuing  exposed  ammuni- 
tion from  fire,  he  was  twice  brevetted.  The 
various  models  of  the  Springfield  rifle,  known  as 
the  models  of  1866,  1868,  1873,  and  1879,  were 
made  under  his  direction.  He  devoted  himself 
especially  to  the  improvement  of  firearms,  and 
acquired  distinction  for  his  valuable  inventions 
in  this  and  other  lines  of  his  work.  He  refused 
to  patent  any  of  them,  as  he  held  that  since  the 


THOMAS    HART    UEXTuX. 


BENTON  — BENTON  HARBOR 


government  had  educated  him  it  had  every 
right  to  benefit  from  his  time  and  talents.  He 
published  ^Course  of  Instruction  in  Ordnance 
and  Gunnery  for  the  United  States  Military 
Academy^    (1861;  4th  ed.  1875). 

Benton,  Thomas  Hart,  American  states- 
man: b.  Orange  County,  N.  C,  14  March  1782; 
d.  10  April  1858.  He  was  the  greatest  of  that 
most  valuable  and  scarcely  appreciated  class,  the 
Border  State  leaders,  whose  sympathies  were 
with  the  South,  and  who  had  no  feeling  against 
slavery,  yet  at  the  cost  of  their  influence  and 
much  personal  peril  opposed  the  political  aggres- 
sions of  slavery  and  the  doctrines  of  disunion. 
Early  orphaned,  the  eldest  of  a  large  family, 
after  part  of  a  course  in  the  University  of  Penn- 
sylvania he  went  with  his  mother  to  Tennessee 
as  a  pioneer,  settling  at  the  present  Benton- 
town.  A  few  years  later  he  took  up  the  study 
of  law,  and  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  181 1 
under  the  patronage  of  his  friend  Andrew 
Jackson,  then  a  judge  of  the  Supreme  Court. 
Elected  to  the  legislature,  he  pushed  through  a 
judiciary  reform  bill,  and  one  to  give  slaves  the 
right  of  jury  trial.  In  the  War  of  1812  he  was 
aide-de-camp  to  Jackson,  raised  a  volunteer  regi- 
ment, was  made  lieutenant-colonel  in  the  regu- 
lar army,  but  saw  no  active  service ;  meanwhile, 
4  Sept.  1813,  a  misunderstanding  over  a  duel  of 
his  brother's  led  to  an  affray  in  which  the 
brother  was  stabbed,  Jackson  shot,  and  Thomas 
H.  thrown  downstairs,  and  the  former  friends 
were  at  bitter  feud  for  many  years.  In  1815  he 
removed  to  St.  Louis,  practised  law,  and  estab- 
lished a  newspaper,  which  involved  him  in  duels 
(one  of  which  cost  his  opponent's  life,  to  Ben- 
ton's lasting  regret);  but  which  he  used  so  vig- 
orously to  advocate  Missouri's  admission  to  the 
Union  as  a  slave  State  that  she  elected  him  one 
of  her  senators  on  her  entrance  in  1820,  and  re- 
elected him  every  term  for  30  years.  During 
this  time  he  stood  as  one  of  the  foremost  public 
men  of  his  generation  —  a  speaker  of  great  abil- 
ity and  mastery  of  facts,  a  hard-headed  logician 
and  tremendous  debater,  of  astonishing  memory, 
unwearying  industr3^  an  iron  will  and  physique, 
and  a  power  of  wit,  sarcasm,  and  denunciation 
that  made  most  men  shrink  from  a  contest  with 
him.  Being  the  spokesman  of  the  Western 
Democrats,  his  policy  and  political  feelings  were 
coincident  with  Jackson's,  their  personal  quarrel 
was  at  last  arranged,  and  Benton  became  Jack- 
son's first  lieutenant  and  admiring  champion. 
In  every  regard  he  supported  Western  interests: 
he  secured  the  passage  of  laws  for  pre-emption, 
donation,  and  graded  prices  of  lands,  for  throw- 
ing open  the  government  mineral  and  saline 
lands  to  occupancy,  and  for  repeal  of  the  salt 
tax ;  advocated  transcontinental  exploration  and 
post-roads,  a  Pacific  railroad,  occupation  of  the 
mouth  of  the  Columbia,  trade  with  New  Mex- 
ico, military  stations  through  the  Southwest, 
amicable  relations  with  Indian  tribes,  and  every- 
thing conducive  to  opening  up  the  West  and 
making  it  prosperous.  This  made  him  invin- 
cible there  till  the  slavery  question  drove  him 
into  opposition.  He  supported  Jackson  in  his 
refusal  to  re-charter  the  United  States  Bank; 
and  made  a  series  of  speeches  urging  the  adop- 
tion of  a  metallic  currency  only,  \yhich  were 
widely  circulated,  gained  him  the  nickname  of 
«01d  Bullion,*  and  had  much  to  do  with  the 
creation  of  the  sub-treasury  scheme.  When 
Jackson  removed  the  secretary  of  the  treasury, 


Duane,  for  refusing  to  check  out  the  deposits 
in  the  bank,  the  Senate  adopted  a  resolution 
censuring  him  for  it ;  Benton  set  about  having 
the  resolution  expunged  from  the  records,  and 
after  a  protracted  struggle  succeeded,  despite 
the  logical  absurdity  of  his  motion,  in  accom- 
plishing his  purpose  by  a  .series  of  fervid  pane- 
gyrics on  Jackson.  In  the  Nullification  contest, 
Benton  was  Calhoun's  chief  opponent,  not  only 
as  Jackson's  supporter,  but  by  conviction ;  and 
the  two  men  of  might  —  the  chiefs  of  the  State- 
Rights  and  Nationalist  wings  of  the  Democ- 
racy—  remained  deadly  foes  until  Calhoun's 
death.  In  the  Oregon  boundary  dispute  Benton 
opposed  the  "fifty- four  forty  or  fight"  war-cry; 
it  was  dropped,  but  the  Polk  administration  was 
glad  of  an  excuse  to  drop  it  in  order  to  push 
the  Mexican  war,  and  had  no  notion  of  dimin- 
ishing the  area  of  slavery  to  enlarge  that  of 
freedom.  He  favored  the  vigorous  prosecution 
of  the  war,  and  came  near  being  made  com- 
mander-in-chief, from  his  close  acquaintance 
with  the  territory.  But  from  this  time  on,  the 
slavery  problem  swallowed  up  every  other. 
Benton  fought  Calhoun's  State-Rights  resolu- 
tions in  retort  to  the  Wihnot  Proviso  fq.v.),  and 
they  never  came  to  a  vote ;  but  Calhoun  sent 
them  to  various  State  legislatures  to  adopt  and 
utilize  for  instructing  their  senators,  and  they 
were  pushed  through  the  Missouri  legislature 
without  Benton's  knowledge.  He  denounced 
them  as  misrepresenting  the  people,  canvassed 
his  State  for  re-election  in  a  long-famous  series 
of  powerful  and  caustic  speeches,  and  carried 
his  party,  but  was  defeated  by  a  fusion  of  Whigs 
and  anti-Benton  Democrats,  and  his  senatorial 
service  ended  with  1850.  He  opposed  the  Clay 
compromise  resolutions  of  that  year,  however 
(see  Compromise  of  1850),  with  sarcasm  still 
quoted.  In  1852  he  canvassed  Missouri  for  elec- 
tion to  the  lower  House,  and  was  triumphantly 
returned.  He  supported  Pierce  for  election,  and 
in  Congress  till  the  Kansas-Nebraska  bill  came 
up.  Against  that  he  made  one  of  his  greatest 
speeches,  and  the  administration  thereupon 
ousted  all  his  Missouri  supporters,  and  he  was 
defeated  for  re-election  by  the  now  dominant 
ultra-Southern  sentiment  in  the  Democratic 
party.  The  time  of  mediators  and  middle 
courses  had  gone  by.  He  now  set  about  writing 
his  remarkable  'Thirty  Years'  View^  (1854-6), 
a  most  valuable  account  of  his  senatorial  ex- 
periences and  the  secret  political  history  of  the 
years  1820-50.  In  1856  he  ran  for  governor, 
but  a  third  ticket  in  the  field  defeated  him. 
In  the  campaign  of  1856  he  supported  Buchanan 
against  his  own  son-in-law,  Fremont,  as  repre- 
senting the  party  of  union ;  but  materially 
changed  his  mind  before  his  death.  In  these 
last  two  years,  though  in  extreme  old  age,  he 
carried  through  the  immense  and  useful  labor  of 
compiling  an  abridgment  of  the  debates  in  Con- 
gress, from  the  foundation  of  the  government 
to  1850,  published  later  in  15  volumes.  He  also 
published  an  *  Examination  of  the  Dred  Scot 
Case^   (1857)- 

Benton  Harbor,  Mich.,  a  city  in  Berrien 
County,  situated  on  the  St.  Joseph's  River,  one 
and  a  half  miles  from  Lake  Michigan;  on  the 
Cleveland,  C.  &  C,  and  Pere  Marquette  R.R.'s. 
It  is  also  connected  with  the  lake  by  a  ship  canal 
and  thus  by  steamboat  lines  with  Chicago  and 
Milwaukee.  It  has  a  large  trade  in  lumber, 
grain,  and  fruits,  especially  the  latter,  and  has 


BENTONVILLE  —  BENZENE 


also  considerable  manufacturing  interests,  in- 
cluding manufactories  of  fruit  packages,  furni- 
ture, machinery,  flour,  vinegar,  and  canned  fruit. 
Pop.  (1900)  6,562. 

Bentonville,  Ark.,  a  town  and  county-seat 
of  Benton  County,  situated  northwest  of  Little 
Rock;  on  the  Arkansas  &  O.  R.R.  It  is  the 
seat  of  Bentonville  College,  and  a  Baptist  acad- 
•emy;  is  the  centre  of  a  fruit-growing  region, 
has  some  trade  in  fruit,  tobacco,  and  grain.  It 
has  a  large  fruit-evaporating  plant.  Pop  (1900) 
1.843. 

Bentonsville,  N.  C,  a  village  in  Johnston 
County,  noted  as  the  place  of  a  stubborn  battle 
during  the  Civil  War.  Here,  during  his  march 
from  Savannah  through  the  Carolinas,  Sherman, 
at  the  head  of  65,000  National  troops,  encoun- 
tered 24,000  Confederates  under  Johnston.  A 
battle  took  place  18  March  1865,  Johnston  hav- 
ing come  up  in  great  haste  from  Smithfield,  in- 
tending to  surprise  Sherman.  The  latter,  how- 
ever, was  ready  for  him,  and  Johnston  was 
thrown  on  the  defensive  near  Mill  Creek. 
Johnston  was  partially  defeated  and  retreated 
to  Smithfield. 

Bentzel-Sternau,  bent'zel-star'now,  Count 
Karl  Christian  Ernst  von,  German  novelist: 
b.  Mentz,  9  April  1767;  d.  Mariahalden,  Switz- 
erland, 13  Aug.  1843.  He  is  esteemed  as  a  hu- 
morist after  the  manner  of  Jean  Paul ;  and  his 
satirical  romances,  ^The  Golden  Calf^  (1802-3)  ; 
<The  Stone  Guest^  (1808);  <01d  Adam>  (1819- 
20)  ;  "^The  Master  of  the  Chair,'  together  form 
a  series. 

Bentzon,  Th.,  the  pseudonym  of  Marie 
Theresa  Blanc  (q.v.). 

Benue,  ben'we,  or  Binue,  a  river  of  west 
Africa,  the  chief  tributary  of  the  Niger.  It 
rises  in  the  Bub'n  Jidda  hills  on  the  east  of 
Adamawa,  flows  for  a  short  distance  northwest 
then  west  to  Bassama,  after  which  its  course 
is  generally  southwest  to  its  junction  with  the 
Niger  at  Lokoja.  Its  length  is  about  850  miles. 
The  source  of  the  Benue  was  long  vuiknown. 
Dr.  Barth,  who  came  upon  the  river  in  1851, 
while  traveling  in  Adamawa,  near  the  confluence 
of  the  Faro,  which  joins  it  on  its  left  bank  about 
lat.  12°  30'  E.,  was  told  that  it  came  from  the 
southeast,  a  distance  of  nine  days'  journey.  In 
consequence  of  this  discovery  an  expedition  was 
fitted  out  by  the  British  government  for  the  pur- 
pose of  exploring  the  Niger  from  its  mouth  up- 
ward. The  exploration  was  made  in  a  small 
steamer  called  the  Pleiad,  and  was  under  the 
command  of  Dr.  William  Balfour  Baikie.  After 
reaching  the  point  of  confluence  of  the  Benue 
with  the  Niger,  about  lat.  7°  40'  N.,  Dr.  Baikie 
followed  the  former  eastward  for  a  direct  dis- 
tance of  about  370  miles.  The  point  thus 
reached  was  about  lat.  9°  25'  N. ;  Ion.  11°  30' 
E.  There  was  sufficient  depth  of  water,  though' 
the  river  was  only  rising,  to  allow  a  still  fur- 
ther exploration.  The  natives,  however,  had  be- 
gun to  display  their  hostility  in  such  a  manner 
as  made  it  necessary  to  return.  The  result  was 
to  show  that  a  large,  fertile,  and  populous  tract 
of  a  region  of  Africa  previously  in  a  great  mea- 
sure unknown  was  accessible  by  means  of  a  nav- 
igable river.  A  second  expedition,  also  under 
Dr.  Baikie,  explored  the  same  river  in  1857.  In 
1879  a  small  steamer  belonging  to  the  Church 
Missionary  Society  went  up  the  river  140  miles, 
and  its  source  was  discovered  by  Flegel  in  1883. 


Benvolio,  ben-v6'li-o,  in  Shakespeare's 
< Romeo  and  Juliet,'  a  friend  of  Romeo  and 
nephevv  of  Montague. 

Benwood,    W.    Va.,    a    town    in    Marshall 
County ;  on  the  Baltimore  &  O.  R.R.     It  is  the 
centre  of  a  large  iron-mining  region  and  has  sev 
eral    rolling    mills    and    blast    furnaces.      Pop. 
(1900)  4,511. 

Benzal'dehyde,   or    Benzoic    Al'dehyde,   a 

colorless,  volatile  oil,  familiarly  known  as  "oil 
of  bitter  almonds.*'  Benzaldehyde  does  not  oc- 
cur in  the  bitter  almond  in  nature,  but  is  formed, 
when  the  kernels  are  crushed  and  allowed  to 
stand  in  water,  by  the  decomposition  of  a  glu- 
coside  known  as  "amygdalin."  It  has  the  chem- 
ical formula  CsHs-CO.H,  boils  at  354°  F.,  and 
has  a  specific  gravity  of  about  1.05,  and  a  re- 
fractive index  of  1.56.  Benzaldehyde  is  pre- 
pared, artificially,  by  boiling  benzyl  chlorid  with 
nitrate  of  lead,  copper,  or  sodium,  and  subse- 
quent treatment  with  sodium  acid  sulphite,  with 
which  the  benzaldehyde  forms  a  crystalline  com- 
pound that  may  be  easily  separated  from  the 
mother  liquor  by  filtration  or  otherwise. 

Ben'zene,  an  aromatic  hydrocarbon  dis- 
covered by  Faraday  in  1825,  and  called,  by  him, 
"bicarburet  of  hydrogen."  It  has  the  chemical 
formula  CeHe,  and  is  the  fundamental  substance 
from  which  the  extensive  series  of  "aromatic 
compounds"  is  obtained.  In  1849,  C.  B.  Mans- 
field proved  its  existence  in  coal  tar,  and  that 
substance  now  constitutes  its  most  important 
commercial  source.  In  the  manufacture  of  ben- 
zene, coal  tar  is  distilled  at  a  temperature  not 
exceeding  300°  F.,  and  the  distillate  is  treated 
with  caustic  soda  to  remove  phenols,  and  sub- 
sequently with  sulphuric  acid  to  remove  basic 
substances.  It  is  tlien  re-distilled,  the  tempera- 
ture (at  least  in  the  upper  part  of  the  still) 
being  kept  as  low  as  212°  F.,  in  order  to  prevent 
toluene  from  passing  over.  In  order  to  effect 
a  still  further  purification,  the  benzene  so  ob- 
tained may  be  cooled  by  a  freezing  mixture  of 
ice  and  salt.  The  true  benzene  solidifies  when 
thus  treated,  and  the  fluid  impurities  that  it 
contains  may  be  expelled  by  pressure,  or  by  the 
aid  of  a  centrifugal  drier.  Pure  benzene  is  a 
colorless  liquid,  strongly  refractive,  boiling  at 
about  176°  F.,  and  freezing  at  43°  F.  It  does 
not  mix  with  water,  but  mixes  readily  with  al- 
cohol, acetone,  glacial  acetic  acid,  chloroform, 
and  ether.  It  crystallizes  in  the  trimetric  sys- 
tem when  solidified  by  cold,  and  dissolves  iodine, 
phosphorus,  sulphur,  oils,  resins,  fats,  and  alko- 
loids.  It  expands  by  about  0.00075  of  its  own 
bulk,  per  degree  increase  in  its  temperature,  on 
the  Fahrenheit  scale.  Its  specific  gravity  is 
about  0.88,  and  its  specific  heat  is  0.40.  For  the 
chemical  constitution  of  benzene,  see  Aromatic 
Compounds. 

Benzene  forms  two  general  classes  of  com- 
pounds, known  respectively  as  "addition"  and 
"substitution"  products.  In  forming  an  "addi- 
tion" compound,  benzene  merely  takes  up  atoms 
or  molecules  of  some  other  substance,  without 
parting  with  any  of  its  own  atoms ;  the  new  sub- 
stance being  simply  "added"  to  the  benzene. 
Benzene  hexabromid,  CeHeBre,  is  a  good  ex- 
ample of  a  benzene  addition  compound.  It  is 
formed  by  dropping  bromine  into  boiling  ben- 
zene, in  direct  sunlight ;  the  hexabromid  crystal- 
lizing out  upon  cooling.  The  "substitution" 
compounds  of  benzene  are  far  more  numerous 


BENZIDINE 


and  important  than  the  ''addition'^  compounds, 
however.  They  are  formed  by  replacing  one  or 
more  of  the  typical  hydrogen  atoms  in  the  ben- 
zene by  an  equal  number  of  other  atoms  or 
monad  radicals.  The  general  theory  of  ben- 
zene substitutions  is  given  under  Aromatic 
Compounds  ;  but  a  few  of  the  more  important 
examples  of  such  substitution  products  may  be 
given  here.  The  radical  GHd  (which  is  not 
capable  of  independent  existence)  is  called 
^phenyl,*  and  is  often  represented  by  the  symbol 
Ph.  The  mono-substitution  compounds  of  ben- 
zene, in  which  one  atom  of  the  hydrogen  in  the 
original  benzene  has  been  replaced  by  a  radical 
(or  by  an  atom  different  from  hydrogen),  may 
then  be  regarded  as  addition  compounds  of  the 
radical  phenyl.  Thus  "monochlorbenzene,^' 
CcHs.Cl,  may  also  be  regarded  as  chlorid  of 
phenyl,  and  its  formula  may  be  written  PhCl. 
Benzene  itself  may  even  be  regarded  as  hydrid 
of  phenyl,  its  formula  being  written  C0H5.H,  or 
PhH.  Carbolic  acid  (or  "phenoP^)  is  hydrate 
of  phenyl,  its  formula  being  PhOH,  the  radical 
OH  being  here  substituted  for  one  atom  of  the 
hydrogen  in  the  original  benzene.  Nitrobenzene, 
PhNO;,  is  formed  from  benzene  (PhH)  by  the 
action  of  nitric  acid,  in  accordance  with  the 
equation 

PhH  +  HNO3  =  PhN02  +  U,0. 
It  is  used  in  the  arts  for  the  manufacture  of 
aniline  (q.v.).  Aniline  itself  is  an  amide  of 
phenyl,  obtained  by  replacing  an  atom  of  H  in 
ammonia  (NH3)  by  phenyl,  or  by  replacing  an 
atom  of  hydrogen  in  benzene  by  the  radical 
NH2.  The  formula  of  aniline  may  be  written 
PhNHs,  and  aniline  may  be  called  ^'amido- 
benzene,^^  or  ^'phenylamine.*  (See  Amine  and 
Amide.)  Methyl-benzene,  C0H5.CH3,  in  which 
one  of  the  original  hydrogen  atoms  of  the  ben- 
zene is  replaced  by  the  radical  CH3  (^'methyl") 
is  also  an  important  benzene  substitution  com- 
pound, and  is  known  to  chemists  as  toluene 
(q.v.).  That  portion  of  the  original  benzene 
which  remains  intact,  after  a  substitution,  is 
called  the  ^'benzene  residue.'^  In  a  mono-substi- 
tution compound  of  benzene,  further  substitu- 
tions may  be  made,  by  replacing  one  or  more 
of  the  hydrogen  atoms  in  the  "benzene  residue*^ 
by  monovalent  radicals,  and  secondary,  tertiary, 
and  higher  substitution  compounds  may  be  thus 
formed.  The  classification  of  the  secondary  sub- 
stitution compounds  is  given  under  Aromatic 
Compounds.  For  the  classification  of  higher 
compounds,  special  treatises  on  organic  chem- 
istry must  be  consulted.  It  may  be  mentioned, 
however,  that  if  A,  B,  C  and  D  are  monad  radi- 
cals, there  are  no  less  than  30  distinct  sub- 
stances possible,  which  shall  all  have  the  same 
general  formula  CeHo.ABCD.  This  fact  illus- 
trates the  exceeding  complexity  of  the  general 
theory  of  benzene  substitution  compounds.  The 
full  theory  is  even  more  complex  than  this  ex- 
ample indicates,  however,  for  it  often  happens 
that  the  hydrogen  in  a  substituted  radical  can 
be  replaced  by  another  radical,  as  well  as  the 
hydrogen  of  the  "benzene  residue."  Thus  in 
methylbenzene  (or  toluene),  CflH.-^.CH3,  the  radi- 
cal OH  may  be  substituted  for  one  of  the  hydro- 
gen atoms.  If  the  hydrogen  so  displaced  occurs 
in  the  "benzene  residue,"  the  resulting  com- 
pound will  be  "cresol,»  C6H4(OH)  .CH,,  a  sub- 
stance which  (since  it  is  a  di-substitution  com- 
pound) can  exist  in  three  isomeric  forms.  If, 
on  the  other  hand,  the  OH  takes  the  place  of 


one  of  the  hydrogen  atoms  of  the  "methyl"  radi- 
cal, the  resulting  compound  will  be  "benzyl  al- 
cohol," C6H5.CH.(OH). 

When  a  primary  amine  of  the  fatty  series  is 
acted  upon  by  nitrous  acid  (HNO2),  the  NH2 
group  of  the  amine  is  replaced  by  (DH,  with  the 
formation  of  an  alcohol ;  but  when  nitrous  acid 
acts  upon  aromatic  amines,  the  products  are 
quite  different,  and  are  known  as  "diazc- 
compounds."  Thus  when  nitrous  acid  acts  upon 
aniline  nitrate,  a  compound  having  the  formula 
CsHo.No.NOs,  and  known  as  "diazobenzene 
nitrate,"  is  formed.  This  is  regarded  by  chem- 
ists as  a  compound  of  the  hypothetical  monov- 
alent radical  C0H5-N  =  N-.  When  the  free  af- 
finity of  this  radical  is  saturated  by  the  addition 
of  phenyl  (CeHs),  the  resulting  compound, 
CsHs.Ns.CoHs,  is  known  as  "azobenzene,"  or  as 
"benzene-azo-benzene."  Azobenzene  maj--  be 
prepared  by  heating  nitrobenzene  with  a  solution 
of  SnCU  in  aqueous  caustic  soda.  It  is  de- 
posited from  a  solution  in  benzene  in  the  form 
of  bright  red  trimetric  plates,  and  owes  its  im- 
portance largely  to  the  fact  that  aniline  yellow, 
CoH5.N2.CbH4(NH2),  is  one  of  its    derivatives. 

Benzene  is  an  exceedingly  inflammable  sub- 
stance, burning  with  a  luminous  flame  and  the 
generation  of  a  great  amount  of  heat.  It  is 
volatile,  and  its  vapor  forms  a  dangerou.'^ly  ex- 
plosive mixture  with  air,  when  present  in  any 
considerable  quantity.  Mansfield,  mentioned 
above  as  having  first  demonstrated  its  existence 
in  coal  tar,  lost  his  life,  on  25  Feb.  1855,  while 
experimenting  with  a  considerable  quantity  of 
benzene,  through  the  mass  accidentally  taking 
fire.  Benzene  may  be  formed  synthetically  by 
heating  acetylene  gas  (C2H2)  to  dull  redness  in 
a  glass  tube.  Polymerization  occurs,  and,  among 
numerous  other  substances,  benzene  is  formed  in 
accordance  with  the  equation  sCi^i^^CeHn. 
In  works  on  chemistry,  benzene  is  often  called 
"benzol."     (Compare    Benzine.) 

This  product  is  so  widely  employed  in  the 
industry  of  the  aniline  dyes  that  chronic  poison- 
ing is  by  no  means  uncommon.  It  is  usually 
breathed  as  vapor  in  the  vat  rooms,  and  causes, 
after  some  exposure,  dizziness  in  the  head,  ring- 
ing in  the  ears,  nausea  and  vomiting,  coughing, 
and  sleepiness,  which  latter  may  deepen  to  uncon- 
sciousness, somewhat  resembling  the  narcosis 
caused  by  breathing  chloroform.  In  some  in- 
stances there  are  blood  changes,  with  cyanosis 
and  death.  Treatment  by  fresh  air,  oxygen,  free 
diuresis,  catharsis  and  diaphoresis,  and  if  the 
blood  changes  are  marked,  infusion  of  physiolog- 
ical salt  solution  may  be  necessary. 

Ben'zidine,  an  important  substance  be- 
longing to  the  benzene  (or  aromatic)  series,  and 
used  in  the  arts  for  the  manufacture  of  Congo 
red,  chrysamin,  and  other  so-called  "coal-tar 
colors."  The  coloring  matters  derived  from 
benzidine  have  the  unusual  and  valuable  property 
of  dyeing  cotton  without  the  use  of  a  mordant 
to  fix  them  upon  the  fibre.  Benzidine  has  the 
formula  H2N.C0H4.C0H4.NH2,  and  is  prepared, 
commercially,  by  heating  nitrobenzene  (see 
Benzene)  with  caustic  soda  and  zinc  dust,  and 
subsequent  treatment  with  hot  dilute  hydro- 
chloric acid.  Pure  benzidine  crystallizes  in  sil- 
very scales  which  melt  at  252°  F.,  and  boil  at  a 
temperature  probably  above  700°  F.  It  is  easily 
soluble  in  alcohol  and  ether;  it  also  dissolves 
readily  in  hot  water,  but  is  almost  insoluble  in 
cold  water. 


BENZINE  —  BENZYL 


Ben'zine,  the  commercial  name  for  a  mix- 
ture of  the  lighter  and  more  volatile  hydrocar- 
bons that  pass  off  in  the  earlier  stages  of  the 
distillation  of  crude  petroleum.  It  is  essentially 
different  from  benzene  (q.v.),  the  latter  being 
a  definite  chemical  substance,  belonging  in  the 
group  of  Aromatic  Compounds  (q.v.)  ;  while 
"benzine*  is  a  more  or  less  indefinite  mixture  of 
hydrocarbons  that  chiefly  belong  to  the  paraffin 
series.  Benzine  differs  but  little  from  naphtha 
and  gasolene,  such  slight  differences  as  exist 
being  due  to  variations  in  the  proportions  in 
which  the  constituent  hydrocarbons  are  present. 
Benzine  is  a  colorless,  mobile  liquid,  very  vola- 
tile and  inflammable.  It  is  valuable  as  a  sol- 
vent for  fats,  oils,  and  resins,  and  is  much  used 
about  the  household  as  a  cleansing  agent.  Its 
vapor,  when  mixed  with  air,  is  highly  explosive, 
and  serious  accidents  are  common,  as  the  re- 
sult of  using  it  in  the  vicinity  of  lighted  lamps 
or  tobacco  pipes,  or  near  stoves  in  which  fires 
are  burning.  In  printing  ofifices  it  is  used  for 
cleaning  type,  and  for  removing  ink  from  press 
rolls.  It  is  also  used  in  large  quantities  for  en- 
riching illuminating  gas.  Benzine  is  much 
lighter  than  water,  and  will  not  mix  with  it. 
It  boils  at  from  i6o°  to  190°  F. 

Poisoning  by  benzine  is  rare.  The  vapor  has 
been  used,  combined  with  chloroform  and  ether, 
for  purposes  of  narcosis,  but  it  is  questionable 
if  it  will  ever  be  very  popular.  Instances  of 
sudden  death  following  the  prolonged  breathing 
of  benzine  vapor  have  been  reported. 

Benzo'ic  Acid,  an  organic  acid,  belonging 
in  the  aromatic  series,  and  having  the  formula 
CeHs.COOH.  It  occurs  in  benzoin  gum,  and 
in  certain  other  resins  and  balsams.  It  may  be 
obtained  also  from  the  hippuric  acid  that  occurs 
in  the  urine  of  the  horse  and  other  herbivorous 
animals,  by  boiling  that  acid  with  concentrated 
hydrochloric  acid.  Benzoic  acid  is  used  as  a 
mordant  in  calico  printing,  and  in  the  manu- 
facture of  aniline  blue.  It  is  also  used  in  medi- 
cine, and  as  a  preservative  agent  for  anatomical 
specimens.  The  benzoic  acid  that  is  used  for 
medical  purposes  is  obtained  by  the  direct  dis- 
tillation of  benzoin  gum  over  a  sand  bath,  at  a 
temperature  of  about  340°  F.  When  so  pre- 
pared, the  acid  has  a  pleasant,  vanilla-like  odor, 
which  is  imparted  to  it  by  a  trace  of  an  aromatic 
oil  that  comes  over  with  it  from  the  gum.  For 
most  of  the  purposes  for  which  it  is  used  in  the 
arts,  benzoic  acid  is  formed  by  oxidizing  benzyl 
chlorid  with  dilute  nitric  acid. 

Benzoic  acid  dissolves  in  hot  water,  but  crys- 
tallizes out,_  upon  cooling,  in  needles  or  pearly 
prisms.  It  is  soluble  in  ether,  alcohol,  and  ben- 
zene. It  melts  at  250°  R,  boils  at  480°  F.,  and 
may  be  sublimed  at  intermediate  temperatures. 
Its  salts  are  called  '^benzoates.'' 

In  medicine  benzoic  acid  and  its  salts,  the 
benzoates  (sodium,  ammonium,  lithi-um),  are 
widely  employed  for  diseases  of  the  bladder  and 
of  the  mucous  membranes  of  the  lungs.  They 
are  also  used  as  intestinal  germicides.  Benzoic 
acid  has  marked  bactericidal  properties,  and  may 
be  used  for  sterilizing  purposes.  Taken  into  the 
intestines  it  prevents  excessive  bacterial  decom- 
position;' absorbed  into  the  blood  it  is  partly 
broken  up,  and  in  the  kidneys  is  eliminated  in 
part  as  hippuric  acid,  rendering  the  urine  acid. 
It  is  therefore  useful  in  alkaline  fermentations 
of  the  urine,  particularly  in  cystitis,  pyelitis,  etc. 
Benzoic  acid  is  partly  eliminated  by  the  lungs, 


here  acting  to  increase  the  amount  of  mucus, 
it  is  therefore  used  to  loosen  the  mucus  in 
tight  coughs.  As  a  parasiticide,  benzoic  acid  is 
very  valuable  in  scabies.  Benzoates  are  prac- 
tically useless  in  gout. 

Benzo'ic  Al'dehyde,     See  Benzaldehyde. 

Ben'zoin,  -zo-in,  an  aromatic  compound, 
soluble  in  hot  alcohol,  and  crystallizing  in  color- 
less, six-sided  prisms  having  the  formula 
C0H5 .  CH  ( OH  )  .  CO .  CeHs.  Benzoin  is  best  pre- 
pared by  acting  upon  pure  benzaldehyde  with  a 
hot  alcoholic  solution  of  cyanide  of  potassium. 
Upon  cooling,  the  benzoin  separates  and  may  be 
removed  by  filtration.  The  action  of  the  cyanide 
is  not  known,  because  the  chemical  change  in- 
volved in  the  foregoing  process  of  manufacture 
appears  to  consist  merely  in  the  uniting  of  two 
molecules  of  benzaldehyde  to  form  a  single 
molecule  of  benzoin. 

Ben'zoin  Gum,  -zo-in,  or  Gum  Benjamin, 

a  reddish  brown  resin  that  exudes  from  the  tree 
Styrax  benzoin,  which  grows  in  Sumatra,  Java, 
and  other  parts  of  the  East.  It  is  a  mix- 
ture of  various  resinous  substances,  together 
with  free  benzoic  acid.  Cinnamic  acid  is 
also  present  in  the  free  state  in  many 
cases,  but  it  is  absent  from  the  Siamese 
gum.  Benzoin  gum  has  a  pleasant  odor  when 
burned,  and  for  this  reason  has  been  much  used 
for  incense,  and  in  making  pastilles.  It  has 
antiseptic  properties,  and  preparations  of  it  are 
used  as  a  dressing  for  wounds,  and  in  the  manu- 
facture of  court-plaster.  Benzoin  is  also  ad- 
ministered internally,  especially  in  asthma  and 
other  pulmonary  aft'ections,  and  chronic  catarrh. 
It  is  readily  soluble  in  alcohol,  and  when  the 
tincture  so  formed  is  dropped  into  water,  it 
forms  a  white,  milky  fluid,  which  is  used  in 
France  as  a  cosmetic,  under  the  name  ^^lait  vir- 
ginal?^ The  gum  is  obtained  from  the  styrax- 
tree  by  making  incisions  in  the  bark,  through 
which  the  resin  oozes.  It  is  allowed  to  harden 
by  exposure  to  the  air  before  removal.  The 
best  gum  is  obtained  during  the  first  three  years 
of  the  tree's  life,  though  a  good  quality  may  be 
had  for  seven  or  eight  years  subsequently.  The 
Siamese  gum  is  esteemed  more  highly  than  that 
from  Sumatra. 

Benzol.     See  Benzene. 

Benzoni,  Girolamo,  ben-zo'ne,  je-ro-la'm5, 
Italian  traveler:  b.  Milan,  1519;  d.  after  1566. 
He  went  to  Spanish-America  in  1542,  visited  the 
principal  places  then  known,  and  frequently 
joined  the  Spaniards  in  raids  on  Indian  settle- 
ments; and  after  returning  to  Italy  (1556)  pub- 
lished a  narrative  of  his  adventures,  *  History  of 
the  New  World^    (Venice   1565). 

Ben'zoyl,  -zo-il,  in  chemistry,  the  monova- 
lent radical  C0H5.CO.  Benzoyl  cannot  exist  in 
the  free  state,  but  it  occurs  in  the  combined 
state  in  many  organic  substances.  Benzalde- 
hyde (or  oil  of  bitter  almonds),  CsHs-COH, 
may  be  regarded  as  its  hydrid,  and  benzoic  acid, 
CeHs.COOH,   as   its   hydrate. 

Ben'zyl,  the  monovalent  organic  radical 
CcHj.CHi,  which  does  not  exist  in  the  free 
state,  but  which  has  numerous  important  com- 
pounds. Toluene  (q.v.)  is  its  hydrid.  Ben- 
zylamine,  CeH5.CH2NH2,  is  derived  by  substi- 
tuting benzyl  for  one  of  the  hydrogen  atoms 
in  ammonia,  by  heating  benzyl  chlorid  with 
alcoholic    ammonia.     Benzyl    chlorid,    which    is 


BEOTHUK  —  BERANGER 


used  as  a  source  of  ^^oil  of  bitter  almonds^^ 
(**benzaldehyde'0  and  of  benzoic  acid,  has  the 
formula  CeHo.CHsCl,  and  is  obtained  by  pass- 
ing chlorine  into  cold  toluene,  in  direct  sun- 
light. Benzyl  alcohol,  CeHs-CH^C OH),  is  the 
hydrate  of  benzyl,  and  is  obtained  by  the  action 
of  an  alcoholic  solution  of  potash  upon  benzal- 
dehyde. 

Beothuk,  ba'6-thuk,  a  linguistic  stock  of 
North  American  Indians,  habitants  of  the  region 
of  the  Exploits  River  in  northern  Newfound- 
land, and  believed  to  have  been  limited  to  a 
single  tribe,  the  last  known  survivor  of  which 
died  in  1829.  The  Beothuks  painted  their  bod- 
ies and  their  property  with  red  ochre,  and  from 
this  circumstance  their  stock  and  tribal  name 
was  derived.  They  were  also  known  as  the 
Goodnight  Indians,  from  the  incorrect  transla- 
tion of  a  Micmac  word  that  sounded  like  Beo- 
thuk. It  is  not  known  whether  the  Beothuks 
became  extinct  by  reason  of  wars  and  famine  or 
by  absorption  among  other  tribes. 

Beowulf,  ba'6-wulf,  an  Anglo-Saxon  epic, 
the  only  manuscript  of  which  belongs  to  the 
8th  or  9th  century,  and  is  in  the  Cottonian 
Library  (British  Museum).  From  internal 
evidence  it  is  concluded  that  the  poem  in  its 
essentials  existed  prior  to  the  Anglo-Saxon 
colonization  of  Britain,  and  that  it  must  be 
regarded  either  as  brought  to  Britain  by  the 
Teutonic  invaders,  or  as  an  early  Anglo-Saxon 
translation  of  a  Danish  legend.  From  the  allu- 
sions in  it  to  Christianity,  however,  it  must  have 
received  considerable  modifications  from  its 
original  form.  It  recounts  the  adventures  of 
the  hero  Beowulf,  especially  his  deliver}'-  of 
the  Danish  kingdom  from  the  monster  Grendel 
and  his  equally  formidable  mother,  and,  lastly, 
the  slaughter  by  Beowulf  of  a  fiery  dragon,  and 
his  death  from  wounds  received  in  the  conflict. 
The  character  of  the  hero  is  attractive  through 
its  noble  simplicity  and  disregard  of  self.  The 
poem,  which  is  the  longest  and  most  important 
in  Anglo-Saxon  literature,  is  in  many  points 
obscure,  and  the  manuscript  is  somewhat  imper- 
fect. _ 

Bibliography. —  Morley,  ^English  Writers,* 
Vol.  I.  (1887)  ;  Ten  Brink,  < Early  English  Lit- 
erature^ (1883)  ;  translation  by  Garnett  C1885)  ; 
English  prose  translation  by  Tinker  (1892). 

Beppo,  a  satirical  poem  on  Venetian  life 
by  Byron,  published  in  1818,  and  named  for  the 
chief  figure.  In  Auber's  opera,  <Fra  Diavolo,* 
is  a  character  of  the  same  name. 

Beppu,  bep'poo,  Japan,  a  bathing  place  and 
seaport  on  the  Island  of  Kyushu,  famed  for  its 
hot  alkaline  baths. 

Beranger,  Pierre  Jean  de,  ba-raii-zha, 
pe-ar  zhoii  de,  national  poet  of  France:  b.  Paris, 
19  Aug.  1780;  d.  there,  16  July  1857.  His  father 
was  a  restless  and  scheming  man,  and  young 
Beranger,  left  in  a  great  measure  to  himself, 
ran  a  great  chance  of  .spending  his  life  as  a 
gamin  and  vagabond  in  the  streets  of  Paris.  A 
few  days  after  the  destruction  of  the  bastile  he 
was  conveyed  to  Peronne  and  placed  under  the 
charge  of  an  aunt  who  kept  a  tavern,  and  to 
whom  for  a  time  he  acted  as  waiter.  At  the 
age  of  14  he  was  apprenticed  to  M.  Laisnez. 
a  printer  in  Peronne,  but  after  remaining  in 
that  employment  for  some  time,  was  suddenly 
summoned  to   Paris  by  his  father,  who  wished 


his  assistance.  The  improvidence  and  prodi- 
gality of  his  father  was  constantly  involving 
them  in  ditficulties,  and  Beranger,  with  as  yet 
no  settled  vocation  in  life,  was  enduring  all 
the  hardships  and  privation  which  men  of 
genius  in  a  similar  position  to  himself  have 
frequently  had  to  encounter  before  the  recog- 
nition of  their  talents.  He  had  now,  besides 
making  an  unsuccessful  attempt  in  the  drama, 
produced  a  number  of  poems,  including  his 
^ Roger  Bontemps,>  <Le  Grenier,^  'Les  Gueux,^ 
and  <Le  Vieil  Habit.'  Some  of  these  were 
sent  by  him  in  1804  to  Lucien  Bonaparte,  in 
the  hope  thereby  of  obtaining  some  patronage 
or  assistance.  In  this,  probably  the  only  appli- 
cation he  ever  made  for  aid  in  the  course  of 
a  long  life,  Beranger  was  not  disappointed. 
Lucien  sent  for  him,  encouraged  him  to  proceed 
in  his  poetical  career,  and  made  over  to  him 
his  own  income  as  member  of  the  French  In- 
stitute. He  was  afterward  employed  in  editing 
the  'Annales  du  Musee,'  and  in  1809  received  an 
appointment  as  clerk  in  the  office  of  the  secre- 
tary to  the  university.  Many  of  his  songs  had 
now  become  extremely  popular  and  in  1815 
the  first  collection  of  them  was  published.  A 
second  collection  was  published  in  1821,  but 
Beranger  had  made  himself  extremely  obnox- 
ious to  the  Bourbon  government  by  his  satires 
on  the  established  order  of  things;  and  in  addi- 
tion to  being  dismissed  from  his  office  in  the 
university,  he  was  prosecuted  and  sentenced 
to  three  months'  imprisonment  and  a  fine  of 
500  francs.  A  third  collection  appeared  in  1825, 
and  a  fourth  in  1828,  which  last  publication  sub- 
jected him  to  a  second  state  prosecution,  an  im- 
prisonment of  nine  months,  and  a  fine  of  10,000 
francs.  Nothing,  however,  could  daunt  his 
spirit,  and  in  prison  he  still  continued  to  busy 
himself  in  the  composition  of  his  songs  and 
lyrical  satires  upon  government.  In  1833  he 
published  his  fifth  and  last  collection,  which 
contains  some  of  the  most  powerful  effusions 
of  his  genius.  The  concluding  years  of  his  life 
were  spent  in  a  dignified  retirement  and  he 
received  the  honor  of  a  public  funeral,  at  which 
the  most  eminent  men  of  France,  both  of  the 
world    of    literature   and    politics,    attended. 

The  great  attraction  of  Beranger's  songs  is 
the  unequaled  grace  and  sprightliness  which 
they  display,  combined  with  great  descriptive 
powers,  much  comic  humor,  and  occasional 
bursts  of  indignation  and  invective  when  some 
social  or  political  grievance  is  denounced. 
They  are  sometimes  also,  it  must  be  admitted, 
marked  by  a  tendency  to  levity  and  looseness 
of  morals,  but  in  this  respect  they  partake  emi- 
nently of  the  French  character.  No  one,  in- 
deed, was  more  thoroughly  French  than 
Beranger.  and  the  glory  of  his  beloved  patric, 
as  paramount  to  all  other  considerations,  ap- 
pears constantly  as  the  inspiring  genius  of  his 
poetry.  The  intense  natiomlity  of  his  songs 
constitutes  one  of  their  principal  charms,  and 
in  this  respect  he  bears  some  resemblance  to 
Thomas  Moore.  He  has  sometimes  been  called 
the  Burns  of  France,  but  though  like  him  essen- 
tially a  poet  of  the  people,  he  falls  far  beneath 
the  pathos  and  depth  of  feeling  displayed  bv 
the  Ayrshire  Bard  in  depicting  the  passion  of 
love.  In  private  life  Beranger  was  the  most 
amiable  and  benevolent  of  men,  beloved  by  his 
friends  alike  for  his  social  qualities  and  kindli- 
ness of  heart,  while  his  charities  were  so  numer- 


BERAR  —  BERBERA 


ous  and  extensive  as  often  to  exceed  the  bounds 
of  prudence.  See  Janin,  Beranger  et  son 
temps^  (1866)  ;  Sainte  Beuve,  'Portraits  con- 
temporaires*  ;  Nivalet,  'Souvenirs  historiques 
et  etude  analytique  sur  Beranger  et  son  CEure^ 
(1892). 

Berar,  ba-rjir',  or  the  Hyderabad  Assigned 
Districts,  a  conimissionership  of  India,  in  the 
Deccan,  south  and  west  of  the  central  provinces 
and  north  of  Hyderabad,  touching  Bombay  ter- 
ritory on  the  west;  with  an  area  of  17,718 
square  miles.  It  consists  chiefly  of  a  fertile 
plain  bordered  on  the  north  and  south  by  low 
ranges  of  hills.  It  is  intersected  by  the  Purna, 
and  is  partly  bounded  north  and  south  by  the 
Wardha  and  Penganga  flowing  east  to  the  Goda- 
vari.  It  has  a  fertile  soil,  which  produces 
much  good  cotton  and  millet,  the  best  wheat 
in  India,  as  well  as  oil-seeds  and  other  prod- 
uce. The  rainfall  is  regular,  and  this  province 
is  in  the  position  of  being  able  to  export  food  to 
other  parts  of  India.  It  is  intersected  by  the 
railway  from  Bombay  to  Nagpur,  and  ultimately 
to  Howrah,  opposite  Calcutta.  After  being 
ruled  by  independent  sovereigns,  it  was  added 
in  the  17th  century  to  the  Mogul  empire,  and 
latterly  became  part  of  the  Nizam's  dominions 
(Hyderabad),  to  which  it  still  in  a  sense  be- 
longs. In  1853  it  was  assigned  or  handed  over 
to  the  British  authorities  to  provide  for  the 
payment  of  the  body  of  troops  which  the  Nizam 
had  been  previously  bound  to  furnish  in  time 
of  war  for  the  Indian  government.  A  new 
treaty  was  concluded  in  i860  by  which  certain 
territorial  alterations  were  brought  about,  and 
a  considerable  debt  due  by  the  Nizam  was  can- 
celed. The  province  has  greatly  prospered 
under  British  rule.  It  consists  of  six  districts : 
Ellichpur,  Amraoti,  Akola,  Buldana,  Basim,  and 
Wun.  The  largest  towns  are  Ellichpur  and 
Amraoti  (Oomrawuttee).  Berar  is  under  the 
administration  of  a  revenue  and  fiscal  commis- 
sioner superintended  by  the  resident  at  Hydera- 
bad. There  is  also  a  judicial  commissioner, 
who  superintends  the  working  of  the  courts  of 
justice.  The  surplus  revenue,  after  the  ex- 
penses of  administration  and  the  cost  of  the 
Hyderabad  contingent  of  troops  are  defrayed, 
is  handed  over  to  the  government  of  the 
Nizam.     Pop.   (1501)  2,752,400. 

Berard,  Augusta  Blanche,  American  edu- 
cator and  historical  writer :  b.  West  Point, 
N.  Y.,  29  Oct.  1824;  d.  1901.  She  was  the 
daughter  of  a  former  professor  at  West  Point 
Military  Academy,  and  her  life  was  spent  mainly 
in  teaching.  She  was  the  author  of  school  his- 
tories of  the  United  States  and  England ; 
'Spanish  Art  and  Literature^  ;  'Reminiscences 
of  West   Point  in  the  Olden  Time.-* 

Berard,  ba-rar,  Frederic,  French  physician: 
b.  Montpellier,  8  Nov.  1789;  d.  there,  16  April 
1S28.  When  only  20  years  of  age  he  wrote  a 
thesis  entitled  'Theory  of  Natural  Medicine, 
or  Nature  Considered  as  the  True  Physician, 
and  the  Physician  as  an  Imitator  of  Nature.^ 
He  afterward  went  to  Paris,  where  he  was  en- 
gaged to  write  in  the  'Dictionary  of  Medical 
Science.^  ■  In  1816  he  returned  to  Montpellier 
as  professor  of  therapeutics  in  a  private  course 
of  lectures  to  the  medical  students  of  the  col- 
lege. At  this  period  he  published  a  work  ex- 
planatory of  the  'Doctrines  of  the  Medical 
School  of  Montpellier.'     With  Rouzet,  he  pub- 


lished Dumas'  work  on  'Chronic  Diseases,* 
with  instructive  conmientaries.  In  1823  he  also 
publisiied  in  Paris  his  work  on  'The  Relations 
of  the  Physical  and  the  Moral  Organism,  as  a 
Key  to  Metaphysics  and  the  Physiology  of 
Mind.-'  In  this  he  explains  his  own  views  of 
human  nature  and  the  principles  of  life,  in  oppo- 
sition to  the  views  of  Cabanis.  He  also  took 
occasion  to  publish  at  the  same  time,  a  manu- 
script letter  of  Cabanis,  on  'Primary  or  Final 
Causes,'  accompanied  by  numerous  annota- 
tions. 

Berat,  ba-rat',  a  town  of  Albania,  on  the 
river  Beratinos,  the  ancient  Apsus.  It  is  the 
seat  of  a  pashalic  and  Greek  archbishopric,  and 
was  taken  by  Ali  Pasha  fom  his  rival  Ibrahim. 
Amurath  II.  captured  Berat,  and  his  troops 
held  it  notwithstanding  a  desperate  attem.pt  by 
Scanderbeg  with  a  strong  body  of  Italian 
auxiliaries   to   retake   it.     Pop.   12,000. 

Beraud,  Jean,  ba-ro,  zhoh,  French -painter 
of  great  power :  b.  St.  Petersburg,  Russia,  1849. 
After  serving  with  distinction  in  the  French 
army  during  the  Franco-Prussian  war  he 
became  a  pupil  of  Bonnat.  His  subjects  are 
usually  chosen  from  Parisian  life.  His  latest 
works  have  been  modernized  scenes  from  the 
New  Testament.  'La  Madeleine'  represents  a 
Parisian  harlot  at  the  feet  of  Christ  in  a  Paris 
restaurant;  the  scene  of  the  'Descent  from  the 
Cross,'  is  Montmartre  overlooking  Paris,  with 
a  group  of  working  men  and  women. 

Beraun,  ba-rown',  a  town  of  Bohemia,  18 
miles  to  the  southwest  of  Prague,  on  the  river 
Beraun,  with  manufactures  of  cotton,  sugar, 
etc.     Pop.    (1890)    7,265. 

Berbe,  a  west  African,  much-spotted  genet 
(Gcnnctta  pardina).     See  Genet. 

Ber'ber,  a  town  of  Nubia,  on  the  right  bank 
of  the  Nile,  below  the  confluence  of  the  Atbara. 
It  is  a  station  on  the  route  from  Khartum  to 
Cairo,  and  a  point  to  which  caravans  go  from 
Suakin  on  the  Red  Sea.  In  the  course  of  Gen. 
Graham's  operations  against  Osman  Digna  in 
1885,  a  railway  was  projected  from  Suakin  to 
Berber,  and  the  work  was  actually  begun,  but 
was  ultimately  abandoned  when  military  protec- 
tion was  taken  away.  Pop.  (estimated) 
10,000. 

Ber'bera,  the  chief  port  and  town  of  Brit- 
ish Somaliland,  on  the  African  coast,  of  the 
Gulf  of  Aden  and  south  of  Aden.  It  has  c 
small  but  well-sheltered  harbor  and  a  long  pier ; 
a  European  quarter  with  stone  houses  and  ware- 
houses, and  a  native  quarter  laid  out  with  broad 
streets  but  consisting  chiefly  of  huts  or  sheds. 
There  is  a  considerable  export  trade  in  the 
products  of  the  country,  such  as  hides  and  skins, 
gums,  ostrich  feathers,  ghee,  sheep,  goats,  and 
cattle;  rice,  millet,  dates,  cottons,  tobacco,  etc., 
being  imported.  The  traffic  is  chiefly  with  Aden. 
The  population  is  perhaps  5,000,  increased  to 
30,000  during  the  trading  season.  The  Somauli 
Coast  Protectorate  extends  along  the  coast  for 
about  400  miles  and  inland  for  about  200,  the 
area  being  about  80,000  square  miles.  Besides 
Berbera  it  contains  also  the  ports  of  Zeilah  and 
Bulbar.  It  was  acquired  in  1884,  and  is  admin- 
istered by  a  political  agent  and  a  consul.  A 
number  of  Indian  troops  are  stationed  in  the 
territory.  The  trade  is  of  some  importance  and 
is  increasing. 


BERBERINE  —  BERCHET 


Ber'berine,  a  poisonous  alkaloid  discovered 
by  Buchner  in  1837  in  the  root  of  the  common 
barberry,  and  now  known  to  exist  in  many 
other  plants  also.  It  crystallizes,  ordinarily,  in 
yellow,  silky  needles,  having  the  composition 
QoHi7N04+ 4^H,.0;  but  when  thrown  down 
from  solution  in  alcohol  the  needles  are  said  to 
be  red  —  probably  from  the  absence  of  water. 
Berberine  forms  numerous  salts,  and  is  used 
to  a  considerable  extent  in  medicine,  occurring 
in  notable  quantities  in  preparations  of  hydras- 
tis.  The  alkaloid  itself  is  soluble  in  from  four 
to  five  parts  of  water  at  ordinary  temperatures, 
and  is  also  moderately  soluble  in  alcohol ;  but 
it  is  insoluble  in  both  ether  and  chloroform. 

Ber'beris,  the  generic  name  of  the  bar- 
berry   (q.v.j. 

Berbers,  the  name  of  a  people  spread  over 
nearly  the  whole  of  northern  Africa.  From 
their  name  the  appellation  Barbary  is  derived. 
They  are  considered  the  most  ancient  inhabi- 
tants of  the  country.  Their  different  tribes  are 
scattered  over  the  whole  space  intervening  be- 
tween the  shores  of  the  Atlantic  and  the  confines 
of  Egypt;  but  the  different  branches  of  Atlas 
are  their  principal  abode;  while  to  the  south 
they  extend  to  the  Soudan.  The  chief  branches 
into  which  they  are  divided  are :  the  Amazirgh, 
Amazigh,  or  Mazigh,  estimated  to  number  from 
2,000,000  to  2,500,000,  and  who  inhabit  Morocco. 
They  are  for  the  most  part  quite  independent  of 
the  Sultan  of  Morocco,  and  live  partly  under 
chieftains  and  partly  in  small  republican  com- 
munities. Second,  the  Shillooh  or  Shellakah, 
who  number  about  1,450,000,  and  inhabit  the 
south  of  Morocco.  They  practise  agriculture 
and  carry  on  some  manufactures.  They  are 
more  highly  civilized  than  the  Amazirgh. 
Third,  the  Kabyles  in  Algeria  and  Tunis,  who 
are  said  to  number  about  1,000,000;  and  fourth, 
the  Berbers  of  the  Sahara,  who  inhabit  the 
oases,  and  consequently  live  for  the  most  part 
at  wide  intervals  from  each  other.  Among  the 
Sahara  Berbers  the  most  remarkable  are  the 
Beni-Mezab  and  the  Tuareg.  To  these  we  may 
also  add  the  Guanches  of  the  Canary  Islands, 
now  extinct,  but  undoubtedly  of  the  same  race. 
The  Berbers  generally  are  about  the  middle 
height ;  their  complexion  brown,  and  sometimes 
almost  black,  with  brown  and  glossy  hair.  In- 
dividuals of  fair  complexion  and  light  hair  and 
even  with  blue  eyes  are  said  to  be  not  uncom- 
mon among  them.  They  are  generally  thin, 
but  extremely  strong  and  robust,  and  their 
bodies  are  beautiful^  formed.  The  head  of 
the  Berber  is  rounder  than  that  of  the  Arab, 
and  the  features  shorter,  but  of  an  equally 
marked  character,  although  the  fine  aquiline 
nose,  so  common  among  the  latter,  is  not  often 
seen  among  the  Berbers.  The  language  of  the 
Berbers  is  said  to  have  affinities  with  the  Se- 
mitic tongues.  Such  of  them  as  mingle  with  the 
Arabs  speak  or  understand  Arabic ;  but  those 
who  dwell  in  the  interior  of  the  mountains  un- 
derstand no  other  language  than  their  own. 
The  Berbers  often  lea\-e  their  mountains  to 
plunder  travelers  on  the  plain.  They  generally 
dwell  in  huts,  or  rude  houses,  the  latter  rec- 
tangular, with  two  gable  ends,  covered  with 
thatch  and  entered  by  a  low  and  narrow  door. 
These  dwellings  are  often  built  in  little  groups, 
scattered  about  in  the  valleys  and  upon  the 
sides  of  the  mountains,  and  in  some  parts  each 


group  of  huts  is  situated  in  the  midst  of  a  plan- 
tation, with  a  portion  of  ground  laid  out  as  a 
kitchen-garden.  Although  the  Berbers  have 
always  lived  in  ignorance,  and  have  had 
but  little  connection  with  civilized  nations^ 
they  are  remarkably  industrious.  By  working 
the  mines  in  their  own  mountains  they  produce 
lead,  copper,  and  iron.  With  the  iron  they 
manufacture  gun-barrels,  implements  of  hus- 
bandry, and  many  rudely  formed  utensils.  They 
understand  the  manufacture  of  steel,  from 
which  they  make  knives,  swords,  and  other 
instruments,  not  very  elegant  in  form,  but  of 
good  quality.  They  likewise  make  gunpowder 
for  their  own  use,  and  this  powder  is  said  to- 
be  of  very  superior  quality.  One  of  their  arti- 
cles of  commerce  is  a  species  of  black  soap^ 
which  they  make  with  olive-oil  and  soda  ob- 
tained from  sea-weed.  The  tribes  inhabiting 
the  borders  of  the  plains  and  some  of  the 
great  valleys  breed  sheep  and  cattle  in  consider- 
able numbers.  Their  sheep  are  small  and  yield' 
very  little  wool.  They  have  likewise  numer- 
ous herds  of  goats,  which  supply  them  with 
milk,  and  of  the  flesh  of  which  they  are  very- 
fond.  Their  cows  and  oxen  are  of  a  small 
species,  but  their  asses  and  mules  are  much 
esteemed. 

Berbice,  ber-bes',  a  district  of  British 
Guiana,  intersected  by  the  river  Berbice.  It 
extends  from  the  river  Abary  on  the  west  ta 
Corentyn  River  on  the  east,  about  150  miles 
along  the  coast,  the  boundary  inland  not  being 
fixed.  The  chief  town  is  New  Amsterdam; 
pop.  about  9,000.  The  principal  productions 
are  sugar,  rum,  cotton,  coffee,  cocoa,  and  to- 
bacco. The  coast  is  marshy  and  the  air  damp. 
Berbice  came  finally  into  British  possession  in 
:8i5,  having  previously  belonged  to  the  Dutch. 
Till  183 1  it  formed  a  separate  colony  from  De- 
merara  and  Essequibo.  Pop.  (1891)  51,176^ 
See  GuiAN.x. 

Berbice,  a  river  of  British   Guiana;  flows 
generally    northeast    into    the    Atlantic.     It     is 
navigable  for  small  vessels  for  165  miles  from  • 
its  mouth,  but  beyond  that  the  rapids  are  nu- 
merous and  dangerous. 

Berchem,  bern'em,  or  Berghem,  Nikolaas, 
Dutch  painter:  b.  Haarlem,  1624;  d.  there,  18 
Feb.  1683.  Having  studied  under  his  father 
and  Van  Goyen,  Weenix  the  elder,  and  other 
masters,  he  spent  several  years  in  Italy,  where 
he  soon  acquired  an  extraordinary  facility  of 
execution.  His  industry  was  naturally  great, 
and  his  innumerable  landscapes  now  decorate 
the  best  collections  of  Europe.  The  leading 
features  of  Berchem's  works,  besides  the  general 
happiness  of  the  compositions,  are  warmth  and 
coloring,  a  skilful  handling  of  lights,  and  a 
mastery  of  perspective.  His  etchings  are  also 
highly  esteemed.  See  Buxton  and  Poynter, 
^German,  Flemish  and  Dutch  Painting^  (1881). 

Berchet,  bar-sha',  Giovanni,  Italian  poet 
and  prose  writer:  b.  Milan,  23  Dec.  1783;  d. 
1851.  He  was  a  friend  of  Manzoni  and  Silvio 
Pellico.  In  1826  he  became  a  frequent  con- 
tributor to  a  liberal  journal  at  Milan,  called  the 
Conciliatore.  When  this  was  suppressed  and 
its  contributors  cast  into  prison  or  exiled 
by  the  Austrian  government,  Berchet  settled  in 
Geneva.  At  the  time  of  his  death  he  was  a 
member  of  the  Sardinian  parliament.  His  writ- 
ings include:   ^Profugi  di  Praga' ;  ^Romanze*;. 


BERCHTA  —  BERENDT 


(Fantasie'  (1829).  His  collected  poems  ap- 
peared in  1863,  with  biographical  sketch. 

Berchta,  bern'ta,  a  female  hobgoblin,  in 
the  folk  lore  of  southern  Germany,  of  whom 
naughty  children  are  much  afraid.  Her  name 
is  connected  with  the  word  bright,  and  origi- 
nally she  was  regarded  as  a  goddess  of  benign 
influence. 

Berchtesgaden,  bern-tes-ga'den,  a  village 
of  Bavaria,  situated  in  a  most  picturesque  and 
nmch-visited  region,  about  12  miles  south  of 
Salzburg,  on  the  Achen,  or  Aim,  a  stream  which 
issues  from  the  beautiful  lake  called  the  Ko- 
nigssee.  It  lies  on  a  mountain  slope  surrounded 
by  meadows  and  trees,  consists  of  well-built 
houses,  and  has  a  fine  old  abbey,  now  a  royal 
residence;  the  abbey  church,  with  fine  Roman- 
esque transepts  of  the  12th  century ;  a  royal 
villa,  etc.  Wood-carving  is  extensively  carried 
on,  and  there  is  an  important  salt  mine.  It  is 
the  principal  settlement  in  the  district  of  the 
same  name.     Pop.    (1895)    2,349. 

Berck,  bark,  France,  a  bathing  resort  on 
the  English  Channel,  an  hour's  ride  south  from 
Boulogne.  It  is  the  terminus  of  a  railway,  and 
has  an  excellent  beach,  a  kursaal  and  two 
hospitals   for  children. 

Berckheyde,  berk'hi-de,  Gerrit,  Dutch 
painter:  b.  Haarlem,  1638;  d.  1698.  He  was 
a  younger  brother  of  Job  Berckheyde  and  with 
him  was  employed  at  the  court  of  the  Elector 
Palatine.  Among  his  most  important  works 
are:  *View  of  Amsterdam^;  'View  of  Co- 
logne^ ;  *View  of  Heidelberg  Carlto.' 

Berckhyde,  Job,  Dutch  architectural  and 
genre  painter:  b.  Haarlem.  1630;  d.  1693.  He 
was  a  pupil  of  Jacob  de  Wet  and  Franz  Hals 
and  was  accepted  as  master  in  the  Haarlem 
Guild  in  1654.  Of  the  brothers  Berckhyde  Job 
is  the  finer  artist.  Some  of  his  most  famous 
paintings  are:  'Joseph's  Brethren  in  Egj^pt^ 
(1669)  ;  'Interior  of  Old  Exchange  at  Amster- 
dam-* (1678)  ;  'Courtesan's  Room^  ;  'Winter 
Landscape^  ;  'Interior  of  Haarlem  CathedraP  ; 
'Artist's   Portrait.^ 

Bercy,  ber-se,  formerly  a  village  on  the 
Seine  (here  crossed  by  a  suspension  bridge), 
but  smce  i860  forming  part  of  the  southeastern 
quarter  of  Paris.  The  Parisian  wine  mer- 
chants have  here  their  stores  of  wine,  spirits, 
etc.,  and  there  are  several  important  tanneries, 
sugar-refineries,  and  paper-mills.  A  large  pal- 
ace, Le  Grand  Bercy,  was  built  by  Levau  at 
the  close  of  the  17th  century. 

Berdiansk,  ber-dyansk',  a  seaport  of  south- 
ern Russia,  in  the  government  of  Taurida,  on 
the  northern  shore  of  the  Sea  of  Azof.  It 
contains  many  handsome  houses,  arranged  in 
spacious  streets,  and  has  a  good  anchorage, 
sheltered  on  all  sides  except  the  south.  It 
is  the  chief  entrepot  for  the  surrounding  gov- 
ernments, and  exports  large  quantities  of  grain, 
oil-seeds,  and  wool.  It  has  also  a  large  inland 
trade  in  wood,  coal,  fish,  and  salt,  the  last 
obtained  from  apparently  inexhaustible  mines  in 
the  vicinity.     Pop.    (1897)    24,247. 

Berditchev,  ber-de'chef,  a  city  of  European 
Russia,  in  the  government  and  129  miles  south- 
west of  Kiev.  It  is  an  ill-built  place,  mainly 
Jewish,  but  contains  several  churches  and  syn- 
agogues, and  a  large  Carmelite  convent,  in  the 
church    of   which   is    an    image    of   the   Virgin 


Mary,  the  object  of  pilgrimages.  It  carries  on 
a  considerable  trade  in  corn,  wine,  cattle,  honey, 
wax  and  leather.     Pop.  (1897)  53,728. 

Berea,  Ky.,  town  in  Madison  County;  on 
the  Louisville  &  N.  R.R.,  41  miles  southeast  of 
Lexington.  It  is  the  centre  of  a  large  agricul- 
tural section  and  is  the  seat  of  Berea  College 
(q.v.),  founded  in  1853.    Pop.  (1900)  1,000. 

Bere'a,  Ohio,  a  village  in  Cuyahoga 
County,  on  several  railroads;  13  miles  south- 
west of  Cleveland,  with  which,  and  Elyria  and 
Oberlin,  it  is  connected  bj^  electric  lines.  It 
was  founded  in  1829;  is  lighted  by  natural  gas 
and  electricity ;  has  extensive  quarries  of  sand- 
stone (Berea  grit)  ;  and  is  the  seat  of  Baldwin 
University,  German  Wallace  College  (both 
Methodist  Episcopal),  and  a  German  orphan 
asylum.     Pop.    (1900)    2,510. 

Berea  College,  a  co-educational,  non-sec- 
tarian institution,  in  Berea,  Ky. ;  organized  in 
1855.  It  has  30  members  in  its  faculty,  and 
some  850  students.  Its  building  and  grounds 
are  valued  at  $150,000,  and  its  library  contains 
20,000  volumes.  The  distinguishing  feature  of 
the  college  is  its  work  in  the  southern  moun- 
tain region,  where  it  carries  on,  through  trav- 
eling libraries,  social  settlements,  and  lectures, 
a  very  valuable  kind  of  university  extension. 

Berea  Grit,  a  variety  of  sandstone,  great 
deposits  of  which  are  found  at  Berea,  Ohio. 
It  is  widely  famous  for  its  evenness  of  texture, 
and  color,  and  exemption  from  the  impurities 
that  would  deteriorate  its  marketable  value. 
See  Carboniferous  System. 

Bere'ans,  in  modern  Church  history  an 
insignificant  sect  of  dissenters  from  the  Church 
of  Scotland,  founded  by  Rev.  John  Barclay 
(1734-98)  in  1773.  They  take  their  title  from, 
and  profess  to  follow  the  example  of,  the  an- 
cient Bereans  (see  Acts  xvii.  10^13)  in  building 
their  system  of  faith  and  practice  upon  the 
Scriptures  alone,  without  regard  to  any  human 
authority  whatever.  They  agree  with  the  great 
majority  of  Christians,  both  Protestants  and 
Roman  Catholics,  respecting  the  doctrine  of 
the  Trinity,  which  they  hold  as  a  fundamental 
article  of  the  Christian  faith ;  but  differ  from 
the  majority  of  all  sects  of  Christians  in  various 
other  important  particulars.  For  instance,  they 
say  that  the  majority  of  professed  Christians 
stumble  at  the  very  threshold  of  revelation  by 
admitting  the  doctrine  of  natural  religion, 
natural  conscience,  etc.,  not  founded  upon  rev- 
elation or  derived  from  it  by  tradition.  With 
regard  to  faith  in  Christ,  they  insist,  that  as 
faith  is  the  gift  of  God  alone,  so  the  person  to 
whom  it  is  given  is  as  conscious  of  possessing 
it  as  the  being  to  whom  God  gives  life  is  of 
being  alive,  and  therefore  he  entertains  no 
doubts  either  of  his  faith  or  his  consequent 
salvation  through  the  merits  of  Christ,  who  died 
and  rose  again  for  that  purpose.  Consistently 
with  the  above  definition  of  faith,  they  say  that 
the  sin  against  the  Holy  Ghost  is  simply  unbe- 
lief. Their  mode  of  practice  and  Church  gov- 
ernment differs  but  little  from  those  of  many 
other   dissenting   sects. 

Berendt,  ba'rent,  Karl  Hermann,  German 

ethnologist:  b.  Dantzic,  1817;  d.  1878.  After 
studying  medicine  he  began  to  practise  in  Bres- 
lau,  where  he  lectured  in  the  university.  In 
1851  he  went  to  Nicaragua  and  thence  to  Vera 


BERENGAR  —  BERENICE 


Cruz,  where  he  devoted  some  years  to  ethno- 
logical study  and  research.  He  subsequently 
traveled  in  Yucatan  and  Guatemala,  making  a 
careful  study  of  JMayan  dialect.  He  published 
*  Analytical  Alphabet  of  the  Mexican  and  Cen- 
tral American  Languages^  (1869 J  ;  ^Los  escritos 
de  Don  Joaquin  Garcia  Icazbalceta'  (1870)  ; 
*^Los  trabajos  linguisticos  de  Don  Pio  Perez* 
(1871);    *Cartilla   en  lengua   Maya*    (1871). 

Berengar,  ba'ren-gar,  two  kings  of  Italy 
in  the  9th  and  loth  centuries.  Berengar  I., 
son  of  the  Duke  of  Friuli  by  a  daughter  of 
Louis-le-Debonnaire,  during  the  confusion 
which  followed  on  the  dissolution  of  the  em- 
pire of  Charlemagne,  laid  claim  to  the  crown  of 
Italy,  and  after  a  civil  war  obtained  it  in  888. 
At  a  later  period,  having  been  invited  by  Pope 
John  X.  to  repel  the  Saracens  who  were  de- 
vastating the  south  of  Italy,  he  was  crowned 
emperor  of  Rome.  His  warlike  expeditions  had 
generally  been  fortunate,  and  his  internal  gov- 
ernment was  generally  acceptable  to  his  sub- 
jects; but  his  nobility,  jealous  of  his  author- 
ity, stirred  up  a  new  competitor  for  the  throne 
in  the  person  of  Rudolf  II.,  who  inva- 
ded Italy  in  921,  and  ultimately  obliged 
Berengar  to  take  refuge  in  Verona,  where  he 
was  assassinated  in  924.  Berengar  II.,  nephew 
of  the  former  by  a  daughter,  was  at  first  Mar- 
quis of  Ivrea,  while  the  throne  of  Italy  was 
occupied  by  Hugo,  count  of  Provence,  a  tyrant 
who  had  incurred  the  enmity  of  almost  all  the 
great  feudal  lords  of  the  kingdom.  Berengar, 
taking  advantage  of  this  feeling,  put  himself 
at  the  head  of  a  force  collected  in  Germany  in 
945,  and  was  almost  universally  welcomed. 
Hugo  abdicated  in  favor  of  his  son  Lothario, 
who  reigned  nominally  for  a  few  years,  and 
was  succeeded  in  950  by  Berengar.  in  whom  all 
the  powers  of  the  government  had  previously 
centred.  A  quarrel  with  the  Emperor  Otho  in 
the  following  year  deprived  him  of  his  throne, 
but  he  was  permitted  to  resume  it  on  agreeing 
to  acknowledge  Otho  as  his  liege  lord.  In  a 
second  quarrel  he  was  not  allowed  to  escape 
so  easily.  After  losing  his  territories  he  shut 
himself  up  in  the  fortress  of  St.  Leo,  and  de- 
fended himself  bravely  till  famine  compelled 
him  to  submit.  He  was  imprisoned  at  Bam- 
berg, and  died  there  in  966. 

Berengaria,  ba-ren-ga'ri-a,  the  queen  of 
Richard  I.  of  England :  d.  Le  Mans,  about 
1230.  She  was  a  daughter  of  Sancho  VI.  of 
Navarre  and  was  married  to  Richard  at  Limasol 
in  Cyprus,  12  May  1191.  She  remained  at 
Acre  while  the  king  was  warring  with  the 
Saracens  and  resided  in  Poiton  during  his  im- 
prisonment in  Germany.  She  became  estranged 
from  him  soon  after  his  release  and  seems 
never  to  have  joined  him  again.  She  was 
buried  at  Espan  in  the  Church  of  Pietas  Dei, 
which  she  had  founded. 

Berenga'rio,  Jacopo,  Italian  anatomist:  b. 
Carpi,  about  1470;  d.  Ferrara,  1530.  He  taught 
anatomy  and  surgery  at  Pavia,  and  finally  set- 
tled at  Bologna  till  a  clamor  caused  by  a  rumor 
that  he  had  got  possession  of  two  Spaniards 
affected  by  a  loathsome  disease,  and  was  intend- 
ing to  dissect  them  alive,  obliged  him  to  retire 
to  Ferrara.  This  rumor,  caused  doubtless  by 
the  fact  that  Berengario  looked  upon  the  dis- 
section of  the  human  body  as  the  only  means  by 
which  the  science  of  anatomy  could  be  advanced. 
Vol.   2—35. 


points  out  the  source  of  the  many  important 
discoveries  which  he  made,  and  the  others  for 
which  he  paved  the  way,  leaving  them  to  be 
followed  out  by  Vesalius,  Eustachius,  and  Fal- 
lopius.  He  is  justly  regarded  as  one  of  the 
principal  founders  of  modern  anatomy.  He 
was  also  a  dexterous  operator,  and  published  a 
practical  work  entitled,   'De  Cranii  Fractura.' 

Berenga'rius  of  Tours,  French  theologian: 
b.  Tours,  about  1000;  d.  6  Jan.  1088.  He  is 
renowned  for  his  philosophical  acuteness  as  one 
of  the  scholastic  writers.  While  admitting  the 
real  presence  of  Christ  in  the  Eucharist,  he 
questioned  the  doctrine  of  transubstantiation 
and  held  that  the  substance  of  bread  and  of 
wine  continued  to  exist  with  the  body  and 
blood  of  Christ  (consubstantiation).  He  was 
condemned  by  several  councils  and  several 
times  recanted,  but  finally  died  fully  reconciled 
with  the  Church.  He  is  the  first  in  theological 
history  to  call  the  doctrine  of  transubstantia- 
tion in  question.  He  was  treated  with  forbear- 
ance by  Gregory  VII.,  but  the  scholastics  be- 
longing to  the  party  of  Lanfranc,  Archbishop 
of  Canterbury,  were  irritated  against  him  tc 
such  a  degree  that  he  retired  to  the  Isle  of  St. 
Cosmas,  in  the  neighborhood  of  Tours,  in  the 
year  1080,  where  he  closed  his  life  in  pious  ex- 
ercises. On  the  history  of  this  controversy, 
which  has  long  occupied  the  attention  of  theo- 
logians, new  light  was  shed  by  Lessing  in 
his  <Berengar)  (1770),  and  also  by  Stiiudlin, 
who  likewise  published  the  work  of  Beren- 
garius  against  Lanfranc.  This  Berengarius 
must  not  be  confounded  with  Peter  Berenger  of 
Poitiers,  who  wrote  a  defense  of  his  instructor 
Abelard. 

Berenhorst,  Francis  Leopold  von,  German 
military  writer:  b.  1733;  d.  1814.  He  was  one 
of  the  first  writers  by  whom  the  military  art 
has  been  founded  on  clear  and  certain  princi- 
ples. He  was  a  natural  son  of  Prince  Leopold 
of  Dessau,  and  in  1760  became  the  adjutant  of 
Frederick  II  After  the  Seven  Years'  war  he 
lived  at  Dessau. 

Berenice,  ber-e-nl'se  (a  bringer  of  vic- 
tory), (i)  This  was  the  name  of  the  wife  of 
IMithridates  the  Great,  king  of  Pontus.  Her 
husband,  when  vanquished  by  Lucullus,  caused 
her  to  be  put  to  death  (about  the  year  71  B.C.), 
lest  she  should  fall  into  the  hands  of  his  ene- 
mies. (2)  The  wife  of  Herod,  brother  to  the 
great  Agrippa,  her  father,  at  whose  request 
Herod  was  made  king  of  Chalcis  by  the  Em- 
peror Claudius,  but  soon  died.  In  spite  of  her 
dissolute  life,  she  insinuated  herself  into  the 
favor  of  the  Emperor  Vespasian  and  his  son 
Titus.  The  latter  was  at  one  time  on  (he  point 
of  marrying  her.  (3)  The  wife  of  Ptolemy 
Euergetes ;  who  loved  her  husband  with  rare 
tenderness,  and  when  he  went  to  war  in  Syria 
made  a  vow  to  devote  her  beautiful  hair  to  the 
gods  if  he  returned  safe.  Upon  his  return 
Berenice  performed  her  vow  in  the  temple  of 
Venus.  Soon  after  the  hair  was  missed,  and  the 
astronomer  Conon  of  Samos  declared  that  the 
gods  had  transferred  it  to  the  skies  as  a  con- 
stellation. From  this  circumstance  the  con- 
stellation near  the  tail  of  the  Lion  is  called 
Coma  Berenices  (the  hair  of  Berenice). 

Berenice,  a  city  of  Egypt,  on  the  Red  Sea, 
whence  a  road,  258  miles  in  length,  extended 
across  the  desert  to  Coptos,  on  the  Nile.     This 


BERENSON  —  BEREZINA 


road  was  constructed  in  the  reign  of  the  second 
Ptolemy.  Berenice  was  one  of  the  principal 
centres  by  which  the  trade  of  Egypt,  under  the 
Macedonian  dynasty,  and  that  of  the  Romans 
subsequently,  were  carried  on  with  the  remote 
East.  During  the  Roman  period,  a  sum  equal 
to  $2,000,000  is  said  to  have  been  annually  re- 
mitted to  the  East  by  the  Roman  merchants  as 
payment  for  its  precious  products,  which  sold 
at  Rome  for  a  hundred-fold  more  than  their 
original  price.  Nothing  now  remains  of  Bere- 
nice but  a  heap  of  ruins,  adjoining  the  modern 
port  of  Habest.  Berenice,  or  Hesperis,  a  city 
of  Cyrenaica,  near  which  the  ancients  imagined 
the  gardens  of  the  Hesperides  to  be  situated. 
The  village,  named  Bengazi  (q.v.),  now  occu- 
pies a  portion  of  its  site. 

Berenson,  Bernhard,  Russian-American 
art  critic:  b.  Wilna,  Russia,  26  June  1865.  He 
was  educated  in  the  schools  of  Boston  and  at 
Harvard  University  and  has  lived  for  many 
years  in  Florence,  Italy.  He  has  contributed 
much  in  the  way  of  art  criticism  to  the  New 
York  Nation  and  to  French  and  German  art 
reviews,  and  has  published  ^Venetian  Painters 
of  the  Renaissance-*  (1894);  ^Lorenzo  Lotto: 
An  Essay  in  Constructive  Art  Criticism^ 
(1895)  ;  *  Florentine  Painters  of  the  Renais- 
sance^ (1896)  ;  'Central  Italian  Painters  of  the 
Renaissance^  (1897)  ;  'The  Study  and  Criti- 
cism of  Italian  Art*    (1901). 

Beresford,  ber'es-ferd.  Lord  Charles 
William  de  la  Peer,  English  naval  officer:  b. 
Ireland,  10  Feb.  1846.  He  became  a  rear- 
admiral  in  1897.  In  1882  he  commanded  the 
Condor  in  the  bombardment  of  Alexandria,  and 
was  especially  mentioned  and  honored  for  his 
gallantry.  After  the  bombardment  he  institu- 
ted an  efficient  police  system  in  the  city.  In 
1884-5  he  served  on  Lord  Wolseley's  staff  in  the 
Nile  Expedition ;  and  subsequently  commanded 
the  naval  brigade  in  the  battles  of  Abu  Klea, 
Abu  Kru,  and  Metemmeh.  He  commanded  the 
expedition  which  rescued  Sir  Charles  Wilson's 
party  in  "Safia,**  and  was  commended  for  his 
gallantry  in  both  Houses  of  Parliament.  He 
received  the  thanks  of  the  French  government 
for  assisting  the  grounded  Seignalay.  In  1893^ 
he  was  in  command  of  the  naval  reserve  at 
Chatham,  and  in  December  1899  was  appointed 
the  second  in  command  of  the  British  squadron 
mobilized  in  the  Mediterranean  Sea.  Lord 
Beresford  accompanied  the  Prince  of  Wales  on 
his  visit  to  India  in  1875-6,  as  naval  aide-de- 
camp, and  held  the  same  relation  to  the  queen 
in  1896-7.  He  has  sat  at  various  times  in 
Parliam.ent,  as  member  for  Waterford,  East 
Marylebone,  York,  and  Woolwich.  Besides 
numerous  honors  for  gallantry  as  an  officer  he 
has  received  three  medals  for  saving  life  at 
sea  under  trying  circumstances.  In  1898  he 
visited  China  at  the  request  of  the  Associated 
Chambers  of  Commerce  of  Great  Britain  to 
make  a  study  of  the  complicated  commercial 
conditions  existing  there ;  and  on  his  return, 
in  1899,  he  passed  through  the  United  States, 
and  was  received  with  distinguished  honors  by 
official  ^nd  commercial  bodies.  He  has  done 
much  to  promote  the  "open  door**  policy  as  a 
condition  of  in.ternational  commerce  in  China. 
His  publications  include  'Life  of  Nelson  and 
His  Times*  ;  'The  Break-Up  of  China*  (1899), 
and  many  essays  and  special  articles. 


Beresford,  William  Carr,  Viscount,  Eng- 
lish general,  was  a  natural  son  of  the  first 
Marquis  of  Waterford:  b.  2  Oct.  1768;  d.  Bedge- 
bury  Park,  Kent,  8  Jan.  1854.  He  entered  the 
army,  and  served  at  Toulon,  and  in  Corsica ; 
in  the  West  Indies  under  Abercromby ;  and 
in  Egypt  under  Baird.  In  1806  he  was  raised 
to  the  rank  of  brigadier-general,  and  the  same 
year  commanded  the  land  force  in  the  expedi- 
tion to  Buenos  Ayres.  Having  been  ordered  to 
Portugal  in  1808,  he  was  intrusted  there  with  the 
remodeling  of  the  Portug:uese  army  —  an  office 
which  he  accomplished  with  great  success ;  and 
in  acknowledgment  of  his  services  was  created 
a  Marshal  of  Portugal,  Duke  of  Elvas,  and 
Marquis  of  Santo  Campo.  He  subsequently 
took  part  in  the  siege  of  Badajoz,  and  the 
battles  of  Salamanca,  Vittoria,  and  Bayonne. 
For  his  bravery  at  the  battle  of  Toulouse  he 
was  raised  to  the  peerage,  with  the  title  of 
Baron  Beresford,  afterward  superseded  by  that 
of  Viscount  Beresford,  conferred  on  him  in  1823. 
In  political  principles  he  was  a  high  Conserva- 
tive ;  and  a  thorough  supporter  of  the  Duke 
of  Wellington.  In  1828,  when  the  Duke  became 
premier,  he  was  made  master-general  of  the 
ordnance,  a  post  he  held  till  1830. 

Berezin,  byer-ye-zen',  Ilya  Nikolayevitch» 
Russian  Orientalist:  b.  1818;  d.  1896.  He  stud- 
ied Oriental  philology  at  the  University  of 
Kazan,  where  in  1846  he  was  appointed  profes- 
sor, and  in  1855  became  professor  of  Turkish 
at  the  University  of  St.  Petersburg.  Some 
of  his  important  works  in  Russian  are  'Library 
of  Oriental  Authors*  (1849-51)  ;  'Tour  Through. 
Daghestan  and  Trans-Caucasia*  (1850)  ;  'A 
Grammar  of  the  Persian  Language*  (1853); 
'The  Mongol  Invasion  of  Russia*  (1852-4)  ; 
'Popular  Turkish  Sayings*  (1857).  He  wrote 
in  French  'Recherches  sur  les  dialectes  Musul- 
mans*  (1848-53),  and  edited  the  'Russian  En- 
cyclopedic Dictionary*  in  16  volumes. 

Berezina,  byer-ye-ze-na',  a  river  in  the 
Russian  province  of  Minsk,  rendered  famous  by 
the  passage  of  the  French  army  under  Napoleon^ 
26-27  Nov.  1812.  Admiral  Tchitchakoff,  with 
the  Moldavian  army,  forced  his  way  from  the 
south  to  join  the  main  army,  which,  after  Bori- 
zoff  had  been  retaken,  was  to  assist  the  army- 
led  by  Wittgenstein  from  the  Dwina,  and  in  this 
manner  cut  off  Napoleon  from  the  Vistula.  Na- 
poleon was  therefore  obliged  to  make  the  great- 
est efforts  to  reach  Minsk,  or  at  least  the 
Berezina,  and  to  pass  it  earlier  than  the  Rus- 
sians. After  the  advanced  guard  of  the  ]\Iolda- 
vian  army  had  been  repelled  to  Borizoff  by 
Oudinot,  and  the  bridge  there  burned  by  them, 
early  in  the  morning  of  26  November,  two  bridges 
were  built  near  Sembin,  about  two  miles  above 
Borizoff,  an  undertaking  the  more  difficult,  be- 
cause both  banks  of  the  river  were  bordered  by 
extensive  morasses,  covered,  like  the  river  itself, 
with  ice  not  sufficiently  strong  to  afford  passage 
to  the  army,  while  other  passes  were  already 
threatened  by  the  Russians.  Scarcely  had  a  few 
corps  effected  their  passage,  when  the  greater 
part  of  the  army,  unarmed  and  in  confusion, 
rushed  in  crowds  upon  the  bridges.  Those  wha 
could  not  hope  to  escape  over  the  bridges  sought 
their  safety  on  the  floating  ice  of  the  Berezina, 
where  most  of  them  perished,  while  many  others- 
were  crowded  into  the  river  by  their  comrades. 
Besides  the  multitudes  who  were  obliged  to  re- 
main beyond  the  Berezina,  the  division  of  Par- 


BEREZOV  —  BERGAMI 


touneaux,  which  formed  the  rear-guard,  was  also 
lost.  It  was  intrusted  with  the  charge  of  burn- 
ing the  bridges  in  its  rear,  but  it  fell  into  the 
hands  of  the  enemy.  According  to  the  French 
bulletins  only  a  detachment  of  2,000  men,  who 
missed  their  way,  was  taken ;  according  to  the 
Russian  accounts  the  whole  corps,  7,500  men 
and  five  generals.  The  river  is  a  tributary  of 
the  Dnieper  and  has  a  course  of  some  335  miles. 
A  canal  s}  stem  connects  it  with  the  Dwina. 

Berezov,  byer-j'a'zof  (the  town  of  birch- 
trees),  a  town  in  Siberia,  in  the  government  of, 
and  400  miles  north  from,  Tobolsk,  on  a  height 
above  the  left  bank  of  the  Sosva,  one  of  the 
branches  of  the  Obi.  It  consists  of  wooden 
houses  carefully  built  of  large  timbers,  and 
generally  with  high  steps  in  front,  and  con- 
tains three  churches  and  a  chapel.  Its  inhabi- 
tants, who  are  chiefly  Cossacks,  subsist  by  the 
chase  and  by  fishing ;  they  barter  furs,  skins, 
fish,  etc.,  for  flour,  flesh-meat,  tobacco,  iron- 
ware, and  brandy,  brought  by  the  Tobolsk 
dealers,  whose  craft  are  floated  down  the  Irtish 
into  the  Obi.  Prince  Menzikofif,  the  favorite  of 
Peter  the  Great,  died  here  in  exile  in  1731, 
having  been  banished  by  his  grandson  Peter 
II.     Pop.    (1897)    1,073. 

Berezovsk,  byer-ya-z6vsk',  a  village  in  the 
Russian  province  of  Perm,  near  Ekaterinburg, 
which  gives  name  to  a  famous  gold  field, 
wrought  since  1744.  The  mines  are  on  the  east- 
ern slopes  of  the  middle  Ural  chain,  and  the 
field  is  more  than  five  miles  long.  The  washings 
on  the  Berezovka  River  are  also  very  pro- 
ductive. 

Berg,  berg,  Friedrich  Wilhelm  Rembert, 
Russian  general:  b.  1790;  d.  1874.  He  is  chiefly 
notorious  for  the  severity  with  which  he  treated 
the  unfortunate  population  of  Poland  during 
the  insurrection  of  1863,  and  which  excited  the 
horror  and  indignation  of  the  civilized  world. 

Berg,  berg,  Joseph  Frederick,  American 
clergv-man :  b.  Antigua,  W.  I.,  3  June  1812 ;  d. 
New  Brunswick,  N.  J.,  1871.  He  came  to  the 
United  States  in  1825,  entered  the  German 
Reformed  ministry,  in  which  he  served,  1835-52, 
and  then  entered  the  Dutch  Reformed  Church 
and  was  professor  of  theology  in  the  Dutch 
Reformed  Theological  Seminary  at  New  Bruns- 
wick from  1861  till  his  death.  He  was  distin- 
guished for  the  intensity  of  his  opposition  to  the 
Roman  Catholic  Church,  on  which  theme  he 
wrote  extensively,  his  best  known  work  being 
'Synopsis  of  the  Moral  Theology  of  Peter  Dens, 
as  Prepared  for  Romish  Seminaries  and  Stu- 
dents of  Theology^    (1842). 

Berg,  an  ancient  duchy  of  Germany,  now 
included  in  the  governments  Arnsberg,  Cologne, 
and  Diisseldorf.  It  extended  along  the  Rhine 
from  the  Ruhr  to  the  frontiers  of  Nassau,  and 
is  everywhere  hilly.  It  is  more  a  manufactur- 
ing than  an  agricultural  district,  and  has  long 
been  famed  for  its  minerals,  which  include  iron 
of  the  finest  quality,  lead,  copper,  zinc,  and 
the  precious  metals.  In  addition  to  the  employ- 
ment furnished  by  these  minerals,  the  inhabi- 
tants, who  are  very  industrious,  have  with 
considerable  success  superadded  textile  manufac- 
tures. It  is  now  indeed  the  chief  manufacturing 
district  in  Germany,  and  the  most  densely  peo- 
pled. It  contains  the  important  towns  of  Elber- 
feld  and  Barmen.  The  duchy  of  Berg,  founded 
in    1389.  had   been   long  consolidated   with    the 


Prussian  dominions  when  (1806)  Napoleon 
revived  the  title,  and  conferred  it,  with  an 
enlarged  territory,  on  Murat.  On  Murat's 
receiving  the  kingdom  of  Naples,  Napoleon 
named  his  nephew  Louis  Napoleon  (brother  of 
the  late  Emperor  Napoleon  III.)  hereditary 
Grand-duke  of  Berg,  and  increased  its  limits 
still  farther.  At  the  Congress  of  Vienna,  in 
1815,  the  whole  was  given  to  the  king  of 
Prussia. 

Berga,  a  town  of  Spain,  in  the  province  of 
Barcelona,  in  a  hilly  district  near  the  river 
Lobregat.  There  is  an  old  castle  overlooking 
the  town,  which  carries  on  some  manufactures 
of  cottons.     Pop.    (1903)  6,072. 

Bergama,  ber'ga-ma,  a  town  of  Asia 
Minor,  about  20  miles  inland  from  the  west 
coast,  on  the  Selinus,  a  tributary  of  the  Caicus, 
46  miles  north  by  east  of  Smyrna.  It  occupies 
the  site  of  the  ancient  Pergamus  (q.v.),  and 
contains  numerous  remains  attesting  its  ancient 
magnificence.  In  the  centre  are  the  remains  of 
a  large  Roman  basilica,  a  Byzantine  church 
now  converted  into  a  mosque,  and  a  curious 
double  tunnel  200  yards  long  through  which 
the  river  runs.  To  the  east  of  the  town  is  a 
steep  hill  with  the  acropolis  and  the  remains  of 
a  Roman  palace  on  the  top.  To  the  west  of  the 
town  are  the  ruins  of  the  ancient  amphitheatre 
with  arches  of  fine  workmanship.  It  was  built 
so  that  the  arena  could  be  flooded  with  water 
from  a  stream,  thus  affording  an  opportunity 
for  nautical  sports.  Bergama  is  a  flourishing 
town  noted  for  its  manufactures  of  morocco 
leather.     Pop.  about  6,000. 

Bergami,  Bartolommeo.  The  celebrated 
trial  of  Queen  Caroline,  wife  of  George  IV. 
of  England,  was  principally  founded  upon  a 
charge  of  adulterous  intercourse  with  Bergami, 
who,  in  1814,  upon  recommendation  of  the 
Marquis  Ghislieri,  in  whose  previous  employ- 
ment he  had  been,  was  attached  to  her  house- 
hold. Bergami,  who  had  fought  his  way  up 
in  the  Italian  army  from  a  common  soldier  to 
the  rank  of  quartermaster,  belonged  to  a  respec- 
table family,  and  the  Marquis  Ghislieri  described 
him  to  the  queen  as  a  person  of  character 
and  attainments  superior  to  his  condition,  and 
bespoke  for  him  a  kind  treatment.  This,  and 
the  personal  advantages  of  Bergami,  who  was 
singularly  good-looking,  combining  athletic 
strength  and  stature  with  almost  feminine 
beauty,  naturally  disposed  the  queen  in  his 
favor.  Moreover,  he  was  full  of  loyalty  and 
devotion,  and  on  one  occasion  nearly  became 
the  victim  of  poison  intended  for  her.  The 
queen  treated  his  whole  family,  especially  a 
little  child  of  his,  with  the  greatest  generosity 
and  kindness.  All  these  circumstances  were 
used  by  her  enemies  as  so  many  indications  of 
her  criminality,  and  during  the  trial  one  of 
the  Italian  witnesses,  Teodore  ]\Iajocchi,  excited 
special  indignation  by  his  admitting  every  fact 
unfavorable  to  the  queen,  and  by  answering 
every  question  which  might  tell  in  her  favor 
with  Non  mi  ricordo.  Bergami,  who  was  at 
Pesaro  during  the  trial,  exclaimed,  when  he  was 
apprised  of  her  acquittal,  but  at  the  same  time 
of  her  death,  that  she  had  been  poisoned,  and 
never  could  be  convinced  to  the  contrary,  To 
the  last  he  ever  spoke  of  the  queen  with  the 
greatest  reverence  and  affection,  and  his  deport- 
ment   before    and    after    her    death    led    to    the 


BERGAMO  —  BERGEN-OP-ZOOM 


conclusion  that  he  looked  upon  her  rather  as  a 
benefactress  than  as  a  mistress.  However,  where- 
ever  he  went  he  became  the  observed  of  all 
observers.  During  his  occasional  excursions  to 
Paris  his  apartments  were  crowded  with  visit- 
ors, consisting  principally  of  ladies,  who,  under 
the  pretext  of  having  been  friends  of  Queen 
Caroline,  gratified  their  curiosity  and  obtained 
an  interview  with  the  portly  courier.  When  at 
home  he  lived  in  great  splendor ;  in  the  capitals 
of  Italy,  Rome,  Naples,  Milan,  he  was  a  lion, 
and  the  houses  of  **the  best  families"  were  open 
to  him.  At  the  time  of  the  trial  many  dififerent 
statements  about  Bergami's  character  were  cir- 
culated in  the  House  of  Lords,  but  however 
contradictory  in  many  other  respects,  they  all 
agreed  in  this  one  fact,  that  he  was  as  inoffen- 
sive as  he  was  good-looking  a  person,  who 
probably  would  never  have  been  heard  of  beyond 
the  precincts  of  Italian  barracks  if  it  had  not 
been  for  his  relation  with  Queen  Caroline,  and 
for  the  peculiar  construction  which  was  put 
upon  it  by  her  enemies  at  the  trial.  His  name 
in  England  was,  by  a  curious  mistake,  spelled 
with  a   P. 

Bergamo,  ber'ga-mo,  Italy,  city  and  capi- 
tal of  the  province  of  Bergamo,  situated  in  the 
district  lying  between  the  rivers  Brembo  and 
Serio.  It  consists  of  two  distinct  portions, 
the  Citta  Alta  (High  Town),  situated  on  hills, 
and  now  attainable  by  a  cable  tramway,  and  the 
much  more  extensive  new  quarters  in  the  plain. 
Bergamo  trades  largely  in  silk,  silk  goods,  grain, 
etc.  At  its  fair  goods  to  the  value  of  a  million 
sterling  have  sometimes  been  sold.  It  has  an 
academy  of  painting  and  sculpture,  a  museum, 
an  athenaeum,  a  public  library,  several  secondary 
schools,  and  various  manufactories,  especially 
of  silk.  There  is  a  cathedral,  but  some  of  the 
other  churches  are  of  greater  interest.  There  is 
a  small  Protestant  congregation.  The  comic 
characters  in  the  Italian  masked  comedy  are 
Bergamese,  or  affect  the  dialect  of  the  country 
people  in  the  neighborhood  of  this  city.  In 
1796  Bonaparte  took  Bergamo,  and  it  was  sub- 
sequently made  the  capital  of  the  department  of 
the  Serio,  in  the  kingdom  of  Italy.  Among 
many  distinguished  men  born  here  are  Tirabos- 
chi,  the  historian  of  Italian  literature;  the  com- 
poser Donizetti,  and  Cardinal  Mai.  Pop.  (1901) 
46,000. 

Ber'gamot,  a  shrub  or  small  tree  of  the 
genus  Citrus  (natural  order  Butaccce)  variously 
placed  as  a  variety  of  the  orange  (C.  auran- 
tium)  and  of  the  citron  (C.  medica).  The 
plant  is  largely  cultivated  in  southern  Europe, 
especially  Italy,  for  its  green,  bitter  volatile  oil, 
known  as  oil  or  essence  of  bergamot  which  is 
expressed  or  distilled  from  its  highly  aromatic 
rind  for  use  in  perfumery.  The  name  is  also 
applied,  mainly  in  Europe,  to  many  varieties  of 
pears  and  in  both  Europe  and  America  to  sev- 
eral species  of  the  natural  order  Labiatw;  for 
example,  Mentha  aquatica  (Europe),  Monarda 
didyma  and  M.  Ustulosa  (America).  The  name 
seems  to  be  a  corruption  of  the  Turkish  beg 
armudi,  a  lord's  pear.     See  Citrus. 

Bergedorf,  berg'e-dorf,  a  town  of  Ger- 
many, 10  miles  southeast  of  Hamburg,  and  in 
the  territory  belonging  to  that  city,  on  the 
Bille,  a  tributary  of  the  Elbe.  It  has  flourishing 
glass  works  and  manufactures  of  enamel  ware. 
It  was  held  jointly  by  Lubeck  and  Hamburg  till 


1867,  when  Lubeck  assigned  its  rights  to  Ham- 
burg on  payment  of  200,000  thalers.  Pop. 
(1900)    10,243. 

Bergen,  Joseph  Young,  American  edu- 
cator: b.  Red  Beach,  Me.,  22  Feb.  1851.  He 
graduated  at  Antioch  College,  Ohio,  1872,  and 
for  a  time  was  on  the  Ohio  Geological  Survey 
and  professor  of  natural  sciences  at  Lombard 
University,  becoming  later  a  teacher  of  science 
in  the  Boston  high  and  Latin  schools.  He  is 
joint  author  of  'The  Development  Theory:  the 
Study  of  Evolution  Simplified  for  General  Read- 
ers^ (1884)  ;  Hall  and  Bergen's  'Physics^  ; 
'Elements  of  Botany^;  and  'Foundations  of 
Botany.^ 

Bergen,  Norway,  a  seaport  on  the  west 
coast,  capital  of  a  province  or  diocese  of  the 
same  name,  formerly  the  principal  town  of  the 
kingdom,  but  now  the  second.  It  is  186  miles 
northwest  of  Christiania,  and  about  25  from  the 
open  sea,  and  is  situated  on  and  about  the  head 
of  two  inlets,  one  of  which  forms  the  harbor. 
The  tongue  of  land  between  the  harbor  and  the 
other  inlet  (Puddefjord)  is  an  elevated  ridge 
crowned  by  an  old  fort,  while  the  entrance  on 
the  other  or  northeast  side  is  commanded  by  the 
old  fortress  of  Bergenhus,  now  partly  used  as  a 
prison.  Rocky  hills  from  800  to  2,000  feet  high 
encircle  the  town  on  the  land  side  and  furnish 
many  picturesque  spots.  The  climate  is  com- 
paratively mild,  on  account  of  the  sheltered 
situation,  but  is  remarkable  for  rain,  the  annual 
rainfall  being  about  73  inches.  The  town  is 
well  built  and  clean,  but  the  houses  are  mostly 
of  wood,  and  many  of  the  streets  are  crooked 
and  uneven,  on  account  of  the  irregularity  of 
the  site.  There  are  a  number  of  squares  or 
open  spaces,  including  the  market-place.  There 
is  a  cathedral  (built  in  1537),  and  several 
other  churches,  the  oldest  being  St.  Mary's,  built 
after  a  fire  in  1249.  The  public  institutions 
include  schools,  a  library  of  60,000  volumes,  a 
theatre,  a  museum,  and  other  useful  institu- 
tions. The  inhabitants  of  the  middle  coast  of 
Norway  bring  timber,  tar,  train-oil,  hides,  etc., 
and  particularly  dried  fish  (stock-fish),  to  Ber- 
gen to  exchange  them  for  grain,  flour,  and  other 
necessaries.  The  town  carries  on  a  large  trade 
in  these  commodities,  and  its  exports  of  dried 
fish,  herrings,  tar,  etc.,  are  especially  large.  A 
considerable  amount  of  ship-building  is  carried 
on.  A  United  States  consul  is  resident  here. 
Bergen  was  founded  by  King  Olaf  Kyrre  in 
1070.  The  Hanseatic  league  established  a  fac- 
tory here  about  1340  and  long  monopolized  the 
trade.  Bergen  is  the  native  place  of  the  poet 
Holberg.     Pop.  (1901)  72,179. 

Bergen-Op-Zoom,  berg'en-6p-z6m',  a  town 
of  Holland,  in  a  marshy  situation  on  the  Scheldt, 
where  the  Zoom  enters  it,  20  miles  north-north- 
west of  Antwerp.  It  was  formerly  a  strong 
fortress,  the  morasses  around  it  making  it  almost 
inaccessible  to  an  assailing  force,  while  its 
fortifications  consisted  of  regular  works,  con- 
structed by  the  celebrated  Coehorn.  It  is  well 
built,  but  has  no  edifices  deserving  of  particular 
notice.  It  made  an  important  figure  during  the 
Spanish  war,  and  successfully  resisted  the 
attacks  of  the  Duke  of  Parma  in  1581  and  1588, 
and  of  Spinola  in  1622.  It  was  taken  by  the 
French  in  1747  after  a  siege  of  nearly  three 
months ;  and  in  1795  the  French  under  Piche- 
gru  again   gained  possession   of  it  by  capitula- 


BERGENGREN  —  BERGK 


tion.  It  was  unsuccessfully  attempted  by  the 
British  under  Sir  Thomas  Graham,  afterward 
Lord  Lynedoch,  in  1814.  Its  trade  has  suffered 
greatly  from  the  proximity  of  Antwerp.  Pop. 
(1899)    13,668. 

Berg'engren,  Anna  (Fakquhar),  Marg.aret 
Allston,  American  novelist :  b.  Brookville,  Ind., 
23  Dec.  1865.  She  is  the  wife  of  R.  Bergengren, 
(q.v.),  and  has  published  *The  Professor's 
Daughter^  (1899)  ;  'Her  Boston  Experiences* 
(1900);  <The  Devil's  Plough*  (1901);  <Her 
Washington  Experiences*    (1901). 

Bergengren,  Ralph  Wilhelm  Alexis,  Amer- 
ican journalist  and  cartoonist:  b.  Gloucester, 
Mass.,  2  March  1871.  He  has  published  a  col- 
lection of  verses  and  cartoons  entitled  'In  Case 
of  Need*    (1899). 

Bergerac,  bar-zhrak,  Cyrano  de,  a  famous 
five-act  tragedy  by  Edmond  Rostand,  founded  on 
the  life  of  Savinien  Cyrano  de  Bergerac.  It 
was  first  played  in  Paris,  28  Dec.  1897,  with 
Coquelin  in  the  title  role  and  in  New  York  3 
Oct.  1898  with  Mansfield  in  the  same  role. 
See  Rostand,  Edmond. 

Bergerac,  Savinien  Cyrano  de,  French  au- 
thor:  b.  1619;  d.  1655.  He  was  distinguished 
for  his  courage  in  the  field,  and  for  the  number 
of  his  duels,  more  than  a  thousand,  most  of 
them  fought  on  account  of  his  monstrously  large 
nose.  His  writings,  which  are  often  crude,  but 
full  of  invention,  vigor,  and  wit,  include  a 
tragedy,  'Agrippina,*  and  a  comedy,  'The  Pe- 
dant Tricked,*  from  which  Corneille  and 
Moliere  have  freely  borrowed  ideas ;  and  his 
'Comical  History  of  the  States  and  Empires  of 
the  Sun  and  the  Moon*  probably  suggested 
'Micromegas*  to  Voltaire,  and  'Gulliver*  to 
Swift.  His  works  have  been  frequently  repub- 
lished. He  was  made  the  hero  of  a  drama  bear- 
ing his  name,  written  by  Edmond  Rostand, 
the  French  playwright,  which  had  a  phenomenal 
success  in  the  United  States  in  1899-1900,  and 
was  the  occasion  of  a  suit  for  plagiarism.  See 
Rostand,  Edmond. 

Bergerac,  a  town  of  France,  in  the  depart- 
ment of  the  Dordogne,  and  on  the  river  Dor- 
dogne.  Among  its  industries  are  paper-mills, 
ironworks,  distilleries,  etc.  The  town,  48  miles 
east  of  Bordeaux,  gives  the  name  to  an  agree- 
able wine  cultivated  on  the  banks  of  the  Dor- 
dogne, in  France  sometimes  called  petit  cham- 
pagne.    Pop.   (1896)   15,642. 

Bergerat,  barzh-ra,  Auguste  Emile,  French 
journalist,  playwright,  and  novelist :  b.  Paris, 
29  April  1845.  He  is  son-in-law  of  Theophile 
Gautier,  and  since  1884  particularly  known  as 
the  amusing  chronicler  of  the  'Figaro*  under 
the  pseudonym  of  Caliban.  His  fcuillctons 
for  that  paper  were  published  collectively  as 
^Life  and  Adventures  of  Sieur  Caliban*  f  1886)  ; 
<The  Book  of  Caliban*  (1887);  'Caliban's 
Laughter*  (1890),  etc.  He  also  wrote  two  nov- 
els, 'Faublas  in  Spite  of  Himself  *(i884)  ;  'The 
Rape*  (1886)  ;  besides  two  volumes  to  the  mem- 
ory of  his  father-in-law.  'Theophile  Gautier, 
Painter*  (1877),  and  'Th.  Gautier.  Conversa- 
tions, Souvenirs,  and  Correspondence*   (1879). 

Bergh,  berg,  Henry,  American  philanthro- 
pist and  author :  b.  New  York,  1821 ;  d.  there. 
12  March  1888.  He  was  educated  at  Columbia 
College,  and  from  1861  to  1864  was  in  the  diplo- 
matic service,  being  secretary  of  the  American 


legation  and  United  States  consul  at  St.  Peters- 
burg. In  1865  he  founded  the  American  Soci- 
ety for  the  Prevention  of  Cruelty  to  Animals, 
was  chosen  its  president,  and  in  1866  secured 
the  passage  of  an  act  giving  the  society  the 
power  of  making  arrests  and  carrying  on  prose- 
cutions for  violations  of  the  statute  on  which 
the  organization  was  instituted.  He  remained 
president  of  the  society  until  his  death,  being 
ever  its  guiding  spirit,  living  entirely  in  it? 
work,  and  serving  without  compensation.  At 
the  beginning  of  his  work  no  State  or  Terri- 
tory had  any  statute  relating  to  the  prevention  of 
cruelty  to  animals.  At  the  time  of  his  death  39 
States  had  proper  laws  on  the  subject,  and  in 
36  of  them  branch  societies  of  the  organization 
had  been  formed.  He  was  the  author  of  a  vol- 
ume of  tales  and  sketches  'The  Streets  of  New 
York*  ;  a  successful  drama,  'Love's  Alternative,* 
produced  in  Baltimore,  1881  ;  'The  Portentous 
Telegram*  ;  'The  Ocean  Paragon*  ;  and  'Mar- 
ried Off-  a  Poem*    (1859). 

Bergh,  Johann  Edvard,  Swedish  landscape 
artist:  b.  Stockholm,  1828;  d.  1880.  He  was  a 
professor  in  the  Stockholm  Academy  and  is 
looked  upon  as  the  founder  of  a  new  school  of 
landscape  art  in  Sweden,  distinguished  by  accu- 
rate drawing,  intelligent  representation  of  na- 
ture, and  a  very  decided  nationalism.  Among 
his  most  noted  subjects  are  'Wood  Interior*  ; 
'View  of  Stockholm*  ;   'View  in   Dalecarlia.* 

Bergh,  Pieter  Theodoor  Helvetius  van  den, 
Dutch  dramatist  and  poet:  b.  Zwolle,  1793;  d. 
1873.  He  attracted  attention  with  his  comedy 
'The  Nephew*  (1837),  considered  one  of  the 
best  in  modern  Dutch  literature,  but  did  not 
justify  expectations  by  his  subsequent  dramatic 
efforts.  He  also  published  'De  Nichten.*  and  a 
collection,  'Prose  and  Poetry*   (3d  ed.  1863). 

Berghaan,  berg'han,  a  Dutch  and  colonial 
name  in  South  Africa  for  several  large  hill- 
haunting  eagles,  especially  the  bataleur  (q.v.). 

Berghaus,  berg'hovvs,  Heinrich,  German 
geographer:  b.  Cleve,  3  Alay  1797;  d.  Stettin, 
17  Feb.  1884.  He  served  in  181 5  in  the  Ger- 
man army  in  France,  and  was  from  1816  to 
1821  employed  in  trigonometrical  survey  of  Prus- 
sia under  the  war  department.  From  1824  to 
1855  he  was  professor  of  applied  mathematics 
in  the  Berlin  Academy  of  Architecture.  Besides 
his  various  maps  and  his  great  'Physical  Atlas* 
(republished  in  a  remodeled  form  in  1886-92), 
he  published  'Allgemeine  Lander-und  Volker- 
kunde*  (1837-41)  ;  'Die  Volker  des  Erdballs* 
(1852)  :  'Grundlinien  der  physikalischen  Erd- 
beschreibung*  (1856)  :  'Grundlinien  der  Ethno- 
graphie*  (1856)  ;  'Deutschland  seit  hundert 
Jahren*  (1859-62)  :  'Was  man  von  der  Erde 
Weiss*  (1856-60)  ;  'Sprachschatz  der  Sassen,  or 
Low  German  Dictionary*    (incomplete)  ;  etc. 

Berghem,  Nikolaas.  See  Berchem,  Niko- 
la as. 

Bergk,  Theodor,  German  classical  philolo- 
gist:  b.  Leipsic,  22  May  1812;  d.  Ragaz,  Switzer- 
land, 20  July  1881.  He  became  an  indisputable 
authority  on  Hellenic  poetry,  producing  two 
works  of  surpassing  importance  in  that  depart- 
ment of  scholarship:  'Greek  Lyric  Poets*  (4th 
ed.  1878-82),  and  'History  of  Greek  Literature* 
(1872)  ;  the  latter  not  quite  completed  at  his 
death,  but  brought  to  perfection  with  the  aid 
of     his     posthumous     papers.     He     contributed 


BERGMANN  —  BERIBERI 


much  of  value,  likewise,  to  our  knowledge  of 
special  departments  of  classical  learning. 

Berg'mann,  Ernst  von,  German  surgeon: 
b.  Riga,  i6  Dec.  1836;  d.  Wiesbaden,  25  March 
1907.  He  served  in  the  Prussian  army  1866-70; 
was  professor  of  surger}''  in  the  Univ.  of  Wiirtz- 
burg  1878-82;  and  became  director  of  the  sur- 
gical clinic  at  the  Univ.  of  Berlin  in  1882.  He 
wrote  <^The  Putrid  Poison';  *^The  Embolism^of 
Fatty  Tissues'  ;  ^The  Poison'  ;  ^Instruction 
Concerning  the   Putrid   Intoxication,'    etc. 

Bergmann,  Julius,  German  philosopher:  b. 
Opherdike,  Westphalia,  1840.  He  was  professor 
of  philosophy  at  Marburg  from  1875.  Among  his 
more  important  writings  are  ^Grundlinien  einer 
Theorie  des  Bewusstseins'  (1870)  ;  'Zur  Beurtei- 
lung  des  Kriticismus'  (1875)  ;  ^Reine  Logik' 
(1879);  <Sein  und  Erkunnen'  (1880);  ^Der 
Grundprobleme  der  Logik'  (1882)  ;  'Geschichte 
der  Philosophie'  (1892-4)  ;  <Untersuchungen 
iiber  Hauptpunkte  de  Philosophic'    (1900). 

Bergmann,  Karl,  American  musician:  b. 
Ebersbach,  Saxony,  1821  ;  d.  New  York,  10  Aug. 
1876.  Participation  in  the  revolutionary  out- 
breaks of  1848  obliged  him  to  go  into  exile  and 
he  came  to  New  York.  He  organized  and  con- 
ducted the  first  great  German  music  festival, 
held  in  the  Winter  Garden  Theatre  (1855);  in 
1856  introduced  German  opera  at  Niblo's  Gar- 
den, and  for  several  years  prior  to  his  death  con- 
ducted the  concerts  of  the  Philharmonic  Society. 
He  composed  several  orchestral  pieces,  and 
excelled  as  a  player  of  the  violoncello  and  the 
piano. 

Bergmann,  Torbern  Olof,  Swedish  natu- 
ral philosopher  and  chemist:  b.  Katharineberg, 
West  Gothland,  20  March  1735;  d.  1784.  In 
1758  he  became  doctor  of  philosophy  and  profes- 
sor of  physics  at  Upsal.  Upon  the  resignation 
of  the  celebrated  Wallerius,  Bergmann  was  a 
candidate  for  the  professorship  of  chemistry  and 
mineralogy.  His  competitors  charged  him  with 
ignorance  of  the  subject,  because  he  had  never 
written  on  it.  To  refute  them  he  shut  himself 
up  for  some  time  in  a  laboratory,  and  prepared 
a  treatise  on  the  manufacture  of  alum,  which 
is  still  considered  as  a  standard  work.  In  1767 
he  became  professor  of  chemistry,  and  devoted 
himself  with  ardor  to  this  science.  He  invented 
the  preparation  of  artificial  mineral  waters,  and 
discovered  the  sulphuretted  hydrogen  gas  of 
mineral  springs.  We  are  indebted  to  him  for  a 
knowledge  of  the  characters  which  distinguish 
nickel  from  other  metals.  On  a  number  of 
minerals  he  made  chemical  experiments,  with  an 
accuracy  before  uncommon.  He  published  a 
classification  of  minerals,  in  which  the  chief 
divisions  are  based  on  their  chemical  char- 
acter, and  the  subdivisions  on  their  ex- 
ternal form.  In  preparing  this  work  he 
was  much  aided  by  his  former  discovery 
of  the  geometrical  reations  between  different 
crystals  of  the  same  substance,  which  may  be 
deduced  from  one  primitive  form,  and  are  pro- 
duced by  the  aggregation  of  similar  particles, 
according  to  fixed  and  obvious  laws.  His  the- 
ory of  the  chemical  relations  is  still  esteemed, 
and  although  it  has  received  new  developments 
from  the  further  researches  of  Berthollet,  has 
not  been  overthrown.  The  order  of  Gustavus 
Vasa  was  bestowed  on  Bergmann.  Among  his 
•works  the  first  place  is  due  to  <Opuscula  Phys- 
ica,  Chemica,  et  Mineralia*   (i779~94).  of  which 


an   English  translation   appeared.     His   famous 

essay  on  *  Elective  Affinities'  was  translated  into 
English  by  Dr.  Beddoes. 

Bergmehl,  berg'mal,  a  whitish  earth,  con- 
sisting almost  entirely  of  the  flinty  shields  of 
microscopic  plant  growths.  It  occurs  in  bog 
and  ancient  lake  deposits  in  many  parts  of 
northern  Europe,  and,  during  times  of  great 
scarcity,  it  has  been,  when  mixed  with  flour, 
eaten  as  food.  Some  writers  assert  that  hun- 
dreds of  carloads  are  consumed  every  year 
by  the  inhabitants  of  northern  Sweden.  From 
analysis,  it  does  not  appear  to  contain  any  posi- 
tive nutriment. 

Bergsoe,  berg'se,  Jorgen  Vilhelm,  Danish 
novelist,  poet,  and  naturalist :  b.  Copenhagen,  8 
Feb.  1835.  While  suffering  partial  blindness, 
caused  by  excessive  use  of  the  microscope  in  his 
memorable  biological  researches  at  Messina,  he 
turned  to  literary  composition  ;  and  soon  appeared 
the  first  of  a  cycle  of  novels,  ^From  the  Piazza 
del  Popolo'  (1866),  which  had  an  extraordinary 
success.  The  following  year  he  published  his 
first  volume  of  poems,  ^Now  and  Then.'  Of  his 
many  novels,  the  one  which  excels  for  fineness  of 
touch  is,  <Who  was  He?'  All  his  stories  are 
characterized  by  rich  imagination,  fine  observa- 
tion, and  great  originality ;  his  poetry  is  inferior 
in  these  respects  to  his  prose. 

Bergues,  barg,  France,  a  town  in  the  de- 
partment of  Le  Nord,  in  a  marshy  district,  five 
miles  south  of  Dunkirk;  population  (1891), 
5,380.  It  ranks  as  a  fortress  of  the  second  class, 
is  well  built  of  brick,  and  having  a  basin  which 
admits  vessels  of  250  tons,  is  the  centre  of  a  con- 
siderable trade.  Its  principal  edifices  are  the 
townhouse.  and  a  beautiful  and  richly  orna- 
mented belfry  about  160  feet  high.  It  owes  its 
origin  to  the  castle  of  Berg,  to  which  St.  Win- 
noc  retired  in  902,  was  first  fortified  by  Baldwin 
II.,  Count  of  Flanders,  afterward  adorned  with 
a  magnificent  monastery  of  St.  Winnoc  by  Bald- 
win IV.,  and  in  the  13th  century  possessed  flour- 
ishing manufactures.  It  suffered  dreadfully 
during  the  wars  in  the  Low  Countries.  Pop. 
(1896),  4.700. 

Ber'gut,  or  Bearcoot,  the  Tartar  name  in 
Central  Asia  for  the  golden  eagle  (see  Eagle), 
there  trained  by  Kirghiz  for  use  in  falconry. 

Berhampur,  ber-ham-poor',  the  name  of 
two  towns  of  India,  (i)  The  capital  of  the 
Ganjam  district,  Madras,  525  miles  northeast  of 
Madras,  with  which  it  is  connected  by  rail.  A 
good  road  leads  from  it  to  the  coast  town  of 
Gopalpur,  nine  miles  distant.  As  the  headquar- 
ters town  of  the  district,  it  contains  the  usual 
official  buildings.  Silk  cloth  is  manufactured, 
and  there  is  a  considerable  trade  in  sugar.  The 
climate  is  unhealthy.  Pop.  (1891),  with  canton- 
ment, 25,653.  (2)  A  town  of  the  Moorsheda- 
bad  district,  Bengal,  on  the  left  bank  of  the 
Bhagirathi,  5  miles  south  of  Moorshedabad. 
The  first  open  act  of  the  Sepoy  mutiny  took 
place  here  on  25  Feb.  1857.  The  town  contains 
a  government  college.     Pop.  (1891)  23,515. 

Beriberi,  ba-ri-ba'ri,  an  epidemic  form  of 
multiple  neuritis  formerly  very  prevalent^  in 
China,  but  now  common  in  Japan,  the  Philip- 
pines, and  associated  tropical  countries.  It  is 
said  to  be  not  infrequent  among  sailors  in  and 
about  the  ports  on  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  particu- 


BERING  — BERING  SEA  CONTROVERSY 


3arly  New  Orleans  (Bondurant).  It  is  sup- 
posed to  be  of  bacterial  origin,  although  an 
exclusive  rice  diet  is  claimed  to  be  at  least  a 
predisposing  cause.  The  disease  exhibits  three 
main  types,  an  acute  pernicious,  the  atrophic 
or  dry,  and  the  dropsical  or  wet  forms.  The 
symptoms  are  those  of  a  multiple  neuritis  (q.v.), 
and  the  treatment  is  that  for  this  disease. 

Bering,  be'ring,  or  Behring,  Vitus,  Dan- 
ish navigator:  b.  Horsens,  1680;  d.  19  Dec.  1741. 
Being  known  as  a  skilful  seaman,  he  was  em- 
ployed by  Peter  the  Great  in  the  navy  established 
at  Cronstadt.  His  talents  and  the  undaunted 
courage  displayed  by  him  in  the  naval  wars 
against  the  Swedes,  procured  him  the  honor 
of  being  chosen  to  command  a  voyage  of  dis- 
covery in  the  sea  of  Kamchatka.  He  set  out 
from  St.  Petersburg,  5  Feb.  1725,  for  Siberia. 
In  the  year  1728  he  examined  the  northeastern 
coasts  of  Asia,  discovered  the  strait  named  after 
him,  and  proved  that  Asia  is  not  united  to 
America.  It  remained,  however,  to  be  deter- 
mined whether  the  land  opposite  to  Kamchatka 
was  in  reality  the  coast  of  the  American  con- 
tinent, or  merely  islands  lying  between  Asia  and 
America.  On  4  June  1741  he  sailed,  with  two 
ships,  from  Okhotsk,  and  touched  the  northwest 
coast  of  America.  Tempests  and  sickness  pre- 
vented him  from  pursuing  his  discoveries ;  he 
was  cast  on  a  desolate  island  covered  with 
snow  and  ice,  where  he  died.  See  Life  by  Lau- 
ridson  (Chicago  1890). 

Bering  Sea,  that  part  of  the  north  Pacific 
Ocean  between  the  Aleutian  Islands,  in  55°,  and 
Bering  Strait,  in  66°  N.,  by  which  latter  it 
communicates  with  the  Arctic  Ocean.  It  has  on 
its  west  side  Kamchatka  and  the  Chukchi  coun- 
try, with  the  Gulf  of  Anadyr,  and  on  its  east  the 
territory  of  Alaska,  with  Norton  Sound  and 
Bristol  Bay;  contains  several  islands,  and  re- 
ceives the  Yukon  River  from  North  America 
and  the  Anadyr  River  from  Asia.  Fogs  are 
almost  perpetual  in  this  sea.  Ice  is  formed  and 
melted  in  the  sea  every  year,  the  northern  part 
becoming  closed  to  navigation  about  the  begin- 
ning of  November.  Pack  ice  gradually  extends 
southward  to  a  little  below  the  latitude  of  St. 
Matthews  Island  (60^°),  beyond  which  ice  is 
found  in  floes.  The  southern  limit  of  the  ice 
usually  extends  from  Bristol  Bay,  Alaska,  to 
about  35  miles  south  of  Pribilof  Island,  though 
in  exceptionally  severe  winters  it  reaches  as  far 
south  as  Unimak  Pass.  It  usually  leaves  Pribi- 
lof Island  about  i  May,  and  vessels  follow- 
ing in  its  wake  may  reach  Bering  Strait  be- 
tween about  15  and  25  June.  A  strong  and 
comparatively  warm  current  sets  northward  at 
about  two  to  three  knots  an  hour,  through 
Bering  Strait,  and  after  following  the  Siberian 
shore  turns  north  toward  Herald  Island  _  A 
cold  current  also  passes  out  through  the  strait. 

Bering  Sea  Controversy,  an  international 
dispute  over  the  territorial  status  of  that  sea, 
chiefly  between  the  United  States  and  Great 
Britain,  and  growing  out  of  attempts  of  the 
former  to  protect  its  fur-sealing  industries  there 
from  the  Canadian  subjects  of  the  latter.  This 
industry  rests  on  three  great  herds  in  the  North 
Pacific,  which  resort  regularly  to  certain  is- 
lands in  the  breeding  season,  from  May  or  June 
till  the  autumn  storms,  theq  move  southward 
to  about  35°  N.,  and  gradually  work  north- 
ward the  next  spring.     At  the  islands  the  elder 


males  remain  with  the  young  on  the  beach 
while  the  females  go  in  search  of  food,  some- 
times 200  miles.  The  younger  males,  or  "bach- 
elors,'* two  to  four  years  old,  herd  apart,  and 
should  furnish  all  the  commercial  sealskins,  the 
pelts  of  the  old  males  being  unsalable  and  the 
killing  of  females  a  blow  at  the  continuance 
of  the  species.  But  this  selection  can  only  be 
made  on  shore;  pelagic  or  ocean  sealing  is  at 
best  indiscriminate  if  done  during  migrations, 
and  is  almost  exclusively  of  females  during 
the  breeding  season,  while  every  mother  seal 
then  killed  means  a  young  seal  starved  ashore. 
The  largest  of  these  "rookeries"  is  on  the  Pribi- 
loff  Islands  in  Bering  Sea,  where  the  Russian- 
American  Company  carried  on  sealing  till  their 
cession  to  the  United  States  in  1867,  when  it 
was  taking  some  40,000  seals  a  year;  the  herd 
being  protected  by  restrictive  regulations.  In 
1821  Alexander  I.  issued  a  ukase  claiming 
Bering  Sea  as  Russian  property,  and  forbidding 
trespass  on  pain  of  confiscation  ;  but  the  United 
States  and  Great  Britain  protested  so  vigorously 
that  the  claim  was  dropped.  After  the  cession, 
the  rivalry  of  competing  companies  would  speed- 
ily have  made  an  end  of  the  seals  in  the 
Northern  Ocean,  as  it  long  since  had  in  the 
Southern,  had  not  the  United  States  leased  the 
islands  for  20  years  to  the  Alaska  Commercial 
Company  (which  then  leased  the  Russian  seal- 
islands  also)  for  $55,000  a  year  and  $2.62^/2  a 
skin,  restricting  the  catch  to  100,000  a  year. 
In  fact  the  company  kept  a'  little  under  that 
mark;  but  the  contract  was  so  profitable  that 
vessels  were  soon  fitting  out  from  British  Colum- 
bia, Hawaii,  and  Australia,  which  intercepted 
the  seals  as  they  passed  between  the  Aleutian 
Islands  northward  or  southward,  or  entered 
Bering  Sea  and  caught  the  females  as  they 
ranged  the  seas  for  food.  The  poaching  grew  in 
volume,  and  a  stream  of  protest  from  the  Alaska 
Company  flowed  in  year  after  year  to  the 
government  at  Washington,  which  in  1881  was 
goaded  into  officially  reversing  its  former  con- 
tention, and  declared  Bering  Sea  east  of  the 
treaty  meridian  of  1867  American  waters ;  but 
took  no  further  step  till  1886,  when  under 
President  Cleveland  it  seized  and  condemned 
three  Canadian  sealers.  Great  Britain  protested, 
and  proceedings  were  suspended  pendmg  dis- 
cussion ;  but  in  1887  five  more  were  seized,  and 
the  question  at  once  became  a  burning  one  in 
our  diplomacy.  Secretary  Bayard  atterr^pted  to 
convene  delegates  from  Great  Britain,  France. 
Germany,  Sweden,  Russia,  and  Japan,  to  meet 
with  our  own  and  frame  regulations  to  prevent 
the  extirpation  of  the  northern  seals:  but  in 
June  1888  Great  Britain  withdrew,  under  pres- 
sure from  Canada.  In  1889  several  more  Cana- 
dian vessels  were  seized,  and  Great  Britain  sent 
a  practical  menace  of  war  if  this  were  not 
stopped.  There  being  but  three  alternatives, 
abandonment  of  the  sealing  interest  to  destruc- 
tion, which  the  country  would  not  endure;  seiz- 
ure of  all  poaching  sealers,  which  rneant  war; 
and  arbitration  —  the  latter  was  decided  on  in 
1890.  The  same  year  the  Alaska  Company,  its 
lease  expired,  was  succeeded  by  the  North 
American  Company ;  the  herd,  estimated  in 
1867  at  over  3,000,000  on  the  Pribiloff  Islands, 
had  shrunk  so  enormously  under  the  pelagic 
sealing  that  the  price  had  risen  from  $2.50  to 
$30  per  skin,  and  the  new  company's  limit  of 
capture  was  restricted  to  20,000,  with  a  royalty 


BERING  STRAIT  — BERINGTON 


of  $10  a  skin.  On  15  June  1891  a  modus  vivendi 
was  agreed  on  for  joint  policing  of  Bering  Sea 
by  British  and  American  vessels;  and  on  29  Feb. 
1892  a  treaty  of  arbitration  was  signed,  under 
which  on  2^  March  1893  a  tribunal  met  at  Paris, 
composed  of  Baron  de  Courcel  (France),  Mar- 
quis Emilio  Visconti-Venosti  (Italy),  Judge 
Gregers  W.  W.  Gram  (Sweden-Norway),  Lord 
Hannan  (England),  Sir  John  S.  D.  Thompson 
(Canada),  Justice  John  M.  Harlan,  and  Senator 
John  T.  Morgan  (United  States).  The  United 
States  case  was  conducted  by  the  secretary  of  state 
(John  W.  Foster)  ;  counsel,  Edward  J.  Phelps, 
James  C.  Carter,  Frederick  R.  Coudert,  and 
Henry  Blodget.  The  decision  on  the  legal  points 
was  entirely  against  the  United  States ;  Bering 
Sea  was  held  part  of  the  high  seas  and  no  one's 
preserve,  and  seals  fercz  naturce  and  no  one's 
property.  But  on  the  point  of  equity  in  our 
case,  that  the  preservation  of  the  seals  from 
extinction  v/as  a  common  interest  of  the  civi- 
lized world,  it  agreed  with  us,  and  framed  reg- 
ulations binding  for  five  years  to  prohibit  all 
pelagic  sealing  within  60  miles  of  the  Pribiloffs, 
or  from  i  May  to  31  July  in  the  North  Pacific 
east  of  180°  or  north  of  35°,  with  other  regula- 
tions. The  restrictions  proved  absurdly  ineffec- 
tive, and  Great  Britain  would  not  antagonize 
Canada  to  make  them  less  so ;  in  1894  the  pelagic 
catch  was  the  enormous  one  of  142,000.  far 
beyond  any  former  record,  and  for  several 
more  seasons  was  very  great,  till  the  herds 
showed  signs  of  rapid  exhaustion.  Great  Brit- 
ain obstinately  refused  to  make  any  change 
in  the  regulations  till  the  five  years  were  up, 
sent  an  expert  to  the  spot  who  laid  all  the 
blame  on  the  North  American  Corhpany,  and 
refused  to  send  a  delegate  to  meet  those  of 
Russia,  Japan,  and  the  United  States,  who 
agreed  to  prohibit  pelagic  sealing  to  their  sub- 
jects if  Great  Britain  would  do  so.  Meantime, 
to  put  pressure  on  the  latter,  Congress  prohib- 
ited the  importation  of  all  sealskins  except  the 
North  American  Company's,  in  order  to  destroy 
the  market  for  Canadian-caught  skins  and  make 
their  business  unprofitable ;  but  England  still 
refused  to  agree  to  the  provisional  treaty,  on  the 
ground  that  it  would  injure  Canada,  was  not 
necessary  to  protect  the  seals,  and  that  the 
North  American  Company  was  solely  in  fault. 
But  on  18  Nov.  1897  a  joint  meeting  of  Eng- 
lish, American,  and  Canadian  experts  was  held, 
and  imanimously  supported  the  American  con- 
tention at  every  point ;  that  the  herds  had  dimin- 
ished by  from  663<j  to  80  per  cent,  and  mark- 
edly so  even  from  1896  to  1897 ;  that  the  North 
American  Company  was  handling  its  business 
with  entire  propriety;  that  pelagic  sealing,  in- 
volving the  killing  off  of  the  females,  was  the 
sole  cause  of  the  reduction,  which  was  threat- 
ening the  entire  extinction  of  the  fur  seal. 
Another  year  would  bring  about  the  time  for 
changing  the  Paris  regulations ;  and  the  United 
States  agreed  to  prohibit  all  seal  killing  even  on 
the  Pribiloffs  for  a  year,  but  Canada  would 
not  consent  because  it  would  scatter  the  crews 
of  her  sealing  fleet.  Meantime,  Congress  on  14 
June  1898  appropriated  $473,151.26  to  pay  for 
the  Canadian  vessels  seized  years  before.  On 
30  May  1898,  a  joint  Canadian  and  American 
commission  was  authorized  ;  it  met  at  Quebec  in 
August,  adjourned  to  November  at  Washing- 
ton, continued  till  February  1899,  adjourned  to 
the  summer,  and  never  reassembled.     Most  un- 


fortunately, its  scope  included  all  the  questions 
at  issue  between  the  two  governments :  the  seal- 
ing problem  became  entangled  at  the  outset 
with  impossible  bargains  for  general  commer- 
cial reciprocity,  then  with  the  Alaska  boundary 
question  (q.v.)  made  acute  by  the  Klondike 
gold  discoveries,  and  at  the  adjournment  not 
a  single  issue  before  it  had  been  decided.  The 
Paris  regulations  had  expired,  no  new  ones 
had  been  established,  and  the  seals  were  left 
wholly  without  protection ;  while  even  so,  as 
the  United  States  forbade  pelagic  sealing  to  its 
citizens  while  England  did  not,  all  the  profit  of 
the  perishing  industry  was  being  reaped  by  for- 
eigners. The  Canadian  fleet  of  1899  numbered 
26  vessels,  that  of  1900  numbered  33,  with  a 
catch  of  over  35,000  each  year,  considerably 
more  than  half  females.  The  same  conditions 
have  prevailed  since ;  the  North  American  Com- 
pany has  been  increasing  its  efforts  in  order 
to  obtain  its  share  while  the  seals  last;  and  in 
the  Congressional  session  of  1901-2  it  was  seri- 
ously proposed  to  kill  off  the  entire  herd  at 
once,  and  thus  end  the  question  by  putting 
an  end  to  the  seals.  (The  latest  work  on  this 
subject  is  the  chapter  in  Henderson's  ^American 
Diplomatic  Questions,^  1901 ;  earlier  aspects 
were  discussed  in  Stanton's  ^Bering  Sea  Contro- 
versy^ 1892.)     See  U.  S. —  Diplomacy  of  the. 

Bering  Strait  and  Island.  The  strait  is 
the  channel  that  separates  Asia  from  America, 
and  connects  the  North  Pacific  with  the  Arctic 
Ocean.  Its  breadth  at  the  narrowest  part,  be- 
tween Cape  Prince  of  Wales  on  the  American 
coast  and  East  Cape  in  Asia,  is  about  36  miles, 
and  its  depth  in  the  middle  varies  from  29  to 
30  fathoms.  On  both  sides  are  several  commo- 
dious bays ;  but  the  country  is  barren  and  rocky, 
with  scanty  vegetation.  The  sea  here  is  frozen 
over  every  winter,  and  foggy,  hazy  weather  is 
almost  perpetual.  Whales  frequent  the  strait, 
and  the  walrus  occurs  in  vast  numbers.  The 
inhabitants  on  either  shore  support  themselves 
chiefly  by  hunting  and  fishing;  but  those  on  the 
Asiatic  side  are  greatly  superior,  both  physically 
and  intellectually,  to  those  on  the  American. 
The  strait  is  called  after  Vitus  Bering,  by  whom 
it  was  first  discovered.  It  was  more  fully  ex- 
plored by  Capt.  Cook  in  1778.  Bering  Isl.^nd 
is  in  the  southwest  part  of  the  above  sea,  off 
the  east  coast  of  Kamchatka.  It  is  uninhabited, 
and  is  without  wood.  It  has,  however,  several 
springs  of  excellent  water.  Here  the  navigator 
Bering  died  in  1741. 

Ber'ington,  Joseph,  English  Roman  Cath- 
olic theologian:  b.  Shropshire,  1744;  d.  Berk- 
shire, I  Dec.  1827.  His  first  work  was  ^A  Letter 
on  Materialism,  and  Hartley's  Theory  of  the 
Human  Mind^  (1776).  About  this  time,  the 
English  Roman  Catholics  found  their  position 
much  stronger  in  the  arena  of  public  opinion, 
and  began  to  think  of  appearing  there  openly. 
Berington,  in  1779,  published  a  letter  to  For- 
dyce,  on  his  'Sermon  against  Popery.'  In  1780 
appeared  his  'State  and  Behavior  of  English 
Catholics  from  the  Reformation  till  1780.'  In 
1786  he  came  forward  with  'An  Address  to  the 
Protestant  Dissenters,'  who  had  lately  petitioned 
for  a  repeal  of  the  corporation  and  test  acts. 
In  1787  appeared  the  'History  of  Abelard  and 
Heloise,'  with  their  genuine  letters,  and  *^An 
Exposition  of  Roman  Catholic  Principles,  in 
reference  to  God  and  the  Country,'    and  other 


BERIOT  —  BERKELEY 


pamphlets.  In  1790,  Berington  gave  to  the 
world  a  'History  of  Henry  H.^  (of  England), 
vindicating  the  character  of  Becket  from  Lord 
Lyttleton's  attacks.  In  1793  appeared  his  <  Mem- 
oirs of  Gregorio  Panzani,^  papal  legate  to 
England  in  1634-6,  translated  from  fhe  Italian. 
But  his  most  important  work  appeared  in  1814, 
a  'Literary  History  of  the  Middle  Ages,^  giving 
an  account  of  the  state  of  learning  from  "the 
close  of  the  reign  of  Augustus  to  its  revival  in 
the  15th  century.^^ 

Beriot,  ba-re-6,  Charles  Auguste  de,  Bel- 
gian violinist:  b.  Louvain  20  Feb.  1802;  d. 
there  20  April  1870.  He  studied  with  Rob- 
brecht  and  Tiby,  and,  in  Paris,  with  Baillot; 
and  became  a  professor  in  the  Conservatory  in 
Brussels  in  1842.  In  1836  he  married  the  cele- 
brated singer,  Malibran.  He  published  a  'Vio- 
lin   Method^    (1858). 

Berislav,  ba're-slaf,  or  Borislav,  Russia,  a 
fortified  town  on  the  Dnieper  River.  It  is  the 
centre  of  trade  for  the  district.  Pop.  (1903) 
13,700. 

Berkeley,  George,  English  philosopher 
and  bishop :  b.  Kilcrin,  Ireland,  12  March  1685 ; 
d.  Oxford,  14  Jan.  1753.  He  was  educated  at 
Trinity  College,  Dublin,  where  he  took  a  keen 
interest  in  the  philosophical  problems  then  un- 
der discussion.  He  received  the  degree  of  A.B. 
with  honors  in  1704,  being  afterward  success- 
ively scholar  and  fellow.  Almost  immediately  he 
began  his  career  of  authorship.  He  published  in 
1709  his  first  important  work,  the  'New  The- 
ory of  Vision,^  which  is  the  logical  preliminary 
to  his  system  and  gives  expression  to  certain  of 
its  fundamental  principles.  A  year  later  his 
philosophy  finds  complete  statement  in  the 
'Treatise  Concerning  the  Principles  of  Human 
Knowledge.^  During  the  next  15  years  Berke- 
ley advanced  to  a  position  of  prominence  in 
the  English  Church.  In  171 1,  shortly  after  his 
ordination  to  the  diaconate,  he  published  his 
'Discourse  on  Passive  Obedience,^  a  treatise 
upon  ethics,  in  which  he  develops  a  system  of 
theological  utilitarianism.  The  'Dialogues,^ 
published  in  171 1,  present  his  philosophy  in  lit- 
erary form,  clothing  subtle  argument  in  a  garb 
of  rhetorical  beauty.  In  the  years  immediately 
fol'owing,  several  new  works  appeared,  accom- 
panied by  increasing  fame  and  prosperity.  He 
was  appointed  successively  to  the  deaneries  of 
Dromore  and  of  Derry,  the  latter  of  which 
yielded  a  large  income.  But  this  he  resigned 
in  order  to  devote  himself  to  a  plan  for  the 
establishment  of  a  college  in  the  Bermudas, 
where  the  Indians  of  America  were  to  be  en- 
lightened and  Christianized.  For  the  furtherance 
of  such  a  plan  he  obtained  a  promise  from  the 
government  for  a  grant  of  £20,000.  Upon  the 
strength  of  this  he  sailed  for  America  in  1728, 
accompanied  by  his  wife  and  a  few  friends. 
They  went  first  to  Rhode  Island,  where  they 
planned  to  await  the  expected  grant.  Here 
Berkeley  purchased  a  farm  and  waited  three 
years  in  quiet  and  study.  Finally,  upon  the 
failure  of  the  government  to  make  good  its 
promise,  he  was  compelled  to  give  up  his  cher- 
ished plan  and  return  to  England  in  1731.  Soon 
after  his  return  he  was  made  Bishop  of  Cloyne. 
During  the  remaining  years  of  his  life  he 
published  a  number  of  works  upon  philosophy, 
economics,  and  other  subjects.  Notable  among 
these  were   'Alciphron,  or  the  Minute   Philoso- 


pher,^ the  result  of  his  quiet  studies  in  Rhode 
Island,  and  'Sirus,^  a  remarkable  essay  in  which 
the  author  interweaves  his  convictions  concern- 
the  healing  properties  of  tar-water  with  the 
deepest  and  most  profound  of  his  philosophic 
reflections. 

Although  the  representative  English  idealist, 
Berkeley  proceeds  in  his  thought  from  the  em- 
pirical philosophy  of  Locke.  It  was  Locke's 
contention  that  in  knowledge  we  are  concerned 
with  our  own  ideas  only,  and  that  these  ideas 
are  derived  entirely  from  experience.  He  made 
an  important  distinction  among  these  ideas, 
however,  with  reference  to  their  representation 
of  objective  or  material  reality.  Ideas  of  color, 
sound,  taste,  etc.,  called  secondary  qualities, 
are  subjective  processes,  and  reveal  nothing  of 
the  nature  of  material  reality.  But  ideas  of  ex- 
tension, figure,  motion,  etc.,  called  primary  qual- 
ities, reveal  directly  the  nature  and  constitution 
of  that  reality  which  exists  without  the  mind 
in  the  material  world.  Berkeley  agreed  with 
Locke  that  we  know  only  our  own  ideas,  but  he 
attacked  vigorously  this  distinction  between  pri- 
mary and  secondary  qualities.  He  maintained 
that  ideas  of  primary  qualities  are  wholly  sub- 
jective, and  tell  us  no  more  of  the  nature  of 
material  reality  than  do  our  ideas  of  secondary 
qualities.  He  attempts  a  partial  proof  of  this 
in  his  'New  Theory  of  Vision,^  by  showing 
that  distance,  magnitude,  and  situation,  are  not 
directly  perceived  by  sight,  but  are  inferred 
in  an  indirect  manner.  These  ideas  of  distance, 
magnitude,  and  situation  are  results  of  judg- 
ment based  upon  visual  sensations.  Such  visual 
sensations  have  no  essential  relation  to  the 
ideas  in  question,  however  —  they  are  simply 
associated  with  them  in  experience.  For  ex- 
ample, consider  our  idea  of  distance.  We  find 
connected  with  this  idea:  (i)  Sensation  of 
movement  in  the  eye;  (2)  confusion  in  vision 
due  to  nearness  of  the  object;  and  (3)  strain  of 
fixation.  These  sensations  are  associated  by 
custom  with  degrees  of  distance.  Hence  we 
have  in  this  idea  of  distance  no  direct  revela- 
tion through  vision  of  the  nature  of  material 
reality.  Rather  we  have  the  product  of  our 
own  judgment,  based  upon  sensations  which 
have  themselves  no  objective  reference.  So  it 
is  with  other  ideas  of  primary  qualities  which 
have  been  held  to  bring  us  into  immediate  con- 
tact with  material  reality.  In  ideas  of  figure  and 
motion  we  have  sensations  of  light,  color,  and 
strain,  and  the  remainder  is  due  to  associa- 
tion and  judgment.  Thus  Berkeley  concludes 
that  we  have  in  visual  ideas  not  a  revelation 
of  the  nature  of  matter,  but  a  universal  lan- 
guage of  symbols  whereby  we  interpret  our  sen- 
sations of  touch,  and  so  regulate  our  actions 
as  to  preserve  and  promote  our  lives.  In  his 
'Treatise  Concerning  the  Principles  of  Human 
Knowledge,*  he  uses  this  conclusion  to  dis- 
prove the  existence  of  a  material  world  apart 
from,  and  independent  of,  the  perceiving  mind. 
The  very  notion  of  matter  or  corporeal  sub- 
stance involves  insoluble  contradiction.  By  mat- 
ter is  meant  inert,  senseless  substance  in  which 
extension,  figure,  and  motion  reside.  But  these 
so-called  attributes  of  matter  are  ideas  in  the 
mind,  and  are  shown  to  be  every  whif  as  sub- 
jective as  ideas  of  colors  and  tastes.  Now, 
ideas  can  be  similar  only  to  ideas.  Hence  to 
suppose  that  our  ideas  copy  or  represent  a 
material    substance    that    is    unperceiving    and 


BERKELEY 


nnperceived,  is  a  crass  absurdity.  Ideas  are  the 
only  objects  of  our  thought.  To  exist  as  an  ob- 
ject is  to  be  perceived.  (Esse  est  per  dpi.) 
Although  confined  to  our  own  ideas,  we  may  ob- 
serve their  various  characteristics  and  combina- 
tions. Sense  qualities  are  simple  states  _  of 
consciousness.  Sense-objects  are  sensation- 
complexes.  There  is  in  our  consciousness  a 
continuous  succession  of  these  perceptions,  in 
which  we  perceive  perceptions  newly  excited, 
perceptions  changed,  and  perceptions  obliterated. 
For  all  this  phenomena  there  must  be  some 
cause.  This  cause  cannot  be  an  idea  or  combina- 
tion of  ideas ;  for  it  is  the  appearance  and  ar- 
rangement of  ideas  which  must  be  explained. 
This  cause  must  be  a  substance,  a  ground  of  ex- 
istence. Matter,  or  corporeal  substance,  is  an 
impossibility.  We  are  compelled,  therefore,  to 
find  the  cause  of  our  ideas  in  an  incorporeal, 
active  substance,  or  spirit.  But  we  observe  an 
important  difference  in  the  production  of  our 
ideas.  Those  ideas  actually  perceived  by  the 
senses  of  the  individual  are  not  dependent  upon 
his  own  mind  or  will.  Hence  there  must  be 
some  other  will  or  spirit  which  produces  them. 
This  is  God,  the  Author  of  Nature.  The  ideas 
of  sense  are  imprinted  upon  our  minds  by 
the  direct  influence  of  the  Divine  Mind.  Hence 
they  are  strong,  orderly,  and  coherent.  Their 
source  guarantees  their  trustworthiness,  and 
with  good  reason  they  may  be  called  "real 
things.^^  In  this  way  our  knowledge  acquires 
an  objective  validity  much  more  adequate  than 
if  our  ideas  were  aroused  by  the  action  of  a 
material  substance  upon  our  sense-organs.  The 
laws  of  nature,  which  we  properly  regard,  rep- 
resent the  regular  operation  of  the  Divine  Mind 
upon  our  minds.  There  is  consequently  no  dif- 
ficulty in  distinguishing  the  order  of  ideas  which 
is  real  and  objective,  from  the  train  of  sub- 
jective  fancies    and    imaginations. 

The  best  edition  of  Berkeley's  works  is  that 
by  Fraser  (2d  ed.  1902),  containing  a  *Life.* 
Consult  further:  Fraser's  briefer  <Life^  (1881; 
new  ed.  1901 ;  in  <  Philosophical  Classics^  ; 
Frederichs,  <Ueber  Berkeleys  Idealismus' 
(1870)  ;  Spicker,  <Kant,  Hume  und  Berkeley* 
(1875)  ;  lanitsch,  <Kants  Urtheil  iiber  Berke- 
ley >  (1879).  H.  W.  Wright, 
Cornell  University. 
Berkeley,  George  Charles  Grantley  Fitz- 
hardinge,  English  writer:  b.  10  Feb.  1800;  d. 
Poole,  Dorsetshire,  23  Feb.  1881.  In  1832-52 
he  was  a  member  of  the  British  Parliament,  and 
for  a  time  he  was  in  the  army.  His  ^My  Life 
and  Recollections^  (1864-6),  an  extensive  work, 
attracted  some  attention.  Among  his  further 
works  are:  < Berkeley  Castle^  (1836);  <San- 
dron  Hall,  or  the  Days  of  Queen  Anne^  (1840)  ; 
^The  English  Sportsman  on  the  Western 
Prairies^  (1861)  ;  ^Anecdotes  of  the  Upper  Ten 
Thousand  at  Home  and  Abroad^  (18^7);  antl 
<Tales  of  Life  and  Death>    (1870). 

Berkeley,  Sir  George,  English  engineer:  b. 
London  26  April  1821 ;  d.  there  20  Dec.  1893- 
In  1835  he  began  experimenting  with  methods 
for  operating  atmospheric  railways.  In  1841 
he  associated  himself  with  Robert  Stephenson 
and  continued  his  experiments.  On  Stephen- 
son's death  he  became  engineer  of  the  Great 
Indian  Peninsular  Railway.  In  1892  he  was 
made  president  of  the  Institute  of  Civil  Engi- 
neers.    He   wrote  papers   on   atmospheric    rail- 


ways  and   on  the  strength  of  iron  and   steel; 
and  was  knighted  in  1893. 

Berkeley,  Sir  John,  English  nobleman, 
one  of  the  proprietors  of  New  Jersey :  b.  1607 ; 
d.  28  Aug.  1678.  He  was  a  prominent  Royalist 
•during  the  contest  of  Charles  I.  with  Parlia- 
ment. Charles  II.  granted  him,  with  Sir  George 
Cartaret,  a  proprietary  interest  in  New  Jersey 
and  Carolina. 

Berkeley,  Miles  Joseph,  English  botanist: 
b.  Biggin,  Derbyshire,  1803 ;  d.  Sibbertoft,  Lei- 
cestershire, July  1889.  Educated  at  Christ 
Church,  Oxford,  he  took  orders,  was  curate  at 
Margate  (Kent)  and  Market  Harborough 
(Leicestershire),  and  subsequently  was  made 
vicar  of  Sibbertoft.  He  soon  became  the  lead- 
ing British  authority  on  fungi  and  plant  path- 
ology, and  especially  well  known  for  his  achieve- 
ments in  mycology.  About  6,000  species  of 
fungi  are  credited  to  him;  his  most  important 
work  was  the  section  on  fungi  contributed  to 
Hooker's  ^British  Flora^  (1836),  and  his  *  Out- 
lines of  British  Fungology^  (i860),  and  he 
assembled  a  fine  herbarium  of  more  than  9,000 
species,  now  at  the  Kew  Gardens,  and  regarded 
as  one  of  the  most  noteworthy  in  the  world. 
A  bibliography  may  be  found  in  the  "^Catalogue 
of  Scientific  Papers*  of  the  Royal  Society.  Con- 
sult, also.  Vol.  XLVII.  (1890)  of  the  <  Proceed- 
ings of  the  Royal  Society*  for  a  sketch  by 
Hooker. 

Berkeley,  Stanley,  English  artist.  He  has 
constantly  exhibited  at  the  Royal  Academy  in 
recent  years,  and  is  a  national  gold  medallist  and 
a  member  of  the  Royal  Institute  of  Painter 
Etchers.  Among  his  paintings  are  < The  Vic- 
tory of  Candahar* ;  ^For  God  and  the  King*; 
'Prince  Rupert  at  the  Battle  of  Edgehill* ; 
^Completely  Routed*  ;  ^An  Australian  Bush 
Fire*;  'Heroes  of  the  Tugela*  ;  'The  Meet*; 
'Atbara*  ;  'Omdurman*;  'The  Charge  of  Scar- 
lett's Three  Hundred*  ;  Gordons  and  Greys  to 
the  Front*  ;  'Full  Cry* ;  'Desperate  Odds*  ; 
'Dargai*  ;  'Cornered  at  Last*  ;  'The  Death*  ; 
'The  Charge  of  the  French  Cuirassiers  at 
Waterloo.*  He  has  also  done  much  in  the  way 
of  illustrating  books  and  newspapers. 

Berkeley,  Sir  William,  American  colonial 
governor :  b.  near  London  about  1610 ;  d.  13 
July  1677.  His  father  and  brother  were  colo- 
nial proprietors.  Graduating  from  Oxford  1629, 
he  traveled  on  the  Continent  for  a  year;  was 
appointed  a  commissioner  of  Canada  1632,  and 
won  a  high  reputation  there.  In  1641  he  was 
made  governor  of  Virginia,  and  arriving  in  1642, 
was  for  a  time  very  popular.  He  experimented 
in  the  cultivation  of  rice,  cotton,  indigo,  hemp, 
flax,  and  silk,  the  manufacture  of  potash  and 
naval  stores,  and  the  cutting  and  export  of 
masts ;  pleased  the  Royalist  party  by  expell- 
ing the  New  England  Puritans  in  1643.  and  all 
parties  by  capturing  the  Indian  chief  Opechan- 
canough  in  1644,  after  a  series  of  Indian  mas- 
sacres. Always  with  an  eye  to  profit,  however, 
he  received  from  the  king  a  monopoly  of  the 
fur  trade.  During  the  English  revolution  he 
adhered  to  the  royal  side,  and  offered  an  asylum 
in  Virginia  to  exiled  or  dissatisfied  Royalists ; 
many  hundreds  availed  themselves  of  this. 
When  Cromwell  felt  strong  enough  he  sent  a 
fleet    (in    1651)    to  bring  him  back  for  punish- 


GEORGE    BERKELEY, 


BERKELEY  —  BERKHAMPSTEAD 


I 


ment ;  but  Berkeley  succeeded  in  making  terms 
with  it  by  mingled  "bluff''  and  finesse,  and  was 
allowed    to    retire    in    safety    to    his    plantation, 
though  deprived  of  his  office.     When  the  Resto- 
ration began  to  seem  probable,  the  colonists  elect- 
•cd  Berkeley  as  governor  to  gain  favor  in  such 
event ;    Berkeley   accepted    it    provisionally,    and 
Charles   II.   on  accession   confirmed  it.     But  in 
this  second  term  all  Berkeley's  evil  side  showed 
itself,    till    it    ended    in    the    atrocities    of    1676. 
Besides  expelling  and  confiscating  the  goods  of 
Puritans    and    Quakers,    a    measure    popular    at 
the   time,   he   frowned   on   the   establishment   of 
schools,  and  absolutely  refused  to  have  a  print- 
ing-press set  up,  as  making  people  too  censorious 
■of  their  superiors.     He  formed  a  council  of  the 
wealthier  planters,  and   having  obtained   during 
the    spasm    of    Restoration    loyalty    in    1662    an 
ultra-royalist    House    of    Burgesses,    would    not 
issue   writs    for   another   election    for    14   years, 
simply   adjourning  annually  the   "Long  Assem- 
"bly,*'  as  it  came  to  be  called ;  and  in  1670  abol- 
ished universal  suffrage,  substituting  a  property 
qualification,    purely    as    a    precaution    for    the 
future,  as  no  elections  were  held  for  years  before 
and    after.      These,   however,    were   only   means 
to  the  end  of  profiting  himself  and  his  friends, 
■and  the  rapacious  crew  of  civil  officers  sent  over 
by    Charles    to    quiet    their    importunities.     The 
heavy   taxes    and    fees   imposed   on   the   colony, 
■drove  them   to  desperation,   so  that  as  early  as 
1667  they  were  ripe  for  revolt.     Besides  Berke- 
ley's   share    in    various    extortions,    he   had   one 
monopoly  which  led   directly  to  the  catastrophe, 
that   of   the   Indian   trade,    which    he   gained   by 
underhand  means.     The  colony  allowed  no  trade 
with  the  Indians  without  license ;  Berkeley  there- 
fore licensed  a   small   number  of  men  to  trade 
in   furs   with  them,  which  secretly  included  liq- 
uor,  firearms,   and  other  things,  and  exacted  a 
third  of  the  profits.     It  was  believed  to  be  this 
Lgain  which  led  him  to  refuse  permission  to  the 
[colonists   to   protect  themselves  against  the   In- 
Wians  in    1675-6,   while   hundreds   of  them   were 
|teing    massacred    and    tortured    and    scores    of 
plantations    laid    waste,    and    to    dissolve    force 
lafter    force    assembled    to    protect    them.     How 
JNathaniel   Bacon  chastised  the  Indians   in  spite 
•of  him,  was  proscribed  for  it,  forced  into  open 
iTebellion,  drove  Berkeley  into  retreat  and  burned 
jliis    capital,    and    died    at    the    moment    of    his 
jTictory,     is     told     under     'Bacon's     Rebellion.^ 
JBerkeiey's  soul   was  as  full  of  senile  fury  as  it 
["had  been  of  senile  avarice ;  he  slaughtered  right 
[and  left,   hanging  a  score  of  victims  with   such 
["vindictive    haste    and    ruffianly    insult    that    the 
lAssembl}'  remonstrated,  and  the  royal  commis- 
isioners,  who  came  in  January  to  investigate  the 
reondition  of  the  colony,  made  a  report  that  led 
[the   king    to    remove    him,    with    the   comment, 
[*The  old  fool  has  put  to  death  more  people  in 
[that   naked   country   than    I   for   the   m.urder   of 
[iny  father."     He  sailed  27  April,  his  departure 
[celebrated  with  bonfires  and  salutes  of  cannon ; 
[and  expected  to  justify  himself  to  the  king  and 
iTeturn.     But  Charles  kept  postponing  an  inter- 
Iview,   and   in  a   few   weeks    Berkeley  died  —  of 
[chagrinj  it  was  believed. 

Berkeley,  Gal.,  a  town  in  Alameda  County, 
[on  the  Southern  P.  R.R. ;  8  miles  northeast  of 
I  San  Francisco.  It  is  the  seat  of  the  State  Uni- 
[versity  of  California  (q.v.)  ;  the  State  Agricul- 
Itural  College;  the  State  Institution  for  the  Deaf, 


Dumb,  and  Blind ;  and  six  college  preparatory 
schools.  The  town  is  w'ell  equipped  with  elec- 
tric light  and  street  railroads ;  and  has  soap 
works,  iron  foundries  and  machine  shops, 
furniture  factory,  and  other  industries.  Pop. 
(1900)    13,214. 

Berkeley,  England,  a  market  town,  16 
miles  southwest  of  Gloucester,  pleasantly  situ- 
ated on  the  right  bank  of  the  Avon,  in  the  rich 
vale  of  Berkeley,  and  celebrated  for  its  castle, 
where  Edward  II.  was  confined  and  barba- 
rously murdered.     Pop.   (igoi)   6,277. 

Berkeley  Divinity  School,  an  Episcopal 
theological  school  at  Middletown,  Conn.  It  was 
organized  by  Bishop  John  Williams  of  Con- 
necticut while  he  was  president  of  Trinity  Col- 
lege, at  Hartford,  and  was  at  first  intended  to 
be  the  theological  department  of  the  college. 
It  was  later  placed  upon  an  independent  basis 
and  removed  to  its  present  location.  The  value 
of  its  buildings  is  about  $90,000,  and  its  endow- 
ment fund  is  not   far  from  $350,000. 

Berkeley  Sound,  next  to  Stanley  Sound 
the  most  frequented  inlet  of  the  East  Falkland 
Island,  near  its  northeast  extremity.  Though  it 
is  difficult  to  enter,  it  contains  some  of  the  best 
harbors  in  the  South  Atlantic. 

Berkeley  Springs,  W.  Va.,  a  town  and 
county-seat  of  IMorgan  County ;  2  miles  south 
of  the  Potomac  and  'j'j  miles  northwest  of 
Washington ;  on  a  branch  of  the  Baltimore  & 
O.  R.R.  It  is  in  an  agricultural  region,  and 
has  been  widely  known  and  popular  for  more 
than  a  century  because  of  its  mineral  springs. 
The  site  of  the  town  was  a  part  of  the  vast 
estate  of  Lord  Fairfax,  and  Washington  owned 
considerable  property  here.  It  is  the  oldest 
pleasure  resort  in  the  South,  and  as  far  back 
as  the  colonial  days  the  gentry  of  Virginia 
came  here  in  warm  weather  and  lived  in  log 
huts  in  order  to  enjoy  or  be  benefited  by  the 
baths  and  swimming  pools.     Pop.   (1900)   781. 

Berk'enhout,  John,  Dutch-English  physi- 
cian and  general  writer:  b.  Leeds,  about  1730; 
d.  1791.  Having  entered  the  Prussian  service, 
he  rose  to  the  rank  of  captain.  In  1756  he 
quitted  that  service  and  entered  into  that  of 
England,  where  he  obtained  the  same  rank.  At 
the  peace  in  1760  he  went  to  Edinburgh  and 
began  the  study  of  physic ;  while  there  he  pub- 
lished his  'Clavis  Anglica  Linguae  Botanicas,' 
a  book  of  great  merit,  and  later  his  'Pharma- 
copoeia Medici,'  which  passed  through  three 
editions.  In  1778  he  attended  the  British  com- 
missioners to  America,  and  at  Philadelphia  he 
was  committed  to  prison,  but  he  soon  after- 
ward was  set  at  liberty,  and  returned  with  the 
commissioners  to  England,  where  he  obtained  a 
pension.  He  was  an  industrious  writer,  and  his 
publications  possess  considerable  merit. 

Berkhampstead,  berk'ham-sted,  or  Berk- 
hamsted,  Great,  a  town  in  Hertfordshire, 
England,  beautifully  situated  in  a  hollow,  sur- 
rounded by  hills,  on  the  London  &  N.  W.  R.R. 
It  consists  almost  wholly  of  one  main  street, 
and  has  a  fine  old  church,  restored  1871-87 ; 
several  chapels ;  Berkhamsted  School,  with  a 
fine  chapel  (1895);  a  high  school  for  girls; 
many  other  schools ;  etc.  There  are  works  for 
wooden  ware,  a  large  chemical  work,  a  boat- 
building yard,  brush,  coach,  and  mantle  fac- 
tories, an  iron   foundry,  etc.     The  poet  Cowper 


BERKHEY  —  BERLIN 


was  born  here  in  1731.  In  the  small  parish  of 
Little  Berkhampstead,  some  miles  to  the  north, 
the  famous  Bishop  Ken  was  born.  Pop.  (1891) 
5,034- 

Berkhey,  berk'hl,  Johannes  Lefranca  van, 
Dutch  writer  of  eminence :  b.  Leyden,  23  Jan. 
1729;  d.  there,  13  March  1812.  His  work,  en- 
titled *Naturlyke  Historie  van  Holland,*  first 
brought  him  into  notice.  He  also  distinguished 
himself  as  a  poet,  though  he  often  manifests  a 
tendency  to  bombast,  and  indulges  in  false 
pathos.  One  of  his  best  poems  is  entitled  <Het 
Verheerligkt   Leyden.* 

Berkley,  Va.,  a  town  in  Norfolk  County 
on  the  Elizabeth  River  opposite  the  city  of  Nor- 
folk. It  is  on  the  Norfolk  &  W.  and  the  Nor- 
folk &  S.  R.R.'s.  The  Berkley  College  and 
Military  Institute  and  several  private  schools 
are  located  here.  Shipyards,  foundries,  and 
knitting-mills  are  also  among  the  features  of 
the  town.     Pop.   (1900)  4,988. 

Berkshire,  a  midland  county  of  England, 
with  an  area  of  450,132  acres  or  712  square 
miles.  Its  shape  is  very  irregular,  and  has 
been  compared  to  that  of  a  shoe  or  slipper.  A 
range  of  chalk  hills  crosses  the  country  in  a 
westerly  direction,  and  forms  a  boundary  to  the 
fertile  vale  of  Whitehorse,  so  called  from  the 
gigantic  form  of  a  horse  which  has  been  scooped 
out  on  the  side  of  a  chalk  hill,  so  as  to  become 
conspicuous  to  all  the  country  round,  referred  to 
in  Thomas  Hughes'  '^The  Scouring  of  the  White 
Horse.*  The  cultivated  parts  of  the  county, 
and  more  especially  this  vale,  are  peculiarly 
fruitful  in  barley.  They  also  contain  much  rich 
pasturage  and  many  excellent  dairy  farms. 
Timber  abounds,  particularly  oak  and  heech,  in 
Windsor  Forest  and  toward  the  west.  Tur- 
nips are  an  important  crop.  There  are  but  few 
manufactures  carried  on  in  this  county,  the 
principal  being  agricultural  implements  and 
artificial  manures,  flour,  paper,  sacking  and  sail- 
cloth, and  biscuits  (at  Reading).  Malt  is  made 
in  great  quantities,  and  chiefly  sent  to  London. 
The  principal  towns  of  Berkshire  are  Reading 
(the  county  town),  Newbury.  Maidenhead, 
Wokingham,  Wallingford,  Windsor,  Abingdon. 
Wantage,  and  Farringdon.  Pop.  (1901)  255,000. 
See  Graves,  *The  Way  About  Berkshire*   (1898). 

Berkshires,  The,  or  Berkshire  Hills,  a 
range  of  mountains  in  the  northwest  of  Massa- 
chusetts ;  in  Berkshire  County ;  stretching  16 
miles  north  and  south  on  the  east  of  the  valley 
of  the  Upper  Hoosic  River.  They  are  a  favorite 
summer  and  autumn  resort.  The  highest 
summits  are  Greylock  in  the  north,  3,535  feet, 
and  Mount  Everett,  or  the  Dome,  in  the  south, 
2,635   feet. 

Berlad,  ber-lad',  Rumania,  a  town  on  the 
Berlad  River,  and  Teucuci-Baslui  R.R.,  about 
68  miles  northwest  of  Bucharest.  It  is  the  trade 
centre  of  a  grain-raising  district  and  has  many 
distilleries.  It  is  a  well  built  town,  with  good 
schools  and  a  theatre.     Pop.   (1903)   26,892. 

Berleburg,  bcr'le-boorg,  or  Berleburger 
Bible,  a  translation  of  the  Scriptures  pub- 
lished at  Berleburg,  Germany  (1726-42).  Its 
unknown  editors  have  given  an  original  version 
with  accompanying  exposition  more  or  less 
mystical  in  character. 

Berlichingen,  ber'liH-Tng-en,  Gotz,  or  God- 
frey von,  German  soldier  of  fortune:  b.  Jax- 


thausen,  Swabia  1480;  d.  23  July  1562.  He  was 
a  bold,  restless,  warlike,  and  honorable  knight. 
He  placed  himself  at  the  head  of  a  body  of  the 
rebellious  peasants,  in  the  war  which  they 
waged  against  their  oppressors,  but  was  soon 
made  prisoner.  Before  that  time  he  had  lost 
his  right  hand,  and  therefore  wore  one  made  of 
iron.  His  biography,  written  by  himself,  was 
printed  at  Nuremberg  in  1731  and  1775,  and,  for 
the  third  time,  at  Breslau  in  1813.  This  book 
contains  an  excellent  picture  of  the  social  life 
and  customs  of  the  time,  and  has  furnished 
Goethe  with  the  subject  of  his  drama,  'Goetz 
von  Berlichingen,*  translated  by  Sir  Walter 
Scott. 

Berlin,  Canada,  town  and  county-seat  of 
Waterloo  County,  Ont. ;  on  the  Grand  R.  and 
the  Grand  T.  R.R. ;  62  miles  west  of  Toronto. 
It  has  manufactories  of  furniture,  leather,  boots 
and  shoes,  pianos  and  organs,  buttons,  gloves, 
etc. ;  excellent  sewerage  system,  waterworks, 
street  railway,  and  gas  and  electric  light  plants ; 
a  Roman  Catholic  college,  15  churches,  and  sev- 
eral daily,  weekly,  and  monthly  periodicals. 
Pop.  (1 901)  9.747- 

Benin.  iSio  account  of  the  earliest  settle- 
ment of  Berlin  has  come  down  to  us,  but  it  ia 
supposed  that  the  city  was  founded  during  the 
decade  from  1230  to  1240.  Indeed,  the  mar- 
graves John  I.  and  Otto  III.  are  said  to  have 
established  the  city  as  a  stronghold  against  the 
Slavs.  The  name  Berlin  is  probably  of  Slavic 
origin,  although  some  scholars  trace  the  word 
to  ^'Barlein,'*  from  the  fact  that  a  bear  appears 
on  the  coat  of  arms  of  the  city.  The  new  city, 
or  town,  was  situated  on  the  old  commercial 
highway  which  led  from  Leipsic  to  Stettin  and 
was  known  especially  as  a  market  for  herring, 
grain,  and  wood.  Cologne  (Colonia),  the 
near-by  sister  city  on  the  river  Spree,  seems  to 
have  been  established  as  an  independent  munici- 
pality simultaneously  with  Berlin  and  was  united 
with  Berlin,  temporarily,  in  the  year  1307. 
Though  the  margrave  had  his  castle  in  the  city, 
the  municipal  government  was  left  to  the  mayor 
and  aldermen,  who  enjoyed   full  sway. 

In  1 134  the  mark  of  Brandenburg  had  come 
into  the  hands  of  Albrecht  the  Bear,  of  the 
House  of  Ascan,  to  which  family  also  belonged 
the  founders  of  Berlin,  who  ruled  in  common. 
After  the  extinction  of  this  family  (1323)  the 
German  emperor,  Ludwig  of  Bavaria,  gave 
Brandenburg  to  his  son  Ludwig  as  a  fief,  who 
in  1351  passed  it  to  his  brother,  Ludwig  the 
Roman.  His  successor.  Otto  the  Lazy,  sold 
the  mark  to  the  emperor  Karl  IV.  (i373)- 
Karl's  son,  the  emperor  Sigismund,  appointed 
Friedrich  von  Hohenzollern,  burggravc  of 
Niirnberg,  viceroy  of  the  mark  in  141 1  and  made 
him  an  elector  in  1415.  This  increased  dignity, 
which  indeed  had  already  been  worn  by  Ludwig 
the  Roman,  gave  the  ruler  of  the  mark  an  im- 
portance that  redounded  to  the  good  of  the 
country  and  of  the  city.  The  first  Hohenzollern 
had  a  difficult  position  to  fill,  in  that  he  had  to 
put  down  a  rebellious  and,  in  part,  thievish 
nobility.  This  nobility,  especially  the  family  of 
Quitzows,  did  great  damage  to  the  trade  of 
Berlin  (1406-1410).  Just  as  his  father  had  had 
to  contend  with  the  nobility,  Frederick  II.,  the 
second  Hohenzollern,  had  to  fight  against  the 
populace  of  Berlin-Cologne.     Soon  after  he  un- 


BERLIN 


dertook  the  government  he  began  a  strong 
citadel  in  Cologne,  on  the  bank  of  the  Spree. 

1  his  same  citadel,  enlarged  and  extended 
during  the  centuries,  now  serves  the  present 
emperor  both  as  a  residence,  and  as  the  palace 
where  he  receives  his  princely  guests.  With  the 
building  of  the  citadel  the  margrave  removed 
to  Berlin ;  and  the  result  was  that  Berlin  and 
Cologne  had  to  surrender  much  of  their  au- 
thority to  him.  At  first  the  cities  had  become 
involved  in  a  dispute  over  constitutional  and 
administrative  matters  and  had  called  in  Fred- 
erick II.  as  arbiter;  but  soon  they  were  quarrel- 
ling with  the  prince  himself,  and  he  defeated 
both  of  them. 

Since  Berlin-Cologne  has  been  the  residence 
of  the  Hohenzollerns  the  history  of  the  city  has 
been  intimately  connected  with  that  of  the  reign- 
ing family.  The  rulers  have  always  been  par- 
ticularly interested  in  building  up  the  city.  In 
this  respect  the  work  of  the  Great  Elector,  Fred- 
erick William  (1640-88),  was  noteworthy.  He 
added  two  new  wards  to  the  city,  Friedrichs- 
werder  and  Dorotheenstadt,  built  magnificent 
fortifications  (though  later  these  were  re- 
moved), and  summoned  architects  and  engineers 
from  Holland  to  finish  the  palace  and  lay  out 
public  grounds,  as  the  Lustgarten  and  the  Lin- 
den-promenade. His  successor,  Frederick  III., 
the  first  king  of  Prussia,  added  to  the  city 
Friedrichstadt  and  other  suburbs.  Supported  by 
artists  like  Schliiter  and  Eosander  he  enlarged 
and  beautified  the  palace  and  gave  the  city  a 
number  of  fine  statues  and  public  buildings,  par- 
ticularly the  Zenghaus,  which  is  one  of  Berlin's 
conspicuous  monuments  of  architecture.  The 
fine  eouestrian  statue  of  the  Great  Elector,  on 
the  bridge  near  the  palace,  is  by  Schulter.  Fred- 
crick  William  I.  was  especially  interested  in 
building  private  residences.  He  made  presents 
of  building-lotj  and  even  furnished  lumber 
gratis  and  made  other  concessions. 

His  son,  Frederick  the  Great,  turned  his  at- 
tention to  the  erection  of  new  buildings  in  Pots- 
dam, his  favorite  residence.  After  the  Seven 
Years'  War,  in  which  Berlin  had  been  burned 
twice,  the  king  began,  at  great  personal  expense, 
the  construction  of  houses  for  those  who  en- 
joyed his  favor.  External  architectural  beauty 
was  aimed  at,  rather  than  convenience.  Among 
the  public  structures  erected  by  Frederick  the 
Great  may  be  mentioned  the  two  domes  of  the 
German  and  the  French  church,  the  King's 
Colonade,  and  the  Royal  Library.  In  1763  he 
established  the  Royal  Porcelain  Manufactory. 

The  famous  Brandenburg  Gate,  a  triumphal 
arch  in  classic  style,  was  erected  in  1793,  during 
the  reign  of  Frederick  William  II.  It  was  orna- 
mented by  the  sculptor  Schadow  with  a  bronze 
statue  of  Victory  driving  a  four-horse  chariot. 
When  Berlin  was  taken  by  the  French  in  1807 
this  was  taken  to  Paris,  but  was  recovered  in 
181.1  after  Paris  had  been  taken  by  the  allies. 
Under  Frederick  William  III.  the  present  Royal 
Theatre  and  the  Old  Museum  were  built,  and 
under  Frederick  William  IV.  the  statue  of  Fred- 
erick the  Great.  The  wonderful  progress  made 
by  Berlin  during  the  reign  of  William  I.  gave 
the  city  ouite  a  different  appearance  in  a  short 
time.  Buildings  of  a  monumental  character, 
both  public  and  private,  sprang  up  everywhere. 

This  development  continues  ;  and  the  present 
emperor  is  doing  all  he  can  to  beautify  the  city. 


chiefly  with  monuments  and  statues.  Likewise 
the  activity  of  private  citizens  along  the  same 
lines  is  now  far  greater  than  in  former  cen- 
turies. The  great  historical  events  which 
created  the  German  Empire  and  made  Berlin 
the  capital  of  it  found  a  happy  echo  in  the 
populace.  The  new  development  of  the  city  to 
the  metropolis  of  the  political  life  and  of  na- 
tional and  international  trade  has  not  been  ex- 
ternal and  artificial  as  formerly,  but  has  been 
internal  and  necessary.  This  fact  cannot  be 
set  forth  in  an  account  of  buildings  and  monu- 
ments. It  w^ould  be  necessary  to  examine  the 
statistics  of  trade  and  commerce,  of  banking,  and 
of  the  industries,  etc.,  etc.  If  one  studies  the 
statistics,  then  it  becomes  clear  that  those  ma- 
terial aspects  of  the  city  that  amaze  one  and 
compel  admiration  are  the  only  manifestation 
of  a  powerful  historical  development,  which  can- 
not by  any  means  be  regarded  as  having  reached 
its   zenith. 

Area,  Population,  Suburbs,  etc. —  Besides 
Cologne,  other  neighboring  towns  were  built  up 
later,  as  Friedrichwerder  (with  Friedrichstadt), 
and  Dorotheenstadt.  All  four  of  these  towns, 
though  lying  in  immediate  proximity  to  one 
another,  remained  completely  independent  of 
each  other  till  1709,  when  Frederick  I.  fused 
them  into  one  municipal  corporation.  At  that 
time  the  population  was  about  57,000.  Now, 
after  nearly  200  years,  we  find  a  similar  situ- 
ation as  regards  a  plurality  of  independent 
cities.  Immediately  adjoining  Berlin  there 
are  some  20  completely  independent  municipali- 
ties of  one  kind  and  another.  For  the  most  part 
these  towns  and  cities  have,  to  all  appearance, 
become  fused  with  Berlin,  and  boundary  lines 
have  been  obliterated  ;  but  each  one  has  its  own 
independent  municipal  government.  As  yet 
there  is  no  centralized,  unifying  government  to 
bind  them  together.  Among  the  larger  cities 
thus  related  to  Berlin  may  be  mentioned  Char- 
lottenburg,  with  237,000;  Rixdorf,  with  153,000, 
and  Schoneberg,  with  141,000  inhabitants.  Ber- 
lin proper  has  at  present  a  population  of  2,036,- 
000;  or,  including  the  immediate  suburbs,  nearly 
3,000,000.  The  area  of  Berlin  is  6,350  hectares 
(i  hectare  ^25^  acres),  being  less  than  that 
of  several  other  German  cities,  for  instance, 
Cologne  (11,100  hectares),  Frankfurt-on-Main 
(8,000  hectares),  Strasburg  (7,800  hectares), 
Munich  (7,500  hectares),  and  Mannheim  (6,600 
hectares).  Though,  to  be  sure,  if  we  include 
the  immediate  suburbs,  the  area  runs  up  to 
16,500  hectares. 

There  has  been  no  considerable  extension  of 
the  corporate  limits  of  Berlin  into  this  neigh- 
boring territory  since  i860,  though  the  neces- 
sity for  such  a  proceeding  has  been  urged  re- 
peatedly in  various  quarters.  To  do  this,  and 
thus  effect  a  union  of  these  several  municipali- 
ties, the  consent  of  both  the  State  government 
and  the  Parliament  is  necessary.  For  a  long 
time  the  Prussian  government  was  inclined  to 
carry  out  such  a  plan,  but  the  city  of  Berlin 
objected  to  assuming  the  burden  which  the  poor 
condition  of  the  streets  and  public  utilities  of 
the  suburbs  would  have  imposed  upon  her.  At 
present  the  State  government  encourages  the 
incorporation  of  the  smaller  country  suburbs 
into  towns,  and  sooner  or  later  all  these  ele- 
ments, large  and  small,  will  be  brought  together 
under  one  municipal  government. 


BERLIN 


The  present  fragmentary  condition  of  the 
city  entails  upon  Berlin  many  practical  difficul- 
ties. For  instance,  the  city  has  bought  in  the 
suburbs  not  less  than  14,200  hectares  of  land 
for  the  utilization  of  the  sewage,  and  the  lay- 
ing of  the  pipes  through  these  neighboring  mu- 
nicipalities often  gives  occasion  for  long  and 
tedious  negotiations.  Similar  difficulties  attend 
the  construction  of  street-car  lines.  In  every 
case  the  company  in  question  has  to  secure  a 
concession  from  every  suburb  concerned.  This 
always  involves  long  negotiations  as  to  details. 
Municipal  Government. —  The  administration 
of  the  city  of  Berlin  is  in  the  hands  of  a  mu- 
nicipal council  of  34  members,  including  the 
mayor.  Half  of  these  fill  honorary  positions, 
half  receive  paj'.  Among  the  salaried  members 
may  be  mentioned,  the  chief  mayor  (Ober- 
biirgermeister),  the  mayor,  two  syndici,  a  min- 
ister of  finance,  two  school  commissioners,  and 
two  commissioners  on  buildings.  The  mem- 
bers of  the  council  are  elected,  for  a  limited 
period,  by  the  board  of  aldermen.  The  alder- 
men themselves  are  elected  by  vote  of  the  citi- 
zens. The  sessions  of  the  council  are  secret; 
those  of  the  board  of  aldermen  are  usually  pub- 
lic. All  important  innovations  require  the  con- 
sent of  both  bodies.  Besides,  there  are  a 
number  of  committees,  composed  of  members  of 
the  council  and  of  the  board  of  aldermen.  In 
certain  branches  of  the  administration  the  au- 
thority of  these  committees  is  competent,  but 
in  important  matters  transcending  their  special 
departments  their  authority  is  conditioned  by 
the  consent  of  the  municipal  council. 

The  aldermen,  144  in  number,  receive  no 
salary,  their  position  being  honorary.  They  are 
represented  by  a  chairman  and  his  deputy.  A 
further  category  of  honorary  and  unsalaried 
officials  is  formed  by  the  citizen-deputies,  who 
are  elected  by  the  board  of  aldermen ; 
also  the  poor-law  guardian  and  the  mem- 
bers of  the  poor  commission.  Altogether,  there 
are  several  thousand  persons  working  for  the 
city  without  any  salary.  The  city  police  force 
is  employed  and  controlled  by  the  State,  but 
the  city  has  to  make  appropriation  for  this 
object. 

Finances. —  The  administration  of  the  city  of 
Berlin  costs  something  more  than  $35,700,000 
yearly.  The  city  owns  real  estate  worth 
$110,000,000,  and  other  assets  to  the  extent  of 
$170,000,000.  The  obligations  of  the  city  run 
up  to  about  $80,000,000. 

The  receipts  come  principally  from  taxes. 
The  taxes  collected  for  the  year  1904-5 
amounted  to  nearly  $20,000,000,  i.e.,  about  $10 
per  head.  Of  this  amount  $7,400,000  was 
from  the  income  tax.  This  tax  is  levied  on 
incomes  just  as  is  the  corresponding  State  tax, 
and  at  present  the  rate  is  tlie  same  in  both 
cases.  Further,  $2,260,000  was  realized  from 
the  special  tax  assessed  against  incomes  de- 
rived from  trade.  The  tax  on  real  estate  was 
$6,400,000,  to  which  must  be  added  a  sewage 
tax  of  $1,450,000.  The  tax  on  transfers  of  real 
estate  was  $1,300,000,  not  to  mention  other  and 
less  important  sources  of  income.  It  may  be 
added  that  the  State  taxes  in  Berlin,  direct  and 
indirect,  amounted  to  $7,740,000  and  $11,900,000, 
respectively,  while  the  imperial  taxes  were 
$13,100,000.      Thus    we    see    that    in    the    year 


1904-5  the  citizen  of  Berlin  paid,  on  an  average^ 
about  $25  in  taxes. 

Of  the  expenditures,  schools  and  education 
received  $6,550,000.  Other  items  were,  gas 
manufacture,  $5,000,000;  administration,  $4,- 
290,000 ;  charity,  $3,800,000 ;  interest  on  loans, 
$2,850,000;  care  of  healthy  $2,620,000,  and 
$1,790,000  borrowed  money  returned.  In  con- 
sidering these  figures  it  must  be  noted  that  gen- 
eral indebtedness  forms  a  separate  account,  the 
expenditures  under  this  head  not  being  reck- 
oned to  the  departments  concerned ;  further,  that 
the  commercial  enterprises  of  the  city,  as  gas- 
works, water-works,  sewage,  stock-yards,  slaugh- 
ter-houses, etc.,  are  included  in  the  general 
budget. 

Public  Utilities. — As  regards  gas  and  lighting, 
the  city  has  not  a  monopoly.  By  reason  of  old 
contracts  a  small  part  of  the  city  is  entirely 
dependent  for  gas  on  an  English  company,  and 
the  same  company  operates,  but  not  exclusively, 
in  a  large  part  of  the  city.  The  water  supply 
is  entirely  in  the  hands  of  the  city.  There  are 
several  water-works,  the  water  being  obtained 
in  part  from  deep  wells.  Other  wells  are  to 
be  bored  soon.  Sewage  is  also  provided  for 
by  the  city,  the  waste  being  brought  through 
pressure  pipes  to  the  city's  farms  in  the  country, 
w'here  it  is   prepared   for  agricultural   purposes. 

The  city  has  a  stock-yard,  which  serves  as 
a  general  market  for  live  stock,  also  a  slaugh- 
ter-house, where  all  slaughterings  must  take 
place.  Here  the  fresh  meat  is  at  once  officially 
inspected.  All  meats  shipped  into  Berlin  are 
inspected,  unless  an  official  inspection  has  taken, 
place  elsewhere.  There  are  14  city  market- 
houses  for  the  retail  trade  and  one  special 
market-house  for  the  wholesale  trade. 

There  are  five  regular  city  hospitals  and  a 
smaller  sick-house,  which  are  open  to  the  pub- 
lic ;  also  three  State  hospitals  and  nine  other 
public  hospitals.  The  large  Virchow  city  hos- 
pital is  in  course  of  construction.  Besides, 
there  are  three  city  asylums  for  the  insane. 
The  city  also  maintains  a  disinfecting  establish- 
ment for  furnishings,  flats,  etc.  There  are 
seven  public  bathing  places  for  hot  baths,  and 
16  with  cold  running  water. 

The  city  also  runs  a  savings  bank 
("Sparkasse'*).  The  deposits  amount  to  some 
$75,000,000.  There  is  also  a  royal  pawn-office, 
and  a  number  of  private  benevolent  institutions 
which  are,  in  part,  supported  by  the  city. 

The  Central  Employment  Office  is  of  par- 
ticular significance,  and"  its  management  is  un- 
usual. In  many  German  cities  such  an  institution 
is  managed  directly  by  the  city  administration. 
A  special  office  is  fitted  up  for  the  purpose,  no- 
tices of  vacancies  of  one  kind  and  another  are 
received,  and  those  seeking  employment  are  in- 
formed of  such  opportunities  for  work.  Now, 
in  Berlin,  this  general  employment  agency  is 
not  directly  in  the  hands  of  the  city,  but  re- 
ceives support  from  the  city.  This  support  on 
the 'part  of  the  city,  which  has  been  extended 
to  $10,000,  was  given  after  a  number  of  high 
city  officials  had  identified  themselves  with  the 
management  of  the  agency  in  question,  which 
was  called  the  Central-Verein.  This  employ- 
ment agency  has  a  special  building  for  its  pur- 
poses, containing  separate  offices  for  different 
kinds  of  work;  also  youthful  applicants  are 
separated    from    the    mature.      A    number    of 


BERLIN 


smaller  employment  agencies  and  unions  of 
one  kind  and  another  have  joined  this  general 
union.  The  condition  for  thus  joining  is  that 
an  executive  committee  be  formed  for  each 
trade,  consisting  equally  of  workmen  and  em- 
ployes, with  a  chairman  belonging  to  neither 
party. 

Charities,  etc. —  The  city  council  spends  an- 
nually about  $80,000,  aiding  various  private 
charitable  associations ;  for  instance,  nine  or- 
ganizations for  nursing  the  sick,  15  for  the  care 
of  children,  five  for  the  care  of  women  lying-in, 
and  43  other  aid  associations;  also  22  educa- 
tional institutions,  besides  a  large  number  of 
foundations  partly  under  the  administration, 
partly  under  the  inspection  of  the  city. 

The  city  has  two  asylums  for  the  homeless, 
one  for  families^  the  other  for  such  persons 
as  only  require  a  shelter  for  the  night.  A  simi- 
lar institution,  an  "Asyl,**  is  maintained  by  a 
private  association.  In  fact,  it  is  characteristic 
of  Berlin  that  public  and  private  charity  sup- 
plement each  other.  The  care  of  the  poor,  as 
such,  is  in  the  hands  of  the  city  administration, 
and  about  4,000  persons  are  employed  in  this 
work,  though  in  honorary  positions  and  with- 
out salary.  The  daily  expenditure  on  the  poor 
is  about  $13,000,  the  average  number  receiving 
aid  being  34,000.  The  number  of  orphans  in 
the  care  of  the  city  is  about  6,000. 

In  addition  to  these  means  of  providing  for 
the  poor  must  be  mentioned  the  system  of  in- 
surance for  the  working  classes.  The  statute 
regulating  insurance  against  sickness  was 
passed  in  18S3,  though  previous  to  that  time 
such  insurance  had  already  been  made  com- 
pulsory. The  obligation  is  placed  upon  the 
employer,  who  pays  the  assessments  and  de- 
ducts the  amount  from  the  wages  of  the  work- 
man. At  present  there  are  129  branches  of  this 
kind  of  insurance  under  the  control  of  the  city 
council,  besides  a  few  branches  that  are  con- 
trolled by  the  State,  and  a  number  of  private 
associations.  The  number  of  workingmen  and 
women  insured  already  exceeds  700,000,  and  in 
1904  the  sum  of  $6,430,000  was  paid  out  in  sick 
insurance.  According  to  the  law,  the  weekly  al- 
lowance during  sickness  is  paid  for  as  long  as 
26  consecutive  weeks,  but,  under  special  cir- 
cumstances, it  may  be  paid  for  as  long  a  period 
as  52  weeks.  The  city  has  built  upon  its  own 
land  homes  for  the  convalescent,  which  are 
for  the  complete  recovery  of  the  sick.  For  the 
rest  the  city  hospitals  are  open  to  the  insured, 
but  their  expenses  must  be  paid  out  of  the  in- 
surance money. 

There  is  in  Berlin  a  State  institution  for  the 
care  of  invalid  workmen.  In  connection  with 
the  same  there  are  several  sanatoria  which  care 
for  those  who  are  about  to  become  invalids. 
The  sanatorium  at  Belitz  may  be  mentioned.  It 
is  fitted  up  in  magnificent  style  and  is  probably 
the  best  sanatorium  on  the  continent  of  Europe. 

Educational  Institutions. —  In  the  field  of 
education  the  Universitj'  of  Berlin  takes  the 
first  place.  It  was  founded  by  Frederick  Wil- 
liam III.  in  1810.  During  the  winter  term  of 
1904-5  there  were  enrolled  7,400  regular 
students,  besides  almost  as  many  more  so- 
called  Zuhorer,  i.e.,  mostly  persons  who  have 
secured  permission  to  attend  lectures,  but 
whose  previous  education  is  not  sufficient  to 
enable  them  to  take  up  systematic  studies  lead- 


ing to  a  degree.  In  connection  with  the  uni- 
versity is  the  Seminary  for  Oriental  Languages. 

Further,  of  special  significance  is  the  "Tech- 
nische  Hochschule,"  which  has  nearly  3,000 
students ;  also  the  "Bergakademic,^*  and  the 
Hochschulen  for  agriculture,  for  fine  art.  and 
for  music. 

All  these  are  State  institutions.  To  them 
will  soon  be  added  a  Hochschule  for  Commerce, 
which  is  being  erected  by  the  "Aeltesten  der 
Berliner  Kaufmannschaft."  This  is  a  society 
of  merchants  which  was  licensed  by  Frederick 
William  III.  in  1820.  Formerly  they  exercised 
the  functioQ  of  a  board  of  trade.  Since  the 
Chamber  of  Commerce  was  formed  some  years 
ago  they  have  had  to  give  up  this  function  and 
have  extended  their  activity  into  the  field  of 
commercial   education. 

As  to  Gymnasia  and  Realgymnasia,  Berlin 
has  five  royal  and  20  city  institutions.  There 
are,  besides,  13  city  Realschulen,  two  royal,  and 
six  city  high  schools  for  girls,  four  city  finish- 
ing schools,  a  normal  school,  a  royal  seminary 
for  male  teachers,  a  similar  one  for  female 
teachers  and  teachers  of  gymnastics,  a  royal  the- 
atre-school and  school  for  deaf-mutes,  a  city 
school  for  deaf-mutes,  and  a  city  school  for  the 
blind.  Elementary  instruction  is  represented  by 
273  city  district  schools,  with  5,000  teachers, 
222,000  children,  and  4,800  classes.  Instruction 
in  these  schools  is  free.  It  may  be  added  that 
each  of  the  suburbs  has  its  own  schools  of  va- 
rious kinds. 

Museums  and  Collections. —  The  more  im- 
portant picture  galleries  and  collections  are,  the 
Old  and  the  New  Museums,  the  National  Gal- 
lery, the  Pergamon  2\Iuseum,  and  the  Emperor 
Frederick  Museum  —  all  maintained  by  the 
State.  Further,  the  Ravene  Museum.  Among 
historical  collections  may  be  mentioned  the 
Royal  Hohenzollern  Aluseum,  the  Zenghaus, 
the  Provincial  Museum  —  a  city  institution,  the 
Post  Museum,  and  the  royal  museums  for  an- 
thropology and  German  ethnology.  The  liberal 
arts  are  represented  by  the  Royal  Museum  for 
Liberal  Arts  and  by  the  exhibit  of  the  Royal 
Porcelain  Manufactory.  Further,  there  are  the 
royal  museums  for  science,  for  agriculture,  for 
mining  and  smelting,  and  for  pathology.  The 
Zoological  Garden  belongs  to  a  private  com- 
pany, but  it  is  in  the  nature  of  a  public  utility. 
The  Acquarium  is  also  owned  by  private  par- 
ties, but  is  subventioned  by  the  authorities. 
The  State  maintains  a  botanical  garden.  There 
is  also  the  Hygienic  Museum,  the  Colonial  Mu- 
seum, and  the  Institute  for  Hydrography,  which 
serve  further  the  interests  of  science  and  the 
technic  of  shipbuilding.  A  curious  recent  crea- 
tion is  a  permanent  exhibition  of  contrivances 
for  the  betterment  of  the  conditions  of  labor. 
There  are  three  astronomical  observatories,  a 
State  observatory,  and  two  private  ones.  The 
latter  are  always  open  to  the  public. 

Many  libraries,  including  the  Royal  Library 
of  about  a  million  volumes,  provide  opportuni- 
ties for  study  in  every  field  of  knowledge. 

Monuments  and  Public  Buildings. —  There 
are  a  large  number  of  monuments  on  the  streets 
and  public  squares  of  the  city.  A  considerable 
number  of  them  have  been  erected  during  the 
reign  of  the  present  emperor,  and,  in  fact,  un- 
der his  immediate  influence. 

The  number  of  the  palaces  and  public  build- 


BERLIN 


ings  is  likewise  verj^  large,  though,  as  com- 
pared with  other  German  cities,  Berlin  is  poor 
in  specimens  of  old  architecture. 

There  are  numerous  theatres,  including  the 
Roj'al  Play  House,  the  Royal  Opera  House,  the 
New  Royal  Opera-Theatre,  13  other  large  the- 
atres, and  about  a  dozen  smaller  ones,  a  num- 
ber of  so-called  "cabarets,"  and  two  permanent 
circuses. 

Churches. — The  oldest  churches  in  Berlin  are 
the  Nokolai  Church  and  Saint  Mary's.  Both 
were  built  in  the  13th  century  but  have  been 
restored.  Further,  Saint  Peter's  may  be  men- 
tioned. There  are  more  than  40  evangelical 
churches,  the  most  important  being :  the  Em- 
peror William  jMemorial  Church,  built  in  1891- 
1895  in  beautiful  Romanic  style  (two  large 
neighboring  houses  are  in  the  same  style  of 
architecture)  ;  the  Emperor  Frederick  IMemorial 
Church,  beautifully  situated  in  the  Thiergarten ; 
and  the  New  Cathedral  (dedicated  in  1905), 
built  in  Italian  Renaissance  style  and  orna- 
mented witli  numerous  sculptures.  A  French 
church  was  built  in  1701-1705 ;  and  there  are 
also  an  English  and  an  American  church.  Saint 
Hedwig's  Church  (Catholic)  dates  from  the 
middle  of  the  i8th  century.  Of  the  two  larger 
synagogues  the  oldest  and  finest  dates  from  the 
year  1866. 

Monumental  Buildings. —  To  be  mentioned 
here  especially  are :  the  Royal  Palace,  the 
palaces  of  Emperor  William  I.,  Emperor  Fred- 
erick, and  Prince  Albrecht,  and  the  palace  at 
Charlottenburg ;  further  numerous  state  build- 
ings, e.  g.,  those  occupied  by  the  Departments 
of  War  and  Education,  the  Foreign  Office,  the 
Imperial  Health  Office,  the  Imperial  Insurance 
Office,  the  Patent  Office,  the  Abgeordnetenhaus, 
and  the  large  Reichstag  building,  in  Italian 
Renaissance  style ;  also  various  railway  stations 
and  palatial  structures  of  the  Postal  Department. 
Of  municipal  buildings  the  City  Hall  deserves 
mention ;  further,  the  city  museum  and  numer- 
ous public  schools ;  also  the  new  City  Hall  in 
Charlottenburg.  The  magnificent  structures  ot 
the  large  banks,  stores,  breweries,  insurance 
companies,  etc.,  add  much  to  the  beauty  of  the 
city.  The  arcade  between  Frederick  street  and 
Unter-den-Linden  may  also  be  mentioned* 

Bridges,  Statuary,  Fountains. —  The  follow- 
ing are  the  more  notable  of  the  monumental 
bridges  in  Berlin :  Heydtbriicke,  Potsdamer- 
briicke,  Belle  AlliancebriJcke,  Kurfiirstenbriicke, 
Wilhelmbriicke,  Friedrichbriicke,  Schlossbriicke, 
Moltkebriicke,  and  Oberbaumbriicke.  Aside  from 
the  National  IMonument,  the  most  noteworthy 
statues  in  the  central  part  of  the  city  are  those 
of  William  I.,  Frederick  the  Great,  the  Great 
Elector,  Frederick  William  III.,  Emperor  Fred- 
crick,  Empress  Augusta,  the  two  Humboldts, 
Helmholz,  Luther,  Schiller,  Waldeck.  and 
Schulze-Delitzsch.  In  front  of  the  Reichstag 
building  is  an  immense  bronze  statue  of  Bis- 
marck. Near  bv  are  the  statues  of  Moltke  and 
Roon  and  the  Column  of  Victory,  which  over- 
looks the  32  marble  groups  of  Brandenburgian 
and  Prussian  statesmen  and  rulers  in  the  Ave- 
nue of  Victory.  Other  notable  statues  in  the 
Thiergarten  are  those  of  Goethe,  Lessing, 
Richard  Wagner,  Frederick  William  III.,  and 
Queen  Louise.  Some  of  the  numerous  fountains 
worthy  of  note  are :  the  large  fountain  before 
the  palace,  which  was  designed  by  Begas  and 


presented  by  the  city  on  the  accession  of  the 
present  emperor ;  the  Hercules  Fountain  on 
Liitzowplatz,  which  was  designed  by  Lessing ; 
further,  the  artificial  water-fall  in  Victoria  Park. 

Transportation  and  Population.— The  char- 
acter of  the  population  of  Berlin  is  subjected 
to  a  gradual  change,  which  is  caused  partly  by 
the  building  up  of  new  industries,  partly  by 
the  removal  of  well-to-do  taxpayers  to  the  sub- 
urbs. This  migration  of  the  wealthier  classes 
is  attended  by  an  influx  of  the  laboring  classes, 
especially  in  the  newly-built  parts  of  the  city, 
so  that  the  laboring  population  is  constantly  in- 
creasing. Again,  the  inner  residential  part  of 
the  city  is  coming  to  be  used  more  and  more 
for  business  purposes,  so  that  here  the  popula- 
tion is  decreasing  continuously. 

The  development  of  facilities  for  transpor- 
tation has  contributed  much  to  these  changes. 
The  ^'Stadtbahn,"  a  railway  which  crosses  the 
city  from  east  to  west,  then  encircles  it  both  on 
the  north  and  on  the  south,  was  and  is  yet  the 
cause  of  the  wonderful  growth  of  the  western 
suburbs.  ^ligration  was  encouraged  by  the  ex- 
ceedingly low  fare  of  10  pfennigs  to  the  fifth 
station,  or  20  pfennigs  for  the  entire  distance, 
not  to  mention  the  great  reduction  allowed  on 
monthly  tickets.  This  has  led  to  the  building 
of  new  stations  along  the  outer  parts  of  the 
"Stadtbahn"  and  to  the  institution  of  suburban 
trains,  on  which  one  may  have  a  monthly  ticket 
at  a  price  varying  with  the  distance. 

In  this  connection  must  be  mentioned  also 
the  *Grosse  Berliner  Strassenbahn."  This  is  a 
private  traction  company  which  owns  nearly  all 
the  street  cars  in  the  citv.  Since  on  most  of 
the  lines  the  fare  is  only  10  pfennigs  this  com- 
pany has  had  great  influence  in  the  development 
of  the  suburbs.  In  the  inner  part  of  the  city 
there  are  many  omnibuses,  drawn  mostly  by 
horses,  but  partly  by  motors.  The  fare  is  5 
and  10  pfennigs.  The  electric  elevated  and  un- 
derground road  passes  along  the  southern  per- 
iphery of  the  city  from  east  to  west.  The  prices 
are  higher  than  on  the  other  lines.  A  plan  is 
now  being  agitated  to  supply  Berlin  with  a  num- 
ber of  such  subways. 

In  the  year  1904,  the  ^'Stadtbahn^'  carried 
111,000,000  persons;  the  street-car  lines,  395.- 
000,000;  the  omnibus  lines,  94,000,000;  the  ele- 
vated-subway line,  32,000,000. 

Under  the  influence  of  improved  facilities  for 
transportation  the  composition  of  the  population 
in  the  various  parts  of  the  greater  city  has  be- 
come quite  varied.  The  well-to-do  live  in  the 
west  and  in  the  western  suburbs,  while  the 
working  classes  have  settled  in  the  east  and, 
the  north,  and  partly  in  the  southeast.  The 
large  factories  are  situated  in  the  east  and  in 
the  northwest.  While  in  Berlin  80  persons  out 
of  every  thousand  pay  tax  on  an  income  of 
$750  and  upward,  the  proportion  of  people  in 
Rixdorf,  a  southeastern  sulaurb,  who  have  such 
an  income  is  only  27  out  of  a  thousand.  On 
the  other  hand,  in  the  wealthy  western  suburbs, 
Grunewald  and  Wilmersdorf,  the  proportion 
is  441  and  22S,  respectively,  out  of  every  thou- 
sand. Similar  differences  can  also  be  noted  in 
the  interior  of  the  city. 

The  city  maintains  a  statistical  bureau  that 
keeps  a  careful  record  of  all  these  conditions. 
Undoubtedly,  such  differences  in  the  composi- 
tion of  the  population  will  be  found  to  account 


BERLIN. 


1.  Schlossbriicke,  with  Lust  Garten. 

2.  Palace  of  Emperor  William  I. 


BERLIN   CATHEDRAL 


for  the  varying  rate  of  mortality  in  the  different 
parts  of  the  city,  as  well  as  for  the  varying  rate 
of  taxation. 

Death  Rate. —  To  be  sure,  the  mortality  in 
Berlin  is  not  only  low,  but  is  still  decreasing. 
In  1904  the  rate  was  17  out  of  a  thousand,  while 
in  the  seventies  of  the  past  century  the  death 
rate  was  almost  double  this.  Still,  the  rate  is 
not  uniform,  varying  from  8  in  the  wealthier 
parts  of  the  city  to  22  per  thousand  in  the  poorer 
quarters.  The  decrease  of  mortality  is  due  to 
better  hygienic  conditions,  especially  to  water- 
supply  and  sewage.  Though  the  death  rate 
among  children  is  still  high  the  city  authorities 
are  doing  everything  possible  to  combat  the  evil. 
Building  ordinances  have  been  made  stricter, 
and  the  hj'gienic  conditions  of  flat-houses  have 
been  thereby  greatly  improved,  especially  in  the 
newly-built  portions  of  the  city. 

Tenements. —  Still  the  principal  evil  persists, 
i.e.,  the  crowded  condition  of  apartment-houses. 
On  an  average  such  a  house  in  Berlin  shelters 
77  persons,  and  the  flat  of  a  workman,  which 
usually  consists  of  only  two  rooms,  closet,  etc., 
must  not  only  shelter  the  family,  but  provide 
sleeping  quarters  for  one  or  two  outsiders.  The 
explanation  of  this  is  to  be  found  in  the  rela- 
tively high  rents  for  such  flats,  the  minimum 
being  $5  per  month,  or  about  one  fourth  of  a 
laborer's  income.  The  desire  to  cut  down  the 
rent  by  letting  sleeping  quarters  is  amply  met 
by  the  large  number  of  workmen  moving  into 
Berlin. 

The  building  of  model  tenements  for  the  bet- 
terment of  living  conditions  among  the  poor  has 
not  taken  place  to  any  considerable  extent. 
Aside  from  a  co-operative  company  that  built 
269  small  homes  for  workingmen  in  the  sub- 
urbs, which  were  sold  to  the  members  of  the 
company,  there  are  seven  building  companies  of 
philanthropic  nature,  but  their  houses  offer  ac- 
commodations for  less  than  10,000  persons.  Be- 
sides, the  administrations  of  some  of  the  State 
industries  have  placed  homes  at  the  disposal  of 
their  workmen,  and  both  the  city  and  the  State 
aid  such  benevolent  enterprises  by  furnishing 
capital  at  a  low  rate  of  interest. 

Aside  from  the  evils  of  high  rents,  and,  con- 
sequently, overcrowded  flats,  the  conditions  are 
not  bad.  The  plumbing  in  the  newer  flat- 
houses  leaves  nothing  to  be  desired.  In  fact, 
both  in  Berlin  and  the  suburbs,  the  better  class 
of  such  houses  have  all  modern  conveniences, 
and  are  comparatively  luxurious. 

Streets. — The  streets  of  Berlin  are  w-ell  cared 
for  and  are  in  excellent  condition.  Already  40 
per  cent,  of  the  streets  are  paved  with  wood  or 
asphalt,  the  rest  being  paved  with  stone  or  ce- 
ment. But  the  work  of  improvement  continues. 
The  yearly  pay-roll  for  street  cleaning  amounts 
to  $531,000.  Much  more  is  spent  now  on  parks 
than  formerly.  Within  the  city  limits  there  are 
seven  State  and  five  city  parks.  For  the  most 
part,  the  city  is  illuminated  by  gas,  but,  since 
recently,  in  part  by  electricity.  The  city  main- 
tains an  efficient  fire  department,  which  also 
acts  as  a  good  Samaritan  in  all  cases  of  dis- 
tress, whether  from  fire  or  otherwise.  In  ac- 
cordance with  an  ordinance  of  more  than  a  hun- 
dred years  standiner.  all  buildings  must  be  in- 
sured in  the  city  "F^euercasse."  The  average  in- 
surance valuation  per  house  is  $41,500. 

Naturally,  the  great  demand  for  real  estate 
Vol.    2  —  36. 


and  the  more  luxurious  style  of  architecture 
have  increased  valuations  considerably.  On  an 
average  property  is  worth  about  $65  per  square 
metre.  The  total  real  valuation  may  be  placed 
at  about  $2,000,000,000. 

Climate. —  The  mean  temperature  is  9°  Cen- 
tigrade, the  thermometer  varying  from  about 
0.7^°  below  zero  in  the  middle  of  January  to 
19°  above  zero  in  the  middle  of  July.  During 
the  months  of  December,  January,  and  Febru- 
ary the  mean  temperature  varies  "from  0.7°  be- 
low zero  to  0.8°  above  zero.  The  mean  tem- 
perature for  other  months  is  as  follows  :  March, 
3.5°^;  April,  8.5°;  May,  13.3°;  June,  17.4°;  July, 
18.9  ;  August,  18.1°;  September,  14.6°;  Octo- 
ber, 9.5°;  November,  3.8°.  The  mean  barome- 
ter is  76.2,  the  lowest,  56.9  centimetres.  West 
winds  prevail. 

While,  in  general,  healthful,  the  climate  has 
been  found  to  be  unfavorable  to  young  children 
in  the  summer.  Stomach  troubles  are  aggra- 
vated by  the  heat,  and  the  death  rate  among  in- 
fants is  thereby  considerably  increased.  The 
city  has  been  free  of  epidemics  for  years. 

Recent  Development. —  Since  about  1865  the 
capital  city  of  the  empire  has  had,  in  many  re- 
spects, a  brilliant  development.  In  this  short 
period  the  population  has  trebled,  hygienic  con- 
ditions have  been  wonderfully  improved,  and 
the  city  has  become  one  of  the  most  beautiful, 
and  one  of  the  most  visited,  cities  in  the  world. 
More  than  a  million  strangers  register  in  the 
hotels  annually,  not  including  the  large  num- 
ber of  visitors  who  find  their  temporary  quar- 
ters in  those  parts  of  the  greater  city  which 
are  under  separate  municipal  control.  Indeed, 
for  the  stranger,  who  cannot  see  the  imaginary 
boundary  lines,  it  is  all  Berlin.  Socially  and 
industrially  it  is  really  only  one  citj',  and  the 
entire  complex  of  separate  municipal  corpora- 
tions might  be  fittingly  called  Greater  Berlin. 

Doctor  E.   HiRSCHBERG, 

Director  of  Statistical  Bureau  of  Berlin. 

Berlin  Cathedral.  This  edifice  was  planned 
by  the  emperor  Frederick  and  his  empress  to 
be  the  "Westminster  Abbey'^  of  Germany,  and 
has  been  14  j^ears  in  building.  The  architecture 
corresponds  nearl"  to  the  Italian  Renaissance, 
and  is  the  design  of  Prof.  Raschdorff,  who  had 
visited  all  the  principal  cathedrals  in  Europe 
before  completing  it.  The  corner  stone  was  laid 
in  1894.  The  cathedral  consists  of  four  prin- 
cipal parts  —  the  church  for  divine  worship  the 
church  for  marriages  and  christenings,  the  im- 
mense crypts,  and  the  long  porch.  It  is  con- 
structed of  yellow  sandstone  and  the  pillars 
of  the  porch  are  of  vari-colored  marbles 
—  Brazilian  anyx,  black  Silesian  marble,  and 
various  beautiful  specimens  from  Sienna.  The 
building  is  341  feet  long;  the  cupola,  with 
its  lantern,  rises  325  feet  above  the  pave- 
ment, and  the  two  bell  towers  each  reach 
up  to  a  height  of  211  feet.  The  Prussian  Diet 
contributed  $2,500,000  toward  its  erection,  but 
this  sufficed  only  for  the  actual  building  the 
extensive  decorations  and  mosaic  work  being 
ha-idly  yet  begun,  and  the  entire  building  will 
probably  cost  more  than  $5,000,000.  Emperor 
Frederick  originally  intended  the  memorial 
church  in  the  crypt  to  be  the  resting  place  of  the 
Hohenzollerns  only,  and  already  the  remains  of 


BERLIN  CONGRESS  — BERMUDA 

87  have  been  placed  there,  but  in  future  the  recent  years,  Ranke,  Mommsen,  Hehiiholtz,  Vir- 
church  will  be  the  burial  place,  beside  the  sov-  chow,  and  other  famous  scholars  have  upheld 
ereigns,  for  the  nation's  celebrated  dead.  The  the  reputation  which  the  university  won  for 
organ,  which  is  the  largest  in  the  world,  except  itself  at  the  very  start.  There  are  four  facul- 
that  at  Riga,  has  113  so-called  voices  and  7,000  ties,  theology,  medicine,  jurisprudence,  and  phi- 
tubes.  It  cost  $37,500  and  was  the  gift  of  losophy,  with  a  total  of  2)Tj  professors  and 
Prince  Henckel  of  Donnersmarck.  The  chancel  teachers.  At  the  satisfactory  completion  of  the 
is  of  marble  and  bronze  and  is  the  gift  of  Privy  course,  the  doctor's  degree  is  conferred. 
Councilor    Paetel.     Kaiser    Wilhelm    has    taken  ,.,.,.       .,     .,      . 

great   hiterest   in    the   erection   of   the  building,  Berliner,  Emile^  bar-le  ner,   a  mel,   Amen- 

fnd  by  his  direction  an  epitaph  in  memory  of  can  niventor :  h.  Hanover  Germany  20  May 
Bismarck  will  be  placed  over  the  entrance.  The  1851.  After  graduating  at  Walfenbuttel  in  1865, 
cathedral  was  dedicated  27  Feb.   1905.  ^e  came  to  America  five  years  later,  and  in  1878 

„     ,.       ^  ii      •  X    -D     i;»,      was  appointed  chief  inspector  of  instruments  by 

Berhn  Congress,  a  gathering  at  Berlin,  ^j^^  ^^j,  Telephone  Company.  He  invented  the 
Germany,  where  the  European  powers  under-  j^^^^  ^^^^^^^^  telephone  transmitter  or  micro- 
took  the  settlement  of  the  questions  growing  ^^^^^^^  \^r^o^^rx  by  his  name,  and  the  device  called 
out  of  the  Russo-Turkish  war  of  i877-«.  Ifie  ^^^^  gramophone.  He  has  devoted  his  energies 
Congress  met  13  June  1878;  and  completed  its  ^^  perfecting  the  telephone,  and  has  secured 
labors  with  the  signing  of  a  treaty  on   13  July     ^  ^^^^^^^  ^^^  ^j^  inventions, 

following.     The     treaty     of     San     Stefano      (3  '    ^ 

March    1878)    between    Russia   and  Turkey   did  Berlioz,    bar-le-os,    Hector,    French    com- 

not  suit  the  other  powers;  and  the  congress,  poser:  b.  Cote  St.  Andre,  near  Grenoble,  11 
convened,  at  the  suggestion  of  Germany,  so  Dec.  1803 ;  d.  Paris  9  March  1869.  He  forsook 
modified  the  agreement  between  Russia  and  medicine  to  study  music  at  the  Paris  Conserva- 
Turkey  that  the  former  lost  nearly  all  the  toire,  where  he  gained  the  first  prize  in  1830 
fruits  of  victory.  By  the  new  arrangement  with  his  cantata  ^Sardanapalus,^  enabling  him 
Bulgaria  was  divided  into  two  parts,  Bulgaria  to  study  at  Rome.  His  chief  literary  works 
proper  and  eastern  Rumelia.  Parts  of  Ar-  (besides  his  <  Memoirs')  are  the  <Traite 
menia  were  given  to  Russia  and  Persia;  the  d'  Instrumentation'  (1844);  <Voyage  MusicaP 
independence  of  Rumania,  Servia,  and  Monte-  (1845);  'Les  Soirees  d'Orchestre'  (1853):  and 
negro  was  guaranteed;  Bosnia  and  Herzegovina  <A  Travers  Chants'  (1862).  His  musical  works, 
were  transferred  to  Austria ;  and  Bessarabia  which  display  remarkable  originality,  belong  to 
restored  to  Russia.  Greece  was  also  to  have  the  Romantic  school,  and  are  especially  note- 
an  accession  of  territory.  By  a  separate  ar-  worthy  for  the  resource  they  display  in  orchestral 
rangement  previously  made  between  Great  coloring.  His  more  important  works  are  "^Epi- 
Britain  and  Turkey,  the  former  got  Cyprus  to  sode  de  la  Vie  d'un  Artiste';  ^Symphonic  Fan- 
administer.  Bismarck  was  the  president  of  the  tastique'  (1829)  ;  ^Lelio,  ou  Le  Retour  a  la 
congress.  The  more  important  members  were:  Vie'  (1832);  'Harold  en  Italic'  (1834);  'Ro- 
Prince  Gortchakoff,  Count  Andrassy,  Lord  meo  et  Juliet'  (1839);  ^Damnation  de  Faust' 
Beaconsfield,  Lord  Salisbury,  M.  Waddington,  (1846),  one  of  the  best-known  and  most  ad- 
Count  Corti,  Karatheodori  Pasha,  Prince  mired  of  his  works;  the  operas  'BenvenutO' 
Hohenlohe,  and  Gen.  von  Biilow.  Cellini'       (1838)  ;       *^ Beatrice      and      Benedict' 

Berlin  Decree,  a  decree  issued  by  Napo-  (1862)  ;  and  'Les  Troyens'  (1864)  ;  <L'Enfance 
leon,  21  Nov.  1806,  which  declared  the  British  du  Christ'  (1854),  the  <Te  Deum,'  and  the 
Islands  in  a  state  of  blockade.  It  forbade  com-  < Requiem.'  After  his  death  appeared^  ^Me- 
merce  with  them  and  trade  in  their  merchandise,  moires'  (1803-65),  written  by  himself  (English 
and  declared  all  merchandise  belonging  to  Eng-    translation,  2  vols.  1884). 

Hshmen    or  transported   from    England,   lawful  g  ^,.  Bgrme.     In  fortHtcation, zn^rrov^, 

prize      Its  effect  was  to  inflict  great  injury  on     j^^.^,  ^^  ^,^^  ^^^^  ^^  ^,^^  exterior  slope  of  a 

the  American  carrying  trade.  parapet,  to  keep  the  crumbling  materials  of  the 

Berlin,  University  of,  a  celebrated  institu-    parapet  from  falling  into  the  ditch, 
tion  of  learning  in  Berlin,  Germany.     It  is,  with  /„  engineering,  a  ledge  or  bench  on  the  side 

the  exception  of  Bonn,  the  youngest  of  the  or  at  the  foot  of  a  bank,  parapet,  or  cutting,  to 
German  universities,  but  is  probably  the  most  ^atch  earth  that  may  roll  down  the  slope,  or 
famous   of   them   all.     It   was   funded   in    1810,  strengthen  the  bank, 

when  the  Napoleonic  victories  had   left  Prussia 

apparently   crushed,    and    had    even    transferred  Bermejo,     ber-ma'ho,     a     South     American 

her  great  University  of  Halle  to  the  newly  river  rising  in  Bolivia,  and  flowing  across  Ar- 
formed  kingdom  of  Westphalia.  Wilhelm  von  gentina  to  the  Paraguay  River,  which  it  enters 
Humboldt  was  minister  of  education  at  the  about  140  miles  south  of  Ascension.  It  is  nav- 
time,  and  Prussia's  debt  to  him  for  organizing  igable  for  about  half  of  its  length  of  1,300  miles, 
her  national  school  system,  with  the  University 

of   Berlin    at    its   head,    during   that    period    of  Bermuda,   ber-mii'da,    or    Somers    Islands,. 

national  defeat  and  disaster,  is  certainly  very  a  cluster  of  small  islands  in  the  Atlantic  Ocean, 
great.  It  should  be  borne  in  mind,  too,  that  belonging  to  Great  Britain,  and  situated  580' 
Humboldt  was  ably  seconded  by  Fichte  and  miles  southeast  of  Cape  Hatteras.  They  are 
Schleiermacher.  The  first  rector  of  the  uni-  in  number  about  400,  but  for  the  most  part  so- 
versity  was  Schmalz ;  the  first  deans  of  its  small  and  so  barren  that  they  have  neither  in- 
faculties  were  Schleiermacher,  Biener,  Hufe-  habitants  nor  name.  Thev  were  first  discovered 
land,  and  Fichte;  and  before  it  was  10  vears  by  Juan  Bermudez,  a  Spaniard,  in  1522;  in 
old  it  had  for  professors  such  men  as  Niebnhr.  1609  Sir  George  Somers,  an  Englishman,  waff 
Wolff,    Bockh,    Bekker,    and    Hegel.     In    more     wrecked  here,  and  after  his  shipwreck,  formed 


BERLIN. 


1.  Lust  Garten,  showing  Statue  of  Frederick  William  III, 

2.  Brandenburg  Gate. 


BERMUDA  GRASS  — BERN 


the  first  settlement.  The  most  considerable  of 
these  islands  are  St.  George,  Bermuda  or  Long 
Island  (with  the  chief  town,  Hamilton,  forming 
the  seat  of  the  governor),  Somerset,  St.  David's, 
and  Ireland.  They  are  chiefly  used  as  a  naval 
and  military  station.  The  island  of  Ireland  is 
occupied  by  a  government  dockyard  and  other 
naval  establishments,  while  Boaz  and  Watford 
islands  have  the  military  depots.  The  military 
headquarters  are  at  Prospect.  An  immense  iron 
floating-dock  was  constructed  at  London  for 
the  Bermudas  in  1868;  it  is  capable  of  receiving 
a  vessel  of  3,000  tons.  The  climate  is  generally 
healthy  and  delightful,  the  air  being  mild  and 
moist  at  all  seasons.  It  is  not  adapted,  how- 
ever, for  consumptive  patients.  The  thermom- 
eter seldom  falls  below  40°  F.,  and  rarely  rises 
above  85°.  These  islands  have  therefore  become 
a  popular  holiday  resort  for  Americans,  and 
plentiful  hotel  accommodation  is  supplied  at  St. 
George's  and  Hamilton.  The  surface  is  rather 
irregular ;  the  soil,  though  light  and  stony,  is 
in  general  rich  and  fertile.  The  islands  form 
a  nearly  continuous  chain,  and  are  connected 
almost  uninterruptedly  by  roads,  bridges,  and 
causeways.  The  water  is  in  general  salt;  there 
is  but  little  fresh  except  rain-water,  preserved 
in  cisterns.  The  inhabitants  export  early  pota- 
toes, onions,  lily  bulbs,  etc.,  nearly  all  of  these 
products  being  shipped  to  New  York.  The 
value  of  the  exports  is  from  $585,000  to  $635,000 
annually;  that  of  the  imports  is  about  $1,460,000 
to  $1,560,000.  The  revenue  is  about  $166,000. 
Pop.    (1897)    16,098. 

Bermuda  Grass  {Cynodon  dacfylon),  a  grass 
cultivated  in  the  West  Indies  and  the  United 
States,  where  it  is  of  special  value  on  the  sandy 
soils  of  the  southern  States.  It  is  a  valuable 
fodder  grass  for  warm  climates.  It  will  grow  in 
any  soil  not  too  damp,  but  in  America  it  ma- 
tures only  in  the  extreme  south. 

Bermuda  Hundred,  Va.,  a  peninsula 
formed  by  the  junction  of  the  Appomattox  and 
James  rivers,  occupied  by  Gen.  B.  F.  Butler, 
who,  in  1864,  commanded  the  Army  of  the 
James,  numbering  about  25,000  Federals,  where 
he  might  intrench  himself  and  await  Grant  s 
arrival.  In  the  vicinity  of  this  position  there 
was  constant  fighting  between  Butler's  troops 
and  those  of  the  Confederates  under  Gen. 
Beauregard,  whose  forces  were  20,000  strong. 
The  fighting  continued  from  16  May  to  30  May. 
On  the  i6th  Heckman's  brigade  was  destroyed 
by  the  Confederates,  who  were  then  pushing 
on  to  Bermuda  Hundred,  when  Ames  and 
Gillmore  came  up  and  Beauregard's  plans  mis- 
carried. On  the  19th  the  Confederates  assaulted 
the  Federal  rifle  pits  under  Ames  and  Terry, 
but  without  success.  Skirmishing  continued 
until  the  30th,  when  the  Confederates  desisted. 
Bermuda  Hundred  was  a  valuable  position, 
since  it  was  very  near  both  Richmond  and 
Petersburg;  but  Butler  was  charged  with  mili- 
tary incapacity  in  having  ^corked  himself  up 
in  a  bottle.*' 

Bermudez,  Remigio,  Morales,  bar-moo'- 
dath,  ra-me'je-o  mo-ra'lez,  Peruvian  states- 
man :  b.  Tarapaca  Province,  30  Sept.  1836 ;  d. 
Lima,  31  March  1894.  He  began  business  in  the 
nitrate  trade  in  his  native  province.  In  1854, 
as  a  lieutenant,  he  joined  the  revolutionary 
army  which  finally  overthrew  Gen.  Echinique's 


government.  In  1864  he  joined  the  revolution 
against  President  Castilla.  In  the  war  with 
Chile  he  led  the  force  that  marched  to  Arica. 
When  Caceres  was  elected  president  in  1886, 
Bermudez  was  chosen  vice-president,  and  was 
elected  president  in  1890. 

Bermudez,  ber-mu'dath,  Venezuela,  a 
northeastern  state  situated  between  the  Orinoco 
and  the  Caribbean  Sea,  formed  in  1881  from 
the  former  states  and  present  sections  of  Bar- 
celona, Cumana,  and  Maturin.  Area,  32,243 
square  miles;  Pop.  about  325,000. 

Bern,  barn,  or  bern,  Switzerland,  the  chief 
canton  of  the  confederacy,  situated  in  the  west- 
ern half  and  surrounded  by  the  cantons  of 
Neufchatel,  Freiburg,  Vaud,  Valais,  Uri,  Unter- 
walden.  Lucerne,  and  Solothurn,  being  partly 
bounded  also  by  France  and  Alsace;  area,  2,657 
square  miles.  The  more  northern  portion  of  the 
canton  has  beautiful  plains  and  valleys,  and  a 
fertile  and  highly  cultivated  soil,  producing 
corn,  wine,  and  fruits;  the  Emmenthal,  one  of 
the  richest  and  most  fertile  valleys  in  Switzer- 
land, raises  the  finest  cattle,  and  produces  a 
celebrated  cheese.  The  southern  portion  of  the 
canton,  the  Bernese  Oberland,  begins  at  the  foot 
of  the  high  mountain  chain  between  this  canton 
and  that  of  the  Valais,  and  extends  to  its  sum- 
mit. The  lower  valleys  produce  good  fruits, 
and  are  fertile  and  agreeable :  higher  up  are 
excellent  Alpine  pastures ;  then  succeed  bare 
rocks,  extensive  glaciers  (the  source  of  mag- 
nificent streams  and  waterfalls),  and  some  of 
the  highest  mountains  of  Switzerland,  as  the 
Finsteraarhorn,  the  Schreckhorn,  and  Wetter- 
horn,  the  Eiger,  the  Jungfrau.  The  chief  trade 
of  the  canton  is  in  linen  and  woolen  manufac- 
tures, and  cattle-raising.     Pop.  (1897)   548,061. 

After  belonging  to  the  Franks  and  Burgun- 
dians  the  Bernese  territory  became  part  of  the 
German  empire.  In  the  long  wars  with  Aus- 
tria, Milan,  Burgundy,  and  Savoy,  the  Confed- 
eracy came  off  victorious,  and  Bern  conquered 
Aargau.  In  1528  the  citizens  of  Berne  em- 
braced the  cause  of  the  Reformation.  In  the 
subsequent  war  with  the  Duke  of  Savoy  they 
conquered  the  Pays  de  Vaud.  From  that  time 
till  1798  the  prosperity  and  wealth  of  Bern 
constantly  increased,  so  that  the  canton  then 
contained  above  5,000  square  miles  and  about 
380,000  inhabitants.  On  5  March  1798,  30,000 
French  troops  marched  against  Bern  and  con- 
quered it,  the  result  being  that  it  now  lost  about 
half  of  its  possessions ;  the  northern  part  was 
united  with  the  present  canton  of  Aargau;  and 
out  of  the  southwestern  (Pays  de  Vaud)  the 
present  canton  of  Vaud  was  formed.  By  the 
decrees  of  the  Congress  at  Vienna,  however, 
the  greater  part  of  the  bishopric  of  Basel  was 
joined  to  the  canton.  The  present  constitution 
dates  from  1893  and  is  purely  democratic.  The 
legislative  power  is  vested  in  a  Great  Council 
elected  by  the  people  voting  in  62  electoral  dis- 
tricts, there  being  one  member  for  every  3,000 
inhabitants.  The  executive  is  vested  in  a  gov- 
erning council  of  nine  members  elected  by  the 
Great  Coimcil,  both  being  chosen  for  four  years. 
The  referendum  is  in  force,  and  all  laws  may 
be  submitted  to  popular  vote  before  they  become 
valid.  The  ^'initiative.*'  or  right  to  propose  new 
measures,  may  be  exercised  by  12,000  voters 
acting  together,  but  a  demand  for  revision  of  the 
constitution  mtist  be  supported  by  15,000  voters. 


BERN  —  BERNADOTTE 


Bern,  Switzerland,  the  capital  of  the  can- 
ton of  the  same  name  (see  above)  and  of  the 
whole  confederation;  situated  on  an  elevated 
rocky  peninsula,  washed  on  three  sides  by  the 
Aar,  which  is  crossed  by  several  bridges,  in- 
cluding the  handsome  Nydeck  Bridge,  the  huge 
iron  Kirchenfeld  Bridge,  and  the  Kornhaus 
Bridge  (opened  in  1898),  with  a  roadway  160 
feet  above  the  Aar,  and  a  principal  arch  of  380 
feet  span.  The  streets  are,  for  the  greater  part, 
straight,  wide,  and  well  paved;  and  the  houses, 
partly  provided  with  piazzas,  are  substantially 
built  of  stone.  The  streets  are  purified  by  rills 
of  water  and  adorned  with  fountains.  Among 
the  public  buildings  are  the  great  Gothic  cathe- 
dral 1421-1573;  the  Church  of  the  Holy  Spirit; 
the  University;  the  hall  of  the  Swiss  Federal 
Council;  the  art  museum,  containing  the  muni- 
cipal picture-gallery ;  a  hospital ;  the  town-house, 
a  Gothic  edifice  of  the  15th  century,  restored 
1868 ;  the  mint,  corn  hall,  historical  and  archaeo- 
logical museum;  the  natural  history  museum; 
observatory ;  deaf-and-dumb  institution ;  infir- 
mary ;  orphan  and  lunatic  asylums.  The  public 
library  possesses  great  treasures  of  printed 
books  and  manuscripts.  Trade  and  commerce 
are  lively ;  the  manufactures  consist  of  woolens, 
cottons,  silks,  machinery,  chocolate,  etc.  The 
city  was  founded  in  1191,  and  in  1218  the  Ger- 
man emperor  Frederick  II.  declared  it  a  free 
city  of  the  empire  and  confirmed  its  privileges 
by  a  charter,  which  is  still  preserved.  In  1353 
it  entered  into  the  Helvetic  Confederacy.  In 
1405  the  greater  part  of  the  city  was  destroyed 
by  fire,  but  it  was  afterward  regularly  rebuilt. 
The  bear,  as  the  heraldic  emblem  of  Bern, 
figures  frequently  in  a  sculptured  form ;  and  a 
number  of  these  animals  in  the  flesh  are  kept  at 
the  cost  of  the  municipality.  There  is  a  curious 
clock-tower  containing  mechanism  by  which 
the  striking  of  the  hours  is  heralded  by  the 
crowing  of  a  cock  and  a  procession  of  bears. 
Pop.    (1897)    49>030. 

Bern,  University  of,  a  state  educational 
institution  having  its  origin  in  a  minor  school 
which  in  the  early  part  of  the  i6th  century  was 
much  enlarged  by  the  demand  for  accommoda- 
tions for  theological  students.  About  200  years 
later  it  expanded  by  the  institution  of  depart- 
ments of  law,  science,  and  medicine,  and  about 
1830  was  formally  reorganized  as  a  State  uni- 
versity. It  has  a  library  of  about  40,000  volumes 
and  manuscripts,  and  educates  about  1,300 
students. 

Ber'nacle  Goose,  a  large  goose  of  north- 
ern Europe  and  Greenland,  allied  to  the  brant, 
and  named  Beniicla  cucopsis,  a  name  identified 
with  strange  old  fables.  It  differs  from  the 
brant  mainly  in  its  white  cheeks,  as  the  lavender- 
gray  of  the  mantle.  This  goose  is  a  common 
winter  visitor  to  western  Europe,  retiring  in 
summer  to  Arctic  regions  to  breed,  but  the 
region  and  the  character  of  its  nesting  remain 
undiscovered.  Up  to  comparatively  recent  times 
it  was  the  belief  of  the  European  peasants  that 
this  goose  was  born  from  the  stalked  barnacles 
which  adhere  to  driftwood,  and  sometimes  to 
the  branches  of  trees  that  reach  down  into  the 
sea  at  high  tide.  Circumstantial  accounts  were 
given  of  the  birth  of  the  young,  whose  tiny 
wings  (the  waving  filaments  of  the  feeding 
cirripeds)  could  be  seen  sticking  out  of  the 
shells  from  which  they  were  supposed  to  escape. 


So  firmly  was  this  fixed  in  the  minds  of  the 
people  that  it  is  given  and  illustrated  with 
much  detail  as  truth  in  many  books  of  the 
time;  and  the  Roman  Church  permitted  these 
geese  to  be  eaten  on  holy  days  because  they 
were  sea-born,  and  therefore  "fish" !  What  is 
less  generally  known  is  that  the  cirripeds  were 
named  after  the  bird,  as  their  supposed  parent; 
and  not  the  bird  after  the  crustacean.  Bernicle, 
like  *brant,*  refers  to  the  "burnt"  black  color 
of  the  birds,  as  explained  in  the  *  English  Dic- 
tionary^ and  by  other  authorities.  The  name 
has  been  adopted  as  generic  for  a  large  group 
of  the  geese  usually  distinguished  by  sports- 
men as  "brants"    (q.v.). 

Bernadotte,  Jean  Baptiste  Jules,  bar-na- 
dot',  zhoh  bap-test  zhool,  king  of  Sweden: 
b.  Pau,  26  Jan.  1764;  d.  8  March  1844.  He  was 
the  son  of  an  advocate  of  Pau,  and  enlisted  in 
a  French  regiment  of  marines  at  the  age  of  17. 
He  was  made  a  subaltern  in  1790,  and  thereafter 
his  promotion  was  rapid.  In  1794  he  was  ap- 
pointed general  of  division,  and  distinguished 
himself  greatly  in  the  campaign  in  Germany  and 
on  the  Rhine.  After  the  battle  of  Neuwied  he 
was  introduced  for  the  first  time  to  Bonaparte, 
who  conceived  the  highest  opinion  of  his  abili- 
ties, though  a  constant  suspicion  of  Napoleon 
seems  always  to  have  been  present  in  the  mind 
of  Bernadotte.  In  1798  he  married  Mademoi- 
selle Clary,  sister-in-law  of  Joseph  Bonaparte. 
The  following  year  he  became  minister  of  war, 
but  was  shortly  obliged  to  resign.  On  the 
establishment  of  the  empire  Bernadotte  was 
created  Marshal  of  France  and  Prince  of  Ponte- 
Corvo.  At  the  head  of  an  army  of  observation 
stationed  in  the  north  of  Germany,  he  fixed  his 
headquarters  at  Hamburg.  At  this  time  Gus- 
tavus  IV.  had  been  driven  from  the  throne  of 
Sweden.  The  Duke  of  Sudermania  assumed 
the  crown  under  the  name  of  Charles  XIII. ; 
and  as  he  was  far  advanced  in  years  the  diet 
had  nominated,  as  his  successor,  the  Prince  of 
Holstein-Augustenburg,  when  the  latter  died  in 
a  mysterious  manner.  The  heir-apparency  to  the 
Swedish  crown  was  then  offered  to  the  Prince  of 
Ponte-Corvo.  This  ofifer  was  accepted  by  Ber- 
nadotte with  the  consent  of  the  emperor;  and 
in  October  1810  he  arrived  in  Sweden,  where, 
having  previously  abjured  the  Roman  Catholic 
religion,  he  was  proclaimed  heir-apparent  to  the 
throne  under  the  title  of  Prince  (Charles  John. 
He  had  not  long  been  established  in  this  dignity 
before  serious  disagreements  look  place  between 
him  and  Bonaparte,  whose  blockade  of  the  Con- 
tinental ports  was  very  detrimental  to  the  com- 
mercial interests  of  Sweden.  The  result  was  a 
complete  rupture,  and  the  accession  of  Sweden 
in  1812  to  the  coalition  of  sovereigns  formed 
against  Napoleon.  At  the  battle  of  Leipsic 
Prince  Charles  John  contributed  eflfectually  to 
the  victory  of  the  allies.  On  the  general  re- 
establishment  of  the  European  dynasties  at  the 
termination  of  the  war,  strenuous  but  unsuccess- 
ful attempts  were  made  by  the  emperor  of  Aus- 
tria and  other  sovereigns  to  restore  the  family 
of  Gustavus  IV.  to  the  crown ;  and  Bernadotte, 
retaining  his  position  as  crown-prince,  became 
king  of  Sweden  on  the  death  of  Charles  XIII. 
in  1818,  under  the  title  of  Charles  XIV.  During 
his  reign  agriculture  and  commerce  made  great 
advances,  and  many  important  public  works 
were  completed ;  among  others,  the  Gotha  Canal. 


BERNADOU  —  BERNARD 


He  was  succeeded  by  his  son  Oscar,  father  of 
the  present  sovereign,  Oscar  II. 

Ber'nadou,  John  Baptiste,  American  naval 
officer :  b.  Pennsylvania,  1858.  Educated  at  the 
Naval  Academy  in  Annapolis,  he  entered  the 
navy  and  in  the  Spanish-American  war  com- 
manded the  torpedo  boat  Winslow  and  was 
wounded  in  a  naval  engagement  off  Cardenas 
in  May  1898.  He  has  written  ^The  Develop- 
ment of  the  Resources  of  the  United  States  for 
the  Production  of  War  Material^  ;  ^The  De- 
velopment of  Smokeless  Powder^  ;  ^A  Trip 
Through  Northern  Korea  in  1883-4.' 

Bernard,  ber'nard,  ber-nard',  or  (Fr.) 
bar-nar,  Saint(OF  Claikvaux),  French  ecclesias- 
tic: b.  Fontaine,  Burgundy,  1091 ;  d.  1153.  In 
1 1 13  he  became  a  monk  at  Citeaux;  in  11 15  first 
abbot  of  Clairvaux,  near  Langres.  An  austere 
manner  of  living,  solitary  studies,  an  inspiring 
eloquence,  boldness  of  language,  and  the  repu- 
tation of  a  prophet,  rendered  him  an  oracle  to  all 
Christian  Europe.  He  promoted  the  crusade 
of  1 146,  and  quieted  the  fermentation  caused  at 
that  time  by  a  party  of  monks  against  the  Jews 
in  Germany.  He  declined  all  promotion,  and  in 
the  rank  of  abbot  of  his  "beloved  Jerusalem*' 
(as  he  used  to  call  Clairvaux)  he  continued  with 
all  humility,  but  with  great  boldness,  his  cen- 
sures of  the  clergy  and  his  counsels  to  the 
Popes.  Innocent  II.  owed  to  him  the  posses- 
sion of  the  right  of  investiture  in  Germany,  and 
Eugenius  III.  his  education.  He  was,  at  the 
same  time,  the  umpire  of  princes  and  bishops, 
and  his  voice  in  the  synods  was  regarded  as 
divine.  By  his  rigid  orthodoxy  and  his  remark- 
able eloquence,  which  were  always  directed  to 
the  promotion  of  practical  Christianity,  he  did 
much  to  confirm  the  power  and  influence  of  the 
Church  in  the  ISIiddle  Ages.  He  was  a  strong 
opponent  of  Abelard  and  Gilbert  of  Poree  in 
their  philosophical  teachings.  He  was  canonized 
by  Alexander  III.  in  1174.  The  best  edition  of 
his  works  is  that  of  Mabillon  (  Paris  1690,  2  vols. ; 
reprinted,  Paris  1839-40). 

Bernard,  Saint,  of  Mentone:  b.  Mentone, 
Savoy,  923 ;  d.  Novara,  May  1007.  Very  little 
is  known  of  his  life  except  that  he  was  at  one 
time  archdeacon  of  the  city  of  Aosta,  and  that 
he  later  entered  upon  a  monastic  life  and 
founded  the  hospices  on  the  Great  and  Little 
Mount  Saint  Bernard,  about  962  a.d. 

Bernard,  ba-nar',  Charles  de,  properly 
Bernard  du  Grail  de  la  Villette,  French  novel- 
ist :  b.  Besangon,  25  Feb.  1804 ;  d.  Neuilly,  6 
March  1850.  He  was  a  disciple  of  Balzac, 
whom  he  resembles  in  his  power  of  realistic 
description  and  psychological  analysis ;  but  he 
possesses  a  purer  and  more  nervous  style,  and 
above  all  is  content  with  a  less  minute  elabora- 
tion of  story  and  characters.  His  first  piece, 
^The  Gerfalcon,'  made  a  hit  with  its  clever 
description  of  the  literary  cliques.  Everywhere 
he  evinces  clear  insight  into  the  foibles  of  so- 
ciety. Of  his  novels,  the  following  may  be 
named  as  only  second  in  rank  to  his  master- 
piece, ^The  Gerfalcon'  ;  ^A  Magistrate's  Ad- 
venture' ;  ^The  Gordian  Knot'  ;  ^Wings  of 
Icarus'  ;  *The  Lion's  Skin' ;  <The  Country 
Gentleman.' 

Bernard,  bar-nar,  Claude,  French  physiol- 
ogist :  b.  Saint -Julien.  department  of  the  Rhone, 
12  July  1813 ;  d.  Paris,  10  Feb.  1878.     Educated 


at  Villefranche  and  Lyons,  he  went  to  Paris 
in  order  to  devote  himself  to  a  literary  career, 
but  soon  turned  to  medicine.  In  1839  he  became 
assistant  to  Magendie,  who  directed  his  atten- 
tion to  experimental  physiology.  He  became 
professor  at  the  College  de  France  in  1855,  and 
about  the  same  time  he  was  appointed  to  the 
chair  of  experimental  physiology  at  the  Sor- 
bonne.  In  1868  he  resigned  the  latter  chair  in 
order  to  take  up  a  similar  one  in  the  Museum 
of  Natural  History,  and  in  that  year  also  he  was 
elected  to  Flourens'  place  in  the  Academy.  He 
was  one  of  the  foremost  physiologists  of  his 
age,  and  several  important  discoveries  are  asso- 
ciated with  his  name.  Among  his  published 
works  are  'Experimental  Physiology  Applied  to 
Medicine'  (1854-5)  ;  'Physiology  and  the 
Pathology  of  the  '  Nervous  System'  (1858); 
'Physiological  Properties  and  Pathological  Al- 
terations of  the  Liquids  of  the  Organism' 
(1859)  ;  'Properties  of  Living  Tissues'  (1866)  ; 
'Experimental  Pathology'  (1871)  ;  'General 
Physiology'  (1872)  ;  'Animal  Heat'  (1876)  ; 
'Phenomena  of  Life  Common  to  Animals  and 
Vegetables'  (1878-9)  ;  'Experimental  Science' 
(1878)  ;  etc.  He  was  accorded  a  national 
funeral. 

Bernard,  ber'nard,  Sir  Francis,  English 
administrator:  b.  Nettleham,  England,  1714;  d. 
Aylesbury,  England,  16  June  1779.  He  was  gov- 
ernor of  New  Jersey  1758-60,  and  of  Massachu- 
setts Bay  1760-9.  He  did  a  great  deal  toward 
precipitating  the  Revolution  by  his  aggressive 
attempts  to  strengthen  the  royal  authority.  He 
was  finally  recalled  on  account  of  the  unpopular- 
ity resultant  on  his  bringing  troops  into  Boston. 

Bernard,  Jacques,  French  Protestant  cler- 
gyman and  author :  b.  Nions,  in  Dauphine,  I 
Sept.  1658;  d.  27  April  1718.  When  the  Edict 
of  Nantes  was  revoked,  Bernard  went  to  Hol- 
land, and  while  there  founded  a  school  of  phi- 
losophy and  belle-lettres  at  The  Hague.  He 
became  editor  of  the  'Bibliotheque  Universelle,' 
and  later  editor  of  the  'Republique  des  Lettres.' 
He  wrote  and  published:  'Recueil  de  traites  de 
paix,  de  treves,  de  neutralite  .  .  .  et  d* 
autres  actes  publics  faits  en  Europe'  (1700)  ; 
'Actes  et  memoires  des  negociations  de  la  paix 
de  Ryswick'    (1725)  ;  etc. 

Bernard,  Montague,  English  lawyer:  b. 
Gloucestershire,  28  Jan.  1820;  d.  Overross,  2 
Sept.  1882.  He  was  professor  of  international 
law  at  Oxford  1859-74.  In  1871  he  was  one  of 
the  high  commissioners  who  signed  the  Treaty 
of  Washington,  and  on  his  return  home  was 
made  a  privy  councilor.  In  1872  he  assisted 
Sir  Roundell  Palmer  in  preparing  the  British 
case  for  the   Geneva  Arbitration  Tribunal. 

Bernard,  Pierre  Joseph,  bar-nar,  pe-ar 
zho-sef,  or  Gentil  (zhon-tel)  Bernard,  French 
poet:  b.  Grenoble,  1710;  d.  1775.  At  an  early 
age  he  showed  a  great  taste  for  poesy,  and  was 
at  first  only  an  attorney's  clerk,  but  afterward 
became  secretary  to  Marshal  de  Coigny,  who 
had  command  of  the  army  of  Italy.  After  the 
marshal's  death  he  obtained  a  lucrative  ap- 
pointment, and  was  then  able  to  indulge  his 
poetic  faculties.  _  He  wrote  an  opera,  'Castor 
and  Pollux,'^  which  met  with  great  success ;  the 
'Art  of  Loving,'  and  a  number  of  odes,  songs, 
etc.  His  works  were  collected  and  reprinted  in 
1803. 


BERNARD  —  BERNARD  AKIS 


Bernard,  Simon,  bar-nar,  se-mon,  French 
engineer:  b.  Dole,  28  April  1779;  d.  5  Nov.  1839. 
He  served  as  aide-de-camp  to  Napoleon;  was 
wounded  at  the  battle  of  Leipsic;  superintended 
the  defense  of  Torgau,  and  was  present  at 
Waterloo.  In  1816  he  came  to  the  United 
States;  was  commissioned  brigadier-general  of 
engineers;  and  planned  an  elaborate  system  of 
seacoast  defences,  the  most  important  of  the 
works  built  by  him  being  Fortress  Monroe.  In 
1831  he  returned  to  France;  was  made  aide-de- 
camp to  Louis  Philippe,  and  designed  the  forti- 
fications of  Paris.  In  1834  he  was  appointed 
minister  of  war. 

Bernard,  ber-nard,  William  Bayle,  Anglo- 
American  dramatist :  b.  Boston,  Mass.,  27  Nov. 
1807;  d.  5  Aug.  1875.  His  .first  work  was  a 
nautical  drama  called  *^The  Pilot. ^  This  proved 
successful  and  encouraged  him  to  pursue  a 
literary  career.  He  wrote  in  all  114  plays,  of 
which  the  best  known  are  ^Rip  Van  Winkle^  ; 
'The  Man  About  Town^  ;  *  Marie  Ducange-*  ; 
and  'The  Boarding  School.^ 

Bernard  de  Chartres,  bar-nar  de  shartr 
(surnamed  Svlvestrisj,  a  writer  of  the  12th  cen- 
tury, who  lias  been  lauded  as  the  ablest  Platonic 
of  his  time,  and  wrote  two  works,  now  lost,  in  one 
of  which  he  endeavored  to  reconcile  Plato  and 
Aristotle,  and  in  the  other  maintained  the  doc- 
trine of  a  Providence,  and  proved  that  all  ma- 
terial beings,  possessing  a  nature  subject  to 
change,  must  necessarily  perish.  Another  work 
under  the  name  of  Bernard  Sylvestris  still  ex- 
ists, and  is  composed  of  two  parts,  distinguished 
by  the  names  of  'IMegacosmus^  and  '^^[icrocos- 
mus,^  or  the  'Great  World-*  and  the  'Little 
World. ^  He  reduces  all  things  to  two  elements 
—  matter  and  ideas.  Matter  is  in  itself  devoid 
of  form,  but  susceptible  of  receiving  it ;  ideas 
reside  in  the  divine  intellect,  and  are  the  models 
of  life,  and  from  their  union  with  matter  all 
things  result.  M.  Cousin  has  published  extracts 
from  these  works. 

Bernard  of  Cluny,  Benedictine  monk:  b. 
at  Morlaix,  about  iioo;  d.  1156.  He  was  a 
member  of  the  Benedictine  monastery  at  Cluny 
under  Peter  the  Venerable,  and  is  best  known 
as  the  author  of  three  hymns  included  in  al- 
most every  English  collection :  "Jerusalem  the 
Golden»;  "For  Thee,  O  Dear,  Dear  Country*  ; 
and  "The  World  is  Very  Evil.^'  These  are  a  part 
of  his  3,000-line  poem  'De  Contemptu  Mundi,^ 
translated  by  J.  M.  Neale. 

Bernard  (ber'nard)  of  Treviso  (tre-ve'zo), 
Italian  alchemist:  b.  Padua,  1406;  d.  1490.  His 
most  important  work  was  'Treatise  on  the  Most 
Secret  Chemical  Labor  of  the  Philosophers.^ 

Bernard  de  Ventadour,  bar-nar  de  v6n-ta- 
dor,  French  troubadour:  b.  about  1125;  d.  Da- 
\on,  about  1197.  Love  songs  'To  Eleonore,^  and 
various  amatory  lays  to  courtly  dames,  form  the 
riches   of   his    delicate   verse. 

Bernard,  ber'nard,  Great  St.,  a  celebrated 
pass  of  the  Pennine  Alps,  Switzerland,  in  the 
canton  Valais,  on  the  mountain-road  leading 
from  Martigny  to  Aosta  in  Piedmont.  On  the 
east  side  of  the  pass  is  Mount  Velan,  and  on  the 
west  the  Pointe  de  Dronaz :  there  is  no  moun- 
tain known  by  the  name  of  St.  Bernard.  Almost 
on  the  very  crest  of  the  pass  is  the  famous 
Viospice,  among  the  highest  permanently  inhab- 
ited spots  in  Europe,  8,200  feet  above  the  level 


of  the  sea.  There  is  a  massive  stone  building 
capable  of  accommodating  70  or  80  travelers 
with  beds,  and  of  sheltering  300.  As  many  as 
500  or  600  have  received  assistance  in  one  day. 
It  is  situated  on  the  highest  point  of  the  pass, 
exposed  to  tremendous  storms  from  the  north- 
east and  southwest,  and  is  tenanted  by  10  or 
12  brethren  of  the  order  of  St.  Augustine,  who 
have  devoted  themselves  by  vow  to  the  aid  of 
travelers  crossing  the  mountains.  The  climate 
of  this  high  region  is  necessarily  rigorous. 
There  is  a  lake  on  the  summit,  at  a  short  dis- 
tance from  the  hospice,  on  which  ice  has  fre- 
quently remained  throughout  the  whole  year. 
The  severest  cold  recorded  is  — 29°  F.,  but  it 
has  often  been  — 18°  and  — 20°  F. ;  the  greatest 
summer  heat  recorded  is  68°  F.  From  the  diffi- 
culty of  respiration  in  so  elevated  a  locality, 
and  the  severity  of  the  climate,  few  of  the  monks 
survive  the  time  of  their  vow,  15  years  from 
the  age  of  18,  when  they  are  devoted  to  this 
service.  The  dogs  kept  at  St.  Bernard  to  assist 
the  brethren  in  their  humane  labors  are  well 
known.  In  the  midst  of  tempests  and  snow- 
storms the  monks,  accompanied  by  some  of  these 
dogs,  set  out  for  the  purpose  of  tracking  those 
who  have  lost  their  way.  If  they  find  the  bodj' 
of  a  traveler  who  has  perished  they  carry  it  into 
the  vault  of  the  dead,  where  it  is  wrapped  in 
linen  and  remains  lying  on  a  table  till  another 
victim  occupies  the  place.  It  is  then  set  up 
against  the  wall  among  the  other  dead  bodies, 
which,  on  account  of  the  cold,  decay  so  slowly 
that  they  are  often  recognized  by  their  friends 
after  the  lapse  of  years.  Adjoining  this  vault 
is  a  kind  of  burying-ground,  where  the  bones 
are  deposited  when  they  accumulate  too  much 
in  the  vault.  It  is  impossible  to  bury  them, 
because  there  is  nothing  around  the  hospice  but 
naked  rocks.  The  institution  is  supported  partly 
by  its  own  revenues,  partly  by  subscriptions  and 
donations.  The  pass  appears  to  have  been 
known  at  a  very  early  period ;  and  a  Roman 
road  led  down  the  Piedmontese  side  of  the 
mountains.  The  remains  of  a  massive  pavement 
are  still  visible;  and  the  cabinet  of  the  hospice 
contains  votive  tablets,  bronze  figures,  and  other 
antiquities  found  in  the  vicinity.  The  hospice 
was  founded  in  962  by  St.  Bernard  of  Menthon, 
an  Italian  ecclesiastic,  for  the  benefit  of  those 
who  performed  pilgrimages  to  Rome.  In  May, 
1800,  Napoleon  led  an  army  of  30.000  men,  with 
its  artillery  and  cavalry,  into  Italy  by  this  pass. 

Bernard,  Little  St.,  a  mountain  of  Italy, 
belonging  to  what  are  called  the  Graian  Alps, 
about  10  miles  south  of  Mont  Blanc.  It  stands 
between  Savoy  and  Piedmont,  having  the  valley 
of  the  Isere,  in  the  former,  on  the  west,  and 
that  of  the  Doire,  in  the  latter,  on  the  east.  The 
pass  across  it  is  one  of  the  easiest  in  the  Alps, 
and  is  supposed  by  many  to  be  that  which 
Hannibal  used.  The  hospice,  at  the  summit  of 
the  pass,  has  an  elevation  of  7,192  ^eet. 

Bernardakis,  Demetrios,  ber-nar'da-kis.  da- 
ma'tre-6s,  Greek  poet  and  dramatist:  b.  Santa 
Marina,  Lesbos,  2  Dec.  1834.  After  a  course  of 
study  at  Athens  and  in  German  universities  he 
was  (with  one  considerable  intermission)  pro- 
fessor of  history  and  philology  in  the  University 
of  Athens,  1861-82,  when  he  went  back  to  Les- 
bos. He  is  author  of  a  spirited  Pindaric  ode 
for  a  jubilee  occasion,  of  several  dramas,  and  of 
a  satire,  'The  Battle  of  Cranes  and  Mice'  ;  he 


BERNARDES  —  BERNBURG 


has  also  written  a  < Universal  History^  ;  a 
*  Church  History^  ;  and  a  spirited  tractate,  ^Con- 
futation of  a  False  Atticism,'  directed  against 
the  would-be  Attic  purists. 

Bernardes,  Diego,  ber-nar'des,  de-a'go, 
Portuguese  poet:  b.  Ponte  de  Lima  about  1530; 
d.  1605.  He  was  called  "the  Sweet  Singer  of  the 
Lima,"  a  streamlet  immortalized  in  his  verse. 
He  left  his  native  valley  in  1550  and  attached 
liimself  to  the  master-singer,  Sa  de  Miranda, 
who  lived  retired  on  his  estate,  Quinta  da 
Tapada,  a  devotee  of  the  Muses.  Here  Bernar- 
des composed  verses  of  all  kinds  —  elegies,  son- 
nets, odes,  and  songs,  full  of  tender  sympathies 
and  perfect  melody.  Here  he  wrote  ^The 
Lima';  < Various  Rimes  —  Flowers  from  Lima's 
Banks'  ;  'Various  Rimes  to  the  Good  Jesu,'  and 
other  poems. 

Bernardin  of  Sienna,  Italian  ecclesiastic: 
b.  Massa,  Italy,  8  Sept.  1380;  d.  Aquila,  Abruzzo, 
20  May  1444.  He  became  a  Franciscan  friar  in 
a  monastery  near  Sienna  in  1404,  but,  desiring 
to  make  a  pilgrimage  to  the  Holy  Land,  was 
appointed  a  commissary  of  that  country,  and 
was  thus  enabled  to  gratifj^  his  wish.  After 
his  return  he  acquired  a  great  reputation  as  a 
preacher,  and  three  cities  were  rival  suitors  for 
the  honor  of  having  him  as  bishop.  Bernardin, 
however,  was  unwilling  to  accept  the. distinction, 
and  was  made  vicar-general  of  the  friars  of  the 
Observantine  order  in  Italy.  He  is  said  to  have 
founded  more  than  300  monasteries.  In  1450  he 
was  canonized  by  Pope  Nicholas  V.  His  works 
appeared  at  Venice  in  1591  in  4  volumes 
quarto,  and  at  Paris  in  1636  in  2  volumes 
folio.  They  consist  of  essays  on  religious  sub- 
jects, sermons,  and  a  commentary  on  the  book 
of  Revelation.  A  biography  by  J.  P.  Toussaint 
was  published  (Regensburg  1873),  and  one  by 
L.  Bianchi   (Sienna  1888). 

Bernardines,  ber'nar-denz.  See  Cister- 
cians. 

Bernardo  del  Carpio,  ber-nar'do  del  kar'- 
pe-6,  Spanish  knight-errant  (the  fruit  of  a  secret 
marriage  between  Chimena,  the  sister  of  Al- 
phonso  the  Chaste,  and  of  Don  Sancho.  lord 
of  Saldagua)  :  b.  in  the  9th  century.  Alphonso, 
irritated  at  the  marriage,  put  out  the  eyes  of 
Don  Sancho  and  imprisoned  him  in  a  castle,  but 
spared  Bernardo  and  brought  him  up  carefully 
at  his  court.  In  course  of  time  Don  Bernardo 
grew  up  to  be  a  warrior,  and  distinguished  him- 
self in  the  Moorish  wars,  in  the  hope  that  the 
king  would  be  bent  to  pity  and  set  his  father 
at  liberty.  Alphonso  was  inflexible,  and  Ber- 
nardo withdrew  to  his  paternal  domains;  and, 
leaguing  with  other  lords  opposed  to  the  court, 
set  him  at  defiance. 

On  the  accession  of  Alphonso  the  Great, 
Bernardo  returned  to  court,  and  again  per- 
formed many  exploits  against  the  Moors,  hop- 
ing to  be  rewarded  with  his  father's  freedom. 
He  was  once  more  denied  the  boon,  and  with- 
drew as  before,  not  only  leaguing  with  his 
friends,  but  making  alliance  with  the  Moors. 
Alphonso  agreed  at  length  to  give  up  his  father 
on  receiving  the  surrender  of  the  castle  of 
Carpio.  Bernardo,  true  to  his  word,  performed 
his  part  of  the  stipulation,  and  then  learned  with 
indignation  that  Alphonso  had  practised  an  in- 
famous deception  upon  him,  as  his  father  had 
been  for  some  time  dead.  He  disdained  any 
longer  to  tread  the  Spanish  soil,  and  removed 
to  France,  where  he  spent  the  remainder  of  his 


life  as  a  knight-errant.  Many  fabulous  exploits 
have  been  attributed  to  him,  both  in  Spanish 
romances  and  in  more  reliable  histories. 

Bernauer,  ber-now-er,  Agnes,  Bavarian 
lady  celebrated  for  her  beauty  and  her  unfortu- 
nate fate ;  d.  2  Oct.  1435.  She  was  the  daughter 
of  a  poor  citizen,  said  to  be  a  barber  of  Augs- 
burg. Duke  Albert  of  Bavaria,  only  son  of  the 
reigning  prince,  met  Agnes  at  a  tournament 
given  in  his  honor  by  the  grandees  of  Augs- 
burg, became  enamored  of  her,  and,  as  he  could 
not  prevail  on  her  to  be  his  mistress,  secretly 
married  her.  He  conducted  her  to  his  o\yn 
castle  of  Vohburg,  and  for  a  time  succeeded  in 
concealing  the  alliance  he  had  contracted ;  but 
his  father  wishing  to  marry  him  to  Anne,  daugh- 
ter of  the  Duke  of  Brunswick,  he  was  com- 
pelled to  acknowledge  his  marriage  with  Agnes. 
His  father  refused  to  credit  it,  and  having 
caused  the  Duke  to  be  denied  admission  to  a 
tournament  on  the  plea  that  he  was  living  unlaw- 
fully with  a  woman,  Albert  openly  proclaimed 
his  marriage  and  caused  Agnes  to  be  recog- 
nized as  Duchess  of  Bavaria,  giving  her  for 
residence  the  castle  of  Straubing  on  the  Danube. 
The  Duke  of  Bavaria,  incensed  at  this  open 
avowal  of  a  misalliance,  caused  Agnes  to  be 
seized  in  her  castle  during  the  absence  of  his 
son,  brought  her  before  a  tribunal  specially  con- 
stituted, where  she  was  accused  of  magic,  and 
being  condemned,  had  her  hands  tied  together 
and  was  thrown  into  the  river.  Albert  in  re- 
venge took  arms  against  his  father,  but  the 
Emperor  Sigismund  finally  reconciled  them. 
The  Duke  Ernest  raised  a  chapel  to  the  memory 
of  Agnes,  and  Albert  married  the  princess  of 
Brunswick.  Her  story,  though  well  authenti- 
cated, has  become  legendary  from  the  interest 
attached  to  it,  and  is  a  favorite  theme  with  the 
Bavarian  poets. 

Bernay,  bar-na,  France,  a  town  in  the  de- 
partment of  Eure,  25  miles  west-northwest  of 
Evreux,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Charentonne. 
It  has  two  fine  old  churches,  a  communal  col- 
lege, a  hospital,  a  court  of  first  resort,  a  board 
of  manufactures,  an  agricultural  society,  and  a 
savings  bank.  It  has  important  manufactures  of 
cloth  and  flannel,  tape,  linen,  and  cotton  goods ; 
and  spins  a  good  deal  of  cotton,  thread,  and 
worsted.  It  has  also  bleachfields,  dyeworks, 
tanneries,  etc.  Its  trade  is  principally  in  grain, 
cider,  cloth,  iron,  paper,  leather,  linen,  horses, 
and  cattle.  The  horse-fair,  held  in  Lent,  is  one 
of  the  greatest  in  France,  and  is  attended  by 
purchasers  from  all  parts  of  the  country.  Pop. 
(1891)  S.788. 

Bernburg,  bern-burn,  German3\  a  town 
in  the  duchy  of  Anhalt,  capital  of  the  former 
duchy  of  Anhalt-Bernburg;  on  both  sides  of 
the  Saale,  northwest  from  Leipsic,  with  which, 
as  well  as  with  Berlin  and  Magdeburg,  it  is 
connected  by  railway.  It  is  divided  into  the  old, 
the  new,  and  the  high  town  ;  the  first  two  sur- 
rounded by  walls,  and  communicating  by  a 
bridge  173  feet  long.  Bernburg  is  well  built, 
and  contains  several  well-paved  and  well-lighted 
streets.  The  principal  building  is  the  palace, 
situated,  with  a  garden,  on  the  highest  part  of 
the  high  town.  It  is  very  ancient,  but  has 
received  numerous  modern  additions,  and  con- 
tains a  picture-gallery,  theatre,  and  church.  Be- 
sides an  oil-mill,  and  several  breweries  and  dis- 
tilleries, there  are  manufactories  of  paper  and 


BERNE-BELLECOUR  —  BERNHARDl 


earthenware,   copper  and  tin   wares,   etc.      Pop. 
(1895)   32,374- 

Berne-Bellecour  Etienne  Prosper,  barn- 
bel-koor,  a-te-en  pros-per,  French  painter:  b. 
Boulogne,  29  July  1838.  After  some  years  of 
study  under  Barras  and  Picot,  he  made  a  reputa- 
tion by  his  spirited  representations  of  episodes 
in  the  Franco-Prussian  war  of  1870.  He  received 
a  first-class  medal  in  the  Paris  Salon  of  1872 ; 
the  Legion  of  Honor  in  1878 ;  and  a  second-class 
medal  at  the  Paris  Exposition  of  1889.  His 
best  known  works  are:  'Cannon  Shot-*;  'In 
the  Trenches^  ;  'Attack  on  the  Chateau^  ;  and 
'To  Arms!^ 

Ber'ners,  John  Bourchier,  boor'she-a, 
Lord,  English  baron,  a  descendant  of  the  Duke 
of  Gloucester,  youngest  son  of  Edward  HI. :  b. 
1474;  d.  1532.  He  was  member  of  Parliament, 
1495-1529;  aided  in  suppressing  the  Cornish 
insurrection,  1497 ;  chancellor  of  the  exchequer, 
1515;  ambassador  to  Spain,  1518;  and  for  many 
years  governor  of  Calais.  He  translated  'Frois- 
sart's  Chronicles^  (1523-5)  and  other  works, 
his  translation  of  the  former  being  a  sort  of 
English  classic. 

Ber'ners,  or  Barnes,  Juliana,  English 
prioress  and  author:  fi.  15th  century.  She 
was  the  daughter  of  Sir  James  Berners,  who 
was  beheaded  in  the  reign  of  Richard  II.  Lit- 
tle more  is  known  than  that  she  was  prioress  of 
the  nunnery  of  Sopewell,  near  St.  z\lban's,  and 
has  her  name  prefixed  as  writer  or  compiler  to 
one  of  the  earliest  and  most  curious  productions 
of  the  English  press.  The  first  edition,  entitled 
'The  Treatyses  Pertjmynge  to  Hawkynge, 
Huntynge,  and  Fysshynge  with  an  Angle^  (-of 
which  only  three  perfect  copies  are  known), 
printed  in  the  abbey  of  St.  Alban's  in  i486, 
treats  of  hawking,  hunting,  and  heraldry.  A 
second  edition  was  printed  by  Wynkyn  de 
Worde  in  1496.  This  work,  under  the  title  of 
the  'Book  of  St.  Alban's,^  became  a  popular 
manual  of  sporting  science,  and  was  many  times 
reprinted  in  the  i6th  century.  It  has  latterly 
been  issued  in  facsimile  of  the  original  print. 

Bernhard,  bern'hart,  (Duke  of  Weimar), 
Dutch  soldier  (fourth  son  of  Duke  John  of  Saxe- 
Weimar)  :  b.  6  Aug.  1604;  d.  8  July  1639.  He 
entered  first  the  service  of  Holland,  and  after- 
ward the  Danish  army  employed  in  Holstein 
against  the  troops  of  the  emperor,  and  command- 
ed by  the  margrave  of  Baden-Durlach,  and  was 
present  at  the  Conference  of  Lubeck,  1629,  for 
negotiating  peace.  When  Gustavus  Adolphus 
entered  Germany.  Bernhard  joined  him,  and 
was  present  at  the  attack  upon  Wallenstein's 
camp  in  the  neighborhood  of  Nuremberg,  24 
Aug.  16.12.  In  the  battle  of  Liitzen,  6  Oct.  1632, 
he  commanded  the  left  wing  of  the  Swedish 
army,  avenged  the  death  of  Gustavus  Adolphus, 
and  although  himself  severely  wounded,  put 
the  right  wing  of  the  imperial  troops  to  flight. 
In  16,13  he  took  Bamberg,  Cronach,  Hochstadt, 
and  Aichstadt;  but  his  attempt  upon  Ingolstadt 
miscarried.  He  also  brought  the  cities  of  Ratis- 
bon  and  Straubing  into  his  power,  and  frus- 
trated Wallenstein's  intentions.  The  king  of 
Sweden  made  him  Duke  of  Franconia.  His 
impetuosity  caused  the  defeat  at  N6rdlingen(q.v.). 
24  Aug.  1634.  He  himself  narrowly  escaped 
being  made  prisoner.  The  prudence  of  Oxen- 
stiern  and  the  valor  of  Bernhard  soon  made 
amends    for   this    fault.      France,   now   entering 


into  a  closer  alliance  with  Sweden,  concluded  a 
separate  treaty  with  Bernhard,  who  went  to- 
Paris,  16  Oct.  1634.  Bernhard  promised  for 
4,000,000  livres  to  raise  an  army  of  18,000  men 
on  the  Rhine  to  act  against  Austria.  He  now 
carried  on  the  war  in  the  country  adjacent  to 
the  Rhine,  took  the  fortress  of  Zabern  in  Alsace, 
spread  his  army  over  Lorraine  and  Burgundy, 
and  vanquished  the  forces  of  the  emperor  in 
several  battles.  At  the  commencement  of  the 
year  1638  he  laid  siege  to  Rheinfelden,  not  far 
from  Basel.  Here  he  was  unexpectedly  attacked 
in  his  camp,  18  February,  by  an  Austrian  army. 
Bernhard  was  obliged  to  retreat  before  superior 
numbers ;  but,  having  soon  collected  his  forces, 
he  surprised  the  Austrians,  21  February,  and 
obtained  a  complete  victory.  Several  Austrian 
generals  were  made  prisoners,  and  the  fortress 
of  Rheinfelden  was  obliged  to  surrender,  13 
May.  He  then  undertook  the  siege  of  Breisach, 
the  possession  of  which  was  necessary  for  main- 
taining himself  in  Alsace.  An  imperial  army, 
under  General  Goetze,  was  defeated  with  great 
loss  by  Bernhard,  30  July.  Bernhard  captured 
several  places  of  inferior  importance  during 
the  siege  of  Breisach,  which,  however,  did  not 
surrender  until  he  had  repeatedly  defeated  the 
Austrians,  and  then  upon  very  moderate  condi- 
tions, which  Bernhard  signed  in  his  own  name 
without  mentioning  France.  The  possession  of 
Alsace,  which  he  had  before  ceded  to  France 
under  certain  conditions,  was  now  secured ;  but 
he  also  demanded  Breisach  as  an  appurtenance 
to  Alsace.  He  garrisoned  all  the  conquered 
places  with  German  troops,  and  ordered  money 
to  be  coined  with  the  Saxon  coat  of  arms  and 
that  of  Breisach.  In  vain  were  the  efforts  of 
France  to  deprive  the  duke  of  the  possession  of 
Breisach  by  proposing  to  place  a  French  garri- 
son in  the  fortress ;  the  Duke  declined  not  only 
this  proposal,  but  also  an  invitation  to  Paris 
and  the  offer  of  a  marriage  with  the  Duchesse 
d'Aiguillon,  niece  of  Cardinal  Richelieu.  In- 
stead of  that  match  he  proposed  one  with  the 
princess  of  Rohan,  to  which,  however,  the 
French  court  would  not  accede,  lest  the  party 
of  the  Huguenots  should  be  strengthened.  It 
is  probable  that  Richelieu  had  recourse  to  poison 
in  order  to  rid  France  of  the  Duke,  who  was 
becoming  formidable  by  his  growing  power. 
Immediately  after  his  death  several  French  com- 
missioners appeared,  who  enlisted  his  troops 
into  the  French  army ;  the  command  of  them 
was  committed  to  Marshal  Guebriant.  With 
Bernhard  fell  one  of  the  chief  supports  of  the 
Protestants.  His  successors,  Baner  and  Torsten- 
son,  pursued  his  victorious  course,  and  France 
seriously  exerted  herself  in  the  war  which  con- 
tinued for  the  benefit  of  the  Protestants.  In 
Bernhard  a  graceful  person,  intelligence,  and 
valor  were  united  with  a  magnanimity  which 
could  not  be  shaken  by  adverse  events  ;  his  only 
fault  was  too  great  impetuosity. 

Bernhardi,  August  Friedrich,  bern-har'de, 
ow'goost  fre'driH,  German  scholar:  b.  Berlin, 
1768:  d.  there,  1820.  In  his  youth  his  atten- 
tion was  directed  to  universal  language  (that  is, 
to  language  as  far  as  it  is  common  to  all 
rational  beings),  to  the  mystery  of  its  construc- 
tion—  the  mathematics,  as  it  were,  of  language. 
Bernhardi,  considering  all  different  languages 
as  a  whole,  endeavored  to  discover  a  uni- 
versal grammar  common  to  them  all.  The 
result   of  his   researches  appears  in   his   works: 


BERNH  ARDI  —  BERNIER 


^Abstract  Grammar^  (2  vols.  1801)  ;  '■Grammar 
in  Its  Application-'  (1803)  ;  and  *  Elements  of 
the  Science  of  Language,*  in  which  many  philo- 
sophical principles  of  language  are  laid  down. 
Bernhardi  was  a  man  of  cultivated  mind  and 
extensive  knowledge.  He  was  also  a  professor 
and  director  of  a  classical  school  in  Berlin. 

Bernhardi,     Theodor    von,     ta'o-dor     fon, 

German    historian    and    diplomat :    b.    Berlin,    6 

Nov.  1802;  d.  Kunersdorf,  Silesia,  12  Feb.  1887. 

His     diplomatic     career     was     important,     and 

.  afforded   him   special    facilities    for   compiling   a 

1  ^History   of   Russia    and   of   European    Politics 

>  During  the    Years    1814-31*    (1863-77);    'Fred- 

'  erick    the    Great    as    a    Militarj'    Commander' 

(1881);    and    similar   works,    all   of   value. 

Bernhardt,  Rosine,  barn-hart,  ro-zen,  bet- 
ter known  as  Sarah,  French  actress  :  b.  Paris, 
22  Oct.  1844.  Of  Jewish  descent,  her  father 
French,  her  mother  Dutch,  her  early  life  was 
spent  largely  in  Amsterdam.  In  1858  she  en- 
tered the  Paris  Conservatoire  and  gained  prizes 
for  tragedy  and  comedy  in  1861  and  1862;  but 
her  debut  at  the  Theatre  Frangais  in  'Iphigenie' 
and  Scribe's  'Valerie*  was  not  a  success.  After 
a  brief  retirement  she  reappeared  at  the  Gj'mnase 
and  the  Porte  Saint-Martin  in  burlesque,  and  in 
1867  at  the  Odeon  in  higher  drama.  Her  suc- 
cess in  Hugo's  'Ruy  Bias*  in  1872  led  to  her 
being  recalled  to  the  Theatre  Frangais,  since 
which  she  has  abundantly  proved  her  dramatic 
genius.  In  1879  she  visited  London,  and  again 
m  1880,  about  which  time  she  severed  connec- 
tion with  the  Comedie  Frangais  under  heavy 
penalty.  In  1880,  1887.  1891,  1896,  and  1900 
she  made  successful  appearances  in  the  United 
States,  and  between  and  after  these  dates  vis- 
ited Switzerland,  Holland,  South  America,  Italy, 
Algeria,  Australia,  etc.  In  1899  she  appeared 
in  a  new  rendering  of  ^Hamlet*  in  Paris,  and 
scored  a  most  flattering  triumph.  Among  her 
most  successful  impersonations  are  ^Theodora,* 
'Fedora,*  'La  Tosca,*  and  'Cleopatre*  in  the 
plays  bearing  those  titles.  In  1882  she  married 
M.  Damala,  a  Greek,  whom  she  divorced  not 
long  afterward.  She  is  also  known  as  a  sculp- 
tor, painter,  and  playwright. 

Bernhardy,  Gottfried,  bern'har-de,  got'fred, 
German  classical  philologist :  b.  Landsberg-on- 
the-\\'arthe.  20  March  1800 ;  d.  Halle,  14  May 
1875.  He  lectured  very  brilliantly  at  the  lead- 
ing universities,  his  principal  works  being 
'Greek  Syntax  Scientifically  Considered* 
(1829),  a  historical  study  of  the  subject;  'Out- 
lines of  Roman  Literature*  (5th  ed.  1872)  ; 
'Outlines  of  Greek  Literature*  (Part  I.  5th  ed. 
1892:  Part  II.  2d-3d  ed.  1876-80;  Part  III. 
wanting),  and  a  supplement  to  the  first-named 
treatise,  entitled  'Paralipomena  [Omission]  in 
[the  Work  on]  Greek  Syntax*  (1854-62)  ;  al- 
though he  has  written  many  other  important 
books. 

Berni,  Berna,  or  Bernia,  Francesco,  ber'ne, 
ber'na,  or  ber'ne-a,  fran-ches'ko,  Italian 
poet :  b.  Lamporecchio,  Tuscany,  toward  the 
close  of  the  15th  century;  d.  26  July  1536.  His 
family  was  noble,  but  poor,  and  young  Berni 
went  to  Florence,  and  at  the  age  of  19  to  Rome, 
where  he  lived  under  the  care  of  his  relation, 
Cardinal  Bibiena.  At  length  he  entered  the 
service  of  Ghiberti.  bishop  of  Verona,  datary 
of  the  papal  chancery,  as  secretary.    In  the  hope 


of  promotion  he  took  orders ;  but  sought  recrea- 
tion in  amusements  which  displeased  the  prelate. 
A  society  had  been  established  at  Rome,  consist- 
ing of  young  ecclesiastics  of  a  jovial  temper 
like  Berni,  and  of  a  poetical  vein,  who,  in  order 
to  denote  their  love  for  wine  and  their  careless 
gaietj^,  called  themselves  i  vignajuoli  (vine- 
dressers). They  laughed  at  everything,  and 
made  sport  in  verse  of  the  most  serious,  nay, 
the  most  tragic  matters.  Berni's  verses  were  the 
most  successful,  and  were  written  in  so  peculiar 
a  style  that  his  name  has  been  given  to  it 
(maniera  Bcrnesca  or  Berniesca).  When  Rome 
was  sacked  by  the  troops  of  the  Constable  Bour- 
bon, 1527,  Berni  lost  all  that  he  possessed.  He 
afterward  made  several  journeys,  with  his  pa- 
tron Ghiberti,  to  Verona,  Venice,  and  Padua. 
At  length,  wearied  with  serving,  and  satisfied 
with  a  canonship  in  the  cathedral  at  Florence, 
he  retired  to  that  place.  The  favor  of  the  great, 
however,  which  he  was  weak  enough  to  court, 
brought  him  into  difficulties.  He  was  required 
to  commit  a  crime,  and  his  refusal  cost  him 
his  life.  Alessandro  de'  Medici,  at  that  time 
Duke  of  Florence,  lived  in  open  enmity  with 
the  young  Cardinal  Ippolito  de'  Medici.  Berni 
was  so  intimate  with  both  that  it  is  doubtful 
which  first  made  him  the  proposal  to  poison  the 
other.  Certain  it  is  that  the  cardinal  died  by 
poison  in  1535,  and  it  is  probable  that  Alessan- 
dro caused  Berni's  death. 

In  the  burlesque  style  of  poetry,  Berni  is 
still  considered  the  best  model.  His  satire  is 
often  very  bitter,  and  frequently  unites  the  good 
humor  of  Horace  with  the  causticity  of  Juvenal. 
The  extreme  licentiousness  of  his  writings  is 
his  greatest  fault.  Berni  also  wrote  Latin  verses 
very  correctly,  and  was  well  acquainted  with 
Greek.  His  ^Burlesque  Verses*  have  great 
merit;  so  also  has  his  rifacimento  of  Bojardo's 
'Orlando    Innamorato.* 

Bernicia,  ber-nish'ya,  a  Latinized  form  of 
the  English  word  Brynelch,  used  to  indicate  the 
north  part  of  what  became  the  kingdom  of 
Northumbria,  the  part  north  of  the  river  Tees. 
The  Anglian  kingdom  of  Bernicia  is  said  to 
have  been  founded  by  Ida,  who  made  his  capital 
at  Bamborough  about  550  a.d. 

Bernier,  ber-nj^a,  Camille,  French  painter: 
b.  1823.  He  did  not  exhibit  until  1863,  but  in 
a  few  years  became  one  of  the  leading  landscape 
artists  of  France,  a  position  he  has  held  for  40 
years.  His  best-known  works  are:  ^The  Aban- 
doned Lane*  ;  ^Evening*  ;  "^A  Farm  in  Brit- 
tany* ;   and    'Landes,   Near   Bannalec* 

Bemier,  Frangois,  French  physician  and 
traveler :  b.  Angers,  about  1625 ;  d.  Paris,  1688. 
He  set  out  on  his  travels  in  1654,  and  after 
visiting  Egypt  and  Palestine,  went  into  India, 
where  his  skill  in  medicine  brought  him  into 
notice;  and  he  remained  for  12  years,  residing 
chiefl}^  at  Delhi,  as  physician  to  the  Great 
Mogul  Emperor  Aurungzebe.  On  one  occa- 
sion he  accompanied  the  prime  minister  on  his 
march,  at  the  head  of  an  immense  army,  to  the 
conquest  of  Cashmere,  and  in  his  travels,  record- 
ing all  that  he  saw,  has  given  accounts  full  of 
interest,  and  recognized  by  subsequent  travelers 
as  remarkable  for  their  fidelity.  After  his  return 
to  France  he  not  only  compiled  his  '^Travels' 
and  several  volumes  of  history  relating  to  the 
empire  of  the  Great  Mogul,  but  turned  his  at- 
tention to  philosophical  subjects,  and  published 


BERNINA  —  BERNOUILLI 


an  abridgment  of  the  philosophy  of  Gassendi. 
He  also  wrote  a  treatise,  entitled  <Traite  du 
Libre  et  du  Volontaire.^ 

Bernina,  ber-ne'na,  a  mountain  of  the 
Rhstian  Alps,  13,290  feet  high,  in  the  Swiss 
canton  of  Grisons,  with  remarkable  and  exten- 
sive glaciers.  Its  summit  was  first  attained  in 
1850.  The  Bernina  Pass,  which  attains  an  ele- 
vatian  of  7,642  feet,  and  over  which  a  carriage 
road  was  completed  in  1864,  leads  from  Pontre- 
sina  to  Poschiavo. 

Bernini,   Giovanni  Lorenzo,  ber-ne'ne,  jo- 
van'ne  lo-ren'z6,  called   II  Cavaliere  Bernini, 
Italian  sculptor  and  architect :  b.  Naples,  7  Dec. 
1598;  d.  Rome,  28  Nov.  1680.     Richly  endowed 
by    nature    and    favored    by    circumstances,    he 
rose  superior  to  the  rules  of   art,  creating   for 
himself  an  easy  manner,  the  faults  of  which  he 
knew  how  to   disguise  by  its  brilliancy.     From 
his    early   youth    he    manifested   a   great   power 
to  excel   in  the  arts  of  design,  and  one  of  his 
first  works  was  the  marble  bust  of  the  prelate 
Montajo.      He    was    not   yet    18   when    he   pro- 
duced the    "^Apollo  and  Daphne,^    in  marble,   a 
masterpiece   of   grace   and   execution.     Looking 
at    this    group    near    the    close    of    his    life,    he 
declared  that  he  had  made  very  little  progress 
since  the  time  when  that  was  produced.     With- 
out   forsaking    sculpture,    Bernini's    genius    em- 
braced architecture,  and  he  furnished  the  design 
for  the  canopy  and  the  pulpit  of  St.  Peter's,  as 
well  as  for  the  circular  place  before  the  church. 
Among   his    numerous    works    were   the   palace 
Barberini,  the  belfry  of  St.  Peter's,  the  model  of 
the    monument    of    the    Countess    Matilda,    and 
the    monument    of    Urban    VIII.,    his    benefac- 
tor.     Urban   had   scarcely   closed  his   eyes,   and 
Innocent   X.   ascended   the   papal    throne,    when 
the  envy  engendered  by  the  merits  of  the  artist 
and    the    favor   bestowed    on    him    broke    forth. 
His    enemies    triumphed ;    but    he    regained    the 
favor  of  the   Pope  by  a  model   for  a   fountain. 
About  the   same   time  he  erected  the  palace  of 
Monte  Citorio.    Alexander  VII.,  the  successor  of 
Innocent    X.,    required    of   him   a   plan    for   the 
embellishment  of  the  Piazza  di  San  Pietro.     The 
admirable  colonnade,  so  beautifully  proportioned 
to  the  Basilica,  was  built  under  the  direction  of 
Bernini.     We    may     also     mention     the     palace 
Odescalchi,   the   Rotunda   della   Riccia,   and   the 
house  for  novices,  belonging  to  the  Jesuits,  on 
Monte  Cavallo.     Louis  XIV.  having  invited  him 
to  Paris,  he  set  out  from  Rome,  in  1665,  accom- 
panied   by    one    of    his    sons    and    a    numerous 
retinue.     Never  did  an  artist  travel  with  so  great 
pomp   and  under   such   flattering  circumstances. 
The  reception  which  he  met  with  in  Paris  was 
highly  honorable.     He  was  first  occupied  in  pre- 
paring plans  for  the  restoration  of  the  Louvre, 
which,  however,  were  never  executed.     Cardinal 
Ro.spigliosi    having   become    Pope,    Bernini    was 
admitted   to   an   intimate   intercourse   with   him, 
and  charged  with  several  works ;  among  others, 
with  the  decoration  of  the  bridge  of  St.  Angelo. 
In   his   70th   year  this   indefatigable   artist   exe- 
cuted one  of  his  most  beautiful  works,  the  tomb 
of  Alexander  VII.     He  was  buried  with   great 
magnificence   in  the  church  of  St.  Maria   Mag- 
giore.     To  his  children  he  left  a  fortune  amount- 
ing to  about  3.300,000  francs.     Bernini's  favorite 
maxim  was,   Chi  non  csce  talvolta  della  regola, 
nnn  passu   mai     Thus  he  v/as  of  opinion  that. 


in  order  to  excel  in  the  arts,  one  must  rise 
above  all  rules,  and  create  a  manner  peculiar  to 
one's  self. 

Bernis,   Frangois  Joachim  de  Pierres  de, 

bar-nes,  froh-swa  jo-a-kem  de  pe-ar  de,  French 
cardinal  and  minister  of  Louis  XV. :  b.  St.  Mar- 
cel, de  I'Ardeche,  1715;  d.  Rome,  2  Nov.  1794. 
Madame  de  Pompadour  presented  him  to  Louis 
XV.,  who,  being  pleased  with  him,  assigned  to 
him  an  apartment  in  the  Tuileries,  with  a  pen- 
sion of  1,500  livres.  He  went  as  ambassador  to 
Venice,  and  after  his  return  enjoyed  the  highest 
favor  at  court,  and  soon  became  minister  of 
foreign  affairs.  The  political  system  of  Europe 
was  changed  at  that  time.  France  and  Austria, 
hitherto  enemies,  united  in  an  offensive  and  de- 
fensive alliance,  which  was  succeeded  by  the 
Seven  Years'  war,  so  unfortunate  for  France. 
Bernis  has  been  designated  by  several  writers 
as  the  chief  author  of  this  alliance.  Duclos, 
however,  asserts  that  it  was  the  intention  of 
Bernis  to  maintain  the  old  system,  which,  since 
the  time  of  Henry  IV.,  and  especially  since  the 
time  of  Richelieu,  had  made  France  the  protec- 
tress of  the  less  powerful  states  of  Germany,  and 
the  rival  of  Austria.  Oppressed  by  the  misfor- 
tunes of  his  country,  which,  in  part  at  least, 
were  ascribed  to  him,  Bernis  surrendered  his 
post,  and  was  soon  after  banished  from  court. 
His  disgrace  lasted  till  the  year  1764,  when  the 
king  appointed  him  Archbishop  of  Albi,  and,  five 
years  later,  ambassador  to  Rome.  Here  he  re- 
mained till  his  death.  In  the  name  of  his  court, 
and  against  his  own  opinion,  he  labored  to  ef- 
fect the  abolition  of  the  order  of  the  Jesuits. 
When  the  aunts  of  Louis  XVI.  left  France  in 
1791  they  fled  to  him  for  refuge,  and  lived  in 
his  house.  The  Revolution  deprived  him  of  his 
fortune,  and  the  means  of  indulging  his  generous 
disposition.  The  easy  poetry  of  youth  had  pro- 
cured him  a  place  in  the  French  Academy,  but  he 
himself  is  its  severest  critic.  Voltaire  had  a 
great  esteem  for  his  talents,  his  judgment,  his 
criticisms,  and  his  character,  as  is  evident  from 
their  correspondence,  which,  in  every  other  re- 
spect, is  very  honorable  to  Bernis.  A  collection 
of  Bernis'  works  was  published  in  1797  by  Didot, 
and  another  in  1825. 

Bernissar'tia,  an  extinct  genus  of  primitive 
crocodiles  (Mesosuchia)  of  lower  Cretaceous 
(Wealden)  age.  It  resembles  the  modern  croco- 
diles in  the  arrangement  of  the  bony  plates  on 
the  back  more  nearly  than  do  other  contemporary 
species,  but  was  of  quite  small  size,  only  three 
or  four  feet  in  length.  A  complete  skeleton  was 
found  at  Bernissart,  in  Belgium,  and  is  now 
mounted  in  the  Brussels  Museum. 

Bernouilli,  bar-noo-ye,  or  Bernoulli,  a  fam- 
ily which  has  produced  eight  distinguished  men, 
who  have  all  cultivated  the  mathematical  sciences 
with  success.  The  family,  emigrated  from  Ant- 
werp on  account  of  religious  persecutions,  under 
the  administration  of  the  Duke  of  Alva,  fled  first 
to  Frankfort,  and  afterward  removed  to  Bale, 
where  it  was  elevated  to  the  highest  dignities 
of  the  republic. 

Bernouilli,  Daniel,  Swiss  philosopher:  b. 
Groningen,  9  Feb.  1700.  He  studied  medicine, 
in  which  he  took  the  doctor's  degree,  and  at  the 
age  of  24  was  offered  the  presidency  of  an  acad- 
emy about  to  be  established  at  Genoa,  but  in  the 
following  year  accepted  an  invitation  to  St.  Pe- 
tersburg.    Accompanied  by  his  younger  brother 


BERNOUILLI  —  BEROE 


John,  he  returned  to  Bale  in  1733 ;  became  there 
professor  of  anatomy  and  botany ;  in  1750  pro- 
fessor of  natural  philosophy ;  resigned  this  place, 
because  of  his  advanced  age,  to  his  brother's 
son,  the  younger  Daniel  Bernouilli,  in  1777,  and 
died  in  1782.  He  was  one  of  the  greatest  nat- 
ural philosophers  as  well  as  mathematicians  of 
his  time.  At  10  different  times  he  received  a 
prize  from  the  Academy  of  Paris.  In  1734  he 
shared  with  his  father  a  double  prize,  given 
by  this  academy  for  their  joint  essay  on  the 
causes  of  the  different  inclinations  of  the  plane- 
tary orbits.  Most  of  his  writings  are  contained 
in  the  Transactions  of  the  St.  Petersburg,  Paris, 
and  Berlin  academies,  of  which  he  was  a  mem- 
ber. 

Bernouilli,  Jakob,  or  James,  Swiss  mathe- 
matician:  b.  Bale,  1654;  d.  1705.  The  differential 
calculus  discovered  by  Leibnitz  and  Newton  was 
applied  by  him  to  the  most  difficult  questions 
of  geometry  and  mechanics ;  he  calculated  the 
loxodromic  and  catenary  curve,  the  logarithmic 
spirals,  the  evolutes  of  several  curved  lines,  and 
discovered  the  "numbers  of  Bernouilli,^^  as  they 
are  called. 

Bernouilli,  Johann,  Swiss  mathematician: 
b.  Bale,  1667;  d.  i  Jan.  1748.  He  was  one  of  the 
greatest  mathematicians  of  his  time,  and  the 
worthy  rival  of  Newton  and  Leibnitz.  He  was 
destined  for  commerce,  but  his  inclination  led 
him  to  the  sciences,  and  from  the  year  1683 
he  principally  devoted  himself  to  medicine  and 
mathematics.  To  him  and  his  brother  James  we 
are  indebted  for  an  excellent  treatise  on  the  dif- 
ferential calculus.  He  also  developed  the  method 
of  proceeding  from  infinitely  small  numbers  to 
the  finite,  of  which  the  former  are  the  elements 
or  differences,  and  called  this  method  the  in- 
tegral calculus.  In  1690-2,  he  made  a  journey 
to  France,  where  he  instructed  the  Marquis  de 
I'Hopital  in  mathematics.  At  this  time  he  dis- 
covered the  exponential  calculus,  before  Leib- 
nitz had  made  any  communications  respecting 
it,  and  made  it  known  in  1697.  In  1694  he  be- 
came doctor  of  medicine  at  Bale,  and  in  1695 
went,  as  professor  of  mathematics,  to  Groningen, 
where  he  discovered  the  mercurial  phosphorus 
or  luminous  barometer,  for  which  he  received, 
from  King  Frederick  I.  of  Prussia,  a  gold  medal, 
and  was  made  a  member  of  the  academy  in 
Berlin,  afterward  of  that  in  Paris.  After  the 
death  of  his  brother  in  1705,  he  received  the 
professorship  of  mathematics  at  Bale,  which  he 
held  until  his  death. 

Bernouilli,  Nicolas,  nephew  of  Johann 
Bernouilli,  Swiss  mathematician :  b.  Bale,  1687 ; 
d.  1759.  He  studied  law,  but  more  particularly 
devoted  himself  to  mathematics ;  in  1705  went 
to  Groningen  to  Johann  Bernouilli ;  returned 
however  with  him  to  Bale  toward  the  close  of 
the  year,  and  became  there  professor  of  mathe- 
matics. He  traveled  through  Switzerland, 
France,  Holland,  and  England,  and  in  1713  be- 
came a  member  of  the  Academies  of  Science  in 
London  and  Berlin.  On  the  recommendation  of 
Leibnitz  he  went  as  professor  of  mathematics  to 
Padua  in  1716,  but  returned  to  his  native  city 
in  1722  as  professor  of  logic.  In  1731  he  be- 
came professor  of  the  Roman  and  feudal  law 
in  that  place. 

Bernouilli,  Nicolas,  Swiss  jurist,  son  of 
Johann   Bernouilli :   b.    Basel,    1695 ;   d.   St.    Pe- 


tersburg, 1726.  He  was  professor  of  jurispru- 
dence at  Bern  and  subsequently  professor  of 
mathematics  at  St.  Petersburg. 

Bernstein,  bern'stin,  Aaron,  German  pub- 
licist and  novelist:  b.  Dantzic,  1812;  d.  1884.  He 
was  in  politics  a  Radical,  and  in  religion  a  re- 
former, and  his  life  was  a  continued  battle 
against  obscurantism  and  conservatism.  Yet  he 
wrote  some  charming  stories  of  life  among  the 
Jews,  among  them  ^Mendel  Gibbor^  (i860).  He 
wrote  also  some  notable  historical  sketches,  as 
^The  People's  Years^  and  ^The  Years  of  Reac- 
tion.* 

Bernstein,  Eduard,  leader  of  the  German 
social  democracy :  b.  Berlin,  6  Jan.  1850.  As  a 
young  man  he  edited  socialistic  newspapers  in 
Berlin  until  the  vehemence  of  his  opposition  to 
the  government  of  Bismarck  made  it  desirable 
for  him  to  leave  Germany.  Returning  in  1901, 
he  became  editor  of  Vorzvarts.  He  contends  that 
every  movement  for  the  advancement  of  the  peo- 
ple should  be  encouraged  and  taken  advantage 
of  by  the  common  people,  whom  he  urges  to 
take  an  active  part  in  politics.  Besides  his  news- 
paper work,  he  has  published  several  volumes 
of  discussions  on  politico-economical  subjects, 
such  as  ^Zur  Geschichte  und  Theorie  des  Sozial 
is  mus'    (1900). 

BernstorfF,  Andreas  Peter,  bern'storf,  an- 
dra-as  pa'ter  (Count),  Danish  statesman:  b. 
1735;  d.  1797.  He  was  appointed  prime  minister 
in  1769,  when  he  ceded  to  Russia  the  Gottorp  part 
of  Holstein  in  exchange  for  Oldenburg  and 
Delmenhorst.  He  introduced  a  new  system  of 
finance,  and  prepared  the  abolition  of  villanage 
in  Schleswig  and  Holstein.  He  was  a  pro- 
nounced Liberal,  and  contended  for  the  freedom 
of  the  press. 

Bernstorff,  Johann  Hartwig  Ernst  (Count), 
Danish  statesman  in  the  service  of  the  king  of 
Denmark:  b.  Hanover,  1712;  d.  1772.  He  was 
employed  in  divers  embassies,  and  afterward 
held  the  office  of  foreign  minister  to  Frederick 
V.  for  about  20  years,  resigning  in  1770.  He 
was  called  by  Frederick  the  Great  "the  oracle  of 
Denmark." 

Beroaldo,  ba-rd-al'do,  Filippo,  Italiar 
scholar:  b.  Bologna,  1453  ;_d.  1505.  He  early 
gave  proofs  of  great  ai)ilities  and  a  prodigous 
memory,  and  after  completing  his  education 
opened  a  school,  successively  at  Bologna,  Parma, 
and  Milan,  and  taught  with  great  success.  He 
afterward  went  to  Paris,  and  gave  lectures  which 
greatly  extended  his  fame.  His  townsmen  now 
became  desirous  to  possess  him,  and  he  returned 
to  Bologna,  where  he  spent  the  remainder  of 
his  life  as  professor  of  belles-lettres.  He  is  now 
chiefly  known  as  the  editor  of  some  good  editions 
of  the  classics,  and  the  author  of  a  curious  tract 
entitled  *Declamatio  Ebriosi,  Scortatoris  et  Alea- 
toris,*  in  which  the  dnmkard,  rake,  and  gambler, 
represented  as  three  brothers,  debate  which  of 
them,  as  being  the  most  vicious,  should  be  ex- 
cluded from  sharing  in  his  father's  inheritance. 

Bero'e,  daughter  of  Oceanus;  also  the 
name  of  several  women  connected  with  Thrace, 
Illyria,  etc. ;  also  a  genus  of  animals,  the  typical 
one  of  the  family  Beroida:.  The  heroes  are  oval 
or  globular-ribbed  animals,  transparent  and  gela- 
tinous, with  cirri  from  pole  to  pole,  and  two  long 
tentacles  fringed  with  cirri,  which  aid  them  in 
breathing    and    in    locomotion.     They    have    a 


BEROSUS  —  BERRY 


mouth',  a  stomach,  and  an  anal  aperture.  They 
are  free  swimming  organisms  inhabiting  the  sea, 
sometimes  rotating,  and  at  night  phosphorescent. 

Bero'sus,  according  to  some  a  Chaldsean 
by  birth,  and  a  priest  of  the  temple  at  Belus  at 
Babylon,  and  according  to  others  a  contemporary 
of  Alexander  the  Great,  is  celebrated  both  as  a 
historian  and  an  astronomer,  though  it  has  been 
alleged  that  his  name  merely  has  been  used  for 
the  purpose  of  giving  a  reputation  to  what  others 
had  written.  His  history,  giving  an  account  of 
the  Babylonian  Chaldseans  and  their  kings,  con- 
sisted of  two  books  written  in  Greek,  and  pro- 
fessed to  be  founded  on  the  ancient  archives  of 
the  temple  of  Belus.  It  exists  only  in  frag- 
ments, contained  in  the  writings  of  Josephus, 
Eusebius,  and  others,  and  given  in  a  collected 
form  by  Richter  (1825).  According  to  Pliny 
the  astronomical  observations  contained  in  the 
works  of  Berosus  extended  over  a  period  of 
480  years. 

Berquin,  Arnaud,  ber-kati,  ar-no,  French 
writer:  b.  Bordeaux,  1749;  d.  1791.  He  first  at- 
tracted notice  by  some  poems  which  he  entitled 
'Idylles,''  and  by  several  translations  from  the 
English  under  the  name  of  *  Tableaux  Anglais,' 
but  is  best  known  by  his  work  entitled  *Ami  des 
Enfans,'  for  which  he  received  the  prize  of  the 
French  Academy  in  1789,  as  the  most  useful 
work  which  made  its  appearance  during  that 
year.  It  has  been  translated  into  most  European 
languages,  and  still  continues  a  standard  work 
for  the  amusement  and  instruction  of  young  peo- 
ple. It  cannot,  however,  lay  claim  to  the  merit 
of  originality,  as  both  the  title  and  much  of  the 
substance  are  derived  from  a  work  in  German 
by  Weiss,  entitled  ^Kinderfreund.'  Berquin, 
though  specially  devoted  to  the  instruction  of 
youth,  was  not  incapable  of  excelling  in  graver 
literature,  and  was  for  some  time  the  editor  of 
the  Moniteur. 

Berquin,  ber-kan',  Louis  de,  the  first  Prot- 
estant martyr  in  France:  b.  1490;  d.  Paris,  17 
April  1529.  He  was  a  gentleman  of  Artois,  a 
friend  of  Badius,  the  savant.  When,  in  1523,  the 
police  began  to  seize  Luther's  works,  with  a 
view  to  suppressing  Protestantism,  they  found 
among  Berquin's  books  some  manuscripts  of 
his  own  writing  that  were  pronounced  heretical. 
As  he  refused  to  retract,  he  was  thrown  into 
prison.  Francis  I.,  whose  counselor  he  was,  ob- 
tained for  him  his  freedom ;  and  Erasmus,  al- 
ways his  friend,  tried  in  vain  to  prevent  him 
from  exposing  his  life  in  a  useless  struggle.  His 
fixed  opinions  and  intrepid  nature,  however, 
having  thrown  him  into  prison  three  times, 
caused  him  to  be  condemned  to  death,  and  he 
was  burned  alive. 

Berredo  e  Castro,  bar-ra'do  e  kash'tro, 
Portuguese  soldier  and  historian :  b.  Serpa,  about 
1680;  d.  Lisbon,  13  March  1748.  Having  en- 
tered the  army  he  fought  at  the  battle  of  Sara- 
gossa  (1710),  so  distinguishing  himself  on  that 
occasion  that  he  was  made  governor-general  of 
the  province  of  Maranhao,  Brazil,  and  in  1718  he 
became  captain-general  of  Mazagao.  The  rest 
of  his  life  was  spent  upon  his  history  which  is 
of  great  value  as  an  original  source  of  informa- 
tion for  the  period  of  which  it  treats.  It  is  en- 
titled ^Annals  Historicos,  do  estado  do  Maran- 
hao'   (1749). 

Berret'ta.     See  Biretta. 


Ber'rian,  William,  American  Episcopal 
clergj'man  and  writer:  b.  New  York,  1787;  d.  7 
Nov.  1862.  He  was  rector  of  Trinity  Church, 
New  York,  1830-62.  Besides  various  religious 
works,  he  wrote  "^Travels  in  France  and  Italy' 
and  a  ^Historical  Sketch  of  Trinity  Church.' 

Ber'rien,  John  Macpherson,  American  law- 
yer and  politician :  b.  New  Jersey,  23  Aug.  1781 ; 
d.  Savannah,  Ga.,  i  Jan.  1856.  He  was  the  son 
of  an  officer  in  the  war  of  the  American  Revolu- 
tion, graduated  at  Princeton  in  1796,  was  ad- 
mitted to  the  bar  of  Georgia  at  the  age  of  18, 
and  gradually  rose  in  reputation  till  he  was 
elected,  in  1809,  solicitor  of  the  eastern  district 
of  Georgia.  He  became  judge  of  the  same  dis- 
trict the  next  year,  retaining  the  latter  office  till 
1822.  when  he  entered  the  Georgia  Senate,  from 
which  he  was  transferred,  in  1824,  to  the  Senate 
of  the  United  States.  He  established  in  that 
body  a  high  reputation  as  an  orator  and  states- 
man, was  appointed  attorney-general  of  the 
United  States  in  1829,  resigned  this  office  in 
1831  when  Gen.  Jackson's  cabinet  became  inhar- 
monious, resumed  the  practice  of  his  profession 
in  Savannah  till  1840,  when  he  was  elected  again 
to  the  national  Senate,  and  was  re-elected  in 
1846. 

Berro,  Bernardo  Prudencio,  bar'ro,  ber- 
nar'do  pru-den'ce-o,  Uruguayan  statesman:  b. 
Montevideo,  about  1800;  d.  April  1868.  In  1852 
he  was  vice-president  and  president  of  the  senate. 
Under  Giro  he  was  minister  of  government  till 
the  revolution  of  1853 ;  again  president  of  the 
Senate  in  1858,  and  president  of  the  republic  in 
1860-4.  The  revolution  of  Flores  was  success- 
ful soon  after  the  expiration  of  his  term.  In 
1868  he  stirred  up  a  revolt  against  Flores,  was 
imprisoned,  and  soon  afterward  shot  through  a 
window  in  his  cell. 

Berruguete,  ber-roo-ga'te,  Alonzo,  Spanish 
painter,  architect,  and  sculptor :  b.  Paredez  de 
Nava,  Spain,  1480 ;  d.  Toledo,  1561.  He  went  in 
early  life  to  Italy,  studied  in  the  school  of  Mich- 
ael Angelo,  and  became  intimate  with  Andrea  del 
Sarto,  Baccio  Bandinelli,  and  other  celebrated 
artists.  On  his  return  he  was  appointed  painter 
to  Charles  V.  His  principal  architectural  works 
are  the  royal  palace  at  Granada,  and  the  town- 
house  of  Seville ;  his  skill  as  a  sculptor  is  seen  to 
great  advantage  in  the  choir  of  the  cathedral 
of  Toledo,  and  the  tomb  of  the  vice-chancel- 
lor of  Aragon  at  Saragossa.  His  best  paintings 
are  at  Valladolid,  Toledo,  and  Salamanca. 

Berry,  ba-re,  Carolina  Ferdinanda  Louisa, 
Duchesse  de,  widow  of  the  second  son  of 
Charles  X.  of  France ;  daughter  of  Ferdinand  I. 
of  the  Two  Sicilies:  b.  5  Nov.  1798;  d.  17  April 
1870.  Her  futile  attempt  at  insurrection  in 
1832,  to  place  her  son  on  the  French  throne, 
caused  her  imprisonment  and  subsequent  with- 
drawal to  Sicily. 

Berry,  Charles  Ferdinand,  Due  de,  second 
son  of  the  Count  d'Artois  (afterward  Charles 
X.)  and  Maria  Theresa  of  Savoy:  b.  Versailles, 
24  Jan.  1778 ;  d.  14  Feb.  1820.  He  was  educated 
along  with  his  elder  brother,  the  Duke  of  An- 
gouleme.  In  1792  he  fled  with  his  father  to 
Turin,  served  imder  him  and  Conde  on  the 
Rhine,  and  early  learned  the  art  of  winning  the 
love  of  the  soldiers.  Subsequently  he  lived  al- 
ternately in  London  and  Scotland,  continually 
occupied  with  plans  for  the  restoration  of  the 


BERRY  — BERSIER 


Bourbons.  Landing  at  Cherbourg,  13  April  1814, 
he  passed  through  the  cities  of  Bayeux,  Caen, 
Rouen,  etc.,  gaining  over  the  soldiers  to  the  cause 
-of  the  Bourbons,  distributing  alms,  and  deliver- 
ing prisoners.  When  Napoleon  landed  from 
Elba,  the  king  committed  to  Berry  the  chief 
command  of  all  the  troops  in  and  around  Paris. 
All  his  efforts  to  secure  their  fidelity  proving 
ineffectual,  he  was  obliged  to  retreat  on  the  night 
of  IQ  March,  with  the  troops  of  the  household 
to  Ghent  and  Alost,  where  the  king  then  was. 
The  battle  of  Waterloo  enabled  him  to  return 
to  Paris,  where  he  arrived  8  July,  and  surren- 
dered his  command  over  the  troops  of  the  house- 
hold into  the  hands  of  the  king.  At  the  opening 
of  the  chambers  in  Paris  he  took  the  oath  to 
maintain  the  constitution,  and  was  appointed 
president  of  the  fourth  bureau ;  bvit  soon  retired 
from  public  life.  He  died  of  a  blow  inflicted 
by  a  political  fanatic  named  Louvel  (see  Lou- 
\tl).  The  duke  left  a  daughter,  Louise  Marie 
Therese,  afterward  Duchess  of  Parma ;  and  a 
posthumous  son,  subsequently  known  as  Count 
de  Chambord. 

Ber'ry,  Hiram  George,  American  soldier: 
b.  Rockland,  Me.,  27  Aug.  1824 ;  d.  Chancellors- 
ville  2  May  1863.  He  entered  the  Union  army  as 
colonel  of  the  4th  Maine  infantry,  and  was  pres- 
ent at  the  battle  of  Bull  Run,  the  siege  of  York- 
town,  took  a  conspicuous  part  in  the  battles  of 
Williamsburg,  Fair  Oaks.  Chantilly,  and  the 
second  Bull  Run  campaign.  President  Lincoln 
nominated  him  a  major-general  of  volunteers, 
January  1863,  and  he  succeeded  Gen.  Sickles  in 
command  of  the  2d  division  of  the  3d  army 
Corp.  At  a  critical  point  in  the  battle  of  Chan- 
cellorsville,  i  May  1863,  Hooker  ordered  Gen. 
Berry  to  charge  with  the  bayonet  the  advancing 
enemy.  He  did  so,  and  for  three  hours  his  di- 
vision, almost  alone  withstood  the  enemy's  as- 
sault, and  regained  for  the  Federal  forces  a 
portion  of  their  lost  ground.  He  was  killed  at 
the  head  of  a  successful  bayonet  charge,  upon 
the  renewal  of  the  battle  the  following  day. 

Berry,  Mary,  English  author:  b.  Kirk- 
bridge,  Yorkshire,  16  March  1763 ;  d.  Loncfon, 
20  Nov.  1852.  She  and  her  sister  Agnes  were 
intimate  friends  of  Horace  Walpole.  In  1798 
she  edited  the  ^ Works  of  Horace  Walpole.^ 
Her  most  ambitious  work  was  her  ^Social  Life 
in  England  and  France^   (1844). 

Ber'ry,  or  Berri,  a  former  province  and 
■dukedom  of  France,  of  which  Bourges  was  the 
•capital.  With  the  exception  of  the  arrondisse- 
ment  St.  Amand,  which  belonged  to  the  Bour- 
bonnais,  it  now  forms  the  departments  Indre 
and  Cher.  At  several  periods  it  gave  a  title  to 
French  princes,  the  younger  son  of  Charles  X. 
bemg  the  last  to  assume  it. 

Berry,  Canal  de,  one  of  the  most  impor- 
"tant  canals  in  France  as  regards  the  amount  of 
its  traffic.  It  begins  at  Montlugon  on  the  Cher, 
the  chief  trading  centre  of  the  coal  fields  of  the 
Allier ;  descends  the  Cher  valley  to  St.  Amand, 
and  ultimately  enters  the  Cher  itself  near  St. 
Aignan.  below  which  point  the  canalized  Cher 
continues  the  line  of  navigation  to  Tours. 
Length  of  navigation  200  miles,  of  which  36 J4 
miles  belong  to  the  canalized  Cher.  Constructed 
1807-41. 

Berry,  a  succulent  fruit  in  which  the  seeds 
are  immersed  in  a  pulpy  mass  enclosed  in  a  thin 


skin;  for  example,  grape,  gooseberry,  tomato. 
Popularly  the  term  is  applied  to  fruits  not 
strictly  berries;  for  example,  strawberry,  rasp- 
berry, etc.,  which  bear  external  seeds  on  a  pulpy 
receptacle. 

Berryer,  bar-ya,  Antoine  Pierre,  French 
advocate  and  orator:  b.  Paris,  4  Jan.  1790;  d.  29 
Nov.  1868.  In  1814  he  proclaimed  at  Rennes 
the  deposition  of  Napoleon,  and  remained  till  his 
death  an  avowed  Legitimist.  He  assisted  his 
father  in  the  defense  of  Ney,  secured  the  ac- 
quittal of  Gen.  Cambronne,  and  defended  Lamen- 
nais  from  a  charge  of  atheism.  His  eloquence 
was  compared  with  that  of  Mirabeau,  and  after 
the  dethronement  of  Charles  X.  (1830)  he  re- 
mained in  the  chamber  as  the  sole  Legitimist 
orator.  In  1840  he  was  one  of  the  counsel  for 
the  defense  of  Louis  Napoleon  after  the  Bou- 
logne fiasco.  In  1843  he  did  homage  to  the 
Count  de  Chambord  in  London,  adhering  to  him 
through  the  revolution  of  1848,  and  voting  for 
the  deposition  of  the  prince-president  the  morn- 
ing after  the  coup  d'etat.  He  gained  additional 
reputation  in  1858  by  his  defense  of  Montalem- 
bert,  and  was  counsel  for  the  Patterson-Bona- 
partes  in  the  suit  for  the  recognition  of  the  Balti- 
more marriage.  In  1863  he  was  re-elected  to  the 
chamber  with  Thiers,  and  in  1864  received  a 
flattering  reception  in  England. 

Bersaglieri,  ber-sa-lya're,  a  corps  of  rifle- 
men or  sharpshooters,  introduced  into  the  Sar- 
dinian army  by  Gen.  Delia  Marmora,  about  1849. 
They  took  part  in  the  Russian  war  and  also 
assisted  at  the  battle  of  the  Tchernaya,  16 
Aug.  1855.  They  were  likewise  employed  in  the 
Italian  wars  of  1859  and  1866.  In  1901  they 
comprised  12  regiments,  each  regiment  com- 
posed of  three  battalions  of  four  companies  each. 

Ber'serker,  a  descendant  of  the  eight- 
handed  Starkader  and  the  beautiful  Alfhilde, 
and  according  to  the  Scandinavian  mythology,  a 
famous  warrior.  He  disdained  the  protection  of 
armor,  whence  he  received  his  name,  which  sig- 
nifies, according  to  Ihre,  armorless.  He  raged 
like  a  madman  in  battle.  He  killed  King  Swa- 
furlam,  and  married  his  daughter,  by  whom  he 
had  12  sons  as  untamable  as  himself.  They  were 
also  called  Berserker,  and  after  their  time  the 
name  was  given  to  wild  and  fierce  Scandinavian 
warriors. 

Bersezio,  ber-sets'yo,  Vittorio,  Italian 
novelist  and  playwright :  b.  Peveragno.  Pied- 
mont, 1830.  Both  as  a  writer  of  tales  and  of 
comedies  he  is  conspicuous  for  vivid  and  faith- 
ful delineation  of  Piedmontese  life;  especially 
in  his  dialect  comedies,  among  which  ^The  Mis- 
fortunes of  Monssu  Travett*  is  considered  to 
be  his  masterpiece.  He  also  wrote  an  excellent 
historical  work,  'The  Reign  of  Victor  Emman- 
uel II.>    (1878-93)- 

Bersier,  bar-sya,  Eugene  Arthur  Frangois, 
a  French  Protestant  pulpit  orator  of  note :  b. 
Morges.  near  Geneva,  1831  ;  d.  Paris,  19  Nov. 
1889.  He  became  in  1855  a  preacher  in  Paris 
where  he  was  much  admired  and  his  sermons 
were  translated  into  several  languages.  Among 
his  writings  are  *Coligny  avant  les  guerres  de 
religion'  (1884)  ;  *Histoire  d'une  petite  fille 
heuveuse'  (1890)  ;  in  English,  'Sermon^* 
(1881-1901).  See  Tinling,  'An  Analysis  of  the 
Published  Sermons  of  Pastor  Eugene  Bersier* 
(1901). 


BERT  —  BERTHOLLET 


Bert,  bar,  Paul,  French  statesman  and 
physiologist :  b.  Auxerre,  17  Oct.  1833 ;  d. 
Ketcho.  Tonquin,  11  Nov.  1886.  He  studied  both 
law  and  medicine,  became  assistant  to  Claude 
Bernard  at  the  College  of  France,  and  succes- 
sively occupied  the  chairs  of  physiology  at  Bor- 
deaux and  Paris.  Entering  political  life  in  1870, 
on  the  proclamation  of  the  republic,  he  was  four 
lime  re-elected  to  the  chamber.  He  brought 
forward  laws  removing  primary  instruction  from 
the  control  of  the  religious  orders,  and  making 
it  compulsory.  During  the  premiership  of  Gam- 
betta  he  held  the  post  of  minister  of  public  in- 
struction and  worship.  While  engaged  in  public 
life,  M.  Bert  still  pursued  with  ardor  his  scien- 
tific investigations,  attracting  world-wide  atten- 
tion by  his  experiments  in  vivisection.  The  anti- 
religious  views  of  M.  Bert  excited  much 
controversy.  He  was  also  the  author  of  several 
works  on  anatomy  and  physiology,  and  of  nu- 
merous educational  and  political  writings.  He 
rendered  a  service  to  natural  science  by  the 
clear  and   simple   style   of  his  text-books. 

Berthelot,  bar-tlo,  Pierre  Eugene  Marcel- 
lin,  French  chemist :  b.  Paris,  25  Oct.  1827 ;  d. 
there  18  March  1907.  He  early  studied  chem- 
istry, and  in  1859  was  appointed  professor  of 
organic  chemistry  in  the  Superior  School  of 
Pharmacy.  In  1865  a  new  chair  of  orgaaic 
chemistry  was  organized  for  him  in  the  Col- 
lege of  France.  In  1870  he  was  elected  presi- 
dent of  the  scientific  committee  of  defense,  and 
during  the  siege  of  Paris  was  entrusted  with 
the  manufacture  of  ammunition  and  guns,  and 
especially  dynamite  and  nitro-glycerine.  In 
1878  he  became  president  of  the  committee  on 
explosives,  which  introduced  smokeless  powder. 
His  labors  also  led  to  the  discovery  of  dyes  ex- 
tracted from  coa!  tar.  He  received  the  decolla- 
tion of  the  Legion  of  Honor  in  1861 ;  was  made 
commander  in  1879,  and  grand  officer  in  1886. 
In  1889  he  was  elected  permanent  secretary  of 
the  Academy  of  Sciences.  He  has  contributed 
to  the  knowledge  of  synthetical  processes  and  to 
the  relations  between  the  phenomena  of  heat  and 
of  chemistry.  His  works  include:  'Chimie  or- 
ganique  fondee  sur  la  synthese^  (i860)  ;  <Legons 
sur  les  principes  sucres^  (1862)  ;  Lecons  sur 
risomerie^  (1865);  "^Traite  elementire  de  chimie 
organique^  and  <Sur  la  force  de  la  poudre  et 
das  matieres  explosives^  (1872  and  1889)  ;  'Veri- 
fications de  I'areometre  deBaume*  (1873)  ;  <Les 
Origines  de  Talchimie'  (1885)  ;  < Collection  des 
anciens  alchimistes  grecs'  (1888)  ;  'Chimie  des 
anciens'  (1889)  ;  'Traite  partique  de  calorimetrie 
chimique'    (1893). 

Berthier,  bar-tya,  Louis  Alexandre,  mar- 
shal of  France,  prince  and  duke  of  Neufchatel 
and  Valengin,  prince  of  Wagram :  b.  Versailles, 
20  Nov.  1753;  d.  Bamberg,  i  June  1815.  In  the 
American  war  of  independence  he  served  under 
Lafayette.  In  1789,  Louis  XVI.  appointed  him 
major-general  of  the  national  guard  of  Ver- 
sailles, and  on  5  and  6  Oct.  1790,  as  well  as  19 
Feb.  1791.  he  did  good  service  to  the  royal  fam- 
ily. During  the  reign  of  terror  he  avoided  sus- 
picion by  exhibiting  zeal  in  the  Vendean  war. 
After  the  9th  Thermidor,  he  was  appointed 
chief  of  the  general  stafif  of  Kellermann,  and 
by  causing  the  French  army  to  take  up  the  lines 
of  Borghetto,  contributed  to  arrest  the  advance 
of  the  enemy.  Thus  his  reputation  as  a  chief 
of  the  general  staff  was  established  before  Bona- 


parte singled  him  out  for  that  post.  In  October 
1797  Gen.  Bonaparte  sent  him  to  Paris  to  de- 
liver to  the  directory  the  treaty  of  Campo- 
Formio.  In  1798  he  received  the  chief  command 
of  the  army  of  Italy,  and  in  the  beginning  of 
February  made  his  entrance  into  Rome,  abolished 
the  papal  government,  and  established  a  consular 
one.  After  the  i8th  Brumaire,  Bonaparte  ap- 
pointed him  minister  of  war.  He  afterward  be- 
came general-in-chief  of  the  army  of  reserve, 
accompanied  Bonaparte  to  Italy  in  1800,  and  con- 
tributed to  the  passage  of  St.  Bernard  and  the 
victory  of  Marengo.  He  signed  the  armistice  of 
Alessandria,  formed  the  provisional  government 
of  Piedmont,  and  went  on  an  extraordinary  mis- 
sion to  Spain.  He  then  received  again  the  de- 
partment of  war,  which,  in  the  meantime,  had 
been  in  the  hands  of  Carnot.  He  accompanied 
Napoleon  to  ]\Iilan,  June  1805,  to  be  present  at 
his  coronation,  and  in  October  was  appointed 
chief  of  the  general  staff  of  the  grand  army  in 
Germany.  In  the  campaign  against  Austria  in 
1809,  he  distinguished  himself  at  Wagram,  and 
received  the  title  of  Prince  of  Wagram.  In  1810, 
as  proxy  of  Napoleon,  he  received  the  hand  of 
Maria  Louisa,  daughter  of  the  Emperor  Francis 
I.,  and  accompanied  her  to  France.  Somewhat 
later  Napoleon  made  him  colonel-general  of  the 
Swiss  troops.  In  1812  he  was  with  the  arm}-  in 
Russia,  as  chief  of  the  general  staff,  which  post 
he  also  held  in  1813.  After  Napoleon's  abdica- 
tion he  lost  his  principality  of  Neufchatel,  but  re- 
tained his  other  honors,  and  possessed  the  favor 
and  confidence  of  Louis  XVIII.  Subsequently 
he  retired  to  Bavaria,  where,  in  a  fit  of  insanity, 
he  committed  suicide.  See  'Memoires  d'Alexan- 
dre  Berthier,  Pr.  de  Neufchatel  et  de  Wagram^ 
(1826). 

Berthold,  ber'tolt,  Franz,  pseudonym  of 
Adelheid  Reinbold,  German  novelist:  b.  1802; 
d.  1839.  She  was  warmly  appreciated  and  fur- 
thered by  Ludwig  Tieck.  Her  story  'Fred  of 
the  Will-o'-the-Wisp'  (1830),  met  with  great 
favor;  after  her  death  appeared  'King  Sebas- 
tian^ (1839),  a  historical  romance,  and  'Col- 
lected Tales^    (1842). 

Berthold  von  Regensburg,  ber'tolt  fon  ra'- 
gens-boorg,  German  Franciscan  preacher:  b. 
about  1220;  d.  13  Dec.  1272,  and  buried  in  the 
Franciscan  convent  at  Ratisbon,  of  which  he  was 
a  member.  From  1250  to  the  close  of  his  life, 
he  preached  to  immense  congregations  in  Switz- 
erland, Hungary,  Austria,  Moravia,  Bohemia, 
Saxony,  Swabia,  etc.,  speaking  to  them  from 
the  summits  of  mountains  or  from  the  tops  of 
trees.  In  the  Heidelberg  university  library  some 
MSS.  of  his  sermons  are  preserved.  The  elo- 
quent manner  with  which  he  exposed  the  iniqui- 
ties of  his  times  seems  to  have  produced  an  elec- 
tric effect  upon  his  hearers.  Near  Glatz,  in 
Silesia,  a  tent  under  which  he  had  preached 
was  exhibited  long  after  his  death,  and  revived 
the  feelings  of  affection  and  reverence  in  which 
his  name  is  held  by  the  people.  See  'Life  by 
UnkeP    (1882). 

Berthollet,  bar-to-la,  Claude  Louis  (Count), 
French  chemist  of  distinction :  b.  Talloire,  Sa- 
voy, 9  Dec.  1748;  d.  Paris,  7  Nov.  1822.  He 
studied  medicine  at  Turin ;  went  to  Paris,  where 
he  became  connected  with  Lavoisier,  was  ad- 
mitted in  1780  a  member  of  the  Academy  of 
Sciences  in  that  city;  was  made  in  1794  profes- 
sor in  the  normal  school  there,  and  was  sent  tc 


BERTHOLLETIA  — BERTILLON  SYSTEM 


Italy  in  1796,  in  order  to  select  the  plunder  that 
was  to  be  carried  to  Paris.  He  followed  Bona- 
parte to  Egypt,  and  returned  with  him  in  1799. 
After  the  i8th  Brumaire  he  was  made  a  member 
of  the  senat-conscrvatcur ;  afterward  count  and 
grand-officer  of  the  Legion  of  Honor.  In  1804 
Napoleon  appointed  him  senator  for  the  district 
of  Montpellier.  In  1813  he  received  the  grand 
cross  of  the  Order  of  the  Reunion.  He  voted, 
however,  for  the  establishment  of  a  provisional 
government  and  the  dethronement  of  Napoleon. 
Louis  XVIII.  made  him  a  peer;  but  Napoleon 
passed  him  by  in  1815.  After  the  restoration  of 
Louis,  he  took  his  seat  again  in  the  chamber  of 
peers.  Among  the  inventions  and  new  processes 
with  which  the  sciences  and  the  arts  were  en- 
riched by  him,  the  most  important  are  those  for 
the  charring  of  vessels  to  preserve  water  in 
ships,  for  the  stiffening  and  glazing  of  linen, 
for  the  artificial  production  of  nitre,  etc.,  but 
principally  that  for  the  bleaching  of  vegetable 
substances  by  means  of  chlorine,  which,  since 
1786,  has  been  in  general  use  in  France.  Besides 
different  essays  in  the  collections  of  the  Acad- 
emy and  the  Institute,  he  has  written  several 
larger  works,  among  which  his  ^Essai  de  Stati- 
que  Chimique^  (1803;  translated  into  English, 
German,  and  Italian)  must  be  considered  as  the 
most  important.  The  complicated  phenomena 
of  chemistry  were  here  treated  as  under  the 
strict  and  simple  laws  of  mechanics.  He  had 
also  a  large  share  in  the  reformation  of  the 
chemical  nomenclature,  as  well  as  in  the  publica- 
tion of  the  work  that  appeared  on  this  subject 
in  Paris,  1787 — ^Methode  de  Nomenclature 
Chimique.-* 

BerthoUetia,  ber-thol-le'shi-a,  the  generic 
name  of  Brazil  nut  (q.v.). 

Berthoud,  bar-too,  Ferdinand,  Swiss 
mechanician,  celebrated  for  his  marine  chronom- 
eters :  b.  Plancemont.  Neufchatel,  19  March 
1727;  d.  20  June  1807.  His  father  caused  him 
to  be  instructed  in  the  art  of  watchmaking,  and, 
to  afford  him  an  opportunity  of  perfecting  his 
knowledge,  sent  him  to  Paris.  He  resided  in 
this  city  from  1745,  and  there  made  his  first 
marine  chronometers,  which  have  been  used  by 
French  navigators  on  so  many  occasions  for  ex- 
tending and  correcting  geographical  knowledge. 
He  left  several  works  relating  to  his  art.  His 
nephew,  Louis  Berthoud.  his  pupil  and  the  heir 
of  his  talents,  extended  his  improvements  still 
further.  His  chronometers  came  to  be  very 
widely  used  by  French  navigators,  and  were  even 
more  convenient  than  those  of  his  uncle. 

Bertie,  Willoughby,  fourth  Earl  of  Abing- 
don, English  politician:  b.  16  Jan.  1740 ;  d.  26 
Sept.  1799.  He  was  a  vigorous  opponent  in  the 
House  of  Lords  of  the  policy  of  England  toward 
the  American  colonies  that  culminated  in  the 
Revolution ;  wrote  a  famous  and  very  popular 
tract  called  ^Thoughts  on  Mr.  Burke's _  Letter 
on  the  Affairs  of  America,^  was  active  in  pro- 
moting favorable  legislation  for  Ireland,  and 
sympathized  with  the  French  Revolution. 

Bertier,      bar-tya,      Francisque      Edouard, 

French  painter,  now  living  in  London :  b.  Paris, 
1841.  He  was  a  pupil  of  Bouguereau  and  Cab- 
and,  and  among  his  many  portraits  of  notables 
are  those  of  De  Lesseps,  Grand  Duchess  Olga, 
Countess  of  Warwick,  Prince  of  Wales,  and 
Max  O'Rell.     He  has  several  times  visited  the 


United  States  in  order  to  paint  the  portraits  o£ 
prominent  American  society  leaders. 

Bertillon,  bar-te-yon,  Alphonse,  French 
anthropologist :  b.  Paris  1853.  He  is  widely 
noted  as  the  founder  of  a  system  of  identifica- 
tion of  criminals.  In  1880,  while  chief  of  the 
bureau  of  identification  in  the  prefecture  of  po- 
lice, he  established  his  system  of  measurements 
which  has  given  results  marvelous  for  their  pre- 
cision. The  system  has  since  been  adopted  by 
the  police  authorities  of  the  large  cities  of  Eu- 
rope and  the  United  States.  He  was  one  of  the 
expert  witnesses  in  handwriting  in  the  trial  of 
Capt.  Dreyfus  in  1899,  and  soon  after  its  close 
was  removed  from  his  office.  He  is  author  of 
numerous  works  bearing  upon  his  system, 
including  *  Identification  anthropometrique* 
(1893)  ;  'La  Comparison  des  ecritures  et  I'iden- 
tification  graphique^  (1897).  See  Bertillon 
System. 

Bertillon  System,  a  plan  of  identifj'ing 
suspected  criminals,  invented  March  1879,  and 
set  forth  in  1885  by  Dr.  Alphonse  Bertillon  of 
Paris.  Properly  speaking,  it  is  not  a  single  sys- 
tem, but  a  combination  of  one  invented  by  him- 
self with  two  others  approved  by  use,  or  as 
many  more  as  the  officers  choose  to  employ  for 
security.  The  former  is  that  of  anthropometry, 
or  exact  measurements  of  certain  dimensions  of 
the  human  body  and  its  members ;  the  latter  are 
those  of  description  —  as  in  passports,  but  more 
extended,  more  precise,  and  with  a  better  ter- 
minology—  and  photography,  with  still  others  at 
will.  The  first-named  is  the  heart  of  the  sys- 
tem, the  feature  which  makes  it  instantly  avail- 
able;  its  accuracy  is  great,  but  so  is  that  of  some 
others  ;  this  however  is  the  only  one  which  can 
be  indexed  and  referred  to  as  readily  as  the  titles 
of  books  in  a  library  catalogue.  For  this  rea- 
son it  is  rapidly  becoming  the  standard  in  all 
countries  with  civilized  judicial  systems.  It  rests 
on  three  principles:  (i)  Easy  and  exact  mea- 
surement of  the  parts  of  the  body  in  a  living 
subject;  (2)  extreme  diversity  of  such  dimen- 
sions in  different  subjects,  no  two  ever  closely 
approximating  each  other;  (3)  almost  absolute 
fixity  of  the  skeleton  after  20.  The  measure- 
ments are  taken  with  compasses,  and  include : 
Height,  standing  and  sitting,  reach  of  out- 
stretched arms ;  length  and  width  of  head ; 
length  and  width  of  right  ear;  length  of 
left  foot,  forearm,  middle  and  little  fingers. 
The  descriptive  elements  are  color  of  eyes 
(the  most  imnortant  detail  of  all,  as  it 
never  changes  and  is  impossible  to  disguise), 
hair,  beard,  and  complexion ;  deformities  and 
peculiarities  of  shape ;  marks  on  body,  as 
moles,  scars,  the  tattooings  frequent  among 
criminals,  etc.,  carefully  located  —  as  ''mole  six 
centimetres  to  left  of  fifth  vertebra,^^  or  "horizon- 
tal scar  on  back  of  second  phalanx  of  right  fore- 
finger, three  millimetres  below  middle.*  A  pho- 
tograph of  full  face  and  one  of  profile  are  taken 
when  thought  desirable,  from  a  fixed  chair  and 
a  fixed  camera.  The  entire  process,  by  a  rnea- 
surer  and  a  secretary  who  writes  from  dictation, 
takes  five  to  seven  minutes,  and  the  measure- 
ments are  correct  to  one  thirty  second  of  an 
inch.  Descriptions  and  photograph  are  put  to- 
gether on  cards  of  uniform  size,  and  in  the  great 
Paris  collection  of  120,000, —  the  model  for  all 
otheis, —  are  thus  classified  for  reference.  First, 
approximately  20,000  females  and  lOjOOO  minors 


BERTIN  —  BERTRAND 


are  separated  for  special  classification.  Second, 
the  90,000  remaining  are  divided  into  three  equal 
sections  according  to  length  of  head :  short 
heads,  of  187  millimetres  and  less ;  medium,  187 
to  194;  long,  194  and  above.  Experience  proves 
that  these  make  very  closely  equal  numbers ;  and 
tlieir  cards  are  placed  in  three  tiers  of  drawers, 
the  short  heads  uppermost.  Each  of  these  is 
subdivided  into  three  of  10,000  according  to 
vindth  of  head,  without  further  reference  to 
length ;  each  of  these  into  three  of  about  3,300, 
according  to  length  of  middle  finger ;  each  of 
these  into  three  of  1,100,  by  length  of  foot;  these 
are  subdivided  successively  by  length  of  fore- 
arm, full  height,  length  of  little  finger,  and  color 
of  eyes.  These  last  groups  contain  from  12  to 
14,  and  are  classed  by  length  of  ear.  The  women 
and  children  are  similarly  classified.  Thus  any 
new  measurement  can  be  compared  with  its  dup- 
licate, in  this  enormous  mass,  or  the  absence  of 
such  record  shown,  with  marvelous  celerity  and 
almost  infallible  accuracy.  Its  index  value  alone 
is  of  the  first  order.  Under  the  old  systems,  the 
.entire  mass  of  descriptions  and  photographs  had 
to  be  searched  and  compared  with  any  given  ar- 
rested person,  and  with  the  immense  number  ac- 
cumulating in  great  cities  it  became  physically 
impossible  to  apply  it  with  any  certainty,  the 
senses  grew  so  jaded  and  resemblances  were  so 
many ;  not  only  did  the  guilty  escape, —  it  was 
estimated  that  more  than  half  the  habitual  crim- 
inals remained  undetected, —  but  the  innocent 
were  often  mistaken  for  them.  International 
criminals,  like  bank  robbers  and  pickpockets, 
traveled  from  one  city  and  country  to  another 
imder  assumed  names  and  disguises ;  sometimes, 
when  wanted  for  grave  crimes,  they  committed 
trivial  misdemeanors  to  be  arrested  and  impris- 
oned under  false  names.  This  is  now  rendered 
futile  by  the  combination  of  anthropometry  with 
the  descriptive  features ;  and  with  regard  to  the 
confusion  of  identity,  the  laws  of  probability 
render  it  practically  impossible.  The  system  is 
also  of  great  value  in  distinguishing  new  crim- 
inals from  old  offenders:  it  not  merely  registers 
identity,  but  the  fact  of  a  first  offense.  It  has 
strengthened  even  the  old  descriptive  system,  by 
giving  it  a  more  precise  vocabulary  and  training 
the  officers  of  the  law  in  physiognomy.  It  has 
already  done  admirable  work,  as  in  the  discovery 
of  King  Humbert's  murderer ;  but  to  make  it 
more  efficient,  the  local  records  should  be  gath- 
ered into  national  and  even  international  bu- 
reaus. With  a  proper  enforcement  of  habitual- 
criminals'  acts,  a  great  step  would  be  taken  to- 
ward suppressing  the  class  of  professional  felons. 
This  has  been  mooted  in  our  own  country,  where 
it  was  introduced  in  1887  by  Maj.  R.  W.  Mc- 
Claughry ;  that  it  has  not  been  fully  adopted 
here  is  one  reason  for  the  infesting  of  the  coun- 
try by  professionals  driven  out  of  Europe  by  the 
system.  Bertillon  has  fully  described  his  system 
in  his  ^Identification  Anthropometrique^  (1893)  ; 
and  Maj.  McClaughry  has  edited  <The  Bertil- 
lon System  of  Identification^    (1896). 

Bertin,  bar-tan,  Antoine,  French  poet:  b. 
Isle  of  Bourbon,  1752;  d.  San  Domingo,  1790. 
He  was  much  admired  by  his  contemporaries, 
who,  somewhat  extravagantly,  styled  him  the 
French  Propertius.  He  was  a  friend  of  Parny, 
and  like  him  excelled  in  elegiac  and  epistolary 
verse.  His  principal  works  are  ^Voyage  in  Bur- 
gundy^  (1777)  ;  and  <Th*e  Loves^    (1780). 


Bertin,  Louise  Angelique,  French  musi- 
cian and  composer :  b.  Les  Roches,  near  Bievres, 
15  Jan.  1805  ;  d.  Paris,  26  April  1877.  She  was 
a  daughter  of  L.  F.  Bertin  (q.v.),  and  composed 
^Faust,^  '^Esmeralda,-'  ^Guy  Mannering,^  and 
other  operas.  Her  volume  of  verse,  ^Les 
Glanes^  (1842),  received  the  prize  of  the  Acad- 
emy. 

Bertin,  Louis  Frangois  (called  Bertin 
l'Aine),  French  journalist;  b.  Paris,  14  Dec. 
1766;  d.  13  Sept.  1841.  The  Revolution  made 
him  a  journalist,  and  in  1799  he  started  the  fa- 
mous Journal  des  Debats.  His  royalist  princi- 
ples offered  Napoleon,  and  cost  him  imprison- 
ment and  banishment  to  Elba ;  thence,  however, 
he  escaped  to  Rome,  where  he  formed  a  friend- 
ship with  Chateaubriand.  In  1805  he  returned  to 
Paris,  and  resumed  the  editorship  of  the  Debats, 
but  was  much  hampered  by  Napoleon.  The  sec- 
ond restoration  of  the  Bourbons  restored  once 
more  to  Bertin  the  free  control  of  his  journal, 
and  henceforward  he  gave  almost  constant  sup- 
port to  the  ministerial  party.  He  supported  the 
July  monarchy,  and  edited  the  Debats  till  his 
death. 

Bertin,  Nicolas,  French  artist:  b.  Paris, 
1668;  d.  1736.  His  picture,  ^The  Building  of  the 
Ark,^  obtained  the  grand  prize,  in  1685,  and 
^Prometheus  Liberated  by  Hercules^  brought 
him,  in  1705,  membership  in  the  Academy,  where 
he  became  professor  in  1715.  His  paintings  will 
be  found  in  the  galleries  of  Dresden,  Stockholm, 
St.  Petersburg,  Antwerp,  Amsterdam,  Orleans, 
and  Toulouse. 

Bertini,  Giuseppe,  ber-te'ne,  gwe'sep,  Ital- 
ian painter :  b.  Milan,  1825 ;  d.  1898.  The  Milan 
Academy  awarded  him  the  prize  for  the  best  his- 
torical picture  in  1845,  and  his  painting  on  glass 
of  *^ Dante  and  the  Divine  Comedy,^  exhibited  in 
London  in  1853,  has  been  greatly  admired.  He 
became  professor  of  painting  at  the  Academy  in 
i860.  Among  notable  pictures  by  him  are:  *The 
Vision  of  Saint  Francis  of  Assisi^  ;  ^Death  of 
Saint  Joseph^  ;  ^Tasso  Introduced  to  the  Duke 
of  Ferrara.' 

Bertrand,  Henri  Gratien,  bartran,  6n-re 
gra-tyan  (Count),  French  military  officer:  b. 
Chateauroux,  1773;  d.  there,  31  Jan.  1844.  He  dis- 
tinguished himself  at  Austerlitz  and  became  Na- 
poleon's adjutant;  and,  after  the  battle  of 
Aspern,  in  1809,  for  his  share  in  saving  the 
French  army  by  bridges,  was  created  count  and 
governor  of  Illyria.  After  serving  with  credit  in 
the  subsequent  campaigns,  he  retired  with  the 
emperor  to  Elba,  was  his  confidant  in  carrying 
out  his  return  to  France,  and  finally  shared  his 
banishment  to  St.  Helena.  On  Napoleon's  death, 
Bertrand  returned  to  France,  where,  though  sen- 
tence of  death  had  been  pronounced  upon  him, 
a  sentence  which  Louis  XVIII.  had  wisely  re- 
called, he  was  restored  to  all  his  dignities,  and, 
in  1830,  appointed  commandant  of  the  Polytech- 
nic School.  In  1840,  he  formed  part  of  the  ex- 
pedition which  brought  back  the  remains  of  Na- 
poleon to  France. 

Bertrand,  James,  French  historical  painter: 
b.  Lyons,  1825 ;  d.  1887.  He  studied  in  Rome, 
and  his  ^ Saint  Benedict  Taking  Communion,' 
exhibited  at  the  Salon  in  1859,  was  highly  ap- 
proved. He  worked  in  the  classical  style,  and 
his  paintings  are  as  notable  for  their  careful 
finish   as    for   their   religious  tone.     They   have 


BERTRAND  —  BERWICKSHIRE 


been  frequently  engraved.  Among  them  are 
< Death  of  Virginia^  (1869)  ;  < Charlotte  Corday's 
Last  Day>    (1883);  <Calvary>    (1884). 

Bertrand,  Joseph  Louis  Frangois,  bar-tran, 
j6-sef  loo-e  fron-swa,  French  mathemati- 
cian: b.  Paris,  1822;  d.  1900.  He  taught  at  the 
Polytechnic  and  Normal  schools,  and  the  College 
de  France,  and  in  1884  became  a  member  of  the 
French  Academy.  He  wrote  treatises  on  arith- 
metic, algebra,  calculus,  thermodynamics,  and 
probabilities,  and  in  1881  was  appointed  com- 
mander of  the  Legion  of  Honor. 

BeruUe,  ba-rul,  Pierre  de,  French  cardinal: 
b.  near  Troyes,  4  Feb.  1575;  d.  Paris,  2  Oct. 
1629.  He  early  showed  remarkable  mental 
acuteness  and  knowledge,  and  became  distin- 
guished for  skill  in  controversy.  He  instituted, 
and  was  the  first  superior  of,  the  order  of 
Carmelites  in  France,  and  also  founded  the  con- 
gregation of  the  Oratory  notwithstanding  the  op- 
position of  the  Jesuits.  He  was  a  statesman  as 
well  as  priest,  and  took  a  leading  part  in  poli- 
tics. He  was  often  opposed  to  Richelieu,  whose 
jealousy  he  excited,  and  who  could  not  conceal 
his  satisfaction  at  the  news  of  his  death.  He 
accompanied  the  Princess  Henrietta  to  England, 
on  her  marriage  with  the  Prince  of  Wales.  He 
shunned  elevated  positions,  and  was  very  un- 
willingly obliged  to  accept  the  hat  of  a  cardinal. 
This  elevation  made  no  difference,  however,  in 
his  humble  way  of  life,  and  did  not  prevent 
him  from  sometimes  taking  part,  as  he  had 
always  done,  in  the  servile  work  of  the  reli- 
gious community  to  which  he  belonged.  He 
was  also  a  man  of  letters,  and  was  the  first  to 
appreciate  and  encourage  the  genius  of  Des- 
cartes urging  him,  by  his  sense  of  obligation  to 
his  Creator,  to  make  known  to  the  world  his 
discoveries.  The  most  noted  of  his  writings  is 
*Les  Grandeurs  de  Jesus.* 

Bervic,  bar-vek,  Charles  Clement,  French 
engraver:  b.  Paris,  1756;  d.  1822.  The  works  of 
Bervic  are  among  the  best  of  the  French  school, 
but  are  not  numerous.  The  most  celebrated  of 
them  is  the  full-length  figure  of  Louis  XVL, 
after  a  picture  of  Callot.  The  copies  are  very 
rare  and  dear,  because  the  plate  was  broken  to 
pieces  in  the  revolutionary  tumvilts  of  1793. 
The  exactness  of  his  drawing,  the  firmness  and 
brilliancy  of  his  touch,  the  purity  and  correctness 
of  his  design,  and  the  happiness  with  which  he 
transferred  to  his  plate  the  beauties  of  the 
original,  gave  a  high  character  to  hi.=  produc- 
tions. 

Berwick,  James  Fitz-James  (Duke  of), 
French  marshal:  b.  Moulins,  1670;  d.  1734.  He 
was  the  natural  son  of  the  Duke  of  York,  after- 
ward King  James  H.,  and  Arabella  Churchill, 
sister  of  the  Duke  of  Marlborough ;  and  first 
went  by  the  name  of  Fitz-James.  He  received 
his  education  in  France,  and  served  his  first  cam- 
paigns in  Hungary  under  Charles,  Duke  of  Lor- 
raine, general  of  Leopold  L  He  returned  to  Eng- 
land at  the  age  of  17,  and  received  from  his 
father  the  title  of  Duke.  On  the  landing  of  the 
Prince  of  Orange  in  1688  he  went  to  France  with 
his  father,  whom  he  afterward  accompanied  on 
the  Irish  expedition.  He  fought  bravely  and  was 
wounded  at  the  battle  of  the  Boyne,  i  July 
1690.  He  afterward  served  under  Luxembourg 
in  Flanders ;  in  1702  and  1703  under  the  Duke 
of  Burgundy;  then  under  Marshal  Villeroi,  and 
Vol.   2—37. 


was  naturalized  in  France.  In  1706  he  was 
made  marshal  of  France,  and  sent  to  Spain, 
where  he  gained  the  battle  of  Almanza,  which 
rendered  King  Philip  V.  again  master  of  Va- 
lencia. In  1709  he  went  to  take  the  command 
in  Dauphine,  and  the  measures  which  he  took 
to  cover  this  and  the  neighboring  provinces 
against  the  superior  forces  of  the  Duke  of 
Savoy  gained  him  a  great  reputation.  In  1718 
and  1719  he  was  obliged  to  serve  against  Philip 
v.,  who  from  gratitude  to  the  marshal  had  taken 
a  son  of  his  into  his  service.  On  his  entrance 
into  the  Spanish  dominions  he  wrote  to  his 
son,  the  Duke  of  Liria,  admonishing  him  to  do 
his  duty  to  his  sovereign.  At  the  siege  of  Phil- 
ipsburg,  on  the  Rhine,  his  life  was  terminated 
by  a  cannon-ball.  His  memoirs  were  published 
originally  in  French,  and  have  gone  through 
two  or  three  editions  in  English.  Consult  Wil- 
son, <Duke  of  Berwick,  Marshal  of  France^ 
(1883). 

Berwick-on-Tweed,     England,    a     seaport 
town,  once  formmg  a  county  of  itself,  but  new 
incorporated   in   Northumberland,  on   the  north 
or    Scottish    side    of    the    Tweed,    within    huH 
a  mile  of  its  mouth.     It  is  surrounded  by  wa)ls 
which   are   well   preserved,   and  along  which   is 
an   agreeable   promenade.     The  streets   are   for 
the    most    part    narrow,    steep,    straggling,    and 
irregular,  though  some  of  the  principal  ones  are 
wide  and  open.     The  Tweed  is  crossed  at  the 
town  by  an  old  bridge  of  15  arches,  1,164  feet 
long  and   only   17   wide,   and  by   a  magnificent 
railway  viaduct  of  stone,  667  yards  long  and  184 
feet    in    extreme    height,    with    28    semicircular 
arches.     The  chief  industries  are  iron-founding, 
the  manufacture  of  engines  and  boilers,  agricul- 
tural  implements,   feeding-cake,  manures  of  va- 
rious kinds,  ropes,  twine,  etc.    The  chief  exports 
are   grain,   artificial   manures,   and   herrings.     A 
dock  affording  accommodation  for  large  vessels 
was   opened  in    1876.     In  the  beginning  of  the 
1 2th  century,  during  the  reign  of  Alexander  L, 
Berwick  was  part  of  his  realm  of  Scotland,  and 
the  capital  of  the  district  called  Lothian.     Soon 
after  this  date  it  became  populous  and  wealthy, 
was  the  chief  seaport  of   Scotland,  contained  a 
strong    castle,     with     churches,     hospitals,     and 
m.onastic  buildings,  and  was  created  one  of  the 
four  royal  burghs  of  Scotland.   In  1216  the  town 
and    castle    were    stormed    and    taken    by    King 
John.  During  the  competition  between  Baliol  and 
Bruce  for  the  Scottish  throne  the  English   Par- 
liament sat  in   Berwick ;  and  in  the  hall  of  the 
castle  Edward  I.  pronounced  judgment  in  favor 
of  Baliol.     Bruce  retook  the  town  and  castle  in 
1318;   but,  after   undergoing  various  sieges  and 
vicissitudes,   both   were   surrendered   to   Edward 
IV.   in    1482,  and   have  ever   since  remained  in 
possession  of  England.    Pop.  (1901)  13,437. 

Berwickshire,  a  maritime  county  of  Scot- 
land, nominally  divided  into  the  three  districts 
of  Lauderdale.  Lammermoor,  and  the  Merse 
or  March.  The  principal  rivers  of  the  county 
are  the  Tweed,  the  Leader,  the  Eye.  the  White- 
adder,  and  the  Blackadder;  and  all  except  the 
last  contain  salmon,  of  which  great  quantities 
are  shipped  from  Berwick  for  London.  Vast 
quantities  of  agricultural  produce  are  shipped 
from  the  ports  of  Berwick  and  Eyemouth,  and 
much  is  also  sent  to  Edinburgh,  Dalkeith,  Had- 
dington, and  Dunbar.  Very  few  manufactures 
are  established  in  this  county,  the  principal  one 


BERYL  —  BESANCON 


which  it  supplies  beyond  domestic  consumption 
being  that  of  paper.  The  North  Sea  fisheries 
are  of  great  importance.  Berwick  formerly 
abounded  in  strong  castles  and  fortified  places, 
traces  of  which  are  to  be  found  everywhere. 
The  county  town  is  Greenlaw.  Other  small 
towns  are  Duns  and  Eyemouth.  Pop.  (1901) 
30,816. 

Ber'yl.  a  native  silicate  of  aluminum  and 
the  rare  metallic  element  glucinum  (or  "beryl- 
lium"), having  the  formula  3G10.Al203.6Si02, 
and  crystallizing  in  the  hexagonal  system.  It 
commonly  has  a  specific  gravity  of  2.70,  and  a 
hardness  of  from  7.5  to  8.  A  portion  of  the 
glucinum  is  sometimes  replaced  by  lithium,  so- 
dium or  caesium,  and  chemically  combined  water 
is  also  occasionally  present.  In  the  latter  case 
the  formula  of  the  mineral  appears  to  be 
H2GleAl4SIi2037.  Beryl  is  usually  transparent 
or  translucent,  and  in  color  may  be  green,  blue, 
yellow,  white,  or  light  red.  A  variety  which  is 
transparent,  and  bright  green  from  the  presence 
of  oxide  of  chromium,  is  known  as  "emerald,'^ 
and  is  highly  esteemed  as  a  gem  (see  Gems)  ; 
the  "Oriental  emerald"  (see  Sapphire),  how- 
ever, is  not  a  variety  of  beryl),  but  a  green  va- 
riety of  sapphire.  A  bluish-green  variety  of  the 
common  beryl,  known  as  "aquamarine,^'  is  also 
used  as  a  gem.  Beryl  occurs  in  all  parts  of 
the  world,  being  commonly  associated  with 
granite.  Its  crystals  are  sometimes  enormous 
in  size,  and  two  specimens  from  Grafton,  N.  H., 
are  known,  which  weigh  2,900  pounds  and  2^/2 
tons,  respectively.  The  finest  emeralds  (q.v.) 
are  from  Bogota;  aquamarines  (q.v.),  from  Si- 
beria, Brazil,  Maine,  North  Carolina  and  Colo- 
rado ;  golden  beryls,  from  Connecticut  and 
North  Carolina. 

Beryl'lium,  a  rare  metallic  element,  called 
"beryllium"  from  the  fact  that  it  was  first  found 
in  the  beryl.  Its  salts  have  a  sweetish  taste,  and 
from  this  circumstance  the  element  itself  has 
received  the  name  glucinum  (q.v.). 

Beryx,  ber'iks,  the  designation  of  a  genus 
of  deep  sea  fishes  in  tropical  waters  belonging 
to  the  group  Berycoidei  and  family  Bcrycida. 
B.  splendens,  deep  red  with  bright  streaks,  is 
one  of  the  most  beautiful  of  the  Cuban  fishes. 

Berzelius,  ber-tsa'lT-us,  Jons  Jakob  (Baron), 
Swedish  chemist  of  distinction :  b.  Westerlosa, 
East  Gothland,  Sweden,  29  Aug.  1779;  d.  Stock- 
holm, 7  Aug.  1848.  The  first  fruit  of  his  studies, 
and  of  a  year's  residence  as  assistant  to  a  physi- 
cian at  the  famous  watering-place  of  Medewi, 
was  the  *Nova  Analysis  Aquarum  Medevien- 
sium'  (1800).  After  publishing  a  tract  entitled 
^De  Electricitatis  Galvanicae  in  Corpora  Or- 
ganica  Effectis'  (1802),  and  taking  his  doctor's 
degree,  he  was  appointed  by  the  board  of  health 
in  1802  adjunct  of  medicine  and  pharmacy  in 
Stockholm.  In  1807  he  became  professor  of 
medicine  and  pharmacy  in  Stockholm.  Here, 
along  with  other  medical  practitioners,  he  insti- 
tuted the  Swedish  Medical  Society.  In  1808  he 
was  admitted  a  member  of  the  Academy  of  Sci- 
ences at  Stockholm,  in  1810  one  of  its  directors, 
and  in  1818  its  perpetual  secretary.  This  office 
he  continued  to  hold  during  the  remainder  of 
his  life.  In  1818  the  king,  while  allowing  him 
to  retain  his  own  name,  made  him  a  noble ;  and 
in  1835,  on  the  occasion  of  his  marriage  with  a 
daughter  of  Poppius,  a  councilor  of  state,  he 
was  named  a  baron.    The  existing  state  of  chem- 


istry is  founded  in  a  great  measure  on  his  dis- 
coveries and  views,  though,  by  the  rapid  devel- 
opment of  the  science,  the  edifice  which  he 
erected  has  undergone  many  alterations,  and 
several  defects  have  been  discovered  in  it. 
Hence  his  views  in  regard  to  atomic  weights, 
his  electro-chemical  theory,  and  his  mode  of 
procedure  in  organic  chemistry,  have  met  with 
many  opponents.  He  discovered  selenium  and 
thorium,  first  exhibited  calcium,  barium,  stron- 
tium, tantalum,  silicium,  and  zirconium  in  the 
elemental  state,  and  investigated  whole  classes 
of  compounds,  as  those  of  fluoric  acid,  the 
metals  in  the  ores  of  platinum,  tantalum,  molyb- 
denum, vanadium,  sulphur  salts,  etc.  He  intro- 
duced a  new,  or  at  least  a  wholly  altered  nomen- 
clature and  classification  of  chemical  compounds. 
In  short,  there  is  no  branch  of  chemistry  to 
which  he  has  not  rendered  essential  service ;  and 
his  labors  are  so  numerous  that,  when  the  accu- 
racy with  which  they  have  been  executed  is  kept 
in  view,  it  becomes  almost  incomprehensible 
how  one  man  should  have  been  able  to  perform 
them.  It  ought  to  be  especially  mentioned  that 
he  never  rested  satisfied  with  the  bare  investi- 
gation of  isolated  facts,  but  always  extended 
his  investigations  over  a  wide  field,  so  as  to 
contribute  to  the  advancement  of  chemistry  as 
a  whole.  In  addition  to  his  numerous  commu- 
nications to  the  journals  and  periodicals  of  the 
period,  may  be  mentioned,  among  his  separate 
works,  his  *^View  of  the  Composition  of  Ani- 
mal Fluids,^  ^New  System  of  Mineralogy,* 
^ Essay  on  the  Theory  of  Chemical  Proportions,* 
and  above  all  his  'Text-book  of  Chemistry,* 
which  has  been  translated  into  most  European 
languages.  As  secretary  of  the  Academy  of 
Sciences,  he  published  an  annual  account  of  the 
progress  of  chemistry  and  mineralogj^,  which, 
having  been  continued  during  27  years,  extends 
to  as  many  volumes.  See  Soderbaum,  'Berze- 
lius, Werden  und  Wachsen'    (1899). 

Berzsenyi,  ber'zha-nyi,  Daniel,  Hungarian 
poet:  b.  Heyte,  1776;  d.  1836.  An  authorized 
version  of  his  'Versei'  appeared  in  1813  and 
in  1816  was  reprinted  with  his  consent  and 
speedily  became  classic  in  Hungarian  literature. 

Bes,  an  Egyptian  god,  represented  clad  in  a 
lion's  skin,  with  the  head  and  skull  of  the  ani- 
mal concealing  his  features,  and  with  a  dwarfish 
and  altogether  grotesque  appearance.  He  was 
supposed  to  preside  over  art,  music,  the  dance, 
and  childbirth. 

Besangon,  be-zan-s6n,  France,  a  fortified 
town,  capital  of  the  department  Doubs,  206  miles 
southeast  of  Paris.  The  town  is  surrounded  by 
hills,  covered  with  vineyards.  The  isthmus  or 
peninsula  on  which  it  is  built  is  composed  of  a 
mass  of  rocks  crowned  by  the  citadel,  which 
commands  the  country  toward  the  north,  but  the 
citadel  itself  is  commanded  by  several  eminences 
in  the  neighborhood,  on  which  forts  have  been 
erected  for  the  purpose  of  securing  the  ap- 
proaches. Besangon  is  one  of  the  strongest 
towns  in  France,  and  also  one  of  the  best  built. 
The  streets  are  spacious  and  well  laid  out,  and 
the  squares  are  adorned  with  fountains.  The 
citadel  is  one  of  Vauban's  finest  \vorks.  There 
are  here  a  theatre,  a  large  and  valuable  public 
library,  a  museum,  a  botanic  garden,  school  of 
artillery,  lyceum,  etc.  The  trade  and  manu- 
factures are  extensive.  The  latter  comprise 
linen,  cotton,  woolen,  and  silk  goods,  ironmon- 


BESANT  —  BESSARION 


gery,  etc. ;  but  the  principal  industry  is  watch- 
making. It  employs  about  15,000  workmen  who 
make  as  many  as  400,000  watches  yearly.  There 
are  also  extensive  foundries,  breweries,  saw- 
mills, and  tanneries.  Besangon  is  the  ancient 
Vesontio,  Besoiitium,  or  Bisontium,  which  is 
mentioned  by  Caesar,  who  drove  the  Sequani 
from  it  in  58  B.C.,  as  a  place  of  great  extent 
and  natural  strength.  Several  of  the  streets  and 
places  still  bear  their  old  Roman  names,  and 
there  are  numerous  Roman  remains,  especially 
a  triumphal  arch  of  the  Emperor  Aurelian,  an 
aqueduct,  an  amphitheatre,  and  a  large  theatre. 
Pop.    (1903)    about   59,000. 

Besant,  bes-ant,  Annie,  English  theoso- 
phist  and  author:  b.  London,  i  Oct.  1847.  She 
was  married  in  1867  to  the  Rev.  Frank  Besant, 
brother  of  Sir  Walter  Besant,  but  was  legally 
separated  from  him  in  1873.  She  manifested  an 
earnest  interest  in  social  and  political  topics, 
and,  in  1874,  became  connected  with  the 
National  Secular  Society.  Owing  to  the  publi- 
cation of  'Fruits  of  Philosophy,^  Mrs.  Besant 
was  prosecuted,  in  connection  with  Charles 
Bradlaugh  (June  1877),  but  the  prosecution 
failed.  Mrs.  Besant  has  since  stated  her  dis- 
agreement with  the  sentiments  expressed  in  this 
book.  In  1883  she  announced  her  adhesion  to 
Socialism.  For  three  years  she  was  a  member 
of  the  school  board  of  London.  She  has  been 
prominently  connected  with  various  socialistic 
movements,  and  a  frequent  speaker  at  meet- 
ings for  workingmen,  and  in  1899  joined  the 
Theosophical  Society,  and  has  since  been  active 
in  theosophical  propaganda  in  Great  Britain  and 
the  United  States.  She  visited  the  United 
States  in  1891  and  1892-3  and  lectured  on 
Madame  Blavatsky  and  reincarnation,  and  on 
theosophy  and  occultism.  Among  her  numer- 
ous publications  are  ^Reincarnation^;  'Seven 
Principles  of  Man^  ;  ^Autobiography^  ;  'Death 
and  After'  ;  'Building  of  the  Kosmos'  ;  'In  the 
Outer  Court'  ;  'Karma'  ;  'The  Self  and  Its 
Sheaths'  ;  'Path  of  Discipleship'  ;  'Man  and 
His  Bodies'  ;  'Four  Great  Religions'  ;  'The 
Ancient  Wisdom'  ;  'Three  Paths  to  Union  with 
God'  ;  'Evolution  of  Life  and  Form'  ; 
'Dharma'  ;  'Avataras'  ;  'Ancient  Ideals  in  Mod- 
ern Life'  ;  'Esoteric  Christianity'  ;  'Thought- 
Power'  ;  'The  Religious  Problem  in  India'  ; 
and  in  connection  with  G.  R.  S.  Mead,  transla- 
tions of  tracts  and  reviews. 

Besant,  be-zant',  Sir  Walter,  English  nov- 
elist: b.  Portsmouth,  England,  14  Aug.  1836; 
d.  London,  9  June  1901.  He  was  educated  in 
London  and  at  Christ's  College,  Cambridge, 
where  he  graduated  with  mathematical  honors. 
He  was  for  a  time  professor  in  the  Ro)'al  Col- 
lege, Mauritius.  His  first  work,  'Studies  in 
Early  French  Poetry,'  appeared  in  1868,  and 
to  the  field  of  French  literature  also  belong 
his  'French  Humorists'  (1873),  and  his  ^Rabe- 
lais' (1877  for  the  'Foreign  Classics'  series). 
He  was  for  years  secretary  to  the  Palestine  Ex- 
ploration Fund,  and  published  a  'History  of 
Jerusalem'  (1871)  in  conjunction  with  Prof. 
Palmer,,  a  life  of  whom  he  also  wrote.  The 
'Survey  of  Western  Palestine'  was  edited  by 
him.  He  is  best  known  by  his  novels,  a  num- 
ber of  which  were  written  in  partnership  with 
the  late  James  Rice,  including  'Readv-Money 
Mortiboy'     (1872);     'This     Son    of    Vulcan'; 


'The  Case  of  Mr.  Lucraft'  ;  'The  Golden  But- 
terfly' (1876)  ;  'The  Monks  of  Thelema'  ;  etc. 
After  Mr.  Rice's  death  (1882)  Sir  Walter 
wrote:  'AH  Sorts  and  Conditions  of  Men' 
(1882),  which  led  to  the  establishment  of  the 
People's  Palace  in  London;  'AH  in  a  Garden 
Fair'  (1883);  'Dorothy  Foster'  (1884);  'The 
World  Went  Very  WeH  Then'  (1887);  'The 
Ivory  Gate'  (1892)  ;  'The  Rebel  Queen' 
(1893);  'Beyond  the  Dreams  of  Avarice' 
(1895);  'The  Orange  Girl'  (1899);  'The  Ala- 
baster Box'  (1900)  ;  'The  Story  of  King  Al- 
fred' (1901),  etc.  Among  his  other  works  are 
'The  Eulogy  of  Richard  Jeffries'  (1888).  He 
labored  for  many  years  to  promote  the  interests 
of  all  members  of  the  literary  profession,  more 
especially  m  his  capacity  as  editor  of  the 
monthly  paper,  'The  Author.'  On  24  May  1895, 
he  was  knighted. 

Be'show,  the  Alaskan  pollack.  See  Pollack. 

Beside  the  Bonnie  Brier  Bush,  a  novel 
by  Ian  Maclaren  (the  Rev.  Dr.  John  Watson), 
delineating  Scottish  character  and  life  among 
the  lowly.  It  consists  of  short  sketches  with 
no  attempt  at  plot,  but  interest  attaches  to  the 
well-drawn  characters.  It  is  one  of  the  best 
examples  of  what  has  been  styled  the  "kail-yard* 
school  of  fiction,  whose  principal  exponents  are 
Crockett,   Barrie,  and   Watson. 

Bes'ika  Bay,  an  inlet  of  the  ^gean  Sea  on 
the  northwest  coast  of  Asia  Minor,  opposite 
Tenedos,  to  the  south  of  the  entrance  of  the 
Dardanelles.  The  English  fleet  was  stationed 
here  during  crises  in  the  Eastern  question  in 
1853-4   and    1877-8, 

Beskow,  bes'kov,  Bernhard,  Swedish  dram- 
atist: b.  Stockholm,  19  April  1796;  d.  17  Oct. 
1868.  He  was  ennobled  in  1826  and  appointed 
marshal  of  the  royal  household  in  1833.  He 
officiated  for  some  time  as  director  of  the  royal 
theatre,  and  is  the  author  of  several  excellent 
tragedies,  which  were  translated  into  Danish  and. 
German  by  Oehlenschliiger,  and  of  which  'Tor- 
kel  Knutsson'  is  considered  the  best  acting 
play  on  the  Swedish  stage.  He  wrote  an  opera, 
'Trubaduren,'  for  which  Oscar,  the  present 
king  of  Sweden,  composed  the  music.  His  lit- 
erary reputation  was  increased  by  his  books  of 
travel,  by  his  poetical  works,  and  by  his  con- 
tributions to  the  press.  The  great  prize  of  <^he 
academy  was  awarded  in  1824  to  his  poem 
'Sveriges   anor.' 

Bessara'bia,  a  province  in  European  Tur- 
key since  the  Peace  of  Bucharest,  in  1812,  be- 
tween Turkey  and  Russia.  It  extends  in  a 
northwesterly  direction  from  the  Black  Sea, 
between  the.  Pruth  and  the  Dniester;  area, 
17,619  square  miles.  A  portion  of  it  at  the 
southeast  extremitj^  was  ceded  to  Turkey  in 
1856.  but  was  restored  in  1878.  Agriculture  is 
chiefly  developed  in  the  north,  pasturage  is 
most  largely  carried  on  the  south,  in  the  mid- 
dle portion  are  extensive  forests.  It  is  wa- 
tered by  the  Dniester,  the  Pruth,  and  the  Dan- 
ube. The  inhabitants  include  Russians,  Poles, 
Rumanians,  Bulgarians,  Germans.  Armenians, 
Jews,  etc.  The  capital  is  Kishenef.  The  prod- 
ucts are  salt,  wool,  tallow,  leather,  soap,  etc. 
Pop.   1,782,900. 

Bessa'rion,  Johannes,  or  Basilius,  Greek 
monk:  b.  Trebizpnd.  1389:  d.  Ravenna,  19  Nov. 
1472.     He  was  titular  patriarch  of  Constantino- 


BESSEL  —  BESSEMER 


pie,  archbishop  of  Nicsea,  afterward  cardinal 
and  legate  to  France,  in  the  time  of  Louis  XI. 
After  having  spent  21  years  in  a  monastery  of 
Greece,  devoted  to  theology  and  literature,  he 
left  it  to  follow  the  Emperor  John  Palseologus 
to  Italy,  with  the  intention  of  being  present  at 
the  Council  of  Ferrara,  in  the  hope  of  uniting 
the  Greek  and  Latin  churches.  They  were  ac- 
companied by  many  Greeks,  distinguished  by 
their  talents  and  dignity.  Bessarion  seconded 
with  so  much  zeal  the  projects  of  Palseologus 
that  he  became  odious  to  the  Greek  Church, 
while  Pope  Eugenius  IV.  rewarded  him  for  his 
devotion  to  that  of  Rome,  by  the  dignity  of 
cardinal-priest.  He  was  sent  to  France  by 
Sixtus  IV.,  to  reconcile  Louis  XL  with  the  Duke 
of  Burgundy,  and  obtain  aid  against  the  Turks. 
He  did  not  succeed,  and  it  is  pretended  that  he 
received  a  personal  insult  from  the  king,  which 
humiliation  some  suppose  to  have  been  the 
cause  of  his  death. 

Bes'sel,  Friedrich  Wilhelm,  German  as- 
tronomer: b.  Mmden,  Prussia,  22  July  1784;  d. 
17  March  1846.  An  astronomical  tract  which 
he  had  drawn  up  brought  him  into  communica- 
tion with  Olbers,  who  encouraged  him  in  his 
labors,  and  procured  for  him  the  appointment 
of  inspector  of  astronomical  instruments  to  the 
University  of  Gottingen.  In  1810  he  removed 
to  Konigsberg,  and  in  1812-13  superintended  the 
construction  of  the  observatory  of  this  town. 
From  1824  to  ^1833  he  completed  a  series  of 
75,011  observations  on  the  celestial  zone  contained 
between  15°  N.  and  15°  S.  declination.  These 
observations  included  all  the  stars  in  the  zone 
as  far  as  the  ninth  magnitude.  A  dissertation 
which  he  published  in  1844  contains  important 
investigations  on  the  variability  of  the  move- 
ments of  the  fixed  stars.  An  important  share 
in  the  discovery  of  the  new  planet  Neptune  be- 
longs to  him,  as  in  a  paper  read  in  1840  he 
called  attention  to  the  existence  of  a  planetary 
mass  beyond  Uranus,  founding  on  considera- 
tions which  were  afterward  happily  proved  to  be 
correct.  His  principal  works  are  an  ^  Essay -on 
the  Path  Traversed  by  the  Comet  of  1807^  ; 
^Astronomical  Observations^  during  various 
3'ears ;  *  Determination  of  the  Length  of  the 
Pendulum  Which  Beats  Seconds  at  Berlin^  ; 
'Investigations  and  Measurements  made  with  a 
View  to  Establish  a  Metrical  Unit  for  Prussia'  ; 
*  Measure  of  the  Distance  of  the  Sixty-first 
Star  of  the  Constellation  of  the  Swan'  ;  and 
'Popular  Lectures  on  Scientific  Questions.' 
These  last,  consisting  of  papers  which  Bessel 
had  read  before  the  Physico-economical  Soci- 
ety of  Konigsberg  from  1832-44,  were  published 
in  1848. 

Bes'sels,  Emil,  German  naturalist:  b. 
Heidelberg,  2  June  1847 ;  d.  Stuttgart,  30  March 
1888.  He  was  educated  in  the  University  of 
Heidelberg,  and  while  an  assistant  at  the  Royal 
Museum  in  Stuttgart  became  interested  in  the 
subject  of  Arctic  research.  In  1869  he  was  a 
member  of  Petermann's  expedition  that  sailed 
into  the  sea  between  Spitzbergen  and  Nova 
Zembla.  In  1871  he  came  to  the  United  States 
and  was  appointed  both  naturalist  and  sureeon 
to  the  expedition  under  Capt.  Charles  F.  Hall, 
United  States  navy.  Most  of  the  scientific  re- 
sults of  this  expedition  were  gathered  by  his 
personal  eflforts,  and  oublished  under  the  title 
of    'Report    on    the    Scientific    Results    of    the 


Polaris  Expedition'  (1876).  In  1879  he  pub- 
lished a  German  narrative  of  the  expedition, 
illustrated  with  his  own  sketches.  Later  he 
returned  to  Germany,  where  he  devoted  himself 
to  literary  pursuits,  art  and  geographical  in- 
struction. 

Bes'semer,  Sir  Henry,  English  inventor  of 
distinction :  b.  Charlton,  Hertfordshire,  19  Jan. 
1813;  d.  London,  15  March,  1898.  He  received 
mechanical  training  at  an  early  age  in  the  type- 
foundry  of  his  father,  a  French  artist,  and  going 
to  London  at  18  began  his  career  as  a  modeler 
and  designer.  His  earliest  invention  was  an 
improved  method  of  stamping  deeds  which  the 
revenue  office  straightway  adopted  without  giv- 
ing him  any  compensation  therefor.  Late  in 
life  he  brought  the  matter  to  the  attention  of 
the  government  and  was  then  knighted  (1879) 
in  acknowledgment  of  his  services  in  this  par- 
ticular. His  inventive  ability  was  next  turned 
to  the  production  of  a  new  method  of  making 
bronze-powder  or  "gold"  paint,  as  it  was  called, 
which  proved  a  commercial  success,  and  subse- 
quent inventions  of  his  were  machines  for 
making  Utrecht  velvet  and  improvements  in 
type-casting  machinery.  At  the  time  of  the 
war  in  the  Crimea  he  designed  a  projectile  in- 
tended to  revolve  in  its  flight,  but  as  the  cannon 
of  that  day  were  not  strong  enough  to  permit  of 
its  use,  he  went  on  experimenting  in  Paris  under 
the  patronage  of  Louis  Napoleon  till  he  had 
secured  a  much  improved  kind  of  cast  iron. 
This,  however,  did  not  fully  satisfy  him  and  he 
continued  at  work  refining  the  iron  until  steel 
was  produced.  He  took  out  patents  for  this 
invention  in  1855,  but  persevered  in  experiments 
till  at  his  London  bronze  factory  steel  ingots 
had  been  manufactured  which  could  be  rolled 
into  rails  without  hammering.  When  this  pro- 
cess had  become  fully  developed  the  Bessemer 
Steel  Works  were  built  in  Sheffield,  where,  be- 
sides employing  a  large  number  of  workmen  in 
steel  manufacture,  many  others  were  trained  for 
similar  work  in  factories  all  over  the  world. 
On  13  Aug.  1856,  he  read  before  the  British 
Association  at  Cheltenham  a  paper  dealing  with 
the  invention  which  has  made  his  name  famous, 
"The  Manufacture  of  Malleable  Iron  and  Steel 
without  Fuel.*  This  was  a  new  and  cheap 
process  of  rapidly  making  steel  from  pig-iron 
by  blowing  a  blast  of  air  through  it  when  in  a 
state  of  fusion,  so  as  to  clear  it  of  all  carbon, 
and  then  adding  just  the  requisite  quantity  of 
carbon  to  produce  steel  —  a  process  which  has 
introduced  a  revolution  in  the  steel-making  trade, 
cheap  steel  being  now  made  in  vast  quantities 
and  used  for  many  purposes  in  which  its  price 
formerly  prohibited  its  application.  At  the 
Birmingham  meeting  in  1865  he  read  a  second 
paper  "On  the  Manufacture  of  Cast  Steel,  Its 
Progress  and  Emnloyment  as  a  Substitute  for 
Wrought  Iron."  The  Bessemer  process  has  not 
only  stimulated  the  growth  of  the  steel  industry 
but  greatly  reduced  the  cost  of  manufacture 
and  rendered  steel  available  for  rails  and 
general  engineering  work.  Since  1858,  when  the 
Sheffield  works,  the  principal  ones  in  England, 
produced  less  than  50,000  tons  the  amount  man- 
ufactured has  increased  until  in  1896  Great  Brit- 
ain produced  i, 87^,842  tons  of  Bessemer  steel 
and  the  United  States  3,019,906.  In  the  past 
50  years  the  Bessemer  process  has  seen  but  few 
improvements  of  any  importance. 


SIR   HEXRY    BESSEMER, 


BESSEMER  —  BESTIARIES 


Beside  his  great  invention,  that  of  the  Bes- 
fiemer  process,  with  others  previously  named, 
Bessemer  was  also  the  originator  of  a  method 
still  in  use  for  compressing  into  a  solid  block 
the  graphite  employed  in  the  manufacture  of 
lead  pencils;  of  a  system  of  rollers  for  em- 
bossing and  printing  paper ;  of  improvements 
in  telephones ;  and  of  a  ship  with  a  stationary 
cabin,  the  latter  the  only  failure  of  note  in  the 
long  series  of  his  inventions.  In  1859  he  re- 
ceived the  Telford  Medal  of  the  Institute  of 
Civil  Engineers;  and  in  1872  the  Albert  Medal 
of  the  Society  of  Arts.  He  was  president  of 
the  Iron  and  Steel  Institute  of  Great  Britain, 
1871-3,  and  in  1879  became  a  Fellow  of  the 
Royal  Society.  Engineers  have  sometimes  felt 
that  Bessemer  did  not  receive  from  his  own  gov- 
ernment the  honors  that  his  distinguished  ser- 
vices to  British  industrial  development  merited 
and  that  he  was  in  effect  more  highly  esteemed 
in  the  United  States  where  eight  localities  and 
one  railway  bear  his  name.  Bessemer  was  an 
honorary  member  of  many  foreign  scientific  and 
engineering  societies,  among  which  was  the 
American  Society  of  Mechanical  Engineers. 
Before  the  latter,  in  December  1896,  he  pre- 
sented a  paper  entitled  "The  Origin  of  the  Bes- 
semer   Process,^'   printed    in    its    ^Transactions^ 

(Vol.  XVII.  1890).     See  Steel  Manufacture. 

Bessemer,  Ala.,  a  city  in  Jefferson  County, 
on  several  trunk  railroads ;  12  miles  southwest 
of  Birmingham,  the  county-seat.  It  was  founded 
in  1887  as  a  manufacturing  place  because  of  the 
valuable  iron  and  coal  mines  in  its  immediate 
vicinity.  It  contains  iron  foundries,  coke  ovens, 
a  number  of  blast  furnaces,  machine  shops,  plan- 
ing mills,  iron  pipe  works,  fire  brick  works,  and 
other  works  connected  with  the  iron  and  steel 
industry.  It  has  four  banks,  several  weekly 
newspapers,  electric  lights,  waterworks,  and  a 
property  valuation  of  $3,000,000.  It  is  gov- 
erned by  a  mayor  elected  biennially  and  a  city 
council.  Pop.  (1900)  6,358  within  incorporated 
limits. 

Bessemer,  Mich.,  city  and  county-seat  of 
Gogebic  County,  on  the  Chicago  &  N.  W.  and 
several  other  railroads ;  40  miles  east  of  Ash- 
land, Wis.  It  is  in  an  important  iron  mining  and 
lumbering  region ;  was  founded  in  1884,  and  has 
become  important  by  reason  of  its  mining  and 
manufacturing  and  its  trade  relations  with  the 
surrounding  territory.  It  has  a  good  school  sys- 
tem and  a  notably  fine  high  school  building, 
city-hall,  stone  court-house,  a  national  bank, 
churches  of  all  denominations,  and  weekly  news- 
papers.    Pop.    (1904)   3,111. 

Bessemer  Steel  Process.  See  Bessemer, 
Sir  Henry;  Steel  Manufacturer. 

Bessey,  Charles  Edv/in,  American  bota- 
nist ;  b.  Wilton,  Ohio,  21  May  1845.  He  was 
professor  of  botany  in  the  Iowa  Agricultiiral 
College  in  1870-84;  and  has  been  professor  of 
botany  in  the  University  of  Nebraska  since  1884. 
He  was  also  president  of  the  Society  for  the 
Promotion  of  Agricultural  Science  in  1883-5  '> 
president  of  the  Nebraska  Academy  of  Sciences 
in  1891;  acting  chancellor  of  University  of  Ne- 
braska i888-gi  and  1899-1900;  Fellow  of  the 
American  Association  for  the  Advancement  of 
Science.  His  publications  include:  ^Reports  on 
Insects^  (1873-4)  ;  "^Geography  of  lowa^  (1876)  ; 
^The    Erysiphei    of    North    America'     (1877)  ; 


^Botany  for  High  Schools  and  Colleges^  (1880)  ; 
'Essentials  of  Botany>  (1884);  'Reports  of  the 
State  Botanist  of  Nebraska'  (1887  to  1892); 
'Elementary  Botany'  (1904)  ;  'Plant  Migration 
Studies'  (1905).  He  was  editor  of  the  department 
of  botany  of  'Johnson's  Universal  Cyclopa;dia.* 
in  1892-5;  and  is  one  of  the  editors  of  'Science.' 

Bessieres,  bes-yar,  Jean  Baptiste  (Duke 
OF  Istria),  French  marshal:  b.  Preissac,  6  Aug. 
1768;  d.  Lutzen,  i  May  1813.  Entering  the 
army  in  1792  as  a  private  soldier,  in  less  than 
two  years  he  had  attained  the  rank  of  captain. 
After  making  the  Spanish  campaign,  he  passed 
into  the  army  of  Italy,  and  soon  attracted  the 
notice  of  Napoleon,  who  took  him  to  Egypt  in 
1798,  where  his  conduct  at  St.  Jean  d'Acre  and 
Aboukir  covered  him  with  glory.  At  the  ac- 
cession of  Napoleon  to  the  throne,  he  became 
marshal  of  France.  He  showed  his  usual  con- 
spicuous courage  at  Austerlitz,  Jena,  Eylau,  and 
Friedland,  and,  raised  to  the  rank  of  Duke  of 
Istria,  commanded  in  Spain  in  1808-Q.  In  the 
Russian  campaign  he  led  the  cavalry  of  the 
Guard,  and  did  much  by  his  sleepless  courage 
and  presence  of  mind  to  save  the  wreck  of  the 
army  in  the  disastrous  retreat  from  Moscow. 
On  the  morning  of  the  battle  of  Liitzen  he  fell 
mortally  wounded  by  a  cannon  ball. 

Best,  William  Thomas,  English  musician: 
b.  Carlisle,  13  Aug.  1826;  d.  Liverpool,  10  May 
1897.  In  1848  he  was  appointed  organist  of  the 
Philharmonic  Society  in  Liverpool ;  in  1852  he 
went  to  London  and  became  organist  of  the 
Panopticon  of  Science  and  Art,  and  also  of  the 
Church  of  St.  Martin-in-the-Fields;  in  1854  was 
organist  of  Lincoln's  Inn  Chapel ;  in  1855  re- 
turned to  Liverpool,  and  became  organist  of 
St.  George's  Hall ;  in  1868  was  organist  of  the 
Liverpool  Musical  Society ;  and  in  1872  was 
again  engaged  by  the  Philharmonic  Society. 
He  was  the  author  of  'The  Modern  School  for 
the  Organ'  (1853);  'The  Art  of  Organ  Play- 
ing' (1870)  ;  'Arrangements  from  the  Scores 
of  the  Great  Masters'  (1873)  ;  'The  Organ 
Student'  ;  'Organ  Concertos'  ;  'Opera  and  Ora- 
torio  Songs,'    etc. 

Bes'tiaries,  the  name  given  to  certain  ex- 
tremely popular  books  of  the  Middle  Ages. 
In  the  written  volumes,  sometimes  with  copious 
illustrations,  were  given  descriptions  of  animals, 
real  and  imaginary,  which  was  which  being  left 
to  the  discretion  or  knowledge  of  the  readers. 
They  were  composed  in  verse  or  prose  or  a 
mixture  of  both,  and  were  designed  not  only 
as  hand-books  of  zoologj'.  but  as  teachers  of 
morals  as  well.  It  was  the  fashion  to  attach 
spiritual  meanings  to  the  animals  or  their  ac- 
tions, until  every  quality  of  good  or  evil  in  the 
soul  of  man  had  its  type  in  the  beast  world. 
It  is  to  the  bestiaries  that  we  must  look  for 
explanation  of  the  strange,  grotesque  creatures 
which  are  found  sculptured  on  the  churches  and 
other  buildings  of  the  Middle  Ages.  The  old- 
est Latin  bestiaries  had  an  early  Greek  original, 
the  well-known  'Physiologus,'  under  which 
name  about  50  such  allegories  were  grouped. 
The  Greek  text  of  this  famous  work  is  found 
only  in  manuscript.  There  are  old  Syriac,  Ar- 
menian. Ethiopic,  Arabic,  Icelandic,  and  nu- 
merous Latin  versions.  Editions  of  the  Latin 
have  been  issued  —  Mai,  Heider,  and  Cahie*-. 
An  Old  High  German  version  was  made  earlier 
than  the  nth  century;  in  the  12th  century,  ver- 


BESTUZHEFF  — BETHANY  COLLEGE 


sions  in  French  were  made  by  Philippe  de 
Thaun  and  Gui'laume,  a  priest  of  Normandy. 
The  *  Bestiary  of  Love^  of  Richard  de  Fourni- 
val  was  rather  a  parody  upon  the  earher  form 
of  such  books.  The  following  is  a  characteris- 
tic extract  from  the  *  Divine  Bestiary^  :  ^^The 
unicorn  has  but  one  horn  in  the  middle  of  its 
forehead.  It  is  the  only  animal  that  ventures  to 
attack  the  elephant ;  and  so  sharp  is  the  nail 
of  its  foot,  that  with  one  blow  it  rips  up  the 
belly  of  that  most  terrible  of  all  beasts.  The 
hunters  can  catch  the  unicorn  only  by  placing  a 
young  virgin  in  the  forest  which  it  haunts.  No 
sooner  does  this  marvelous  animal  descry  the 
damsel  than  it  runs  toward  her,  lies  down  at 
her  feet,  and  so  suffers  itself  to  be  taken  by  the 
hunters.  The  unicorn  represents  our  Lord 
Jesus  Christ,  who,  taking  our  humanity  upon  him 
in  the  Virgin's  womb,  was  betrayed  by  the 
wicked  Jews,  and  delivered  into  the  hands  of 
Pilate.  Its  one  horn  signifies  the  Gospel  truth, 
that  Christ  is  one  with  the  Father,^^  etc. 

BestuzhefF,  be-stoo'zhef,  Alexander  Alex- 
androvitch,  Russian  novelist  and  soldier:  b. 
St.  Petersburg,  3  Nov.  1797;  d.  19  July  1837. 
Of  his  numerous  novels,  the  most  celebrated 
are  ^Ammalat-Beg'  ;  <The  Nadeshda  Frigate^  ; 
*The  Terrible  Prophecy.-*  His  ^Private  Cor- 
respondence^ is  highly  prized.  He  was  killed  in 
battle  in  the  Caucasus. 

Bestuzheff-Ryumin,  be-stoo'zhef  ryoo'men, 
Count  (Michel  Alexei  Petrovitch),  Russian 
statesman:  b.  Moscow,  1693,  of  a  family  of  Eng- 
lish origin,  and  of  the  second  class  of  nobles  in 
Russia;  d.  St.  Petersburg,  24  April  1766.  He  en- 
tered the  civil  service  under  Peter  the  Great, 
and  became  a  diplomatist.  Under  the  Empress 
Anne  he  was  made  a  member  of  the  cabinet, 
and  the  Empress  Elizabeth,  whose  fullest  con- 
fidence he  possessed,  created  him  count,  great 
chancellor  of  the  empire,  and  his  influence  in 
the  government  was  almost  boundless.  He  was 
strongly  opposed  to  the  Prussian  and  French 
diplomatic  influence,  and  was  disliked  on  this 
account  by  Peter  III.,  nephew  and  presump- 
tive heir  of  Elizabeth.  He  concluded  several 
treaties  with  England,  Sweden,  and  Denmark, 
favorable  to  English  policy.  By  a  treaty  con- 
cluded in  1747,  he  paved  the  way  for  the  union 
of  Schleswig  and  Holstein  with  the  kingdom 
of  Denmark.  By  his  influence,  the  Russian 
troops  supported  Austria  against  Frederic  the 
Great  in  the  Seven  Years'  war.  But  their  com- 
mander, Apraxin,  retired  to  Russia,  and  this 
occasioned  the  fall  of  Bestuzheff.  He  was  im- 
prisoned and  degraded,  but  Catharine  II.,  in 
1762,  restored  him  to  liberty  and  to  his  previous 
social  position.  He  is  regarded  as  the  inventor 
of  a  chemical  preparation  known  in  medicine 
under  the  name  of  tinctura  tonka  BestuchefH. 

Be'tain,  or  Be'taine,  an  organic  base,  hav- 
ing the  chemical  composition  C5H11NO2,  ob- 
tained from  the  juice  of  the  common  beet,  or 
from  beet-root  molasses.  It  is  not  present  in 
the  beet-root  in  nature,  but  is  obtained  from 
it  by  the  action  of  baryta  or  hydrochloric  acid. 
The  hydrochloride  is  one  of  its  most  important 
salts,  and  numerous  others  are  also  known. 

Betanzos,  ba-tan'thos,  Juan  Jose  de,  Span- 
ish adventurer  of  the  i6th  century.  He  settled 
at  Cuzco,  Peru,  where  he  married  a  daughter 
of  the  inca  and  at  the  command  of  Mendoza, 


the  viceroy,  wrote  an  account  of  the  conquest 
of  Peru  by  Pizarro.  It  remained  in  manuscript 
till  1880,  when  it  was  published  with  the  title, 
*Suma  y  Narracion  de  los  Incas.^ 

Be'tel,  Betle,  Pawn,  or  Pinang",  popular 
Oriental  names  for  various  species  of  Piper, 
especially  P.  betle,  and  P.  siriboa,  climbing 
shrubs  cultivated  in  the  East  for  their  leathery 
leaves  which  are  used  to  a  prodigious  extent 
with  bits  of  areca-nut  and  shell  lime  for  chew- 
ing, particularly  by  the  Malay  races.  The  plants 
are  trained  upon  trellises,  poles,  etc.,  in  shady 
but  hot  and  moist  places,  which  in  northern 
India  are  secured  by  means  of  sheds.  Euro- 
peans do  not  take  readily  to  the  habit  because 
the  mixture  is  hot,  acrid,  astringent,  abraids  the 
mouth,  temporarily  destroys  the  sense  of  taste, 
reddens  the  lips  as  if  they  were  covered  with 
blood  and  blackens  the  teeth,  which  are  sooner 
or  later  destroyed.  At  25  years  of  age,  ha- 
bitues are  often  toothless.  Among  East  Indian 
races  the  habit  dates  back  more  than  2,400  years 
and  at  the  present  time  is  as  general  as  was  the 
habit  of  using  snuff  among  Europeans ;  the 
betel  box  is  carried  by  old  and  young,  men  and 
women,  and  presented  upon  all  occasions. 
Opinions  differ  as  to  the  utility  or  perniciousness 
of  this  habit,  some  writers  claiming  advantages 
v/hich  in  the  face  of  the  above-mentioned  facts 
seem  as  far-fetched  as  like  arguments  in  de- 
fense of  the  similar  use  of  tobacco. 

Betelgeuse,  bet-el-gerz',  the  star  Alpha 
Orionis,  the  bright,  reddish  star  in  one  of  the 
shoulders  of  Orion.  It  varies  somewhat  in 
brightness,  but  in   no  regular  period. 

Beth  Peor,  beth  pe'or  (Hebrew,  house  of 
Peor),  a  city  where  the  Israelites  are  said  to 
have  received  the  laws  of  Deuteronomy,  and  the 
supposed  locality  of  Moses'  burial.  The  pre- 
cise locality  of  Beth  Peor  is  undetermined,  how- 
ever, and  various  points  have  been  suggested 
as  probable  sites,  but  the  only  theory  which 
seems  reasonably  sure  is  that  it  stood  some- 
where  among  the    Nebo-Visgah    Mountains. 

Beth'am-Edwards,  Matilda,  English  au- 
thor: b.  Suffolk,  1836.  She  was  privately  edu- 
cated, and  has  published  numerous  works  in 
poetry,  fiction,  and  on  French  rural  life.  She 
was  made  an  officer  of  public  instruction  in 
France  in  1891.  Among  her  works  are  ^The 
White  House  by  the  Sea>  ;  < Kitty ^  ;  <The 
Dream  Charlotte^  ;  *^France  of  To-day^  ;  ^A 
Romance  of  Dijon^  ;  <The  Lord  of  the  Harvest,^ 
a  volume  of  poems,  and  an  edition  of  Arthur 
Young's   ^Travels  in  France.* 

Beth'any,  a  village  of  Palestine,  at  the  foot 
of  Mount  Olivet,  on  the  eastern  side,  about  two 
miles  east  of  Jerusalem,  where  Lazarus  dwelt 
and  was  raised  from  the  dead,  and  where  the 
ascension  of  Christ  is  related  to  have  taken 
place.  The  house  and  grave  of  Lazarus,  and 
the  house  of  Mary  Magdalene,  are  still  shown 
to  travelers. 

Bethany  College,  a  co-educational  institu- 
tion in  Linsborg,  Kan. ;  organized  in  1881  under 
the  auspices  of  the  Lutheran  Church ;  reported 
at  the  end  of  1905  :  Professors  and  instructors, 
60 ;  students,  959 ;  volumes  in  the  library,  10,000 ; 
grounds  and  buildings  valued  at  $120,000;  in- 
come, $72,700;  number  of  graduates,  809;  presi- 
dent. Rev.  E.  F.  Pihlblad,  A.M. 


BETHANY  COLLEGE —BETHLEN-GABOR 


Bethany  College,  a  co-educational  institu- 
tion in  Bethany,  VV.  Va. ;  organized  in  1841 
under  the  auspices  of  the  Church  of  the  Disci- 
ples ;  reported  at  the  end  of  1905 :  Professors 
and  instructors,  18 ;  students,  265 ;  volumes  in 
the  library,  67,000 ;  grounds  and  buildings  valued 
at  $200,000;  income,  $9,000;  president,  T.  E, 
Craniblet,  A.M.  LL.D. 

Beth'el,  a  town  of  Palestine,  about  10 
miles  from  Jerusalem,  now  called  Beitin,  or 
Beitcen.  The  patriarch  Jacob  here  had  a  vision  of 
angels,  in  commemoration  of  which  he  built  an 
altar.     Interesting  ruins  abound  in  the  vicinity. 

Bethel  College,  an  educational  institution 
in  Russellvilie,  Ky. ;  organized  in  1854  under 
the  auspices  of  the  Baptist  Church ;  reported 
at  the  end  of  1905  :  Professors  and  instructors, 
8;  students,  129;  volumes  in  the  library,  6,500; 
grounds  ami  buildings  valued  at  $62,500;  pro- 
ductive funds,  $125,000;  income,  $16,500;  num- 
ber of  graduates,  275 ;  president,  \Vm.  H, 
Harrison,   i\I.A. 

Bethencourt,  Jean  de,  ba-ton-koor,  zhoii.  de, 
king  of  the  Canary  Islands:  d.  1425.  He  was 
chamberlain  to  Charles  VI.  of  France,  but  being 
ruined  in  the  war  with  England,  he  sought  to 
repair  his  fortunes  in  foreign  countries,  and 
made  a  descent  from  Spain  on  the  Canary  Is- 
lands in  1402.  Not  having  sufficient  force,  how- 
ever, he  returned,  and  obtained  reinforcements 
from  Henry  III.  of  Castile,  with  which  he  was 
successful,  and  was  crowned  king  in  1404,  un- 
der the  title  of  Louis.  He  converted  the  greater 
portion  of  the  Canaries  to  Christianity,  and  in 
1405  received  from  the  Pope  the  appointment 
of  bishop  to  the  islands.  The  following  year 
he  went  to  Normandy,  where  he  passed  the 
remainder  of  his  days. 

Bethesda,  be-thez'da,  a  pool  in  Jerusalem, 
the  name  of  which  signifies  "house  of  mercy.* 
In  the  five  halls  or  porticos  near  it  many  patients 
lay  waiting,  according  to  the  account  of  John 
(ch.v.),  for  the  moving  of  the  waters,  to  bathe 
in.  According  to  the  belief  of  the  Jews,  an 
angel  descended,  at  a  certain  time,  into  the 
pool  and  troubled  the  water,  and  v/hoever  first 
entered  the  water  after  this  agitation  was  cured. 
In  1888  a  rock-hewn  basin  or  reservoir  was  dis- 
covered, with  five  chambers  adjoining,  which  is 
supposed  to  be  identical  with  the  pool  of  Be- 
thesda. 

Bethlehem,  beth-le-em,  or  -hem,  Palestine; 
a  village  five  miles  from  Jerusalem,  at  the  foot 
of  a  hill  covered  with  vines  and  olive-trees ;  the 
birthplace  of  Jesus  Christ.  An  aqueduct  con- 
veys water  from  the  hill  to  the  village.  Its  inha- 
bitants are  chiefly  Christians,  and  make  rosaries, 
crucifixes,  etc.,  for  pilgrims.  There  are  three 
convents  here,  for  Roman  Catholics,  Greeks, 
and  Armenians,  surrounding  a  stately  church 
said  to  have  been  erected  by  the  Empress 
Helena  in  327,  over  the  place  where  Christ  was 
born.  It  is  built  in  the  form  of  a  cross,  and  sep- 
arate portions  of  it  are  allotted  to  the  Latins, 
Greeks,  and  Armenians,  respectively.  On  either 
side  of  the  nave  are  two  rows  of  beautiful  col- 
umns, marking  off  two  corresponding  aisles. 
The  top  commands  a  fine  view  over  the  sur- 
rounding country.  In  a  rich  grotto,  furnished 
with  silver,  and  crystal  lamps,  under  the  choir  of 
this  church,  a  trough  of  marble  is  shown,  and 
is  said  to  be  the  manger  in   which  Jesus  was 


laid  after  his  birth.  Several  other  spots  of  interest 
are  shown  here.  Bethlehem  is  also  famous  as  the 
birthplace  of  King  David.  It  was  laid  waste  by 
Hadrian  in  132  and  since  then  has  never  been  a 
place  of  great  importance.  Since  the  building  of 
the  church  Bethlehem  has  been  one  of  the  great 
pilgrim  shrines  of  Palestine.  Pop.  about  7,000, 
chiefly  Christains,  the  Mussulman  quarters 
having  been  destroyed  in   1834. 

Bethlehem,  Pa.,  a  borough  in  Northamp- 
ton County;  on  the  Lehigh  River  and  canal, 
and  the  Lehigh  V.,  the  New  Jersey  C,  and  other 
R.R.'s;  57  miles  north  of  Philadelphia.  It  was 
founded  in  1741  by  Moravians  under  Count 
Zinzendorf.  and  is  the  chief  centre  of  that  sect 
in  the  United  States.  It  contains  a  Moravian 
theological  seminary,  a  Moravian  seminary  for 
young  ladies,  more  than  a  dozen  churches,  and 
two  national  banks.  On  the  opposite  side  of 
the  river,  here  spanned  by  two  bridges,  is  South 
Bethlehem,  the  seat  of  Lehigh  University  (q. v.), 
the  main  offices  of  the  Lehigh  Valley  Railroad 
Company,  and  a  number  of  important  manufac- 
turing establishments,  including  silk  mills,  roll- 
ing mills,  foundaries  and  machine  shops,  brass 
works,  zinc  oxid  and  spelter  works,  etc.  Mo- 
nocacy  Creek  separates  Bethlehem  from  West 
Bethlehem,  formerly  a  separate  borough  but 
now  consolidated  with  Bethlehem  borough. 
Bethlehem  is  attaining  a  conspicuous  position 
in  tlie  musical  world  from  the  institution  of 
an  annual  festival  which  has  developed  from  the 
great  love  of  the  Moravians  (q.v.)  for  music 
in  their  religious  services,  and  especially  for 
the  compositions  of  John  Sebastian  Bach.  The 
first  organized  festival  was  held  in  igoi.  For 
musical  and  other  ceremonies  of  the  Moravian 
cliurch  see  Moravian  Cht-rcii.  Pop.  (1907) 
Bethlehem,    17,000;    South   Bethlehem,    19,000. 

Bethlehemites,  an  order  of  monks  some- 
what like  the  Dominicans,  who  settled  in  Eng- 
land in  1257.  They  were  so  named  because  they 
wore  on  the  breast  a  five-pointed  star  in  com- 
memmoration  of  the  star  that  appeared  at  the 
birth  of  Jesus.  The  order  was  comparatively 
insignificant  and  had  only  one  convent  in  Eng- 
land (at  Cambridge).  An  order  of  American 
Bethlehemites,  sanctioned  by  Innocent  XI.  in 
1687,  was  established  in  the  city  of  Guatemala 
by  a  Franciscan  monk  named  Bethencourt,  a 
native  of  the  island  of  Teneriffe,  about  1655. 
A  female  order  of  Bethlehemites  also  was 
founded  by  Maria  Anna  del  Galdo,  who  be- 
longed to  the  Tertiaries  of  St.  Francis.  Twenty 
years  later  the  privileges  of  the  order  were  en- 
larged to  an  equality  with  those  of  the  Augusti- 
nians,  Dominicans,  and  Franciscans.  The  fol- 
lowers of  Huss  are  sometimes  called  Bethle- 
hemites, from  the  church  in  Prague  in  which 
Huss    preaclied. 

Bethlen-Gabor,  bet-lem  ga'bor,  or  Gabriel 
Bethlen,  Prince  of  Transjdvania:  b.  1580;  d. 
1629.  He  was  of  humble  origin,  but  at  the  age 
of  17  he  entered  the  service  of  Gabriel  Bathori, 
prince  of  Transylvania,  fought  under  his  orders, 
and  then  repaired  to  Constantinople,  where  his 
courage  gained  him  the  esteem  of  the  Turks. 
Prompted  by  ambition,  he  became  ungrateful 
to  his  first  benefactor ;  and  after  bringing 
Bathori  into  bad  odor  with  both  the  Transyl- 
vanians  and  the  Turks,  managed  to  make  the 
latter  declare  war,  and  actually  headed  a  Turk- 
ish army  against  him.     His  treachery  was  sue- 


BETHNAL  GREEN  —  BETROTHED 


cessful  and  in  1613  he  was  proclaimed  prince 
of  Transylvania.  Shortly  after,  having  suc- 
ceeded in  stirring  up  the  Hungarians  against 
the  Emperor  Frederick  II.,  he  took  several 
towns,  and  in  1618  assumed  the  title  of  king  of 
Hungary.  Thereafter,  supported  by  Turks  and 
Tartars,  he  entered  Austrian  territory,  laid 
waste  Moravia,  hemmed  in  the  imperial  army, 
and  was  on  the  eve  of  gaining  a  complete  vic- 
tory when  the  refusal  of  the  Turks  to  undergo 
a  winter  campaign  defeated  all  his  hopes.  The 
approach  of  Tilly  compelled  him  to  withdraw, 
and  he  was  glad  to  conclude  a  peace  which  de- 
prived him  of  his  Hungarian  title,  but  left  him 
in  possession  of  his  conquests.  While  preparing 
for  a  new  war  against  the  imperialists  he  died 
of  dropsy.  He  is  said  to  have  participated  in 
42  battles. 

Beth'nal  Green,  England,  an  eastern  subur- 
ban district  and  parish  of  London,  in  Middlesex 
County,  now  forming  a  parliamentary  borough, 
having  two  divisions  with  two  members.  In 
1872  a  branch  of  the  South  Kensington  IMuseum 
was  opened  in  the  district.     Pop.  (1891)  129,134. 

Bethphage,  beth'faj  (Hebrew,  house  of 
figs),  a  place  of  Scriptural  interest,  of  which 
no  trace  is  left.  Its  name  was  significant  of  its 
general  location,  but  not  of  the  particular  site. 
^*The  place  of  figs,*  it  must  have  been  situated 
somewhere  on  the  eastern  slope  of  that  range 
of  hills  extending  north  and  south  between 
Jerusalem  and  Bethany,  at  the  foot  of  which  in 
the  western  valley  flowed  the  Kedron.  The 
principal  points  of  this  range  are  the  Mount 
of  Offence  and  the  Mount  of  Olives.  The  fig- 
tree  still  abounds  both  on  the  eastern  and  west- 
ern slopes  of  the  range,  and  even  beyond  Beth- 
any toward  Jericho.  Some  travelers  have  been 
disposed  to  place  Bethphage  on  the  site  of 
the  modern  village  of  Abu  Dis,  lying  south,  and 
a  little  to  the  east  of  Bethany.  Robinson  thought 
this  could  not  have  been  its  position,  and  gave 
little  credit  to  the  tradition  of  the  monks  of 
the  country,  who  place  it  between  Bethany  and 
the  summit  of  the  Mount  of  Olives,  since  there 
is  no  trace  that  a  village  of  any  description 
ever  existed  there.  Lightfoot  thought  it  was 
a  district  extending  from  the  Mount  of  Olives 
to  Jerusalem,  and  embracing  a  village  of  the 
same  name. 

Bethsaida,  beth-sa'T-da,  a  village  on  the 
west  shore  of  the  Lake  of  Galilee,  the  birthplace 
of  Peter  and  Andrew  and  Philip.  Its  site  has 
been  identified  vv'ith  a  heap  of  grass-grown  ruins. 
At  the  northeast  extremity  of  the  lake  was  an- 
other Bethsaida,  a  village,  near  which  the  5,000 
were  fed.  Philip  the  Tetrarch  raised  it  to  the 
dignity  of  a  town,  and  renamed  it  Julias,  in 
honor  of   the   Emperor   Augustus'   daughter. 

Bethshemesh,  beth-she'mesh  (Hebrew, 
house  of  the  sun),  a  city  of  ancient  Palestine, 
which  probably  occupied  the  site  of  the  modern 
village,  Ain  Shems,  about  15  miles  west-south- 
west of  Jerusalem,  where  extensive  ruins  are  still 
remaining.  The  exploits  of  Samson  were  mainly 
in  the  neighborhood  of  Bethshemesh. 

Bethune,  be-thoon',  Charles  James  Stew- 
art, Canadian  educator:  b.  West  Flamboro, 
Ont.,  II  Aug.  1838.  He  was  graduated  at  Trin- 
ity College,  Toronto,  in  1859;  ordained  deacon 
in  the  Church  of  England  in  1861,  and  priest  in 
1862.    He  became  incumbent  of  the  Credit  Mis- 


sion in  1866,  and  in  1870  was  appointed  to  the 
head  mastership  of  Trinity  College  School,  in 
Port  Hope.  He  is  well  known  as  a  writer  on 
scientific  subjects.  He  was  the  first  editor  of 
*^The  Canadian  Entomologist,^  a  monthly  maga- 
zine. Resigning  this  place,  he  edited  for  a  con- 
siderable time  the  entomological  department  of 
the  Canadian  Farmer  and  the  Weekly  Globe. 
In  1886  he  again  became  editor  of  the  *^  Canadian 
Entomologist.^  In  1892  he  was  elected  a  Fellow 
of  the  Royal  Society  of  Canada. 

Bethune,  George  Washington,  American 
Dutch  Reformed  clergyman  and  poet :  b.  New 
York,  18  March  1805 ;  d.  Florence,  Italy,  27 
April  1862 ;  was  noted  as  an  orator  and  a  wit. 
He  had  charges  at  Rhinebeck,  and  Utica,  N.  Y., 
Philadelphia,  Brooklyn,  and  New  York  city.  Be- 
sides religious  works,  he  wrote  ^British  Female 
Poets, ^  ^Lays  of  Love  and  Faith^  (1847)  ;  sev- 
eral of  the  hymns  in  which  are  widely  used.  He 
also  published  an  edition  of  Izaak  Walton's 
*  Complete  Angler'  (1846)  ;  etc.  See  Life,  by 
Van  Nest  (1867). 

Bethune,  ba-tun,  France,  a  town  in  the  de- 
partment of  Pas  de  Calais,  19  miles  north-north- 
west of  Arras.  It  stands  on  a  rock  washed  by 
the  Brette,  and  is  a  place  of  considerable 
strength.  The  appearance  of  the  town  is  not 
prepossessing.  There  is,  however,  one  fine 
square,  the  centre  of  which  is  occupied  by  an 
ancient  belfry  of  remarkable  construction,  while 
the  hotel-de-ville,  among  the  best  edifices  in  the 
town,  forms  one  of  its  sides.  The  chief  manu- 
factures are  oil,  soap,  and  cloth.  There  are  also 
distilleries,  tanneries,  and  salt  and  sugar  refiner- 
ies. The  trade  is  greatly  favored  by  the  canals 
of  Lawe  and  Bassee,  which  meet  here.  The 
family  of  the  lords  of  Bethune  is  very  celebrated, 
and  a  branch  of  it  was  established  in  Scotland 
about  the  end  of  the  12th  century.  To  this 
branch  the  celebrated  Cardinal  Beaton  belonged. 
Pop.  (1896)  11,627. 

Betlis,  or  Bitlis,  a  town  of  Turkish  Arme- 
nia, about  20  miles  west  from  Lake  Van.  It  is 
one  of  the  most  ancient  cities  of  Kurdistan,  sit- 
uated in  a  wide  ravine,  traversed  by  a  stream, 
on  whose  steep  banks  the  town  is  built.  The 
houses  are  of  red  stone,  generally  two  stories  in 
height,  with  grated  windows  to  the  streets.  In 
the  centre,  on  a  high  rock,  is  an  ancient  castle, 
formerly  the  residence  of  the  khans  of  Betlis. 
The  country  around  is  fertile,  well  cultivated, 
and  produces  excellent  crops  of  grain,  cotton, 
hemp,  rice,  olives,  tobacco  of  the  best  descrip- 
tion, and  excellent  fruits  and  vegetables.  The 
principal  manufactures  of  the  town  are  coarse 
cotton  cloth  and  tobacco.     Pop.  about  30,000. 

Betrothed,  The.  (i)  A  famous  romance  by 
Alessandro  Manzoni  —  ^I  Promessi  Sposi.-*  It 
was  its  author's  only  romance,  but  it  sufficed  to 
place  him  at  the  head  of  the  romantic  school  of 
literature  in  Europe.  The  scene  of  the  story 
is  laid  within  the  country  around  Milan,  and  the 
plot  concerns  only  the  troubled  and  impeded  but 
at  last  happily  liberated  course  of  true  love  be- 
tween the  humble  peasant  Renzo  and  his  already 
betrothed  Lucia.  The  religious  motive  of  the 
book  is  sincere  but  not  exaggerated,  and  never 
runs  to  fanaticism.  Its  original  publication  was 
in  three  volumes,  and  occupied  two  years,  1825-6, 
during  which  time  it  awakened  a  wide  interest 
in  European  circles  :  and  having  been  soon  trans- 
lated into  all  modern  languages,  it  has  become 


BETROTHMENT  —  BETTERTON 


probably  the  best  known  of  all  Italian  romances 
to  foreign  readers.  (2)  A  novel  by  Sir  Walter 
Scott  (1825),  the  scene  of  which  is  laid  in  the 
reign  of  Henry  II.  (3)  An  opera  by  Pelrella, 
first  sung  in  1869,  at  Lecco. 

Betrothment,  or  Betrothal,  a  mutual  prom- 
ise or  compact   between   two  parties,   by  which 
they  bind  themselves  to  marry.     The  word  im- 
ports  giving   one's  troth,  that   is,  true   faith   or 
promise.     Formal  ceremonies  of  betrothment  are 
not  the  custom  in  the  United  States  and  Great 
Britain,  as  on  the  Continent,  where  the  betroth- 
ment is  either  solemn   (made  in  the  face  of  the 
church),  or  private  (made  before  witnesses  out 
of  the  church).     As  betrothments  are  contracts, 
they  are  subject  to  the  same  rules  as  other  con- 
tracts ;  for  instance,  that  they  are  valid  only  be- 
tween persons  whose  capacity  is   recognized  by 
law;  and  the  use  of  fraud,  violence,  or  intimida- 
tion vitiates  the  contract.     The  consent  of  both 
parties,  of  course,  is  required.     This  may  be  ex- 
pressed either  verbally,  or  by  writing,  or  by  ac- 
tion.    In  Germany,  the  consent  of  the  parents  is 
always  necessary,  if  the  parties  are  under  age, 
not  yet  siti  juris.     But  if  the  parents  withhold 
their  consent  unreasonably,  the  permission  of  the 
judge   is   allowed   to   sanction   the   contract.     If 
the  opinions  of  the  parents  are  diverse,  the  law 
gives  effect  to  that  of  the  father.     Betrothments 
contracted    thus,    according   to    law,    are    called 
spotisalia    publica;    others    are    called    sponsalia 
clandcstina.     The  latter  are,  in  some  places,  ut- 
terly   invalid;    in    others,    only    punishable.     By 
the    common    German    law,    however,    they    are 
valid  in   every  case  in   which  consummation  or 
consecration  by  the  priest  has  taken  place.     The 
parents,  in  these  cases,  are  not  allowed  to  apply 
for  a   dissolution  of  the  contract,  nor  can  they 
refuse   their   consent,    except   for   highly   impor- 
tant reasons.     Public  betrothment  induces  the  ob- 
ligation to  marry.     In  case  of  refusal  to  complete 
the  contract  by  marriage,  the  injured  party  is 
allowed  an  action  at  law  to  compel  its  perform- 
ance ;  but,  since  unhappy  marriages  are  among 
the  greatest  misfortunes,  the  means  of  compul- 
sion applied  by  the  law  are  never  great,  amount- 
ing only  to  a  small  fine,  or  a  short  imprisonment. 
If  circumstances  take  place  which,  if  happening 
before  the  betrothment,   would  have  necessarily 
prevented  it,  the  party  affected  by  them  is  allowed 
to  recede  from  the  engagement,  and  modern  laws 
allow  only  an  action  for  damages.     In  Germany, 
betrothment  generally  takes  place  in  a  small  com- 
pany of  relations  and  friends.     In  Russia,  it  was 
once  binding  and  indissoluble,  like  marriage,  but 
is  now  a  mere  form  accompanying  the  marriage 
ceremony.     The  contract  is  called  by  the  Jews 
thenaim  rischonlm.     In  the  laws  of  Moses  there 
are  certain  provisions  respecting  the  state  of  the 
virgin   who   is  betrothed.     Selden's    *Uxor  He- 
braica^   gives  the  schedule  of  Hebrew  contracts 
of  betrothment.     With  the  Jews,  a  young  woman 
is   rarely  allowed  to  enter   into  an   engagement 
without  the  cognizance  of  her  relatives,  who,  in 
fact,  in  most  cases,  arrange  matters  for  her,  and 
generally  avail  themselves  of  the  services  of  mar- 
riage brokers,  who  receive  a  percentage  upon  the 
amount  of  the  dowrj',  beside  a  gratuity.     In  the 
continental    cities    these   Jew    marriage   brokers 
have    matches    always    on    hand,    with    dowries 
varying  from  $5,000  to  $200,000,  and  as  soon  as 
the  betrothment  has  taken  place  they  look  upon 
the  bargain  as  concluded;  but  cases   frequently 


occur,  in  which  on  the  day  of  the  wedding  the 
bridegroom  breaks  the  match  because  the  Aus- 
trian metalliques  or  Spanish  Ardoins,  tendered 
in  payment  for  the  dowry,  have  fallen  in  value, 
and  reduced  the  dowry  perhaps  to  the  extent  of 
20  or  25  per  cent.  Among  the  ancient  Greeks, 
the  father  made  a  selection  for  his  daughter. 
The  young  couple  kissed  each  other  for  the  first 
time  in  the  presence  of  their  friends,  and  it  was 
customary  for  the  bridegroom  to  bring  flowers 
daily,  until  the  wedding  day,  to  the  house  of  his 
bride.  The  Arab  sends  a  relative  to  negotiate 
about  his  intended  bride,  and  the  price  at  which 
she  is  to  be  had.  The  bridegroom  of  Kam- 
chatka has  to  serve  in  the  house  of  his  prospec- 
tive father-in-law  before  an  engagement  is  al- 
lowed to  take  place.  With  the  Letts  and 
Esthonians  no  engagement  is  considered  valid 
until  the  parent  and  relatives  of  the  bride  have 
tasted  of  the  brandy  which  the  bridegroom  pre- 
sents. Among  the  Hottentots,  the  would-be 
bridegroom  is  not  allowed  to  propose  without 
being  accompanied  by  his  father.  Father  and 
son  walk  arm  in  arm,  with  pipes  in  their  mouths, 
to  the  house  of  the  bride,  where  the  engage- 
ment takes  place.  Among  some  of  the  indige- 
nous tribes  of  America  it  was  customary  to  keep 
the  betrothed  lady  in  durance  for  40  days,  as  the 
superstition  prevailed  that  she  would  exert  an 
occult  influence  upon  any  thing  she  touched  or 
anybody  with  whom  she  came  into  contact. 
During  these  40  days  the  lady  was  kept  on  star- 
vation fare,  so  that  when  the  day  of  the  wedding 
came  she  looked  more  like  a  skeleton  than  like  a 
bride.  See  Pollock  and  Alaitland,  ^History  of 
English  Law^   (2d  ed.  1899). 

Betsy  and  I  Are  Out,  the  title  of  a  popu- 
lar American  poem  by  Will  Carleton  (q.v.),  first 
printed  in  the  Toledo  Blade  in  1872. 

Betteloni,  bet-te-16'ne,  Vittorio,  Italian 
poet :  b.  Verona,  1840.  He  was  educated  in  Pisa, 
and  became  professor  of  Italian  literature  and 
history  in  the  Female  College  in  Verona.  His 
verse  proves  him  an  adherent  of  that  Italian 
classical  school  which  dates  from  1869,  and  in- 
cludes ^In  the  Springtime^  (1869);  'New 
Stanzas^  (1880)  :  and  a  translation  of  Goethe's 
'Herman  and  Dorothea.' 

Betterton,  Thomas,  English  actor:  b.  Aug- 
ust 1635;  d.  London,  28  April  1710.  He  was  the 
son  of  an  under-cook  in  the  .service  of  Charles  I., 
and  was  apprenticed  to  a  bookseller  in  London. 
His  master,  Mr.  Rhodes,  obtained  a  license 
for  a  company  of  players  in  1659,  and  with  him 
Betterton  commenced  his  career.  He  was  en- 
gaged by  Davenant  in  1662.  His  position  was 
soon  pre-eminent,  and  he  became  an  established 
favorite.  He  seems  to  have  had  no  personal 
graces  from  nature  to  second  his  rare  talents, 
if  the  following  account  be  true :  ''Mr.  Better- 
ton,  though  a  superlatively  good  actor,  labored 
under  an  ill  figure,  being  clumsily  made,  having 
a  great  head,  a  short,  thick  neck,  stooped  in  the 
shoulders,  and  had  fat,  short  arms,  which  he 
rarely  lifted  higher  than  his  stomach.  His  left 
hand  frequently  lodged  in  his  breast  between  his 
coat  and  waistcoat ;  while  with  his  right  he 
prepared  his  speech;  his  actions  were  few  but 
just;  he  had  little  eyes  and  a  broad  face,  a  little 
pockfretten;  a  corpulent  body,  and  thick  legs, 
with  large  feet;  he  was  better  to  meet  than  to 
follow,  for  his  aspect  was  serious,  venerable, 
and  majestic.     In  his  latter  time,  a  little  para- 


BETTINELLI  —  BETTY 


lytic ;  his  voice  was  low  and  grumbling,  yet  he 
could  tune  it  by  an  artful  climax  which  enforced 
universal  attention  even  from  the  fops  and 
orange  girls.  He  was  incapable  of  dancing  even 
in  a  country  dance,  as  was  Mr.  Barry,  but 
their  good  qualities  were  more  than  equal  to  their 
deficiencies.^^  Betterton  had  the  rare  faculty  of 
identifying  himself  with  his  part.  He  married 
Mrs.  Sanderson,  an  actress  of  almost  equal 
merit  with  himself,  whose  Lady  Macbeth  was 
reckoned  a  perfect  piece  of  acting.  He  was  pru- 
dent and  saving,  but  he  lost  his  spiall  means  in 
a  commercial  speculation,  and  a  theatre  which  he 
afterward  opened  was  not  successful.  After  his 
retirement  from  the  stage,  he  reappeared  in  his 
old  age  a  few  times  to  take  a  benefit,  his  last 
appearance  being  13  April  1710.  He  was  buried 
in  Westminster  Abbey.  See  Howe,  "^Thomas 
Betterton'    (1891). 

Bettinelli,  bet-te-nel'le,  Saverio,  Italian 
author:  b.  Mantua,  1718;  d.  1808.  He  studied 
under  the  Jesuits ;  entered,  in  1736,  the  novitiate 
of  this  order,  and  taught  from  1739  to  1744, 
belles-lettres  at  Brescia,  where  he  made  himself 
known  by  some  poems  composed  for  the  use 
of  schools.  In  Bologna,  where  he  studied  the- 
ology, he  continued  to  cultivate  his  poetical  tal- 
ents, and  wrote  for  the  theatre  of  the  college 
his  tragedy  of  Jonathan.  In  1751  he  was  in- 
trusted with  the  direction  of  the  college  of 
nobles  at  Parma.  After  the  suppression  of  the 
Jesuits  in  1773  he  returned  to  his  native  city, 
where  he  resumed  his  literary  labors.  His  chief 
work  is  his  "^Risorgimento  negli  Studj,  nelle  Arti 
e  ne'  Costumi  dopo  il  Mille'  (i/75)-  The  ^Let- 
tere  dieci  di  Virgilio  agli  Arcadi'  attracted  great' 
attention,  and  its  criticism  of  the  older  poets, 
particularly  Dante,  involved  him  in  many  con- 
tests. The  best  of  his  poems  are  his  ^Versi 
Sciolti,'  which  though  they  do  not  show  any 
great  poetical  power,  are  always  elegant  and 
ingenious. 

Betting,  the  staking  or  pledging  of  money 
or  property  upon  a  contingency  or  issue.  The 
processes  of  betting  may  be  best  illustrated  in 
connection  with  horse-racing,  which  furnishes 
the  members  of  the  betting  fraternity  with  their 
best  markets.  Bettors  are  divided  into  two 
classes — ^the  backers  of  horses,  and  the  book- 
makers, or  professional  bettors,  who  form  the 
betting  ring,  and  make  a  living  by  betting 
against  horses  according  to  a  methodical  plan. 
By  the  method  adopted  by  the  professional  bettor 
the  element  of  chance  is  as  far  as  possible  re- 
moved from  his  transactions,  so  that  he  can 
calculate,  with  a  reasonable  prospect  of  having 
his  calculations  verified,  on  making  more  or  less 
profit  as  the  result  of  a  season's  engagements. 
Instead  of  backing  any  particular  horse,  the 
professional  bettor  lays  the  same  sum  against 
every  horse  that  takes  the  field,  or  a  certain 
number  of  them,  and  in  doing  so  has  usually 
to  give  odds,  which  are  greater  or  less  accord- 
ing to  the  estimate  formed  of  the  chance  of 
success  which  each  of  the  horses  has  on  which 
the  odds  are  given.  In  this  way,  while  in  the 
event  of  the  race  being  won  (as  is  usually  the 
case)  by  any  of  the  horses  entered  in  the  betting- 
book  of  a  professional  bettor,  the  latter  has 
always  a  certain  fixed  sum  (say  $1,000)  to 
pay,  he  receives  from  the  backers  of  the  losers 
sums  which  vary  in  proportion  to  the  odds 
given.     Thus,    if    a    book-maker    is    making    a 


$1,000  book,  and  the  odds  against  some  horse 
is  four  to  one,  he  will,  if  that  horse  wins,  have 
to  pay  $1,000,  while,  if  it  loses,  he  will  receive 
$250.  It  usually  depends  upon  which  horse  it 
is  that  wins  a  race  whether  the  book-maker 
gains  or  loses.  If  the  first  favorite  wins  it  is 
evidently  the  worst  thing  that  could  happen 
for  the  book-maker,  for  as  he  is  bound  to 
receive  the  sum  of  the  amounts  to  which  all 
the  horses  except  one  have  been  backed,  the 
largest  deduction  must  be  made  from  his  total 
receipts  on  account  of  the  first  favorite.  Very 
frequently  the  receipts  of  the  book-maker  are 
augmented  by  sums  paid  on  account  of  horses 
which  have  been  backed  and  never  run  at  all. 
Sometimes,  although  not  often,  the  odds  are 
given  upon  and  not  against  a  particular  horse. 
Books  may  also  be  made  up  on  the  principle 
of  betting  against  any  particular  horse  getting 
a  place  among  the  first  three.  The  odds  in  this 
case  are  usually  one  fourth  of  the  odds  given 
against  the  same  horse  winning.  Another  mode 
of  betting  is  that  called  a  sweepstake,  in  which 
a  number  of  persons  join  in  contributing  a  cer- 
tain stake,  after  which  each  of  those  taking 
part  in  the  sweepstake  has  a  horse  assigned  to 
him  (usually  by  lot),  which  he  backs,  and  the 
backer  of  the  winning  horse  gains  the  whole 
stakes.  If  there  are  more  persons  taking  part  in 
the  sweepstake  than  there  are  horses  running 
some  of  them  must  draw  blanks,  in  which  case 
of  course  their  stakes  are  at  once  lost. 

At  common  law,  wagers  are  not  per  se,  void, 
but  statutes  prohibiting  betting  have  been  passed 
by  many  of  the  States.  When  one  who  loses 
a  wager  gets  another  to  pay  the  money  for  him, 
an  action  lies  for  the  recovery  of  the  money. 
Wagers  on  the  event  of  an  election  laid  before 
the  poll  is  open,  or  after  it  is  closed,  are  illegal. 
In  horse-racing,  simple  bets  upon  a  race  are 
unlawful  both  in  England  and  the  United  States. 
In  the  case  even  of  a  legal  wager,  the  authority 
of  a  stakeholder,  like  that  of  an  arbitrator,  may 
be  rescinded  by  either  party  before  the  event 
happens.     See  Wager. 

Betts,  Craven  Langstroth,  American  poet 
and  story  writer:  b.  New  Brunswick,  23  April 
1853.  Besides  translating  'Songs  from  Beran- 
ger'  in  the  original  metres,  he  has  written  'The 
Perfume  Holder,  a  Persian  Love  Poem'  ;  with 
A.  W.  H.  Eaton,  'Tales  of  a  Garrison  Town'  ; 
and  'A  Garland  of  Sonnets.' 

Betts,  Samuel  Rossiter,  American  jurist: 
b.  Richmond,  Mass.,  8  June  1787 ;  d.  New  Haven, 
Conn.,  2  Nov.  1868.  He  practised  law  in  Sulli- 
van County,  N.  Y. ;  served  in  the  War  of 
1812  and  first  became  prominent  when  appointed 
judge  advocate.  He  was  a  member  of  Congress 
1815-17;  circuit  court  judge,  1823-6;  and  United 
States  district  judge,  1827-67.  As  codifier  of  the 
maritime  laws  of  the  United  States  he  exercised 
a  clarifying  influence  upon  such  questions  as 
salvage,  wages,  charters,  insurance,  seamen's 
wages,  etc.,  and  the  formulation  of  the  neu- 
trality and  patent  laws.  He  published  'Admi- 
ralty Practice'    (1838). 

Betty,  William  Henry  West,  English 
actor,  better  known  as  the  Young  Roscius  :  b. 
Shrewsbury,  1791  ;  d.  London,  24  Aug.  1874. 
His  first  appearance  was  in  Belfast,  at  the  age 
of  II,  when  he  assumed  the  role  of  Osman  in 
'Zara,'  and  achieved  an  immediate  success.  For 
almost  five  years  after  this  he  played  the  most 


BETULA  —  BEVERAGES 


important  parts  before  crowded  and  enthusiastic 
audiences,  Pitt  adjourning  the  House  of  Com- 
mons in  1805  on  one  occasion  in  order  to  permit 
members  to  witness  the  boy's  Hamlet.  He  quit- 
ted the  stage  in  1808,  but  after  studying  for  a 
while  at  Cambridge,  returned  to  it  in  1812,  but 
failed  to  repeat  his  early  triumphs.  He  retired 
finally  in  1824,  and  lived  for  50  years  in  the 
enjoyment  of  the  fortune  he  had  so  early 
amassed. 

Bet'ula,  the  generic  name  of  birch  (q.v.). 

Bet'wa,  a  river  in  Hindustan,  which  takes 
its  rise  in  the  Vindhyan  Mountains,  near  Bho- 
pal,  and  flowing  nearly  340  miles  in  a  north- 
easterly direction  through  the  provinces  of  Mal- 
wa  and  Allahabad,  finally  joins  the  Jumna  below 
Kalpee.  Near  Erech  a  slight  fall  occurs.  The 
country  through  which  it  flows  is  highly  culti- 
vated. The  river  at  times  is  said  to  rise  to  a 
great  height  and  in  a  portion  of  its  course 
flows  through  beds  of  iron  ore. 

Beulah,  bili'la,  a  region  described  in  Ban- 
yan's ^Pilgrim's  Progress,^  where  there  is  noth- 
ing to  annoy  and  all  sounds  are  agreeable. 

Beurnonville,  ber-noh-vel,  Marquis  de 
(Pierre  de  Ruel,  pe-ar  de  rii-el),  marshal  of 
France:  b.  Champignolle,  Burgundy,  10  May 
1752;  d.  23  April  1821.  Originally  intended  for 
the  Church,  he  chose  the  profession  of  arms 
and  served  in  the  East  until  1789,  when  he  was 
sent  home  by  the  governor  of  the  Isle  of 
Bourbon,  his  temper  being  quarrelsome.  Arriv- 
ing in  Paris  at  tl]e  commencement  of  the  Revo- 
lution, he  identified  himself  at  once  with  it, 
and  in  1792  was  appointed  aide-de-camp  to 
Marshal  Luckner,  and  was  soon  after  named 
general-in-chief  of  the  army  of  the  Moselle;  in 
1793  he  became  minister  of  war.  Sent  in  1793 
to  arrest  Dumouriez,  he  was  himself  arrested  by 
Dumouriez,  and  confined  at  Ehrenbreitstein, 
Eger,  and  Olmiitz,  until  1795,  when  he  was 
exchanged,  and  became  successively  general-in- 
chief  of  the  army  of  the  north,  inspector-gen- 
eral of  infantry,  ambassador  to  Berlin  in  1800, 
to  Madrid  in  1802,  and  count  of  the  empire. 
In  1814  he  was  commissioned  by  Napoleon  to 
organize  means  of  defense  upon  the  frontier, 
and  on  the  emperor's  abdication  was  named 
minister  of  state  and  peer  of  France  by  Louis 
XVIII.  On  the  return  of  Napoleon  to  Elba,  he 
was  proscribed  by  a  special  decree,  and  retired 
again,  but  was  reinstated  in  all  his  dignities 
bv  Louis  XVIII.  after  the  battle  of  Waterloo. 
He  became  marshal  of  France  in  1816,  and 
marquis   in   181 7. 

Beust,  Friedrich  Ferdinand,  boist,  fre-driH 
fer'de-nand  (Count  von),  Saxon  and  Austrian 
statesman  :  b.  Dresden,  1809 ;  d.  1886.  He  adopt- 
ed the  career  of  diplomacy,  and  as  member  of 
embassies  or  ambassador  for  Saxony  resided 
at  Berlin,  Paris,  Munich,  and  London.  He  was 
successively  minister  of  foreign  affairs  and  of 
the  interior  for  Saxony.  At  the  London  confer- 
ence regarding  the  Schleswig-Holstein  difficulty 
he  represented  the  German  Bund.  He  lent  hjs 
influence  on  the  side  of  Austria  against  Prussia 
before  the  war  of  1866,  after  which,  finding  his 
position  in  Saxony  difficult,  he  entered  the  ser- 
vice of  Austria  as  minister  of  foreign  afi^airs, 
became  president  of  the  ministry,  imperial  cTian- 
cellor,  and  in  1868  was  created  count.  In  1871-8 
he  was  ambassador  in  London,  in  1878-82  in 
Paris. 


Beutenmiiller,  boi'ten-miil-ler,  William, 
American  entomologist :  b.  Hoboken,  N.  J.,  31 
March  1864.  Educated  in  the  public  schools, 
he  became  in  1889  curator  of  the  department  of 
entomology  in  the  American  Museum  of  Natural 
History.  He  has  written  a  useful  work  on 
butterflies  and  moths,  and  contributed  to  scien- 
tific and  popular  magazines  over  100  articles 
on  entomology.  He  has  been  president  of  the 
New  York  Entomological  Society,  and  is  editor 
of  its   'Journal.^ 

Beuthen,  boi'ten,  Prussia,  a  town,  province 
of  Silesia,  govenmient  of  Oppeln,  about  two  and 
a  half  miles  from  the  Polish  frontier.  It  has 
steam  and  electric  tramways,  and  among  build- 
ings of  note  are  the  Roman  Catholic  Church  of 
St.  Mary  (13th  century),  Protestant  parish 
church  (15th  century),  synagogue,  royal  Cath- 
olic gymnasium,  higher  girls'  school,  etc.  It  is 
an  important  centre  of  mining  and  metallurgy, 
having  iron-works,  zinc-works,  lead-works,  coal- 
mines, and  various  industrial  establishments. 
Pop.   (1895)  42,343- 

Bevedero,  ba-va-da'ro,  Argentina,  a  lake  in 
the  province  of  Mendoza,  consisting  of  two  dis- 
tinct bodies  of  water,  called  the  Greater  and 
Lesser  Bevedero,  connected  by  a  river  about 
eight  miles  long.  Greater  Bevedero  is  40  miles 
in  length  from  north  to  south,  and  from  3  to 
25  miles  in  width.  Lesser  Bevedero  measures 
about  22  miles  by  15.  The  lake  lies  between 
32°  45'  and  34°  17'  S.  lat.  and  66°  and  66° 
32'  W.  Ion. 

Beveland,  ba've-lant,  North  and  South, 
Netherlands,  two  islands  in  the  province  of 
Zealand,  and  formed  by  the  mouths  of  the 
Scheldt.  North  Beveland  lies  east  of  the  island 
of  Walcheren,  and  is  separated  from  South 
Beveland  by  the  island  of  Wolfersdyke.  South 
Beveland,  the  larger  and  more  fertile,  contains 
Goes,  the  capital,  and  several  forts  and  villages. 
The  united  area  of  the  islands  is  120  square 
miles. 

Beverages.  Beverages  are  those  drinks 
to  which  mankind  resorts  in  order  that  he  may 
relieve  the  pangs  of  thirst  or  supply  some  other 
demand  of  the  system.  In  the  beginning  man's 
life  was  marked  by  its  simplicity.  Our  first 
parents  were  content  to  eat  the  fruits  that  they 
found  so  convenient  for  their  needs  and  it  is 
doubtful  if  they  knew  any  other  beverage  than 
the  pure  water  coursing  through  the  streams 
that  irrigated  the  ground.  It  was  not  until  they 
began  to  eat  the  flesh  of  beasts  and  searched  the 
soil  for  delicacies  to  gratify  their  newly  awak- 
ened appetite  for  a  variety  in  foods  that  they 
felt  the  craving  of  unnatural  thirst.  But  the 
eating  of  strong  meats  required  the  drinking  of 
stronger  drinks  than  water  and  in  this  fact  we 
find  the  origin  of  the  history  of  beverages. 

It  would  be  intensely  interesting  if  we  could 
know  in  just  what  way  prehistoric  man  first 
satisfied  his  unnatural  thirst  for  drink.  It  is, 
of  course,  more  than  probable  that  the  second 
beverage  discovered  by  man  was  the  milk  of  the 
animals  he  slaughtered  to  gratify  his  taste  for 
meat.  From  a  temperate  and  hygienic  point  of 
view  it  was  not  a  long  stride  from  the  waters  of 
the  brooks  to  the  milk  of  cows  and  asses  and 
yet  it  stands  out  as  a  landmark  in  the  develop- 
ment of  the  demand  for  variety,  the  demand 
which  may  be  regarded  as  the  first  tendency  to- 
ward civilization.     It  is  also  quite  probable  that, 


BEVERAGES 


in  the  beginning,  man  drank  his  milk  soon  after 
it  was  drawn  or  while  it  was  still  fresh,  but 
finally  there  came  a  day  when  some  prehistoric 
investigator  was  bold  enough  to  take  a  drink  of 
the  milk  of  mares  that  had  been  set  aside,  and 
from  this  fermented  liquid  learned  the  sensa- 
tions of  intoxication,  for  kumyss,  still  the  favor- 
ite tipple  of  the  Tartar,  is  unquestionably  the 
most  ancient  of  all  intoxicating  beverages. 

To  mankind,  next  to  water,  milk  is  still  a 
favorite  beverage,  for  it  possesses  the  double 
advantage  of  being  both  food  and  drink.  To 
the  civilized  taste  the  milk  of  cows  is  the  most 
desirable  but  more  barbaric  taste  calls  for  a 
stronger  beverage  and  is  best  gratified  by  the 
milk  of  mares,  asses,  camels,  or  even  rein- 
deers. 

It  is  undoubtedly  true  that  if  we  ate  only 
wholesome  foods  in  such  quantities  only  as  our 
system  requires ;  performed  our  work  with  reg- 
ularity; enjoyed,  at  proper  intervals,  requisite 
rest  and  recreation,  and  avoided  all  such  dele- 
terious distractions  as  excitement  and  worry, 
water  would  be  the  only  beverage  that  nature 
would  demand.  Of  course,  it  is  unnecessary  to 
state  that  such  an  ideal  condition  could  scarcely 
obtain  in  these  days  of  modern  civilization, 
and,  as  the  result,  it  is  just  as  impossible  to 
deny  the  fact  that  man  sometimes  demands  a 
drink  that  will  have  a  tendency  to  stimulate  or 
refresh  the  jaded  system. 

While  it  is  the  primary  object  of  all  bever- 
ages to  relieve  thirst  nearly  all  of  them  also 
possess  other  properties  that  exercise  more  or 
less  effect  upon  the  body.  For  example,  those 
drinks  which  contain  the  largest  quantities  of 
water  pass  most  rapidly  into  the  circulation, 
increasing  the  volume  of  blood.  Diluting  the 
food,  they  not  only  assist  digestion  but  also 
aid  in  eliminating  waste  matter  from  the  body 
through  the  ordinary  channels.  There  are 
beverages  that  soothe  and  beverages  that  irritate, 
but  all  have  their  purpose.  The  former  find 
their  scope  of  usefulness  in  times  of  fever  and 
cold,  while  the  latter  are  stimulating  irritants  of 
great  medicinal  value. 

Among  the  most  useful  beverages  are  those 
that  best  relieve  the  cravings  of  thirst,  the  sour 
liquids  prepared  from  the  lemon,  or  other  fruit 
juices,  which,  while  perhaps  not  acid  in  them- 
selves, have  been  rendered  acidulous  by  charges 
of  carbon  dioxide.  While  the  carbonated  and  min- 
eral waters  have  the  greatest  effect  in  eliminat- 
ing waste  matter  from  the  system  they  are  not 
so  useful  in  this  regard  as  the  hot  drinks,  like 
tea,  coffee,  or  even  hot  water,  for  they  not  only 
play  their  part  in  the  elimination  of  waste  but 
also  cool  the  body  by  increasing  the  perspira- 
tion. 

Particularly  soothing  are  such  mucilaginous 
or  gelatinous  liquids  as  barley  water,  flaxseed 
tea,  and  Irish  moss.  The  mineral  waters,  malt 
liquors  and  light  wines  act  with  a  tonic  effect ; 
the  more  common  beverages,  like  tea  and  coffee 
and  the  milder  alcoholic  liquors  are  stimulating 
to  the  nerves,  while  tea  and  coffee,  if  milk  and 
sugar  are  added,  as  well  as  chocolate,  cocoa  and 
the  malt  liquors  may  be  classified  as  the  nu- 
tritious drinks. 

Next  in  popularity  to  milk  are  those  unfer- 
mented  beverages  which  are  made  from  products 
of  the  vegetable  world  such  as  tea,  coffee, 
cocoa,  and  chocolate.  Although  cocoa  is  by  far 
the  most  ancient  of  these  drinks,  having  been 


in  use  long  before  the  stimulating  qualities  of 
either  tea  or  coffee  were  discovered,  coffee 
has  long  been  in  greatest  demand.  In  fact,  it 
has  been  estimated  that  about  500,000,000  people 
drink  coffee  daily,  as  against  the  100,000,000 
who  drink  tea,  and  the  60,000,000  who  partake 
of  chocolate  and  cocoa.  In  the  United  States 
alone  some  500,000,000  pounds  of  coffee  are  con- 
sumed annually,  as  against  90,000,000  pounds  of 
tea,  and  some  20,000,000  pounds  of  the  various 
preparations  of  cocoa  and  chocolate. 

There  are  several  points  of  resemblance  be- 
tween all  these  table  drinks,  dissimilar  as  they 
are  in  appearance  and  flavor.  In  each  case  they 
exercise  a  stimulating  effect,  the  caffeine  of 
coffee  and  theine  of  tea  being  almost  identical, 
while  the  theolronsine  of  chocolate  and  cocoa  is 
but  a  slightly  different  principle.  Each  also  con- 
tains the  same  bitter  principle,  tannin,  and  each 
owes  its  characteristic  odor  and  flavor  to  an 
essential  oil. 

Coffee,  which  must  be  considered  first,  be- 
cause of  its  great  popularity,  is  the  berry  from 
the  several  species  of  the  genus  Coffea,  of  which 
C.  arabica  is  the  most  important.  First  used  in 
Abyssinia  during  the  9th  century,  it  was  later 
introduced  into  Arabia,  and  from  there  to  Con- 
stantinople, where  it  had  become  popularized  by 
the  middle  of  the  i6th  century.  It  is  supposed 
that  it  was  Leonhard  Rauwolf,  a  German  phy- 
sician, who  introduced  coffee  into  Europe  in 
1573.  A  few  years  later  Prosper  Alpinus 
brought  some  of  the  beans  to  Venice  to  use  them 
as  a  drug,  but  it  was  many  years  before  it  was 
drank  to  any  extent  outside  of  Constantinople. 
In  1652,  however,  a  coffee  house  was  opened 
in  London  by  the  Greek  servant  of  a  merchant 
named  Edwards,  whose  ships  sailed  to  the  Le- 
vant, and  since  that  time  the  popularity  of  the 
beverage  has  never  waned. 

In  its  preparation  as  a  drink  coffee  should 
not  be  boiled  in  Vv^ater,  but,  instead,  should  be 
covered  with  water  that  has  previously  been 
boiled.  Here  it  should  be  allowed  to  infuse  for 
fully  ten  minutes,  at  a  temperature  little  below 
the  boiling  point.  As  coffee  does  not  contain 
as  great  a  quantity  of  tannin  as  tea  and  does  not 
yield  it  so  readily,  it  may  infuse  longer  without 
becoming  bitter  and  indigestible,  the  effect  which 
tannin  exerts  if  it  is  boiled  or  left  for  too  long 
a  time  over  the  fire. 

Like  many  other  beverages  coffee  exercises 
both  good  and  evil  effects  upon  the  system. 
Stimulating  the  muscles,  heart  and  nerves,  its 
tendency  is  to  overcome  the  ills  of  fatigue, 
while  its  strengthening  effect  upon  the  heart's 
action  makes  it  a  most  valuable  stimulant.  At 
the  same  time  its  action  upon  the  nervous  system 
is  so  marked  that  over-indulgence  in  the  drink 
is  certain  to  be  attended  by  such  ill  effects  as 
insomnia,  and  nervous  headaches,  if  not  palpi- 
tation and  general  nervous  disability. 

Tea,  which  stands  next  to  coffee  as  a  table 
beverage,  is  a  native  of  China  where  these 
shrubs  of  the  Camellia  family  have  been  culti- 
vated for  more  than  a  thousand  years.  It  was 
once  a  general  belief  that  there  were  many  kinds 
of  tea  plants,  but  Robert  Fortune,  the  botanist, 
exposed  the  myth  by  his  thorough  investigation 
of  the  various  methods  of  cultivation  and  man- 
ufacture in  use  in  the  tea  districts  of  China  and 
India.  It  is  now  known,  therefore,  that  v»'hile 
there  are  many  variations  in  the  tea  plant,  the 
varieties  are  all  the  same  plant  cultivated  under 


BEVERAGES 


different  conditions,  while  the  two  distinctive 
varieties,  the  green  and  the  black  tea,  are  the 
results  of  different  methods  of  manufacture. 
Green  tea,  for  example,  is  prepared  by  steaming 
the  leaves  before  they  have  been  rolled  and 
dried,  a  method  of  procedure  which  produces  a 
greater  quantity  of  tannin. 

As  the  flavor  of  tea  as  a  beverage  depends 
as  much  upon  the  quality  of  the  water  in  which 
it  is  infused  as  upon  the  method  of  infusion, 
care  should  be  taken  to  see  that  the  water  is 
neither  too  soft  nor  too  hard,  and  that  it  has 
been  well  boiled  before  it  is  poured  over  the  tea. 
The  period  of  infusion,  which  is  then  continued 
at  a  lower  temperature,  should  not  last  more 
than  a  few  minutes,  for  the  longer  the  infusion 
the  greater  the  quantity  of  tannin  that  will  be 
extracted. 

Like  coffee,  tea  has  its  good  and  evil  effects. 
If  infused  too  long  it  becomes  bitter,  unwhole- 
some and  indigestible.  If  drank  too  freely  it  not 
only  induces  insomnia  and  kindred  nervous  dis- 
orders but  irritates  the  stomach,  producing  a 
serious  kind  of  catarrh.  At  the  same  time  it 
is  a  mild  stimulant  which  refreshes  the  body 
and  prepares  the  brain  for  intellectual  energy. 
It  is  also  beneficial  in  aiding  one  to  withstand 
the  ill  effects  of  cold,  fatigue  and  hunger.  By 
producing  perspiration  it  cools  the  body  when 
heated,  and,  by  means  of  its  action  upon  the 
heart,  it  warms  the  body  when  cold. 

While  tea  has  been  consumed  in  China  and 
other  parts  of  Asia  since  the  latter  part  of  the 
6th  century  it  was  not  introduced  in  European 
countries  for  more  than  one  thousand  years. 
Pepys  mentions  having  tasted  it  for  the  first 
time  in  1660,  but  the  novel  beverage  must  have 
met  with  almost  instant  recognition  for,  less  than 
18  years  later,  it  was  in  general  use  in  every 
part  of  England. 

As  both  cocoa  and  chocolate  contain  starch' 
and  fat  in  considerable  quantities  they  are 
among  the  most  nutritious  of  the  stimulating 
table  beverages.  Both  are  obtained  from  a  small 
evergreen  tree,  native  to  tropical  countries,  for 
while  the  cocoa  of  commerce  is  prepared  by 
grinding  the  seeds  themselves,  the  commercial 
chocolate  cakes  cOntain  the  better  parts  of  the 
berry,  usually  mixed  with  sugar  and  some  dis- 
tinctive flavoring.  The  preparation  of  the  drink 
is  a  simple  process,  the  cocoa  or  chocolate  merely 
being  dissolved  in  milk  and  boiling  water. 

Although  by  no  means  so  popular  as  tea  or 
coffee  the  drinking  of  mineral  waters  has  be- 
come so  general  during  the  past  century  that 
they  must  now  be  regarded  as  among  the  most 
important  temperance  beverages.  Early  in  the 
i6th  century  an  attempt  was  made  to  produce 
artificial  mineral  waters,  but  it  was  not  until  the 
i8th  century  that  chemistry  had  made  sufficient 
progress  to  enable  the  experimenters  to  prove 
the  elementary  compounds  of  the  waters  both 
as  to  quality  and  quantity.  In  fact,  the  first 
unqualified  success  in  this  line  of  investigation 
was  made  by  Dr.  Frederick  Adolphus  Augustus 
Struve,  a  Dresden  druggist,  who  celebrated  his 
achievement  by  opening  an  artificial  mineral 
water  pavilion  in  that  city,  in  1820. 

The  alkaline  and  mineral  waters  which  are  so 
much  in  use  to-day  owe  their  distinctive  char- 
acteristics to  the  preponderance  of  carbonate  and 
bicarbonate  of  sodium  as  well  as  to  the  carbonate 
of  potassium,  lithium,  calecum  and  magnesium 
which  they  contain,  all  of  which  tend  to  make 


them  useful  aids  to  the  physician  in  the  treat- 
ment of  disease.  The  Vichy  of  France,  for  ex- 
ample, or  the  Ems  of  Germany,  are  extensively 
used  in  the  dietetic  treatments,  correcting  dis- 
orders of  the  stomach  and  acting  as  alkalinizers 
of  the  blood,  bile  and  urine.  In  cases  of  gout, 
gall  stones,  rheumatism,  dyspepsia,  constipation, 
etc.,  they  have  proved  of  invaluable  service  and 
have  also  been  used  successfully  in  the  treat- 
ment of  obesity.  In  many  instances  their  value 
as  medicinal  agents  is  enhanced  by  the  addition 
of  carbon  dioxide,  while,  in  other  cases,  they  are 
made  more  palatable  and  easy  of  digestion  by 
being  served  with  milk.  Among  the  natural 
mineral  waters  produced  in  this  country  are 
those  of  Saratoga,  N.  Y.,  Saint  Louis,  Mich.,  and 
Waukesha,  Wis.,  all  of  which  are  well  and 
favorably  known  to  those  who  make  use  of  such 
beverages. 

Another  class  of  drinks,  the  popularity  of 
which  is  beyond  question,  are  those  beverages 
which  contain  alcohol  as  an  active  principle : 
beer,  ale,  wine,  cider,  and  the  many  kinds  of 
spirituous  liquors  that  are  now  manufactured  in 
almost  every  part  of  the  world.  In  addition  to 
the  alcohol  these  beverages  also  contain  such 
properties  as  tannin,  sugar,  carbon  dioxide,  or 
various  acidulous  substances,  any  or  all  of  w-hich 
exert  an  influence  over  the  flavor  of  the  liquid. 
As  to  alcohol  itself  it  has  so  long  been  a  bone 
of  contention  that  it  would  be  folly  to  attempt 
to  review  a  century-long  contest  in  a  single 
article.  Originally  used  exclusively  as  a  med- 
icine, and  admittedly  a  valuable  agent  in  the 
treatment  of  certain  diseases  it  is  to  be  doubted 
if  even  the  moderate  use  of  such  liquors  as 
beverages  is  not  productive  of  far  more  evil 
than  good,  v/hile  the  effect  of  immoderate  in- 
dulgence in  such  liquid  stimulants  is  too  well 
known  to  require  further  discussion.  In  spite 
of  all  the  warnings  of  science,  however,  man 
continues  to  gratify  his  craving  for  alcoholic 
preparations.  Even  in  countries  where  the  or- 
dinary beverages  of  commerce  are  unknown, 
savage  taste  has  learned  to  delight  in  the  flavor 
of  fermented  liquors,  and  this  desire  even  the 
most  barbaric  people  have  had  ingenuity  enough 
to  gratify. 

Beer,  or  lager,  as  it  is  more  generally  known 
in  this  country,  is  by  no  means  a  modern  inven- 
tion and  no  drink  has  continued  to  maintain  a 
more  steadfast  hold  upon  the  taste  of  man  since 
the  earliest  days  of  civilization.  The  Egyptians 
manufactured  beer  from  barley  many  hundred 
years  before  the  Christian  Era.  Archilochus, 
700  B.C.,  shows  that  the  Greeks  had  learned  the 
art  of  brewing,  while  we  have  such  eminent 
authorities  as  Sophocles  and  yEschylus,  Dio- 
dorus  and  Pliny  to  prove  that  the  Greeks  and 
Romans  both  made  beer  and  loved  it.  Like  the 
Gauls,  the  Romans  called  it  Cerevisia,  from 
Ceres,  the  goddess  of  field  fruits,  and  there  is 
ample  history  to  prove  that  the  art  of  making 
this  beverage  was  known  to  man  fully  as  early 
as  the  art  of  making  wine  from  the  grape.  Prior 
to  the  invasion  by  the  Romans  the  Britons  were 
drinkers  of  milk  and  water  although  they  occa- 
sionally drank  mead,  an  intoxicating  beverage 
made  from  honey.  As  Tacitus  tells  us  that  beer 
was  the  ordinary  drink  of  the  Romans,  and  beer 
and  vinegar  the  favorite  beverage  of  the  soldiers 
of  Julius  Caesar,  it  is  not  difficult  to  imagine  why, 
so  soon  after  his  invasion,  the  Britons  became  a 
nation    of    beer-drinkers.     Unlike    the    Romans, 


BEVERAGES 


however,  they  employed  wheat  instead  of  barley 
in  their  malting.  In  Germany,  too,  beer  was  in- 
troduced at  a  very  early  date.  Charlemagne 
loved  it  dearly  and  not  only  compelled  the  best 
brewers  in  the  land  to  become  attaches  of  his 
court,  but  gave  his  personal  attention  to  the 
subject  so  conscientiously  that  he  was  able  to 
tell  them  how  to  improve  their  brew.  As  early 
as  1482  the  monasteries  of  that  country  began 
to  make  beer  and,  by  the  i6th  century,  that 
beverage  had  become  one  of  the  chief  exports 
of  the  country.  In  fact,  the  German  brewer  has 
always  been  recognized  as  one  of  the  best  beer 
makers  of  the  world  and  it  has  only  been  within 
the  past  century  that  the  success  of  their  Aus- 
trian rivals  has  had  a  tendency  to  somewhat 
eclipse  their  glory.  Centuries  ago  beverages 
known  as  beer  were  made  in  England  by  tapping 
such  trees  as  the  birch,  maple,  spruce,  and  ash 
for  their  juices,  or  by  resorting  to  the  properties 
contained  in  ginger  and  other  roots,  a  practice 
which  not  only  still  prevails  in  that  countrj',  but 
that  was  brought  to  America  by  the  first  colo- 
nists, who  loved  these  humble,  harmless  drinks 
too  well  to  leave  their  recipes  in  the  mother- 
land. 

Ale  and  porter,  the  heavier  malted  liquors 
which  are  so  much  used  in  England  and  the 
United  States,  cannot  boast  such  ancient  lineage 
as  beer,  but  still  there  is  reason  to  believe  that 
it  was  a  beverage  like  ale  on  which  the  Anglo- 
Saxons  and  the  Danes  loved  to  become  drunken, 
and,  fully  as  early  as  the  reign  of  Henry  II., 
the  monks  of  England  had  become  famous  for 
their  wondrous  brews.  In  fact,  it  was  due  to 
the  investigations  of  some  of  these  fathers  of 
the  monasteries  that  the  superior  quality  of  the 
waters  of  Burton-on-Trent  for  brewing  purposes 
was  discovered,  a  discovery  that  has  made  the 
ales  and  porters  of  England  world  celebrated. 

Wine,  whose  history  is  as  old  as  that  of  civi- 
lization, is  the  most  aristocratic  of  drinks.  As- 
cribed to  the  gods  by  the  ancients  —  to  Dionysus 
by  the  Greeks,  Bacchus  by  the  Romans  and 
Osiris  by  the  Egyptians  —  there  can  be  no  ques- 
tion but  that  the  use  of  the  juice  of  the  grape  as 
a  beverage  was  one  of  the  first  discoveries  of 
civilized  man.  It  is  true  that  the  very  ancient 
Romans  did  not  know  it  at  the  time  when  even 
the  Israelites  had  learned  the  secret  of  its  pro- 
duction, but,  later,  wine-making  in  Rome  be- 
came such  a  general  enterprise  that  Emperor 
Domitian  ordered  half  of  the  vineyards  de- 
stroyed that  the  more  necessary  wheat  might  be 
raised  in  the  place  of  the  grape. 

According  to  the  best  authorities  Asia  was 
the  country  in  which  the  vine  first  grew  with- 
out the  aid  of  man,  while  Armenia  and  Eastern 
Pontijs  were  the  lands  in  which  the  cultivation 
of  the  grape  was  first  undertaken.  From  there 
the  love  of  wine  spread  rapidlj'  through  all  the 
lands  of  ancient  civilization.  Among  the  best 
known  Asiatic  wines  was  that  of  Chalybon,  near 
Damascus,  the  beverages  with  which  the  tables 
of  the  Persian  kings  were  constantly  supplied, 
while  the  most  famous  Greek  wines  came  from 
such  places  as  Chios  and  Lesbos. 

In  ancient  India  and  in  Egypt  priests  were 
forbidden  to  drink,  while  the  Jewish  priests  were 
only  forbidden  on  days  of  religious  services.  In 
fact,  the  Hebrews  were  by  no  means  as  strict 
about  the  use  of  the  wine  cup  as  were  some  other 
nations  and  the  fact  that  vine-culture  was  one 


of  their  favorite  occupations  is  proved  by  his- 
tory, both  biblical  and  profane.  Traditions  state 
that  it  was  the  Phoenicians,  the  earliest  of  vine- 
growers,  who  carried  the  secret  of  wine  making 
to  Spain,  Italy  and  France.  They  also  estab- 
lished large  vineyards  on  the  islands  of  Chios, 
Mitylene  and  Tenedor. 

As  early  as  550  B.C.  the  process  of  blending 
selected  wines  was  known  to  the  Carthaginians, 
while  the  ancient  practice  of  adding  turpentine 
to  the  wine  for  the  purpose  of  preserving  it  was 
probably  an  invention  of  Italy.  France,  Spain, 
and  Portugal  are  now  the  chief  centres  of  vine- 
culture  although  the  grape-growers  in  many 
parts  of  the  United  States,  and  particularly  in 
the  far  Western  States,  have  recently  raised  the 
making  of  wine  to  the  dignity  of  a  great  Ameri- 
can industry.  Champagne,  however,  one  of  the 
most  popular  of  wines,  is  a  beverage  of  ex- 
tremely modern  invention  when  compared  to 
other  makes.  Invented  by  Dom  Perignon  of 
Hautvillers  about  the  beginning  of  the  i8th 
century  its  use  has  become  more  and  more 
general  until  it  is  now  consumed  by  wine-lovers 
in  all  parts  of  the  world.  If  wine  is  the  most 
aristocratic,  whiskey  may  be  designated  as  the 
most  democratic  of  drinks.  Thoroughly  cos- 
mopolitan in  character,  in  various  countries  it  is 
distilled  from  various  substances,  but  always, 
whether  it  is  made  from  barley,  corn,  wheat,  rj-e, 
or  even  from  potatoes,  it  bears  the  same  name 
and  usually  enjoys  the  same  proportion  of  pop- 
ularity. The  word  "whiskey'^  is  a  name  that 
was  bestowed  upon  this  beverage  by  the  Celts  of 
Ireland  and  Scotland  who  began  to  make  it 
about  the  middle  of  the  17th  century.  The 
word  itself  is  a  corruption  of  the  Gaelic  ^'uisge* 
(water),  and  closely  interpreted  means  "strong 
water.^'  In  the  beginning  this  drink  was  used 
almost  exclusively  as  medicine  but  as  soon  as 
it  had  become  introduced  as  a  beverage  it  be- 
came a  favorite  drink  throughout  Great  Britain, 
and  while  the  word  "whiskey"  once  referred  only 
to  the  Scotch  and  Irish  drinks  of  that  name,  the 
rye  and  Bourbon  whiskies  of  American  manu- 
facture are  now  consumed  almost  as  generally 
as  those  made  from  recipes  that  have  been 
handed  down  from  the  days  of  the  ancient  Celts. 

Almost  as  strong  as  whiskey,  brandy,  the 
"brande-vin^^  or  burnt  wine,  is  a  drink  which  is 
often  used,  both  for  medicinal  purposes  and  as 
a  beverage.  Its  name,  as  is  indicated,  was  de- 
rived from  the  method  of  its  manufacture,  a 
formula  for  liquor  making  that  has  been  fol- 
lowed for  many  generations  and  in  many  parts 
of  the  world.  In  Morocco  the  Jews  use  the 
refuse  of  the  grape  as'  well  as  such  fruits  as 
raisins,  figs,  dates  and  pears  in  its  distillation, 
and  they  have  become  strongly  attached  to  their 
strange  drink  because  they  believe  that  their 
freedom  from  that  terrible  disease,  elephantiasis, 
always  so  common  among  the  Mohammedans  in 
that  country,  is  due  to  the  fact  that  tliey  partake 
so  freely  of  this  tmique  spirit.  Moliere,  in  his 
travels,  discovered  a  tribe  on  the  Barbarj'  coast 
which  made  excellent  brandy  from  honey ;  in 
Persia  it  is  the  lees  of  the  weaker  sorts  of 
wines  that  are  distilled,  and  almost  every  country 
has  its  particular  method  of  making  this  bever- 
age. None  of  them,  however,  can  compare  in 
quality  to  the  cognac  of  France,  that  rich  dis- 
tillation from  wines  which  alone  properly  bears 
the  name  of  "brandy.'^ 

Gin  is   another  distilled  liquor.     It   is   made 


BEVERIDGE 


from  rye,  grain  and  malted  barley,  flavored  with 
juniper-berries  and  sometimes  with  turpentine. 
It  is  also  known  as  Hollands,  and  as  Holland 
gin,  these  names  being  a  relic  of  the  days  when 
the  beverage  was  called  Holland-Geneva,  the 
word  "gin**  being  a  corruption  of  the  word 
"Geneva.**  Although  originally  made  in  Holland 
it  was  soon  introduced  into  England  where  it 
immediately  became  one  of  the  most  popular  of 
drinks.  Easily  manufactured  and  always  strong 
it  could  be  sold  so  cheaply  that  it  was  finally 
found  necessary  to  adopt  strict  legislative  mea- 
sures restricting  its  sale  and  consumption, 
Hogarth's  horrible  picture,  *Gin  Lane,*  which 
was  one  of  the  influences  in  bringing  about  the 
much  needed  reform,  is  said  to  have  been  but 
slightly  an  exaggeration  of  the  actual  condi- 
tions which  existed  in  all  the  large  English 
cities  during  the  reign  of  gin. 

Rum,  formerly  spelled  as  the  French  still 
spell  it,  "rhum,**  is  a  spirit  which  is  distilled 
from  the  sugarcane  juice,  from  the  skimmings 
of  the  juice  from  the  boiling  house,  or  from  the 
molasses  mixed  with  the  lees  of  former  distilla- 
tions. Although  not  so  commonly  used  as  some 
of  the  other  strong  liquors  rum  has  been  known 
both  for  its  medicinal  value  and  as  a  beverage 
ever  since  its  introduction  from  the  West  Indies, 
more  than  a  century  ago. 

The  following  are  among  the  drinks  which 
are  not  so  generally  known  but  which  are  in 
common  use  among  the  people  of  other  coun- 
tries : 

Arrack,  a  drink  manufactured  widely  in  the 
East  and  West  Indies,  is  much  used  by  the 
natives.  In  making  it  it  is  sometimes  distilled 
from  the  fermented  juice  of  the  palm  tree,  and 
sometimes  from  a  combination  of  rice  and  mo- 
lasses used  in  connection  with  the  palm-tree 
juices. 

Vodka,  which  is  the  chief  source  of  intoxica- 
tion in  Russia,  is  a  liquor  which  may  be  dis- 
tiUed  either  from  rye  or  from  potatoes. 

In  several  parts  of  the  world  the  sap  of  trees 
is  called  into  requisition  to  satisfy  the  thirst 
for  intoxicants.  Pulque,  for  example,  the  bever- 
age most  commonly  used  in  all  Spanish-Amer- 
ican countries,  is  made  from  the  fermented  sap 
of  the  aloe,  while  a  somewhat  different  drink, 
called  Tepache,  is  made  by  mixing  sugar  and 
water  with  this  sap  of  the  aloe,  w'hich  after- 
ward is  allowed  to  ferment  for  a  few  hours  only. 
In  Tasmania  the  so-called  "cider-tree**  furnishes 
the  bushmen  with  a  means  of  intoxication.  In 
this  case  the  sap  is  of  such  a  character  that  it 
may  be  drank  as  soon  as  it  is  drawn  from  the 
tree,  in  which  state  it  is  both  refreshing  and 
harmless,  but  when  it  is  allowed  to  stand  for 
some  time  it  becomes  an  intoxicant  of  great 
potency. 

The  Soma  of  the  Hindus  is  supposed  by  some 
to  have  been  the  original  intoxicant  of  the  hu- 
man race.  The  Persians,  who  accept  this  tradi- 
tion, revere  the  beverage  as  Haoma,  while  in 
India  it  is  looked  upon  as  the  beverage  of  the 
mighty  god,  ever-giving  new  strength  and  new 
vigor,  it  is  a  milky  fluid  which  is  found  in  the 
climbing  bindweed,  and,  when  properly  fer- 
mented, is  extremely  "heady.** 

Sake,  the  commonly  used  distilled  liquor  of 
Japan,  is  made  entirely  from  rice,  as  also  is  Sam- 
shee.  a  drink  used  by  the  lower  classes  in  China. 

Kvass  is  the  name  of  a  sour  beer  much  fa- 


vored by  the  Russian  peasantry.  It  is  made  from 
barley  and  rye,  by  a  similar  malting  process  as 
that  applied  to  the  manufacture  of  beer. 

The  natives  of  South  America  have  a  drink 
which  they  call  Guarapo,  which  is  made  from 
the  fermented  juice  of  the  sugarcane. 

Chi-chi  is  the  name  of  a  peculiar  kind  of 
cider  which  is  made  by  the  natives  of  Patagonia. 
In  brewing  it,  in  the  autumn  when  the  apples 
are  ripe,  they  dig  large  pits  which  they  line  and 
interline  most  carefully  with  hides  in  order 
that  none  of  the  juice  may  soak  into  the  earth. 
Into  these  hides  they  throw  the  ripe  apples 
which  are  left  to  decay  and  ferment  until  they 
are  ready  for  use.  It  is  then  extremely  intoxi- 
cating. 

A  drink  called  Kephir  is  drunk  by  the  natives 
of  the  Caucasus.  It  is  an  effervescing  milk- 
like liquid,  the  effervescence  being  caused  by 
the  introduction  of  horny,  yellowish-brown 
masses  called  "Kephir-grains.**  Kern,  who 
made  a  scientific  examination  of  these  grains, 
discovered  that  they  were  made  of  a  rod-like 
bacterium  and  a  yeast-like  substance  that  was 
entirely  unknown  to  him.  Not  unlike  Kumyss 
in  appearance  and  in  taste,  Kephir  is  far  more 
intoxicating. 

Kava,  or  ava,  is  a  Polynesian  drink  which 
is  made  by  macerating  in  water  a  portion  of  the 
root  and  stem  of  one  of  the  piperacese. 

There  are  several  substitutes  for  tea  in  use 
in  various  parts  of  the  world.  In  some  of  the 
Pacific  Islands  there  are  "tea-trees,**  while  the 
nativ'es  of  Tibet  are  very  fond  of  their  "brick 
tea,**  which  is  made  from  the  offscourings  and 
dust  of  the  leaves  and  stems  of  the  tea  plants. 
It  derives  its  name  from  the  fact  that  the  dust 
is  pressed  into  hard,  solid  brick-shaped  lumps^ 
from  wdiich  pieces  are  chipped  off  as  they  are  to 
be  used. 

Miles  Bradford, 
Author  of  '■Carlotta  and  I? 

Beveridge,  Albert  Jeremiah,  American 
lawyer:  b.  Highland  County,  Ohio,  6  Oct.  1862. 
He  was  brought  up  on  a  farm :  graduated  at  De 
Pauw  University;  and  engaged  in  law  practice 
in  Indianapolis.  He  entered  political  life  in 
1883.  and  soon  won  a  reputation  as  an  effective 
orator.  On  17  Jan.  1899,  he  was  elected  United 
States  senator  for  Indiana,  as  a  Republican. 
Soon  after  his  election  he  went  to  the  Philip- 
pine Islands ;  made  a  thorough  study  of  political 
and  material  conditions  there ;  and,  on  the  asseni- 
bly  of  Congress  in  December  following,  deliv- 
ered a  thrilling  speech  in  the  Senate  in  support 
of  the  administration's  policy  concerning  the 
new  possessions  in  the  East. 

Beveridge,  Kiihne  (Coghlan),  American 
sculptor:  b.  Springfield,  111.,  31  Oct.  1877.  She 
studied  under  Rodin  in  Paris  and  O'Donovan  in 
New  York,  and  in  1893  married  Charles  Cogh- 
lan. Her  works  have  been  exhibited  in  New 
York,  London,  and  Paris.  She  obtain,  d  honor- 
able mention  at  the  Paris  Exposition  of  1900. 

Beveridge,  William,  English  divine:  b. 
Barrow,  Leicestershire.  1637;  d.  Westminster, 
1708.  He  studied  at  St.  John's  College,  Cam- 
bridge, devoting  his  attention  particularly  to 
Oriental  literature.  In  1658  he_  published  a 
work  on  Eastern  tongues,  especially  Hebrew, 
Chaldee.  Syriac,  Arabic,  and  Samaritan,  accorp- 


BEVERLEY  —  BEVIS 


panied  with  a  Syriac  grammar.  In  1660  he  took 
orders,  and  obtained  the  vicarage  of  Eahng 
in  Middlesex,  where  he  wrote  a  useful  ^Intro- 
duction to  Chronology.^  In  1672  he  was 
appointed  to  the  rectory  of  St.  Peter,  Cornhill, 
London,  and  the  same  year  published  his  *Syn- 
odicon^  in  two  folio  volume:,  containing  the 
Apostolic  canons,  decrees  of  the  councils  received 
by  the  Greek  Church,  and  the  canonical  epis- 
tles of  the  early  Fathers.  This  work  called 
forth  an  opponent,  to  whom  Beveridge  replied 
in  a  "^Vindication.^  In  1674  he  obtained  a  pre- 
bend in  St.  Paul's,  and  in  1681  was  appointed 
archdeacon  of  Colchester.  In  1684  he  became 
prebendary  of  Canterbury,  and  in  1688  was 
appointed  chaplain  to  William  and  Mary. 
Shortly  after,  the  see  of  Bath  and  Wells  was 
offered  him ;  but  as  it  had  become  vacant  by 
the  conscientious  refusal  of  Bishop  Ken  to  take 
the  new  oaths,  Beveridge,  to  his  honor,  de- 
clined to  accept  it.  The  episcopal  dignity,  how- 
ever, was  only  delayed ;  in  1704  he  became 
bishop  of  St.  Asaph.  Among  his  best-known 
works  are  ^The  Church  Catechism  Explained^  ; 
•^Private  Thoughts  upon  a  Christian  Life'  ;  and 
^The  Great  Necessity  and  Advantage  of  Public 
Prayer  and  Frequent  Communion.'  Collective 
editions  of  his  works  were  published  in  1824 
and  in  1842-6. 

Beverley,  Saint  John  of,  English  divine: 
b.  about  the  middle  of  the  7th  century  at  Harp- 
ham,  Yorkshire;  d.  Beverley,  721.  He  was  edu- 
cated at  Canterbury  under  Archbishop  Theodore, 
and  became  a  monk  under  Hilda  in  the  monas- 
tery founded  by  her  at  Whitby.  In  687  he  was 
appointed  to  the  see  of  Flexham,  and  in  705 
was  transferred  to  York.  He  founded  a  convent 
of  nuns  at  Beverley,  and  built  the  choir  of  the 
church  there.  He  resigned  his  bishopric  and 
retired  to  Beverley  in  718.  Bede,  who  is  said 
to  ha\'e  been  his  pupil,  speaks  of  him  with  great 
veneration.  He  was  canonized  in  1037,  and  his 
remains  were  placed  in  a  costly  shrine,  in  Bev- 
erley minster.  His  fame  was  so  widespread  that 
when  William  the  Conqueror  led  his  army  to  the 
north  and  ravaged  the  country  he  saved  the 
town  of  Beverley  out  of  respect  to  the  memory  of 
the  bishop.  In  1416  Archbishop  Chicheley  or- 
dered the  anniversary  of  his  death  to  be  cele- 
brated as  one  of  the  festivals  of  the  Church, 
and  special  privileges  were  conferred  on  his 
church  at  Beverley  by  several  English  sov- 
ereigns. He  is  said  to  have  written  an  *  Exposi- 
tion of  Luke'  and  "^Homilies  on  the  Gospels.' 

Beverley,  Constance  de,  in  Scott's  poem 
<Marmion,'  a  nun  who  for  love  of  Marmion 
follows  him  in  the  disguise  of  a  groom,  and  on 
being  thrown  over  by  Marmion  is  immured  at 
Holy  Isle  for  breach  of  her  vow  of  chastity. 

Beverley,  Robert,  American  historian:  b. 
Virginia,  1675  \  d.  1716.  He  was  educated  in 
England  and  about  1697  became  clerk  of  the 
Council  of  Virginia  and  had  charge  of  the 
records  of  the  colony.  He  was  the  author  of  a 
< History  of  the  Present  State  of  Virginia,'  pub- 
lished in  1705,  a  most  interesting  account  of 
the  details  of*the  daily  life  in  colonial  Virginia. 
A  reprint  was  published  in  Richmond  in  1855. 

Beverley,  England,  a  municipal  borough 
and  capital  of  the  East  Riding  of  Yorkshire,  29 
miles  east-southeast  from  York  and  a  mile 
from  the  river  Hull.  It  stands  on  the  eastern 
tdge  of  the  Wolds,  and  on  a  branch   of  the 


Northeastern  Railway,  and  consists  of  a  princi- 
pal street  above  a  mile  in  length,  and  several 
minor  streets,  all  spacious  and  tolerably  well 
built.  Its  most  remarkable  edifice  is  the  min- 
ster of  St.  John,  in  the  Decorated  and  Perpen- 
dicular English  styles,  and  one  of  the  finest 
specimens  of  ecclesiastical  architecture  in  the 
kingdom,  its  west  front  in  the  opinion  of  excel- 
lent authorities  surpassing  in  magnificence  that 
of  York  minster.  Other  churches  are  St.  Mary's 
and  St.  Nicholas'.  Among  the  other  chief  build- 
ings are  the  guildhall  and  corn  exchange.  The 
chief  manufactures  are  leather,  iron  castings, 
agricultural  implements,  whiting,  linseed  oil 
and  cake,  manures,  wagons,  cement,  and  ale.  Its 
environs  abound  with  beautiful  walks.  It  sent 
two  members  to  Parliament  till  disfranchised 
in  1870.  Pop.  (1901)  13,185.  See  Hiatt,  *Bev- 
erley   Minster'     (1900). 

Beverly,  Mass.,  a  city  in  Essex  County, 
on  the  Boston  &  M.  R.R. ;  two  miles  north  of 
Salem.  It  was  founded  14  Oct.  1668;  was 
incorporated  as  a  city  23  March  1894;  con- 
tains several  villages  ;  and  is  connected  by  trolley 
lines  with  Salem,  Peabody,  Gloucester,  and  Wen- 
ham.  It  is  the  seat  of  the  New  England  Insti- 
tute for  the  Deaf  and  Dumb ;  is  principally  en- 
gaged in  the  manufacture  of  women's  boots  and 
shoes,  and  leather ;  has  considerable  shipping  and 
fishery  interests ;  contains  high  and  graded 
schools,  a  public  library,  a  national  bank,  a 
number  of  handsome  residences  belonging  to 
Boston  business  men ;  and  has  a  property  valu- 
ation exceeding  $16,000,000.     Pop.  (1900)  13,884. 

Beverly  Farms,  a  name  given  to  the  east- 
ern portion  of  the  town  of  Beverly,  Mass.  It 
is  a  favorite  summer  residence  for  wealthy 
Bostonians  and  contains  many  beautiful  man- 
sions and  park-like  estates.  In  recent  years  it 
has  endeavored  to  secure  incorporation  as  a 
separate  town. 

Beverly's  Ford,  Va.,  scene  of  a  sharp  cav- 
alry fight  during  the  Civil  War,  between  Buford, 
Pleasanton,  and  Gregg,  commanding  9,000  Fed- 
erals, and  Stuart  leading  12,000  Confederates. 
Hooker  had  sent  Pleasanton  to  find  Stuart,  who 
was  said  to  be  near  Beverly's  Ford.  Pleasanton 
planned  to  surprise  the  Confederates,  but  his 
plan  miscarried.  Stuart  was  fully  prepared  for 
him.  Pleasanton  was  badly  beaten.  This  action 
is  also  known  as  the  battle  of  Brandy  Station. 

Be'vis  of  Hampton,  Sir,  a  legendary  Eng- 
lish knight  who  has  been  made  the  hero  of 
mediaeval  romances  b}^  both  English  and  Con- 
tinental writers.  He  was  the  son  of  Sir  Guy, 
Earl  of  Hamtoun,  who  was  treacherously  mur- 
dered by  Divoun,  emperor  of  Almayne,  he  was 
given  by  his  false  mother  to  some  heathen 
merchants  to  be  sold  for  a  slave  among  the 
Paynim.  By  them  he  was  carried  to  Ermony. 
where  he  soon  became  dear  to  King  Ermvn,  and 
dearer  still  to  his  only  daughter,  the  lovely 
Josian.  His  chief  exploits  were  the  overthrow 
of  Brademond  of  Damascus,  of  a  monstrous 
boar,  of  the  giant  Ascapard,  whom  he  spared  to 
become  his  squire,  and  of  a  dreadful  dragon  near 
Cologne.  His  famous  sword  '^Morglay"  he  won 
in  battle ;  his  horse  "Arundel"  was  the  gift  of 
Josian.  Still  more  romantic  episodes  in  his 
story  are  his  carrying  his  own  death-warrant  in 
a  sealed  letter  to  the  vassal  Brademond ;  his  es- 
cape from  his  noisome  dungeon  after  seven 
years'  imprisonment ;  and  recovery  of  his  wife, 


BEWICK  — BEZA 


who  had  preserved  his  love,  though  nominally 
the  wife  of  King  Ynor  of  Mombraunt.  He 
next  returned  to  England  to  avenge  his  father's 
death,  then  sailed  for  Ermony  and  defeated 
Ynor  in  a  desperate  battle.  His  last  great  fight 
was  in  the  streets  of  London,  when  he  slaugh- 
tered 60,000  citizens  and  forced  King  Edgar 
to  grant  him  terms.  Thirty-three  }'ears  he  then 
spent  in  love  and  perfect  happiness  at  Ermony, 
dying  at  the  same  moment  as  his  wife,  while 
his  famous  steed  Arundel  had  died  just  before. 
The  romance  was  edited  by  Dr.  E.  Kolbing  for 
the  Early  English  Text  Society  in  1885. 

Bewick,  bu'ik,  Thomas,  English  wood- 
engraver  :  b.  Cherryburn,  Northimiberland,  12 
Aug.  1753;  d.  Gateshead,  8  Nov.  1828.  He  early 
showed  a  great  talent  for  drawing,  and  was 
apprenticed  to  an  engraver  in  Newcastle.  The 
celebrated  Dr.  Hutton,  of  Woolwich,  then  a 
schoolmaster  in  Newcastle,  was  preparing 
his  great  work  on  mensuration,  and  having 
employed  Bewick's  master  in  getting  up  the 
woodcuts  for  illustrating  it,  the  execution  of 
these  was  entrusted  to  the  young  apprentice. 
Bewick  performed  the  work  so  admirably  that 
his  master  advised  him  to  turn  his  attention  to 
wood-engraving,  and  accordingly  with  this  view 
he  proceeded  to  London.  He  returned,  however, 
to  Newcastle  after  a  short  time,  and  established 
himself  there  in  partnership  with  his  former 
master.  His  turn  of  mind  led  him  to  the 
study  of  natural  objects,  more  especially  ani- 
mals; and  in  1790  appeared  his  "^History  of 
Quadrupeds,'  the  beauty  of  the  illustrations  of 
which  attracted  universal  attention,  so  superior 
were  they  to  anything  hitherto  produced  by  the 
art  of  wood-engraving.  In  1797  appeared  the 
first,  and  in  1804  the  second  volume  of  his 
^British  Birds,^  generally  regarded  as  the  finest 
of  his  works.  Bewick  has  never  been  surpassed 
in  his  spirited  delineations  of  animals,  and  the 
admirable  naturalness  with  which  the  acces- 
sories and  backgrounds  of  the  drawings,  such 
as  foliage,  grass,  and  other  rural  objects,  are 
represented.  The  tail-pieces  to  chapters  through- 
out his  works  are  of  the  highest  excellence, 
and  often  display  a  rich  vein  of  humor.  His 
illustrated  edition  of  ^yEsop's  Fables^  appeared 
in  1818.  See  Clement,  "^Painters,  Sculptors,  Ar- 
chitects, and  Engravers^  (Boston,  1899)  ;  Dob- 
son,  ^Thomas  Bewick  and  His  Pupils'  ;  Tj-tler, 
^Modern  Painters. •• 

Bewley,  Anthony,  American  abolitionist 
b.  Tennessee,  22  ^lay  1804 ;  d.  Fort  Worth, 
Texas,  13  Sept.  i860.  A  Methodist  clergyman 
opposed  to  slavery,  in  1858  he  was  driven  from 
Texas  for  preaching  according  to  his  convic- 
tions. Against  the  advice  of  friends  he  returned 
in  i860,  but  remained  only  a  few  weeks,  being 
again  obliged  to  flee  for  his  life.  A  reward  of 
$1,000  was  offered  for  his  apprehension  ;  he  was 
seized  in  Missouri,  carried  to  Fort  Worth,  and 
there  hung  by  the  mob,  the  only  reason  for 
whose  act  was  that  he  had  maintained  human 
slavery  to  be  unjust. 

Bey,  ba,  among  the  Turks,  signifies  a  gov- 
ernor of  a  town,  seaport,  or  small  district.  The 
Turks  write  the  word  beg   (q.v.). 

Beyer,  bl-er,  Samuel  Walker,  American 
geologist:  b.  Clearfield.  Pa.,  15  'Slay  1865.  He 
graduated  at  Iowa  State  College,  1889,  and  at 
Johns  Hopkins  University  1895.  He  is  pro- 
fessor of  geology  and  mining  engineering  in  Iowa 
Vol.  2—38. 


State  College.  As  special  assistant  on  the  Iowa 
Geological  Survey  he  has  prepared  reports  on 
the  geology  of  Boone,  Marshall,  Story,  and 
Hardin  counties,  and  annual  reports  on  the 
mineral  productions  of  the  State.  In  1897  he 
was  a  delegate  to  the  International  Geologic  Con- 
gress at  St.  Petersburg. 

Beyle,  Marie-Henri,  bal,  ma-re-6h-re  (pseu- 
donym De  Stendhal),  French  author:  b.  Gre- 
noble, 23  Jan.  1783;  d.  23  March  1842.  He 
held  civil  and  military  appointments  under  the 
empire ;  took  part  in  the  Russian  campaign  of 
1812;  thence  until  1821  lived  at  Milan,  chiefly 
occupied  with  works  on  music  and  painting. 
After  nine  years'  residence  at  Paris  he  became 
in  1830  consul  at  Trieste,  and  in  1833  at 
Civita  Vecchia.  In  1841  he  returned  to  Paris, 
where  he  died.  The  distinguishing  feature  of 
his  works  was  the  application  of  acutely  analytic 
faculties  to  sentiment  in  all  its  varieties,  his 
best  books  being  the  treatise  ^On  Love'  (1822)  ; 
<The  Red  and  the  Black>  (1830);  <  History  of 
Painting  in  Italy^  (1817)  ;  ^Racine  and  Shake- 
speare* (1827)  ;  and  *Life  of  Napoleon,*  etc.  A 
collective  edition  of  his  works  appeared  in  18 
volumes  in  1855-6,  and  his  *^Correspondance 
Inedite*    in  two  volumes  in   1855. 

Beyrout.     See  Beirut. 

Beza,  be'za,  or  de  Beze,  de  baz,  Theodore, 
Calvinistic  divine :  b.  of  a  noble  family  at  \'eze- 
lay,  in  Burgundy,  24  June  1519;  d.  13  Oct.  1605. 
He  was  educated  in  Orleans  under  Melchior 
Volmar,  a  German  philologer  devoted  to  the 
Reformation ;  and,  early  familiar  with  the  ancient 
classical  literature,  he  became  known  at  the 
age  of  20  years  as  a  Latin  poet,  by  his  petulant 
and  witty  "^Juvenilia*  (a  collection  of  poems  of 
which  he  was  afterward  ashamed).  In  1539  he 
was  made  a  licentiate  of  law,  and  went  to  Paris. 
He  received  from  his  uncle  the  reversion  of  his 
valuable  abbey  Froidmond,  and  lived  on  the 
income  of  two  benefices  and  on  property  which 
he  inherited  from  a  brother.  His  habits  were 
dissipated,  but  a  clandestine  marriage  in  1543 
recalled  him  from  his  excesses,  and  a  dangerous 
illness  confirming  the  intention  which  he  had 
formed  at  Orleans  of  devoting  himself  to  the 
service  of  the  Reformed  Church,  he  went  to 
Geneva  with  his  wife  in  1547.  Soon  after  he 
accepted  a  Greek  professorship  at  Lausanne. 
During  his  10  years  in  this  office  he  wrote  a 
tragi-comic  drama  in  French, — *The  Sacrifice 
of  Abraham,* — which  was  received  with  much 
approbation ;  delivered  lectures  (which  were 
numerously  attended)  on  the  Epistle  to  the 
Romans  and  the  Epistles  of  Peter  (which  served 
as  the  basis  of  his  Latin  translation  of  the  New 
Testament,  of  which  he  afterw^ard  published 
several  editions)  :  finished  Marot's  translation  of 
the  Psalms  in  French  verse ;  and  obtained  to 
such  a  degree  the  confidence  of  the  Swiss  Cal- 
vinists  that  he  was  sent  in  1558  on  an  embassy 
to  the  Protestant  princes  of  (Germany  to  obtain 
their  intercession  at  the  French  court  for  the 
release  of  the  Huguenots  imprisoned  in  Paris. 
In  the  following  year  he  w^ent  to  Geneva  as  a 
preacher,  and  soon  after  became  a  professor  of 
theology  and  the  most  active  assistant  of  Cahin, 
to  whom  he  had  already  recommended  hirnself 
by  several  works,  in  which  many  of  the  views 
of  that  eminent  theologian  were  advocated  with 
great  zeal  and  no  small  measure  of  ability,  so 
that  he  was  generally  regarded  as  Calvin's  ablest 


BEZA'S  CODEX  — BHADRINATH 


coadjutor,  and  the  person  destined  to  be  his 
successor.  His  talents  for  negotiation  were  now 
often  put  in  requisition  by  the  Calvinists.  He 
was  sent  to  the  court  of  Anthony,  king  of 
Navarre,  at  Nerac,  to  obtain  toleration  for  the 
French  Huguenots ;  and  at  his  desire  he  ap- 
peared, 1561,  at  the  religious  conference  at 
Poissy,  where  he  spoke  in  behalf  of  his  party 
with  a  boldness,  presence  of  mind,  and  energy 
which  gained  him  the  esteem  of  the  French 
court.  He  often  preached  in  Paris  before  the 
queen  of  Navarre  and  the  Prince  of  Conde ; 
also  in  the  suburbs.  At  the  conference  of  St. 
Germain,  in  1562,  he  spoke  strongly  against 
the  worship  of  images,  and  after  the  commence- 
ment of  the  civil  war  accompanied  the  Prince 
of  Conde  as  chaplain,  and  on  the  capture  of 
the  prince  joined  Admiral  Coligny.  After  the 
restoration  of  peace  he  returned  to  Geneva  in 
1563,  where,  besides  discharging  the  duties  of 
his  offices,  he  continued  to  engage  in  theological 
controversies  in  support  of  the  Calvinists ;  and 
after  Calvin's  death  in  1564  became  his  suc- 
cessor, and  was  considered  the  first  theologian 
of  this  Church.  He  presided  in  the  synods  of 
the  French  Calvinists  at  La  Rochelle  (1571)  and 
at  Nismes  (1572),  where  he  opposed  Morel's 
proposal  for  the  alteration  of  clerical  discipline; 
was  sent  by  Conde  (1574)  to  the  court  of  the 
Elector  Palatine ;  and  at  the  religious  confer- 
ence at  Montpellier  (1586)  opposed  the  theo- 
logians at  Wiirtemberg,  particularly  James  An- 
dreas. At  the  age  of  69  years  he  married  his 
second  wife  (1588),  and  still  continued  to 
repel,  with  the  power  of  truth  and  wit,  the 
attacks  and  calumnies  which  his  enemies,  apos- 
tatized Calvinists  (such  as  Bolsec),  Lutherans, 
and  Jesuits,  heaped  upon  him.  They  reported  in 
1597  that  he  had  died,  and  returned  before  his 
death  to  the  Roman  Catholic  faith.  Beza,  now 
78  years  old,  met  his  assailants  in  a  poem  full  of 
youthful  enthusiasm,  and  resisted  in  the  same 
year  the  attempts  of  St.  Francis  de  Sales  to  con- 
vert him,  and  the  alluring  offers  of  the  Pope.  In 
1600  he  visited  Henry  IV.  in  the  territory  of 
Geneva,  who  presented  him  with  500  ducats. 
Among  his  many  works,  his  exegetic  writings, 
and  the  able  and  correct  ^History  of  Calvinism 
in  France  from  1521  to  1563,^  which  is  ascribed 
to  him,  are  still  much  esteemed.  Beza's  name  is 
associated  with  the  Codex  which  he  presented 
to  the  University  of  Cambridge,  for  an  account 
of  which  see  Bible. 

Beza's  Codex.     See   Bible. 

Bez'ant,  a  round,  flat  piece  of  pure  gold, 
without  any  impression,  supposed  to  have  been 
at  one  time  the  current  coin  of  Byzantium.  Bez- 
ants are  frequently  employed  as  one  of  the 
charges  in  heraldry,  a  custom  supposed  to  have 
been  introduced  by  the  Crusaders.  Its  value  was 
about  $2. 

Beziers,  ba-ze-a,  France,  a  town  in  the 
department  of  Herault,  38  miles  southwest  of 
Montpellier ;  situated  on  a  height  above  the 
Orb,  and  on  the  Canal  du  Midi,  a  few  miles 
from  the  Mediterranean,  to  which  there  runs  a 
tramway  line.  It  is  surrounded  by  old  walls, 
and  though  its  streets  are  narrow,  it  is  tolerably 
well  built.  Its  most  conspicuous  edifice  is  the 
cathedral,  a  Gothic  structure,  crowning  the 
height  on  which  the  town  stands,  and  possessing 
a  fine  semicircular  choir  surrounded  by  columns 
of  red  marble.     The  city  has  a  communal  col- 


lege, a  museum,  a  library,  and  a  society  of  eco- 
nomics and  archjeology.  Its  manufactures  con- 
sist chiefly  of  woolens,  silks,  hosiery,  chemicals, 
spirits,  etc.  In  1209  it  was  the  scene  of  a  hor- 
rible massacre  of  the  Albigenses  by  Simon  de 
Montfort,  in  which  20,000  persons  were  killed. 
Pop.   (1896)  48,012. 

Bezique,  a  card  game  which  crystallized 
into  official  form  in  1887.  Two  packs  of  cards 
are  used,  two  players  participate  and  the  cards 
rank,  ace  high,  then  ten,  king,  queen,  knave,  nine, 
eight,  and  seven.  All  cards  below  that  are 
discarded  from  both  packs.  Eight  cards  are 
dealt  to  each  player.  Trumps  may  be  determined 
either  by  turning  up  the  first  card  of  the  stack 
or  by  the  suit  of  the  first  marriage.  The 
non-dealer  leads  for  the  first  trick,  and  the 
winner  of  each  trick  has  the  succeeding  lead. 
After  each  trick,  each  player  draws  one  card 
from  the  top  of  the  stack,  the  winner  of  the 
trick  taking  the  top  card.  The  playing  is  as 
in  whist,  the  leader  taking  the  trick  unless  his 
opponent  plays  a  higher  card  of  the  same  suit 
or  a  trump.  It  is  not  necesssary  to  follow 
suit  until  the  stack  is  exhausted,  when  one  must 
do  so  and  take  each  trick,  if  possible.  Counting 
is  done  by  means  of  the  values  of  the  cards ; 
each  ace  or  ten-spot  taken  in  a  trick  counts 
10,  the  winner  of  the  last  trick  of  each  hand 
scores  10,  and  if  the  trump  is  turned,  both 
sevens  count  10  for  the  turner,  and  if  one  ex- 
changes from  his  hand  a  seven  of  trumps  for 
another  turned  trump  or  if  one  declares  the 
other  seven  of  trumps  10  more  is  scored.  The 
game  is  won  by  the  player  who  first  makes 
1,000  points,  and  if  his  opponent  has  not  made 
500  the  game  counts  double.  There  are  certain 
combinations  of  cards  other  than  the  above, 
which,  when  declared,  count  as  follows :  Dou- 
ble bezique  (both  queens  of  spades  and  both 
knaves  of  diamonds)  500;  sequence  of  five  high- 
est trumps,  250;  and  4  aces,  100;  any  4  kings, 
80;  any  4  queens,  60;  any  4  knaves,  40;  bezique 
(queen  of  spades  and  knave  of  diamonds),  40; 
royal  marriage  (king  and  queen  of  trumps), 
40;  marriage  (king  and  queen  of  same  suit),  20. 
A  declaration  is  made  by  placing  the  declared 
cards  face  up  on  the  table  where  they  remain 
till  played  or  the  stack  is  exhausted,  except  in 
the  case  of  the  seven  of  trumps.  To  score,  a 
declaration  can  only  be  made  after  winning  a 
trick  and  before  drawing,  and  but  one  declara- 
tion can  be  made  at  a  time.  After  a  card  has 
been  used  in  one  combination  it  may  be  used 
to  form  another,  excepting  when  used  to 
form  an  equal  or  inferior  combination  in  the 
same  class  as  before.  A  player  need  not  de- 
clare a  combination  which  he  holds  and  only 
before  the  stack  has  been  exhausted  can  a 
declaration  be  made.  Consult :  A.  Howard 
Cady's  treatise,  for  details  and  rules. 

Bezo'ar,  concretions  found  in  the  fourth 
stomach  of  many  of  the  hcrbivora.  notably  goats, 
at  one  time  held  in  high  repute  because  of  fan- 
cied miraculous  healing  properties. 

Bhadrinath,  bha-dri-nath',  a  town  in  north- 
ern Hindustan,  on  the  Bishengunga,  celebrated 
for  its  temple  of  Vishnu,  with  a  hot  mineral 
spring  in  whose  waters  both  sexes  bathe  indis- 
criminately, to  wash  away  their  sins.  Some 
50.000  pilgrims  visit  the  place  annually.  The 
temple  has  been  frequently  overthrown  by  earth- 
quakes.    The  principal  idol  is  a  figure  of  black 


BHAGALPUR  —  BHILS 


marble,  clothed  in  gold  and  silver  brocade  while 
the  season  of  pilgrimage  lasts,  and  then  stripped 
and  stowed  away  in  a  vault  the  rest  of  the 
year.  The  Hindus  believe  that  in  the  neighbor- 
ing mountains  some  holy  anchorites  have  lived 
for  several  thousand  years.  Their  place  of  hab- 
itation is  a  cavern  perpetually  choked  with  snow, 
which  forbids  the  approach  of  the  curious  and 
the  skeptical.  The  Bhadrinath  peaks  in  the 
neighborhood  are  above  22,000  feet  high. 

Bhagalpur,  b'ha-gal-poor',  a  city  of  Hin- 
dustan, m  Bengal,  capital  of  a  district  and  divi- 
sion of  the  same  name,  situated  on  the  Ganges, 
113  miles  northwest  of  Moorshedabad.  In  the 
town  and  neighborhood  are  some  interesting  Mo- 
hammedan shrines  ;  and  there  are  here  also  two 
monuments,  one  erected  (in  1780)  by  natives, 
and  the  other  erected  by  government  in  memory 
of  Augustus  Cleveland,  the  conciliator  of  the 
formerly  turbulent  and  marauding  hill  tribes 
of  Sonthals.  There  are  several  indigo  works 
in  the  neighborhood.  Pop.  (1901)  75,275.  The 
division  of  Bhagalpur  lies  between  that  of 
Rajshahi  on  the  east  and  that  of  Patna  on  the 
west.  It  has  an  area  of  20,511  square  miles. 
Pop.  (1901)  8,721,484.  The  district  of  Bhagal- 
pur is  fertile,  well  watered,  and  highly  culti- 
vated. It  is  divided  into  two  unequal  portions 
by  the  Ganges.  Area,  4,226  square  miles ;  pop. 
(1901)  2,088,560. 

Bhagavadgita,  bha'ga-vad-ge'ta  (Sanskrit, 
the  Divine  Song),  the  title  of  a  religious-philo- 
sophical didactic  poem  interwoven  as  an  episode 
in  the  great  Indian  epic  of  the  Mahabharata 
(q.v.). 

Bhamo,  bha-mo',  India,  a  town  of  Burma, 
on  the  Upper  Irrawaddy,  about  40  miles  from 
the  Chinese  frontier,  and  180  north-northwest  of 
Mandalay,  with  which  it  has  railway  communi- 
cation. About  20  miles  above  Bhamo  the  river 
suddenly  narrows  from  1,000  to  150  yards  and 
flows  through  a  roclcj'  gorge  subject  to  eddies 
and  back-waters.  Navigation  is  at  that  point 
very  difficult,  and  at  times  impossible.  Bhamo 
is  the  starting-point  of  caravans  to  Yunnan, 
and  will  become  one  of  the  great  emporiums  of 
the  East  in  the  event  of  a  regular  overland  trade 
being  established  between  India  and  Western 
China.     Pop.    (estimated)    about   7,000. 

Bhang,  bang,  an  Eastern  name  for  hemp 
(Cajinabis  Indica)    (q.v.). 

Bhartpur,  bhert-poor',  or  Bhurtpore.   (i)  A 

native  state  of  India  with  an  area  of  1,961  square 
miles.  The  surface  is  generally  low  and  the 
state  is  scantily  supplied  with  water :  soil  gen- 
erally light  and  sandy ;  chief  productions,  corn, 
cotton,  sugar,  and  salt.  It  has  been  under  Brit- 
ish protection  since  1826.  Pop.  (1901)  626,000. 
(2)  A  town,  the  capital  of  the  above  state,  on  an 
extensive  and  fertile  plain,  no  miles  south- 
southwest  of  Delhi.  It  covers  an  area  about 
four  miles  in  circuit,  and  was  so  strongly 
fortified  that  in  1805  it  stood  a  siege  by  Lord 
Lake  of  14  weeks,  and  cost  the  besiegers  3,100 
men.  In  a  second  siege,  in  1826.  its  resistance 
to  Lord  Combermere  was  less  successful.  The 
fortifications  have  been  demolished,  but  the  fort 
still  exists,  and  is  enclosed  by  a  wet  ditch 
and  a  wall  of  hewn  stone,  which  taken  together 
are  60  feet  high.  Within  the  fort  is  the  rajah's 
palace,  built  of  red  and  yellow  freestone  in  the 


Mogul  style,  and  picturesquely  crowning  an  emi- 
nence surrounded  by  flower-gardens  and  foun- 
tains.    Pop.    (1901)   43,000. 

Bhartrihari,  bhar-tre-ha're,  Indian  poet, 
author  of  a  book  of  apothegms.  According  to 
the  legend  he  was  the  brother  of  King  Vikra- 
maditya,  who  lived  in  the  ist  century  B.C.  The 
collection  of  300  apothegms  (short  poems)  bear- 
ing his  name  present  us  with  graceful  descrip- 
tions of  nature,  charming  pictures  of  love, 
shrewd  remarks  on  everyday  life,  and  profound 
thoughts  on  the  Deity  and  the  immortality  of 
the  soul.  Bhartrihari  was  the  first  Indian  writer 
who  became  known  in  Europe,  200  of  the  apo- 
thegms having  been  translated  by  the  missionary 
Abraham  Roger  and  published  at  Leyden  (1653). 
His  actual  personality  has  been  much  discussed 
without  any  very  satisfactory  conc'usion  having 
been  reached.  The  weight  of  opinion  inclines  to 
belief  in  his  existence,  and  that  he  was  a  poet 
of  a  philosophical  cast,  possibly  a  grammarian 
also,  and  very  likely  of  roj'al  descent.  See  Von 
Bohlen,  ^Bhartrihari's  Sententise'  (1833); 
Tawney,  ^Two  Centuries  of  Bhartrihari^ 
(1877)  ;  Wortham,  ^Translation  of  the  Satakas 
of  Bhartrihari*  (1886)  ;  More,  ^A  Century  of 
Indian  Epigrams.  Chiefly  from  the  Sanskrit  of 
Bhartrihari'  (1898)  ;  Kale  and  Gurjar,  ^Xitisa- 
taka  and  Vairagysataka,  with  Notes  and  an 
English  Translation*    (1898). 

Bhatti,  bhat'te,  Indian  epic  poet  of  the  6th 
or  the  7th  century.  His  poem,  named  after  him, 
*Bhattikavyam.,^  is  in  22  cantos.  Its  theme  is 
the  deeds  of  Rama;  but  the  author  designed  the 
work  to  be  also  an  exemplification  of  the  rules 
of  grammatical  and  rhetorical  composition.  It 
was  published  with  a  two-fold  commentary  at 
Calcutta   (1828). 

Bhavabhuti,  bha-va-bhoo'te,  surnamed 
SRi-K.\XTH.\,  Indian  dramatist,  of  the  first  half 
of  the  8th  century.  He  wrote  at  least  three  plays, 
the  *^Mahaviracharita*  (*4ife  of  the  great 
hero**),  and  the  ^Uttararamacharita*  ("later  life 
of  Rama'*),  forming  together,  in  seven  acts 
each,  a  dramatized  version  of  the  story  of  the 
Ramayana  ;  and  the  "^Malati-madhava.*  a  domes- 
tic drama  in  ten  acts,  full  of  life  and  incident. 
Bhavabhuti  is  often  compared  with  Kalidasa, 
whom  he  equaled  in  vigor  and  variety,  but 
hardly  in  genius.  All  three  plays  have  been 
translated  into  English.  See  Levi,  ^Le  theatre 
indien*    (1890). 

Bhawalpur,  bha-wal-poor',  or  Bahawalpur, 
a  state  of  the  Punjab,  British  India,  south  of  the 
Indus  and  Sutlej  rivers.  It  is  chiefly  a  desert 
of  shifting  sand.  Only  the  river  banks  are  cul- 
tivable. The  inhabitants  are  Jats,  Baluchis,  and 
Afghans,  the  greater  part  Mohammedans.  Area, 
17,285  square  miles.  Pop.  (1901)  720,000. 
Bhawalpur,  the  capital,  is  on  a  branch  of  ths 
Sutlej.  It  is  enclosed  by  gardens  and  mud 
walls,  four  miles  in  circumference ;  noted  for 
the  manufacture  of  a  kind  of  turban  and  scarf 
very  popular  among  the  Hindus ;  also  produces 
considerable  woolen,  silk,  and  cotton  cloth,  in- 
digo, alum,  and  saltpetre.     Pop.  14,000. 

Bhils,  bels.  or  Bheels,  a  Dravidic  race 
inhabiting  the  Vindhya,  Satpura,  and  Satmala 
Hills,  a  relic  of  the  Indian  aborigines  driven 
from  the  plains  by  the  Aryan  Rajputs.  They 
appear  to  have  been  orderly  and  industrious 
under  the  Delhi  emperors ;  but  on  the  transfer 


BHILSA  —  BIANCHINI 


of  the  power  in  the  i8th  century  from  the 
Moguls  to  the  Marathas  they  asserted  their 
independence,  and  being  treated  as  outlaws  took 
to  the  hills.  Various  attempts  to  subdue  them 
were  made  by  the  Gaekwar  and  by  the  British 
in  1818  without  success.  A  body  of  them  was, 
however,  subsequently  reclaimed,  and  a  Bheel 
corps  formed,  which  stormed  the  retreats  of 
the  rest  of  the  race  and  reduced  them  to  com- 
parative order.  The  hill  Bheels  wear  little 
clothing,  and  live  precariously  on  grain,  wild 
roots,  and  fruits,  vermin,  etc.,  but  the  lowland 
Bheels  are  in  many  respects  Hinduized.  Their 
total  numbers  are  about  7so,ooo.  See  Rowney, 
*Wild  Tribes  of  India'  (1882)  ;  Reclus,  < Primi- 
tive Folk'    (1891). 

Bhilsa>  bel-sa,  or  Bilsa,  a  town  of  Hindu- 
stan, on  the  Betwa,  280  miles  southwest  of  Alla- 
habad. It  has  a  fort  enclosed  by  a  ditch  and  a 
stone  wall  surmounted  by  square  towers,  and 
is  a  place  of  Hindu  pilgrimage.  One  of  the 
curiosities  of  the  place  is  a  brass  gun  measur- 
ing ig^2  feet  in  length,  with  a  bore  of  10  inches ; 
elegantly  proportioned,  highly  ornamented,  and 
said  to  have  been  made  by  order  of  the  Mogul 
emperor,  Jehangir.  Fine  tobacco  is  produced  in 
the  A'icinity.  In  the  neighborhood  are  some  very 
large  and  remarkable  ancient  Buddhist  monu- 
ments known  as  topes,  one  of  the  principal  being 
a  dome-shaped  structure  70  or  80  feet  in  height. 
Pop.  (1891)  9,700. 

Bhima,  be'ma,   Beemah,   or  Bimah,    (i)    a 

god  in  Hindu  mythology,  the  son  of  Pritha  (or 
Kunti)  by  Vayu,  the  god  of  the  wind,  remarka- 
ble for  his  great  size  and  strength;  (2)  the. 
name  of  a  river  of  India  rising  in  the  Poona 
district  of  Bombay  and  flowing  southeast  to  the 
Kistnah  River,  about  400  miles  in   length. 

Bhiwana,  bhe-wji'ne,  a  tow^n  of  India  in 
the  Punjab,  district  of  Hissar.  It  is  the  trading 
centre  of  its  district,  exporting  metals,  sugar, 
and  spices.     Pop.  35,000. 

Bhopal,  bhd-pal'.  i.  A  native  State  of 
central  India,  with  an  area  of  6,874  square  miles. 
The  country  is  full  of  jungles,  and  is  traversed 
by  a  hilly  tract,  forming  part  of  the  Vindhya 
Mountains.  The  soil  is  fertile,  yielding  wheat, 
maize,  millet,  pease,  and  other  vegetable 
productions  peculiar  to  central  India.  Sugar, 
tobacco,  ginger,  and  cotton  are  the  chief  ex- 
ports. The  district  is  well  watered  by  the  Ner- 
budda,  Betwa,  and  other  minor  streams.  The 
state  of  Bhopal  was  founded  by  an  Afghan 
adventurer,  named  Dost  Mohammed  Khan,  who 
in  1723  succeeded  in  establishing  himself  here 
by  the  countenance  of  Aurungzebe,  on  whose 
death  he  assumed  the  title  of  nabob,  which  was 
retained  by  his  successors.  Bhopal  has  all  along 
been  friendly  in  its  relations  with  the  British. 
In  1818  the  state  was  placed  under  British 
protection.  Pop.  (1901)  i,i98,35;o;  (2)  a  town, 
capital  of  the  above  state,  on  the  boundary  be- 
tween INIalwah  and  Gundwana,  108  miles  east  of 
Oojein.  It  was  defended  successfully  in  1813 
against  the  forces  of  Scindia  and  ihe  rajah  of 
Nagpore.  It  is  surrounded  by  a  wall  two  miles 
in  circuit,  and  contains  a  fort.  Outside  is  an- 
other fort  on  a  large  rock,  the  residence  of  the 
ruler  of  Bhopal.  Among  other  buildings  of  note 
are  two  mosques,  arsenal,  mint,  and  the  palace 
of  the  Begum.  Large  artificial  lakes  supply 
good  water.     Pop.   (1891)  70,338. 


Bhuj,  or  Bhooj,  the  chief  town  of 
Cutch  in  India,  Bombay  presidency,  at  the  base 
of  a  fortified  hill,  with  military  cantonments, 
high  school  and  school  of  art,  mausoleums,  of 
the  Raos  or  chiefs  of  Cutch,  pagodas,  etc., 
including  a  temple  dedicated  to  the  cobra 
di  capello.  Bhuj  is  famous  for  its  manufactures 
of  gold  and  silver.     Pop.   (1891)    25,421. 

Bhutan,  bhoo-tan',  an  independent  State  in 
the  eastern  Himalayas,  with  an  area  of  about 
16,800  square  miles,  lying  between  Tibet  on  the 
north  and  Assam  and  the  Jalpaiguri  district  on 
the  south,  and  consisting  of  rugged  and  lofty 
mountains,  abounding  in  sublime  and  picturesque 
scenery.  Pop.  (estimated)  200,000.  The  Bhu- 
tanese  are  a  backward  race,  governed  by  a 
Dharm  Rajah,  regarded  as  an  incarnation  of 
Deity,  and  by  a  Deb  Rajah,  with  a  coun- 
cil of  eight.  They  are  nominally  Buddhists. 
After  various  aggressive  incursions  and  the 
capture  and  ill  treatment  of  Ashley  Eden, 
the  British  envoy,  in  1863,  they  were  compelled 
to  cede  to  the  British  coasiderable  portions  of 
territory,  in  return  for  a  yearly  allowance  of 
£2,500. 

Bia'fra,  Bight  of,  a  large  bay  on  the  west 
coast  of  Africa,  at  the  head  of  the  Gulf  of 
Guinea,  between  Capes  Formosa  and  Lopez.  The 
principal  rivers  flowing  into  it  are  the  Niger, 
the  New  and  Old  Calabar  rivers,  the  Rio  del 
Rey,  the  Cameroon,  and  the  Gaboon;  its  islands 
are  Fernando  Po  (Spanish),  and  St.  Thomas' 
and  Prince's  (Portuguese).  Opposite  Fernando 
Po  are  the  Cameroons. 

Bialystok,  byal-e-stok',  or  Bielostok,  a 
town  of  Russian  Poland,  province  of  Grodno,  on 
the  Bialy,  45  miles  south-southwest  of  Grodno, 
with  which  and  Warsaw  it  is  connected  by  rail. 
It  is  a  well-built,  handsome  town,  with  a  spa- 
cious market,  gymnasium,  and  several  churches, 
and  has  among  its  edifices  a  palace  which  be- 
longed to  the  counts  of  Braniski,  and  was  once 
known  as  the  Polish  Versailles.  Its  manufac- 
tures are  woolen  goods,  leather,  hats,  soap,  etc. 
Pop.    (1897)   63,927. 

Biancavilla,  byan-ka-vel'la  (Italian  hianca, 
white,  and  z'illa,  town),  a  city  of  Sicily  situated 
on  the  slope  of  Mount  Etna,  20  miles  northeast 
of  Catania,  founded  in  1480  as  an  Albanian 
colony.  Lava  is  employed  for  paving  its  streets, 
and  in  its  neighborhood  are  the  noted  grottoes 
of  Scila  and  Archi,  the  former  basaltic,  the 
latter  in  the  lava  of  1607  with  a  tunnel  half  a 
mile  in  extent.  Wine  and  grain  are  produced  in 
the  district  and  all  the  cotton  in  this  portion  of 
Sicily  is  called  Biancavilla.    Pop.  (1901)   13,358. 

Bianchi,  byan'ke,  Francesco  (called  II 
Frari),  Italian  painter:  b.  Modena,  1447;  d. 
1510.  He  was  the  instructor  of  Correggio, 
according  to  Vidriani,  and  his  woiks  were 
esteemed  for  graceful  design  and  agreeable  col- 
oring. Among  his  few  works  extant  are  a 
•^Madonna  with  Saints,'  now  in  the  Louvre.  He 
must  not  be  confounded  with  Federigo  Bianchi, 
a  Milanese  artist,  born  about  the  end  of  the  i6th 
century.  The  paintings  of  the  latter  are  numer- 
ous in  northern  Italy,  and  are  held  in_  high 
esteem.  He  wrote  a  volume  of  biographies  of 
painters. 

Bianchini,  be-an-ke'ne,  Francesco,  Italian 
astronomer:  b.  Verona,  13  Dec.  1662;  d.  Rome, 
2  March  1729.    He  was  intended  for  the  clerical 


BIARD  — BIBIRU 


profession,  but  repaired  to  Rome,  and  applied 
himself  to  jurisprudence,  and  continued  the 
study  of  experimental  physics,  astronomy,  etc., 
as  well  as  of  Greek,  Hebrew,  and  other  lan- 
guages. Pope  Alexander  VIII.  bestowed  on 
Bianchini  a  rich  benefice,  with  the  appointment 
of  tutor  and  librarian  to  his  nephew,  the  Cardi- 
nal Pietro  Ottoboni.  Pope  Clement  XI.  also 
patronized  him,  and  appointed  him  secretary  to 
the  commission  emplo3'ed  in  the  correction  of 
the  calendar.  Being  on  a  tour  through  France, 
Holland,  and  England,  he  formed  the  idea  of 
drawing  a  meridian  in  Italy,  from  one  sea  to 
the  other,  in  imitation  of  that  which  Cassini 
had  drawn  through  France.  He  was  occupied 
eight  years  at  his  own  expense  in  that  work ; 
but  other  employments  withdrew  his  attention 
from  it,  and  it  remained  unfinished.  He  con- 
cluded his  career  with  two  important  works 
(1727)  on  the  planet  Venus,  and  on  the  sepul- 
chre of  Augustus. 

Biard,  Auguste  Frangois,  byar,  a-gust  froii- 
swa,  French  genre  painter:  b.  Lyons,  27  June 
1801  :  d.  near  Fontainebleau,  8  July  1882.  He 
traveled  extensively,  vi.siting  Spain,  Greece, 
Syria,  Egypt,  Mexico,  Brazil,  etc.  Among  his 
best  known  pictures  are  the  ^  Babes  in  the  Wood* 
(1828);  the  ^Beggar's  Family*  (1836);  the 
< Combat  with  Polar  Bears*  (1839)  ;  and  ^The 
Strolling  Players,*  now  in  the  Luxembourg.  A 
strong  element  of  caricature  runs  through  most 
of   his    works. 

Biard,  Peter,  French  missionary  in  Amer- 
ica:  b.  Grenoble,  1565;  d.  1622.  He  was  one  of 
the  first  two  missionary  priests  sent  to  New 
France,  and  with  his  companion.  Masse,  on  10 
June  161 1,  he  wrote  the  earliest  letters  sent  by 
the  Jesuit  order  from  Canada.  He  at  once 
began  a  stud\  of  Indian  languages,  established 
friendly  relations  with  the  Indians  on  the  Ken- 
nebec in  1612,  and  in  1613  founded  a  colony 
on  the  island  of  Mount  Desert.  The  colony  was 
soon  destroyed  by  the  forces  of  Argall,  deputy 
governor  of  Virginia,  and  Biard,  being  captured, 
was  sent  to  England.  This  enterprise  of  Argall's 
marks  the  actual  beginning  of  hostilities  be- 
tween the  French  and  English  in  North  Amer- 
ica. Biard  was  liberated  after  a  short  time, 
and  returning  to  Lyons,  published  in  1616,  ^Re- 
lation de  la  Nouvelle  France,  et  du  Voyage  des 
peres  Jesuites  dans  cette  Countree.*  This  is  the 
earliest  of  the  40  volumes  of  "^Jesuit  Relations* 
(1632-72),  which  are  such  valuable  storehouses 
of  material  for  early  American  history. 

Biarritz,  bya-rets,  a  fashionable  watering 
place  of  France,  department  of  Basses-Pyrenees, 
five  miles  south  of  Bayonne.  It  is  a  favorite  of 
bathers  and  other  persons  who  come  from  all 
parts  of  Europe,  and  especially  of  the  Basque 
mountaineers,  who  deem  it  an  obligation  to  drink 
of  the  mineral  waters  once  a  year,  as  well  as  to 
bathe  in  the  sea  of  Biarritz.  In  1856,  the  place 
acquired  additional  importance  from  being  made 
the  summer  residence  of  Napoleon  III.  and  his 
court.  Since  then  its  popularity  both  in  w'inter 
and  summer,  has  steadily  increased.  It  has  no 
industries  and  is  composed  almost  entirely  of 
hotels  and  lodging  houses.     Pop.  12,000. 

Biart,  byar,  Lucien,  French  novelist,  poet 
and  writer  of  travels :  b.  Versailles,  21  June 
1829.  He  published  a  number  of  novels,  con- 
taining masterly  descriptions  of  Mexican  and 
South  American  nature  and  customs.     Among 


his  works  are  ^The  Mexican  Women*  (1S53), 
poems;  "^ Adventures  of  a  Young  Naturalist* 
(1869)  ;  <The  Clients  of  Dr.  Bernagius*  (.i873)  5 
^\cross  America*    (1876). 

Bias,  be'as,  one  of  the  seven  wise  men  of 
Greece :  b.  Priene,  one  of  the  principal  cities  of 
Ionia,  about  570  B.C.  He  was  a  practical  phi- 
losopher, studied  the  laws  of  his  country,  and 
employed  his  knowledge  in  the  service  of  his 
friends,  defending  them  in  the  courts  of  justice, 
or  settling  their  disputes.  He  is  said  to  have 
died  at  an  advanced  age  immediately  after  suc- 
cessfully defending  in  court  one  of  his  friends. 
The  inhabitants  of  Priene  having  resolved  to 
abandon  the  city  with  their  property  Bias  re- 
plied to  one  of  his  fellow-citizens,  who  expressed 
his  astonishment  that  he  made  no  preparations 
for  his  departure  —  "I  carry  all  that  is  mine 
with  me.** 

Bibb,  George  M.,  American  jurist:  b.  Vir- 
ginia, 1772;  d.  Georgetown,  D.  C,  19  April 
1859.  He  graduated  at  Princeton  in  1772,  and 
took  up  the  practice  of  law  in  Kentucky.  He 
was  twice  chief  justice  of  the  State  court  of 
appeals,  served  two  years  in  the  State  senate, 
and  was  chancellor  of  the  court  of  chancer}'. 
He  was  a  senator  in  Congress,  1814-19  and 
1829-35,  and  secretary  of  the  treasury  under 
President  Tyler.  During  later  life  he  practised 
his  profession  in  Washington,  D.  C.  He  com- 
piled 'Reports  of  Cases  at  Common  Law  and  in 
Chancery  in  the  Kentuckv  Court  of  Appeals* 
(1808-11). 

Bibbiena,  be-bya'na,  Bernardo  Dovizio 
(styled  Bibbiena),  Italian  poet:  b.  Bibbiena,  4 
Aug.  1470;  d.  9  Nov.  1520.  For  many  years 
secretary  to  Cardinal  Giovanni  de  Medici,  in 
whose  election  as  Pope  Leo  X.  he  is  said  to 
have  had  a  considerable  share,  he  was  appointed 
treasurer,  and  soon  after  raised  to  the  dignity 
of  cardinal  (1513).  In  this  dignity  he  becarne 
an  ardent  promoter  of  art  and  science.  His 
comedy,  <^Calandria,*  is  probably  the  earliest 
in  Italian  literature. 

Bibbiena,  Giuseppe,  Italian  painter:  b. 
1696;  d.  1757.  The  most  distinguished  of  the 
Bibbiena  family,  he  was  famed  as  architect,  as 
well  as  an  artist.  Not  only  did  he  design  gor- 
geous decorations  for  a  court  wedding  at  Munich 
in  1722  and  a  dazzling  court  festival  in  Prague 
in  1723,  but  he  built  the  noted  theatre  at  Bay- 
reuth  in  1757  and  remodeled  the  opera  house  at 
Dresden.  The  <Architettura  e  Prospettire*  (1740) 
contains  several  illustrations  of  his  works. 

Biberach,  be'be-ran,  a  town  of  Wiirtem- 
berg,  on  the  river  Riss,  22  miles  south-south- 
west from  Ulm.  It  is  irregularly  built,  and 
with  its  old  walls,  still  in  part  remaining,_  and 
its  old  towers  and  gateways,  has  a  mediaeval 
aspect.  Among  its  buildings  is  a  fine  church, 
dating  from  iioo,  and  recently  restored.  The 
town  has  important  educational  institutions,  and 
a  richly  endowed  hospital.  The  French,  under 
Moreau,  defeated  the  Austrians  near  Biberach 
m  1796.  There  is  a  monument  to_  the  poet 
Wieland.  who  was  born  in  the  vicinity,  and 
another  to  the  Emperor  William  I.  The  town 
it  noted  for  its  bell  foundries  and  manufactures 
of  artificial  flowers,  leather,  toys,  and  machin- 
ery.    Pop.   (1900)   8,400. 

Bibiru,  be-be'roo,  a  tropical  tree  of  the  laurel 
family. 


BIBLE 


Bible.  I.  The  word  Bible  comes  from  a 
Greek  word  meaning  book.  It  has  come  to  us 
through  the  Latin  Biblia.  This  is  in  the  Greek 
a  neuter  plural.  But  it  came  to  be  used  as  a 
feminine  singular,  and  so  gives  us  our  word 
Bible.  Bibliotheca,  also  a  Greek  word,  meaning 
library,  was  a  designation  during  the  Middle 
Ages.  Earlier  Latin  writers  used  the  word  "tes- 
tamentum''  or  *'instrumentum,"  both  designed  to 
translate  the  Greek  word  for  covenant.  In  the 
New  Testament  the  usual  word  to  designate  the 
Old  Testament  is  "Scripture"  or  "Scriptures." 

II.  Langntages. — The  Old  Testament  was 
written  originally  in  Hebrew,  with  the  exception 
of  brief  portions  in  Aramaic,  a  closely  kindred 
dialect,  namely,  Jer.  io:ii,  Ezra  4:8-6:18, 
7:12-26,  Dan.  2:4-7:28.  The  New  Testament 
was  written  wholly  in  Greek. 

III.  Divisions. — The  most  striking  partition 
in  the  Bible  is  into  two  Testaments,  the  Old  and 
the  New.  This  is  due  to  the  broad  difference 
between  the  era  of  Hebrew  Messianic  hope  and 
the  actual  appearance  and  work  of  Christ.  All 
preceding  Christ  belongs  to  the  Old  and  unful- 
filled. All  following  Christ  belongs  to  the  New 
and  complete.  Within  the  Old  Testament  there 
has  been  marked  from  the  time  of  the  prologue 
to  Sirach,  132  B.C.,  a  three-fold  division.  These 
are  the  Law,  containing  the  five  Mosaic  books ; 
the  Prophets,  including  the  so-called  Former 
Prophets :  Joshua,  Judges,  I  and  II  Samuel, 
I  and  II  Kings ;  and  the  Later  Prophets : 
Isaiah,  Jeremiah,  Ezekiel,  Hosea,  Joel,  Amos, 
Obadiah,  Jonah,  Micah,  Nahum,  Habakkuk, 
Zephaniah,  Haggai,  Zechariah,  Malachi ;  and 
the  Kethubira,  a  Hebrew  word  meaning  "Writ- 
ings" (called  also  Hagiographa,  a  Greek  word 
meaning  "Holy  Writings")  :  Psalms,  Proverbs, 
Job,  Song  of  Songs,  Ruth,  Lamentations,  Ec- 
clesiastes,  Esther,  Daniel,  Ezra,  Nehemiah,  I 
and  II,  Chronicles.  There  are  also  smaller  di- 
visions made  by  the  Hebrew  Scribes,  200-400 
A.D.  These  were  called  Parashas.  The  longest 
of  these  number  54  in  the  Pentateuch,  and  are 
designed  for  Sabbath  reading.  Corresponding 
with  these  54  Mosaic  sections  there  were  54 
lessons  selected  from  the  Prophets,  also  for 
Sabbath  reading,  called  Haphtaroth.  These  di- 
visions varied  in  number  in  different  sections 
and  times.  The  arrangement  in  books  also 
shows  variation.  Some  schemes  give  24  books, 
so  the  Talmud ;  others  give  22  books.  The  Sep- 
tuagint  and  Vulgate  versions  reckon  39  books. 
This  is  now  universal  in  Christian  editions  of 
the  Bible,  derived  through  the  great  edition  of 
the  Hebrew  Bible  by  Jacob  ben  Hayim  in  1525-6. 
The  Talmud  refers  to  still  smaller  divisions  as 
Pesukim,  nearly  corresponding  to  our  verses. 
In  the  manuscripts  of  the  New  Testament  di- 
visions appear  very  early.  Such  are  traced  to 
Tatian  in  the  2d  century,  to  Ammonius  in  the 
3d  centurjs  to  Eusebius  in  the  4th  century,  to 
Euthalius  in  the  5th  century.  Our  present  chap- 
ter and  verse  divisions  were  completed  by  Robert 
Stephens  in  1551,  imitating  Rabbi  Nathan,  c. 
1437.  Steohens'  work  was  adopted  by  the 
Geneva  Bible  in  1560,  and  by  the  English  version 
of  161 1.  The  division  into  chapters  originated 
with  Stephen  Langton,  who  died   1228. 

IV.  Its  Nature. —  The  Bible,  as  it  stands,  is  in 
the  general  judgment  of  Christendom  a  book 
altogether  unique.  Therein  Christians  look  to 
find  the  very  word  of  God.     This  divine  message 


they  deem  pure  and  full,  and  they  gladly  adoot  it 
as  a  binding  rule  of  faith  and  life.  A  central 
feature  of  the  volume  is  its  claim  to  divine 
origin.  Here  God  speaks  to  men.  Here  men 
learn  of  God.  This  is  the  direct  assertion  or 
the  evident  implication  of  its  burden  everywhere. 
The  covenant  with  Abraham  was  made  by  God. 
God  spoke  to  Moses.  Hebrew  history  was 
dominated  by  God.  The  messages  of  all  the 
prophets  were  obtained  from  God.  The  great 
poetical  works  carry  continually  the  postulate 
and  the  evidence  of  open  fellowship  with  God. 
If  this  note  seems  lacking,  as  in  Esther  and 
much  of  Ecclesiastes,  this  fact  raises  unfailingly 
a  question  as  to  their  being  in  their  proper  place. 
In  Christ,  as  portrayed  in  the  Gospels,  this  note 
finds  most  perfect  utterance.  Jesus  of  Nazareth 
is  the  Incarnate  Word.  He  hath  seen  and 
known  the  Father ;  and  of  all  the  Father's  words 
he  is  true  and  faithful  Witness.  And  the  Apos- 
tles are  Christ's  specially  prepared  heralds  of 
this  same  heavenly  word.  They  speak  for  Christ 
and  God.  There  is  in  all  their  ministry  the 
living  presence  of  the  exalted  Christ.  This  is 
"the  thesis  of  the  New  Testament.®  Thus 
throughout,  the  Bible  makes  a  claim  to  be  the 
very  word  of  the  true  and  living  God.  This  is 
its  prime  trait.     This  determines  its  nature. 

Touching  this  quality  a  few  things  need  to 
be  said.  Only  so  can  the  Bible  be  defined. 
First,  as  to  the  nature  of  the  Deity  thus  made 
known.  He  is  a  Person.  He  has  every  personal 
trait.  He  is  free  and  wise  and  kind.  He  is 
faithful  and  gracious  and  pure.  He  is  full  of 
goodness  and  truth.  He  is  Spirit.  He  is  of  all 
being  the  only  life  and  essence  and  strength. 
There  is  in  him  no  transition  or  decay  or  change. 
He  is  pure  and  very  life.  He  is  transcendent.  By 
him  all  things  are  made  and  ruled  and  judged.' 
He  is  a  friend.  With  him  all  persons  may  find 
fellowship.  He  is  holy.  His  very  being  is  the 
very  energy  of  infinite  and  unfailing  truth  and 
love.  Such  is  God.  His  person  is  the  central 
glory  of  the  Bible.  Herein  the  Bible  is  unique. 
Its  deity  stands  in  simple,  infinite,  spiritual 
majesty  unveiled  in  every  part  of  the  record. 
This  truth  finds  culminating  utterances  in 
Christ's  words  to  the  woman  in  John  4:24: 
"God  is  a  spirit,  and  they  that  worship  him 
must  worship  him  in  spirit  and  truth.**  This 
fundamental  verity  stands  clear  amid  all  the 
obscurity  of  Gen.  chapters  i.-xi.,  and  all  the  be- 
wildering mysteries  of  the  closing  Apocalypse. 
This  teaching  concerning  God,  more  than  any- 
thing else,  gives  the  Bible  its  peerless  tone  and 
worth.  And  this  teaching  is  not  abstract.  It 
stands  in  life.  Most  powerfully  is  it  proclaimed 
in  the  great  Theophanies.  These  present  at 
once  the  glory  and  the  power  of  the  Biblical 
claim.  And  these  Theophanies  are  not  incidents. 
They  have  commanding  prominence  and  embody 
mighty  meaning.  They  are  in  every  case  out- 
standing landmarks  and  points  of  departure. 
They  are  typical  scenes.  They  figure  in  the 
Biblical  landscapes  like  beacons  whose  rays  fall 
everywhere. 

But  these  disclosures  are  all  gathered  up  in 
Christ.  His  figure  stands  in  the  very  centre 
of  this  book.  On  him  all  symbols  and  expecta- 
tions and  prophecies  converge.  In  him  all 
excellencies  and  dignities  and  graces  combine. 
From  him  all  instructions  and  commissions,  all 
judgments  and  mercies  proceed.    In  him  the  old 


BIBLE 


and  the  new  are  made  to  agree.  He  is  the  very 
Lord  of  very  life  and  truth  and  love.  In  his 
person  and  word  and  work  all  the  energies  and 
all  the  intimations  of  every  Biblical  scene  find  an 
•equilibrium  that  is  absolute.  In  him  all  Biblical 
life  finds  at  once  free  play  and  full  repose.  In 
him  the  Bible  lies  concealed.  In  him  the  Bible 
stands  revealed.  He  is  the  Son  and  Word  of 
God. 

It  follows  and  stands  evident  that  the  Bible 
is  a  book  of  life.  It  is  a  record  of  the  interplaj'' 
of  wills.  It  is  always  dealing  with  persons. 
Its  central  values  are  moral.  Its  revelations  look 
toward  reform.  It  is  a  searcher  of  hearts.  Its 
appeals  are  to  men ;  and  they  are  potent.  If 
repulsed,  then  its  rebukes  throb  with  resistless 
force.  It  is  always  scanning  character,  feeling 
after  conscience,  working  toward  the  will.  It 
has  an  unexampled  amount  of  comment  upon 
righteousness  and  sin,  merit  and  blame,  law  and 
obligation,  responsibility  and  reprisal  in  the 
moral  field.  It  is  from  cover  to  cover  a  book 
of  ethics,  practical  ethics,  but  an  ethics  that 
finds  all  its  roots  and  regulations  in  its  pure 
and  lofty  views  of  God.  God,  the  pure,  the 
holy,  the  supreme,  is  the  ethical  norm.  With 
him  man  has  vital  fellowship  —  man  the  godlike 
and  finite,  the  perishable  and  immortal,  the  lord 
and  the  slave,  the  individual  and  the  brother. 
As  is  instantly  apparent,  such  being  God  and 
such  being  man,  their  moral  interrelations  are 
bound  to  be  most  complex.  But  just  here  again, 
—  and  this  is  why  these  facts  are  named, —  the 
Bible  is  in  its  nature  unique.  Its  values  are 
real,  true  to  life.  Its  ethics  are  genuinely  ethical, 
never  formal,  never  partial.  Its  views  of  char- 
acter are  balanced  and  vital  and  full.  It  fully 
recognizes  the  moral  value  of  humility  and  as- 
piration, of  truth  and  love,  of  isolation  and 
friendship,  of  physical  and  spiritual  in  man. 
Here  again  Christ  alone  is  norm  —  norm  of 
ethics,  norm  of  the  religious  life,  norm  of  the 
earthly  experience,  norm  of  the  immortal  life. 
This  balanced  completeness  of  life  is  a  most 
manifest  and  distinguishing  mark  of  the  Biblical 
view.  Its  moral  estimates  are  at  once  a  full- 
voiced  echo  and  a  final  interpretation  of  the  life 
of  the  world. 

These  vital  moral  estimates,  while  fully  uni- 
fied, fall  apart  into  two  most  striking  subdi- 
visions. This  is  due  to  human  sin.  Because 
of  this  undoing  two  widely  different  notes  re- 
sound throughout  the  Sacred  Word,  namely, 
judgment  and  grace.  In  one  or  other  of  these 
two  forms  the  Bible  may  be  defined  as  the  ad- 
justment to  sin.  Universal  man  has  gone 
morally  astray.  Upon  this  perversion  moral 
iudgment  surely  impends.  This  doom  may  be 
Inflicted,  or  delayed,  or  reversed.  This  is  the 
inner  sum  of  Biblical  truth.  This  is  the  Bible 
within  the  Bible.  Here  lies  the  inner  secret  of 
the  Bible's  matchless  power.  Under  its  high 
beliefs  concerning  God  and  its  broad  and  search- 
ing thoughts  on  man,  it  fashions  and  proclaims, 
as  no  other  volume  ever  did,  its  estimates  of 
th_ree_  stupendous  themes :  the  deep  and  dark 
iniquity  of  sin ;  the  awful  inevitableness  of  its 
proper  doom ;  and  the  divine  provision  and 
proffer  of  saving,  sacrificial  grace. 

But  once  again,  it  needs  to  be  said,  the  Bible 
is  a  book  of  life.  Its  messages  are  all  set  in 
the  midst  of  events.  It  uncovers  and  traces  the 
flow  of  a  stream  of  history.  This  historical 
factor   needs    minute   attention    in    defining   the 


nature  of  the  Bible.  Here  is  a  book  always 
handling  values  of  the  highest,  even  absolute 
worth.  But  it  is  always  setting  them  forth  in 
simplest  concrete  forms.  Its  ideals,  always  phe- 
nomenally lofty  and  pure,  are  unfailingly  in 
immediate  touch  with  the  real.  Its  events  issue 
in  the  alternatives  of  eternity;  but  they  always 
run  along  common  historical  paths.  This  strik- 
ing feature,  undeniably  one  secret  of  the  Bible's 
strength,  is  as  undeniably  prolific  of  most  vexing 
problems.  As  a  storehouse  of  eternal  principles 
for  the  moral  and  religious  life,  the  Bible  rises 
and  stands  beyond  the  reach  of  criticism,  denial, 
or  assault.  But  as  a  series  and  collection  of  his- 
torical events,  it  lies  open  on  every  side  to  every 
sort  of  historical  challenge  and  test.  Hence 
the  Bible  presents  abidingly  two  widely  diverse 
aspects  —  the  ethical  or  theological,  the  philo- 
sophical or  metaphysical,  in  a  word  the  abstract; 
and  the  historical  or  literary,  the  natural  or 
phenomenal,  in  a  word  the  concrete.  The 
former  always  challenges  character.  Its  vesture 
and  voice  are  imperial.  It  demands  acceptance. 
To  renounce  its  claim  is  to  sin  wilfully.  The 
latter  is  always  suggesting  inquiry.  It'  invites 
scholarly  scrutiny.  Multitudes  of  its  problems 
hang  in  continual  uncertainty.  Hence  the  va- 
rious phases  of  modern  Biblical  criticism. 

Such  is  the  Bible  in  its  nature.  It  voices 
God's  message  to  men.  It  reveals  God's  true 
being.  It  concentrates  in  Christ.  It  is  a  book  of 
life,  vivid,  complete.  Its  attention  is  incessantly 
fixed  on  sin.  It  is  enshrined  in  history.  Its 
central  religious  and  ethical  teachings  are  funda- 
mental postulates.  They  lie  beyond  the  reach  of 
fair  debate.  It  is  so  embedded  in  incomplete 
and  changing  scenes  as  to  provoke  and  sustain 
age-long  debates.  Some  of  the  chief  of  these 
debates  will  be  traced  in  succeeding  sections  of 
this  article. 

V.  Genesis  of  the  Old  Testament. —  A  few 
general  statements  may  be  profitably  made  first. 
These  will  clear  the  way  for  a  sketch  of  more 
special  matters.  The  present  Old  Testament 
canon  is  substantially  that  adopted  by  the  Jews 
of  Palestine,  and  in  vogue  among  them  at  the 
time  of  Christ.  It  had  practically  held  sway 
there  for  at  least  over  a  century  and  a  half. 
Prophetical  writings  and  teachings  had  been  sa- 
credly revered  for  over  seven  centuries  before 
Christ.  Anterior  to  this.  Mosaic  laws  were  rec- 
ognized as  a  religious  and  ethical  norm.  These 
scriptures  were  held  by  Christ  in  supreme  esteem. 
In  this  view  and  under  his  interpretation  they 
held  the  sum  and  essence  of  his  teaching.  They 
had  divine  value  for  such  as  sought  the  way  of 
eternal  life.  In  them  was  the  word  of  God. 
This  high  estimate  was  adopted  by  Apostles 
and    Church    fathers. 

All  these  statements  may  confidently  be 
made.  But  they  leave  unanswered  two  important 
questions,  each  calling  for  extended  treatment : 
when  did  the  various  constituents  of  the  Old 
Testament  gain  entrance  there?  And  what 
problems  encumbered  this  process?  These  ques- 
tions are  exceedingly  broad.  They  open  up  the 
whole  debate  of  modern  Bible  study.  In  hand- 
ling these_  matters  the  methods  are  mainly  those 
of  historical  and  literary  criticism.  In  the 
historical  study  factors  and  arguments  shift 
and  change  with  the  years.  The  method  is 
mainly  by  comparative  study  of  archaeology, 
chronologv',  history,  and  literature.  Illustrations 
are  the  tablets  of  Tel-el-Amarna,   the  Moabite 


BIBLE 


stone,  the  creation  tablets,  the  lists  of  Babylonian 
and  Assyrian  kings,  and  the  records  of  their 
various  campaigns.  But  these  studies  deal 
mostly  with  the  contents  of  the  Old  Testament 
books,  and  not  with  the  books  themselves  and  the 
main  divisions  of  the  Old  Testament  viewed  as 
literature  and  growing  into  a  canonical  unity. 

Of  the  literary  arguments  bearing  upon  this 
question  the  most  telling  is  that  of  parallel  ac- 
counts or  doublets.  These  repetitions  show 
variations.  These  variations  suggest  different 
points  of  view,  different  authors,  and  a  combin- 
ing editor.  A  careful  study  of  these  literary 
phenomena  leads  into  a  broad  field  of  Biblical 
literary  criticism.  The  aim  of  this  study  is  to 
trace  out  the  various  authors  and  times  and 
histories  of  these  different  documents.  At  pres- 
ent the  tendency  in  this  study  is  strongly  analy- 
tic. The  accent  in  the  investigations  is  laid 
upon  the  differences.  These  differences  once 
well  defined  and  fixed,  the  effort  is  to  trace  the 
origin  and  date  of  each  distinct  document  and 
to  explain  when,  and  how,  and  why  they  were 
combined  into  the  present  form.  The  keynote 
of  all  this  process  is  differences.  Upon  this, 
main  arguments  rest.  These  arguments  stand 
strongest,  when  the  differences  amount  to  dis- 
cords or  contradictions.  Many  of  these  varia- 
tions are  openly  apparent.  Many  others,  .  so 
it  is  claimed,  are  glossed  over  by  ancient  edi- 
torial efforts  after  harmony.  These  modula- 
tions should  be  removed,  and  the  original  con- 
trast stand  clear.  Hence  much  textual  emen- 
dation. It  tends  to  sharpen  contrasts.  By 
this  process  each  separate  document  is  brought 
to  a  strict  unison  with  itself,  and  a  sharp  dis- 
sonance with  its  companion  in  the  doublet! 
Each  fragment  has  a  marked  individuality, 
stripped  as  much  as  possible  of  inner  manifold- 
ness.  One  document,  one  idea ;  or  if  several 
ideas,  then  as  few  and  similar  as  may  be.  These 
separate  and  diverse  documents  thus  reduced 
and  defined  are  then  arranged,  as  to  origin  and 
editorship,  in  an  evolutionary  scheme  of  history. 
The  simple  and  crude  are  dated  early.  The 
complex  and  refined  are  dated  late.  Thus  the 
origin  and  evolution  of  the  Old  Testament  is 
explained  by  the  method  of  literary  criticism  at 
present  characteristically  in  vogue.  Elements 
aiding  this  process  are  direct  historical  testi- 
mony to  a  document's  existence,  the  argument 
from  silence,  literary  style,  fixed  literary  forms, 
ethical,  and  religious  views.  A  fundamental 
postulate  is  an  evolutionary  view  of  history.  A 
dominant  impulse  is  to  trace  phenomena  to  a 
natural  source. 

The  outcome  of  this  method  is  to  affirm  late 
origins  for  most  Hebrew  literature.  A  sample 
arrangement  may  be  found  in  Driver,  ^Intro- 
duction to  Literature  of  Old  Testament.^  In 
general,  the  existence  of  any  volttme  of  recog- 
nized sacred  Mosaic  law  prior  to  622  B.C.  is 
denied ;  or  of  anything  but  Deuteronomy  prior 
to  444  B.C. ;  or  of  any  recognized  prophetical 
canon  prior  to  444  b.c.  ;  or  of  any  canonical 
volume  including  the  books  usually  clustered 
with  Psalms  and  Proverbs,  prior  to  165  B.C. 
In  particular,  the  Psalms  are  largely  denied  to 
David,  and  dated  instead  after  the  exile.  Daniel 
is  dated  at  164  B.C.  Still  it  is  largely  concluded 
that  teachings  of  Moses  and  of  Prophets,  as  also 
certain  Psalms,  were  held  in  honor  earlier. 

To  this  method  and  its  conclusions  are  op- 
posed   considerations    like    the    following:      Its 


scheme  of  doublets  is  overworked;  its  conjec- 
tures are  too  numerous ;  its  textual  emendations 
too  frequent  and  ungrounded ;  its  standards  are 
too  uncertain ;  its  docuinents  are  so  stripped  and 
reduced  as  to  become  void  of  life.  By  no  such 
rigid  rules  does  man  express  himself.  Silence 
is  no  proof.  The  ancient  editors  are  too  myth- 
ical and  their  backs  too  heavily  loaded,  and 
that  with  most  unlikely  wares.  Too  much  is 
made  of  documents.  Not  enough  is  made  of 
men.  History  is  fuller  and  more  manifold 
everywhere  than  this  method  allows.  Divine 
interventions,  incitements,  instructions,  overrul- 
ings,  and  Theophanies  are  treated  with  too 
scanty  respect.  Evolutionary  views  do  away 
too  easily  with  the  manhood  of  early  men. 
Biblical  historj^  and  conditions  are  not  so  primi- 
tive by  long  millenniums  as  this  method  seems 
to  presume.  In  particular  the  lofty  value  of  the 
Psalms  demands  more  attention.  By  the  nega- 
tive critical  method  they  stand  unexplained. 
Vastly  more  lay  back  of  the  8th  century  than 
this  method  presents.  Too  much  is  loaded  upon 
Ezra  and  in  the  period  of  the  Maccabees.  Far 
too  many  direct  Biblical  affirmations  have  to  be 
reversed. 

Thus  scholars  conflict  touching  the  genesis 
of  the  Old  Testament.  In  this  far-reaching  de- 
bate the  followmg  evidence  and  events  are  of 
most  importance  to  hold  in  view.  The  allusions 
within  the  Old  Testament  to  the  existence  of 
sacred  books,  such  as  Ex.  24 14,  7 ;  34  .27  ;  40 :20 ; 
Deut.  31:26;  Josh.  24:26;  I  Sam.  10:25;  Isa. 
8:16;  Jer.  30:1;  36:1,  28;  II  Kings  22:8;  Dan. 
9:2;  Neh.  8-9;  the  Praise  of  the  Famous  Men 
in  Sirach  (chapters  44-50)  ;  the  prologue  to 
Siracli ;  the  opinions  of  Philo ;  the  estimate  and 
usage  of  the  New  Testament:  Josephus,  contra 
Apion  I,  8;  II  Esdras  14:44-46:  the  work  of 
the  Council  of  Jamnia ;  and  the  evidence  of  the 
Mishna :  also  all  light  obtainable  in  the  great 
field  of  comparative  studies,  specially  from 
Babylonian  archaeology.  In  broad  outline,  the 
main  problems  are  to  find  out  what  sacred 
literature  existed  prior  to  165  B.C.;  then  prior  to 
444  B.C.  ;  then  prior  to  623  c.c.  ;  then  prior  to 
750  B.C.,  the  period  of  the  great  written  prophe- 
cies ;  then  in  the  Davidic  era ;  then  at  the 
time  of  Moses :  then  to  find  the  origin  of  the 
various  fragments  in  the  unique  section  Gen. 
i-ii.  Touching  most  of  these  problems,  definite 
information  is  at  present  nowhere  in  reach.  The 
precise  connection  of  the  Biblical  creation  and 
flood  accounts  with  Babylonian  material,  the 
contents  of  the  sacred  books  in  the  ]\Iosaic  era, 
the  range  of  sacred  literature  in  Isaiah's  time, 
the  list  of  Davidic  Psalms,  the  literature  held 
sacred  in  the  exile,  the  scope  of  the  books 
handled  by  Ezra,  the  outside  outline  of  Sirach's 
sources,  or  of  his  grandson's  allusions,  a  sharp 
definition  of  the  rise  and  influence  of  apocryphal 
writings,  a  satisfying  explanation  of  the  varying 
or  the  final  order  of  Old  Testament  books,  the 
meaning  of  the  Septuagint  divergences,  and  the 
actual  evaluation  of  apocryphal  literature  by 
our  New  Testament  writers  —  these  all  are  ques- 
tions fairly  open  to  debate.  Knowledge  is  in- 
complete. 

VI.  Canon  of  Old  Testament. —  Study  of  the 
genesis  of  the  Old  Testament  leads  naturally 
into  an  examination  of  its  development  into  a 
fixed  and  closed  canon.  While  it  seems  proper 
and  safe  to  say  that  our  present  Protestant  Old 
Testament  canon  is  identical  with  that  accepted 


BIBLE 


by  the  Jews  of  Palestine  in  and  before  the  time 
of  Christ,  there  are  numerous  evidences  that 
even  among  Palestinian  Jews  several  canonical 
questions  were  under  debate  for  a  century  or 
two   after   Christ. 

To  begin  with  the  latest  Jewish  testimony 
and  work  backward  toward  origins,  first  men- 
tion has  to  be  made  of  j  full  statement  from 
the  Babylonian  Talmud.  This  passage  is  traced 
to  Rabbi  Judah  the  Hoty,  head  of  the  school 
of  Tiberias  in  the  2d  century.  He  is  said  to  have 
collected  the  Mishna.  In  this  statement  all  the 
parts  of  the  Old  Testament,  as  we  have  it,  are 
named  with  a  definite  statement  as  to  authors. 
''Moses  wrote  his  book  and  the  section  concern- 
ing Balaam  and  Job.  Joshua  wrote  his  book 
and  those  eight  verses  in  the  Law.  Samuel 
wrote  his  book  and  the  book  of  Judges  and 
Ruth.  David  wrote  the  book  of  Psalms  'at  the 
hand  of  ^  10  old  men,  to-wit :  Melchizedek,  Abra- 
ham, Moses,  Henian,  Jeduthun,  Asaph,  and  the 
three  sons  of  Korah.  Jeremiah  wrote  his  book 
and  the  book  of  Kings  and  Lamentations.  Heze- 
kiah  and  his  friends  wrote  Isaiah,  Proverbs, 
Song  of  Songs,  Ecclesiastes.  The  men  of  the 
great  synagogue  wrote  Ezekiel,  the  Twelve, 
Daniel,  and  the  little  book  of  Esther.  Ezra 
wrote  his  book  and  the  genealogies  which  we 
read  in  the  book  of  Chronicles."  This  statement 
seems,  considering  its  probable  source,  to  indi- 
cate a  fixed  canon.  But  discussions  of  certain 
Old  Testament  books  occurred  considerably 
later.  These  concerned  Proverbs,  Song  of 
Songs,  Ecclesiastes.  Proverbs  was  charged  with 
internal  contradictions.  All  three  were  deemed 
uncanonical  by  some,  because  they  contained 
parables.  Repeatedly,  debates  rose  as  to  whether 
Ecclesiastes  and  Esther  were  fully  canonical, 
that  is,  whether  they  "defiled  the  hands.*'  The 
regulations  about  the  feast  of  Purim  in  Esther 
seemed  to  contradict  the  Pentateuch.  While 
for  Ezekiel,  its  strange  legislation  in  the  closing 
section  made  real  trouble.  At  a  much  later  time 
Jonah  made  occasion  for  special  remark,  because 
of  its  neglect  of  Israel  and  attention  to  Gen- 
tiles. For  full  information  upon  this  stage  of 
Jewish  thought,  see  Wildeboer,  'The  Origin  of 
the  Canon  of  the  Old  Testament,'  pp.  56-75. 
As  to  the  meaning  of  these  facts  men  judge 
differently.  Some  say  these  books  were  all 
held  canonical;  it  was  simply  a  discussion  of 
vexing  problems  which  they  contained.  Others 
say  these  debates  imply  that  these  books  were 
not  as  yet  within  the  canon. 

Another  date  and  event  to  be  marked  is  a 
council  at  Jamnia,  in  western  Palestine,  about 
90  A.D.  Then  problems  were  raised  about  cer- 
tain books,  in  general  the  Kethubim,  but  in 
particular,  Ecclesiastes  and  Song  of  Songs.  They 
were  all  declared  holy,  that  is,  canonical. 

About  this  time  is  to  be  dated  II  Esdras 
14:44-46.  Here  is  an  apocalyptic  story  of  Ezra's 
miraculous  dictation  of  94  sacred  books,  24  of 
which  were  to  be  promulgated  as  the  public 
Jewish  canon.  This  story  must  have  found  its 
motive  partly  in  the  fact  that  at  about  90  a.d, 
the  Jewish  canon  held   24  books. 

Josephus  also  belongs  to  about  this  date. 
He  has  left  in  contra  Apioncm,  i  :8,  a  pains- 
taking list  and  estimate  of  the  Jewish  canon 
of  his  time.  He  makes  the  number  of  the 
books  22.  He  reckons  five  to  Moses,  13  to 
the  prophets,  and  four  containing  hymns  to  God 
and  maxims  for  human  life.    He  does  not  name 


the  several  books.  It  is  therefore  uncertain 
whether  his  list  agrees  with  ours.  Some  think 
he  left  out  Ecclesiastes  and  Song  of  Songs. 
Some  think  he  joined  Lamentations  to  Jeremiah, 
and  Ruth  to  Judges.  In  any  case  his  statement 
is  most  notable.  He  boasts  of  their  limited 
number,  of  their  antiquity  and  their  cordial 
acceptance.  He  closes  the  canon  with  the 
period  of  Artaxerxes.  Later  books  are  not 
deemed  worthy  of  like  faith.  No  one  has 
dared  to  increase  or  diminish  their  volume. 
They  are  cordially  deemed  God's  oracle,  and 
held  as  rules  for  life  and  death.  All  these 
arguments  are  made  with  deliberation  for  pur- 
poses of  defense.  They  form  a  weighty  evi- 
dence. 

Philo,  who  lived  somewhat  earlier,  an  Alex- 
andrian Jew,  seems  to  have  held  just  the  list 
accepted  by  us  as  strictly  canonical  and  of 
authority.  His  reverence  for  the  Mosaic  writ- 
ings is  most  evident.  He  quotes  nothing  from 
the  Apocrypha.  This  is  noteworthy.  He  also 
leaves  wholly  unmentioned  17  of  our  canonical 
books. 

In  the  prologue  to  Sirach  is  a  reference  three 
times  over  to  "the  Law.*  "the  Prophets''  (Pro- 
phecies), and  the  "Others"  (other  books,  re- 
maining writings)  with  suggestions,  also  re- 
peated, of  their  unique  value  for  culture  and 
wisdom,  and  of  their  fulness  and  significance. 
This  was  written  about  130  B.C.  It  seems  to 
betoken  a  complete  threefold  canonical  collec- 
tion. It  occurs  in  a  brief  statement  explaining 
the  work  of  his  grandfather  which  he  is  about 
to  publish  and  commend  to  the  men  of  his 
time. 

This  work  of  Sirach,  the  grandfather  of  the 
foregoing,  was  written  about  180  E.c  It  is 
permeated  with  the  very  substance  of  our  Old 
Testament.  Its  clearest  light  on  the  problem 
of  the  Old  Testament  canon  is  in  chapters  44-50. 
Here  he  sings  the  praise  of  famous  men.  He 
selects  24  names,  besides  the  Judges  and  the 
12  Minor  Prophets,  from  Enoch  to  Nehemiah, 
and  sings  their  praise.  To  this  he  appends  a 
song  to  Simon  of  his  own  time.  And  at  the 
end  he  names  himself.  In  these  eulogies  Sirach 
holds  scripture  in  high  esteem.  He  seems  to 
especially  honor  the  Law.  But  it  becomes  spe- 
cially difficult  to  say  anything  about  his  views 
of  Old  Testament  canon.  He  seems  to  attribute 
to  Simon  and  even  to  himself  a  respect  all  but 
equal  to  that  accorded  to  the  prophets.  Plainly 
all  the  law  and  all  the  prophets  and  all  the 
historical  books  were  before  him.  Some  of  the 
Hagiographa  fail  of  mention.  There  was  mani- 
festly, at  180  B.C.,  an  Old  Testament  canon  of 
recognized  sacred  standing,  all  but  commensu- 
rate with  ours  of  to-day. 

The  situation  in  the  time  of  Ezra  is  far  from 
clear.  The  passages  to  examine  are  Nehemiah 
8-9;  Ezra  7:6,  10,  12,  25,  9:10.  From  these 
passages  it  stands  apparent  that  Ezra  was  a 
ready  scholar  in  the  law  of  God :  that  he  had 
prosecuted  his  study  during  the  exile ;  that  some 
literature  held  sacred  by  him  had  been  long  in 
hand ;  that  much  of  our  Mosaic  law  was  recog- 
nized as  Mosaic  by  him  and  by  the  assembly 
described  in  Nehemiah  8-9:  that  religion,  moral"? 
and  life  were  constructed  upon  this  Mosaic 
foundation.  But  just  the  extent  of  the  Mosiac 
writings,  just  their  antiquity,  and  just  what  other 
literature  may  have  supplemented  them  is  far 
from  explicitly  said. 


BIBLE 


Daniel  9:2  alludes  to  books  that  must  have 
been  prophecies,  alluding  in  particular  to  Jere- 
miah. In  his  prayer  he  alludes  to  laws,  ordi- 
nances, a  covenant,  the  deliverance  from  Egypt, 
the  warnings  of  the  prophets,  mentioning 
Moses.  But  no  canonical  list  can  be  constructed 
here.  . 

To  this  may  be  added  citations  from  earlier 
portions  of  Scripture,  indicating  the  existence  of 
sacred  records.  None  of  these  citations  are  cer- 
tainly definitive  of  canonical  limits  at  any  period 
But  it  may  not  improperly  be  said  that  the 
multitudinous  allusions  throughout  Old  Testa- 
ment scripture  to  early  divine  revelations  and 
leadership  all,  if  only  taken  at  their  face  value, 
go  to  show  that  records  of  these  early  events 
were  always  at  hand  and  held  validly  sacred 
depositories  of  the  Word  of  God.  But  histori- 
cally, the  inner  content  and  the  outside  outline 
of  this  Old  Testament  canon  comes  into  sight 
and  shape  for  the  first  time  in  the  words  of 
Sirach  about  180  B.C.  Then  it  stood  practically 
as  it  stands  with  us  to-day.  Later  queryings 
were  limited  and  substantially  insignificant.  And 
such  debates  as  did  arise  were  due  to  the  ex- 
treme reverence  of  the  Jews  for  the  Mosaic  Law, 
to  their  peculiar  interpretation  of  that  law,  and 
to  their  jealousy  to  have  all  their  sacred  writings 
stand  in  fullest  harmony  therewith.  For  state- 
ments of  their  extravagant  respect  for  the  law 
see  Weber,  *Die  Lehren  des  Talmuds,^  pp.  1-60, 
■and  Wildeboer,  pp.  94   — . 

From  among  Church  fathers  three  witnesses 
call  for  special  mention  here.  Melito,  Bishop  of 
Sardis,  about  170,  went  into  Palestine  expressly 
to  get  the  Jewish  view  of  the  number  and  order 
of  the  books  of  the  Old  Testament.  _  His  finding 
is  given  in  Eus.  Hist.  Eccl.  iv.  26.  His 
order  is  peculiar.  He  omits  Esther  entirely. 
Nehemiah  and  Lamentations  are  not  named,  but 
probably  they  are  included,  the  one  with  Ezra, 
the  other  with  Jeremiah.  Origen's  canon  is  also 
found  in  Eus.  Hist.  Eccl.  vi.  26.  This 
list  omits  the  Twelve  Prophets,  probably 
some  mistake.  It  includes  Esther.  It  adds  the 
letter  of  Baruch.  Origen  died  254  a.d.  Jerome 
died  420  A.D.  In  his  preface  to  his  translation 
to  Kings  he  gives  the  Hebrew  canonical  list,  22 
books.  This  is  a  very  precise  and  carefully  de- 
tailed statement.  It  is  found  in  full  in  Wildeboer, 
pp.  80-84.  He  gives  Jewish  views,  names  the 
Apocrypha  separately,  and  lists  the  canon  as 
we  have  it  to-day.  He  speaks  elsewhere  of 
Jewish  queryings  about  Ecclesiastes.  The  Nes- 
torian  Christians  reject  Esther,  Chronicles,  Ezra, 
and  Nehemiah,  but  accept  Sirach.  But  in  the 
main  always,  and  from  Jerome  onward  the 
Christian  Church  accepted  the  Jewish  canon  as 
finally  fixed  by  them  200  a.d.,  and  as  we  have  it 
to-day.  Still,  through  the  influence  ot  the 
Septuagint,  the  Vulgate,  and  Augustine,  the 
Roman  Catholic  Church  has  retained  also  the 
Apocrypha. 

VII.  Text  of  Old  Testament. —  Our  earliest 
information  names  tables  of  stone.  Upon  these 
were  written  the  commandments.  Deuteronomy 
was  a  roll,  when  found  in  the  temple.  Jere- 
miah's writings  were  a  roll.  The  script  was 
originally  the  old  square  characters  seen  on  the 
Moabite  stone,  and  in  the  Samaritan  copy  of  the 
law.  Later,  no  one  knows  when,  the  Aramaic 
characters  were  used.  This  is  the  script  used 
to-day  in  all  Hebrew   Bibles.    In  the  Maccabean 


period,  the  Syrian  oppressors  destroyed  most 
oi  the  Jewish  sacred  literature.  Judas  Macca- 
beus collected  them  all  again.  Possibly  it  wa^i 
he  who  introduced  the  new  writing.  See  II 
Maccabees  2:14.  When  the  Jews  fixed  and 
adopted  an  official  Old  Testament  text  is  un- 
known. Most  date  the  act  at  the  beginning  of 
our  2d  century,  at  the  councils  of  Jamnia,  90 
and  118  A.D.  Tradition  says  they  used  three 
manuscripts  found  at  Jerusalem.  These  early 
texts  were  wanting  in  vowels  and  separation  of 
words.  The  scribes,  200-500  B.C.,  made  numerous 
changes  in  the  way  of  corrections,  definition, 
pronunciation,  and  other  improvements,  includ- 
ing divisions  and  arrangements  for  liturgical 
use.  These  scribes  were  followed  by  students 
who  were  called  Massoretes  who  sim.ply  guarded 
and  perpetuated  the  work  of  the  scribes.  From 
this  has  come  our  present,  so-called  Massoretic 
text.  These  Massoretes  added  vowel  points, 
completing  their  work  in  the  7th  century  in 
Babylon,  and  in  the  8th  century  in  Palestine. 
This  work  is  perpetuated  in  the  text  of  Ben 
Asher  of  the  loth  century.  Upon  this  all  later 
western  manuscripts  have  been  based.  In  these 
latest  years  some  efforts  have  been  made  to  re- 
construct the  ancient  texts,  notably  by  Baer  and 
Delitzsch.  For  samples  of  just  what  may  be 
done,  consult  Kautzsch,  ^Die  Heilige  Schrift 
des  Alten  Testaments,^  in  the  textual  emenda- 
tions collected  in  the  appendix. 

VIII.  Manuscripts  of  the  Old  Testament. — 
Jews  have  been  extremely  jealous  of  the  purity 
of  their  manuscripts.  Rules  calling  for  minutest 
accuracy  are  laid  down  in  the  Talmud.  See 
Kenyon,  ^Our  Bible  and  the  Ancient  Manu- 
scripts,-* p.  34.  This  carefulness  secures  truthful 
copies.  Hence  recent  manuscripts  are  prized 
quite  as  highly  as  those  most  ancient.  Indeed 
the  old  manuscripts  are  religiously  destroyed,  so 
that  they  may  escape  desecration.  Hence  we 
have  no  Hebrew  manuscripts  earlier  than  about 
the  loth  century,  and  even  these  are  few  and 
incomplete. 

IX.  Versions  of  tJie  Old  Testament. —  The 
Samaritan  Pentateuch,  though  not  a  version, 
should  be  mentioned.  If  its  original  form  could 
be  produced,  it  would  give  us  a  Hebrew  text, 
perhaps  dating  from  the  days  of  Neh.  13  123-30. 
But  we  have  no  manuscripts  older  than  the 
loth  century. 

The  Septuagint  version  was  made  from  He- 
brew into  Greek,  somewhere  between  300  and 
130  B.C.  This  version  was  extended  to  embrace 
the  Apocrypha.  Other  Greek  translations  were 
made:  one  by  Aquila  about  150  a.d.;  one  by 
Theodotian  a  little  later;  and  one  by  Symma- 
chus  about  200  a.d.  Origen  tried  to  restore  the 
Hebrew  text  about  240  a.d.  Only  fragments  of 
this  work  survive.  The  same  efi^ort  is  made 
about  300  A.D.  by  three  other  men,  Eusebius, 
Lucian,  and  Hesychius.  The  best  evidence  for 
restoring  to  us  the  original  Septuagint  is  con- 
tained in  the  three  famous  manuscripts :  the 
Sinaitic,  the  Alexandrian,  and  the  Vatican,  dat- 
ing from  the  4th  and  5th  centuries  a.d.  The 
best  printed  edition  of  the  Septuagint  now  ex- 
tant is  that  by  Swete.  A  much  larger  edition 
is   now   in   progress  at    Cambridge. 

Other  versions  of  the  Old  Testament  dating 
from  the  early  centuries  are  the  Syriac,  2d  or 
3d  century  a.d.  ;  the  Coptic,  3d  century  a.d.  ; 
and  the  Latin,  chief  being  Jerome's  Vulgate. 
about  400  A.D. 


BIBLE 


X.  Genesis  of  the  New  Testament. —  In  the 
•earliest  days  of  the  New  Testament  Church 
their  sacred  book  of  authority  was  the  Old 
Testament.  The  apostles  of  Christ  were  con- 
tinually referring  to  these  Hebrew  writings 
and  expounding  them.  But  in  this  process  they 
were  also  always  preaching  that  Jesus  was  the 
Christ.  The  Old  Testament  Messiah  and  the 
Nazarene  were  one.  This  was  their  dominant 
theme.  As  an  outcome  their  message  was  full 
of  statements  about  Jesus.  Indeed,  this  was  the 
centre  and  the  sum  of  their  preaching.  Thus 
their  proclamation  put  into  being  a  body  of 
teaching  about  the  person  and  words  and  deeds 
of  Jesus  Christ.  In  this  Christie  life  the  Old 
Testament  found  its  fulfillment.  Hence  there 
came  to  stand  alongside  the  Old  Testament 
material  another  body  of  truth,  having  equal 
sacred  value,  namely,  the  report  and  record  of 
the  life  of  Jesus  Christ.  Moreover,  at  the  same 
time,  and  in  the  same  process  there  came  into 
form  and  shape  the  substance  and  sacred  au- 
thority of  an  Apostolic  message.  And  so,  grad- 
ually, and  in  a  vital  way,  as  an  outcome  of  the 
growing  life  of  the  New  Church,  a  set  of 
writings  called  Apostolic  came  to  be  acknow- 
ledged as  a  New  Testament  Canon  and  to  be 
set  alongside  the  Old  Testament  as  having  equal 
authority  and  worth.  This  process  took  time, 
and  had  its  stages.  Its  separate  steps  we  are 
not  able  to  trace.  It  stood  complete  in  the 
canons  of  the  3d  Council  of  Carthage  379  a.d. 
From  that  date  onward  the  New  Testament 
stands  in  its  full  integrity  as  a  canonical  body  of 
sacred  literature.  So  all  Christendom  has 
agreed. 

To  trace  this  historical  uprising  of  our  New 
Testament  is  well  nigh  the  most  urgent  task  of 
modern  Christian  scholarship.  Something  needs 
to  be  said  about  this.  Christ  left  no  writings. 
This  seems  undoubtedly  sure.  It  seems  almost 
equally  sure  that  the  first  New  Testament  writ- 
ings were  the  natural  outgrowth  of  the  Apos- 
tolic work.  In  this  process  Paul  holds  the  pre- 
-eminent  place.  His  writings,  while  mostly 
horn  of  special  needs,  held  an  enduring  value. 
They  engrossed  his  authoritative  message.  As 
such  the}^  were  cherished,  and  formed  a  nucleus 
of  sacred  New  Testament  literature.  In  some 
A'ital  connection  with  this  growing  life  and 
work  under  Apostolic  lead,  there  grew  up  our 
gospels.  Just  how,  and  just  when  this  most 
important  work  was  done  no  one  surely  knows. 
Efforts  at  the  reconstruction  of  this  process 
are  making  everywhere  and  all  the  time.  But 
the  procedure  is  almost   entirely  theoretic. 

Certain  facts  stand  clear.  The  gospel  of 
John  stands  in  a  place  by  itself.  Its  outline  of 
Christ's  life,  its  choice  and  treatment  of  ma- 
terial, and  its  central  themes  are  all  widely  and 
strangely  unlike  the  main  features  of  the  other 
:gospels.  Luke  also  has  a  striking  individuality, 
containing  a  surprising  quantity  of  material 
found  nowhere  else,  though  for  all  that  agree- 
ing strikingly  and  in  essential  respects  with 
]\Iatthew  and  Mark.  Matthew  and  Mark  are 
plainly  very  closely  akin.  They  are  commonly 
felt  to  have  arisen  in  some  way  expressive  of 
■close  felowship  of  aim,  form,  sources,  and  time. 
Touching  the  origin  of  all  four  explicit  inner 
witness  is  lacking.  The  simple  fact  of  their 
actual  rise  into  a  position  of  supreme  authority 
and  respect,  whatever  ma\'  have  been  the  method 
■or   means,    gives   everj^   presupposition  in   favor 


of  the  genuineness  of  all  four  as  authorized  re- 
ports of  Jesus'  life.  Thus  much  needs  saying 
by  itself. 

Certain  traditions  about  their  origin  have 
figured  very  influentially.  Eusebius,  about  300, 
reports  from  Papias,  about  140,  that  a  *^pres- 
byter*  used  to  say  that  '* Peter  used  to  give  his 
instructions  acording  to  what  was  required, 
but  not  as  giving  an  orderly  exposition  of  the 
Lord's  words. '^  These  "Mark,  having  become 
an  interpreter  of  Peter,  wrote  down  accurately, 
etc."  Immediately  in  the  same  context  Euse- 
bius quotes  Papias  as  saying  of  Matthew  that 
*'he  wrote  the  oracles  in  the  Hebrew  dialect,  and 
each  one  interpreted  them  as  he  was  able.*'  Of 
Luke  we  can  gather  no  helpful  traditions ;  we 
have  to  gather  all  we  know  from  references  in 
his  gospel,  in  Acts  and  in  Paul's  writings. 
While  the  mention  of  the  gospel  of  John  opens 
a  world  of  sharpest  scholarly  divergence  and 
debate. 

Now  to  outline  briefly  leading  theories: 
The  gospels  are  conjectured  to  have  originated 
something  thus :  First,  in  the  first  three  gospels 
there  are  striking  signs  of  broad  similarity ; 
their  general  synopsis  of  the  main  outline  of 
Christ's  public  life  is  the  same;  they  use  many 
phrases  in  common ;  they  expand  and  condense 
at  the  same  points ;  such  facts  intimate  that 
very  definite  and  potent  influences  operated  in 
common  upon  all  three.  This  solicits  explana- 
tion. But  they  also  strikingly  differ ;  these 
differences  are  commanding  and  broad.  Luke 
has  much  unique  material;  ^Matthew  distributes 
his  material  into  coherent  masses ;  Mark  seems 
simpler,  truer,  strikingly  independent.  These 
variations  also  call  for  explanation.  These  re- 
semblances and  divergences  are  being  traced 
with  minutest  carefulness.  The  aim  is  to 
find  the  facts  as  to  their  origin.  Which  gos- 
pel was  first ;  which  was  next ;  what  were  their 
sources  respectively  and  in  common ;  how  are 
:\Iatthew  and  Mark,  Matthew  and  Luke,  Mark 
and  Luke,  related ;  did  any  one  depend  on  any 
other,  or  upon  the  other  two ;  did  some  fourth 
account,  now  lost,  lie  back  of  these ;  what  was 
the  Hebrew  gospel,  etc.  ?  These  are  the  leading 
questions  which  students  are  trying  to  answer. 
A  view  widely  held  at  present  supposes  that 
Mark  preserves  to  us  a  document  which  came 
to  his  hand  from  some  source  unknown  to 
us ;  that  Matthew  preserves  to  us  another  docu- 
ment called  the  Logia ;  that  these  two  were 
combined  by  Matthew  in  forming  his  gospel ; 
that  Luke  also  used  the  Logia.  combining  it 
with  his  own  new  material.  This  is  the  now 
widelj'  known  "two-document*'  theory.  The 
main  efforts  here  are  to  define  the  original  full 
pure  form  of  each  of  these  two  documents. 
Here  positions  vary  manifoldly.  Anoller  view 
urges  vigorously  that  no  written  documents  lay 
behind  any  of  our  gospels.  What  preceded  our 
written  gospels  was  an  era  of  very  careful 
catechetical  instruction.  Out  of  this  memorized 
and  crystallized  material  grew  our  gospels. 
This  method  seems  to  find  a  measure  of  illustra- 
tion in  the  oral  discourses  of  the  book  of 
Acts.  For  a  historical  review  of  this  study 
see  Sanday,  <  Expositor^  1891,  ^A  Survey  of  the 
Synoptic  Question.' 

The  study  of  the  origin  of  the  gospel  of 
John  is  getting  to  be  a  science  by  itself.  It 
has  hardly  a  single  thing  in  common  with  the 
debate    over    the    first    three    gospels.     Look    at 


BIBLE 


the  fourth  gospel  carefully.  Its  progress  of 
events,  its  relation  to  Judsea  and  Jerusalem,  its 
report  of  the  great  debates,  its  miracles,  its  dis- 
courses, its  style,  its  ideas,  its  very  words  are 
all  peculiarly  its  own.  Two  questions  have 
come  to  the  front.  Are  its  narratives  authentic 
history?  Was  it  written  by  the  son  of  Zebe- 
dee?  But  other  problems  are  also  urgent: 
When  and  where  and  how  was  it  v/ritten  ? 
What  is  the  sum  and  drift  of  its  internal  evi- 
dence? What  has  been  its  external  his- 
tory? Has  its  order  of  chapters  or  para- 
graphs been  disturbed?  How  is  it  related  to 
the  epistles  of  John,  and  to  the  Apocalypse? 
To  list  and  classify  the  views  that  have  been 
held,  saying  nothing  of  the  literature,  would 
be  impossible  here.  See  special  article  on  Gos- 
pel of  John.  Suffice  it  to  say  that  among 
scholars,  as  they  strive  to  give  some  rational  ac- 
count of  these  matters,  there  has  been  a  strong 
tendency  to  discount  the  historical  value  of 
this  gospel,  and  to  deny  its  full  authorship  to 
the  apostle  John.  But  the  great  heart  of 
Christendom  has  always  felt  that  it  found  and 
felt  in  the  Gospel  of  John  the  very  presence 
of  its  very  Lord,  as  discerned  and  described  by 
his  most  profound  and  intimate  disciple.  The 
prime  question  has  always  been  in  plain  view. 
Did  the  only  begotten  Son  of  God  become 
incarnate  for  our  salvation?  This  is  tJie  Johan- 
nme  question.  Upon  this  prime  problem  hangs 
every  other.  Once  state  in  full  and  in  brief 
the  entire  sum  and  nature,  the  whole  scope  and 
purport  of  its  words,  as  they  stand ;  note  its 
unity,  its  homogeneity  and  its  profundity ;  sur- 
vey the  sweep  of  its  thought ;  look  into  its 
religious  purity,  its  ethical  absoluteness,  its 
transparent  clarity;  sense  its  overwhelming  mo- 
mentum ;  observe  its  entire  fluidity,  the  energy 
of  the  whole  pouring  full  from  every  part; 
being  watchful  all  the  while  to  see  that  these 
impressive  qualities,  all  and  single,  lie  throb- 
bing and  shining  in  this  gospel  wholly  and 
only  because  of  the  clear  and  full  presence  of 
the  Christ,  whom  some  author,  with  an  all- 
absorbing  devotion,  has  endeavored  to  unveil  — 
and  one  must  conclude  and  exclaim  that  here 
is  no  human  invention,  no  poetic  embodiment 
of  any  earth-born  type  of  thought ;  but  rather 
the  declaration  and  disclosure,  by  an  anointed 
and  enraptured  eyewitness,  of  his  own  full  and 
immediate  vision  of  the  heavenly  glory  of 
Jesus  Christ,  the  only  begotten  and  incarnate 
Son  of  God.  At  any  rate  it  can  be  boldly  said 
that  a  discussion  of  the  origin  of  the  Gospel  of 
John,  to  say  nothing  of  the  other  three  gospels, 
deals  with  the  inmost  essence  of  the  subject  of 
this  essay. 

Some  special  mention  of  the  book  of  Acts 
is  also  needful  in  any  statement  of  the  genesis 
of  New  Testament  writings.  Here  is  an  au- 
thority of  the  first  rank  and  importance.  It  is 
our  sole  reliable  record  of  the  earlier  days  of 
the  Christian  Church.  It  defines  and  presents 
the  actual  process  of  the  transition  from  the 
life  and  time  of  Christ  to  the  Apostolic  Age. 
Its  references  to  geography,  and  archjeology  and 
politics  and  civil  administration  and  customs, 
all  presented  with  singular  minuteness,  at  the 
same  time  expose  it  to  the  sharpest  tests  of 
historical  criticism  and  establish  its  singularly 
full  trustworthiness.  Written  without  much 
doubt  by  Luke,  a  personal  friend  and  com- 
panion   of    Paul,    and    a    man    of    painstaking 


accuracy,  it  offers  from  chapter  20:5  on,  and 
also  in  chapter  16,  the  testimony  of  an  eye- 
witness; from  chapter  12  on,  a  record  of  first- 
hand knowledge;  and  in  its  first  12  chapters  a 
compilation  from  sources  which  he  was  in  a 
peculiarly  good  position  to  obtain  and  inspect 
with  the  aid  of  first  rate  authorities.  But  prob- 
lems beset  the  book.  The  leading  of  these  con- 
cern the  day  of  Pentecost ;  the  relation  of  the 
speaking  with  tongues  in  Acts  2  to  that  in  I 
Corinthians  14:  the  relation  of  chapter  15 
to  Galatians  i  and  2;  the  sources  of  the 
book ;  the  authorship ;  the  text ;  and  the 
speeches.  In  particular,  certain  scholars  impugn 
chapters  1-7,  and  all  records  of  miraculous 
events.  But  in  the  main  these  are  matters  that 
lie  beyond  the  range  of  precise  historical  out- 
side proof.  Hence  theories  may  continue  to 
abound.  But  sober  views  must  contend  that 
here  is  a  faithful  reflection  of  the  primitive 
Christian  days,  from  the  hand  of  an  alert  and 
competent  historian  who  wrought  under  the 
immediate  influence  and  presence  of  apostolic 
men,  in  the  very  midst  and  upon  the  very  ground 
of  the  scenes  which  he  reports. 

One  other  section  demands  mention  in  this 
study  of  the  genesis  of  the  New  Testament  — 
the  Apocalypse.  The  surface  aspect  of  this 
book  is  bewildering.  Its  historical  allusions  are 
the  puzzle  of  the  ages.  Interpretations  are  a 
crazy  medley.  But  statements  of  another  na- 
ture may  also  be  made.  This  book  belongs  to 
a  class.  It  is  one  of  many.  In  fact  it  marks  a 
world  current.  Taken  altogether,  the  outpour 
of  Apocalyptic  literature  is  a  phenomenon  of 
noteworthy  persistence.  It  springs  up  re- 
peatedly in  Old  Testament  life.  A  striking 
instance  is  Daniel.  It  wells  up  frequently  in 
the  speech  of  Christ.  Many  would  deny  all  such 
ideas  to  him.  But  this  is  rash  and  violent  in 
the  extreme.  His  conscious  connection  with 
Daniel  cannot  be  impugned.  His  own  apoca- 
lyptical utterances  must  be  allowed.  Then  the 
teachings  and  experiences  of  Paul  cannot  be 
erased.  Thus  much  touching  form.  But  once 
one  penetrates  beneath  the  form,  and  confronts 
the  inner  message  of  every  Biblical  apocalypse, 
—  he  is  a  rash  assailant  who  would  assume  to 
undo  its  word.  This  is  pre-eminently  true  of 
the  Apocalypse  of  John.  It  is  a  book  of  im- 
pregnable strength.  Its  central  theme  is  the 
world  struggle  between  the  true  God  and  his 
blasphemous  counterfeit  for  the  worshipping 
allegiance  of  mankind.  This  is  the  one  inmost 
and  uppermost  errand  and  office  of  the  book. 
Specially  in  chapters  12-22  the  evolution  and 
description  of  this  conflict  stand  forth  in  stu- 
pendous strength.  The  true  God,  the  living 
God,  the  creator  God,  the  spirit  God,  sole  Law- 
giver, Judge  and  Saviour  of  angels  and  men, 
holy,  infinite  and  pure;  the  suffering  and  glori- 
fied Christ,  mighty,  gracious,  and  true;  with 
their  innumerable,  worshipping,  devoted  human 
and  angelic  hosts,  on  the  one  side  —  the  Dragon 
and  Beast  and  pampered  Queen,  full  of  blas- 
phemy, treachery,  cruelty,  and  lust;  with  their 
hosts  of  devotees  to  every  sordid  lust,  on  the 
other  side,  representing  all  the  personnel,  good 
and  bad  of  a  teeming  universe,  surge  and  strive 
unto  issues  of  eternal  life  and  eternal  death 
amid  the  scenes  of  this  mysterious  book. 
It  is  a  volume  of  life  in  which  the  awful  strug- 
gles within  the  realms  of  religion  and  ethics 
attain  their  ultimate  culmination.     It  fixes  for- 


BIBLE 


ever  the  issue  toward  which  all  the  teachings 
of  the  Bible  tend.  Here,  as  nowhere  else,  the 
solemn  undertone  of  the  entire  volume  sounds 
forth  in  full  expression.  Here  the  full  majesty 
of  God,  the  full  enormity  of  sin,  the  full 
anguish  of  guilt,  the  full  felicity  of  grace  stand 
clear.  Here  the  inner  structure  and  substance 
of  true  morals  and  religion  are  shown  and  seen 
to  be  imperishable.  However  mysterious  and 
confusing  the  outer  guise  of  this  incomparable 
book,  whatever  historical  allusions  its  various 
enigmas  may  really  intend,  whoever  its  author, 
whencesoever  its  sources,  and  whatever  the 
motive  stirring  its  writer's  mind,  its  inner  teach- 
ing, simple  and  sublime,  concordant,  inclusive, 
and  pure,  forms  the  crown  and  marks  the  con- 
summation of  all  for  which  the  Bible  most 
-distinctly  stands.  Its  nature  befits  its  place. 
It  well  corresponds  to  the  mysteries  and  enduring 
strength  that  mark  the  openmg  chapters  of  the 
book  standing  at  the  beginning  of  the  Biblical 
list.  It  is  a  book  of  issues.  A  study  of  its 
genesis  leads  back  into  a  deep  and  far-seeing 
study  of  the  real  inner  meaning  of  all  the 
volume  which  it  concludes.  Thus  much  needs 
saying    about    its    inner    value. 

Critical  study  of  the  origin  of  this  book  has 
in  recent  years  taken  a  new  turn.  This  study 
deals  distinctly  with  its  apocalyptical  features, 
and  its  historical  intimations.  It  has  pursued 
two  marked  courses,  one  that  of  literary,  the 
other  that  of  historical  criticism.  The  latter  is 
at  present  paramount,  and  bids  fair  to  hold  the 
first  place.  It  consists  in  an  effort  to  trace, 
through  a  study  of  the  world's  apocalyptical 
literature,  the  actual  historical  genius  of  the 
forms  found  in  this  work  ascribed  to  John. 
This  work  is  as  yet  but  fairly  begun.  Till  it  is 
done  efforts  at  final  estimates  are  vain.  The 
nature  and  field  and  status  of  this  study  may 
be  seen  in  Bousset,   *The  Antichrist  Legend.^ 

XI.  Canon  of  the  Nczv  Testament. —  This 
study  seeks  to  trace  the  actual  historical  ac- 
ceptance of  the  New  7'estament  writings  by 
the  Church  as  a  recognized  body  of  sacred 
literature,  worthy  to  stand  alongside  the  Old 
Testament.  One  has  to  begin  with  140  a.d. 
Witness  as  to  this  date  is  very  meagre  and  in- 
definite. The  datr  are  from  the  epistle  of  Clem- 
ent to  the  Corinthians,  the  II  Epistle  of  Igna- 
tius the  Epistle  of  Polycarp,  the  Didache,  the 
Epistle  of  Barnabas,  the  Shepherd  of  Hermas, 
the  writings  of  Justin  Martyr.  Some  of  these 
testimonies  date  later  than  140  a.d.  by  a  few 
years.  But  they  stand  so  near  that  date  as  to 
form  fair  testimony  as  to  that  era.  The  evi- 
dence is  mostly  by  way  of  allusions  to  sayings 
found  in  our  New  Testament  writings ;  and  not 
in  the  form  of  direct  citation  or  mention.  But 
these  allusions  and  references  are  sufficiently 
numerous  and  suggestive  to  support  quite  firmly 
the  supposition,  which  otherwise  seems  most 
natural,  that  our  New  Testament  writings  were 
at  that  date  widely  known  and  honored.  In  a 
few  cases  the  exact  words  of  our  gospels  were 
used  by  these  early  writers,  as  a  quotation  from 
the  Lord's  Prayer,  and  from  his  words  in 
Gethsemane.  In  some  cases  New  Testament 
writings  are  mentioned,  as  Paul's  epistles,  I  Cor- 
inthians and  Philippians.  One  writer  refers 
to  the  words  of  Christ  in  Matthew  22:14  as 
Scripture.  In  particular  the  work  of  Papias  is 
important.  His  words  shed  light  on  the  period 
prior   to    140   A.n.      He   explicitly   attests    <*writ- 


ings''  as  of  Apostolic  value,  one  from  Peter 
through  Mark,  and  one  from  Matthew.  He 
also  seems  to  have  known  of  other  writings 
from  the  hands  of  Peter  and  John.  See  Eus. 
'Hist.  Eccl.^  iii.  39.  The  words  of  Justin 
are  of  the  greatest  value,  though  still  indeter- 
minate. He  alludes  repeatedly  to  'Memoirs  of 
the  Apostles.^  He  uses  the  word  "Gospels.^* 
He  traces  these  writings  to  the  "Apostles  and 
those  who  followed  them."  He  seems  certainly 
to  have  had  in  hand  our  first  three  gospels. 
Some  important  elements  of  his  work  seem 
almost  as  surely  traceable  to  the  Gospel  of  John. 
He  alludes  to  Paul's  epistles  as  standard.  He 
also  names  John's  Apocalypse.  Marcion  also 
apparently  knew  and  used  Luke,  and  accepted 
ID  epistles  of  Paul,  namely,  Galatians,  I  and  II 
Corinthians,  Romans,  I  and  II  Thessalonians, 
Colossians,  Philemon,  Philippians,  Laodiceans. 
Statements  like  the  above  are  as  definite  as  can 
be  made  about  our  New  Testament  prior  to  150 
A.D.  The  fullest  testimony  within  the  Church 
is  from  Justin  Martyr.  He  bears  witness  that  a 
New  Testament  canon  was  in  vogue  in  his  day, 
having  fully  equal  validity  with  the  Old  Testa- 
ment. How  far  back  can  this  condition  be  sup- 
posed to  date ;  and  how  many  books  were  in- 
cluded. Zahn  says  that  our  four  gospels  and  the 
13  Pauline  epistles  were  widely  circulated  as 
collections  at  the  latest  about  125  a.d.  Harnack 
declares  this  unsupported  by  historical  evidence. 

200  A.D.  In  stating  in  general  the  situation 
of  the  New  Testament  canon  at  this  date  the 
chief  witnesses  are  Tatian,  Irenseus,  Clement  of 
Alexandria,  Tertullian,  Hippolytus,  the  Mura- 
tori  canon.  These  sources  make  many  features 
stand  clear.  Tatian  prepared  from  our  four 
gospels  his  Diatessaron.  Irenjeus  attests  all 
our  New  Testament  books  except  Philemon,  II 
Peter,  Jude,  specially  emphasizing  the  value 
of  the  four  gospels.  He  calls  these  New  Testa- 
ment writings  the  "pillar  and  ground  of  the 
faith."  He  combines  them  with  the  Old  Testa- 
ment as  upborne  by  the  same  spirit.  Clement 
of  Alexandria  distinctly  attests  the  same  writ- 
ings as  sacred  writings,  including  II  Peter, 
Jude,  and  Hebrews.  Tertullian  made  abundant 
use  of  our  New  Testament  writings  as  holy 
writings,  excepting  that  he  is  silent  about  II 
Peter  and  II  and  III  John,  and  sets  Hebrews, 
I  Peter,  and  Jude  into  a  second  rank.  The 
Muratori  Fragment  makes  a  sharp  definition  of 
canonical  books.  It  includes  the  four  Gospels, 
Acts,  13  epistles  of  Paul,  I  and  II  John,  Jude ; 
and  omits  Hebrews,  I  and  II  Peter,  III  John. 
At  this  period,  as  in  the  earlier  era,  certain 
writings,  not  now  held  canonical,  notably  Bar- 
nabas, Shepherd  of  Hermas,  and  Apocalypse 
of  Peter,  seem  to  have  stood  near  to  sacred 
Scripture  in  Christian  respect.  For  this  era 
the  Syriac  version  yields  peculiar  material.  It 
accepts  Hebrews,  but  omits  II  Peter,  II  and 
III  John,  Jude,  and  Revelation.  In  brief,  at 
200  A.D.  our  four  Gospels,  Acts,  13  epistles  of 
Paul  were  established  universally  in  supreme 
respect  as  sacred  Scripture  with  the  old  Testa- 
ment. 

200  to  323  A.n.  In  this  era  two  names  call 
for  mention.  Origen,  who  died  254  a.d.,  has 
left  quite  outspoken  statements.  The  most  val- 
uable are  in  Eus.  H.  E.  VI.  25.  He  gives  the 
four  gospels  sharp  definition  as  imique  and 
canonical.  He  exalts  the  works  of  Paul  with- 
out numbering  his  books.     He  declares  I   Peter 


BIBLE 


^acknowledged,"  and  II  Peter  as  in  circula- 
tion. He  includes  Revelation  and  I  John,  men- 
tioning II  and  III  John  as  not  held  "genuine 
by  all."  He  discusses  at  length  on  Hebrews,  hon- 
oring its  contents,  but  wondering  about  its  au- 
thorship. In  other  passages  he  includes  Acts 
as  by  Luke,  and  credits  13  epistles  to  Paul,  and 
uses  James  and  Jude.  One  striking  feature  is 
Origen's  distinctions.  He  speaks  of  some  books 
as  "not  spoken  against,"  of  others  as  not  held 
^'genuine"  by  all,  of  another  as  "acknowledged," 
a  term  which  he  also  applies  to  all  the  "Apos- 
tolic writings." 

Eusebius  in  H.  E.  HI.  25  gives  a  classified 
list,  aiming  to  summarize  the  views  of  the  whole 
Christian  period  to  his  day.  He  gives  the  four 
gospels.  Acts,  14  epistles  of  Paul,  I  John,  I 
Peter,  and  Revelation.  These  he  called  "ac- 
knowledged." He  then  names  James,  Jude,  II 
Peter,  II  and  III  John  as  "disputed."  He 
names  next  "Acts  of  Paul,"  Shepherd,  Revela- 
tion of  Peter,  Barnabas,  Teachings  of  the  Apos- 
tles as  "spurious."  Here  is  notable  testimony. 
It  is  representative.  It  is  discriminating.  It 
contributes  toward  conclusions.  It  shows  a  uni- 
versal, undoubted  canonical  standard.  It  shows 
cautious  study  and  practice.  It  shows  that  pre- 
cisely our  present  canon  was  held  at  that  time, 
and  we  cannot  be  sure  how  early  or  how  far 
his  testimony  reaches.  And  it  shows  that  writ- 
ings now  finally  rejected  were  then  rejected. 
This  is  one  of  the  chief  landmarks  in  the  his- 
tory of  the    Nev/   Testament   canon. 

323  to  397.  A.D.  Constantine  gave  standing 
to  the  Christian  Church.  He  revered  and  dis- 
seminated sacred  Scripture.  Conflicts  with 
heretics  made  outlines  precise.  The  canon, 
accordingly,  became  clear  and  took  final  form. 
Doubts  vanish.  The  word  "canon"  comes  into 
vogue.  The  Synod  of  Laodicea,  about  360  a.d., 
has  been  said  to  have  left  a  list,  in  its  60th 
canon.  At  any  rate  it  belongs  in  this  period. 
It  gives  the  present  Protestant  canon  for  Old 
Testament  and  New  Testament,  only  omitting 
Revelation.  This  omission  was  characteristic 
of  the  Eastern  Church  at  this  time.  In  the 
West,  Hilary  and  Rufinus  held  to  this  canon. 
Augustine  and  Jerome  also  fixed  upon  our  pres- 
ent list,  though  recognizing  that  some  books 
were  challenged.  The  formal  concluding  steps 
were  taken  authoritatively  for  the  Western 
Church  at  the  third  Council  of  Carthage,  379  a.d. 
In  495  A.D.  Bishop  Gelasius  I.  of  Rome  put 
forth  a  synodical  verdict  as  a  decree  adopting 
the  list  and  fi.xing  the  order  of  the  New  Tes- 
tament canon  as  we  have  it  to-day.  In  691  a.d. 
this  was  adopted  for  East  and  West  by  a  uni- 
versal council. 

XII.  Text  of  the  Nczu  Testament. —  Up  to 
the  time  of  Constantine  the  fortune  of  New 
Testament  Scriptures  was  precarious.  We 
know  too  little  about  it  all.  But  Christians 
were  largely  poor,  often  persecuted,  sadly  scat- 
tered and  altogether  unable  to  solidify  and 
maintain  in  permanent  form  all  the  elements  and 
instruments  of  their  life.  We  have  no  original 
New  Testament  manuscripts.  We  have  no 
copies  from  the  first  three  centuries.  When 
Constantine  accepted  Christianity,  among  other 
things,  he  ordered  Eusebius  to  prepare  50  copies 
of  the  Scriptures  for  the  churches  of  Constan- 
tinople alone.  From  that  century  manuscripts 
begin  to  appear,  two  being  preserved  to  our  day. 
Two  more   date   from  the   5th   century.     From 


the  6th  century  27  documents  have  come  to  our 
time.  From  the  7th  century  8  small  frag- 
ments. These  authorities  and  many  more  of 
later  days  restore  to  us  our  New  Testament 
text.  Aid  is  also  rendered  by  versions.  Chief 
of  these  are  the  Syriac  and  the  Latin.  Further 
aid  comes  from  the  Church  fathers.  The  text 
which  lay  underneath  our  authorized  English 
A-ersion  was  based  on  very  inadequate  know- 
ledge and  study  of  textual  authorities.  In  later 
j'ears  this  study  has  become  a  noble  science. 
In  most  recent  years  its  prosecution  has  taken 
a  turn  of  phenomenal  meaning.  Scholars  are 
trying  to  group  textual  authorities.  In  this 
impressive  undertaking  Westcott  and  Hort  are 
leaders.  They  seek  to  classify  sources  into 
families,  and  so  to  be  able  to  estimate  manu- 
script values.  In  this  process  one  group  is^ 
called  "Syrian,"  including  a  great  number  of 
authorities,  but  all  alike  being  of  low  value. 
Another  group  is  the  "Western.*  Of  this  the 
leading  manuscript  is  D,  Codex  Bezge,  so- 
called.  This  group  is  remarkable  for  freedom, 
specially  for  adding  otherwise  unknown  mate- 
rial. Another  group  is  the  "Alexandrian." 
This  group  is  of  minor  weight.  The  fourth 
group  is  called  "Neutral."  This  is  believed  to 
represent  most  nearly  the  original  New  Testa- 
ment. Its  leading  authority  is  B,  the  Codex 
Vaticanus,  so-called.  This  is  the  oldest  and 
weightiest  manuscript  we  have. 

This  raises  the  whole  question  of  the  relative 
worth  of  m.anuscripts.  It  may  be  surely  ex- 
pected that  this  problem  is  by  no  means  solved. 
It  is   little  more  than  opened. 

Independent  workers  are  challenging  the  po- 
sitions of  Westcott  and  Hort.  But  after  all  is 
said  and  done,  our  New  Testament  text  is 
mainly  assured.  "The  great  bulk  of  the  words 
of  the  New  Testament  stand  out  above  all  dis- 
criminative processes  of  criticism,  because  they 
are  free  from  variation,  and  need  only  to  be 
transcribed.  .  .  .  The  words  in  our  opinion 
still  subject  to  doubt  can  hardly  amount  to 
more  than  a  thousandth  part  of  the  whole  New 
Testament.  See  Westcott  and  Hort,  "^Principles 
of   Textual    Criticism.^ 

Manuscripts  of  the  New  Testament. —  Four 
manuscripts  deserve  emphatic  mention,  as  they 
are  prime  sources  for  both  Old  Testament  and 
New  Testament.  Code.x  Ale.xandrinus,  named 
A,  dates  probably  from  the  5th  century.  It 
contained  originally  the  whole  Bible  in  Greek, 
also  the  two  epistles  of  Clement.  At  present 
it  is  mutilated.  Parts  of  Genesis,  I  Kings,  and 
Psalms,  most  of  Matthew,  parts  of  John  and 
II  Corinthians  are  lost.  It  is  now  in  the  Brit- 
ish Museum.  It  came  from  Constantinople  to 
England  in  1627.  As  an  authority  it  rates  lower 
than   the  two   next   named. 

Codex  Vaticanus.  B. —  This  dates  from  the 
4th  century  and  contained  originally  the  whole 
Greek  Bible.  This  is  deemed  by  many  the  old- 
est and  most  precious  manuscript  known.  It 
is  in  the  Vatican  library  at  Rome,  since  1450 
A.D.  In  its  present  state  it  lacks  portions  of 
Genesis,  II  Kings,  Psalms,  Hebrews,  the  Cath- 
olic epistles,  and  all  of  Revelation.  Its  text 
had  predominant  influence  with  Westcott  and 
Hort  and  with  the  revisers  of  our  English 
Bible. 

Codex  Ephrjemi.  C. —  This  dates  from  the 
5th  century.  Originally  it  contained  the  whole 
Greek  Bible.     It  is  now  in  the  National  Library 


BIBLE 


in  Paris.  Early  in  the  l6th  century  it  was 
brought  to  Italy  from  the  East.  It  was  taken 
to  Paris  by  Catherine  de  Medici.  At  present 
it  is  a  palimpsest  and  only  a  fragment,  having 
onljr  a  small  part  of  the  Old  Testament  and 
barely  more  than  half  of  the  New  Testament. 
It  is  of  great  value. 

Codex  Sinaiticus.  Aleph. —  This  dates  from 
the  4th  century.  It  now  exists  in  two  parts : 
one,  of  43  leaves,  in  the  Court  Library  in  Leip- 
sic ;  the  rest  in  the  Imperial  Librarj'  in  St. 
Petersburg.  It  originally  contained  the  whole 
Greek  Bible.  But  now  the  Old  Testament  is  in 
fragments.  The  New  Testament  is  complete. 
This  is  the  manuscript  that  was  found  by  Tisch- 
endorf  under  such  thrilling  experiences  in  the 
monastery  of  St.  Catherine  at  Mount  Sinai.  It 
is  of  priceless  value  as  a  witness  to  the  New 
Testament   text. 

Codex  Bezse.  D. —  This  manuscript  orgini- 
nated  perhaps  in  the  south  of  France  in  the  6th 
century.  It  is  now  in  the  University  Library 
at  Cambridge,  being  the  direct  gift  of  Beza  in 
1581.  It  contains  the  Bible  in  two  languages, 
Greek  and  Latin.  The  relation  of  these  two 
texts  to  each  other  is  a  very  curious  and  un- 
solved problem.  As  a  witness  it  has  to  be  used 
with  great  caution.  Its  New  Testament  text 
contains  only  the  Gospels  and  Acts  and  a  few 
verses  from  the  Catholic  epistles.  Its  most 
striking  and  puzzling  feature  is  its  strange 
omissions,  and  still  stranger  quite  extensive  ad- 
ditions. 

The  above  named  are  the  leading  manu- 
scripts. These  are  all  written  in  large  letters 
called  uncials.  Of  these  there  are  over  100. 
Many  more,  considerably  over  2,000,  are  written 
in  smaller  letters  and  in  a  more  running  style, 
and  so  are  called  cursives.  For  further  state- 
ments  consult   the  Variorum   Bible. 

XIII.  Versions  of  the  New  Testament. —  Of 
these  the  Syriac  would  naturally  date  earl}^ 
Until  toward  the  middle  of  the  last  century  all 
supposed  the  so-called  Peshitto,  or  common 
version,  to  be  the  one  and  only  Syriac 
translation  of  Scripture.  In  1842  manuscripts 
came  to  view  suggesting  another  and  perhaps 
earlier  version.  Since  that  time  there  has  been 
much  debate  over  the  problem  of  two  versions 
in  Syriac.  Of  late  new  light  has  come,  and 
again  from  Mount  Sinai.  Here  in  1892  two 
ladies  found  a  palimpsest  of  a  Syriac  version 
which  may  possibly  be  older  than  either.  This 
debate  is  destined  to  continue  for  some  time. 
Of  these  versions  the  Peshitto  is  the  great 
standard  version  of  the  Syriac  Church.  It  has 
been  current  and  in  general  use  from  the  4th 
century.  We  know  of  177  manuscripts,  gathered 
from  the  Nitrian  Desert  in  Egypt,  and  now  in 
the  British  Museum.  This  version  does  not 
include  II  Peter,  II  and  III  John,  Jude,  and 
Revelation.  Other  Syriac  versions  have  been 
made. 

Egyptian  Versions. —  These  must  have  be- 
gun to  originate  by  300  a.d.  At  present  five  are 
known.  The  ]\Iemphitic  represents  lower  Egypt, 
where  the  dominant  dialect  was  at  home.  Here 
alone  are  complete  copies  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment found.  Over  a  hundred  manuscripts  have 
been  examined,  all  of  late  date,  the  oldest  from 
1 173.  Its  text  is  surprisingly  good.  The  The- 
baic version  was  current  in  upper  Egypt.  It 
probably  originated  somewhat  later  than  the 
Memphitic.     It  exists  onlj'  in  fragments,  though 


manjf  of  them  are  very  old  manuscripts,  some 
dating  possibly  into  the  4th  century. 

Armenian  Version. —  This  originated  in  the 
5th  century.  It  was  made  from  mixed  texts, 
Greek  and  Syriac.  Its  earliest  manuscript  dates 
from  the  8th   century. 

Gothic  Version. —  This  was  made  by  Ulfilas 
in  the  4th  century  directly  from  the  Greek. 
Now  it  is  in  fragments. 

Old  Latin  Version. —  This  was  made,  per- 
haps, in  Africa  about  150  a.d.  Scholars  trace 
rival  translations  and  classify  them  as  African, 
European,  and  Italian.  These  were  supplanted 
by  the  Vulgate.  Textual  study  of  this  early 
version  is  of  peculiar  interest,  disclosing,  as  it 
does,  a  very  free  treatment  as  characteristic 
of  that  time,  and  containing  what  is  called  the 
"Western"   text. 

Vulgate. —  This  is  a  work  undertaken  by 
Jerome  at  the  order  of  Pope  Damasus  in  382. 
At  first  he  merely  revised  the  Old  Latin,  work- 
ing on  the  Gospels.  Then  he  developed  the  rest 
of  the  New  Testament.  His  Old  Testament 
work  was  much  later  and  more  thorough-going. 
Manuscripts  of  the  Vulgate  exist  everywhere 
in  Europe.  The  best  is  the  Codex  Amiatinus. 
The  text  of  this  version  has  been  in  very  bad 
condition,  and  it  is  very  difficult  to  restore. 
The  work  is  in  progress.  This  is  the  standard 
Bible  of  Latin  and  Roman  Catholic  Christendom 
everywhere. 

XIV.  History  of  the  Bible  as  a  Whole.— Je- 
rome's influence  through  his  Vulgate  version 
and  through  separation  of  the  Apocrypha  from 
the  canon  was  far-reaching.  In  the  i6th  cen- 
tury the  Roman  Catholic  and  Protestant 
Churches  took  different  courses.  The  Roman 
Catholic  Church  in  its  Council  of  Trent  in 
1545,  adopted  the  Old  Testament  Apocrypha  as 
an  integral  part  of  the  Old  Testament  canon. 
The  Lutheran  party,  after  some  indecision,  set- 
tled down  by  usage  upon  the  pure  and  full  Bib- 
lical canon  as  held  by  us  to-day,  though  during 
the  process  there  was  free  discussion  of  the 
value  of  the  parts  that  we  have  found  under 
dispute.  The  same  holds  true  of  the  Swiss  or 
Reformed  party.  Through  them,  and  by  way  of 
the  Westminster  Confession  of  Faith,  we  have 
received  our  present  body  of  sacred  Scripture. 

Previous  to  this  the  Bible  had  made  its  way 
to  England.  About  670  a.d.  C^edmon  made  a 
paraphrase  in  verse  of  the  Bible  narrative  in 
Anglo-Saxon.  Before  800  Aldhelm  had  trans- 
lated the  Psalms  into  English.  In  735  Bede 
finished,  with  his  life,  a  version  of  John.  King 
Alfred  also  did  some  work  of  this  kind.  But  of 
these  nothing  surel}^  remains.  Numerous  other 
translations  of  parts  of  the  Bible  were  made 
later.     Of  some  of  them  manuscripts  remain. 

Wycliffe's  first  translation  dates  from  1380-2. 
This  was  a  composite  work.  Soon  after  his 
death  this  was  revised ;  and  this  revised  Wy- 
cliffite  Bible  became  the  current  version.  About 
170  copies  are  known.  This  is  the  first  known 
complete  English  Bible.  Though  of  untold 
value,  it  was  not  a  scholarly  work,  being  based 
upon   a  poor   Latin  translation. 

In  the  15th  century  printing  appeared,  No- 
vember 1454.  In  the  same  century,  and  at  about 
the  same  time  the  Turks  took  Constantinople 
and  scattered  scholars  out  of  the  East,  with 
their  learning  and  treasures,  over  Europe.  Out 
of  this  revival  of  learning  and  printing  came 
might}^  sequels  for  the  Bible.     Translations  and 


BIBLE 


copies  now  could  multipl}'.  In  England  several 
versions   need   mention. 

In  1525  Tyndale  completed  in  Hamburg  his 
translation  of  the  New  Testament.  Despite 
strenuous  efforts  to  destroy  it,  copies  multiplied. 
But  most  of  them  have  perished.  This  version, 
variously  revised,  is  the  influence  lying  most  po- 
tently underneath  the  present  King  James  Bible, 
and  through  it  our  English  tongue  has  gained 
and  retained  not  a  little  of  its  peculiar  charm. 

Other  translations  are  Coverdale's,  under- 
taken at  the  request  of  Cromwell,  dedicated  to 
Henry  VIII.,  covering  the  whole  Bible,  and 
published  in  1536;  Matthew's,  really  a  comple- 
tion of  Tyndale's,  made  under  favor  of  the 
king,  finished  in  1537;  the  Great  Bible,  a  grand, 
authorized  edition  of  Matthew's,  under  Crom- 
well's patronage,  by  the  hand  of  Coverdale,  pub- 
lished in  1539  and  set  up  in  every  church;  the 
Genevan  Bible,  prepared  in  Geneva  by  English 
refugees  under  the  influence  of  Calvin  and  Beza 
and  published  in  1560;  the  Bishop's  Bible,  pre- 
pared under  the  patronage  of  Elizabeth  and  the 
editorship  of  the  Archbishop  of  Canterbury  for 
the  English  Church,  and  printed  in  1568;  and 
the  Roman  Catholic  or  Douay  Bible  made  from 
the  Latin  Vulgate  for  the  Roman  Catholic 
Church,  and  published  1582  and  1609.  Of  these 
the  Genevan  Bible  had  the  widest  influences ; 
it  was  the  first  entire  English  Bible  to  adopt 
the  division  of  chapters  into  verses. 

Authorized  Version. —  This  work  was  pro- 
duced under  the  patronage  of  King  James  I. 
at  the  suggestion  of  the  Church  leaders.  About 
50  scholars  were  engaged  in  the  work,  arranged 
in  six  groups.  They  used  Beza's  Greek  Testa- 
ment of  1589  for  the  New  Testament.  The 
Bishop's  Bible  formed  the  English  basis,  though 
the  Genevan  and  Douay  versions  had  much 
influence.  Through  the  Bishop's  Bible  Tyndale 
still  made  his  power  felt.  This  version  was 
published  in  161 1  to  become  the  standard  form 
of  sacred  Scripture  for  over  200  years  for  the 
entire  English  race.  Its  influence  upon  litera- 
ture and  life  can  never  be  told. 

Revised  Version. —  Increase  of  knowledge  of 
Biblical  lore  since  161 1  made  a  revision  impera- 
tive. This  work  was  proposed  officially  by  the 
Established  Church  of  England  in  its  Convo- 
cation of  1870.  Rules  were  laid  down  govern- 
ing the  translation,  enjoining  use  of  best  text, 
faithfulness  to  the  original  meaning,  and  as  few 
alterations  as  possible.  Two  companies  were 
formed,  of  27  members  each,  selected  from 
various  denominations.  These  were  supple- 
mented by  a  bod}'  of  American  scholars,  whose 
results,  when  not  adopted  by  the  English  body, 
were  incorporated  in  an  appendix.  The  work 
began  in  1870.  The  New  Testament  appeared 
in  1881,  the  Old  Testament  in  1884.  The 
changes  from  the  version  of  161 1,  while  very 
numerous  (Dr.  Kenyon  records  that  the  Greek 
New  Testament  of  1881  differs  from  that  of 
161 1  in  S.788  readings,  of  which  about  one 
■quarter  are  a  notable  change)  are  prevailingly 
in  matters  of  minor  moment. 

American  Version. —  In  1901  the  surviving 
members  of  the  American  committee,  appointed 
by  the  English  committee  in  1870,  published  an 
edition  of  the  English  Bible  in  which  the 
opinions  of  the  American  members  of  the  re- 
vision hold  first  place.  In  this  edition  there 
are  several  notable  improvements  in  the  way 
of  faithfulness  and  modernness   and  facility  in 


use.     Chief    among    these    is    the    new    list    of 
marginal    readings. 

German  Versions. —  Luther's  is  the  standard, 
though  many  translations  appeared  before  his. 
He  translated  directly  from  the  Greek  and  He- 
brew, putting  out  10  editions  during  his  life. 
In  1863  the  Evangelical  Church  Diet  set  afoot 
a  revision  of  Luther's  Bible.  Specially  to  be 
mentioned  for  scholarly  value  are  Weizsacker's 
German  translation  of  the  New  Testament ;  and 
the  translation  of  the  Old  Testament  conducted 
by   Kautzsch   and    completed   in    1894. 

French  Versions. —  The  chief  early  version  is 
that  by  Olivetan  in  1535.  In  1588  a  rcdsion 
was  made  at  the  suggestion  of  Calvin  and  under 
the  lead  of  Beza.  This  has  been  the  standard 
French  Bible.  A  new  translation  by  Segond 
1874-9  is  now  most  widely  used. 

The  standard  Dutch  Bible,  called  the  States 
Bible,  is  a  translation  authorized  in  1624  by  the 
States-General  of  Holland,  and  completed  in 
1637. 

To-day  there  exist  at  least  108  translations 
of  the  entire  Scriptures.  If  partial  transla- 
tions are  added,  the  total  will  nearl}'  reach  500. 
In  this  v/ork  the  past  century  has  been  a  phe- 
nomenal era.  It  has  seen  the  Bible  put  into  the 
possession  of  1,200,000,000  of  people.  This  is 
pre-eminently  the  work  of  Protestant  Christian- 
ity. During  this  past  century  80  Bible  Socie- 
ties have  come  into  being,  with  a  multitude  of 
auxiliaries.  Of  these  the  leading  one,  the  Brit- 
ish and  Foreign  Bible  Society,  issues  annually 
nearly  4,000,000   copies. 

XV.  Iiifluciice  of  the  Bible. —  The  persistence 
of  the  Bible  and  its  unexampled  dissemination 
command  some  remark.  Its  age-long  and 
world-wide  promulgation  must  contribute  to 
extend  and  fortify  its  power.  But  its  own 
original,  creative  force  alone  can  explain  its 
amazing  diffusion  and  vitality.  It  proves  itself 
pre-eminently  the  Book  of  Life.  The  sacred 
Scriptures  of  no  other  religion  or  faith  can  ever 
begin  to  parallel  it  for  the  number  and  value  of 
its  manuscripts,  the  number  of  its  versions,  the 
number  of  its  publishing  houses,  and  the  num- 
ber of  its  copies  actually  sold.  As  literature  it 
is  wholly  unique.  The  stamp  of  its  style  has 
fixed  the  taste  of  the  leading  nations  of  our 
time.  And  its  manifoldness  is  quite  as  wonder- 
ful as  its  excellence.  It  embodies  history  and 
oratory,  dialogue  and  drama,  philosophy  and 
poetry,  giving  every  essential  form  of  human 
literary  utterance.  It  has  laws,  tragedies,  an- 
nals, parables,  prayers,  satires.  It  contains  the 
epic,  the  lyric,  the  ode,  the  chorus,  the  oracle, 
the  riddle,  the  chant,  the  liturgy,  the  refrain,  the 
acrostic,  the  apostrophe,  the  proverb,  the  epis- 
tle,   the    philippic. 

But  it  is  not  the  form,  pleasing  and  refining 
as  it  is,  that  holds  the  secret  of  the  Bible's 
power.  It  is  always  the  message  that  transmits 
force.  The  Bible  figures  always  as  the  Word 
of  God.  It  engrosses  and  addresses  character. 
Its  moral  energies  are  the  sources  of  its 
strength.  It  reveals  and  declares  God.  It  an- 
nounces law.  It  portrays  the  judge.  It  stirs 
up  conscience  to  a  final  verdict  upon  human  life. 
It  summons  the  human  will.  Its  heroes  are 
prophets.  Its  great  victors  are  princes  in  the 
moral  realm.  Its  central  figure  is  Jesus  Christ. 
Its  typical  explorers  are  apostles.  Its  closing 
book  is  an  apocalypse.  Its  outlook  is  eternity. 
These   things   create   and   sustain   its   matchless 


BIBLE 


style;  and  these  explain  and  feed  its  undying 
life.  It  has  to  do  with  the  being  and  majesty 
<of  a  holy  God,  and  with  the  inmost  character 
and  uttermost  destiny  of  immortal  man.  Hence 
all   its   excellence  and   strength. 

Bibliography. —  H.  W.  Hoare,  ^The  Evolu- 
tion of  the  English  Bible'  ;  J.  T.  Sutherland, 
*The  Bible'  (with  list  of  books  and  critical 
■estimates)  ;  J.  Robertson  and  others,  ^Book 
by  Book'  ;  Farrar,  *  History  of  Interpreta- 
tion' ;  Farrar,  ^The  Messages  of  the  Books'  ; 
Moulton,  ^The  Literary  Study  of  the  Bible'  ; 
F.  G.  Kenyon,  *Our  Bible  and  the  Ancient 
Manuscripts'  ;  F.  G.  Kenyon,  ^Handbook  to  the 
Textual  Criticisms  of  the  New  Testament'  ; 
M.  R.  Vincent,  *^  History  of  Textual  Criticism'  ; 
E.  Kautzsch,  'History  of  the  Literature  of  the 
Old  Testament'  ;  S.  R.  Driver,  'Introduction  to 
the  Literature  of  the  Old  Testament'  ;  H.  S. 
Nash,  'History  of  the  Higher  Criticism  of  the 
New  Testament'  ;  Fr.  Buhl.  'Canon  and  Text 
.of  the  Old  Testament'  ;  G.  Wildeboer,  'The 
■Origin  of  the  Canon  of  the  Old  Testament'  ; 
Westcott,  'General  Survey  of  the  History  of 
the  Canon  of  the  New  Testament'  ;  J.  A.  Mc- 
Clymont,  'The  New  Testament  and  Its  Writ- 
ers' ;  J.  Smith,  'The  Integrity  of  Scripture'  ; 
Hug,  'Einleitung  in  die  Schriften  des  Neuen 
Testaments'  (4th  ed.  1847)  ;  Tregelles,  'An  Ac- 
count of  the  Printed  Text  of  the  Greek  New 
Testament'  (1854)  ;  O'Callaghan,  'A  List  of 
Editions  of  the  Holy  Scriptures  and  Parts 
Thereof  Printed  in  America  previous  to  i860' 
(1861);  Ferrar,  'A  Collection  of  Four  Im- 
portant Manuscripts  of  the  Gospels'  (ed.  Abbott 
1877)  ;  'Vom  Lesen  der  Heiligen  Schrift,  nach 
Johann  von  Neercassel'  (1846)  ;  Carpzov,  'Crit- 
ica  Sacra'  (1728);  Kortholt, 'Die  Variis  Sanctse 
Scripturge  Editionibus'  (1668)  ;  Hagemann, 
'Nachrichten  von  den  Fiirnemsten  Uebersetzun- 
gen'  (1750)  ;  Ebert,  'AUgemeines  Bibliograph- 
isches  Lexikon'  (1820-30)  ;  Kaulen,  'Geschichte 
der  Vulgata'  (1869);  id.,  'Handbuch  zur  Vul- 
gata'  (1870);  id.,  'Einleitung  in  die  Heilige 
Schrift  Alten  und  Neuen  Testaments'  (4th  ed. 
1898-9)  ;  Wetzer  und  Welte's  'Kirchenlexikon' 
(1882-1903).  See  Bible,  Harmony  of,  with 
Scien'Ce;  Bible,  Polychrome;  Bible  Sta- 
tistics; Biblical  Criticism;  Canon;  Codex; 
Codex  Argenteus  ;  Codex  Sinaiticus  ;  Codex 
Vaticanus;  Exegesis;  Gospels;  Higher  Crit- 
icism, The;  New^  Testament  Chronology; 
New  Testament  Theology  ;  Old  Testament, 
The;  Septuagint;  also  the  articles  on  the  vari- 
ous books  of  the  Bible. 

C.  S.  Beardslee, 

Professor  Hartford  Theological  Seminary. 

Bible,  Harmony  of  the,  with  Science.    The 

history  of  science  in  its  connections  with 
the  Bible  is  full  of  these  conflicts  between  the 
scientific  and  theological  classes.  Both  parties 
have  participated  in  them,  as  assailants  and  de- 
fenders. Sometimes  scientists,  after  misleading 
the  divine  into  some  supposed  scientific  inter- 
pretation of  Scripture,  have  charged  back  upon 
■hirn  their  own  exploded  errors,  and  sometimes 
divines,  after  attacking  some  true  theory  of  the 
scientists  as  hostile  to  Scripture,  have  gladly  ac- 
cepted it  as  among  their  best  defenses  of  the 
faith. 

Astronomy  and  the  Bible. —  The  first  of  the 
seeming   conflicts    was    between    astronomy   and 
■the  Bible.     The  Psalmist  David,  who  was  not  a 
Vol.  2 — 39. 


scientist,  had  poetically  depicted  the  starry  heav- 
ens as  a  spangled  canopy  wondrously  wrought 
by  the  divine  hand.  But  the  astronomers  in 
later  times  devised  what  is  known  as  the  theory 
of  Ptolemy,  according  to  which  the  heavens 
were  composed  of  vast  crystal  spheres,  one 
within  another,  having  the  sun,  moon,  and  stars 
attached  to  them  as  they  revolved  around  the 
earth,  which  was  conceived  of  as  a  flat,  circular 
plane,  immovably  fixed  at  the  centre  of  the 
system.  The  divines  of  the  day,  docilely  accept- 
ing this  crude  mechanism  of  the  scientists,  pro- 
ceeded to  celebrate  the  divine  power,  wisdom, 
and  goodness  which  it  displayed  in  producing 
the  wonderful  vicissitudes  of  day  and  night  and 
summer  and  winter.  Their  logic  was  correct 
enough  in  form,  but  needed  to  be  reinforced 
with  better  science.  The  better  science  at  length 
came,  not  indeed  from  a  professed  scientist,  but 
from  a  faithful  priest  of  the  Church,  Nicholas 
Copernicus,  who  modestly  broached  as  a  work- 
ing hypothesis,  what  is  now  known  as  the  Coper- 
nican  theory  of  the  solar  system.  Galileo,  how- 
ever, who  could  equal  Huxley  in  sarcasm  and 
invective,  published  in  his  scientific  journal 
called  'The  Siderial  Messenger,'  such  proofs  of 
the  Copernican  theory  as  provoked  a  bitter  con- 
troversy with  the  Church  authorities  and  led  to 
his  pretended  recantation.  It  is  difficult  for  us 
now,  with  our  advanced  knowledge,  to  under- 
stand what  a  radical  change  was  coming  into 
men's  opinions.  Not  only  was  the  solid  earth 
sent  spinning  through  space  like  a  cannon  ball, 
but  the  entire  orthodox  conception  of  heaven 
and  hell  was  literally  revolutionized.  The  In- 
ferno of  Dante,  with  its  descending  ranks  of  lost 
spirits  and  demons,  could  not  be  contained  within 
such  a  revolving  globe,  and  his  Paradiso,  with 
the  saints  and  angels  worshipping  the  Blessed 
Virgin  and  Holy  Trinity,  vanished  from  such 
a  receding  firmament  like  sunset  clouds.  And 
when  Bruno  came  with  his  daring  specula- 
tions concerning  other  inhabited  worlds  our 
little  planet  seemed  too  utterly  insignificant 
to  be  made  the  scene  of  a  divine  incarnation, 
redemption,  and  judgment.  Every  essential 
article  of  the  faith  appeared  to  be  imperiled. 
It  is  no  wonder  that  free  thinking  men  of 
science  fared  badly  in  such  a  conflict  with 
the  Roman  Inquisition.  Galileo  was  im- 
prisoned as  a  heretic,  and  Bruno  was  burned 
at  the  stake  as  an  atheist  and  blasphemer. 
But  what  has  been  the  issue  of  the  conflict? 
Scarcely  a  trace  of  it  remains.  Gradually  the 
new  astronomy  has  been  accepted,  not  only 
as  true  in  itself,  but  as  far  more  accordant 
with  Scripture  than  the  old  astronomy  of  the 
Hebrew  or  Greek.  Instead  of  a  star  span- 
gled tent  or  an  illuminated  dome  of  glass,  it 
has  opened  an  unbounded  universe  for  the 
illustration  of  the  divine  perfections  and  re- 
vealed doctrines.  Does  astronomy  tell  us  of 
an  immensity  of  space,  with  regions  beyond 
regions  which  we  cannot  even  conceive? 
The  Bible  also  teaches  us  that  Jehovah  in- 
habiteth  eternity,  and  the  heaven  of  heavens 
cannot  contain  Him.  Does  astronomy  tell 
us  of  countless  orbs,  moving  with  tremendous 
forces,  in  fixed  orbits,  under  immutable  laws? 
The  Bible  also  teaches  us  that  He  hath  or- 
dained the  heavens  and  established  in  them 
His  powder  and  faithfulness.  Does  astronomy 
tell  us  of  w^onderful  adaptations  of  planet  to 
sun,  wnth  changing  zones,  and  climates,  and 


BIBLE 


seasons?  The  Bible  also  teaches  us  that 
wisdom  was  with  Him  when  he  prepared 
the  heavens,  the  sun  and  moon  and  stars  for 
signs  and  for  seasons,  and  that  He  hath  gar- 
nished them  by  His  spirit.  Does  astronomy  hint 
to  us  of  a  variety  of  habitable  worlds,  with  a 
corresponding  variety  of  intelligent  races?  The 
Bible  also  teaches  us  of  the  heavens  as  the 
abode  of  angels  and  archangels  and  of  a 
heavenly  Father  and  His  house  of  many 
mansions.  Does  astronomy  tell  us  that  our 
earth  is  akin  to  other  orbs  in  mechanical  and 
chemical  constitution,  and  suggest  that  we 
may  be  some  day  knit  together  with  them 
by  ethereal  vibrations  in  psychical  sympathy  ? 
The  Bible  also  teaches  us  that  the  angels 
desire  to  look  into  the  mysteries  of  human 
redemption,  that  its  manifold  wisdom  is  now 
made  known  to  principalities  and  powers  in 
all  heavenly  places,  and  that  there  is  rejoicing 
among  them  when  one  sinner  on  earth 
repenteth.  Let  it  be  observed,  I  am  not  now 
saying  that  the  Bible  teaches  astronomy, 
but  simply  that  its  teaching  is  in  harmony 
with  astronomy. 

Geology  and  the  Bible. — The  next  seem- 
ing conflict  was  between  geology  and  the 
Bible.  It  is  certain  that  Moses  did  not  speak 
as  a  man  of  science  in  his  dramatic  vision 
of  the  creation,  when  he  described  the 
heavens  and  the  earth,  land,  sea  and  sky, 
plants,  animals  and  man,  as  produced  by 
divine  commands  in  six  working  days,  ending 
in  a  seventh  day  of  rest.  The  early  geologists, 
however,  accepted  this  sublime  vision  as  a 
scientific  cosmogony,  and  like-minded  divines 
followed  them.  magnifying  such  creative 
miracles  as  the  formation  of  the  terraqueous 
globe  in  24  hours,  the  arrangement  of 
its  seasons  and  climates  between  a  single 
sunrise  and  sunset,  and  the  marshaling  of 
its  vegetable  and  animal  kingdoms  by  divine 
fiats  from  Monday  morning  until  Saturday 
night  in  the  autumn  of  the  year  4004  B.C. 
Here  again  the  argument,  absurd  as  it  now 
seems,  lacked  scientific  content  rather  than 
logical  form.  It  is  within  living  memory 
what  a  shock  ensued  when  that  scientific 
content  was  furnished,  and  it  was  discovered 
that  the  earth  is  of  indefinite  antiquity,  that 
its  continents  have  emerged  from  its  oceans 
through  long  ages  of  subsidence,  and  that 
successive  dynasties  of  plants  and  animals 
have  flourished  and  decayed,  leaving  only  a 
few  fossil  remains  in  its  crust.  The  very 
doctrines  of  the  creation  and  the  Sabbath 
itself  seemed  directly  assailed,  and  the  defense 
of  them  was  fierce  and  desperate.  The 
geologists  were  not  persecuted  like  Galileo 
and  Bruno;  but  the  most  extraordinary  make- 
shifts were  devised  to  evade  their  conclusions. 
It  was  intrepidly  declared  that  the  Almighty 
created  the  earth  in  a  stratified  form  with 
all  its  fossils,  to  serve  as  a  trial  of  our  faith. 
It  was  ingeniously  surmised  that  the  whole 
prehistoric  geology  was  a  chapter  omitted  in 
Genesis  as  not  relevant  to  the  purpose  of  the 
narrative.  It  was  even  fancied  that  the  six 
days'  works  were  a  special  miraculous  crea- 
tion in  Eastern  Asia  to  fit  up  a  Paradise  for 
the  temptation  and  fall  of  man.  When  at 
length  the  vast  geological  periods  could  no 
longer  be  denied,  they  were  forced  into  cor- 
respondence     with     the     Mosaic     days,      con- 


ceived as  days  of  Jehovah,  with  whom  a 
thousand  years  are  as  one  day;  and  elaborate 
schemes  of  reconciliation  were  proposed  by 
such  distinguished  geologists  as  Hugh  Miller, 
Dawson,  Dana,  and  Guyot,  with  which  some 
less  distinguished  geologists  have  since  made 
themselves  merry.  Nevertheless,  we  are 
already  emerging  from  these  heated  discus- 
sions with  reassured  faith.  As  astronomy 
has  opened  unbounded  regions  of  space  for 
the  illustration  of  the  divine  immensity, 
omnipotence,  immutability  and  omniscience, 
so  geology  has  recalled  unlimited  periods  of 
time  for  unfolding  the  divine  power,  wisdom, 
and  goodness  with  cumulative  richness  and 
fulness.  And  as  astronomy  has  shed  new 
light  upon  the  revealed  doctrine  of  the 
heavens  and  the  angels,  so  geology  is  con- 
firming the  revealed  doctrine  of  an  orderly 
creation  and  a  sabbatical  calendar.  Though 
the  dramatic  days  of  Genesis  be  measured  in 
hours  or  in  ages,  though  the  time  element  be 
excluded  from  them  altogether,  though  they 
be  treated  as  ideal  rather  than  actual,  they 
will  still  appear  as  coincident  acts  of  crea- 
tion and  phases  of  evolution,  founded  perhaps 
in  the  periodicities  of  nature  and  expressed  in 
the  Fourth  Commandment.  On  comparing 
them  we  have,  first,  a  formless  waste  or  the 
nebulous  chaos;  second,  the  earth  as  divided 
from  the  firmament  or  the  planet  as  parted 
from  the  solar  nebula;  third,  the  seas  and 
the  dry  land  bringing  forth  grass  and  herb, 
or  the  terraqueous  globe  with  its  photo- 
sphere and  commencing  verdure;  fourth,  the 
appearing  sun,  moon,  and  stars  for  signs  and 
seasons,  or  the  mature  planet,  in  the  solar 
system,  with  its  zones  and  climates;  fifth, 
the  swarming  of  the  great  fishes  and  winged 
fowl,  or  the  production  of  sea  monsters  and 
mammoth  reptiles;  sixth,  the  earth  bringing 
forth  beasts  each  after  its  kind,  and  the 
making  of  man  in  the  image  of  God,  or  the 
evolution  of  the  higher  animal  and  human 
species;  seventh,  the  divine  day  of  rest,  or 
the  tranquil  historic  period.  The  correspond- 
ence, it  \vill  be  seen,  is  at  least  logical,  even 
if  not  chronological.  On  the  one  hand,  geol- 
ogy clearljr  indicates  that  there  have  been 
successive  periods  of  energetic  evolution  end- 
ing in  a  period  of  repose  and  order;  and  on 
the  other  hand,  the  Bible  declares  that  in 
six  days  God  created  the  heavens  and  the 
earth,  and  rested  from  his  works  on  the 
seventh  day.  Geology  also  tells  us  of  a 
primitive  watery  globe,  whose  glaciers  and 
inundations  have  ceased  since  the  appearance 
of  man;  and  the  Bible  also,  after  the  deluge, 
speaks  of  a  covenant  between  Jehovah  and 
the  earth  for  man's  sake,  that  summer  and 
winter,  and  seedtime  and  harvest  shall  not 
cease.  Geology  still  hints  of  interior  fires 
which  might  at  any  time  burst  forth  in 
general  conflagration;  and  the  Bible  still 
warns  latter  day  scoffers  of  a  day  when  the 
earth  and  all  the  works  that  are  therein 
shall  be  burned  up.  You  may  saj'  that  this 
teaching  of  the  Bible  is  religious  rather  than 
scientific;  that  is  not  the  point  —  whatever 
it  be,  it  is  in  harmony  Mnth  geology. 

Anthropology  and  the  Bible. —  We  are 
still  in  the  midst  of  a  seeming  conflict  be- 
tween anthropology  and  the  Bible.  In  the 
vision  of  creation  man  appears  as  made  in  the 


BIBLE 


image  of  God,  with  dominion  over  all  inferior 
nature.  Then  follows  an  allegorical  picture  of 
the  first  man,  Adam,  as  formed  out  of  the 
ground,  inspired  with  a  living  soul,  and  placed 
among  the  beasts  of  the  field,  and  the  fowls  of 
the  air,  which  had  also  been  formed  out  of  the 
ground  and  brought  to  him  to  receive  their 
names.  The  first  woman,  Eve,  his  wife,  is  de- 
picted as  fashioned  out  of  one  of  his  ribs  while 
he  was  in  a  trance,  and  the  pair  were  placed  in  a 
garden  to  till  it,  with  liberty  to  eat  of  every  tree 
but  the  tree  of  knowledge  of  good  and  evil.  They 
were  tempted  to  disobedience  by  the  subtlety 
of  Satan  in  the  form  of  a  serpent,  and  so  fell 
from  their  state  of  innocence,  entailing  the 
curse  of  labor,  sorrow^  and  death  upon  the 
whole  of  mankind.  It  would  seem  impossible 
to  find  any  strict  anthropological  science  in 
this  instructive  parable;  and  yet  until  recently 
it  has  been  so  treated  by  both  scientists  and 
divines,  who  have  held  that  man  was  molded 
by  the  divine  hand  as  a  lifeless  clay  image 
among  living  plants  and  animals;  that  he 
was  endowed  with  psychical  faculties  and 
God-like  qualities  in  a  few  minutes  or  hours, 
and  that  the  man  Adam  was  the  sole  progenitor 
of  all  the  savage  and  civilized  races  of  Asia, 
Europe,  Africa,  and  America.  But  scientists  are 
now  urging  some  very  diflferent  theories  of  hu- 
man origin  and  development.  We  are  told  by 
palaeontologists  and  ethnologists  that  man  was 
but  the  product  of  the  whole  evolution  of  organic 
nature;  that  his  remote  ancestor  was  a  man- 
like animal  or  anthropoid  ape;  that  next  came 
a  succession  of  pre-Adamite  races,  of  which 
the  Hottentot,  the  Patagonian,  and  the 
Esquimau  may  be  the  survivors;  that  there 
have  also  been  co-Adamite  races  as  indig- 
enous in  other  continents  than  Asia  as  the 
plants  and  animals  with  which  thej^  are 
there  found  associated;  that  all  civilized  races, 
including  the  Adamite,  or  Caucasion,  have 
risen  from  savagery,  with  improving  imple- 
ments and  arts,  through  long  epochs  of 
stone,  of  bronze,  and  of  iron,  and  have  a 
prospect  of  indefinite  improvement  in  the 
future.  In  spite  of  theological  prejudice 
and  some  instinctive  repugnance,  we  have 
begun  to  entertain  these  theories,  and  may 
already  provide,  if  need  be,  for  their  accept- 
ance. As  astronomy  and  geology  have 
afforded  new  illustration  of  the  physical 
attributes  of  Jehovah,  so  anthropology  is  un- 
folding His  intellectual  and  moral  attributes, 
in  the  structure  of  both  body  and  soul, 
and  may  in  like  manner  be  adjusted  to  the 
revealed  doctrines  of  human  depravity  and 
the  divine  image.  The  essential  truths  in  the 
allegorical  story  of  Eden  will  stand  unim- 
paired, whether  we  view  man's  sinfulness  as 
a  primitive  lapse  or  as  a  present  condition; 
w^hether  we  regard  his  ideal  Godlikeness  as 
im.pressed  upon  '.Am  thousands  of  years  ago 
or  as  still  in  process  of  development.  If 
anthropologists  shall  prove  that  primeval 
man,  ph3-sically  considered,  was  evolved 
from  pre-Adamite  and  anthropoid  races  as  a 
half-animal  savage  in  a  state  of  nature ;  that 
he  slowly  developed  psychical  powers  and 
religious  beliefs;  that  while  many  breeds  of 
men  remain  debased  and  deteriorated  the 
Caucasian  breed,  both  Hebrew  and  Christian, 
has  been  steadily  advancing  in  knowledge, 
virtue,   and   religion,   and    that   the    perfected 


man  of  the  future,  with  growing  arts  ana 
sciences,  may  yet  transform  the  globe  and 
even  bring  it  into  connection  with  other 
worlds  and  races.  If  the  anthropologists,  I 
say,  shall  prove  all  these  things,  the  Bible 
will  teach,  in  correlation  with  them,  that  the 
first  man  Adam  was  of  the  earth,  earthy, 
placed  in  a  fruitful  garden,  associated  with 
the  animals,  but  with  dominion  over  them; 
that  God  breathed  into  him  a  living  soul  and 
made  him  after  His  own  image;  that  as  in 
Adam  all  die,  so  in  Christ  shall  all  be  made 
alive,  and  as  we  have  borne  the  image  of  the 
earthly,  so  also  shall  we  bear  the  image  of 
the  heavenly,  and  that  the  -man  of  prophecj^ 
as  renewed  after  the  image  of  Christ,  the 
Lord  from  heaven,  shall  yet  inhabit  the  new 
heaven  and  the  new  earth,  wherein  dwelleth 
righteousness.  And  still,  too,  will  such  teach- 
ing of  the  Bible,  though  unscientific,  be  found 
to  be  in  harmony  with  such  facts  of  anthro- 
pology. 

ArchcBology  and  the  Bible. —  And  now  we  are 
entering  a  seeming  conflict  between  archae- 
ology and  the  Bible.  The  historical  books, 
with  no  show  of  historiographic  art,  record 
the  fortunes  of  the  peculiar  people  of  Israel 
as  descended  from  the  patriarchs,  Abraham, 
Isaac,  and  Jacob,  as  worshipping  Jehovah  in 
distinction  from  the  false  gods  of  the 
heathen  around  them,  as  returning  even  from 
then-  captivities  in  Egypt  and  Babylon  with 
a  fresh  reassertion  of  their  own  creed  and 
ritual,  and  as  ever  looking  forward  to  the 
Messiah,  Christ,  in  whom  their  whole  religion 
was  at  length  absorbed  and  fulfilled.  Philo- 
sophical historians,  as  well  as  learned  com- 
mentators, have  hitherto  accepted  these  sim- 
ple annals  as  accurate  and  trustworthy.  Of 
late,  however,  some  discredit  has  been  cast 
upon  them  by  certain  archaeologists,  who 
claim  that  the  inscriptions  on  the  tablets 
unearthed  at  Babylon  bear  suspicious  resem- 
blances and  affinities  with  Biblical  stories  of 
creation  and  paradise.  The  American  Pro- 
fessor Hilprecht,  with  the  true  scientific 
spirit,  declines  to  make  such  invidious  com- 
parisons, and  declares  that  the  Babylonian 
polytheism  stands  in  contrast  with  the 
Hebrew  monotheism.  But  the  German  Pro- 
fessor Delitsch  hastily  infers  from  them  that 
the  Hebrew  monotheism  was  no  better  than 
Babylonian  polytheism,  and  jumps  across  the 
following  centuries  to  the  conclusion  that 
our  Saviour  himself  thus  depreciated  the 
Jewish  religion.  Meanwhile,  the  German 
Emperor  William,  after  admonishing  the 
learned  antiquarian  professor  to  stick  to  the 
Bab}donian  tablets,  without  drawing  theo- 
logical inferences,  proceeds  to  give  his  own 
somewhat  conservative  views  of  the  theology 
of  the  Old  and  the  New  Testaments.  It  is  a 
very  interesting  controversy.  But  suppose 
w-e  should  concede,  for  the  sake  of  argument, 
all  that  the  theolgical  archaeologists  are  try- 
ing to  prove, — grant  that  the  inspired  vision 
of  creation  and  the  divine  allegory  of  Eden 
maj^  have  some  crude  counterparts  in  the 
corresponding  mjths  and  legends  of  Babel — ■ 
is  it  quite  inconceivable  that  both  have  de- 
scended, the  one  in  a  pure  and  the  other  in  a 
corrupted  form,  from  the  same  primeval  reve- 
lation in  the  dim  period  before  the  flood? 
Are  not  the  Hebrew  Scriptures  one  continual 


BIBLE  — BIBLE  STATISTICS 


protest  against  the  religious  errors  of  sur- 
rounding nations,  and  have  they  not  at  the 
same  time  infinitelj^  surpassed  them  in  the 
religious  truths  which  they  have  unfolded? 
Is  it  anjr  more  incredible  that  Judaism  should 
have  been  developed  out  of,  or  in  spite  of,  pre- 
ceding religions  than  that  Christianity  should 
have  been  developed  out  of  or  in  spite  of  Juda- 
ism, both  of  them  under  that  wonderful  Provi- 
dence which  has  educated  the  chosen  races 
of  mankind?  Moreover,  it  has  distinctly  taught 
that  both  Judaism  and  Christianity,  after 
their  isolation  and  pupilage,  were  destined 
to  universal  prevalence;  that  in  Abraham  all 
the  families  of  the  earth  would  be  blessed, 
and  Christ  himself  be  revealed  as  the  desire 
of  the  nations.  And  the  Gospel,  therefore, 
was  proclaimed  among  the  Gentiles  as  well 
as  among  the  Jews.  St.  Paul,  too,  the  Apos- 
tle to  the  Gentiles,  when  preaching  to  the 
Athenians,  insisted  upon  the  consensus  of 
Christianity  with  their  religion  in  those  great 
theistic  beliefs  which  were  taught  by  their 
own  poets  and  philosophers,  and  which  are 
common  to  all  mankind.  And,  as  Christian- 
it}',  clad  in  civilization,  is  now  going  forth 
among  the  religions  of  the  world  reclaiming 
their  truths  and  rejecting  their  errors,  she 
is  simply  fulfilling  her  mission  as  the  one 
absolute  and  universal  religion — the  faithful 
saying,  and  worthy  of  all  acceptation,  that 
Christ  came  into  the  world  to  save  sinner<\. 

I  do  not  forget  how  much  the  question  is 
complicated  by  the  views  of  a  radical  school 
of  the  higher  critics  who  maintain,  on  liter- 
ary grounds,  that  the  Old  Testament  Scrip- 
tures themselves  betray  that  mythical  and 
legendary  origin  which  some  archseologists 
would  ascribe  to  them.  Many  of  the  con- 
clusions of  this  school  are  based  upon  unveri- 
fied conjecture  and  continual  asseveration. 
But  it  may  be  well  to  accept  them  hypotheti- 
cally,  in  order  to  state  the  whole  problem  of 
opinion.  Assume  then,  if  you  like,  that  the 
books  of  the  Pentateuch  or  He.xateuch  were 
not  written  by  Moses,  but  were  a  sort  of 
mosaic  of  pre-existing  documents  written  by 
unknown  scribes  and  collected  by  unknown 
redactors  or  editors,  as  we  now  possess  them. 
Assume  also  that  the  Biblical  stories  of  crea- 
tion and  paradise  in  their  literary  forin  are 
anthropomorphic,  dramatic,  allegorical,  and 
unhistorical.  Assume  still  further  that  in 
these  respects  they  bear  some  external  resem- 
blance to  the  creation-myths  and  paradise- 
legends  of  other  Eastern  peoples.  Prove  all 
this,  if  possible;  and  yet  you  will  not  have 
destroyed  the  incontestable  fact  that  these 
ancient  writings  contain  an  objective  revela- 
tion from  God  to  man  w'hich  is  infinitely 
superior  in  kind  and  degree  to  any  supposed 
revelations  in  the  religions  of  Babylon,  Nine- 
veh, Assyria,  Egypt,  Greece,  and  Rome;  and 
which  even  as  to  literary  form  surpasses  any 
other  sacred  books,  ancient  or  modern.  Nor 
will  you  have  lessened  the  evidence  which 
the  Bible  thus  affords  of  growing  harmony 
with  the  very  sciences  of  archseology  and 
philology  which  are  now  arrayed  against  it. 

In  this  article  I  have  sketched  in  a  popular 
manner  those  physical  sciences  which  have 
seemed  to  be  in  conflict  with  revealed  relig- 
ion, because  such  sciences  just  now  are  most 
popular  in  their  impression  and  most  likely  to 


disturb  existing  faith  in  the  inspiration  and 
authority  of  the  Holy  Scriptures,  and  be- 
cause they  are  the  most  advanced  sciences. 
The  argument  might  be  carried  up  into  the 
higher  sciences  of  psychology,  sociology,  and 
the  science  of  comparative  religion,  but  such 
sciences,  as  yet,  are  not  so  mature  nor  in  so 
apparent  conflict  with  the  Scriptures.  It  will 
be  seen  that  the  argument  is  strongest  where 
science  is  most  clear  and  full.  It  is  also 
cumulative,  and  already,  I  trust,  warrants  the 
belief  that  when  science  shall  have  reached 
the  utmost  goal  of  its  development  it  will 
still  be,  as  it  always  has  been,  in  harmony 
with  the  Bible. 

Charles  Woodruff  Shields, 
Professor  Princeton  University. 

Bible,  The  Polychrome.  A  new  transla- 
tion of  the  Scriptures  from  a  revised  text,  bj'' 
eminent  biblical  scholars  of  Europe  and 
America;  Professor  Paul  Haupt  of  Johns 
Hopkins  University,  editor,  with  the  assistance 
in  America  of  Dr.  Horace  Howard  Furness. 
The  special  scheme  of  this  great  work  is  its 
use  of  color  backgrounds  upon  which  to 
print  the  various  passages  by  different  writers 
which  have  been  made  up  into  one  work, 
as  Isaiah  or  the  Psalms.  It  is  not  based  on 
any  doubt  of  inspiration,  but  on  the  general 
conviction  of  biblical  scholars  that  only  good 
can  come  from  making  perfectly  clear  to  the 
public  the  full  results  of  modern  critical 
research. 

Bible  Statistics,  an  interesting  compila- 
tion, said  to  be  the  fruits  of  three  years'  labor 
by  the  indefatigable  Dr.  Home,  and  given  by 
him  in  his  introduction  to  the  study  of  the 
Scriptures.  The  basis  is  an  old  English 
Bible  of  the  King  James  version. 

Old  Testament. —  Number  of  books,  39; 
chapters,  929;  verses,  23,214;  words,  593,493; 
letters,  2,728,100. 

New  Testament. —  Number  of  books,  27; 
chapters,  260;  verses,  7,959;  words,  181,253; 
letters,  838,380. 

The  Bible. —  Total  number  of  books,  66; 
chapters,  1,189;  verses,  31,173;  words,  773,746; 
letters,  3,566,480. 

Apocryplia. —  Number  of  books,  14;  chap- 
ters, 184;  verses,  6,031;  words,  125,185. 

Old  Testament. —  The  middle  book  of  the 
Old  Testament  is  Proverbs.  The  mid"dle 
chapter  is  Job  xxix.  The  middle  verse  is  2 
Chronicles  xx.,  between  verses  17  and  18 
The  shortest  book  is  Obadiah.  The  short- 
est verse  is  I  Chron.  i.  25.  The  word  *'and'^ 
occurs  35,543  times.  Ezra  vii.  21  contains  all 
the  letters  of  our  alphabet.  The  word  "Selah^' 
occurs  7;^  times  and  only  in  the  poetical 
books.  2  Kings  xix.  and  Isaiah  xxxvii.  are 
alike.  The  Book  of  Esther  does  not  contain 
the  words  God  or  Lord.  The  last  two  verses 
of  2  Chronicles  and  the  opening  verses  of 
the  Book  of  Ezra  are^  alike.  Ezra  ii.  and  Nehe- 
miah  vii.  are  alike.  There  are  nearly  30 
books  mentioned,  but  not  found  in  the  Bible, 
consisting  of  civil  records  and  other  ancient 
writings  now  nearly  all  lost.  About  26  of 
these  are  alluded  to  in  the  Old  Testament. 

Neiv  Testament. —  The  middle  book  is  2 
Thessalonians.  The  middle  chapter  is  be- 
tween Romans  xiii.  and  xiv.  The  middle 
verse  is  Acts  xvii.   17.       The  smallest  book 


BIBLES  —  BIBLIOGRAPHY 


is  2  John.  The  smallest  verse  is  John  xi. 
35.  The  word  **and*  occurs  10,684  times. 
The  name  Jesus  occurs  nearly  700  times  in 
the  Gospels  and  Acts,  and  in  the  Epistles  less 
than  70  times.  The  name  Christ  alone  occurs 
about  60  times  in  the  Gospels  and  Acts,  and 
about  240  times  in  the  Epistles  and  Revela- 
tion. The  term  Jesus  Christ  occurs  5  times 
in  the  Gospels. 

The  Bible. —  The  middle  book  is  Micah.  The 
middle  (and  smallest)  chapter  is  Psalm 
cxvii.  The  middle  verse  is  Psalm  cxviii:  8. 
The'  middle  line  is  2  Chronicles  iv.  16;  the 
largest  book  is  that  of  the  Psalms;  the  largest 
chapter  is  Psalm  cxix.  The  word  Jehovah 
(or  Lord)  occurs  6,855  times.  The  word 
"and"  occurs  46,227  times.  The  number  of 
authors  of  the  Bible  is  50.  The  Bible  was 
not  until  modern  times  divided  into  chapters 
?nd  verses.  The  division  of  chapters  has 
been  attributed  to  Lanfranc,  Archbishop  of 
Canterbury,  in  the  reign  of  William  L;  but 
the  real  author  of  this  division  was  Cardinal 
Hugo  de  Sancto-Caro,  about  1236.  The  num- 
ber of  languages  on  earth  is  estimated  at 
3,000 ;  the  Bible  or  parts  of  it  have  been 
rendered  into  only  about  180,  or,  languages 
and  dialects  together,  345.  The  first  English 
translation  complete  of  the  Bible  was  by 
Wj'clif  in  1380.  The  first  American  edition 
was  printed  in  Boston  in  1752. 

Bibles,  The  Seven,  the  seven  principal 
Bibles  of  the  world  are  the  Koran  of  the 
MohaiTimedans,  the  Eddas  of  the  Scandina- 
vians, the  Tripitikes  of  the  Buddhists,  the 
Five  Kings  of  the  Chinese,  the  three  Vedas 
of  the  Hindus,  the  Zend  Avesta,  and  the 
Scriptures  of  the  Christians.  The  Koran  is, 
except  the  Eddas,  the  most  recent  of  these 
seven  bibles  and  not  older  than  the  7th  cen- 
tury of  our  era.  It  is  a  compound  of  quo- 
tations from  the  Old  and  New  Testaments, 
the  Talmud  and  the  Gospel  of  St.  Barnabas. 
The  Eddas  of  the  Scandinavians  was  first 
published  in  the  14th  century.  The  Tripi- 
tikes of  the  Buddhists  contain  sublime  morals 
and  pure  aspirations,  but  their  author  lived 
and  died  in  the  6th  century  before  Christ. 

The  sacred  writings  of  the  Chinese  are 
called  the  Five  Kings,  the  term  king  meaning 
web  of  cloth  or  the  warp  that  keeps  the 
threads  in  their  place.  They  contain  the  best 
saj'ings  of  the  best  sages  on  the  ethico-politi- 
cal  duties  of  life.  These  sayings  cannot  be 
traced  to  a  period  higher  than  the  nth  cen- 
tury before  Christ.  The  three  Vedas  are  the 
most  ancient  books  of  the  Hindus,  and  it  is 
the  opinion  of  Max  JMiiller,  Wilson,  Johnson, 
and  Whitney  that  they  are  not  older  than 
II  centuries  before  Christ.  The  Zend  Avesta 
of  the  Persians  is  the  grandest  of  all  these 
sacred  books  next  to  our  Bible.  Zoroaster, 
whose  sayings  it  contains,  was  born  in  the 
I2th  century  before  Christ. 

Biblia  Pauperum  (Bible  of  the  poor),  the 
name  for  block  books  common  in  the  Middle 
Ages,  and  consisting  of  a  number  of  rude 
pictures  of  Biblical  subjects  with  short 
explanatory  Latin  text  accompanying  each 
picture.  A  similar  work,  but  more  extended 
and  with  rhymed  text,  was  the  ^Speculum 
Humanae  Salvationist  or  ^Mirror  of  Human 
Salvation^     Prior  to  the  Reformation  these 


two  books  were  much  used  by  the  preaching 
monks,  and  as  such  orders  as  the  Franciscans, 
Carthusians,  etc.,  were  styled  ^Pauperes 
Christi,^  the  first  named  book,  so  popular 
with  them,  came  to  be  known,  therefore,  as 
the  ^Biblia  Pauperum\ 

Biblical  Criticism,  the  science  which  has 
for  its  objects  (i)  to  decide  which  books 
are  entitled  to  a  place  in  the  Scripture  canon, 
and  (2)  to  bring  the  text  of  these  canonical 
books  to  the  utmost  possible  degree  of 
purity.  In  prosecuting  the  first  of  these 
aims,  the  Biblical  critic  must  not  be  con- 
founded with  the  Christian  apologist;  the 
function  of  the  former  is  a  strictly  judicial 
one,  while  the  office  of  the  latter  is  that  of 
an  advocate.  One  important  subject  of  inves- 
tigation is  as  to  what  Old  Testament  books 
were  recognized  as  divine  by  the  ancient 
Jewish  Church  or  Synagogue;  as  also  what 
New  Testament  hooks  were  at  once  and  uni- 
versally welcomed  by  the  early  Christian 
Church,  and  what  others  were  for  a  time  par- 
tially rejected,  though  they  ultimately  found 
acceptance  everywhere.  Li  seeking  to  purify 
the  text,  the  Biblical  critic  must  do  much 
toilsome  work  in  the  collation  of  codices  or 
manuscripts.  He  does  not  put  the  whole  of 
these  on  one  level  and  admit  whatever  read- 
ing has  a  majority  of  manuscripts  in  its  favor; 
but  attempts  to  test  the  value  of  each  one 
apart,  forming  an  hypothesis  if  he  can  as  to 
when,  where,  and  from  whom  it  emanated, 
and  from  what  other  manuscripts  it  was 
copied  at  first,  or  in  technical  language,  to 
what  recension  it  belonged.     See  Bible. 

Bibliog'raphy,  a  term  signifying  the  know- 
ledge of  books,  in  reference  to  the  subjects  dis- 
cussed in  them,  their  different  degrees  of  rarity, 
curiosity,  reputed  and  real  value,  the  materials 
of  which  they  are  composed,  and  the  rank  they 
ought  to  hold  in  the  classification  of  a  library. 
It  is  therefore  divided  into  two  branches,  the 
first  of  which  has  reference  to  the  contents  of 
books,  and  may  be  called,  for  want  of  a  bet- 
ter phrase,  intellectual  bibliography;  the  sec- 
ond treating  of  their  external  character,  the 
history  of  particular  copies,  etc.,  may  be  termed 
material  bibliography.  The  object  of  the  first 
branch  is  to  give  information  regarding  the 
most  valuable  books  in  every  department  of 
study  by   means   of  catalogues. 

Bibliography  has  been,  and  still  is.  culti- 
vated most  successfully  in  France.  This  is 
owing  partly  to  the  riches  of  the  great  and  daily 
increasing  public  libraries,  liberallv  thrown  open 
to  the  use  of  the  public,  partly  to  the  large 
number  of  fine  private  collections.  Brunet's 
well-known.  'Manuel  du  Libraire'  was  the  first 
important  work  which  contained,  in  an  alpha- 
betical form,  a  list  of  the  most  valuable  and 
costly  books  of  all  literatures:  Barbier's  'Dic- 
tionnaire  des  Guvrages  Anonymes,'  the  first 
systematic  and  satisfactory  treatise  on  this  sub- 
ject;  Renouard's  *^Catalogue  d'un  Amateur,^  the 
first,  and  for  a  long  time  the  best  guide  of  the 
French  collectors;  the  'Bibliographic  de  la 
France,^  the  first  work  which  showed  how  the 
3'early  accumulation  of  literary  works  can  be 
recorded  in  the  most  authentic  manner.  No 
less  valuable  are  the  works  of  Peginot,  Petit 
Radel,  Renouard  on  the  Aldines.  and  various 
others.    Among  more  recent  French  works  may 


BIBLIOGRAPHY 


be  cited  <  Bibliographic  de  la  France,^  a  periodi- 
cal publication  commenced  in  Paris  in  1810.  H. 
Bossange,  *Ma  Bibliotheque  Frangaise'  (i855)> 
gives  a  list  of  standard  editions  of  the  best 
French  authors.  I.  M.  Querard,  ^La  France 
Litteraire  ou  Dictionnaire  Bibliographique,^  an 
account  of  the  literature  of  the  i8th  and  19th 
centuries  (10  vols.  1827-39)  ;  Querard,  ^La 
Litterature  Franqaise  Contemporaine'  (1827-49)  ; 
Brunet's  ^Manuel  du  Libraire^  (new  edition,  6 
vols.  1860-5)  ;  E.  Hatin,  *^  Bibliographic  de  la 
Presse  Periodique  Frangaise'  (i  vol.  1866)  ; 
Lorenz,  ^Catalogue  General  de  la  Librairie  Fran- 
gaise  depuis  1840,^  giving  French  publications 
from  1840  to  1899. 

In  England,  although  it  contains  many  rich 
public  and  private  collections,  bibliography  has 
not  been  so  successfully  cultivated  as  in  France. 
The  most  extensive  catalogues  of  books  of  which 
it  can  boast  arc  those  of  the  Bodleian  Library, 
the  British  Museum,  the  Advocates'  Library, 
Edinburgh,  the  Harleian  Library  (compiled 
partly  by  Dr.  Johnson),  etc.  Catalogues  com- 
piled on  a  scientific  system,  by  which  the  reader 
is  assisted  in  his  researches  after  books  on  a 
particular  subject,  are  not  numerous  in  English, 
but  we  may  mention  Sonnenschcin's  *^The  Best 
Books'  (1891),  and  "^ Guide  to  Contemporary 
Literature'  (1895),  presenting  classified  lists  of 
about  100,000  works.  The  most  splendid  cata- 
logue perhaps  ever  published  is  that  of  the  Earl 
of  Spencer's  Library,  compiled  by  Dibdin,  in 
four  large  volumes,  with  numerous  engravings. 
Among  English  bibliographical  works  are  the 
^Typographical  Antiquities'  of  Ames,  Herbert, 
and  Dibdin;  Adam  Clarke's  ^Bibliographical 
Dictionary  and  Miscellany'  (1803-6)  ;  Dibdin's 
^Introduction  to  the  Knowledge  of  Rare  and 
Valuable  Editions  of  the  Classics'  (1827,  2 
vols.)  ;  Brydges'  ^Censura  Literaria'  (1805), 
and  ^British  Bibliographer  (1818)  ;  Beloc's 
< Anecdotes  of  Literature'  (1807)  ;  Savage's 
^Librarian'  (1808)  ;  Dibdin's  ^Bibliographical 
Decameron'  (1817)  ;  and  ^Tour  in  France  arud 
Germany'  (1821)  ;  Home's  "^Introduction  to  the 
Study  of  Bibliography'  (1814)  ;  Robert  Watt's 
^Bibliotheca  Britannica'  (1824,  4  vols.  4to),  a 
work  of  stupendous  labor  and  great  utility ; 
Joseph  W.  Moss'  "^Manual  of  Classical  Bibli- 
ography' (1825)  ;  Darling's  < Cyclopaedia  Biblio- 
graphica'  (chiefly  theological  literature,  1854)  : 
*A  Bibliographical  and  Critical  Account  of  the 
Rarest  Books  in  the  English  Language,'  by  J. 
Payne  Collier  (1865)  ;  Lowndes'  ^Bibliographer's 
Manual,'  edited  by  H.  G.  Bohn  (1869,  6  vols.)  ; 
S.  A.  Allibone's  < Critical  Dictionary  of  English 
Literature  and  British  and  American  Authors' 
(Philadelphia  1859-71,  3  vols.,  and  2  of  Sup- 
plement 1891);  Halkett  and  Laing's  <Diction- 
ary  of  the  Anonymous  and  Pseudonymous  Lit- 
erature of  Great  Britain'  (1882-8,  4  vols.); 
Sampson  Low's  <  English  Catalogue  of  Books,' 
which  in  a  series  of  successive  volumes  cata- 
logues the  Britrsh  books  published  from  1835 
onward  to  the  present  time. 

American  literature  has  already  given  rise  to 
quite  an  extensive  series  of  bibliographical  works 
on  both  sides  of  the  Atlantic.  Among  these  are : 
<  Bibliographical  Catalogue  of  Books,  etc.,  in  the 
Indian_  Tongues  of  the  United  States'  (1849); 
Duyckinck,  <  Cyclopedia  of  American  Literature' 
(1856)  ;  Ternaux-Compans,        < Bibliotheque 

A-mericaine'     (Paris    1837)  ;    Triibner,    < Biblio- 
graphical Guide  to  American  Literature'    (Lon- 


don 1856)  ;  and  "^General  American  Catalogue* 
of  Leypoldt  and  Jones  (1880,  with  continua- 
tions) ;  ^The  Publisher's  Trade  List  Annual'  ; 
*  Monthly  Cumulative  Index'  ;  <  American  Book 
Prices  Current.' 

The  learned  Germans,  little  assisted  by  pub- 
lic and  almost  entirely  destitute  of  private  col- 
lections, consulting  only  the  real  wants  of  the 
science,  have  actively  endeavored  to  promote  it. 
Ersch  is  the  founder  of  German  bibliography. 
He  gave  it  a  truly  scientific  character  by  his 
extensive  work,  ^Allgemeines  Repertorium  der 
Literatur'  (^Universal  Repertory  of  Literature' 
1793-1807),  and  by  his  *^Handbuch  der  Deutschen 
Literatur'  (^Manual  of  German  Literature'). 
German  bibliography  is  particularly  rich  in  the 
literature  of  separate  sciences ;  and  the  bibliogra- 
phy of  the  Greek  and  Latin  literature,  as  well 
as  the  branch  which  treats  of  ancient  editions, 
was  founded  by  the  Germans.  The  first  attempt, 
in  Germany,  to  prepare  a  universal  bibliographi- 
cal work  was  made  by  Ebert.  The  following  are 
valuable  German  bibliographical  works  in  par- 
ticular departments  of  science  and  literature: 
T.  A.  Nosselt,  ^Anweisung  zur  Kenntniss  der 
Besten  Allgemeinen  Biicher  in  der  Theologie' 
(4th  ed.  1800),  and  the  continuation  of  it  by 
Simon  (1813)  ;  C.  F.  Burdach,  ^Literatur  der 
Heilwissenschaft'  (1810)  ;  W.  Gf.  Ploucquet. 
'Literatura  Medica'  (1808,  4  vols.);  T.  G. 
Meusel,  ^Bibliotheca  Historica'  (1782-1802)  ; 
his  ^Literatur  der  Statistik'  (1816)  ;  G.  R. 
Bohmer,  ^Bibliotheca  Scriptorum  Historise  Na- 
turalis'  (1785-99,  7  vols.)  ;  Alb.  Haller,  ^Biblio- 
theca  Botanica'  (Zurich  1771,  2  vols.)  ;  ^Ana- 
tomica'  (Zurich  1774,  2  vols.)  ;  ^Chirurgica' 
(Bern  1774,  2  vols.)  ;  and  ^Medicinae  Practicae' 
(Bern,  1776,  et  seq.,  4  vols.)  ;  R.  Buckner,  *^Bibli- 
ographisches  Handbuch  der  Deutschen  Dra- 
matischen  Literatur'  (Berlin  1837)  ;  W.  Engel- 
mann,  *^Bibliotheca  Geographica'  (2  vols.  1858), 
a  classified  catalogue  of  all  works  in  geography 
and  travels  published  in  Germany  from  the  mid- 
dle of  the  14th  century  down  to  1856,  with 
prices,  index,  etc.;  W.  Engelmann,  *^Bibliotheca 
Philologica'  (3d  ed.  1853)  contains  a  list  of 
Greek  and  Latin  grammars,  from  1750  to  1852; 
the  same  writer  has  published  bibliographical 
works  on  mechanical  technology,  medicine,  econ- 
omy, veterinary  art.  geography,  zoology,  palaeon- 
tology, etc.;  W.  Heinsius,  ^Allgemeines  Bii- 
cherlexikon,'  an  extensive  work  forming  (with 
its  continuations)  an  alphabetical  catalogue  of 
all  the  books  published  in  Germany  from  1700 
to  1888.  with  sizes,  prices,  and  publishers'  names  ; 
and  Keyser's  ^Vollstandiges  Biicherlexikon,' 
giving  books  published  between  1750  and  1882. 

Directions  for  the  study  of  bibliography  are 
contained  in  Achard's  *^Cours  filementaire  de 
Bibliographic'  (1807,  3  vols.)  ;  Th.  Hartwell 
Home's  "^Introduction  to  the  Study  of  Bibli- 
ography' (1814,  2  vols.)  ;  and  Brunet's  "^Con- 
naissances  Necessaires  a  un  Bibliophile'  (Paris 
1878). 

Material  Bibliography,  often  called  by  way  of 
eminence  bibliography,  considers  books  in  re- 
gard to  their  exterior,  their  history,  etc.,  and 
has  been  principally  cultivated  in  France  and 
England.  The  different  branches  of  material 
bibliography  may  here  be  mentioned :  the  know- 
ledge of  the  ancient  editions  {incunabula,  or,  if 
classical  authors,  editiones  principes),  some  of 
the  best  works  on  which  are  G.  Wfg.  Panzer's 
<Annales   Typographici'     (1793-1803,    11    vols.), 


BIBLIOMANCY  —  BIBLIOMANIA 


coming  down  to  1536;  the  ^Annales  Typo- 
graphic!,^ by  Maittaire  (Hague  1719,  et  seq.,  11 
vols.  4to),  which  not  only  contains  the  titles, 
but  investigates  the  subjects  of  works.  More 
exact  descriptions  of  particular  ancient  editions 
are  found  in  Serna  Santander's  ^Dictionn. 
Bibliogr.  du  isienie  Siecle  (Brussels  1805,  3 
vols.)  ;  Fossius'  ^Catalogus  Codicum,^  sec.  15, 
^Impressor.  Bibliothecse  Magliabecchianae  (Flor- 
ence 1793,  3  vols,  fol.)  ;  and  others.  The  study 
of  rare  books,  on  account  of  the  vague  princi- 
ples on  which  it  rests,  is  more  difficult  than  is 
generally  believed,  and  easily  degenerates  into 
superficial  and  capricious  trifling.  This  has  been 
more  injured  than  promoted  by  I.  Vogt's  *Cata- 
logus  Librorum  Rariorum^  (i793),  and  J.  Jac. 
Bauer's  *^Bibliotheca  Libror.  Rarior.  Universalis^ 
(1770-gi,  12  vols.).  We  may  also  mention  here 
the  catalogues  of  the  books  prohibited  by  the 
Roman  Catholic  Church  (*  Indices  Librorum 
Prohibitorum  et  Expurgatorum^ ).  For  the  dis- 
covery of  the  authors  of  anonymous  and 
pseudonymous  works,  we  may  use  Barbier's 
^Dictionnaire  des  Ouvrages  Anonymes  et  Pseudo- 
nymes*  (1806-9,  4  vols.),  which  is  valuable  for 
its  accuracy  (but  contains  only  French  and  Latin 
works)  ;  Querard's  ^Dictionnaire  des  Ouvrages 
Polyonymes  et  Anonymes  de  la  Litterature 
Frangaise^  (Paris  1854-6),  and  his  *^Supercheries 
Litteraires  Devoilees  (5  vols.  Paris  1845-56). 
We  need  not  observe  what  an  important  source 
of  information  in  the  department  of  bibliogra- 
phy are  literary  journals.  Poole's  ^ Index  to 
Periodical  Literature'  contains  references  to  an 
immense  number  of  articles  that  have  never  been 
republished  in  books.     See  Bibliomania. 

Bib'liomancy,  divination  performed  by 
means  of  the  Bible,  also  called  sorfcs  biblicce,  or 
sortes  sanctorum.  It  consisted  in  taking  passages 
at  hazard,  and  drawing  indications  thence  con- 
cerning things  future.  It  was  much  used  at 
the  consecration  of  bishops.  It  was  a  practice 
adopted  from  the  heathens,  who  drew  the  same 
kind  of  prognostications  from  the  works  of 
Homer  and  Virgil.  In  465  the  Council  of 
Vannes  condemned  all  who  practised  this  art  to 
be  cast  out  of  the  communion  of  the  Church ; 
as  did  the  councils  of  Agde  and  Auxerre.  But 
in  the  I2th  century  we  find  it  employed  as  a 
mode  of  detecting  heretics.  In  the  Gallican 
Church  it  was  long  practised  in  the  election  of 
bishops ;  children  being  employed,  on  behalf  of 
each  candidate,  to  draw  slips  of  paper  with 
texts  on  them,  and  that  which  was  thought  most 
favorable  decided  the  choice.  A  similar  mode 
was  pursued  at  the  installation  of  abbots  and 
the  reception  of  canons ;  and  this  custom  is  said 
to  have  continued  in  the  cathedrals  of  Ypres, 
St.  Omer,  and  Boulogne,  as  late  as  the  year  1744. 
In  the  Greek  Church  we  read  of  the  prevalence 
of  this  custom  as  early  as  the  consecration  of 
Athanasius,  on  whose  behalf  the  presiding  prel- 
ate, Caracalla,  archbishop  of  Nicomedia.  opened 
the  Gospels  at  the  words,  ^^For  the  devil  and  his 
angels*  (Matt.  xxv.  41).  The  bishop  of  Nice 
first  saw  them,  and  adroitly  turned  over  the 
leaf  to  another  verse,  which  was  instantly  read 
aloud  :  ^<The  birds  of  the  air  came  and  lodged  in 
the  branches  thereof'  (Matt.  xiii.  32).  But  this 
passage  appearing  irrelevant  to  the  ceremony, 
the  first  became  gradually  known,  and  the  Church 
of  Constantinople  was  violently  agitated  by  the 
most  fatal  divisions  during  the  patriarchate. 


Biblioma'nia  ("book-madness''),  a  w^ord 
formed  from  the  Greek,  and  signifying  a  passion 
for  possessing  rare  or  curious  books.  The  true 
bibliomanist  is  determined  in  the  purchase  of 
books  less  by  the  value  of  their  contents  than 
by  certain  accidental  circumstances  attending 
them.  To  be  valuable  in  his  eyes  they  must 
bdong  to  particular  classes,  be  made  of  singular 
materials,  or  have  something  remarkable  in  their 
history.  Some  books  acquire  the  character  of 
belonging  to  particular  classes  from  treating  of  a 
particular  subject;  others  from  something  pe- 
culiar in  their  mechanical  execution  (as  the 
omission  of  the  word  "not"  in  the  seventh  com- 
mandment, which  gives  the  Wicked  Bible  its 
name),  or  from  the  circumstance  of  having 
issued  from  a  press  of  uncommon  eminence,  or 
because  they  once  belonged  to  the  library  of  an 
eminent  man.  But  there  are  certain  fashions 
in  bibliomania,  and  books  much  sought  at  one 
time  may  at  another  be  comparatively  neglected. 
Some  collections  of  books  may  possess  or  have 
possessed  much  intrinsic  value ;  such  as  collec- 
tions of  the  various  early  editions  of  the  Bible ; 
collections  of  editions  of  single  classics  (for 
example,  those  of  Horace  and  Cicero)  ;  the 
editions  of  the  Greek  and  Latin  classics  in  ttsum 
Delphini  and  cum  notis  variorum;  the  editions 
of  the  Italian  classics  printed  by  the  Academy 
dell  a  Cnisca;  works  printed  by  the  Elzevirs  and 
by  Aldus  ;  the  classics  published  by  Maittaire  or 
Foulis ;  and  the  celebrated  Bipont  editions,  with 
others.  It  perhaps  was  more  customary  in 
former  times  than  at  present  to  make  collec- 
tions of  books  which  have  something  remark- 
able in  their  history  (for  example,  books  which 
have  become  very  scarce,  and  such  as  have 
been  prohibited),  yet  various  scarce  books  are 
highly  prized  on  account  of  nothing  but  their 
rarity,  the  original  (1786)  Kilmarnock  edition 
of  Burns'  Poems,  for  instance.  First  editions 
may  be  ranked  in  the  same  class.  Books  dis- 
tinguished for  remarkable  mutilations  have  also 
been  eagerly  sought  for.  Those  which  appeared 
in  the  infancy  of  typography  called  incunabula, 
from  the  Latin  cuncc,  a  cradle,  and  among  them 
the  first  editions  (edifiones  principcs)  of  the 
ancient  classics,  are  still  in  general  request.  An 
enormous  price  is  frequently  given  also  for 
splendid  proof  impressions  of  copperplate  en- 
gravings, and  for  colored  impressions,  for  works 
adorned  with  miniatures  and  illuminated  initial 
letters  ;  likewise  for  such  as  are  printed  upon  vel- 
lum. Works  printed  upon  paper  of  uncommon 
materials,  or  various  substitutes  for  paper 
(asbestos,  for  instance),  have  been  much  sought 
after ;  likewise  those  printed  upon  colored  paper. 
Other  books  in  high  esteem  among  bibliomanists 
are  those  which  are  printed  on  large  paper, 
with  very  wide  margins.  In  English  advertise- 
ments of  rare  books  some  one  is  often  men- 
tioned as  particularly  valuable  on  account  of  its 
being  ^^a  tall  copy."  If  the  leaves  happen  to  be 
uncut  the  value  of  the  copy  is  much  enhanced. 
Other  works  highly  valued  by  bibliomanists  are 
those  which  are  printed  with  letters  of  gold  or 
silver,  or  ink  of  singular  color ;  for  example : 
(i)  ^ Fasti  Napoleonei'  (Paris  1804,  4to),  a 
copy  on  blue  vellum  paper,  with  golden  letters ; 
(2)  'Magna  Charta'  (London  1816,  fob),  three 
copies  upon  purple-colored  vellum,  with  golden 
letters. 

Bibliomania  often  extends  to  the  binding.  In 
France  the  bindings  of  Derome,  Padeloup,  and 


BIBRA  — BICETRE 


Bozerian  are  highly  valued ;  in  England  those  of 
Charles  Lewis  and  Roger  Paj'ne,  among  i8th 
century  binders ;  while  Hayday,  Riviere,  Bed- 
ford, and  Zaehnsdorf  may  be  mentioned  as 
among  the  notable  craftsmen  of  the  igth.  Even 
the  edges  of  books  are  often  adorned  with  fine 
paintings.  Many  devices  have  been  adopted  to 
give  a  factitious  value  to  bindings.  Jeffery,  a 
London  bookseller,  had  Fox's  'History  of  King 
James  IL^  bound  in  fox-skin,  in  allusion  to  the 
name  of  the  author ;  and  the  famous  English 
bibliomanist,  Askew,  even  had  a  book  bound  in 
human  skin.  In  the  library  of  the  castle  of 
Konigsb«rg  are  20  books  bound  in  silver  (com- 
monly called  the  silver  library).  These  are 
richly  adorned  with  large  and  beautifully 
engraved  gold  plates  in  the  middle  and  on  the 
corners.  To  the  exterior  decoration  of  books 
belongs  the  bordering  of  the  pages  with  single 
or  double  lines,  drawn  with  the  pen  (exeniplaire 
•/TO'/r),  commonly  of  red  color  —  a  custom  which 
we  find  adopted  in  the  early  age  of  printing  in 
the  works  printed  by  Stephens.  The  custom  of 
coloring  engravings  has  generally  been  dropped, 
except  in  cases  where  the  subject  particularly 
requires  it  (for  instance,  in  works  on  natural 
history,  or  the  costumes  of  different  nations), 
because  the  colors  conceal  the  delicacy  of  the 
engraving. 

Other  means  of  idle  competition  being  almost 
all  exhausted,  a  new  method  of  gratifying  the 
bibliomanist  taste  was  adopted,  that  of  enrich- 
ing works  by  the  addition  of  engravings, — illus- 
trative indeed  of  the  text  of  the  book,  but  not 
particularly  called  for, —  and  of  preparing  only 
single  copies.  Books  are  often  mutilated  in  this 
way  to  enrich  some  other  book.  Such  ''granger- 
ized'^ copies  have  long  been  well  known. 

Among  recent  books  valued  as  specimens  of 
typography  are  some  of  those  that  issued  from 
the  Kelmscott  Press  of  the  late  William  Morris. 
Bibliomania,  which  flourished  first  in  Holland 
(the  seat  likewise  of  the  tulipomania)  toward 
the  end  of  the  17th  century,  has  prevailed  in 
England  to  a  much  greater  extent  than  in 
France,  Italy,  or  Germany.  The  modern  biblio- 
mania is  very  difi^erent  from  the  spirit  which 
led  to  the  purchase  of  books  in  the  Middle 
Ages  at  prices  which  appear  to  us  enormous. 
External  decorations,  it  is  true,  were  then  held 
in  high  esteem ;  but  the  main  reason  of  the 
great  sums  then  paid  for  books  was  their 
scarcity,  and  the  difficulty  of  procuring  perfect 
copies  before  the  invention  of  the  art  of  print- 
ing. See  Dibdin,  'Bibliomania'  (1811)  ;  Fitz- 
gerald, 'The  Book  Fancier'  (1886)  ;  Larv,  'The 
Library'  (1886)  ;  Burton,  'The  Book  Hunter' 
(1882)  ;  Field,  'The  Love  Affairs  of  a  Biblio- 
maniac' (1896)  ;  Merry  weather,  'Bibliomania  of 
the  Middle  Ages'   (1849,  reprint,  1900). 

Bibra,  b?-bra,  Ernst  von,  German  scholar 
and  writer :  b.  Schwebheim,  Bavaria,  9  June 
1806;  d.  ISluremberg,  5  June  1878.  Being  left 
an  orphan  with  a  large  fortune  at  an  early  age, 
he  devoted  himself  to  physical  science,  and  pub- 
lished various  works  that  brought  his  name  be- 
fore the  public.  He  traveled  in  South  America, 
taking  home  with  him  important  natural  history 
and  ethnological  collections.  Among  his  numer- 
ous works  are:  'Travels  in  South  America'; 
'Memories  of  South  .America'  ;  'Sketches  of 
Travel  and  Novels' ;  etc. 


Bib'ulus,  Lucius  Calpur'nius,  Roman  poli- 
tician ;  d.  near  Corcyra,  Greece,  48  B.C.  He  was- 
consul  with  Julius  (Isesar  in  59  B.C.,  which  office 
he  acqu:red  through  the  influence  of  the  aristo- 
cratic party.  After  his  opposition  to  Caesar's, 
agrarian  law  had  failed,  he  secluded  himself 
in  his  house,  wdience  he  issued  edicts  against  the 
measures  of  Caesar.  In  49  B.C.  Pompey  appointed 
him  commander  of  the  fleet  in  the  Roman  Sea. 
In  the  following  year  Caesar  eluded  him  and 
crossed   over   into   Greece. 

Bicanere,  bik-a'ner,  India,  a  town,  capital 
of  a  principality  of  the  same  name;  240  miles 
Vv'est  by  south  from  Delhi.  With  its  battle- 
mented  walls  and  large  citadel,  both  flanked  with 
round  towers,  and  its  temples,  one  of  which  rises 
to  a  great  height,  it  presents  a  magnificent 
appearance  to  the  traveler  approaching  it  through 
the  desolate  tract  of  country  in  which  it  stands ; 
but  a  nearer  inspection  dispels  the  illusion,  and 
the  greater  part  of  the  houses  are  found  to  be 
hovels  of  mud,  painted  red.  Water  is  obtained 
from  wells.     Pop.   (1901)  53,071. 

Bicar'bonate.      See  Carbon. 

Bicci,  Ersilio,  be'che,  ar-sel'yo,  Italian 
poet :  b.  1845.  He  studied  in  Florence,  and  be- 
came professor  of  Italian  literature  in  the  Licei 
Dante  and  Toscanelli  of  that  city.  His  best 
composition  is  in  the  collection  styled  'New 
Verses.' 

Bice,  bice,  the  name  of  two  colors  used  in 
painting,  one  blue,  the  other  green,  and  both 
native  carbonates  of  copper,  though  inferior 
kinds  are  also  prepared  artificially. 

Bi'ceps  (biceps  flexor  cubiti),  the  principal 
flexor  muscle  of  the  arm,  the  muscle  popularly 
shown  as  evidence  of  muscular  development.  At 
its  upper  end  it  consists  of  two  parts,  one  being 
attached  to  the  coracoid  process  of  the  scapula, 
and  the  other  to  the  margin  of  the  glenoid  fossa, 
about  the  joint.  This  latter,  the  long  head,  passes 
over  the  head  of  the  humerus  as  a  tendon  and 
unites  with  the  short  head  to  form  the  belly 
of  the  muscle.  The  lower  end  of  the  biceps  is 
inserted  for  the  greater  part  to  the  radius,  and 
a  smaller  tendonous  expansion  is  inserted  in  the 
fascia  of  the  forearm.  The  action  of  the  biceps 
is  to  bring  the  forearm  to  the  arm  and  to  turn 
the  inturned  hand  outward. 

Bicetre,  be-satr,  France,  a  village  a  little 
to  the  southwest  of  Paris,  with  a  famous  hos- 
pital for  old  men  in  indigent  circumstances,  and 
an  asylum  for  lunatics,  together  forming  one 
vast  establishment.  This  establishment  \ya& 
originally  founded  by  Louis  iX.  as  a  Carthusian 
monastery,  became  later  a  castle,  which  was 
demolished  in  1632,  after  being  long  in  a  ruin- 
ous state,  and  was  restored  by  Louis  XIII. ,  and 
destined  as  a  retreat  for  infirm  officers  and  sol- 
diers. When  Louis  XIV.  afterward  erected  the 
great  Hotel  Royal  des  Invalides,  Bicetre  be- 
came a  general  hospital,  and  it  continued  as  such 
down  to  the  Revolution,  while  it  contained  also 
a  house  of  correction  for  swindlers,  thieves,  etc. 
The  establishment  was  then  entirely  altered  and 
converted  to  its  present  use,  the  buildings  being 
partly  pulled  down  and  replaced  by  new  ones. 
The  poor  persons  admitted  must  be  at  least  70 
years  of  age,  or  incapacitated  by  some  incurable 
disease  from  earning  a  livelihood.  The  luna- 
tics are  such  as  belong  to  the  department  of  the 
Seine.     They  are  attended  to  with  the  greatest 


BICHAT  —  BICKERSTETH 


care,  and  fabricate  neat  little  articles  of  wood 
and  bone,  known  in  France  by  the  name  of 
"Bicetre  work.^'  The  number  of  beds  in  the 
institution  is  over  2,700. 

Bichat,  Marie  Frangois  Xavier,  be-shar, 
ma-re'  fran-swa  ksav-e-a,  French  physician; 
b.  Thoirette,  department  of  Jura,  14  Nov.  1771 ; 
d.  22  July  1802.  His  father,  a  physician,  early 
initiated  him  into  the  study  of  medicine,  which 
the  young  Bichat  prosecuted  at  Lyons  and  Paris, 
where  he  studied  under  the  direction  of  Desault 
fq.v.),  who  treated  him  as  a  son.  On  the  latter's 
death,  Bichat  superintended  the  publication  of 
his  surgical  works,  and  in  1791  began  to  lecture 
upon  anatomy  in  connection  with  experimental 
physiology  and  surgery.  From  this  period, 
amidst  the  pressing  calls  of  an  extensive  prac- 
tice, he  emploj'ed  himself  in  preparing  those 
works  which  spread  his  reputation  through 
Europe  and  America,  and  which  had  the  most 
beneficial  influence  upon  medical  science  gen- 
erally. In  1800  appeared  his  'Treatise  on  the 
Membranes,-'  which  passed  through  numerous 
editions,  and  immediately  after  publication  was 
translated  into  almost  al}  European  languages, 
and  'Researches  Concerning  Life  and  Death,' 
followed,  the  next  year,  by  his  'General  Anat- 
omy' (4  vols.  8vo) — a  complete  code  of 
anatomy,  physiology,  and  medicine,  which  was 
translated  into  English  by  Dr.  G.  Hayward,  and 
published  in  3  vols.  8vo.  In  1800  he  was 
appointed  physician  of  the  Hotel-Dieu,  in  Paris, 
and  with  the  energy  characteristic  of  true  genius 
began  his  labors  in  pathological  anatomy.  In 
a  single  winter  he  opened  no  less  than  600  bodies. 
He  had  likewise  conceived  the  plan  of  a  great 
work  upon  pathology  and  therapeutics ;  and 
immediately  upon  commencing  his  duties  as 
physician  to  the  Hotel-Dieu  he  began  his  re- 
searches in  therapeutics  by  experiments  upon 
the  effects  of  simple  medicines.  In  the  midst 
of  his  activity  and  usefulness  he  was  cut  off 
by  a  malignant  fever,  probably  the  consequence 
of  his  numerous  dissections.  His  friend  and 
physician,  Corvisart,  wrote  to  Napoleon  in  these 
words :  "Bichat  has  just  fallen  upon  a  field  of 
battle  which  counts  more  than  one  victim ;  no 
one  has  done  so  much,  or  done  it  so  well,  in  so 
short  a  time.*  He  was  the  creator  of  general 
anatomy,  or  of  the  doctrine  of  the  identity  of 
the  tissues  of  the  different  organs,  which  is  the 
fundamental  principle  of  modern  medicine. 

Bichir,  be-sher',  one  of  the  African  mud- 
fishes {Polypterus  bichir),  which  inhabits  the 
upper  Nile  and  its  tributaries,  and  is  regarded 
as  the  best  food-fish  of  those  waters.  It  is  only 
about  a  foot  long,  and  is  one  of  the  few  remain- 
ing species  of  the  great  extinct  group  Ganoidea 
(q.v.).  and  is  related  to  the  American  gar-pike. 
See  Mud-Fish  ;   Reed- Fish. 

Bichlo'ride  f-klo'-)  of  Gold,  a  substance 
formed  by  the  action  of  chlorine  gas  upon  dry 
metallic  gold  that  has  been  previously  thrown 
down  in  the  form  of  an  impalpable  powder,  by 
chemical  means.  Some  authorities  assert  that 
the  substance  so  formed  is  a  true  chemical  com- 
pound, having  the  formula  AuCU ;  while  others 
maintain  that  it  is  a  mere  mixture  of  metallic 
gold  and  the  well-known  trichloride,  AuCls.  The 
so-called  "bichloride  of  gold''  has  risen  into 
notoriety  on  account  of  the  use  made  of  it  by 
the  late  Dr.  Keeley  of  Dwight,  111.,  in  the  cure 
of  dipsomania  and  chronic  alcoholism.     Its  gen- 


eral characteristics,  chemically  and  physiologi- 
cally, are  to  a  great  extent  similar  to  those  of 
mercury  bichloride.  Its  employment  by  Dr. 
Keeley  produced  a  profound  impression  on  the 
medical  world,  and  many  partisans  both  for 
and  against  its  virtues  exist.  The  success,  from 
a  financial  standpoint,  of  the  Dwight  sanitarium, 
brought  forth  many  imitators,  and  much  harm 
has  been  done  by  unskilful  persons  using  this 
dangerous  and  powerful  medicinal  agent. 

Bickerstaffe,  Isaac,  Irish  dramatic  writer: 
b.  Ireland,  about  1735;  d.  about  1812.  He  wrote 
many  successful  pieces  for  the  stage,  some  of 
which  such  as  the  operas  of  'Love  in  a  Village' 
and  'The  Padlock,'  are  still  represented.  His 
celebrated  comedy  of  'The  Hypocrite,'  adapted 
from  Colley  Gibber's  'Nonjuror,'  which  was 
again  borrowed  in  its  leading  incidents  from 
Moliere,  long  retained  its  place  on  the  stage, 
with  its  well-known  characters  of  Mawworm 
and  Dr.  Cantwell.  The  music  .of  many  of 
Bickerstaffe's  pieces  was  composed  by  Charles 
Dibdin.  Latterly  he  retired  to  the  Continent, 
and  died  there. 

Bick'ersteth,  Rev.  Edward,  English  clergy- 
man :  b.  Kirkby-Lonsdale,  Westmoreland,  19 
March  1786:  d.  24  Feb.  1850.  He  was  educated 
in  the  grammar  school  of  his  native  town,  and 
at  the  age  of  14  found  a  place  in  the  post-office, 
London,  where  he  remained  for  six  years,  after- 
ward spending  five  years  as  an  articled  clerk 
with  a  London  attorney.  He  then  commenced 
business  as  a  solicitor  in  Norwich,  in  partner- 
ship with  his  brother-in-law,  and  soon  was  in  re- 
ceipt of  a  large  and  increasing  income.  A  great 
change,  however,  came  over  his  mind  and  he 
began  to  e.xert  himself  in  promoting  the  dif- 
fusion of  the  truths  of  religion  among  his  fellow- 
men.  Among  other  works  accomplished  by  him 
was  the  establishment  of  the  Norwich  Church 
Missionary  Society.  He  also  published  in  1814 
'A  Help  to  the  Study  of  the  Scriptures,'  which 
met  with  great  success.  He  then  resolved  to 
abandon  the  legal  profession  for  that  of  a  minis- 
ter of  the  Church  of  England.  The  Church 
Missionarj-  Society  wished  to  send  him  abroad 
on  a  special  mission  to  Africa,  and  in  this  view 
the  bishop  of  Norwich,  dispensing  with  the 
usual  course  of  a  university  education,  admitted 
him  to  deacon's  orders  on  10  Dec.  1815, 
and  a  fortnight  afterward  he  was  admitted  to 
full  orders  by  the  bishop  of  Gloucester.  Mr. 
Bickersteth  thereupon,  with  his  wife,  proceeded 
to  Africa,  from  which,  after  accomplishing  the 
objects  of  his  mission,  he  returned  in  the  fol- 
lowing autumn.  He  now  filled  the  office  of  sec- 
retary to  the  Church  Missionary  Society,  and 
from  this  period  to  1830,  when  he  resigned  it, 
was  indefatigable  in  the  performance  of  its 
multiform  duties.  In  the  year  last  mentioned 
he  became  rector  of  Watton,  in  Hertfordshire, 
and  spent  there  the  remainder  of  his  life.  He 
had  now  become  widely  known  as  one  of  the 
most  influential  and  popular  clergymen  of  the 
evangelical  section.  Besides  taking  an  active 
share  in  furthering  the  cause  of  the  various 
religious  societies,  including  the  Evangelical 
Alliance,  of  which  he  was  one  of  the  founders, 
he  likewise  issued  a  series  of  publications  v.-hich 
had  an  immense  circulation,  among  others:  'The 
Christian  Student'  ;  'A  Treatise  on  the  Lord's 
Supper'  ;  'A  Treatise  on  Prayer'  :  'The  Signs 
of  the  Times' ;    'The   Promised   Glory   of  the 


BICKMORE  —  BICYCLE 


Church  of  Chiist' ;  ^The  Restoration  of  the 
Jews^  ;  *A  Practical  Guide  to  the  Prophecies,^ 
besides  sermons  and  tracts   without  number. 

Bick'more,  Albert  Smith,  American  natu- 
ralist:  b.  St.  George,  Me.,  i  March  1839.  He 
graduated  at  Dartmouth  College  in  i860,  and 
studied  under  Agassiz  at  the  Lawrence  Scien- 
tific School  of  Harvard.  In  1865-9  he  traveled 
in  the  Malay  Archipelago  and  in  eastern  Asia; 
in  1870  became  professor  of  natural  history  in 
Madison  (now  Colgate)  University;  and  in  1885 
professor  in  charge  of  the  department  of  public 
instruction  at  the  American  Museum  of  Natural 
History,  New  York.  His  publications  include : 
<  Travels  in  the  East  Indian  Archipelago^ 
(1869)  ;  ^The  Ainos  or  Hairy  Men  of  Jesso^  ; 
*  Sketch  of  a  Journey  from  Canton  to  Hankow.' 

Bick'nell,  Frank  Martin,  American  author: 
b.  Melrose,  Mass.,  24  Jan.  1854.  He  graduated 
at  the  English  High  School,  Boston,  in  1872 ; 
engaged  in  business  till  1888 ;  and  afterward 
devoted  himself  to  literature.  He  has  contribu- 
ted largely  to  *St.  Nicholas^  ;  ^Harper's  Young 
People*  ;  *  Youth's  Companion*  ;  ^Outing*  ; 
New  York  Evening  Post;  etc.  He  wrote  'The 
City  of  Stories*  ;    'The  Apprentice  Boy*  ;  etc. 

Bicknell,  Thomas  William,  American  edu- 
cator :  b.  Barrington,  R.  I.,  6  Sept.  1834.  He 
was  graduated  from  Brown  University  in  i860. 
During  his  senior  year  in  college  he  was  elected 
to  the  Rhode  Island  legislature,  and  after  grad- 
uation was  principal  of  schools  in  Rehobart, 
Bristol,  and  Providence,  R.  I.,  and  in  Elgin,  111. 
In  1869-75  he  was  commissioner  of  the  public 
schools  of  Illinois,  and  during  this  incumbency 
he  secured  the  establishment  of  the  State  Nor- 
mal School.  He  founded,  edited,  and  owned 
'The  Journal  of  Education*  ;  'The  Primary 
Teacher'  ;  'The  American  Teacher*  ;  'Educa- 
tion* ;  and  'Good  Times,*  between  1874  and 
1886.  He  has  been  president  of  a  number  of 
educational  institutes  and  Sunday-school  unions. 
He  has  written  'State  Educational  Reports*  ; 
'John  Myles  and  Religious  Toleration*  ;  'Life 
of  W.  L.  Noyes*  ;  'Brief  History  of  Barring- 
ton'  ;  'Barrington  in  the  Revolution*  ;  and  'The 
Bicknells.* 

Bicycle,  a  light  steel  vehicle  consisting  of 
two  wheels  arranged  tandem,  united  bj^  a  frame 
with  the  rider's  seat  upon  it ;  propelled  by  his 
feet  acting  on  pedals  connected  with  one  of  the 
axles,  at  present  that  of  the  rear  wheel ;  and 
steered  by  a  handle-bar  guiding  the  direction  of 
the  front  wheel.  As  at  present  constructed  the 
wheels  are  of  equal  size ;  the  driving  mechanism 
is  usually  a  chain  with  the  links  fitting  over  a 
sprocket-wheel,  but  about  one  in  25  are  chain- 
less,  mainly  with  a  shaft  and  bevel  driver ; 
the  weight  is  23  to  27I/2  pounds,  complete ;  the 
frame  is  of  hollow  cold-drawn  tubing,  with 
brazed  joints;  the  wheels  are  suspension,  with 
crossed  tangent  spokes,  wooden  rims,  pneu- 
matic tires,  and  ball  bearings.  The  name  dates 
from  about  1865,  though  first  so  spelled  in  a 
patent  of  8  April  1869,  and  elsewhere  called 
"bysicle,**  "bicircle,**  "bicycular  velocipede,**  etc. ; 
but  prior  to  1870  the  form  of  the  machine  was 
usually  called  a  velocipede,  a  French  name 
dating  from  1779. 

The  pedomotor  itself  goes  back  perhaps  to 
Egyptian  and  probably  at  least  to  classic  times, 
winged  figures  astride  of  a  stick  connecting  two 
wheels  being  found  in  the  frescoes  at  Pompeii. 


In  the  17th  century  it  suddenly  appears  with 
surprising  frequency ;  there  is  a  picture  of  a 
bicycle  in  a  stained-glass  window  at  Stoke  Pogis, 
England ;  in  August  1665,  John  Evelyn  writes 
in  his  diary  of  "a  wheele  to  run  races  in** ;  in 
1690  a  Frenchman  named  De  Sivrac  invented 
a  two-wheeled  celerifcre  having  a  horse-shaped 
wooden  body  with  a  saddle,  and  steered  by  the 
rider's  feet ;  in  1693  Ozanam  described  before 
the  Royal  Society  a  vehicle  pedaled  by  a  foot 
traveler.  In  1761  the  'Universal  Magazine*  de- 
scribes a  similar  one  invented  by  an  Eng- 
lishman named  Ovenden;  in  August  1769 
the  'London  Magazine*  describes  "a  chaise 
to  go  without  horses.**  On  27  July  1779, 
Le  Journal  dc  Paris  describes  a  veloci- 
pede invented  by  MM.  Blanchard  and 
Magurier,  which  is  merely  the  celerifere  with  an 
upright  bar  to  support  the  hands ;  this  gained 
considerable  vogue.  From  France  and  England 
the  idea  spread  to  Germany,  which  added  to  it 
the  one  idea  needed  to  vivify  it.  In  March 
1784  one  Ignaz  Trexler,  of  Gratz,  Austria,  in- 
vented a  pedomotor  credited  with  the  speed  of 
a  galloping  horse  —  unquestionably  meaning 
down  hill.  But  the  direct  progenitor  of  the 
modern  bicycle  was  one  built  in  1816  by  Baron 
Karl  von  Drais,  Freiherr  von  Sauerbronn 
(1784-1851),  chief  forester  to  the  Grand  Duke 
of  Baden  (to  whose  memory  in  1891  the  bicy- 
clers erected  a  monument  at  Carlsruhe),  often 
called  "the  father  of  the  bicycle.**  It  was  de- 
signed to  aid  him  in  his  daily  journeys.  The 
whole  was  of  wood ;  the  wheels  of  equal  size, 
connected  by  a  perch,  astride  which  the  rider 
sat  in  a  saddle,  and  to  the  fore  end  of  which  was 
swiveled  a  fork  into  which  the  front  wheel  was 
axled ;  the  rider  propelled  it  on  level  ground 
or  up  hill  by  striking  the  ground  with  his  feet, 
and  coasted  down  hill.  But  the  significant 
feature,  the  germ  of  the  bicycle,  was  the  pivot- 
ing of  the  front  wheel  and  its  steering  by  a 
handle-bar;  for  which  there  was  a  stuffed  arm- 
rest on  an  elevated  cross-piece.  Drais  patented 
this  in  Paris,  1816,  and  claimed  that  it  would 
go  up  hill  as  fast  as  a  man  could  walk,  on  a 
level,  after  a  rain,  at  six  or  seven  miles  an  hour, 
or  courier's  pace,  the  same  when  dry  at  eight 
or  nine,  and  down  hill  at  a  horse's  gallop.  It 
excited  much  attention  and  was  called  the 
"draisme'* ;  and  in  1818  one  Dennis  Johnson 
patented  in  England  an  improved  form  called 
the  "pedestrian  curricle,'*  with  adjustable  saddle 
and  elbow-rest.  This  started  a  fashionable 
furore,  and  those  who  could  not  afford  it 
laughed  at  it  as  the  "dandy-horse,**  and 
"hobby-horse,**  while  the  serious-minded  in- 
vented a  swarm  of  names  for  it,  such . 
as  "patent  accelerator,**  "swift-walker**  (a 
literal  translation  of  "velocipede**),  "mani- 
velociter,**  "bivector,**  etc.,  and  finally,  in  1819, 
"bicipede**  and  "tricipede** ;  but  by  this  time  the 
name  "velocipede**  had  become  the  recognized 
current  term.  It  had  then  become  common 
enough  to  be  prohibited  in  London,  and  to  make 
dodging  the  machines  a  common  exercise  on  the 
suburban  roads ;  and  bred  complaints  of  leg 
disease,  and  a  consequent  invention  by  one  Birch 
for  using  the  arms  instead.  In  1821  Louis  Gom- 
pertz  patented  an  improvement  in  which  the 
handle-bar  was  connected  with  a  segment  rack 
gearing  into  a  pinion  on  the  front  wheel,  so 
that  either  arms  or  feet  could  be  used  for  pro- 
pulsion ;  but  the  craze  had  worn  itself  out,  and 


BICYCLE 


it  was  nearly  half  a  century  before  it  revived 
with  a  better  machine.  Meantime,  in  June  1819, 
the  curricle  had  been  introduced  into  the  United 
States,  and  became  a  craze  in  Boston,  New  York, 
Philadelphia,  etc. ;  and  many  riding-schools  were 
•opened.  On  26  June  1819  William  K.  Clarkson 
was  granted  a  patent  for  an  "improved  veloci- 
pede" ;  but  the  excitement  soon  subsided  here 
also.  The  grotesque  appearance  of  a  person 
leaning  forward  on  his  elbows  and  kicking  away 
at  the  ground  beneath  his  clumsy  vehicle  proved 
too  much  for  the  national  sense  of  humor,  and 
riders  were  the  objects  of  ridicule.  A  typical 
"hobby-horse*^  in  the  early  'twenties  had  the  fol- 
lowing specifications :  Wheels,  wood,  32  inches ; 
wheel  base,  4  feet  7  inches ;  backbone,  wood,  5 
feet  9  inches  long ;  saddle,  hard  wood,  i  foot  6 
inches  long ;  handle-bar,  wood,  9  inches,  elevated 
48  inches  above  ground ;  finish,  black  paint ; 
weight,  90  pounds.     The  arm-rest  was  of  wood. 

With  the  death  of  the  draisine  the  idea  was 
not  altogether  forgotten ;  both  in  England  and 
•on  the  Continent  scattering  pedomotors  were 
built  every  few  years,  and  the  capital  improve- 
ment of  putting  cranks  on  the  front  axle,  crea- 
ting the  true  modern  bicycle,  was  at  length  de- 
vised. It  is  asserted,  though  not  proved,  that 
■one  Kirkpatrick  McMillan  of  Courthill,  Scotland, 
having  tried  in  1835  a  system  of  cranks,  side- 
levers,  connecting-rods,  and  pedals,  for  propel- 
ling a  tricycle,  applied  them  successfully  to  a 
wooden  bicycle  in  1840 ;  and  it  is  certain  that  in 
1846  Gavin  Dalzell  of  Lesmahagow,  Scotland, 
who  had  heard  of  McMillan's  machine,  invented 
.and  rode  a  rear-driving  velocipede  propelled  by 
pedals  on  hanging  levers,  which,  by  means  of 
connecting-rods  instead  of  chains,  rotated  cranks 
■on  the  rear  axle.  This  machine,  whose  wheels 
were  of  wood  shod  with  iron,  and  its  frame 
somewhat  dipped  like  the  present  ladies'  wheel, 
made  10  or  12  miles  an  hour;  it  was  a  rather 
striking  forecast  of  the  modern  "safety,''  though 
not  in  the  least  a  germ  of  anything,  as  its  exist- 
ence was  not  known  till  1892.  It  had  also  some 
important  differences :  the  rear  wheel  was  the 
larger,  as  in  the  "Humber*'  and  "Star*'  machines, 
.and  the  action  was  to-and-fro  and  not  rotary. 
In  185s  a  German  instrument-maker  named 
Philipp  Maritz  Fischer  made  and  extensively 
rode  a  velocipede.  But  none  of  these  were  ever 
made  for  any  persons  but  the  owners,  nor  in- 
cited further  invention. 

The  real  ancestor  of  our  bicycle,  the  crank- 
driven  velocipede  that  led  straight  to  better 
things,  arose  in  France :  the  honor  of  the  in- 
vention is  hotly  disputed.  According  to  one  ac- 
count it  belongs  to  Ernest  Michaux,  the  son  of 
a  Parisian  carriage  repairer  (to  whom  a  monu- 
ment was  erected  in  1894)  ;  but  if  so,  he  did  not 
make  it  public  and  it  led  to  nothing,  and  it  is 
generally  accredited  as  theory,  where  it  belongs 
as  practical  result,  to  Pierre  Lallement.  a  Pari- 
sian blacksmith,  said  to  have  been  in  Michaux's 
employ.  It  sprang,  in  fact,  not  from  Michaux's, 
if  that  existed,  but  from  a  multicycle  invented  in 
1865  by  one  Marechal ;  a  five-wheeler,  each 
wheel  having  an  independent  axle  with  cranks, 
loose  pedals,  and  a  separate  seat ;  the  front  was 
the  guide-wheel,  but  it  could  be  ridden  b}'  one 
or  many.  In  September  MM.  Woirin  and  Le- 
conde  patented  a  tricycle,  with  two  smaller  rear 
wheels  on  the  same  axle,  and  a  large  front  one 
-with  cranks  and  loose  pedals,  the  whole  con- 
iiected   with  a  wooden   horse-shaped  body  like 


De  Sivrac's,  on  whose  back  the  rider  ;at  well 
over  the  front  wheel ;  this  was  the  progenitor 
of  the  modern  tricycle.  Lallement,  against  the 
judgment  of  his  friends,  who  thought  that  keep- 
ing one's  balance  would  be  impracticable  on  two 
wheels  tandem,  applied  the  principle  thus  the 
same  year,  learned  the  art  of  balancing,  and  ex- 
hibited his  machine  and  his  skill  at  the  Paris 
Exposition  of  that  year ;  but  thought  too  little 
of  it  to  patent  it.  The  next  year  (1866)  he  came 
to  the  United  States  to  look  for  work,  made  a 
velocipede  and  rode  it  about  New  Haven,  Conn., 
and  was  induced  by  one  James  Carroll  to  patent 
it  with  him,  which  was  done  20  November.  It 
had  two  wooden  wheels,  the  front  one  slightly 
the  larger,  with  iron  tires;  was  a  front-driver; 
and  the  saddle  was  on  a  steel  spring  midway  be- 
tween the  wheels.  But  it  was  too  crude  and  un- 
pleasurable  to  attract  much  notice.  In  France, 
however,  great  improvements  were  shortly  mad^e 
on  it,  and  in  the  winter  of  1867  it  became  the 
sensation  of  Paris ;  riding  schools  sprang  up  all 
about,  and  straps  to  fasten  the  machines  were 
part  of  the  equipment  of  the  great  places  of 
amusement.  This  continued  till  the  Franco- 
German  war  temporarily  destro3'ed  the  business, 
which  had  developed  a  large  manufacturing  in- 
terest. Meantime,  in  England,  Edward  Gilman 
in  1866  had  patented  a  rear-driver  with  a  single 
treadle,  and  the  chain  gear  had  been  broached. 
In  1869  the  improved  velocipede  and  the  reflex 
of  the  French  enthusiasm  brought  it  into  sud- 
den vogue  in  the  United  States,  and  American 
inventiveness  was  turned  toward  perfecting  it : 
at  the  time  the  "boom**  burst  in  1870  the  Patent 
Office  was  receiving  half  a  dozen  applications 
for  new  patents  every  week.  Up  to  1869  the 
two  wheels  were  of  about  the  same  size,  30  to 
40  inches ;  and  the  earlier  machines  had  wooden 
hubs,  spokes,  and  rims,  with  steel  tires.  But 
the  wire-spoke  suspension  wheel,  re-invented  in 
France  in  1864,  soon  came  in,  and  by  1869  all- 
steel  wheels  with  hollow  tubing  were  built ;  the 
prices  were  from  $75  to  $300,  and  cj'cling  was  a 
mark  of  some  social  distinction.  In  the  West  it 
was  the  universal  roading  sport,  the  leading 
manufactories  being  located  there ;  rinks  were 
built  everywhere,  and  the  wonderful  trick-riding 
possible  with  the  heavj'  wheels  then  made. —  on 
flights  of  stairs,  by  jumps,  etc.,  which  our  mod- 
ern light  wheels  would  not  endure, —  drew  large 
crowds.  But  this  weight, — 116  pounds  was  me- 
dium, and  in  1871  a  75-pound  racer  was  much 
borrowed  from  its  lightness, —  made  the  sport  a 
heavy  tax  even  on  the  athletic,  and  insupportable 
to  any  others ;  the  rigid  tire  made  the  jolting 
on  rough  roads  or  paved  streets  a  torture,  so 
that  a  current  nickname  for  the  machine  was 
"bone-shaker.'^  The  low  build  covered  the  rider 
with  the  dirt  of  roads  and  carriages,  and  to 
avoid  this  and  gain  speed  the  front  wheel  was 
gradually  raised  and  the  seat  carried  up  with  it, 
and  in  1869-70  two  western  builders  placed 
large  numbers  of  high  or  "ordinary^'  wheels  on 
the  market.  But  the  steel  tire  made  the  exertion 
still  more  severe ;  and  hostile  municipal  legisla- 
tion, controlled  by  the  horse  owners,  drove  the 
bicyclers  off  every  desirable  riding  road.  The 
sport  (till  the  "safety"  came  in  it  was  only  such) 
collapsed,  with  the  suddenness  of  a  financial 
crash,  within  a  single  week ;  thousands  of  ma- 
chines, worth  $100  to  $150  one  day,  could  not 
be  sold  at  any  price  the  next,  and  were  ultimately 
disposed   of  to   boys   or  the  poorest   classes  at 


BICYCLE 


nominal  prices,  or  allowed  to  become  old  iron ; 
manufactories  crowded  with  orders  had  them 
countermanded  in  a  mass ;  rinks  no  longer  drew ; 
and  what  little  was  left  of  the  sport,  among 
those  who  owned  fine  machines  and  clung  to 
them,  was  killed  by  the  sale  at  nominal  prices  of 
a  stock  of  cheap  wheels  made  of  gas-pipe,  mal- 
leable fittings,  and  wooden  Vvdieels  with  steel 
tires,  which  soon  fell  to  pieces,  but  destroyed  all 
prestige  in  the  sport.  It  was  nearly  a  decade  be- 
fore America  took  it  up  again  in  any  general 
way,  and  then  with  a  different  wheel,  the  bicycle 
proper. 

Meantime  a  great  development  had  gone 
on  in  England,  where  the  hard,  smooth 
macadam  roads,  and  beautiful  by-paths  for 
cyclers  without  disturbing  horses,  made  all 
conditions  more  favorable.  The  bicycle  under 
that  name  was  patented  8  April  1869;  it  had 
steel  rims  and  solid  rubber  tires,  round  or 
half  round.  For  speed  the  front  wheel  was 
gradually  enlarged  and  the  rear  reduced  to 
a  mere  steerer,  till  the  Ordinary  was  attained 
in  1871,  with  a  40-  to  48-inch  front  wheel  and 
l6-inch  rear;  it  was  made  feasible  and  popular 
by  the  rubber  tires,  which  reduced  the  friction 
and  jar,  and  consequently  the  needed  pro- 
pelling power.  The  front  wheel  was  gradu- 
ally raised  in  proportion  to  the  rider's  height 
and  skill,  and  in  the  early  eighties  attained  60 
and  even  64  inches.  It  still  remains  the  per- 
fection of  grace  and  simplicity  in  bicycle  con- 
struction: the  motive  power  being  applied 
direct,  and  the  wheel,  with  cranks  and  pedals, 
forming  a  solid  body.  It  is  also  the  most 
exhilarating  to  ride,  given  strength  and 
skill.  The  greatest  improvements  were  made 
by  James  K.  Starley,  of  Coventry,  England, 
the  second  "father  of  the  bicycle";  his  wheels 
in  1873  had  become  nearly  all  that  made  the 
best  Ordinary,  with  steel  frame,  cross  tension 
spokes,  and  solid  rubber  tires.  In  1874  he 
patented  the  tangent  wheel. 

The  Ordinary,  however,  could  not  be  the 
bicycle  of  the  future.  It  was  hard  to  mount, 
except  in  favorable  spots,  and  if  the  rider  was 
dismounted  had  often  to  be  walked  long  dis- 
tances on  streets  or  hillsides;  both  from  this 
and  the  great  air  resistance  due  to  the  rider's 
elevation,  it  was  merely  the  sport  of  a  few 
athletic  men,  mostly  young;  headers  were 
frequent  from  the  rider's  mass  centre  being 
directly  over  that  of  the  large  wheel,  and 
liable  to  be  serious  from  his  high  seat,  though 
the  danger  was  exaggerated.  A  safer  build 
was  therefore  mooted.  The  first  idea  was  to 
bring  the  rider's  centre  belo-jv  that  of  the 
driving  wheel;  this  could  only  be  accom- 
plished by  operating  the  pedal  with  some  kind 
of  leverage,  and  a  rear-driving  safety  with 
lowered  front  wheel  was  patented  in  1879 
by  H.  T.  Lawson  of  England.  A  similar  type, 
called  the  «Bicyclette,»  followed  in  1880.  In 
the  same  year  the  "Star,"  a  reversed  Ordinary 
with  the  small  wheel  in  front,  was  introduced 
and  had  something  of  a  run;  the  "Humber 
Safety"  in  1885  copied  the  type  with  more 
extreme  difference  in  wheels,  and  the  current 
joke  upon  it  was  an  imaginary  Irish  descrip- 
tion that  "the  big  wheel  is  the  smallest  and 
the  hind  wheel  is  in  front."  But  with  the 
high  wheel  there  is  always  liability  to  a 
tumble,  and  a  "backfall"  is  worse  than  a 
^header";    and   the   "Dwarf    Bicycle,"    as   the 


safeties  were  called,  grew  in  favor.  The 
"Xtraordinary"  and  the  "Facile"  about  1882: 
had  soine  trial;  but  a  more  popular  form^ 
which  had  high  racing  speed  and  made  new 
records,  was  Starley's  "Kangaroo"  (1883), 
with  diamond  frame,  independent  crank- 
shafts, and  two  chains  gearing  them  to  the 
front  wheel.  The  gain  of  the  geared  wheel 
over  the  Ordinary  is  not  only  in  lessened  air 
resistance  from  the  lower  seat,  but  because 
length  of  crank  and  pedal  speed  can  be  gauged 
to  the  most  favorable  speed  for  the  rider, 
while  in  the  Ordinary  the  crank  is  too  short 
and  the  pedal  speed  too  rapid  for  the  best 
results.  But  the  alternate  tightening  and 
loosening  of  the  chain  twice  in  every  revolu- 
tion, and  other  defects,  caused  its  early  dis- 
placement by  Starley's  famous  and  still 
speedier  "Rover"  (1884),  for  a  long  time  the 
popular  term  for  "safeties"  of  any  pattern. 
Here  the  cranks  and  pedals  were  on  a  sepa- 
rate axle,  connected  with  the  driving-wheel 
by  a  single  chain  which  was  therefore  per- 
manently tight;  the  seat  was  far  back  over 
the  rear  wheel,  so  that  headers  over  the 
handle-bar  were  absolutely  impossible.  The 
front  wheel  was  about  one  fourth  larger  than 
the  rear;  later  they  were  made  of  practically 
the  same  size  as  now,  completing  the  evolu- 
tion back  to  the  velocipede,  and  making  its 
general  utility  possible.  With  the  low  seat 
any  one  can  mount,  and  the  exercise  is  not 
too  severe;  and  it  makes  possible  the  drop- 
frame  for  ladies.  The  Ordinary,  as  its  name 
implies,  maintained  the  field  for  a  while;  the 
sporting  idea  was  still  in  the  ascendant,  the 
"safety"  was  sneered  at  as  the  effeminate  and 
rather  cowardly  refuge  of  weaklings  and 
old  men,  and  it  was  not  believed  that  it 
could  compete  in  racing  speed.  But  about 
1886  the  public  began  to  realize  its  immense 
business  and  social  advantages,  and  with 
numbers  the  fear  of  ridicule  vanished;  by 
1888  five  sixths  of  the  sales  were  of  "safeties,* 
and  by  1890  the  Ordinary  had  become  a  curio 
or  the  equipment  of  trick  riders.  For  many 
years  nowr  both  names  have  gone  out  of  use, 
all  being  "safeties,"  and  the  compendious 
"bicycle"  or  simply  "wheel"  (a  reminiscence 
of  the  Ordinary,  where  the  driving-wheel 
was  everything)  covers  all.  This  advent  of 
the  "safety"  has  carried  the  bicycle  into  everj'- 
day  business  and  the  life  of  every  household; 
carriers,  policemen,  messengers,  etc.,  find  it 
of  great  service;  competition  has  lowered 
prices  to  the  level  of  the  very  servant-girls- 
and  street  boys;  and  there  is  hardly  a  spot  in 
the  modern  world  into  which  it  has  not  pene- 
trated. There  are  great  manufactories  engaged 
in  bicycle  manufacture,  and  also  in  making  the 
machines  used  in  their  construction.  In  the 
United  States  alone,  in  1900,  nearly  20,000 
people  were  earning  their  living  by  their 
direct  manufacture,  besides  more  than  6,000 
establishments  and  nearly  10,000  persons 
employed  in  repairing  and  many  more  in 
selling  them.  Even  in  war  they  have  shown 
their  utility.  They  have  been  adopted  for 
military  purposes  by  many  of  the  nations  of 
the  world  :bv  Austria-Hungary  in  1884;  by  Eng- 
land and  Switzerland  in  1887:  by  Belgium  in 
1889.  The  French  army  is  said  to  be  equipped 
with  several  thousand  bicycles,  and  a  per- 
fected system  of  drill  and  tactics  for  advance- 


BICYCLE 


guard  duty,  skirmishing,  and  rapid  movements 
has  been  introduced  into  the  various  armies. 
A  detachment  of  bicycle-mounted  soldiers 
has  been  found  useful  in  accompanying  the 
motor  Maxim  gun,  first  tried  in  1899.  The 
military  bicycle  is  especially  constructed  for 
hard  work  and  rough  usage.  Some  of  the 
French  machines  are  made  to  fold,  so  that 
when  the  riders  come  to  impassable  ground 
they  can  double  them  up  and  carry  them  on 
their  backs. 

Partly  effect  but  mainly  cause  of  this  gen- 
eral use  has  been  the  direction  of  inventive 
genius  to  the  advancement  of  speed  or  com- 
fort, often  both  at  once.  Every  feature, — ma- 
terial, frame,  spokes,  gearing,  tire,  bearings, 
rim,  handle-bar,  brake,  and  others, — has  been 
vigilantly  and  tirelessly  studied  to  win  public 
favor,  and  there  is  hardly  a  more  wonderful 
machine  existent.  The  enormous  brain-power 
devoted  to  its  perfection  is  shown  by  the  fact 
that  in  the  United  States  alone  7,573  patents 
had  been  granted  up  to  1900  for  cycles  and 
their  parts,  and  probably  double  that  in  the 
world  altogether.  Of  these,  in  our  own  coun- 
try only  16  had  been  issued  before  1865,  and 
the  great  majority  were  granted  after  1890. 
In  1892  the  applications  had  grown  so 
numerous  that  a  special  department  of  the 
Patent  Office  was  created  for  them. 

The  greatest  of  all  single  ones,  and  the 
one  which  has  revolutionized  the  business 
and  made  cycling  a  luxury  rather  than  an 
exertion,  is  the  pneumatic  tire,  which  not  only 
saves  jolts  by  rolling  into  instead  of  on  and 
oft'  the  minute  obstructions  of  the  roadway, 
but  for  the  same  reason  increases  speed,  each 
rise  of  the  wheel  taking  so  much  more  mus- 
cular exertion.  It  must  be  confessed,  how- 
ever, that  a  heavy  price  is  paid  in  the  endless 
nuisance  of  punctures,  ending  many  rides 
abruptly,  and  involving  a  walk  for  miles  — 
something  unknown  with  the  solid  tire.  It 
was  originally  invented,  not  for  bicycles,  but 
road  wagons,  by  an  English  civil  engineer 
named  R.  W.  Thompsoir,  in  1843,  and 
patented  in  the  United  States  in  1847;  but 
fell  flat  and  was  allowed  to  lapse.  The  first 
bicycle  tires  were  iron  or  steel;  then  a  strip 
of  rubber  was  fastened  over  the  tire;  later,  a 
round  or  half-round  piece  of  solid  rubber 
was  cemented  or  fastened  into  the  hollow  of 
the  rim.  But  in  1889  an  Irish  veterinary  sur- 
geon, Dr.  John  B.  Dunlop,  fitted  a  piece  of 
rubber  hose  to  his  son's  bicycle;  it  worked 
so  well  that  he  patented  it,  not  broadly,  but 
for  specific  details  now  disused.  Shortly 
after,  I.  W.  Boothroyd  of  London  described, 
but  did  not  patent,  a  tire  of  this  sort;  and 
about  the  same  time  P.  W.  Tillinghast,  of 
Providence,  R.  I.,  patented  one  in  this  coun- 
try. Received  with  utter  incredulity  at  first, 
and  a  not  unjustifiable  dread  of  punctures, 
in  two  years  40  per  cent  of  all  bicycles  were 
fitted  with  it,  and  in  two  more  no  other  was 
on  the  market.  (The  cushion  tire,  a  large  tire, 
solid  except  for  a  small  air  space  running 
through  it,  was  tried  for  a  time  in  i8gi  and  after 
but  was  not  a  success).  But  even  this  would 
have  been  inefifectual  save  for  the  enormous  re- 
duction in  weight  by  the  use  of  steel  weldless 
tubing  and  wire,  so  that  a  machine  of  the  in- 
credibly small  weight  of  nine  pounds  has  been 
used  for  racing,  with  a  wheel  on  whose  spokes 


four  men  can  stand  without  injuring  them:  these 
machines  are  too  frail  for  road  use,  but  even  the 
average  roadster  does  not  reach  28  pounds,  while 
in  1873  65  pounds,  and  even  in  1885,  48  was 
thought  fair,  and  27  a  racing  wonder. 

The  ball-bearing,  invented  by  an  Englishman 
named  Bonn,  is  another  epoch-making  invention, 
which  revolutionized  all  previous  theories.  The 
earliest  bicycle  bearing  was  a  plain  one  with  a 
sleeve,  known  as  the  parallel  bearing.  The  fric- 
tion was  so  heavy  that  the  roller  bearing  was 
substituted,  but  did  not  work  well ;  the  next  was 
the  adjustable  cone,  which  for  a  time  was  the 
universal  one.  But  in  all  solid-surface  bearings 
the  grinding  of  the  sand  which  worked  in  made 
them  irregular  and  rattling  after  a  while,  and 
the  layers  of  gudgeon  grease  required  a  steady 
tax  on  time  for  cleaning.  In  the  ball-bearing, 
the  conical  axle  bears  against  a  row  of  steel 
balls  in  a  circle,  tangent  to  the  bearing  surface 
and  to  two  other  surfaces  at  right  angles,  so 
that  the  friction  is  only  against  three  points,  and 
the  bearing  parts  roll  over  instead  of  sliding 
upon  each  other.  The  wear  of  the  balls  is  as- 
tonishingly slight,  and  from  the  constant  change 
of  surface  there  is  little  irregularity,  and  from 
the  small  contact  points  scarcely  any  making  of 
axle  grease. 

A  fundamental  invention  is  the  suspension 
wheel,  by  which,  in  the  words  of  an  English 
patentee  of  1826,  "the  weight  they  have  to  carry 
is  suspended  from  that  part  of  the  wheel  which 
happens  to  be  uppermost,  instead  of  being  sup- 
ported, as  is  usual,  by  the  spokes  that  happen 
to  be  under  the  axle-tree'^ — a  principle  in- 
vented by  Leonardo  da  Vinci  before  1490,  re- 
invented as  above  stated,  and  in  France  in  1864. 
Spring  seats  have  abolished  the  saddle-galling 
which  was  one  of  the  worst  tortures  of  the 
**bone-shaker,"  and  even  of  the  earlier  bicycles. 
The  wooden  rim  takes  two  and  a  half  pounds  ofif 
the  weight  of  a  machine,  but  is  not  used  in  Eng- 
land, the  roads  being  too  wet.  The  drop-frame 
for  ladies'  use  is  perhaps  the  most  important 
single  advance  made  on  the  velocipede,  so  far 
as  the  increase  of  social  pleasure  is  concerned  : 
in  the  same  line  are  the  construction  of  coupled 
machines  for  two,  taking  away  the  reproach  often 
made  that  bicycling  is  *an  essentially  selfish 
pleasure.*  The  coaster-brake  is  another  im- 
portant advance.  The  chain  gearing  which  made 
the  "safety'^  possible  has  been  noted ;  later,  much 
ingenuity  has  been  employed  to  get  rid  of  it,  but 
not  with  perfect  satisfaction,  the  cost  being  pro- 
hibitive to  the  mass,  and  the  complaint  of  extra 
exertion  being  heard.  The  two  chief  devices  for 
chainless  machines  are  the  pin-wheel  gearing, 
which  works  smoothly  but  lacks  durability ;  and 
the  bevel  gear,  which  is  very  difficuU  to  cut  so 
that  the  teeth  shall  fit  exactly,  but  is  said  to  in- 
crease in  both  accuracy  and  ease  of  driving  with 
use,  as  the  surfaces  of  the  teeth  grow  to  fit  each 
other.  In  the  chain  gear  the  case  is  the  reverse, 
as  the  links  and  rivets  wear  and  dust  grinds 
them  ofif. 

In  the  LTnited  States  the  bicycle  did  not  ap- 
pear after  the  collapse  of  1870  till  the  Centennial 
Exposition  of  1876,  when  some  English  machines 
were  imported  and  exhibited.  Col.  Albert  A. 
Pope  of  Boston  saw  them  and  thought  of  reviv- 
ing the  business  here ;  went  to  England  to  study 
the  industry,  brought  back  some  English  wheels, 
and  had  W.  S.  Atwell  of  Boston  build  him  one. 
weighing   70  pounds,   and   costing  $313.     Again 


BIDA  — BIDDLE 


visiting  England,  he  decided  that  conditions  here 
warranted  their  manufacture  for  the  market,  and 
in  1878  had  the  Weed  Sewing  Machine  Company, 
of  Hartford,  Conn.,  make  some  "Columbias^^ 
for  him  in  a  corner  of  their  shop,  the  first  bicy- 
cles made  in  America.  From  the  first,  these 
have  been  the  American  model  of  durability  and 
excellence  of  make,  as  well  as  of  advanced  in- 
vention in  construction  and  fittings,  and  unsur- 
passed in  the  world ;  and  they  still  maintain  that 
position.  The  business  has  grown  into  one  of 
the  great  manufactories  of  the  country,  and  was 
the  chief  of  the  companies  merged  in  the  Amer- 
ican Bicycle  Company  a  few  years  ago.  The 
*^safety'*  brought  the  same  expansion  here  as 
elsewhere ;  but  its  very  commonness  and  cheap- 
ness, with  other  causes,  has,  since  about  1895, 
produced  a  severe  decline.  The  chief  falling 
off  is  in  women's  use :  they  have  tired  of  it,  as 
they  do  of  every  muscular  sport  except  when 
novelty  gives  a  brief  stimulus  or  social  oppor- 
tunity ;  and  the  lamp  laws  in  many  localities 
nearly  killed  evening  parties,  the  chief  use  they 
could  make  of  it.  The  slackening  of  this  de- 
mand produced  a  severe  crisis  in  the  business. 
Also,  inventions  have  nearly  reached  their  limit, 
to  tempt  youth  with  money  to  buy  the  latest  new 
pattern  ;  and  the  business  has  settled  upon  a  firm 
though  more  limited  basis  of  practical  service 
and  every-day  pleasure.  The  statistics  of  the  in- 
dustry in  this  country,  as  returned  by  the  census 
of  1900,  were  as  follows,  showing  its  almost  in- 
credible development ;  but  in  fact  it  was  far 
greater  and  quicker,  as  the  volume  was  much 
greater  about  the  middle  than  at  the  end  of  the 
decade. 

1890  1900 

Number    of    establishments 27  312 

Capital      $2,058,072     $29,783,659 

Number     of     employees i,797  17,525 

Wages     paid $982,014       $8,189,817 

Cost    of    materials 718,848        16,792,051 

Value   of   products 2,568,326       31,915,908 

Of  the  312  establishments,  however,  35  were 
in  the  American  bicycle  trust.  Of  these  total 
values,  $23,689,437  was  for  bicycles;  1,136,122 
being  chain,  42,929  chainless,  3,640  tandem,  and 
159  motor.  The  difference  between  the  produc- 
tion of  chain  and  chainless  is  sufficiently  ac- 
counted for  by  the  immense  difference  in  price- 
average  at  the  factories,  $18.91  for  the  former, 
against  $45.59  for  the  latter. 

See  H.  A.  Garratt,  <The  Modern  Safety  Bicy- 
cle^ (New  York  1899)  ;  Andrew  Sharp,  "^Bicycles 
and  Tricycles'  (London  1896)  ;  and  the  valuable 
historical  summary  in  the  United  States  census 
reports  of  1900,  ^Manufactures'  (Part  IV.,  p. 
329). 

Bida,  Alexandre,  be'da,  al-ek-s6hdr,  French 
painter :  b.  1813 ;  d.  2  Jan.  1895.  He  traveled 
in  the  East  for  two  years,  and  most  of  his 
paintings  have  Oriental  or  Scriptural  subjects. 
His  best-known  work  is  his  illustrations  for  the 
*Four  Evangelists'  (1876),  and  the  ^Book  of 
Ruth'  ;  among  his  paintings  are  ^The  Slave 
Market,'  'The  Massacre  of  the  Mamelukes,' 
*Jews  Praying  at  the  Well  of  Solomon,'  and 
'The  Field  of  Boaz.> 

Bidar,  be'dar,  India,  an  ancient  town  in  the 
Nizarn's  dominions,  75  miles  northwest  of  Hai- 
darabad;  noted  for  the  metal  ware  to  which  it 
has  given  the  name  of  Bidri  or  Bidery.  It  oc- 
cupies a  commanding  site  above  the  surround- 
ing  country,   and   its   mosque   and   madrissa   or 


college  testify   to  its   former   spJendor   and   im- 
portance.    Pop.  14,000. 

Bidassoa,  be-dasso'a  (Basque,  *way  to 
the  west,"  or  "two  streams"),  a  river  in  Spain, 
about  45  miles  long,  the  last  12  of  which  form 
the  boundary  between  France  and  Spain.  It 
rises  in  the  mountains  of  Spanish  Navarre,  and, 
after  various  changes  of  direction,  falls  into  the 
Bay  of  Biscay  near  Fontarabia.  In  former  times 
Spain  claimed  not  only  the  entire  river,  but  so 
much  of  its  banks,  on  the  French  side,  as  its 
waters  covered  at  full  tide.  This  difference  was 
finally  settled  by  each  country  contenting  itself 
with  its  own  shore.  Near  Irun  there  is  a  small 
island  in  the  middle  of  the  stream,  called  the 
Island  of  Pheasants,  on  which,  being  neutral 
ground,  Louis  XI.  and  Henry  IV.  met  in  1463. 
Here  also  a  peace  was  concluded  between  France 
and  Spain  in  1654. 

Biddeford,  Maine,  city  in  York  County, 
on  the  right  bank  of  the  Saco  River,  6  miles 
from  the  sea,  and  on  the  Boston  &  Maine  R.R., 
15  miles  southwest  of  Portland.  The  river 
separates  it  from  Saco  (q.v.),  and,  like  that  city 
Biddeford  grew  up  as  a  manufacturing  centre, 
its  development  being  favored  by  the  abundant 
water-power  furnished  by  the  falls,  the  stream 
descending  here  about  40  feet.  The  city  also  has 
a   large   local   trade. 

Industries. —  The  leading  industries  include 
the  extensive  manufacture  of  cotton  goods,  lum- 
ber, boots  and  shoes,  machinery,  etc.  Here  are 
some  of  the  most  important  cotton  mills  in  New 
England,  the  products  of  which  are  found  in 
the  markets  of  many  states.  Near  the  city  are 
granite  quarries  which  annually  produce  large 
quantities  of  superior  stone,  used  in  many  parts 
of  the  world.  Several  thousand  people  are  em- 
ployed in  the  city's  industries,  and  the  flourish- 
ing of  these  has  led  to  its  gradual  growth.  It 
has   two  national  banks. 

Schools  and  Churches. —  The  public  school 
system  is  well  organized  and  conducted,  and  the 
various  religious  denominations  are  represented 
by  14  churches.  The  intellectual  life  of  the  peo- 
ple is  also  stimulated  through  useful  local  pub- 
lications and  an  excellent  public  library. 

History  and  Government. —  The  city  was 
named  from  Biddeford,  England,  the  home  of 
some  of  its  early  settlers.  In  1616  a  small  set- 
tlement was  made  at  Biddeford  Pool,  near  the 
mouth  of  the  Saco,  and  Biddeford  was  settled 
under  a  patent  in  1630,  embraced  Saco  until 
1718,  and  was  then  incorporated  under  its  pres- 
ent name.  This  was  long  the  chief  settlement  of 
the  Maine  province.  In  1855  Biddeford  re- 
ceived a  city  charter.  The  present  government 
includes  a  mayor  and  a  city  council,  elected  an- 
nually. The  population  in  1900  was  16,145.  In 
1903  it  was  estimated  at  16,655.  Consult:  Fol- 
som.  'History  of  Saco  and  Biddeford'  (1830)  ; 
Clayton,  'History  of  York  County'  (1880); 
Ridlon,  <Saco  Valley  Settlements  and  Families' 
(1895). 

Biddle,  Anthony  Joseph  Drexel,  American 

publisher,  journalist,  and  miscellaneous  writer: 
b.  Philadelphia,  i  Oct.  1874.  He  has  written  <A 
Dual  Role,  and  Other  Stories,'  'An  Allegory 
and  Three  Essays,'  'The  Madeira  Islands,' 
'The  Froggy  Fairy  Book,'  'All  Around  Ath- 
letics' (1894):  'The  Flowers  of  Life'  (1898); 
'Shantytown   Sketches'    (i^ 


BIDDLE 


Biddle,  Arthur,  American  lawyer:  b.  in 
Philadelphia,  Pa.,  23  Sept.  1852 ;  d.  8  March  1897. 
He  studied  law  and  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in 
1878.  Later  he  became  a  member  of  his  father's 
firm  and  devoted  much  time  to  the  study  of  cer- 
tain branches,  the  results  of  which  were  pub- 
lished in  his  works,  "^Treatise  on  the  Law  of 
Stock  Brokers^  (1881)  ;  *^  Treatise  on  the  Law  of 
Warranties  in  the  Sale  of  Chattels'  (1884)  ;  and 
*The  Law  of  Insurance'    (1893). 

Biddle,  Clement,  American  Revolutionary 
soldier:  b.  Philadelphia,  10  ^lay  1740;  d.  there, 
14  July  1814.  He  was  educated  in  the  tenets  of 
the  Society  of  Friends  (Quakers),  and  in  early 
life  engaged  in  commercial  pursuits  in  his  native 
city ;  but  notwithstanding  his  Quaker  training, 
he  joined  a  number  of  Quaker  friends,  in  1764, 
in  forming  a  military  corps  for  the  protection  of 
a  party  of  friendh^  Indians  who  had  sought 
refuge  in  Philadelphia  from  the  fury  of  a  band 
of  lawless  zealots  known  as  the  "Paxton  Boys,'' 
who  had  recently  massacred  some  unoffending 
Conestoga  Indians  at  the  interior  town  of  Lan- 
caster. These  banditti,  powerful  in  numbers, 
had  advanced  within  five  or  six  miles  of  the  city, 
threatening  destruction  to  all  who  should  oppose 
them,  when  the  vigor  of  the  militarj'  preparations 
checked  their  further  progress.  Scarcely  had 
this  local  disturbance  been  quieted  when  news 
was  received  of  the  resolution  of  the  British 
House  of  Commons  to  charge  certain  stamp 
duties  in  the  colonies.  The  feeling  engendered 
throughout  the  whole  country  by  this  step  and 
by  the  subsequent  passage  of  the  Stamp  Act,  in- 
duced, in  Philadelphia,  the  celebrated  "non- 
importation resolutions"  of  25  Oct.  1765,  signed 
by  the  principal  merchants  of  the  city,  including 
Col.  Biddle  and  his  brother  Owen.  When  all 
hope  of  a  reasonable  adjustment  of  the  differ- 
ences was  lost.  Col.  Biddle  was  greatly  instru- 
mental in  forming  the  "Quaker"  company  of 
volunteers  raised  in  Philadelphia  in  1775,  of 
which  he  was  elected  an  officer  before  the  corps 
joined  the  army.  Congress,  on  8  July  following, 
elected  Col.  Biddle  deputy  quartermaster-general 
of  the  militia  of  Pennsylvania,  New  Jersey, 
Maryland,  and  Delaware,  ordered  to  rendezvous 
at  Trenton.  Col.  Biddle  took  part  in  the  battle 
of  Trenton  at  the  close  of  the  same  year,  and, 
with  another  officer,  was  ordered  by  Washington 
to  receive  the  swords  of  the  Hessian  officers. 
He  was  also  engaged  in  the  victory  of  Princeton, 
the  surprise  and  retreat  at  Brandywine,  and 
the  unsuccessful  enterprise  of  Germantown,  and 
during  the  winter  of  I777~8,  shared  the  suf- 
ferings of  the  American  army  at  Valley  Forge. 
As  commissary-general  of  forage  under  Gen. 
Greene  he  rendered  important  service  to  the 
army  in  several  critical  junctures,  especially  dur- 
ing the  famine  at  Valley  Forge.  At  Monmouth 
he  shared  the  success  of  his  countrymen.  In 
September  1780.  owing  to  the  pressure  of  his 
private  affairs,  he  was  compelled  to  return  to 
private  life.  His  military  career,  however,  was 
lariefly  renewed  in  the  capacity  of  quartermaster- 
general  of  Pennsylvania  in  the  expedition  under 
Washington,  in  1794,  against  the  whiskey  insur- 
gents of  that  State.  Col.  Biddle  labored  ear- 
nestly also  in  the  early  political  movements  of 
the  patriot  party  of  his  State,  advocating  effec- 
tively the  revolutionary  State  constitution  of 
1776  (which  his  brother  Owen  had  had,  as  a 
member  of  the  convention,  a  share  in  framing). 


He  was  also  active  in  support  of  a  declaration 
or  bill  of  rights  as  a  constituent  part  of  the 
Federal  Constitution  to  prevent  abuse  or  mis- 
construction of  its  powers.  After  the  organiza- 
tion of  the  Federal  government  under  the  Con- 
stitution of  1787,  Col.  Biddle  was  appointed 
marshal  of  Pennsylvania,  as  an  evidence  of  the 
regard  in  which  he  was  held  by  Washington. 

Biddle,  James,  American  naval  officer:  b. 
28  Feb.  1783  ;  d.  i  Oct.  1848.  He  was  educated 
at  the  University  of  Pennsylvania,  and  entered 
the  navy  in  1800.  In  the.  war  against  Tripoli 
he  served  as  a  midshipman,  was  taken  prisoner 
and  kept  in  confinement  for  19  months.  In  the 
War  of  1812,  he  was  a  lieutenant  on  the  Wa.sp 
when  she  captured  the  Frolic  and  was  later  cap- 
tured by  the  Poictiers.  Though  a  prisoner  for  a 
short  time,  Biddle  was  exchanged,  and  in  1813 
took  command  of  the  Hornet  and  captured  the 
British  brig  Penguin  on  23  March  1815,  being 
wounded  in  action.  He  was  made  captain  in 
1815,  and  received  a  gold  medal  from  (Congress 
in  reward  for  his  services.  He  was  afterward 
commissioner  to  Turkey  and  China,  and  in  1845 
negotiated  the  first  treaty  between  the  United 
States  and  China.  He  also  served  in  the  Mexi- 
can war. 

Biddle,  John,  English  Socinian  writer:  b. 
Wotton-under-Edge,  Gloucestershire,  14  Jan. 
1615 ;  d.  London,  22  Sept.  1662.  He  entered 
Magdalen  College,  Oxford,  in  his  19th  year,  and 
graduated  A.M.  in  1641.  Being  led  to  doubt  the 
doctrine  of  the  Trinity,  he  drew  up  ^Twelve  Ar- 
guments' on  the  subject,  for  which  he  was 
committed  to  jail,  but  was  released  on  bail. 
About  six  months  afterward,  on  examination 
before  a  committee  of  Parliament,  he  acknow- 
ledged his  opinion  against  the  divinity  of  the 
Holy  Ghost,  and  his  'Twelve  Arguments'  were 
ordered  to  be  burned.  He  persisted  in  his  opin- 
ion, and  in  1648  published  two  tracts,  containing 
his  'Confession  of  Faith  Concerning  the  Holy 
Trinity,'  and  'Testimonies'  of  Irenseus,  Justin 
Martyr,  and  several  other  early  writers  on  the 
same  subject.  On  this  the  Assembly  of  Divines 
asked  Parliament  to  decree  the  punishment  of 
death  against  those  who  should  impugn  the  es- 
tablished opinions  respecting  the  Trinity,  and 
to  enact  severe  penalties  for  minor  deviations. 
Such  a  decree  was  passed,  but  differences  of 
opinion  in  the  Parliament  itself,  and  the  penal- 
ties to  which  this  sweeping  measure  rendered 
many  in  the  army  liable,  prevented  its  execution. 
Biddle  was  again  remanded  to  prison,  however, 
and  remained  for  some  years  in  rigorous  confine- 
ment. A  general  act  of  oblivion  in  1651  restored 
him  to  liberty,  when  he  immediately  dissemi- 
nated his  opinions  both  by  preaching  and  by  the 
publication  of  his  'Twofold  Scripture  Cate- 
chism.' For  this  he  was  confined  in  the  Gate 
House  for  six  months.  Cromwell  banished  him 
to  St.  Mary's  Castle,  Scilly  Is.,  assigning  him  an 
annual  subsistence  of  100  crowns.  Here  he  re- 
mained three  years,  until  liberated  in  1658.  Pie 
then  became  pastor  of  an  Independent  congrega- 
tion, and  continued  to  support  his  opinions  until 
fear  of  the  Presbyterian  Parliament  of  Richard 
Cromwell  induced  him  to  retire  into  the  coun- 
try. On  the  dissolution  of  that  parliament  he 
preached  as  before  until  the  Restoration,  after 
which  he  was  obliged  to  confine  himself  to  pri- 
vate preaching.  In  June  1662  he  was  appre- 
hended  at   one   of   the   private   assemblies,    and 


BIDDLE  — BIDPAI 


upon  process  of  law  fined  £ioo,  and  ordered  to 
lie  in  prison  until  it  was  paid.  He  fell  a  victim 
to  jail  fever  and  died  in  the  47th  year  of  his 
age,  a  martyr  to  religious  intolerance.  His  pri- 
vate character  was  moral,  benevolent,  and  exem- 
plary, and  Toulmin  styles  him  the  "father  of  the 
modern  Unitarians." 

Biddle,  Nicholas,  American  naval  officer: 
b.  Philadelphia,  10  Sept.  1750;  d.  7  March  1778. 
In  1765,  while  on  a  voyage  to  the  West  Indies, 
he,  with  two  others,  chosen  by  lot,  were  left 
for  two  months  on  an  uninhabited  island.  In 
1770  he  entered  the  British  navy.  When  Phipps, 
afterward  Lord  Mulgrave,  was  about  to  start 
on  his  exploring  expedition,  young  Biddle, 
though  a  midshipman,  deserted  his  own  vessel 
and  shipped  as  a  seaman  on  the  Carcass,  serving 
through  the  cruise  with  Lord  Nelson,  who  was 
a  mate  of  Phipp's  vessel.  On  the  commence- 
ment of  the  American  Revolution  he  came  to 
America  and  was  made  captain  of  the  Andrew 
Doria,  a  brig  of  14  guns  and  130  men,  taking 
part  in  Commodore  Hopkins'  attack  on  New 
Providence.  After  refitting  in  New  London  he 
was  ordered  on  a  cruise  to  the  banks  of  New- 
foundland, and  in  1776  took,  among  other  prizes, 
two  transport  ships  with  valuable  cargoes  and 
a  battalion  of  Highland  troops.  Pie  was  ap- 
pointed to  the  command  of  the  Randolph,  a  32- 
gun  frigate,  in  February  1777.  In  March  1778 
he  was  wounded  in  an  action  with  the  Yarmouth, 
an  English  64-gun  ship.  While  under  the  hands 
of  a  surgeon  the  magazine  blew  up,  and  the 
whole  crew  of  the  Randolph  were  lost,  except 
four  men,  who  were  tossed  about  on  a  piece  of 
wreck  for  four  days  before  being  rescued.  The 
other  vessels  of  the  squadron  escaped  in  conse- 
quence of  the  disabled  state  of  the  Yarmouth. 

Biddle,  Nicholas,  American  financier:  b. 
Philadelphia,  Pa.,  8  Jan.  1786;  d.  same  city,  27 
Feb.  1844.  He  became  secretary  to  John  Arm- 
strong, United  States  minister  to  France,  in 
1804,  and  subsequently  went  as  secretary  to 
James  Monroe,  then  United  States  minister  to 
England.  He  returned  home  in  1807,  was  elected 
to  the  Pennsylvania  legislature  in  1810,  and 
was  appointed  a  director  of  the  United  States 
Bank  in  1819.  He  became  president  of  the  bank 
in  1823  and  managed  it  ably  down  to  the  ex- 
piration of  its  charter.  The  financial  trouble 
precipitated  upon  the  country  by  Jackson's  with- 
drawal of  the  government  deposits  in  1833  gave 
an  unfortunate  ending  to  Biddle's  career  as  a 
banker,  but  while  both  his  ability  and  his  in- 
tegrity were  questioned  at  the  time,  he  has  been 
amply  vindicated  since.  Besides  miscellaneous 
writings,  he  published  a  ^Commercial  Digest,-* 
and  *  History  of  the  Expedition  Under  Lewis 
and  Clarke  to  the  Pacific  Ocean. ^  He  was  presi- 
dent of  the  board  of  trustees  for  the  funds  of 
Girard  College,  and  was  instrumental  in  estab- 
lishing that  institution. 

Biddle,  Richard,  American  lawyer:  b. 
Philadelphia,  Pa.,  25  March  1796;  d.  Pittsburg, 
7  July  1847.  He  studied  law  and  was  admitted 
to  the  bar  in  Pittsburg.  He  was  a  member  of 
Congress  (1837-41),  and  was  author  of  a 
*  Memoir  of  Sebastian  Cabot,  with  a  Review  of 
the  History  of  Maritime  Discovery'    (1831). 

Bid'dulph,  Sir  Michael  Anthony  Shrapnel, 

English  military  officer :  b.  Cleeve  Court,  Somer- 
setshire,   1823.     He  entered  the  Royal    artillerj' 


in  1844;  became  captain  in  1850;  major,  1854; 
colonel,  1874;  major-general,  1877;  lieutenant- 
general,  1881  ;  and  general  in  1886.  He  served 
in  the  Crimean  war  at  Alma,  Inkerman,  Balak- 
lava,  and  the  siege  of  Sebastopol.  In  India  he 
commanded  the  field  force  and  marched  to  Kan- 
dahar and  the  Helmund,  and  returned  by  the  Tal 
Chotiali  and  Boree  to  the  Indus,  in  1878-9.  He 
was  retired  in  1890,  and  in  1896  became  gentle- 
man usher  of  the  Black  Rod.  He  published 
•^Illustrated  Forrester's  Norway*   (1849). 

Bid'eford,  England,  a  market  town  and 
municipal  borough  of  Devonshire ;  44  miles 
north  of  Plymouth ;  situated  on  both  sides  of 
the  Torridge,  four  miles  from  the  sea,  the  prin- 
cipal portion  being  on  the  west  side,  on  a  bold 
acclivity.  A  handsome  stone  bridge  of  24  arches, 
and  677  feet  in  length,  connects  the  two  divisions 
of  the  town.  It  has  a  spacious  marketplace ; 
an  Elizabethan  town-hall,  public  assembly  rooms, 
and  music  hall.  The  Bridge  Hall  in  French  Re- 
naissance style,  contains  a  free  library,  a  reading- 
room,  and  a  science  and  art  school.  The  most 
important  church  is  that  of  St.  Mary,  in  Perpen- 
dicular style,  rebuilt,  except  the  tower,  in  1865. 
The  chief  industries  comprise  the  manufacture 
of  coarse  earthenware,  and  collars  and  cuffs, 
tanning,  malting,  iron-founding,  etc.  In  former 
times  Bideford  had  an  extensive  shipping  trade, 
and  is  said  to  have  imported  more  tobacco  in 
some  years  than  the  metropolis.  Pop.  (1901) 
8,754. 

Bidie,  George,  English  medical  officer:  b. 
Blackies,  Banffshire,  3  April  1830.  He  was  edu- 
cated at  the  University  of  Aberdeen,  and  ap- 
pointed deputy  surgeon-general,  in  charge  of  the 
British  Burma  division  in  1884 ;  sanitary  com- 
missioner of  the  Madras  presidency  in  1885-6. 
He  discovered,  in  1867,  a  preventive  for  an  insect 
pest  which  threatened  to  destroy  the  coffee 
growth  in  southern  India.  In  1898  he  became 
honorary  surgeon  to  the  queen.  His  publica- 
tions include  *^  Reports  on  the  Ravages  of  the 
Borer  Insect  on  Coffee  Estates'  (1869)  ;  ^Hand- 
book of  Practical  Pharmacy'  (1883)  ;  ^Cata- 
logue of  Gold  Coins  in  the  Government  Central 
Museum,  Madras'  (1874)  ;  ^Neilgherry  Para- 
sitical Plants  Destructive  to  Forest-trees' 
(1874)  ;  *^  Catalogue  of  Raw  Products  of  South 
India  sent  to  Paris  Exhibition'  (1878)  ;  ^Na- 
tive Dyes  of  Madras'  (1879)  ;  '^Pagoda  or  Var- 
aha  Coins  of  South  India'  (1883)  ;  ^Sand- 
binding  Plants  of  South  India'   (1883)  ;  etc. 

Bidpai,  bid'pi,  or  Pilpai.  When  we  con- 
sider the  wonderful  history  of  ^Bidpai's  Fables,' 
their  fame,  and  their  charm,  we  naturally  invest 
their  suppositious  author  with  a  personality  and 
a  name,  in  fact,  however,  ^^Bidpai"  is  probably 
a  changed  form  of  an  Indian  word  for  "court- 
scholar,"  misunderstood  as  a  proper  name,  and 
implying  therefore  neither  personality  nor  spe- 
cific date.  In  India,  from  early  times  the  parable 
or  "example"  has  been  the  recognized  method 
of  conveying  moral  instruction.  In  the  didactic 
literature,  some  general  truth  or  some  rule  of 
life  is  stated  in  the  form  of  a  maxim,  and  a 
beast  fable  or  other  story  then  added  as  a  con- 
crete instance  or  "example."  The  folk-lore  of 
which  these  tales  are  a  reflex  is  not  the  exclu- 
sive property  of  any  of  the  great  religions  of 
ancient  India,  but  is  common  to  Buddhism,  Jain- 
ism,  and  Brahmanism  alike.  The  sculptured 
representations    of    the    stories    upon    the    great 


BIDWELL 


Buddhist  monuments  of  250  B.C.  make  it  certain 
that  the  stories  themselves  were  familiar  to  the 
common  people  at  that  early  date ;  and  it  is 
hardly  less  certain  that  they  were  so  known  long 
before  that  time.  The  oldest  and  most  impor- 
tant collection  of  Indian  folk-lore  i»  the  Budd- 
hist one  called  ^Jataka' — that  is,  ^Birth- 
stories,*  or  stories  of  Gotama  Buddha  in  his 
previous  births :  it  consists  of  550  tales,  each 
containing  a  moral ;  each  is  placed  in  the  mouth 
of  the  Buddha,  and  in  each  the  Buddha  plays 
the  best  and  most  important  part.  It  is  this 
device  of  a  framework  or  setting  for  the  folk- 
tales that  constitutes  the  principal  essentially  lit- 
erary element  of  the  collection.  Next  in  im- 
portance to  the  Buddhist  *Jataka'  stands  the 
Brahmanical  ^Panchatantra.-*  Here  the  material 
is  not  essentially  different  in  kind  from  that  of 
the  ^Jataka'  ;  but  again  it  is  the  setting  of  the 
material  which  gives  the  work  its  distinctive 
literary  character.  It  is  a  kind  of  'Mirror  for 
Alagistrates.*  Both  the  "^Jataka,*  written  in 
Pali,  and  the  'Panchatantra,*  in  Sanskrit,  are 
still  extant,  and  contain  many  of  the  stories 
which  in  translations  of  translations  attained 
great  currency  and  celebrity  in  mediaeval  litera- 
ture. 

The  precise  Indian  original  of  these  transla- 
tions is  lost ;  but  we  know  that  it  was  translated 
into  the  literary  langttage  of  Persia  (the  Pehlevi, 
or  Pahleir),  by  command  of  the  Sassanian  king, 
Khosru  the  Just,  about  550  a.d.  From  the  Peh- 
levi came  two  notable  versions :  one  the  Old 
Syriac,  called  'Kalilag  and  Damnag,'  after  the 
two  jackals,  Karataka  and  Damanaka,  who  fig- 
ured prominently  in  the  framework  of  the  San- 
skrit original ;  and  the  other  is  the  Arabic 
version,  called  'Kalilah  and  Dimnah,*  or  'Fables 
of  Bidpai,*  made  about  750  a.d.  by  Abd-allah  ibn 
al-Moqaffa,  a  Persian  convert  to  Islam  under 
the  Caliph  al-Mansor.  According  to  the  Arabic 
introduction,  Dabshelim  was  the  first  king  of  the 
Indian  Restoration,  after  the  fall  of  the  governor 
appointed  by  Alexander  at  the  close  of  his  cam- 
paign in  the  Pan  jab,  326  B.C.  When  firmly  es- 
tablished, Dabshelim  gave  himself  over  to  every 
wickedness.  To  reclaim  the  king,  a  Brahman 
philosopher  takes  up  his  parable,  as  did  Nathan 
before  David,  and  at  last  wins  him  back  to  vir- 
tue. The  wise  man  is  called  in  Arabic  bid-bah, 
and  in  Syriac  bid-vag.  These  words  are  traced 
through  the  Pehlevi  to  the  Sanskrit  vidya-pati, 
"master  of  sciences.'*  Accordingly  bidbah,  which 
has  become  Bidpai  or  Pilpai  in  our  modern 
books,  is  not  really  a  proper  name,  but  an  ap- 
pellative, applied  to  a  ''chief  pandit**  or  "court- 
scholar'*  of  an  Indian  prince. 

From  the  Arabic  are  descended,  in  the  fourth 
generation  from  the  original,  a  dozen  or  more 
versions,  of  which  three  may  be  mentioned  as 
noteworthy  links  in  the  chain  of  tradition :  the 
Greek  one,  made  about  1080  by  Symeon  Seth,  a 
Jewish  physician ;  the  Persian,  made  some  50 
years  later,  by  Nasr  Allah  of  Ghazni ;  and  the 
Hebrew,  ascribed  to  Rabbi  Joel,  and  probably 
made  before  1250.  Of  the  descendants  in  the 
fifth  degree  from  the  original,  the  'Directorium 
Humanse  Vitse,*  made  about  1270  by  John  of 
Capua  from  the  Hebrew,  is  distinctly  the  most 
celebrated,  because  it  gave  rise  in  turn  to  Danish. 
Dutch.  Spanish,  Italian,  and  French,  and  above 
all  to  the  famous  German  and  English  versions 
mentioned  below.  But  besides  the  'Directo- 
rium,* we  must  notice  the  '  Specimen  of  the  Wis- 
Vol.   2 — 40. 


dom  of  the  Ancient  Hindus,*  a  version  into  Latin 
from  the  Greek  of  Symeon,  made  by  the  Jesuit 
father,  Petrus  Possinus  (1666);  and  the 
'Anvar-i  Suhaili*  or  'Lights  of  Canopus,*  a 
simplified  recast  of  Nasr  Allah's.  In  the  second 
edition  of  his  fables,  La  Fontaine  tells  us  that 
he  owes  the  largest  part  of  his  new  material  to 
"Pilpay,  the  Indian  sage.'*  Pierre  Poussin's 
'Specimen*  was  the  one  embodiment  of  his 
shadowy  Oriental  fabulist,  and  a  French  version 
of  the  'Lights  *was  the  other.  Two  offshoots  of 
the  'Directorium'  are  of  unrivaled  interest  to  the 
student  of  the  beast  fable.  The  one  is  the 
'Book  of  Examples  of  the  Ancient  Sages*  ;  and 
the  other  is  Doni's  'La  Moral  Filosophia* 
(1552).  The  'Book  of  Examples*  was  made  at 
the  instance  of  Duke  Eberhard  in  Bart,  whose 
name  and  motto,  ^^Eberliart  Graf  z{ii)  Wirtcn- 
bcrg  Attcmpto,^^  appear  as  an  acrostic  in  the 
initials  of  the  first  sections.  It  was  first  printed 
about  1481,  and  has  since  been  admirably  edited 
by  W.  L.  Holland  (Stuttgart  i860).  Holland 
tised,  besides  three  manuscripts,  two  printed  edi- 
tions without  place  and  year,  and  enumerates 
17  dated  editions  that  appeared  between  1483  and 
1592.  Four  dated  editions  appeared  at  Ulm  be- 
tween 1483  and  1485.  The  great  number  of  edi- 
tions of  the  work,  and  their  rapid  succession,  are 
the  best  proof  of  its  importance  as  a  means  of 
instruction  and  amusement  at  the  beginning  of 
the  age  of  printing.  The  examples  themselves 
had  doubtless  pointed  the  moral  of  many  an  an- 
cient homily  long  before  the  days  of  Gutenberg: 
but  the  language  of  the  old  German  version  of 
them  is  so  remarkable  for  its  simplicity,  dig- 
nity, strength,  and  beauty,  that  we  cannot  wonder 
at  its  immense  popularity ;  and  to  this  version, 
more  than  to  any  other,  is  Europe  indebted  for 
the  wide-spread  knowledge  of  this  cycle  of  lit- 
erature from  the  last  part  of  the  15th  to  the 
middle  of  the  17th  century.  The  other  offshoot 
of  the  'Directorium*  — namely,  'The  morall  phi- 
losophic of  Doni :  drawne  out  of  the  auncient 
writers.  A  worke  first  compiled  in  the  Indian 
tongue,  and  afterwardes  reduced  into  divers 
other  languages :  and  now  lastly  Englished  out 
of  Italian  by  Thomas  North'  (London  1570)  — 
is  most  interesting  to  us  as  English-speaking  peo- 
ple because  it  is  "the  first  literary  link  between 
India  and  England,  written  in  racy  Elizabethan," 
a  piece  of  "Tudor  prose  at  its  best,"  a  veritable 
English  classic.  Consult  Keith-Falconer,  'Ka- 
lilah  and  Dimnah*  (1885);  Lanman,  'Sanskrit 
Reader*  (1888);  Rhys  Davids,  'Buddhist  Birth 
Stories*  (1880);  North,  'Morall  Philosophic  of 
Doni*    (ed.  Jacob  1888). 

Charles  Rockwell  Lanman, 
Professor,  of  Sanskrit,  Harvard  University. 

Bidwell,  John,  American  politician:  b. 
Chautauqua  County,  N.  Y.,  5  Aug.  1819;  d.  5 
April  1900.  He  went  to  California  in  1841  ; 
served  in  the  Mexican  war,  reaching  the  rank 
of  major;  was  a  member  of  the  Constitutional 
Convention  of  1849;  and  of  the  National  Demo- 
cratic Convention  in  Charleston,  in  i860.  In  the 
Civil  War  he  was  brigadier-general  of  California 
militia.  In  1864  he  was  elected  to  Congress  as 
a  Republican  ;  in  1866  was  a  member  of  the  Phil- 
adelphia Convention  ;  in  1890  was  the  unsuccess- 
ful Prohibition  candidate  for  governor  of  Cali- 
fornia ;  and,  in  1892,  unsuccessful  candidate  of 
his  party  for  the  Presidency. 


BIEDA  —  BIELGOROD 


Bieda,  be'da,  the  modem  name  of  the  an- 
cient Blera,  a  town  in  Italy.  It  is  noted  for  its 
extensive  Etruscan  necropolis  of  rock-hewn 
tombs,  built  in  several  terraces.  These  tombs 
are  interesting  from  their  imitation  of  dwellings. 
They  have  molded  doorways,  and  within  the 
ridge  beams  and  rafters  of  the  roof  are  cut  in 
relief.  There  are  rock  benches  on  three  sides, 
made  to  receive  the  dead,  and  besides  the  doors, 
numerous   windows. 

Biedermann,  Friedrich  Karl,  German  au- 
thor: b.  Leipsic,  25  Sept.  1812;  d.  1901.  He  be- 
came professor  of  philosophy  in  Leipsic  Univer- 
sity in  1838  and  held  this  chair  till  1845,  when 
he  was  deposed  on  account  of  his  political  opin- 
ions. In  1849  he  played  an  important  role  in 
the  parliament  of  Frankfort,  and  was  rein- 
stated as  professor  at  Leipsic,  but  was  again 
removed  in  1853  for  political  reasons.  He  was 
editor  of  the  Deutsche  Allegemeine  Zeitung 
(1863-6)  ;  and  founded  and  edited  a  number  of 
other  liberal  papers.  His  works  include  ^Wis- 
senschaft  und  Universitat^  (1838)  ;  *^Die  Deut- 
sche Philosophic  von  Kant  bis  auf  unsere 
Tage'  (1842-3)  ;  ^Vorlesungen  uber  Socialismus 
und  sociale  Fragen'  (1847)  ;  'Erinnerungen  aus 
der  Paul's  Kirche'  (1849)  ;  'Fiinfzig  Jahre  in 
Dienste  des  nationalen  Gedankens*    (1892). 

Biefve,  Eduard  de,  byef  a-doo-ar  de,  Bel- 
gian painter:  b.  Brussels,  4  Dec.  1809;  d.  there, 
7  Feb.  1882.  He  painted  many  portraits,  and 
was  also  noted  for  his  scenes  from  history.  His 
best  known  work  probably  is  his  *  Compromise 
of  the  Netherland  Nobles  at  Brussels,  1566.-* 
Among  others  are  'Last  Moments  of  Anne 
Boleyn.^  'The  Introduction  of  Rubens  to  Charles 
I.  of  England,'  'Masaniello,'  'Raphael  and  La 
Fornarina.' 

Biel,  bel,  Gabriel,  German  philosopher:  b. 
Spire,  about  1442;  d.  Tiibingen,  1495.  He  was 
educated  at  Heidelberg  and  Erfurt ;  and  became 
a  cathedral  preacher  in  Mainz.  In  1477  he  was 
made  provost  of  Urach,  and  an  adviser  in  the 
founding  of  the  University  of  Tiibingen.  where 
he  became  professor  of  theology,  in  1484.  He 
has  been  erroneously  called  "the  last  of  the 
Schoolmen."  His  principal  work  was  '  Collec- 
tor ium  ex  Occamo.' 

Biela,  be'la,  Wilhelm  von,  Austrian  officer 
and  astronomer:  b.  Rossla,  19  March  1782;  d. 
Venice,  18  Feb.  1856.  On  27  Feb.  1826,  he  dis- 
covered at  Josephstadt,  Bohemia,  a  new  comet 
which,  a  few  days  later,  was  sighted  by  Gambart 
from  Marseilles.  Both  noticed  its  similarity  to 
comets  appearing  in  1772  and  1805,  and  fixed  its 
period  at  between  six  and  seven  years ;  but  it 
was  named  after  Biela,  who  had  first  discovered 
it.  Shortly  after  its  reappearance  at  the  end  of 
1845  it  was  seen  to  divide  into  two  portions,  each 
of  which  afterward  developed  a  tail  and  a  bril- 
liant nucleus,  features  wanting  in  the  original 
body.  In  August  1852  the  double  comet  reap- 
peared, but  this  time  the  two  portions  were 
much  farther  apart ;  and  not  long  after  the  comet 
vanished,  and  has  never  been  sighted  since. 

Biela's  Comet,  a  comet  of  short  period, 
named  after  its  discoverer,  Wilhelm  von  Biela 
(q.v.),  who  discovered  it  in  1826  and  furnished 
such  data  regarding  its  movements  as  to  con- 
vince the  other  astronomers  of  his  day  that  he 
had  a  proprietary  right  to  it.  The  same  comet 
had  been   noticed  8  March   1772,  and   again   in 


1805.  It  was  reckoned  that  the  comet  had  passed 
its  perihelion  six  times  between  the  two  periods 
without  being  detected  by  the  astronomers.  On 
another  visit  it  passed  out  of  sight  on  3  Jan. 
1833.  Its  next  appearance  was  in  July  1839.  It 
was  found  again  late  in  November  1845,  and  in 
the  following  month  an  observation  was  made 
of  one  of  the  most  remarkable  phenomena  in 
astronomical  records,  the  division  of  the  comet. 
It  put  forth  no  tail  while  this  alteration  was 
going  on.  Prof.  Challis,  using  the  Northumber- 
land telescope  at  Cambridge,  on  15  Jan.  1846, 
was  inclined  to  distrust  his  eyes  or  his  glass 
when  he  beheld  two  comets  where  but  one  had 
been  before.  He  would  call  it,  he  said,  a  binary 
comet  if  such  a  thing  had  ever  been  heard  of 
before.  His  observations  were  soon  verified, 
however.  Late  in  August  1852,  the  larger  came 
into  view  and  three  weeks  later  the  smaller  one, 
now  much  fainter  than  its  former  companion, 
was  seen  about  1,500,000  miles  in  the  lead. 
Schiaparelli's  investigations  showed  it  to  be 
probable  that  the  comet  is  the  illuminated  central 
mass  of  a  stream  of  meteorites.  The  Leonid 
stream  of  meteors  revolves  around  the  sun  in 
a  period  of  33^4  years,  and  the  earth  passes  their 
orbit  every  year,  but  meets  the  main  swarm  only 
when  passing  the  point  of  intersection  of  the  two 
paths.  On  12  Nov.  1799,  13  Nov.  1833,  and  14 
Nov.  1866,  the  earth  is  known  to  have  en- 
countered a  dense  portion  of  the  stream.  As- 
tronomers looked  for  the  reappearance  of  this 
stream  of  meteors  13-14  Nov.  1899,  but  were  dis- 
appointed, only  a  few  stray  meteors  putting  in 
an  appearance. 

Bielaga,  a  Russian  name  for  the  great 
European  sturgeon  {Accipenser  huso),  also 
called  "hausen*  and  "huso.''     See  Sturgeon. 

Bielaya,  byel-a-ya,  the  name  of  10  Rus- 
sian rivers,  the  most  important  of  which  is  about 
500  miles  in  length,  rises  in  the  Ural  ridge  and 
flows  northwest  to  the  Kama  River.  From  April 
to  November  it  is  navigable  from  its  mouth  to 
the  city  of  Ula,  about  200  miles,  regular  trade 
in  minerals,  lumber,  and  salt  being  carried  on. 
Of  the  other  rivers  of  this  name,  may  be  men- 
tioned the  one  in  the  government  of  Irkutsk,  Si- 
beria, which  is  a  branch  of  the  Angara ;  and 
another  in  the  government  of  Yekaterinoslav 
which  flows  through  a  coal  region. 

Bielefeld,  be'le-felt,  a  town  of  Prussia,  in 
the  province  of  Westphalia,  at  the  northern  foot 
of  the  Teutoburger-Wald,  38  miles  east  from 
Miinster.  The  river  Lutter  divides  it  into  an 
old  and  a  new  town.  The  best  German  linens 
are  manufactured  here,  flax-spinning  and  bleach- 
ing are  largely  carried  on,  and  there  are  various 
other  industries,  among  which  some  of  the  chief 
are  shirt-making,  silk-weaving,  the  manufacture 
of  cycles  and  sewing-machines,  and  of  cigars, 
glass,  cement,  leather,  etc.  It  contains  a  gymna- 
sium, two  hospitals,  and  other  public  buildingjs. 
The  castle  of  Sparenburg.  built  in  1017,  is  in 
the  immediate  vicinity,  and  since  its  recent  res- 
toration has  been  occupied  as  a  museum.  Pop. 
(1900)  63,044. 

Bielefeld,  a  small  town  in  Westphalia, 
Germany,  with  50,000  inhabitants.  Particularly 
noted  as  containing  the  Bethel  colony  for  epilep- 
tics. 

Bielgorod,  byel'go-rot.     See  Belgorod. 


BIELO-OZERO  —  BIERNATZKI 


Bielo-ozero,  byel-6-o'za-ro  (Svhite  lake*), 
a  lake  of  European  Russia,  in  the  government 
of  Novgorod,  whose  outflow  is  carried  by  the 
Cheksna  River  to  the  Volga.  It  is  of  a  some- 
what circular  form,  and  has  an  area  of  about 
430  square  miles.  A  system  of  canals  connects 
it  with  Lake  Onega,  the  Dwina,  and  other  rivers, 
and  fishing  is  carried  on  in  it. 

Bielowski,  bye-lov'ske,  Augustus,  Polish 
poet :  b.  Krechowice,  Galicia,  1806 ;  d.  1876. 
Among  his  poetical  compositions  is  to  be  men- 
tioned the  historical  rhapsody,  'Lay  of  Henry 
the  Pious. ^  He  wrote  a  'Critical  Introduction 
to  the  History  of  Poland'  (1850),  but  his  prin- 
cipal work  was  the  publication  of  'Monumenta 
Polonise  Vetustissima'  (1864-72)  ;  a  collection 
of  Polish  chronicles  up  to  the  time  of  Duigoz, 
since  his  death  continued  by  the  Cracow  Acad- 
emy of  Sciences. 

Bielshohle,  belz'hel-e,  a  stalactite  cavern 
in  the  Bielstien  IMountain  Harz,  on  the  right 
bank  of  the  Bode.  It  was  discovered  about  1672, 
but  first  made  accessible  in  1788.  Its  entrance  is 
108  feet  above  the  bed  of  the  stream ;  and  its 
total  length  is  230  yards. 

Bielski,  byel'ske,  Marcin,  Polish  historian: 
b.  Biala,  near  Sieradz,  1495  ;  d.  there,  1575.  His 
*Kronika  swiata'  and  'Kronika  Polska*  (i550 
and  1564),  contain  the  first  comprehensive  at- 
tempt at  a  history  of  Poland.  He  wrote  two 
satirical  poems,  'Sen  majowy'  (1590),  and 
*Seym  niewiesci'  (i595),  picturing,  in  the  one, 
the  degradation  of  Hungary,  and  calling  upon 
his  countrymen  to  exhibit  a  nobler  spirit  than 
the  Hungarians,  while  the  other  gives  a  keen 
analysis  of  the  condition  of  Poland  in  his  days. 
A  strategetical  work  of  his,  'Sprawa  rycerska* 
(1569),  gives  valuable  information  upon  the 
condition  of  the  -Polish  army,  and  the  character 
of  Polish  tactics.  After  serving  in  the  army, 
and  taking  part,  in  1531,  in  the  battle  of  Obertyn, 
he  devoted  himself  for  the  rest  of  his  days  to 
literary  pursuits.  In  1617  the  bishop  of  Cracow 
interdicted  his  'Chronicles,^  as  they  were  sus- 
pected to  contain  heterodox  sentiments. 

Bienne,  byen,  Lake  of,  called  in  German, 
Bielersee,  a  Swiss  lake  about  10  miles  long  by 
3  broad,  with  a  depth  of  30  fathoms.  Its  scenery 
is  more  beautiful  than  bold.  Being  eight  feet 
below  the  level  of  Lake  Neufchatel,  it  receives 
its  waters  by  the  Thiel  and  discharges  itself 
into  the  Aar.  On  the  islet  of  St.  Pierre,  in  this 
lake,  J.  J.  Rousseau  resided  for  two  months  in 
1765.  That  the  lake  was  a  centre  of  population 
from  remote  times,  the  remains  of  numerous 
pile-dwellings  prove.  At  the  northern  extremity 
of  the  lake  is  the  town  of  Bienne,  superbly  seated 
at  the  foot  of  the  Jura,  surrounded  by  ancient 
walls  with  watch  towers  at  intervals.  It  is  a 
busy  manufacturing  place,  its  industries  includ- 
ing watch-making,  cotton-spinning,  tanning,  dye- 
ing, book-binding,  etc.  A  railroad  connects  it 
with  Nidau  and  Boujean  and  cable  roads  as- 
cend the  mountains  near  by.  The  town  contains 
among  other  institutions,  the  Wert  Swiss  Tech- 
nical Institute,  with  its  school  for  railroad  em- 
ployees, and  a  watchmakers'  school.  Pop. 
(1900)  22,100. 

Biennials,  in  botany,  plants  v^hich  do  not 
produce  flowers  and  fruit  during  the  first  year  of 
growth,  but  store  up  a  stock  of  nourishment  in 
a  thickened  stem  or  root,  whence  they  draw  the 
material  for  the  growth  of  the  second  year,  dur- 


ing which  flowers  and  fruits  are  developed  and 
the  plant  dies.  Several  of  our  commonest  food- 
plants,  such  as  turnip,  cabbage,  and  carrot,  are 
biennials.  Under  special  circumstances,  favor- 
able to  rapid  growth,  a  plant,  ordinarily  biennial, 
may  become  an  annual. 

Bienteveo,  byan-ta-va'o,  a  flycatcher  of 
southern  South  America,  related  to  our  kingbird 
and  familiar  about  the  villages  and  gardens  of 
the  Argentine  Republic.  Its  name  comes  from  its 
loud  and  cheerful  cry,  which  resembles  the 
Spanish  phrase  Bien  te  Veo,  "I  see  you  well.'* 
Unlike  its  rela^^^ives  elsewhere,  it  erects  a  domed 
nest  of  so  elaborate  a  construction  that  it  some- 
times takes  weeks  of  work  to  build  it. 

Bienville,  Jean  Baptiste  le  Moyne,  byan- 
vel,  zhon  baptest  le  mwan  (Sieur  de), 
French  colonist:  b.  Montreal,  23  Feb.  1680;  d. 
1765.  In  1698,  with  his  brother,  Iberville,  he 
left  France  to  found  a  colony  at  the  mouth  of 
the  Mississippi.  In  1700  he  constructed  a  fort 
54  miles  above  the  mouth  of  the  river,  and  in 
1701,  at  the  death  of  Sauvolle,  a  second  brother, 
he  succeeded  to  the  direction  of  the  colony,  the 
seat  of  which  became  Mobile.  In  1718  he_  re- 
ceived a  commission  as  governor  of  Mississippi, 
and  about  this  time  founded  the  city  of  New 
Orleans.  In  1724  he  was  summoned  to  France, 
and,  on  9  Aug.  1726,  was  removed  from  office. 
In  1733  he  was  sent  back  to  the  colony  as  gov- 
ernor, with  the  rank  of  lieutenant-general.  In 
1743  he  was  again  removed  and  returned  to 
France,  where  he  died. 

Bierbaum,  ber'bowm.  Otto  Julius,  German 
poet :  b.  Griineberg,  Silesia,  28  June  1865.  He  is 
a  rising  man  of  letters;  his  'Songs  of  Experi- 
ence' (or  'Poems  That  Were  Lived')  (1892),  is 
as  yet  his  most  noteworthy  volume.  Other  works 
of  his  are  'Studentenbeichten'  (1897)  ;  'Der 
sunte  Vogel  von  1897  und  1899'  5  ^Ein  Kalender- 
buch'   (1896  and  1898). 

Bierce,  Ambrose,  American  author  and 
journalist:  b.  Meigs  County,  Ohio,  24  June  1842. 
He  served  in  the  Civil  War  as  a  lieutenant  of 
volunteers,  and  was  brevetted  major  for  gal- 
lantry. In  1866  he  went  to  California  and  for 
30  years  was  closely  identified  with  Californian 
journalism.  He  edited  the  'Argonaut,'  and  the 
'Wasp,'  and  was  a  constant  contributor  to  the 
'Overland  Monthly,'  and  San  Francisco  Exam- 
iner. His  publications  are  'Cobwebs  From  an 
Empty  Skull'  (1874)  ;  'Black  Beetles  in  Am- 
ber' (1892);  'Can  Such  Things  Be?'  (1893); 
'In  the  Midst  of  Life'  (1898).  His  most  popu- 
lar work  was  originally  published  at  San  Fran- 
cisco (1891),  under  the  title  of  'Tales  of  Sol- 
diers and  Civilians';  'Fantastic  Fables'  (1899); 
in  collaboration  with  G.  A.  Danziger,  'The 
Monk  and  the  Hangman's  Daughter'    (1892). 

Bierman,  Karl  Eduard,  ber'man,  kiirl  ed'- 
oo-ard,  German  naintcr;  b.  Berlin,  26  Julyj 
1803;  d.  16  June  1892.  He  first  took  up  paint- 
ing on  china  and  decorative  painting,  then  turned 
his  attention  to  landscape  painting,  studying  in 
Switzerland  and  Italy.  He  is  one  of  the  found- 
ers of  the  Berlin  School  of  Landscape  Painting. 
Perhaps  his  best-known  work  is  'Evening  in  the 
High  Alps'  ;  others  are  'View  of  Florence,* 
'Isle  of  Philse,'   and  the  'Temple  of  Edfu.' 

Biernatzki,  Johann  Christoph,  be-er-nats'- 
ke,  yo'hiin  kris'tof,  German  pietist,  poet,  and 
story   writer :    b.    Elmshorn,    Holstein,    17   Oct. 


BIERSTADT  —  BIG-HORN 


1795;  d.  Friedrichstadt,  11  May  1840.  A  coun- 
try pastor,  he  devoted  himself  to  the  versifica- 
tion of  his  own  precepts  and  beliefs,  the  volume 
*Faith^  being  the  result.  In  *The  Brown  Boy,^ 
and  ^Hallig,  or  the  Adventures  of  Castaways  on 
an  Island  in  the  North  Sea,^  he  displays  a  not 
vnpleasing  capacity  for  prose  narrative. 

Bierstadt,  ber'stat,  Albert,  American  paint- 
er :  b.  near  Diisseldorf,  Germany,  7  Jan.  1830 ;  d. 
New  York,  18  Feb.  1902.  He  removed  with  his 
parents  to  New  Bedford,  Mass.,  in  183 1 ;  began 
to  paint  in  oils  in  1851 ;  and  in  1853  returned  to 
Diisseldorf  to  study  his  art,  spending  a  winter 
in  Rome,  traveling  in  Italy  and  Switzerland,  and 
returning  to  the  United  States  in  1857.  In  1859 
he  accompanied  Gen.  Lander's  expedition  to  the 
Rocky  Mountains,  and  spent  several  months  in 
studies  of  mountain  scenery.  He  was  elected  a 
member  of  the  National  Academy  in  i860.  In 
1861  he  finished  his  painting,  "^Laramie  Feak,^ 
and  in  1863  ^View  of  the  Rocky  Mountains  — 
Lander's  Peak.'  These  at  once  gave  him  a  na- 
tional reputation.  Among  his  many  other  paint- 
ings of  American  subjects  are  < Valley  of  the 
Yosemite'  (1866)  ;  <E1  Capitan'  ;  ^Looking 
Down  the  Yosemite'  (1865)  ;  *  Great  Trees  of 
California'  (1874)  ;  'Geysers'  (1883)  ;  ^On  the 
Saco,  New  Hampshire'  (1886)  ;  'California 
Oaks'  (1886).  <A  Storm  on  the  Matterhorn' 
is  the  best  known  of  his  Alpine  subjects.  Bier- 
stadt received  many  foreign  medals  and  deco- 
rations, and  was  a  member  of  the  National 
Academy  of  Design  from  i860. 

Biesbosch,  bes'bos,  a  marshy  sheet  of 
water  interspersed  with  islands,  between  the 
Dutch  provinces  of  North  Brabant  and  South 
Holland,  formed  in  November  1421,  by  an  inun- 
dation which  destroyed  72  villages  and  100,000 
people,  and  spread  over  an  area  of  80  square 
miles. 

Blester,  Joao  Ernesto,  be'ster,  zho'own' 
er-nes't5,  Portuguese  dramatist:  b.  Lisbon, 
1829 ;  d.  1880.  He  wrote  some  90  plays,  the  most 
noteworthy  among  them  being  'The  Nineteenth 
Century  Gentleman,'  'Luck  and  Labor,'  and 
*The  Scandal  Mongers.'  He  founded  the  jour- 
nal 'Revista  Contemporanea  de  Portugal  e 
Brazil'  in  1859,  and  was  its  first  editor.  He  was 
for  many  years  the  most  popular  dramatist  in 
Portugal. 

Biet,  Antoine,  bya,  an-twan,  French  mis- 
sionary, who  in  1652  accompanied  600  colonists 
to  Cayenne,  where  he  remained  18  months.  He 
was  the  author  of  'Voyage  de  la  France 
Equinoxiale'  (1664),  with  a  Galibi  dictionary  at 
the  end. 

Bievre,  Marechal,  be-avr,  ma-ra-chal  (Mar- 
quis de),  French  writer:  b.  1747;  d.  Spa,  Ger- 
many, 1789.  He  served  in  the  corps  of  the 
French  musketeers,  was  a  life-guard  of  the  king 
of  France,  and  acquired  much  reputation  by  his 
puns  and  repartees.  After  publishing  several  en- 
tertaining works,  he  composed  (1783)  'Le  Se- 
ducteur,'  a  comedy  in  verse,  for  the  theatre, 
which  has  maintained  its  place  on  the  stage,  al- 
though it  is  bad  both  in  plan  and  execution. 
Mes  amis,  he  said,  dying,  je  m'en  vais  de  ce  pas 
{de  Spa). 

Bifrost,  be'frest  ("the  trembling  way"),  in 
northern  mythology  the  name  of  the  bridge  rep- 
resented as  stretching  between  Heaven  and  Earth 
(Asgard  and  Midgard)  ;  really  the  rainbow.     It 


was  used  only  by  the  gods  and  was  guarded  by 
Heimdal. 

Big  Bend  Country,  a  volcanic  plain  near 
the  centre  of  the  State  of  Washington.  It  covers 
4,800  square  miles,  a  third  of  it  being  gently 
lolling,  brown  loam  prairie,  suitable  for  farm- 
ing, and  the  rest  low  hills  and  plateaus  of  bunch 
grass  and  sage  brush,  where  live  stock  is  ranged. 
The  Columbia  River  curves  round  this  region, 
bounding  it  on  the  north  and  west  and  partly  on 
the  southwest  for  20  miles,  and  flowing  in  a 
ravine  1,500  feet  below  the  general  level.  It  is 
traversed  by  several  remarkable  chasms,  many 
miles  long,  and  from  a  furlong  to  half  a  league 
wide,  with  sheer  walls  of  black  basalt  500  feet 
high.  There  are  a  number  of  wheat  farms  in 
the  region. 

Big  Bethel,  Va.,  a  village  on  the  penin- 
sula between  the  York  and  James  rivers ;  where 
an  unsuccessful  attempt,  directed  by  Gen.  But- 
ler, was  made  by  Gen.  Pierce,  with  four  regi- 
ments, to  dislodge  outposts  of  Magruder's  Con- 
federate encampment  at  Yorktown,  10  June 
1861.  The  Federal  regiments,  under  Townsend 
and  Bendix,  en  route  for  the  Big  Bethel  camp, 
mistook  each  other  for  the  enemy,  and  fired. 
This  created  great  confusion.  Pierce  arrived 
and  pushed  on  to  the  Confederate  earthwork 
on  Back  River,  destroying  the  camp  at  Little 
Bethel.  The  Federal  troops  crossed  Back  River 
and  charged  the  earthwork,  but  were  repulsed 
with  considerable  loss,  Maj.  Theodore  Win- 
throp,  the  well-known  novelist,  losing  his  life 
on  this  occasion. 

Big  Black  River,  an  affluent  of  the  Missis- 
sippi, which  it  enters  at  Grand  Gulf,  Miss.,  after 
flowing  about  200  miles,  50  of  which  are  naviga- 
ble. On  16  May  1863  a  battle  took  place  on 
this  stream  during  Grant's  pursuit  of  Pember- 
ton  toward  Vicksburg.  The  Confederates  were 
defeated,  and  lost  heavily  both  in  killed  and  cap- 
tured. McClernand,  swiftly  following  the  re- 
treating Confederates,  came  upon  them  drawn 
up  on  both  sides  of  the  Big  Black  River.  Mc- 
Clernand led  10,000  Federals,  Pemberton,  8,000 
Confederates,  his  main  command  having  gone 
on  toward  Vicksburg.  McClernand  began  the 
fight.  He  was  for  a  time  unsuccessful,  but  Law- 
ler,  discovering  a  weak  spot  in  the  Confederate 
line,  immediately  took  advantage  of  it  and 
charged    impetuously. 

Big  Bone  Lick,  a  salt  spring,  in  Boone 
County,  Ky.,  11  miles  south  of  Burlington, 
where  fossil  remains  of  mastodons  and  other 
extinct  fauna  have  been  found.  These  animals 
are  supposed  to  have  resorted  here  to  lick  the 
salty  earth   in  the  vicinity  of  the   spring. 

Big-horn,  the  wild  sheep  of  the  mountains 
of  western  North  America,  so  called  on  account 
of  the  massive,  spiral  horns  of  the  ram,  which 
resemble  those  of  the  Asiatic  argali.  They 
originally  ranged  throughout  the  whole  moun- 
tain system  from  New  Mexico  to  northern 
Alaska,  and  as  far  down  the  valley  of  the  Mis- 
souri River  as  the  rough  country  extended. 
They  are  still  to  be  found  in  the  loftier  and 
wilder  parts  of  this  territory,  but  remain  nu- 
merous only  about  the  head-waters  of  the  Yel- 
lowstone, and  thence  northward.  Their  home 
is  upon  the  loftiest  parts  of  the  ranges,  where 
they  find  plentiful  pasturage  between  the  high- 
est growth  of  timber,  and  the  snow  or   ice  of 


BIG-HORN  MOUNTAINS  — BIGAMY 


the  summits ;  and  upon  the  elevated  and  rocky 
plateaus  of  the  Bad  Lands  of  Dakota.  In  sum- 
mer they  wander  about  a  good  deal  in  small 
flocks,  climbing  to  the  highest  points,  where  a 
wide  out-look  enables  them  to  see  quickly  the 
approach  of  an  enemy,  and  where  they  are  least 
troubled  by  flies.  In  winter  they  are  forced 
to  descend  somewhat,  but  rarely  enter  the  for- 
est, finding  shelter  against  the  storm  in  the 
mountain  gorges,  and  sufficient  dried  grass  upon 
the  wind-swept  ridges.  Its  principal  enemy, 
in  the  old  days,  were  the  pumas  and  Indian 
hunters,  whose  constant  pursuit  taught  it  an 
alertness  and  wariness  which  now  makes  it  one 
of  the  most  difficult  animals  for  the  sportsman 
to  approach.  The  speed,  agility,  and  endur- 
ance of  this  mountaineer,  are  equal  to  that 
shown  by  any  wild  sheep  or  goat  of  the  Alps  or 
the  Himalayas,  and  equally  tax  the  skill  and 
patience  of  the  hunter.  Its  horns  therefore 
are  highly  valued  as  trophies,  and  its  flesh  is 
universally  regarded  as  the  best  of  all  western 
game. 

The  common  Rocky  Mountain  big-horn 
(Ovis  cerviiia)  is  a  strongly  built  sheep,  stand- 
ing about  40  inches  high.  In  color,  in  its  sum- 
mer coat,  it  is  tawny  yellow,  and  in  winter,  gray- 
ish brown,  with  the  face  ashy,  and  a  dark  line 
along  the  spine.  The  under  parts,  and  a  con- 
spicuous roundish  patch  on  the  buttocks,  are 
whitish.  The  horns  of  the  ram  are  of  large 
circumference  at  the  base,  and  thick  and  rugged, 
with  a  distinct  keel  at  the  outer  edge;  and  sweep 
around  backward  into  a  spiral,  which  is  com- 
plete in  the  largest  specimens,  and  will  measure 
40  to  42  inches  along  the  outer  curve.  A 
smaller  and  paler  variety  of  Utah  and  Idaho,  is 
called  Nelson's  big-horn.  In  the  mountains  of 
British  Columbia  is  found  Stone's  big-horn, 
which  is  larger  in  size,  and  much  darker  in 
color  (almost  black,  indeed),  with  compara- 
tively slender  horns.  A  third  species.  Ball's 
sheep,  belonging  to  the  mountains  of  central 
Alaska,  is  perfectly  white,  with  horns  of  mod- 
erate size,  and  of  a  clear  amber  color.  A  fourth 
species,  also  Alaskan,  maj^  prove  to  be  a  variety 
of  Ball's,  which  it  resembles,  except  that  a  man- 
tle of  brownish-gray  covers  the  body,  as  if  a 
blanket  were  laid  across  its  back.  This  last 
species  has  been  named  Fannin's  sheep.  All 
these  sheep  breed  once  a  year,  at  the  beginning 
of  warm  weather,  usually  producing  two  kids  at 
a  birth.  They  are  hardly  separable  from  the 
argalis  of  northeastern  Asia,  and  doubtless  all 
are  descendants  from  the  same  primitive  stock. 
See  Mayer,  'Sport  with  Rod  and  Gun'  (1892)  ; 
Roosevelt.  'Hunting  Trips  of  a  Ranchman' 
(1883)  ;  Baillie-Grohman,  'Fifteen  Years'  Sport 
and  Life  in  the  Hunting  Grounds  of  Western 
America'    (1900).    See  also  Sheep. 

Big-Horn  Mountains,  a  range  of  moun- 
tains beginning  near  the  centre  of  Wyoming 
and  running  north  into  Montana,  containing 
heights  of  from  8,000  to  12,000  feet,  and  cover- 
ing 7,500  square  miles. 

Big  Horn  River,  a  river  of  Montana  and 
Wyoming.  It  rises  in  the  Rocky  Mountains 
near  Fremont's  Peak,  and  flows  northeast  into 
the  Yellowstone.  Along  its  course  is  some  of 
the  grandest  mountain  scenery  in  the  world.  It 
is  navigable  in  its  lower  course,  and  has  a  total 
length  of  400  miles.  At  its  junction  with  the 
Little  Big  Horn  is  Fort  Custer. 


Big  Jaw,  or  Lumpy  Jaw.  See  Actinomy- 
cosis. 

Big  Rapids,  Mich.,  a  city  and  county-seat 
of  Mecosta  County,  on  the  Muskegon  River, 
and  several  important  railroads ;  56  miles  north 
of  Grand  Rapids.  The  river  is  here  dammed  in 
two  places,  providing  a  very  valuable  water- 
power.  The  city  has  the  Holly  system  of 
waterworks,  and  an  extensive  trade  in  lumber 
and  manufactures  of  furniture,  sash,  doors,  and 
blinds,  coiled  elm  hoops,  shingles,  etc.  Among 
the  noteworthy  institutions  is  the  Ferris  Indus- 
trial School.  There  are  daily  and  weekly  news- 
papers, a  private  bank,  several  hotels,  and  a 
public    library.     Pop.    (1900)    4,686. 

Big  Sandy  River,  a  stream  forming  the 
boundary  between  ^\'est  Virginia  and  Kentucky, 
and  flowing  into  ihe  Ohio ;  having  two  con- 
fluent forks,  Tug  Fork,  that  rises  in  West  Vir- 
ginia, and  West  Fork,  that  rises  in  Kentucky. 
It  is  navigable  for  100  miles  of  its  lower  course 
and  flows  through  a  timber  and  coal  region. 

Big  Sioux,  SCO,  a  stream  of  South  Dakota, 
uniting  with  the  Missouri  near  Sioux  City, 
after  a  course  of  285  miles. 

Big  Spring,  Texas,  town  and  county-seat 
of  Howard  County,  270  miles  west  of  Fort 
Worth,  on  the  Texas  &  P.  R.R.  It  is  of  im- 
portance as  a  railroad  town,  the  division  shops 
and  offices  of  the  Texas  &  Pacific  railroad 
being  situated  here.  It  carries  on  an  active 
trade  in  live  stock,  hides,  fruit,  and  agricultural 
products.  Extensive  deposits  of  salt  are  found 
underlying  the  region,  and  in  the  neighborhood 
is  the  great  spring  for  which  the  town  is  named. 
Pop.  (1900)  2,000. 

Big  Stone  Lake,  a  body  of  water  in  Big 
Stone  County,  Minn.,  drained  by  the  Minne- 
sota River.     It  is  about  25  miles  long. 

Big  Trees.     See  Sequoia. 

Big  Woods,  a  wooded  tract  in  the  south- 
east part  of  Minnesota,  extending  south  from 
St.  Cloud  to  Le  Sueur,  where  it  crosses  the 
Minnesota,  and  sends  branches  toward  Fari- 
bault and  ]\Iankato.  It  is  lOO  miles  long 
and  from  10  to  40  miles  wide,  covering  5,000 
square  miles,  four  fifths  of  which  lie  north 
of  the  Minnesota.  This  great  belt  of  hard- 
wood timber  is  one  of  the  most  valuable 
forests  in  the  W^est. 

Bigamy,  in  the  canon  law,  means  being 
twice  married ;  in  the  common  acceptation  of 
the  word,  as  a  term  of  ordinary  law,  it  means 
the  being  married  to  two  wives  or  husbands 
at  the  same  time.  The  laws  relating  to 
plurality  of  wives  or  husbands  might  be  sup- 
posed to  come  strictly  under  the  head  of 
polygamy ;  but,  as  it  constitutes  an  offense 
against  these  laws  to  have  more  than  one 
husband  or  wife,  they  are  usually  brought 
under  that  of  bigamy.  The  laws  of  every 
civilized  society  make  some  provision  re- 
specting this  subject.  By  the  statute  of  4 
Edward  I.  stat.  3,  cap.  5,  the  marrying  of 
a  second  husband  or  wife,  the  first  being 
alive,  was  made  felony;  and  by  that  of  2 
James  I.  cap.  11.  this  crime  was  made  punish- 
able by  death.  But  the  same  statute  provided 
that,  where  either  party  was  absent  beyond 
seas  for  seven  years,  whether  known  or  not 
known  to  the  other  party  to  be  alive,  or  was 
absent,  though  not  beyond  seas,  for  the  same 


BIGELOW 


period,  and  not  known  by  the  other  party 
to  be  alive,  the  other  party  was  at  hberty  to 
marry  again.  Now,  however,  one  of  the 
parties  is  not  held  guiltless  unless  the  other 
was  absent  continuously  for  seven  years, 
and  was  not  known  to  be  alive.  The  penalty 
has  been  lessened  by  subsequent  enactments, 
and  the  guilty  party  is  now  liable  to  penal 
servitude  for  seven  years,  or  not  less  than 
five;  or  to  be  imprisoned  with  or  without 
hard  labor  for  not  more  than  two.  Every 
person  aiding  or  abetting  the  bigamist  is 
held  to  be  equally  guilt}',  and  may  receive  the 
same  punishment.  By  a  Scottish  statute  of 
1551  bigamy  was  made  punishable  as  perjury 
—  that  is,  with  confiscation  of  goods,  imprison- 
ment and  infamy;  now,  imprisonment  is  the 
usual  sentence,  but  in  some  cases  penal 
servitude  is  inflicted.  If  the  accused  had 
reasonable  ground  for  believing  the  first 
spouse  dead,  he  is  not  guilty  of  the  crime; 
and  if  the  first  marriage  was  void  for  any 
reason,  or  dissolved  by  divorce,  the  second 
is  not  bigamous.  In  Scotch  law,  too,  it  is  not 
necessary  that  either  marriage  should  be 
regular  for  bigamy  to  be  committed.  The 
statute  of  James  I.  has  been  adopted  in  most 
of  the  United  States  as  to  the  description 
of  the  crime;  but  the  State  laws  generally 
diflfer  from  it  as  to  the  penalty,  having  as- 
signed, heretofore,  instead  of  death,  as  pro- 
vided by  the  English  statute,  the  punishment 
of  imprisonment  and  hard  labor  for  a  number 
of  years,  according  to  the  discretion  of  the 
court;  others  leaving  it  to  the  verdict  of  the 
jury  to  fix  the  period  of  imprisonment. 

The  New  York  statutes  against  bigamy  are 
substantially  similar  to  those  in  nearly  all  the 
States  of  the  Union.  These  statutes  provide 
that  any  person  who  having  a  husband  or  wife 
living,  marries  another  person,  is  guilty  of 
bigamy,  and  is  punishable  in  State's  prison  or 
a  penitentiary  for  not  more  than  five  years.  The 
statute  does  not  extend  to  a  person  whose 
former  husband  and  wife  has  been  absent  for 
five  years  successively,  without  being  known 
to  him  or  her  within  that  time  to  be  living,  and 
believed  by  him  or  her  to  be  dead ;  or  to  a 
person  whose  former  marriage  has  been  pro- 
uounced  void,  or  annulled  or  dissolved,  by  the 
judgment  of  a  court  of  competent  jurisdiction, 
for  a  cause  other  than  his  or  her  adultery  or  to 
a  person  who  being  divorced  for  his  or  her 
adultery,  has  received  from  the  court  which 
pronounced  the  divorce,  permission  to  marry 
again ;  or  to  a  person  whose  former  husband  or 
wife  has  been  sentenced  to  imprisonment  for 
life.  A  person  who  knowingly  enters  into  a 
marriage  with  another  which  is  prohibited  to 
the  latter  by  the  statute  is  punishable  by  im- 
prisonment for  not  more  than  five  years,  or  by 
a  fine  of  not  more  than  $1,000,  or  both. 

Big'elow,  Edith  Evelyn  (Jaffray),  Ameri- 
can novelist:  b.  New  York,  23  Dec.  1861 ;  mar- 
ried _  Poultney  Bigelow  (q.v.)  1884.  She  has 
published  ^Diplomatic  Enchantments^  and  sev- 
eral novelettes. 

Big'elow,  Edward  Fuller,  American  scien- 
tist :  b.  Colchester,  Conn.,  14  Jan.  i860.  He  was 
editor  of  *  Popular  Science'  for  three  years,  and 
of  ^The  Observer,'  a  nature  magazine,  for  eight 
years,  and  has  lectured  much  on  nature  themes 
for  the  New  York  Board  of  Education  and  in 


private  and  other  schools.  He  has  published 
•■Bigelow's  Plant  Analysis.' 

Big'elow,  Erastus  Brigham,  American  in- 
ventor:  b.  Boylston,  Mass.,  2  April  1S14;  d. 
Boston,  6  Dec.  1879.  He  became  a  leading  man- 
ufacturer in  Clinton,  Mass. ;  invented  looms  for 
suspender-weaving,  for  counterpanes,  for  coach 
lace,  and  for  carpets ;  and  published  a  text- 
book on  shorthand  writing;  ^The  Tariff  Ques- 
tion'   (1862),  and  other  works. 

Bigelow,  Frank  Hagar,  American  clergy- 
man and  meteorologist :  b.  Concord,  Mass.,  28 
Aug.  1851.  He  graduated  at  Harvard  in  1873, 
and  at  the  Episcopal  Theological  School  at 
Cambridge,  Mass. ;  was  ordained  in  1880,  and 
became  assistant  rector  at  St.  John's  Church, 
Washington,  D.  C.  In  1873-6  and  1881-3  he 
was  astronomer  at  the  Cordova  Observatory, 
Argentine  Republic ;  in  1884-9,  professor  of 
mathematics  at  Racine  College,  Wisconsin;  in 
1893  became  professor  of  meteorology  in  the 
United  States  Weather  Bureau,  and  in  1894, 
professor  of  solar  physics  at  Columbian  Uni- 
versity, Washington,  D.  C.  He  has  written 
many  articles  on  solar  and  terrestrial  magnet- 
ism, astronomy,  and  meteorology.  His  most 
important  contribution  to  astronomy  is  a  mono- 
graph on  the  solar  corona,  published  by  the 
Smithsonian  Institution  in  1889. 

Bigelow,  Jacob,  American  physician:  b. 
Sudbury,  Mass.,  27  Feb.  1787;  d.  Boston,  10 
Jan.  1879.  He  graduated  at  Harvard  College 
in  1806,  and  began  medical  practice  in  Boston 
in  1810.  He  early  became  known  as  a  botanist, 
and  a  number  of  plants  were  named  for  him 
by  Sir  J.  E.  Smith,  in  the  supplement  to  *Rees' 
Cyclopjedia,'  by  Schrader,  in  Germany,  and  De 
Candolle  in  France.  He  founded  Mount  Au- 
burn Cemetery,  in  Cambridge,  the  first  garden 
cemetery  established  in  the  United  States.  He 
was  professor  of  materia  medica  in  Harvard 
College  in  1815-55,  and  Rumford  professor  there 
in  1816-27.  His  works  include  < Useful  Arts 
Considered  in  Connection  with  the  Applications 
of  Science'  (1840)  ;  ^Florula  Bostoniensis' 
(1824)  ;  < American  Medical  Botany'  (1817-20)  ; 
•^Nature  in  Disease'  (1854)  !  ^A  Brief  Exposi- 
tion of  Rational  Medicine,'  "^The  Paradise  of 
Doctors,  a  Fable'  (;i858)  ;  ^History  of  Mount 
Auburn'  (i860)  ;  ^Modern  Inquiries,'  and  ^Re- 
marks on  Classical  Studies'    (1867). 

Bigelow,  John,  American  author:  b.  Mai- 
den, N.  Y.,  25  Nov.  1817.  He  graduated  at 
Union  College  in  1835,  and  became  first  a  law- 
yer and  afterward  a  journalist.  In  1845-6  he 
was  inspector  of  Sing  Sing  prison ;  in  1849-^1 
one  of  the  editors  of  the  New  York  Evening 
Post;  in  1861-4,  United  States  consul-general 
at  Paris ;  and  in  1864-7,  minister  to  France.  He 
was  secretary  of  state  of  New  York  1875^7.  In 
his  will  Samuel  J.  Tilden  appointed  him  his 
biographer  and  one  of  the  three  trustees  of 
the  bulk  of  his  estate  set  apart  for  the  estab- 
lishment of  a  public  library  in  New  York. 
On  22  Feb.  1895  a  joint  committee,  representing 
the  Tilden  Trust  Fund  and  the  Astor  and  Lenox 
libraries,  agreed  on  a  plan  for  the  consolidation 
of  those  interests  and  the  establishment  of  a 
great  public  library  to  be  known  as  the  New 
York  Public  Library,  Astor,  Lenox,  and  Tilden 
Foundations.  The  agreement  was  ratified  by 
the  several  interests,  an  act  of  incorporation 
was   obtained   from   the   legislature,  and   on   27 


BIGELOW  — BIGGE 


May  Mr.  Bigelow  was  elected  president  of  the 
consolidated  board  of  trustees,  and  appointed 
chairman  of  the  executive  committee.  His  works 
include  ^Molinos  the  Quietist*  ;  ^France  and 
the  Confederate  Navy*  ;  ^Life  of  William  CuUen 
Bryant*  ;  'Life  of  Samuel  J.  Tilden*  ;  "^Some 
Recollections  of  fidouard  Laboulaye*  ;  "^The 
Mystery  of  Sleep*  ;  'A  Life  of  Franklin.*  In 
1885  he  published  *^The  Writings  and  Speeches 
of  Samuel  J.  Tilden,*  and  in  1888,  'The  Com- 
plete Works  of  Benjamin  Franklin.* 

Bigelow,  John,  Jr.,  American  military  offi- 
cer, son  of  the  preceding:  b.  New  York,  12  May 
1854.  He  was  educated  in  Paris,  Bonn,  Berlin, 
Freiburg,  and  Providence,  R.  L ;  graduated  at 
the  United  States  Military  Academy  in  1877; 
and  was  assigned  to  the  loth  United  States 
Cavalry.  In  1887-9  ^vas  adjutant-general  of 
militia  in  the  District  of  Columbia ;  and  in 
1894-8,  professor  of  military  science  at  the 
Massachusetts  Institute  of  Technology.  During 
the  war  with  Spain  he  was  wounded  in  the 
attack  on  San  Juan,  Cuba,  i  July  1898.  He 
published  ^Principles  of  Strategy,  Illustrated 
Mainly  from  American  Campaigns*  (rev.  ed., 
1894). 

Bigelow,  Marshall  Train,  American  printer 
and  proof-reader :  b.  South  Natick,  Mass.,  5  Oct. 
1822 ;  d.  Cambridge,  Mass.,  28  Dec.  1902.  In 
1843  he  became  associated  with  the  University 
Press  in  Cambridge,  the  firm  name  of  which 
from  1859  to  1879,  was  Welch,  Bigelow  &  Com- 
pany. He  was  long  classed  as  one  of  the  most 
competent  of  American  proof-readers.  He  pub- 
lished 'Punctuation  and  Other  Typographic 
Matters*  (1881)  ;  'Mistakes  in  Writing  English 
and  How  to  Avoid  Them*    (iT 


Bigelow,  Melville  Madison,  American  law- 
yer: b.  Eaton  Rapids,  Mich.,  2  Aug.  1846.  He 
graduated  at  the  University  of  Michigan  in  1866, 
and  engaged  in  practice  in  Boston.  His  works 
include  'The  Laws  of  Bills,  Notes,  and  Checks*  ; 
^English  Procedure  in  the  Norman  Period*  ; 
*The  Law  of  Fraud  on  Its  Civil  Side*  ;  'Ele- 
ments of  Equity*  ;  'Elements  of  the  Law  of 
Torts*  ;  'Placita  Anglo-Normannia*  ;  'The  Law 
of  Wills*  ;  'The  Law  of  Estoppel*  ;  'Leading 
Cases  in  the  Law  of  Torts,*  etc. 

Bigelow,  Poultney,  American  author:  b. 
New  York  (son  of  John  Bigelow),  10  Sept. 
1855.  He  graduated  at  Yale  University,  and  at 
the  Columbia  Law  School  in  1882,  and  was  ad- 
mitted to  the  bar.  In  1875-6  he  took  a  voyage 
around  the  world  in  a  sailing-ship  which  was 
wrecked  on  the  coast  of  Japan.  He  traveled  in 
China,  Africa,  the  West  Indies,  and  Demerara. 
He  has  made  canoe  voyages  on  the  principal 
waters  of  Europe,  and  was  the  first  person  to 
take  a  canoe  through  the  Iron  Gates  of  the 
Danube.  Emperor  William  II.  has  been  his 
personal  friend  since  they  were  students  together 
in  Germany.  He  wrote  'The  German  Emperor 
and  His  Neighbors*  ;  ^Paddles  and  Politics 
Down  the  Danube*  ;  'The  Borderland  of 
Czar  and  Kaiser*  ;  'History  of  the  German 
Struggle  for  Liberty*  ;  'White  Man's  Africa,* 
etc.  He  edited  the  'Outing*  magazine.  1885-7, 
and  has  also  been  correspondent  of  'Harper's 
"Weekly*  and  the  London  Times. 

Bigelow,  Robert  Payne,  American  biolo- 
gist: b.  Baldwinsville,  N.  Y.,  10  July  1863.  He 
graduated  at  Harvard  in  1887,  and  studied  at 


Johns  Hopkins  1891-3.  In  1893  he  became  in- 
structor in  biology,  and  in  1895  librarian  in 
the  Massachusetts  Institute  of  Technology.  He 
has  written  a  number  of  papers  on  zoological 
subjects. 

Bigelow,  Timothy,  American  military  offi- 
cer:  b.  Worcester,  Mass.,  12  Aug.  1739;  d.  there. 
31  March  1790.  On  23  May  1775  he  led  a  com- 
pany of  minute-men  to  Cambridge,  and  became 
major  in  Ward's  regiment.  He  was  under  Ar- 
nold in  the  expedition  to  Quebec  in  1775,  and 
was  there  captured,  remaining  a  prisoner  till 
1776.  He  became  colonel  in  1777,  and  assisted 
in  the  capture  of  Burgoyne.  He  also  saw  ser- 
vice at  Valley  Forge,  Monmouth,  West  Point, 
and  Yorktown. 

Bigelow,  Timothy,  American  lawyer  (son 
of  the  preceding)  :  b.  Worcester,  Mass.,  30 
April  1767;  d.  18  May  1821.  He  graduated  at 
Harvard  College  in  1786.  was  admitted  to  the 
bar,  and  settled  in  practice  at  Groton,  Mass., 
in  1789.  He  took  an  active  part  in  politics 
as  a  Federalist,  was  for  20  years  a  member  of 
the  State  legislature,  and  11  years  speaker 
of  the  House  of  Representatives,  and  a  member 
of  the  Hartford  Convention.  In  1807  he  re- 
moved to  Medford,  and  kept  an  office  in  Boston. 
His  legal  standing  and  practice  were  at  the 
head  of  his  profession  in  his  time ;  and  in  the 
course  of  32  years,  he  was  supposed  to  have 
argued  10,000  causes. 

Biggar,  Hamilton  Fisk,  Canadian  physi- 
cian: b.  Oakville,  Ont.,  15  March  1839.  He 
was  educated  at  Victoria  University,  and  pur- 
sued his  medical  studies  at  the  University  of 
Medicine  and  Surgery,  Cleveland,  Ohio.  In  1866 
he  began  practice  in  Cleveland,  and  in  1867 
was  made  professor  of  anatomy  and  clinical 
surgery  in  the  Homoeopathic  Hospital  College 
there.  Later  he  was  for  10  years  professor 
of  clinical  surgery,  with  operations  in  the  same 
college.  In  1900  he  held  the  chair  of  surgical 
diseases  of  women  and  clinical  surgery.  Dr. 
Biggar  founded  the  Cleveland  Training  School 
for  Nurses,  where  he  was  dean  for  10  years. 
He  wrote  'Twelve  Months  of  Surgery*  ;  'Loiter- 
ings  in  Europe,*  etc. 

Biggar,  Joseph  Gillis,  Irish  politician:  b. 
Belfast.  1828;  d.  London,  19  Feb.  1890.  He 
succeeded  his  father  in  mercantile  business  in 
1861  ;  entered  politics  in  1869;  and  was  elected 
to  Parliament  for  county  Cavan  in  1874.  He 
was  a  member  of  the  Supreme  Council  of  the 
Irish  Republican  Brotherhood.  When  Charles 
Stewart  Parnell  entered  Parliament  in  1875 
Biggar  ranged  himself  on  the  side  of  that  leader. 
He  took  an  active  part  in  the  Land  League  move- 
ment. In  1877  he  was  expelled  from  the  Fenian 
organization,  and  in  1880  delivered  aggressive 
speeches  in  Ireland.  He  was  one  of  the  few 
prominent  Irish  members  who  were  never  in 
prison. 

Bigge,  big.  Sir  Arthur  John,  English  sol- 
dier: b.  Stamfordham.  18  June  1849.  He  en- 
tered the  Royal  Artillery  in  1869;  served  in 
the  Zulu  war.  1878-9,  with  distinction,  and  in 
1879  was  appointed  aide-de-camp  to  Maj.-Gen. 
Sir  Evelyn  Wood.  In  1880  he  became  groom-in- 
waiting  to  the  queen  and  assistant  private  secre- 
tary :  in  1881  equerry  in  ordinary,  and  in  1895, 
private  secretary  and  equerry  to  the  queen. 


BIGGS  — BIJAPUR 


Biggs,  Asa,  American  jurist :  b.  Williams- 
ton.  N.  C,  4  Feb.  1811 ;  d.  Norfolk,  Va.,6  March 
1878.  He  received  an  academical  education,  and 
was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1831.  He  was  a 
member  of  the  North  Carolina  Constitutional 
Convention  in  1835 ;  was  elected  to  the  State 
legislature  in  1840,  1842,  and  1844;  was_  a 
member  of  the  commission  appointed  to  revise 
the  State  statutes  in  1850,  and  was  again  sent 
to  the  legislature  in  1854.  In  1854  he  was 
elected  United  States  senator;  resigned  in  1858, 
and  was  appointed  judge  of  the  United  States 
District  Court  of  North  Carolma. 

Big'low,  William,  American  educator  and 
poet :  b.  Natick,  Mass.,  22  Sept.  1773 ;  d.  Boston, 
12  Jan.  1844.  He  was  first  established  as  a 
teacher  in  Salem,  and  in  1799  delivered  a  poem 
on  education  before  the  Phi  Beta  Kappa  Society 
at  Cambridge.  He  then  took  charge  of  the 
Latin  School,  Boston,  preaching  occasionally, 
writing  for  different  periodicals,  and  publishing 
educational  text-books.  Here  he  fell  a  victim 
to  intemperate  habits  and  was  compelled  to 
retire  to  his  home  in  Natick.  In  this  state  of 
his  fortunes  it  was  his  habit  to  lounge  about 
the  newspaper  offices  at  Boston,  write  poetry 
for  his  friends,  the  editors,  while  the  humor 
lasted,  and  then  return  to  his  rural  retreat.  He 
taught,  also,  a  village  school  in  Maine,  and  in 
the  latter  part  of  his  life  was  employed  as  a 
proof-reader  in  the  university  printing  office  at 
Cambridge.  He  had  a  genial  and  pleasant  hu- 
mor, and  was  a  ready  versifier,  as  well  as  an 
agreeable  prose-writer.  His  ^Cheerful  Parson^ 
and  others  of  his  songs,  were  much  admired  by 
his  contemporaries  and  are  well  worthy  of  re- 
membrance. He  also  published,  in  1830,  a  ^His- 
tory of  the  Town  of  Natick,^  and  one  of  Sher- 
burne, Mass.  But  his  best  and  most  numerous 
writings  were  in  periodicals,  the  *  Village  Mes- 
senger,^ of  Amherst,  N.  H.,  which  he  edited  in 
1796,  the  *^ Federal  Orrery,'  and  ^Massachusetts 
Magazine.' 

Biglow  Papers,  two  series  of  satirical 
poems  written  by  James  Russell  Lowell,  the  first 
appearing  in  1848 ;  the  second  in  1866.  They 
were  written  in  *  Yankee*'  (New  England)  dia- 
lect, and  attracted  much  attention  by  their  hu- 
mor. The  first  series  was  directed  against  the 
Mexican  war  and  slavery ;  the  second  dealt  with 
the  Civil  War. 

Bignon,  Louis  Pierre  Edouard,  ben-yon, 
loo-e  pe-ar  a-doo-ar,  French  historian  and 
statesman:  b.  La  Meilleraye,  3  Jan.  1771 ;  d. 
Paris,  5  Jan.  1841.  He  entered  the  National 
Assembly  in  1817;  became  a  peer  of  France  in 
1837,  and  wrote  a  ^History  of  France'  (7  vols., 
1827-38).  He  received  from  Napoleon  L  a  be- 
quest of  $20,000. 

Bigno'nia,  the  type-genus  of  the  natural 
order  Bi^noniacecc,  consisting  of  more  than  100 
species  of  mostly  South  American  tropical  climb- 
ing shrubs,  many  of  which  are  raised  in  green- 
houses for  their  ornamental  foliage  and  hand- 
some tubular  flowers  of  various  colors.  Some 
species  are  used  as  cordage  in  South  America 
and  are  said  to  be  employed  in  making  mats, 
baskets,  etc.  The  cultivated  species  are  gener- 
ally of  easy  management  if  given  good  soil, 
plenty  of  light,  and  space  for  both  roots  and 
tops.  B.  capreolata,  v/hkh  has  numerous  orange- 
red    flowers,    i&    a    c^'.^imon    climber    through- 


out the  South  and  as  far  north  as  Maryland. 
In  favorable  soils  and  situations  it  often  attains 
heights  exceeding  50  feet.  It  is  known  as 
^'trumpet-flower"  from  the  shape  of  its  blos- 
soms, and  "cross -vnie'*  and  "quarter-vine'*  from 
the  appearance  of  the  cross-section  of  its  stem. 
It  is  sometimes  confounded  with  its  near  rela- 
tive, Teconia  radicans,  trumpet-vine  (q.v.). 

Bigordi,  Domenico,  be-gor-de,  do-men-e-ko, 
Italian  painter:  b.  Florence,  1449;  d.  Florence, 
II  Jan.  1494.  He  was  nicknamed  Ghirlandajo; 
teacher  for  a  time  of  Michael  Angelo  and  Gran- 
acci ;  founder  of  a  new  school  of  painting ; 
painted  chiefly  sacred  subjects;  and  executed 
notable  frescoes  in  Rome,  Florence,  and  other 
cities.  His  ^-Adoration  of  the  Magi,'  a  panel 
in  the  Church  of  the  Innocents,  and  the  "^Annun- 
ciation,' on  a  cathedral  entrance  in  Florence,  are 
among  his  best  works. 

Bihacs,  or  Bihatch,  be-hatch',  a  fortress  of 
Bosnia,  on  an  island  of  the  Unna,  about  50  miles 
east  of  the  Adriatic.  It  has  a  low  and  unhealthy 
site,  but  is  rentJirkable  for  its  strength.  The  pos- 
session of  it  has  often  been  keenly  contested 
during  the  Turkish  wars. 

Bihe,  be-ha',  South  Africa,  a  fruitful  dis- 
trict lying  east  of  Benguela,  and  under  Portu- 
guese influence.  It  is  an  important  caravan  cen- 
tre, as  the  only  route  across  the  Continent  passes 
through  it.  Area,  3,900  square  miles.  Pop. 
95,000. 

Bijanagur,  be-ja-na-goor',  or  Vijayanaga- 

ra,  otherwise  Hampi,  India,  an  ancient  city,  now 
in  ruins,  in  Bellary  district,  Madras,  30  miles 
northwest  of  Bellary.  It  stands  in  a  plain,  sur- 
rounded by  enormous  masses  of  granite,  and 
covers  an  area  nearly  eight  miles  in  circuit.  On 
the  north  and  west  it  is  washed  by  the  Tungab- 
hadra,  and  in  other  directions  is  enclosed  partly 
by  natural  precipices  and  partly  by  strong  stone 
walls.  Among  its  edifices  are  a  magnificent  tem- 
ple of  Vishnu,  with  a  pyramidal  portico  about 
160  feet  high,  divided  into  10  stories;  another 
temple,  also  entered  through  a  painted  pyramidal 
portico ;  and  one  of  Rama,  with  pillars  of  black 
hornblende  covered  over  with  elaborate  mytho- 
logical sculptures.  These  buildings,  and  many 
others  besides,  are  in  the  purest  style  of  Hindu 
architecture.  Its  ruin  was  eft'ected  by  a  confed- 
eration of  Mohammedan  rajahs,  who  took  and 
sacked  it  in  1564. 

Bijapur,  be-je-por',  India,  a  decayed  city 
in  the  Bombay  presidency,  160  miles  southeast  of 
Poona.  It  was  for  centuries  the  flourishing 
capital  of  a  powerful  kingdom,  but  fell  therewith 
under  various  dynasties  in  succession,  Hindu 
and  Mussulman,  till  in  1686  it  was  captured 
by  Aurungzebe.  It  passed,  during  the  early  part 
of  the  i8th  century,  into  the  hands  of  the  Mah- 
rattas,  and  became  British  in  1848.  Now  that  a 
gradual  decay  has  done  its  worst,  Bijapur  pre- 
sents a  contrast  perhaps  unequaled  in  the  world. 
Lofty  walls  of  hewn  stone,  still  entire,  enclose 
the  silent  and  desolate  fragments  of  a  once  vast 
and  populous  city.  With  the  exception  of  an 
ancient  temple,  the  sole  relic  of  aboriginal  domi- 
nation, the  ruins  are  Mohammedan,  and  con- 
sist of  beautiful  mosques,  colossal  tombs,  a  fort, 
with  an  inner  citadel,  a  mile  in  circuit.  The 
British  government  has  done  everything  to  pre- 
vent further  decay. 


BIJNS  — BILE 


Bijns,  binz,  Anna,  Flemish  poet:  b.  Ant- 
werp, 1494;  d.  there,  10  April  1575.  Much  ad- 
mired for  her  melodious  verses,  full  of  meta- 
phors and  showing  great  technical  skill,  she  was 
styled  the  "Brabantine  Sappho"  by  her  contem- 
poraries. The  first  of  her  volumes  of  collected 
verse  bore  the  title  'This  Is  a  Beautiful  and 
Truthful  (or  Sincere)  Little  Book,'  while  a 
second  is  known  as  'Spiritual  Refrains.' 

Bikanir,  be-ka-ner',  India,  a  native  state 
of  Rajputana,  under  the  superintendence  of  a 
political  agent  and  the  governor-general's  agent 
for  Rajputana,  lying  between  lat.  2"]°  12'  and 
30°  12'  N.  and  Ion.  72°  15'  and  ']'i°  50'  E. ;  area, 
23,173  square  miles;  pop.  831,955.  In  the  whole 
country  there  is  not  a  constant  stream,  the 
main  dependence  of  the  people  being  on  wells  of 
poor  brackish  water  which  is  drawn  from 
depths  of  250  feet  and  upward,  yet  large  flocks 
of  sheep  are  kept.  The  country  is  subject  to 
extremes  of  temperature  in  each  24  hours. 

Bikanir,  India,  capital  of  the  above  state, 
an  irregularly  built  city  surrounded  by  a  fine 
wall  three  and  a  half  miles  in  circuit.  It  has  a 
fort,  containing  the  rajah's  palace,  and  manufac- 
tures blankets,  sugar  candy,  pottery,  etc.  Pop., 
including  suburbs,  56,252. 

Bikelas,  Dimitrios,  be-ka'las,  de-me'tre-6s, 
Greek  poet  and  essayist :  b.  Hemopolis,  island  of 
Syra,  1835.  After  completing  his  studies  he 
went  to  London,  where  his  parents  had  settled, 
and  since  1874  he  has  lived  in  Paris.  After 
having  published  a  collection  of  his  poems  in 
London  in  1862,  he  devoted  himself  to  the  task 
of  making  Shakespeare's  dramas  known  in 
Greece  through  excellent  metrical  translations. 
As  a  prose-writer  he  has  won  wide  reputation 
with  his  tale,  'Lukis  Laras^  (1879),  which  was 
translated  into  13  languages. 

Bilbao,  bel-ba'o,  Spain,  capital  of  the 
province  of  Biscay  (q.v.)  or  Bilbao,  situated  on 
the  navigable  Nervion,  in  a  plain  surrounded 
with  high  mountains,  a  few  miles  from  the  sea. 
The  river  is  crossed  by  four  bridges.  The  town 
is  picturesque,  and  well  built,  and  contains  sev- 
eral good  churches,  two  fine  promenades,  a 
theatre,  a  marine  school,  etc.  Bilbao  carries  on 
an  important  trade  and  manufactures  (the  latter 
consisting  chiefly  of  sailcloth,  ropes,  and 
leather),  and  possesses  large  shipyards  and  iron- 
foundries,  iron  and  steel  works,  etc.  It  is  one 
of  the  most  flourishing  seaports  of  Spain,  though 
its  accommodation  for  shipping  is  defective,  and 
it  is  the  seat  of  a  United  States  consul.  Various 
harbor  improvements,  however,  have  recently 
been  carried  out,  including  a  breakwater  and 
mole.  Bilbao  exports  much  iron  ore  (especially 
to  the  United  Kingdom),  also  pig-iron,  wool, 
wine,  etc. ;  the  imports  are  manufactured  goods, 
dried  fish,  timber,  coal,  etc.  Its  supply  of  water 
and  sanitary  arrangements  are  not  good.  Pop. 
(1896)  66,205. 

Bil'berry.      See  Huckleberry. 

Bil'bilis,  Spain,  an  old  Iberian  city,  two 
miles  east  of  the  modern  town  of  Calatayud,  in 
the  province  of  Saragossa,  chiefly  celebrated  as 
the  birthplace  of  the  poet  Martial,  but  also 
famed  for  its  highly  tempered  steel  blades. 

Bilderdyk,  bil'der-dik,  'William,  Dutch 
poet:  b.  Amsterdam,  7  Sept.  1756:  d.  Haarlem, 
18  Dec.  1831.  He  studied  at  Leyden,  and  in 
1776  obtained  from  the  learned  society  of  Leyden 


the  first  prize  for  a  poem  on  the  influence  of 
poetry  upon  governments.  In  1780  he  obtained 
another  prize  for  a  poem  on  the  connection  of 
poetry  and  eloquence  with  philosophy.  Bilder- 
dyk, besides,  devoted  himself  to  law,  at  The 
Hague,  with  great  success.  On  the  invasion  of 
the  Netherlands  by  the  French  he  left  his 
country  and  removed  to  Brunswick,  where  he 
studied  the  German  language  and  poetry,  and 
afterward  to  London,  where  he  delivered,  in 
French,  lectures  on  literature  and  poetry.  In 
1799,  after  the  new  order  of  things  was  firmly 
established  in  Holland  he  returned,  and  soon 
afterward  published  some  of  his  principal  works. 
Among  these  are  a  didactic  poem  on  astronomy, 
and  masterly  imitations  of  Delille's  'L'Homme 
des  Champs,^  and  Pope's  'Essay  on  Man.' 
Louis  Bonaparte,  on  his  accession  to  the  throne, 
appointed  him  his  teacher  of  Dutch,  and  one  of 
the  first  members  of  the  national  institute  found- 
ed by  him.  Bilderdyk  produced  a  number  of 
war-songs,  which  are  considered  to  be  among 
the  best  in  Dutch  poetry. 

Bile,  the  most  important  secretion  of  the 
liver.  It  is  formed  directly  by  the  liver  cells, 
largely  from  the  blood,  is  collected  by  the  bile 
ducts,  and  discharged  through  the  hepatic  ducts. 
Most  of  the  bile  is  stored  in  the  gall-bladder, 
from  which  it  is  discharged  in  man  by  the 
cystic  duct  and  the  common  duct  into  the  upper 
portion  of  the  duodenum,  four  inches  below 
the  lower  end  of  the  stomach.  As  first  secreted 
in  man  it  is  a  clear  limpid  fluid,  but  in  the  gall- 
bladder it  is  mixed  with  mucin  and  becomes 
darker,  varying  from  dark  brown  to  greenish, 
according  to  the  amount  of  oxidation  of  the  bile 
pigments.  The  bile  of  the  carnivora  is  usually 
yellowish  in  tint,  that  of  the  grass-eaters  green- 
ish, but  the  colors  vary  widely,  dependent  on 
the  oxidation.  Bile  is  an  alkaline  fluid  with  a 
bitter  taste,  and  contains  water,  alkaline  salts 
of  bile  acids,  bile  pigments,  traces  of  lecithin, 
cholesterin,  soaps  and  fats,  and  mineral  salts. 
The  proportions  of  these  are  very  variable.  The 
acids  are  known  as  glycocholic  acid,  yielding 
glycocoll  and  cholalic  acid,  and  taurocholic  acid, 
yielding  taurine  and  cholalic  acid.  The  pig- 
ments are  two,  bilirubin  and  biliverdin,  and  the 
color  is  a  compound  of  the  colors  of  these  two 
and  varies  with  the  proportion  of  each  from 
reddish-brown  to  grass-green.  They  are  thought 
to  be  derived  from  the  hemoglobin  of  the  blood. 
The  functions  of  bile  are  not  clearly  understood, 
but  it  seems  to  aid  in  the  digestion  of  fats ; 
it  is  an  important  organ  of  excretion,  getting  rid 
of  many  broken  down  products  of  metabolism, 
notably  the  cholestrin  and  lecithin.  It  is  an  effi- 
cient antiseptic,  reducing  the  amount  of  exces- 
sive fermentation  in  the  intestines,  it  aids  in  per- 
istalsis and  thus  overcomes  constipation,  and 
perhaps  has  other  functions  connected  with  pro- 
teid  digestion.  The  amount  of  bile  secreted  daily 
varies  from  25  to  50  ounces,  its  secretion  is 
more  or  less  uniform,  but  at  the  digestive 
periods  the  stored  bile  of  the  gall-bladder  is 
added  to  the  intestinal  contents.  Gall-stones  re- 
sult from  concentration  of  the  bile  in  the  gall- 
bladder. They  are  also  formed  as  a  process  of 
infection  of  the  gall-bladder  that  creeps  up 
from  the  duodenum.  Gall-stones  following  ty- 
phoid fever  are  very  common,  and  are  probably 
formed  in  this  manner.  As  a  result  of  inflam- 
mation of  the  stomach  and  duodenum  the  com- 
mon duct   sometimes  is  inflamed  and   its  walls 


BILFINGER  —  BILL 


swollen.  This  prevents  the  escape  of  bile  into 
the  intestines  and  the  bile  pigments  are  taken 
up  by  the  blood  and  cause  the  familiar  symptom 
of  jaundice  (q.v.)-  Biliousness,  so  called,  is 
rarely  an  affection  of  the  liver,  but  much  more 
often  a  mild  inflammation  of  the  stomach  and 
intestines  with  catarrhal  obstruction  of  the  com- 
mon duct  that  is  not  severe  enough  to  dam  back 
the  bile  entirely.  Clayey  stools  are  usually 
indicative  of  deficient  bile-elimination.  The  best- 
known  stimulants  of  bile-formation  and  bile- 
elimination  are  heat  and  the  biliary  acids  them- 
selves. The  vast  majority  of  the  numberless 
patent  liver-pills  on  the  market  have  no  influ- 
ence on  the  liver  whatever ;  they  are  simply 
cathartics  and  empty  the  bowels.  Consult 
Schaefer,  < Physiology^  (1898).  See  Digestion  ; 
Glycogex  ;  Jaundice  ;  Liver. 

Bilfinger,  Georg  (ga-orn')  Bernhard,  Ger- 
man philosopher  and  mathematician :  b.  Can- 
stadt,  Wurtemberg,  23  Jan.  1693 ;  d.  Stuttgart, 
18  Feb.  1750.  He  was  born  with  12  fingers  and 
12  toes,  and  submitted  to  an  operation  which 
removed  the  deformity.  He  studied  with  Wolf 
at  Halle  and  became  a  disciple  of  the  school  of 
Wolf  and  Leibnitz.  In  1725  he  received  an  invi- 
tation frown  Peter  the  Great  to  the  chair  of  logic 
and  metaphysics  in  the  new  college  at  St.  Peters- 
burg. He  now  solved  the  problem  of  the  cause 
of  gravity  proposed  by  the  Academy  of  Sciences 
at  Paris,  and  gained  the  prize.  Being  recalled  by 
Duke  Charles  Edward  of  Wiirtemberg  he  re- 
turned to  Tiibingen  and  proceeded  to  lecture  on 
theology ;  here  his  originality  in  style  and  ideas 
soon  made  him  popular,  and  in  1735  he  was  ap- 
pointed a  privy  councilor.  Here  he  displayed 
great  administrative  ability,  and  by  severe  study 
soon  became  as  celebrated  for  his  political  and 
statistical  knowledge  as  for  his  scientific  attain- 
ments. He  afterward  paid  particular  attention 
to  agriculture  and  promoted  the  culture  of  the 
vine.  He  was  the  author  of  numerous  theologi- 
cal and  philosophical  works. 

Bilguer,  Paul  Rudolf  von,  bil'gvirer,  powl 
roo-dolf  fon,  German  chess-player:  b.  Schwe- 
rin,  1808;  d.  Berlin,  6  Oct.  1840.  He  entered 
the  Prussian  army  in  1833,  and  shortly  after- 
ward was  promoted  lieutenant.  On  18  March 
1840  he  performed  at  Berlin  the  curious  feat 
of  playing  three  games  at  once  with  as  many 
different  opponents,  conducting  two  of  the  con- 
tests without  seeing  the  boards  and  men.  This 
intense  mental  effort  is  supposed  to  have  been 
the  primary  cause  of  the  illness  which  resulted 
in  his  death.  His  < Chess  Handbook^  (Berlin, 
1843  and  1852),  completed  after  his  death  by  his 
friend  T.  Heydebrandt  von  der  Lasa,  made  an 
epoch  in  the  history  of  chess,  and  is  still  the 
best  practical  work  on  that  game. 

Bilharzia,  a  parasitic  worm,  Bilharzia  Jiema- 
tobiuni,  very  common  in  Egypt  and  South  Af- 
rica, but  rare  in  the  United  States.  The 
symptoms  are  usually  those  of  cystitis,  or  in- 
flammation of  the  bladder,  with  bloody  urine. 
The  diagnosis  is  usually  made  by  finding  the 
ova  of  the  worm  in  the  blood,  by  the  micro- 
scope.    See  Parasites. 

Bilim'bi.     See  Blimbing. 

Bilin,  be-len',  Bohemia,  a  town  and  health 
resort  seven  miles  south-southwest  of  Teplitz. 
It  contains  a  fine  old  castle  built  in  1680.  and 
one    of   more    modern    date ;    several    churches, 


chapels,  mills,  etc.  Within  one  mile  of  the  town 
are  much-frequented  mineral  springs,  from  which 
much  water  is  exported.  The  salts  and  mag- 
nesia obtained  from  the  water  form  important 
articles  of  commerce.  It  is  an  alkaline  water, 
and  is  used  with  advantage  in  certain  concre- 
tionary disorders.  Here  is  also  the  singular 
basaltic  rock  called  Biliner  Stein.  Pop.  (1900) 
7,808. 

Bilious  Fever,  an  old  name  given  to  a 
variety  of  conditions,  but  in  all  of  which  there 
was  characteristic  low-grade  fever  associated 
with  a  certain  amount  of  jaundice,  clayey  stools, 
headache,  foul  tongue,  etc.  It  probably  repre- 
sents no  one  disease,  but  a  complication  of  many 
diseases.  See  Biliousness;  Gastritis;  Influ- 
enza ;  Malaria  . 

Bill,  or  Beak.     See  Beak. 

Biliousness,  a  popular  term  to  express 
some  affection  of  the  liver,  but  in  all  prob- 
ability a  condition  of  disturbed  gastric  and  duo- 
denal digestion,  and  having  nothing  whatever  to 
do  with  the  liver.  In  the  article  on  bile  (q.v.) 
the  passage  of  this  liver  secretion  into  the  hepa- 
tic duct  and  storage  in  the  gall-bladder  and  sub- 
sequent emptying  into  the  duodenum,  is  de- 
scribed. When  the  stomach  is  inflamed,  this 
usually  extends  a  certain  distance  into  the 
intestines  and  as  a  consequence  the  mucous  mem- 
brane of  the  common  ducts  also  becomes  in- 
flamed and  swollen.  This  prevents  the  free 
passage  of  bile  into  the  intestines  and  therefore 
its  important  function  in  digestion  is  stopped  or 
diminished.  This  results  in  further  indigestion, 
and  causes  constipation,  and  increased  putrefac- 
tion of  the  intestinal  contents  results.  Thus 
there  is  a  chain  of  many  links  formed  that 
results  in  headache,  heaviness,  bloating,  con- 
stipation, foul  tongue,  foul  breath,  dark  urine, 
and  in  severe  cases  mild  jaundice.  The  entire 
series  may  have  been  set  in  motion  by  over- 
eating, or  drinking  alcoholic  liquors,  or  deficient 
exercise,  eating  excessively  of  fatty  (so-called 
rich)  food,  or  other  hygienic  misbehavior.  Any 
or  all  have  started  the  mild  inflammation  of  the 
stomach  or  intestines,  and  the  biliary  flow  has 
been  diminished.  The  trouble  thus  has  nothing 
to  do  with  the  liver.  The  treatment  should  take 
into  consideration  the  cause.  Rest,  careful  diet- 
ing, plenty  of  water,  some  mild  laxatives,  heat 
over  the  pit  of  the  stomach,  and  hot  water 
enemas,  will  usually  right  the  condition.  The 
free  washing  of  the  bowels  and  the  laxative 
will  usually  cure  the  symptoms  of  poisoning, 
headache,  and  heaviness.  Dosing  with  patent 
pills  and  teas  are  to  be  condemned.  They 
usually  contain  violent  cathartics  that  irritate 
the  stomach  and  intestines.  While  they  empty 
the  bowels  and  thus  get  rid  of  the  poisoning 
symptoms,  they  leave  behind  or  increase  the 
conditions  which  permit  of  further  trouble.  See 
Auto-intoxication  ;  Bile  ;  Constipation  ;  Di- 
gestion ;  Liver. 

Bill,  Brownbill,  Glaive,  Voulge,  or  Gisar- 
me,  all  names  for  nearly  the  same  instrument, 
which,  with  some  slight  modification,  was  the 
standing  weapon  of  the  English  infantry  at  close 
quarters,  as  was  the  long-bow  their  weapon 
at  distant  range,  from  the  days  of  the  battle  of 
Hastings,  at  which  the  Saxons  used  the  bill 
and  the  Normans  the  bow,  until  those  of  Queen 
Elizabeth.  The  original  brownbill  was  a  pon- 
derous   cutting    weapon    with    two    edges,    that 


BILL 


forward  of  the  shaft  having  a  concave  or  sickle 
blade,  that  to  the  back,  a  sort  of  angular  cut- 
ting face,  the  upper  part  projecting  before  the 
base,  so  as  to  give  a  drawing  blow.  This  ter- 
rible instrument  was  nearly  three  feet  long, 
and  10  or  12  pounds  in  weight,  set  erect  on  a 
shaft  of  three  or  four  feet.  It  was  wielded 
with  both  hands,  and  could  sever  a  horse's  head 
or  a  man's  thigh  or  shoulder,  through  the 
strongest  mail  or  plate  armor,  as  a  modern 
woodman's  bill-hook  slices  off  a  hazel  sapling. 
The  weapon  was  afterward  lengthened  and  light- 
ened, and  provided  with  a  spear  head,  so  that  the 
holder  could  charge  it  like  a  lance,  and  some- 
times with  a  cutting  hook,  for  severing  bridles 
or  pulling  men  out  of  their  saddles. 

Also  a  cutting  instrument,  hook-shaped  to- 
ward the  point,  or  with  a  concave  cutting  edge ; 
used  by  plumbers,  basket-makers,  gardeners, 
«tc. ;  made  in  various  forms  and  fitted  with  a 
handle.  Such  instruments,  when  used  by  gar- 
deners for  pruning  hedges,  trees,  etc.,  are  called 
hedge-bills  or  bill-hooks. 

Bill,  a  paper,  w-ritten  or  printed,  giving  a 
statement  of  the  particulars  of  an  account  or 
•action.  A  printed  proclamation,  an  advertise- 
ment, an  act  of  Congress  or  parliament,  or  a 
tradesman's  account  is  a  bill. 

In  Legislation. —  A  term  used  to  signify  a 
special  act  passed  by  the  legislature  in  the 
■e.xercise  of  a  quasi  judicial  power.  Thus,  bills 
■of  attainder,  bills  of  pains  and  penalties  are 
spoken  of.  The  draft  of  a  law  submitted  to  the 
consideration  of  a  legislative  body  for  its  adop- 
tion or  rejection.  The  Constitution  of  the  United 
States  provides  that  all  bills  for  raising  reve- 
nue must  originate  in  the  House  of  Represent- 
atives, but  the  Senate  may  propose  or  concur 
with  amendments  as  on  other  bills.  Every  bill 
before  it  becomes  a  law  must  be  approved  by 
the  President  of  the  United  States,  or  within 
10  days  returned,  with  his  objections,  to  the 
House  in  which  it  originated.  Two  thirds  of 
•each  House  may  then  enact  it  into  a  law.  These 
provisions  are  copied  in  the  constitutions  of  a 
majority  of  the  States. 

Bill  of  Adventure. —  A  writing  signed  by  a 
merchant,  in  which  he  states  that  certain  goods 
shipped  in  his  name  really  belong  to  another 
person,  at  whose  risk  the  adventure  is  made. 

Bill  of  Attainder. —  A  bill  declaring  that  the 
person  named  in  it  is  attainted  and  his  property 
confiscated.  The  Constitution  of  the  United 
States  declares  that  no  State  shall  pass  any 
bill  of  attainder.  During  the  Revolutionary 
War,  bills  of  attainder  and  expost  facto  acts  of 
confiscation  were  passed  to  a  wide  extent.  The 
evils  resulting  from  them,  in  times  of  cooler 
reflection,  were  discovered  to  have  far  out- 
weighed any  imaginary  good. 

Bill  of  Costs. —  A  statement  of  the  items 
which  form  the  total  amount  of  the  costs  of  a 
suit  or  action.  This  is  demandable  as  a  matter 
of  right  before  the  pa^^ment  of  the  costs. 

Bill  of  Credit. —  A  letter  sent  by  an  agent 
or  other  person  to  a  merchant,  desiring  him 
to  give  the  bearer  credit  for  goods  or  money. 
It  is  frequenth'  given  to  one  about  to  travel 
and  empowers  him  to  take  up  money  from  the 
foreign  correspondents  of  the  person  from  whom 
the  bill  or  letter  of  credit  was  received. 

Bill  of  Entry. —  A  written  account  of  goods 
entered  at  the  custom-house,  whether  imported 
or  designed  for  exportation. 


Bill  of  Exceptions. —  A  bill  of  the  nature  of 
an  appeal  from  a  judge  who  is  held  to  have 
misstated  the  law,  whether  by  ignorance,  by 
inadvertence,  or  by  design.  This  the  judge  is 
bound  to  seal  if  he  be  requested  by  the  counsel 
on  either  side  so  to  do.  The  exceptions  noted 
are  reviewed  by  the  court  to  which  appeal  is 
taken,  and  if  the  objections  made  to  the  rulings 
of  the  trial  judge  are  well  founded,  the  finding 
in  the  case  is  reversed,  and  usually  the  cause  is 
remanded  for  a  new  trial. 

Bill  of  Exchange. —  A  bill  or  security  origi- 
nally introduced  for  enabling  a  merchant  in  one 
country  to  remit  money  to  a  correspondent  in 
the  other.  It  is  an  open  letter  of  request  from 
one  man  to  another,  desiring  him  to  pay  to  a 
third  party  a  specified  sum  and  put  it  to  the 
account  of  the  first. 

Bill  of  Health. —  A  certificate  given  to  the 
master  of  a  ship  clearing  out  of  a  port  in 
which  contagious  disease  is  epidemic,  or  is  sus- 
pected to  be  so,  certifying  to  the  state  of  health 
of  the  crew  and  passengers  on  board. 

Bill  of  Indictment. —  A  written  accusation 
made  against  one  or  more  persons  having  com- 
mitted a  specified  crime  or  misdemeanor.  It  is 
preferred  to  and  presented  on  oath  by  a  grand 
jury.  If  the  grand  jury  find  the  allegations 
unproved,  they  ignore  the  bill,  giving  as  their 
verdict,  ^*Not  a  true  bill'* ;  if,  on  the  contrary, 
they  consider  the  indictment  proved,  their  ver- 
dict is  a   "True  bill.** 

Bill  of  Lading. —  A  document  by  which  the 
master  of  a  ship  acknowledges  to  have  received 
on  board  his  vessel,  in  good  order  and  condition 
(or  the  reverse),  certain  specified  goods  con- 
signed to  him  by  some  particular  shipper,  and 
binds  himself  to  deliver  them  in  similar  condi- 
tion,—  unless  the  dangers  of  the  sea,  fire,  or 
enemies  prevent  him, —  to  the  assignees  of  the 
shipper  at  the  point  of  destination,  on  their 
paying  him  the  stipulated  freight. 

The  bill  of  lading  should  contain  the  name 
of  the  shipper  or  consignor ;  the  name  of  the 
consignee ;  the  name  of  the  vessel  and  her 
master ;  the  places  of  shipment  and  destination  ; 
the  price  of  the  freight,  and  in  the  margin, 
the  marks  and  numbers  of  the  things  shipped.  It 
is  usually  made  in  three  or  more  original  parts, 
one  of  which  is  sent  to  the  consignee  with  the 
goods,  one  or  more  others  are  sent  to  him 
by  different  conveyances,  one  is  retained  by 
the  merchant  or  shipper,  and  one  should  be 
retained  by  the  master.  It  is  assignable  by  in- 
dorsement, and  the  assignee  is  entitled  to  the 
goods,  subject  to  the  shipper's  right  of  stop- 
page in  transitu  in  some  cases,  and  to  various 
liens.  It  is  considered  to  partake  of  the  cha- 
racter of  a  written  contract,  and  also  that  of  a 
receipt.  In  so  far  as  it  admits  the  character, 
qualit3%  or  condition  of  the  goods  at  the  time 
they  were  received  by  the  carrier,  it  is  a  mere 
receipt,  and  the  carrier  may  explain  or  contra- 
dict it  by  parol ;  but  as  respects  the  contract  to 
carry  and  deliver,  it  is  a  contract,  and  must  be 
construed  according  to  its  terrns.  3  N.  Y.  322 ; 
6  Mass.  422.  Under  the  admiralty  law  of  the 
United  States,  contracts  of  affreightment  entered 
into  with  the  master  in  good  faith  and  within 
the  apparent  scope  of  his  authority  as  master, 
bind  the  vessel  to  the  merchandise  for  the  per- 
formance of  such  contracts  in  respect  to  the 
property  shipped  on  board,  irrespective  of  the 
ownership  of  the  vessel,  and  whether  the  master 


BILLAUD-VARENNE  —  BILLFISH 


be  the  agent  of  the  general  or  special  owner, 
but  bills  of  lading  for  property  not  shipped,  and 
designed  to  be  instruments  of  fraud,  create  no 
lien  on  the  interest  of  the  general  owner,  al- 
though the  special  owner  was  the  perpetrator 
of  the  fraud.  Under  a  bill  of  lading  in  the 
ordinary  form,  having  no  stipulation  that  the 
goods  shipped  are  to  be  carried  on  deck,  there 
is  a  contract  implied  that  the  goods  shall  be 
carried  under  the  deck,  and  parol  evidence  to  the 
contrary  will  not  be  received.  14  Wend.  26. 
But  evidence  of  a  well-known  and  long-estab- 
lished usage  is  admissible,  and  will  justify  the 
carriage  of  goods  in  that  manner. 

Bill  of  Rights. —  A  bill  which  gave  legal 
validity  to  the  claim  of  rights,  that  is,  the 
declaration  presented  by  the  Lords  and  Com- 
mons to  the  Prince  and  Princess  of  Orange  on 
13  Feb.  1688,  and  afterward  enacted  in  Parlia- 
ment when  they  became  king  and  queen.  It  de- 
clared it  illegal,  without  the  sanction  of  Parlia- 
ment, to  suspend  or  dispense  with  laws,  to  erect 
commission  courts,  to  levy  money  for  the  use 
of  the  Crown  on  pretense  of  prerogative,  and 
to  raise  and  maintain  a  standing  army  in  the 
time  of  peace.  It  also  declared  that  subjects 
have  a  right  to  petition  the  king,  and,  if  Prot- 
estants, to  carry  arms  for  defense ;  also  that 
members  of  Parliament  ought  to  be  freely 
elected  and  that  their  proceedings  ought  not  to 
be  impeached  or  questioned  in  any  place  out  of 
Parliament.  It  further  enacted  that  excessive 
bail  ought  not  to  be  required,  or  excessive  fines 
imposed,  or  unusual  punishment  inflicted ;  that 
juries  should  be  chosen  without  partiality;  that 
all  grants  and  promises  of  fines  or  forfeitures 
before  conviction  are  illegal ;  and,  that,  for 
redress  of  grievances  and  preserving  of  the  laws. 
Parliament  ought  to  be  held  frequently.  Finally 
it  provided  for  the  settlement  of  the  Crown. 
In  the  United  States,  a  bill  of  rights,  or,  as  it 
is  more  commonly  termed  in  this  country,  a 
declaration  of  rights,  is  prefixed  to  the  consti- 
tutions of  most  of  the  States.  See  United 
States  —  State  Constitutions  of  the. 

Bill  of  Sale. —  A  deed  of  writing,  under  seal, 
designed  to  furnish  evidence  of  the  sale  of  per- 
sonal property.  It  is  necessary  to  have  such  an 
instrument  when  the  sale  of  property  is  not  to  be 
immediately  followed  by  its  transference  to  the 
purchaser.  It  is  used  in  the  transfer  of  property 
in  ships,  in  that  of  stock  in  trade,  or  the  good- 
will of  a  business.  It  is  employed  also  in  the 
sale  of  furniture,  the  removal  of  which  from 
the  house  would  call  attention  to  the  embar- 
rassed circumstances  of  its  owner ;  hence  the 
statistics  of  the  bills  of  sale  act  as  an  index 
to  measure  the  amount  of  secret  distress  exist- 
ing in  times  of  commercial  depression.  In  not 
a  few  cases  bills  of  sale  are  used  to  defeat  just 
claims  against  the  nominal  or  real  vendor  of  the 
goods  transferred. 

Bill  of  Sight. —  A  form  of  entry  at  the  cus- 
tom-house by  which  one  can  land  for  inspection, 
in  presence  of  the  officers,  such  goods  as  he  has 
not  had  the  opportunity  of  previously  examin- 
ing, and  which,  consequently,  he  cannot  accu- 
rately  describe. 

Billaud-Varenne,  Jacques-Nicolas,  be-yo- 
va-ren,  zhak-ne-k5-lar,  French  revolutionist : 
b.  Rochelle,  23  April  1756;  d.  3  June  1819.  He 
was  bred  to  the  legal  profession,  and  having 
come    in    1785    to    Paris,    political    events    soon 


began  to  occupy  his  attention,  and  in  1789  three 
treatises  appeared  from  his  pen,  entitled  re- 
spectively "^Despotisme  des  Ministres  de  France*  ; 
*  Dernier  Coup  Porte  aux  Prejuges  et  a  la 
Superstition*  ;  and  ^Le  Peintre  Politique.' 
Another  publication,  ^Acephalocratie,'  which 
appeared  in  1791,  subjected  him  to  a  judicial 
prosecution,  and  he  was  obliged  to  conceal  him- 
self for  a  time.  He  emerged  from  his  retreat 
on  the  triumph  of  his  party  in  September  1791, 
and  in  1792  was  elected  a  member  of  the  Na- 
tional Convention.  On  the  trial  of  the  king  he 
voted  for  execution  within  24  hours.  He  con- 
tributed to  the  overthrow  of  the  Girondists,  and 
was  subsequently  chosen  president  of  the  con- 
vention, and  member  of  the  Committee  of  Public 
Safety,  and  in  that  capacity  framed  the  Bulletin 
des  Lois  and  assisted  in  organizing  the  revolu- 
tionary government.  In  1795,  on  a  reaction  hav- 
ing taken  place  against  the  ultra  party,  he  was 
arrested,  and  along  with  Collot  d'Herbois,  ban- 
ished to  Cayenne.  On  the  overthrow  of  the 
directorate  he  refused  the  amnesty  offered  by 
Bonaparte.  In  1816,  on  the  restoration  of 
Cayenne  to  France,  he  was  obliged  to  take  refuge 
at  Port-au-Prince,  in  the  island  of  St.  Domingo. 
Here  he  died  in  poverty. 

Billaut,  Adam,  be-yo,  a-dafi,  or  Maitre 
Adam,  French  poet:  b.  early  part  of  the  17th 
century;  d.  1662.  A  carpenter  by  trade,  he 
wrote  rude  but  original  poems,  the  gaiety  of 
which,  together  with  the  contrast  they  afforded 
with  his  occupation,  made  them  very  popular 
at  the  time.  Voltaire  called  him  "Vergil  with 
the  Plane."  The  three  collections  of  his  poems 
were  entitled  *The  Pegs*  ;  ^The  Centre-Bit*  ; 
and   ^The  Plane.* 

Billbergia,  a  genus  of  about  40  species 
of  evergreen  epiphytes  of  the  natural  order 
Broineliacece,  natives  of  South  America  and 
often  cultivated  in  greenhouses  for  their  showy 
flowers. 

Bille,  be'le,  Steen  Andersen,  Danish  naval 
officer:  b.  Copenhagen,  5  Dec.  1797;  d.  Copen- 
hagen, 7  May  1883.  He  was  a  member  of  the 
expedition  that  went  to  South  America  in  1840, 
and  had  command  of  a  scientific  expedition 
round  the  world  in  the  corvette  Galatea,  1845-7. 
In  his  ^Beretning  om  Corvetten  Galatheas  Reise 
Omkrung  Jorden,  1845-6  og  47*  (1849-51)  he 
has  given  an  account  of  this  expedition. 

Billet,  the  term  given  to  a  molding  fre- 
quently introduced  in  mediaeval  architecture, 
consisting  of  a  torus  ornamented  by  alternate 
checkers,  like  a  staff  cut  into  short  lengths  and 
disposed  horizontally  or  around  a  molding,  and 
of  another  molding,  composed  of  a  series  of 
small  projections,  arranged  around  a  curve  in 
alternate  directions,  but  in  a  consecutive  manner. 

Billeting  of  Soldiers,  the  compulsory  lodg- 
ing of  soldiers  with  the  inhabitants  of  a  town, 
formerly  a  frequent  practice  whenever  there 
was  a  deficiency  of  accommodation  in  barracks 
or  regular  quarters.  The  billeting  of  soldiers  on 
private  householders  is  now  abandoned  gen- 
erally, and  billeting  is  reduced  as  much  as  pos- 
sible by  camping  out  and  other  arrangements. 
In  the  United  States  the  practice  is  regulated  by 
the  third  constitutional  amendment. 

Billfish,  any  of  several  fishes  having  nota- 
bly long,  beak-like  snouts,  as  a  gar,  needle-fish, 
or  spearfish   (qq.v.). 


BILLIARDS 


Billiards,  the  generic  name  of  a  group  of 
games ;  is  played  in  the  United  States  usually 
on  a  5x10  table,  fitted  on  each  side  and  at 
the  ends  with  rubber  acting  as  cushions.  Ivory 
balls  driven  by  a  wooden  cue  and  varying  in 
size  from  2  5-16  inches  to  2  7-16  inches  are 
generally  used.  The  bed  of  the  table  is  slate, 
from  il^i  to  i^  of  an  inch  in  thickness,  and 
covered,  as  is  also  the  rubber,  with  green  cloth. 
The  body  of  the  table  and  legs,  and  the  rails, 
are  made  from  various  designs  of  wood. 

The  origin  of  the  game  of  billiards  is  shrouded 
in  mystery,  but  is  known  to  have  been  played 
in  a  crude  way  since  before  the  birth  of  Christ. 
It  is  mentioned  m  Shakespeare's  'Anthony  and 
Cleopatra*  (1607),  and  it  is  now  generally  agreed 
that  the  immortal  bard,  in  his  researches  for 
facts,  had  read  of  billiards  before  the  birth  of 
our  Saviour.  Cathire  More,  a  sub-king  of  Ire- 
land, as  early  as  148  a.d.,  speaks  of  billiards 
and  billiard  balls  of  brass.  In  the  Confessions 
of  St.  Augustine,  born  430  a.d.,  mention  is  made 
of  the  game  of  billiards.  From  this  time  until 
the  end  of  the  14th  century  very  little  is  known 
of  the  game.  It  is  mentioned  in  Spencer's 
< Mother  Hubbard  Tales*  (1591).  About  this 
time  the  French  made  it  an  indoor  table  game 
by  playing  it  on  a  square  table  with  pockets 
at  each  corner,  and  one  in  the  center  of  each 
side,  a  little  cone  in  the  centre  of  the  table 
called  the  "king.**  and  an  arch  of  ivory,  known 
as  the  "port."  Certain  scores  depended  on  pass- 
ing the  "port**  and  touching  the  "king.**  As 
early  as  1734,  as  stated  in  Seymour's  'Court 
Gamester^  these  features  of  the  game  had  dis- 
appeared, and  cues  had  begun  to  replace  the 
*'mast'*  or  "mace**  first  used.  Billiards  came 
into  fashion  in  the  time  of  Louis  XIV.,  whose 
physicians  recommended  him  this  kind  of  exer- 
cise after  eating.  Some  profess  to  believe  the 
game  of  English  origin,  as  the  earliest  and  full- 
est description  of  billiards  is  found  in  Cotton's 
'Complete  Gamester*  (1674).  The  bed  of  the 
table  was  then  made  of  oak,  sometimes  marble. 
Slate  beds  were  first  used  about  1827.  The 
pockets  of  the  tables  at  that  time,  called  "haz- 
ards,** were  at  first  made  of  wooden  boxes,  nets 
being  employed  soon  afterward. 

The  billiard  table  is  said  to  have  found  its 
way  into  America  through  the  Spaniards  about 
1570.  At  this  time  it  was  played  in  England, 
France,  Germany,  and  other  countries,  but  the 
size  of  the  table  and  style  of  the  game  differed. 
The  English  style  of  table  and  game  was  first 
adopted  by  the  Americans.  Six  by  twelve,  six- 
pocket  tables  and  four  balls  (two  reds  and  two 
whites)  were  used.  Soon  the  tables  were  re- 
duced in  size  from  6x12  to  5V2XII,  then  to  about 
5  feet  wide  by  10  feet  long.  Tables  vary  in 
measurements.  All  match  and  tournament  games 
are  now  played  on  5x10  tables,  and  are  very 
popular  in  all  leading  public  rooms  and  clubs 
throughout  the  United  States,  while  the  so- 
called  4^x9  tables  are  almost  exclusively  used  in 
private  residences  and  in  small  cities  and  towns. 

It  is  only  in  the  last  50  years  that  billiard 
tables  and  their  paraphernalia,  and  billiard  play- 
ing itself,  have  made  giant  strides.  Until  the 
year  1855,  when  Michael  Phelan,  the  father  of 
billiards,  first  introduced  the  celebrated  com- 
bination cushions,  made  of  rubber  chiefly,  the 
tools  were  necessarily  crude  and  imperfect,  and 
greatly  retarded  the  progress  of  the  players  up 
to  that  period.     Then  was  played  the   four-ball 


game  on  a  6x12,  six-pocket  table.  Two  red  balls 
and  two  white  balls  were  used.  In  the  'sixties 
the  tables  were  reduced  in  size  to  55^x11,  but 
so  fast  did  the  professionals  and  amateurs  im- 
prove their  games  under  the  improved  condition 
of  the  table  and  tools,  and  in  order  to  avoid 
the  seeming  monotony  of  long  runs,  it  was  found 
necessary  to  again  reduce  the  size  of  the  table, 
from  pockets  to  carrom,  to  about  5  feet  wide  and 
10  feet  long,  and  change  the  style  of  game  from 
four-ball  to  three-ball  game.  This  was  done 
early  in  the  'seventies.  Experts  soon  became  so 
proficient  at  this  style  of  game  as  to  render  it 
necessary  to  place  restrictions  on  the  bed  of 
the  table  by  drawing  lines  first  8  inches,  then 
10,  12,  14,  and  finally  18  inches  from  the  edge 
of  the  cushions  the  entire  length  and  width 
of  the  table  —  called  balk-line  game.  This 
method  of  restricting  the  professionals  and  lead- 
ing amateurs  in  no  wise  does  away  with  the 
beauties  of  the  game,  as  the  Masse,  draw,  follow, 
and  combination  cushion  shots  are  left  intact. 
The  superb  play  of  the  professionals  in  this 
country  and  in  France,  where  the  same  style 
of  game  is  played,  is  due  in  a  great  measure  to 
the  improved  construction  of  the  beveled  table, 
slabs,  match  rubber  cushions,  and  to  the  ivory 
balls,  cue,  cue  tips,  and  chalk. 

Various  are  the  styles  of  billiards  played 
now,  such  as  "three-cushion  carroms,"  "cushion 
carroms,**  "champions'  game,**  "balk-line  game,** 
and  the  regular  three-ball  game. 

Pool  may  be  said  to  be,  broadly  speaking, 
a  branch  of  billiards,  and  is  very  popular  with 
the  masses.  It  lacks  the  skill  and  variety  of 
billiards.  Pool  is  played  on  a  5x10  or  4J^xg, 
six-pocket  table,  and  generally  with  gully  attach- 
ments—a new  device  that  rather  adds  to  the 
popularity  of  the  game.  This  gully  is  so  placed 
under  the  table  that  all  balls,  when  pocketed 
will  drop  into  a  basket  at  the  foot  of  the  table. 
The  most  popular  of  the  various  pool  games  is 
"continuous  pool.**  played  with  15  numbered  balls 
and  one  plain  white  one  —  the  cue  ball.  These 
15  balls  are  arranged  in  a  triangle  form  at  the 
foot  of  the  table.  The  player's  object  is  to  drive 
as  many  of  the  numbered  balls  successively  into 
one  or  other  of  the  pockets  as  he  can,  subject 
to  certain  rules  and  regulations.  There  are  va- 
rious other  kinds  of  pool  games  —  "Americai,,** 
"pyramid.**  "Chicago,**  "forty-one,**  and  otheis. 
For  a  complete  list  of  these  various  styles  of 
games,  also  all  styles  of  billiards,  with  the  rules 
goveriiing  them,  the  reader  is  referred  to  the 
'Handbook  of  Standard  Rules  of  Billiards  and 
Pool.*  This  handbook  also  gives  valuable  hints 
on  the  care  of  tables,  balls,  cues,  etc. 

One  of  the  most  important  parts  that  go  to 
make  billiard  playing  complete  is  the  cue  and 
cue-tip.  The  size  and  weight  of  the  cue  is  a 
matter  of  individual  judgment,  but  nearly  all 
professionals  and  the  best  amateurs  prefer  one 
that  weighs  from  19  to  22  ounces,  with  the 
tip  of  the  cue  about  a  half  inch  full  in  diameter. 
The  cue-tip  is  one  of  the  leading,  if  not  the 
leading,  factor  in  billiard  playing.  Many  public 
and  private  games  are  lost  because  of  the  imper- 
fect quality  of  the  cue-tip,  and  many  players 
are  wont  to  ascribe  their  defeat  or  bad  play 
to  the  tip  itself.  Much  depends  on  the  manner 
of  tipping  the  cue.  Cue-tips  are  made  in  France 
and  are  of  comparatively  recent  origin.  They 
consist  of  two  qualities  of  leather  united,  the 
under   leather  being  very  hard   and  flat,  while 


BILLINGS  —  BILLINGTON 


the  upper  or  top  leather  is  somewhat  porous, 
spongy,  and  springy.  Selecting  a  good  leather 
and  the  tipping  of  billiard  cues  is  an  art  in 
itself,  and  has  become  so  important  an  adjunct 
to  the  success  of  the  business  that  the  leading 
billiard  halls  in  this  country  find  it  necessary 
to  employ  a  man  to  exclusively  attend  to  that 
branch  of  the  trade.  It  is  an  art,  for  instance, 
to  hammer  a  tip  down  to  the  requisite  firmness 
before  it  is  ready  to  be  glued  to  the  top  of  the 
cue,  over  which  the  tip  generally  projects  (if  a 
new  one),  on  all  sides.  Inside  of  an  hour's 
time  in  dry  weather,  if  the  quality  of  the  glue 
is  good,  the  tip  may  be  finished  off  ready  for 
use.  Turn  the  cue  bottom  side  up,  firmly  press 
the  leather  onto  a  table,  then  using  a  sharp 
knife,  cut  the  leather  even  with  the  top  of  the 
cue  itself,  and  pare  the  upper  leather  as  one 
would  an  apple,  finish  with  sandpaper,  size  about 
114,  and  smooth  off  with  single  O  sandpaper. 
A  cue-tip,  when  ready  for  playing,  should  be 
about  half-moon  shape,  but  many  and  various 
are  the  shapes  of  tips.  Never  use  sandpaper  on 
a  cue-tip  after  it  has  been  played  with  for  a 
while.  If  the  tip  becomes  hard  or  greasy  from 
frequent  use  of  chalk,  roll  it  lightly  with  a 
French  file. 

Billiards  is  without  doubt  far  superior  in 
point  of  skill  and  science  to  any  game  played, 
either  in-doors  or  out-doors.  Chess  and  check- 
ers are  purely  mental  and  yield  no  exercise  to 
the  body.  Golf  and  other  out-of-door  games 
are  dependent  chiefly  on  execution,  whereas  bil- 
liard playing  requires  and  combines  both  know- 
ledge and  execution.  As  a  health-giving  exercise 
and  recreation,  restful  to  the  mind,  physicians 
are  now  agreed  that  billiards  leads  all  other 
games,  while  divines,  politicians,  artists,  men 
of  letters,  and  women,  recommend  it  and  play  it 
at  home,  in  the  clubs  and  public  rooms.  It  is 
steadily  gaining  in  popularity  among  merchants, 
bankers,  and  brokers,  as  a  relief  to  the  turmoil 
of  a  busy  life.  No  residence  is  thought  com- 
plete without  its  billiard  table,  and  the  ques- 
tion is  often  asked  "Which  shall  we  have  first, 
the  piano  or  the  billiard  table?''  and  the  answer 
is  —  «the  billiard  table  first.»  Geo.  F.  Slosson, 
American  Billiard  Expert. 

Billings,  Frank,  American  physician.  He 
graduated  M.D.  at  Chicago  Medical  College, 
1881  ;  was  interne  at  Cook  County  Hospital, 
1881-2;  studied  in  Vienna,  1885-6;  professor  of 
medicine  at  Northwestern  University  Medical 
School,  1891-8;  professor  of  medicine  and  dean 
of  Rush  Medical  College,  1898. 

Billings,  John  Shaw,  American  surgeon 
and  librarian:  b.  Switzerland  County,  Ind.,  12 
April  1839.  He  was  graduated  at  Miami  Uni- 
versity in  1857,  and  at  the  Ohio  Medical  Col- 
lege. i860;  was  demonstrator  of  anatomy  in  the 
last  institution,  1860-1  ;  entered  the  Union  army 
as  an  assistant  surgeon,  1861  ;  was  promoted  to 
lieutenant-colonel  and  deputy  surgeon-general, 
6  June  1894 ;  and  was  retired,  i  Oct.  1895.  He 
was  professor  of  hygiene  in  the  University  of 
Pennsylvania,  1893-6;  and  in  the  last  year  was 
appointed  director  of  the  New  York  Public 
Library  (Astor,  Lenox,  and  Tilden  Founda- 
tions). After  the  close  of  the  war  Dr.  Billings 
took  charge  of  the  library  in  the  surgeon-gen- 
eral's office ;  reorganized  the  United  States 
Marine  Hospital  Service ;  was  vice-president  of 
the  National  Board  of  Health,  1879-82;  and  had 


charge  of  the  compilation  of  vital  and  social 
statistics  in  the  Eleventh  Census.  He  is  a  mem- 
ber of  a  large  number  of  American  and  foreign 
scientific  societies,  and  his  numerous  publica- 
tions include:  'Principles  of  Ventilation  and 
Heating'  ;  "^ Index  Catalogue  of  the  Library  of 
the  Surgeon-General's  Office,  United  States 
Army'  ;   ^National  Medical  Dictionary.' 

Billings,  Josh.     See  Shaw,  Henry  W. 

Billings,  William,  American  composer:  b. 
Boston,  7  Oct.  1746;  d.  there,  26  Sept.  1800.  He 
was  by  trade  a  tanner,  and  his  opportunities  of 
instruction  in  any  branch  of  knowledge,  and 
particularly  in  the  theory  and  practice  of  music, 
were  few.  A  love  of  music  and  considerable 
vocal  skill,  however,  led  him,  while  still  young, 
to  become  a  teacher  of  singing  and  a  composer 
of  psalm-tunes,  which  eventually  found  their 
way  into  every  church  choir  of  New  England 
and  became  great  favorites  with  the  people.  He 
published  no  less  than  six  collections  of  tunes, 
which,  with  a  few  exceptions,  were  of  his  own 
composition.  They  were  founded  upon  the  new 
style  of  church  music,  then  first  introduced  by 
Tansur,  A.  Williams,  J.  Arnold,  and  other  Eng- 
lish composers,  and  their  contrast  to  the  dis- 
mal old  tunes  previously  in  use  naturally  gave 
them  immense  popularity,  and  in  fact  caused  a 
revolution  in  musical  taste  in  New  England. 
They  were  far  from  being  perfect  in  the  requi- 
sites of  good  melody  and  harmony,  and  their 
author,  in  a  quaintly  worded  preface  to  his  sec- 
ond work,  entitled  *  The  Singing  Master's  Assist- 
ant' and  commonly  known  as  'Billing's  Best,' 
apologizes  for  the  errors  which  his  first  collec- 
tion contains ;  but  the  melodies  were  generally 
good,  and,  had  the  composer  enjoyed  the  advan- 
tages for  musical  instruction  which  the  present 
age  affords,  his  compositions  would  doubtless 
have  possessed  a  permanent  value.  Billings  was 
a  firm  patriot,  and  an  intimate  friend  of  Samuel 
Adams,  who  frequently  sat  with  him  at  church 
in  the  singing-choir.  Many  of  his  tunes,  com- 
posed during  the  war  of  independence,  breathe 
the  true  spirit  of  patriotism,  and  were  sung 
and  played  wherever  New  England  troops  were 
stationed.  Billings  may  fairly  claim  the  title 
of  the  first  American  composer,  for  before  his 
time  there  is  no  record  of  any  musical  composi- 
tion by  a  native  of  this  country.  He  is  also 
known  as  ''the  father  of  New  England  psalmody.'* 

Billingsgate,  a  word  said  to  have  been  de- 
rived from  Belinus  Magnus,  a  somewhat  mythic 
British  prince,  father  of  King  Lud,  about  400 
B.C.  More  probably  it  came  from  some  unknown 
person  called  Billing.  It  is  applied  to  the  cele- 
brated London  fish  market  existent  at  least  as 
early  as  979  a.d.,  made  a  free  market  in  1699, 
extended  in  1849,  rebuilt  in  1852,  and  finally  ex- 
posed to  the  rivalry  of  another  market  built 
1874-6.  The  word  is  also  used  to  indicate  foul, 
abusive  language,  such  as  is  popularly  supposed 
to  be  employed  by  fish-wives  who  are  unable  to 
come  to  an  amicable  understanding  as  to  the 
proper  price  of  the  fish  about  which  they  are 
negotiating.  Billingsgate  is  used  as  a  syno- 
nym of  coarse,  vulgar  abuse. 

Billington,  Elizabeth,  English  singer:  b. 
London,  1768;  d.  Venice.  1818.  Her  father  \vas 
a  German  oboe-player,  her  mother  an  English 
singer.  She  made  her  appearance  as  a  singer  at 
the  age  of  14,  and  at  16  married  Mr.  Billington, 
a  double-bass  player.     She  made  her  debut  as 


BILLION  —  BIMETALLISM 


an  operatic  singer  in  Dublin,  and  afterward 
appeared  at  Covent  Garden,  where  she  secured 
an  engagement  for  the  remainder  of  the  season 
of  1786  for  $5,000,  the  manager  giving  her  two 
benefits.  She  visited  France  and  Italy,  and 
Bianchi  composed  the  opera  of  <Inez  de  Castro^ 
expressly  for  her  performance  at  Naples. 

Billion,  in  Great  Britain  and  Germany,  the 
term  used  to  denote  a  million  millions.  In 
France,  America,  and  elsewhere  it  denotes  a 
thousand  millions.  A  similar  difiference  is 
found  in  the  use  of  the  terms  trillion,  quad- 
rillion, etc. 

Billiton,  East  Indies,  an  island  belonging 
to  Holland,  lying  between  Banca  and  the  south- 
west of  Borneo,  of  an  irregular  sub-quadrangu- 
lar form,  about  40  miles  across;  area,  1,863 
square  miles.      Pop.   (1897)  41,558. 

Billon,  an  alloy  of  copper  and  silver,  in 
which  the  former  predominates,  formerly  used 
in  Austria  and  Germany  for  coins  of  low  value, 
the  object  being  to  avoid  the  bulkiness  of  pure 
copper  coin. 

Billroth,  Theodor,  German  surgeon:  b. 
Bergen,  on  the  island  of  Riigen,  26  April  1829; 
d.  6  Feb.  1894.  He  was  educated  at  Griefswald, 
Gottingen,  and  Berlin  ;  was  professor  of  surgery 
at  the  University  of  Zurich  in  i860,  and  at 
Vienna  in  1867;  in  the  war  of  1870-1,  he  worked 
in  German  hospitals  on  the  Rhine.  He  was  one 
of  the  foremost  surgeons  of  the  day,  not  only 
as  an  operator,  but  as  an  authority  on  micro- 
scopic   work,    pathology,    and    military    surgery. 

Billy-boy,  a  flat-bottomed,  bluff-bowed 
vessel  rigged  as  a  sloop,  with  a  mast  that  can  be 
lowered  so  as  to  admit  of  passing  under  bridges. 
They  generally  belong  to  the  Humber  ports. 

Bilney,  Thomas,  "Little  Bilney'^  :  b.  prob- 
ably at  Norwich,  about  1495 ;  d.  Norwich,  19 
Aug.  1531.  He  studied  at  Trinity  Hall,  Cam- 
bridge, and  was  ordained  in  1519.  He  was  op- 
posed to  the  formal  *'good  works'*  of  the  School- 
men, and  denounced  saint-  and  relic-worship ; 
and  to  these  plain  Protestant  views  he  converted 
Hugh  Latimer  and  other  young  Cambridge  men. 
In  1527  he  was  arraigned  before  Wolsey,  and  on 
recanting  absolved,  but  was  confined  in  the 
Tower  for  over  a  year.  Stung  by  remorse,  after 
two  years  of  suffering,  he  began  to  preach  in  the 
fields  of  Norfolk,  but  was  soon  apprehended  and 
condemned ;  and  although  reconciled  once  more 
to  the  Church,  he  had  to  suffer  the  penalty  of 
heresy,  and  was  burned  to  death. 

Biloxi,  bil-oks'i.  Miss.,  a  city  in  Harrison 
County,  on  Biloxi  Bay,  opening  into  the  Gulf 
of  Mexico,  and  the  Louisville  &  N.  R.  R. ;  80 
miles  northeast  of  New  Orleans.  It  is  princi- 
pally engaged  in  the  canning  of  oysters,  fish, 
fruit,  and  vegetables,  and  has  also  considerable 
manufacturing  and  shipping  interests,  Biloxi 
is  the  site  of  the  first  settlement  made  upon  the 
Mississippi  by  white  men,  under  the  direction  of 
Pierre  Le  Moyne  d'Iberville,  in  1699.  Pop. 
(1900)  5,467. 

Biloxi  Indians,  one  of  the  10  groups  of 
tribes  into  which  the  Siouan  stock  of  North 
American  Indians  is  divided.  In  1669  they  had 
one  village  on  Biloxi  Bay  near  the  Gulf  of  Mex- 
ico. Thirty  years  later  there  were  three  villages, 
Biloxi,  Paskagula,  and   Moctobi.     A  few  survi- 


vors of  the  tribe  are  still  to  be  found  near 
Lecompte,  Rapides  Parish,  La. 

Bilson,  Thomas,  English  divine:  b.  Win- 
chester, 1547;  d.  1616.  He  was  educated  at  Win- 
chester School,  and  after  completing  his  studies 
at  New  College,  Oxford,  became  successively 
head  master  of  the  school  and  canon  of  the 
cathedral  of  Winchester.  In  1585  he  published 
a  work,  entitled  *The  True  Difference  Between 
Christian  Submission  and  Anti-Christian  Re- 
bellion,* intended  mainly  to  defend  the  govern- 
ment and  policy  of  Elizabeth;  and  in  1593 
another  work,  entitled  *The  Perpetual  Govern- 
ment of  Christ's  Church,*  still  considered  one  of 
the  ablest  defenses  of  episcopacy.  In  1596  he 
was  made  bishop  of  Worcester,  and  was  trans- 
ferred in  the  following  year  to  Winchester.  In 
1603  Bilson  preached  the  coronation  sermon 
before  James  I.,  and  in  1604  he  took  a  promi- 
nent part  in  the  celebrated  conference  at  Hamp- 
ton Court.  The  translation  of  the  Bible,  exe- 
cuted during  the  reign  of  James,  was  partly 
submitted  to  his  revision.  He  was  buried  in  the 
south  side  of  Westminster  Abbey. 

Bilsted.     See  Liquidambar. 

Bilston,  England,  a  town  in  Staffordshire, 
three  miles  southeast  from  Wolverhampton. 
Pop.  (1901)  24,034. 

Bimetallism.  Gold  and  silyer  have  been 
used  as  money  for  thousands  of  years,  both 
the  Old  Testament  and  profane  history  mak- 
ing frequent  reference  to  such  use  of  the  pre- 
cious metals.     See  Numismatics. 

As  time  went  on  the  metals  were  coined  into 
convenient  pieces,  and  the  weight  and  fineness 
of  the  coins  guaranteed  by  the  government. 
Finally,  a  legal  ratio  between  the  metals  was 
fixed  and  the  coins  made  a  tender  in  payment 
of  debts. 

The  term  bimetallism  is  employed  to  describe 
a  financial  system  wherein  gold  and  silver  are 
used  as  standard  money  and  coined  without 
limit  at  a  fixed  ratio.  Bimetallism  proper  im- 
plies, first,  that  the  money  unit  shall  rest  upon 
two  metals;  second,  that  these  metals  shall 
enjoy  equal  and  unlimited  coinage  privileges: 
third,  that  they  shall  be  connected  by  a  fixed 
and  definite  legal  ratio;  and  fourth,  that  the 
coins  made  from  them  shall  be  a  full  legal  ten- 
der. 

The  term  "limping  bimetallism**  has  been 
applied  to  systems  wherein  gold  and  silver  were 
used  as  standard  money,  but  in  which  one  of 
the  metals  was  not  coined  at  all,  or  not  coined 
on  equal  terms  with  the  other.  The  term,  free 
coinage,  has  sometimes  been  used  to  mean  un- 
limited coinage  and  sometimes  to  mean  gratu- 
itous coinage.  Unlimited  coinage  is  necessary 
to  a  complete  bimetallic  system.  When  coinage 
is  limited  the  volume  of  standard  money  is  regu- 
lated by  law  ;  when  coinage  is  unlimited  the  vol- 
ume depends,  first,  upon  the  total  accumulation 
of  coin,  and,  second,  upon  the  annual  produc- 
tion of  the  money  metals.  This  sum  is  further 
augmented  by  the  coinage  of  gold  and  silver 
plate  when  money  becomes  scarce,  or  lessened 
by  an  increased  demand  for  gold  and  silver  in 
the  arts  when  money  becomes  plentiful. 

Gratuitous  coinage  is  not  necessary  to  bi- 
metallism, although  it  usually  accompanies  it. 
A  charge  can  be  made  for  mintage  without  de- 
stroying the  bimetallic  character  of  the  system, 
but  such   a  charge  necessarily  creates  a  differ- 


BIMETALLISM 


ence  between  the  coinage  and  the  bullion  value  of 
the  metal.  When  coinage  is  gratuitous  melted 
coin  can  be  recoined  without  loss ;  when  there  is 
a  mint  charge  melted  coin  loses  an  amount  equal 
to  the  cost  of  coinage.  The  <*melting  pot  test'^ 
is,  therefore,  not  a  test  of  honest  money. 

Bimetallism  does  not  rest  upon  any  particu- 
lar ratio ;  the  coinage  ratio  is  fixed  by  law,  and 
can  be  changed  by  law.  The  ratio  simply  states 
the  proportion  existing  between  the  silver  dollar 
and  the  gold  dollar  when  measured  by  weight  — 
that  is,  at  the  ratio  of  i6  to  i,  the  silver  dollar 
weighs  i6  times  as  much  as  the  gold  dollar. 
While  the  legal  and  commercial  ratios  between 
the  metals  have  fluctuated  from  time  to  time 
the  legal  ratio  has,  as  a  rule,  caused  the  change 
in  the  commercial  ratio,  and  from  the  begin- 
ning of  history  down  to  1873  the  fluctuations  in 
the  commercial  ratio  were  never  as  sudden  or  as 
great  as  they  have  been  since  1873.  During  the 
400  years  which  elapsed  between  1473  and  1873 
the  extreme  variation  in  the  commercial  ratio 
was  from  14  to  i  to  16  to  i,  although  during 
that  period  there  were  greater  changes  in  the 
relative  production  of  the  metals  than  have 
occurred  since.  For  instance,  between  1800  and 
1840  the  world's  production  of  silver  was  about 
4  to  I  in  value,  compared  with  the  production 
of  gold ;  after  the  new  discoveries  of  gold  in 
1849  the  production  of  that  metal  so  increased 
that  the  annual  output  of  gold  was  soon 
more  than  3  to  i  in  value,  compared  with  the 
output  of  silver,  and  yet  during  this  tremen- 
dous change  in  relative  production  the  commer- 
cial ratio  was  comparatively  stable,  owing  to  the 
fact  that  all  the  gold  and  all  the  silver  could  go 
through  the  mints  into  the  world's  currency. 
Hostile  legislation  has  driven  the  metals  widely 
apart  since  1873  and  it  is  the  contention  of  bi- 
metallists  that  friendly  legislation  will  bring 
the  metals  together. 

The  ratio  of  16  to  i  is  the  one  advocated  by 
American  bimetallists,  first,  because  it  was  the 
ratio  existing  when  the  crusade  against  silver  be- 
gan ;  second,  because  it  is  the  ratio  now  existing 
between  the  silver  and  gold  coins  in  circulation 
in  the  United  States ;  and,  third,  because  an  in- 
crease in  the  ratio,  made  by  increasing  the  size 
of  the  silver  dollar,  would  to  the  extent  that  it 
vi^as  joined  in  by  other  nations  require  the  re- 
coinage  of  silver  coins  into  larger  coins,  and 
thus  reduce  the  world's  volume  of  standard 
money.  If,  for  instance,  the  ratio  were  changed 
to  32  to  I  by  international  agreement, 
and  the  silver  money  of  the  world,  ap- 
proximating $4,000,000,000,000,  were  recoined 
into  $2,000,000,000,  it  would  cause  a  shrinkage 
of  about  25  per  cent  in  the  total  volume  of 
metallic  money  and,  as  contracts  would  still  call 
for  the  same  number  of  dollars,  such  a  change 
in  the  ratio  would  transfer  billions  of  dollars 
in  value  from  the  wealth  producers  to  the  hold- 
ers of  fixed   investments. 

It  will  be  noticed  that  bimetallism  relates  to 
the  legal  status  of  the  metals  rather  than  to 
their  commercial  value,  and  does  not  neces- 
sarily imply  the  simultaneous  or  concurrent  cir- 
culation of  both  metals,  although  American  bi- 
metallists contend  that  the  restoration  of  free 
coinage  at  the  ratio  of  16  to  i  would  result  in 
the  concurrent  circulation  of  both  metals  in  this 
country.  When  the  ratio  was  15  to  i  in  this 
country  gold  went  to  a  premium  of  about  3  per 
cent  because  the  French  ratio  was   151^   to   i ; 


when  our  ratio  was  changed  to  16  to  i,  silver, 
being  undervalued  at  our  mint  as  compared  with 
its  value  at  the  French  mint,  rose  to  a  premium 
of  about  3  per  cent. 

The  Gresham  law  has  often  been  quoted 
against  bimetallism.  That  law  is  merely  a 
statement,  made  by  a  master  of  the  English  mint 
of  that  name,  who  announced  as  his  observa- 
tion that  the  bad  coins  ran  the  good  coins  out 
of  the  country  —  the  explanation  being  that 
while,  to  a  majority  of  the  people,  one  coin  was 
as  good  as  another  so  long  as  it  would  pass 
current,  the  jewelers  would  melt  and  the  deal- 
ers in  money  would  collect  and  export  the 
heaviest  coins  (coins  passing  by  weight  rather 
than  by  legal  tender  outside  of  their  own  coun- 
try). It  can  readily  be  seen  that  the  Gresham 
law  was  not  intended  to  apply  to  the  use  of  two 
metals,  and  that  it  can  apply  to  the  use  of  twc 
metals  only  when  there  is  dii^erence  between 
government  ratios.  When,  for  instance,  we  had 
a  ratio  of  15  to  I  in  this  country,  and  the 
French  ratio  was  155^  to  i,  there  was  a  tendency 
to  send  American  gold  to  France  and  bring 
French  silver  to  the  United  States,  and  yet 
this  tendency  did  not  cause  the  exportation  of  all 
American  gold  to  France  or  of  all  French  silver 
to  the  United  States.  France,  being  at  that 
time  the  stronger  nation  commercially,  fixed  the 
ratio  and  our  gold  rose  to  a  premium.  In  the 
payment  of  debts  silver  was  the  money  em- 
ployed, and  gold,  when  it  was  used,  was  used  at 
its  commodity  price.  After  1834  the  situation 
was  reversed  and  silver  went  to  a  premium. 
Gold  was  then,  used  for  the  payment  of  debts 
and  for  general  transactions,  and  silver,  when  it 
was  used,  brought  a  premium.  It  is  not  fair  to 
say,  however,  that  gold  went  out  of  circulation 
entirely  during  the  former  period  or  that  silver 
went  out  of  circulation  entirely  during  the  latter 
period,  for  a  great  deal  of  the  undervalued 
coin  remained  here  and  served  the  purpose  of 
money,  and  to  that  extent  relieved  the  pressure 
upon  other  kinds  of  money.  That  which  left 
our  country  in  exchange  for  another  kind  of 
metal  did  not  reduce  our  circulation,  and  the 
exported  coin  still  remained  a  part  of  the  cir- 
culation of  the  world  and  helped  to  fix  interna- 
tional prices. 

In  bimetallism  the  debtor  always  has  the 
option.  This  is  true,  not  because  of  a  desire  on 
the  part  of  the  government  to  favor  the  debtor, 
but  because  the  parity  can  be  maintained  in  no 
other  way.  If  the  debtor  has  the  option  the  de- 
sire of  all  debtors  to  secure  that  metal  which  is 
the  cheaper,  will  in  itself,  by  increasing  the  de- 
mand for  the  cheaper  metal  and  decreasing  the 
demand  for  the  dearer  metal,  tend  to  make  the 
commercial  value  of  the  metals  identical  with 
the  legal  value,  whereas,  through  the  operation 
of  the  same  selfishness,  the  metals  would  be 
driven  apart  if  the  creditor  had  the  option,  be- 
cause the  demand  of  the  creditors  for  the  dearer 
metal  would  still  further  increase  its  price,  while 
the  lessened  demand  for  the  cheaper  metal  would 
still  further  decrease  its  price. 

The  arguments  in  defense  of  the  bimetallic 
system  begin  with  the  self-evident  truth  that 
stability  in  purchasing  power  is  the  test  of  vir- 
tue or  honesty  in  money  —  that  dollar  being  the 
best  dollar  which  changes  least  from  year  to 
year  in  its  command  over  all  articles  of  mer- 
chandise. Stability  would  not  be  so  important 
if  all  transactions  were  on  a  cash  basis,  but  with 


BIMETALLISM 


fthe  increase  in  credits,  especially  long  time  cred- 
its, it  is  a  matter  of  vital  importance  to  have 
the  purchasing  power  of  the  dollar  fluctuate  as 
Jittle  as  possible.  Jacobs,  in  his  work  on  the 
precious  metals,  shows  that  an  increase  of  2 
per  cent  a  year  in  the  purchasing  power  of  the 
dollar  would  amount  to  an  increase  of  500  per 
cent  in  100  years.  It  will  be  seen,  therefore, 
that  the  burden  of  national  debts  and  other  long- 
time securities  may  be  materially  increased  or 
decreased  by  a  change  in  the  purchasing  power 
■of  the  dollar. 

That  the  value  or  purchasing  power  of  the 
dollar  depends  upon  the  number  of  dollars  has 
been  declared  to  be,  and  correctly  so,  the  most 
fundamental  principal  in  the  science  of  money. 
To  illustrate :  if  the  business  of  the  world  is 
adjusted  to  a  certain  volume  of  money,  and  that 
volume  of  money  is  afterward  suddenly  doubled, 
prices  will  necessarily  rise,  because  there  will  be 
more  money  with  which  to  purchase  other 
things.  If,  on  the  other  hand,  the  volume  of 
money  is  suddenly  reduced  one  half  prices  will 
fall  because  of  the  scarcity  of  money.  Next  to 
absolute  stability  in  the  purchasing  power  of 
the  dollar  or  unit,  the  most  desirable  thing  is 
that  any  necessary  change  in  the  purchasing 
power  of  the  dollar  shall  be  gradual  rather  than 
sudden,  and  a  sudden  change  in  the  value  of  the 
•dollar  can  only  be  prevented  by  the  prevention 
■of  a  sudden  change  in  the  volume  of  money. 
When  it  is  remembered  that  the  money  changer 
and  the  owner  of  fixed  investments  profit  by  a 
rising  dollar  it  is  easy  to  understand  why  they 
have  always  led  the  movements  in  favor  of 
scarce  money. 

Dr.  Sturtevant  in  his  book,  entitled  *^  Eco- 
nomics, or  the  Science  of  Wealth,^  illustrates 
the  gradual  change  in  the  volume  of  metallic 
money  as  follows : 

^*Go]d  and  silver,  considered  as  a  standard 
value,  are  an  ocean  flowing  around  the  whole 
■economic  world,  and  very  large  additions  at  two 
or  three  points  are  immediately  distributed  to 
every  part.'* 

The  quantity  of  metallic  money  is  so  great 
that  the  annual  addition  to  it  is  small  in  com- 
parison. 

Bimetallism  is  theoretically  better  than  mono- 
metallism (either  of  gold  or  silver),  because 
imder  the  double  or  bimetallic  standard  the  vol- 
ume of  money  changes  less  rapidly  and  less 
suddenly  than  under  the  single  standard.  Thus 
far  history  has  shown  no  instance  of  a  large 
simultaneous  increase  in  the  production  of  both 
gold  and  silver.  There  was  an  enormous  in- 
crease in  the  production  of  silver  during  the 
i6th  century ;  then  there  was  a  great  increase 
in  the  production  of  gold  during  the  year  1849 
and  the  years  immediately  following.  Early  in 
the  'seventies  there  was  another  increase  in  the 
production  of  silver  and  we  are  just  now  enjoy- 
ing a  considerable  increase  in  the  production  of 
gold.  In  each  instance  the  increase  in  the  pro- 
duction of  one  metal  has  spread  itself  over  the 
entire  volume  of  money  and  has,  therefore, 
caused  a  less  proportionate  increase  than  it  would 
have  caused  had  the  world  been  using  but  one 
me'V'jl,  either  gold  or  silver,  as  standard  money. 

The  superior  stability  of  the  bimetallic  sys- 
tem over  the  monometallic  system  has  been 
shown  by  many  illustrations,  the  most  familiar 
being  that  which  likens  the  volume  of  money  to 

\'ol.    2—41. 


a  body  ot  water  receiving  the  inflow  from  two 
rivers  instead  of  one. 

The  practical  argument  in  favor  of  bi> 
metallism  is  that  neither  metal  alone  furnishes  a 
sufficient  quantity  of  money  to  support  the 
world's  commerce.  Bimetallism  is,  therefore, 
actually  necessary  as  well  as  theoretically  ad- 
vantageous. This  phase  of  the  question  was  not 
much  considered  until  after  1873  because,  prior 
to  that  date,  there  were  sufficient  mints  open  to 
the  coinage  of  both  metals  to  furnish  a  mone- 
tary use  for  every  ounce  produced.  When  all  of 
the  gold  and  silver  available  for  coinage  could 
go  through  the  mints  into  the  currency,  each 
nation  could  consider  the  question  from  a'  purely 
theoretical  standpoint,  because  so  long  as  the 
commercial  world  had  the  benefit  of  the  entire 
volume  of  gold  and  silver,  it  did  not  make  so 
much  difference  how  many  nations  used  one 
metal,  or  the  other,  or  both.  When,  however, 
the_  crusade  against  silver  began  and  enough 
nations  joined  in  it  to  reduce  the  demand  for 
silver  below  the  supply  available  for  coinage, 
then  each  nation  was  compelled  to  consider  not 
only  its  preference  as  to  a  standard,  but  whether 
—  and  it  was  a  vital  question  —  it  was  always 
sure  of  having  a  sufficient  quantity  of  the  chosen 
metal. 

The  advocates  of  bimetallism  not  only  con- 
tend that  the  law  of  supply  and  demand  regu- 
lates the  value  of  the  dollar  —  an  increase  in  the 
demand,  the  supply  remaining  the  same,  raising 
the  purchasing  power  of  the  dollar,  and  an  in- 
crease in  the  supply,  the  demand  remaining  the 
same,  decreasing  the  purchasing  power  of  the 
dollar,  but  they  also  believe  that  supply  and  de- 
mand regulate  the  market  price  of  the  metals. 

The  contention  of  monometallists  that  it  is 
impossible  to  fix  a  relation  between  two  metals  is 
met  with  the  reply  that  the  relation  between  two 
things  of  limited  production,  such  as  gold  and 
silver,  can  be  fixed  by  any  nation  or  group  of 
nations  which  can  furnish  a  use  for  so  much  of 
both  metals  as  is  available  for  coinage.  Gold 
and  silver  differ  from  agricultural  products  in 
that  they  must  be  found  before  they  can  be  pro- 
duced. If  gold  and  silver  could  be  raised  from 
seed  and  cultivated  practically  without  limit,  as, 
for  instance,  corn  and  wheat  can  be,  it  would  be 
very  difficult  if  not  impossible  to  fix  a  relation 
between  them,  but  they  are  called  precious 
metals  because  they  are  scarce. 

The  demand  created  by  the  government  must 
be  considered  as  added  to  the  demand  created 
by  the  arts.  If  the  demand  created  by  the  gov- 
ernment is  sufficient  to  utilize  the  surplus  over 
and  above  what  the  arts  require,  the  commer- 
cial value  can  be  kept  up  to  the  coinage  value 
for  the  reason  that  each  owner  will  seek  the 
highest  possible  price,  and  so  long  as  the  gov- 
ernment stands  ready  to  convert  a  given  amount 
of  metal  into  a  given  amount  of  money,  he  will 
not  have  to  dispose  of  the  metal  to  any  one  else 
for  less  than  the  government  price.  If  the  gov- 
ernment, instead  of  standing  ready  to  convert 
one  metal  into  money,  stands  ready  to  convert 
two  metals  into  money,  it  can  make  the  com- 
mercial ratio  and  the  coinage  ratio  identical,  if 
there  is  a  use  for  the  money.  The  changes  in 
relative  production  would  not  affect  this  con- 
dition so  long  as  the  government  was  able  to 
utili;'e  all  of  the  surplus  of  both  metals. 

The  influence  exerted  by  the  legal  ratio  oa 
the    commercial    ratio   is   well   described  by  the 


BIMETALLISM 


Royal  Commission  of  England,  which  in  its 
report  of  1888  said :  «Nor  does  it  appear  to  us 
a  priori  unreasonable  to  suppose  that  the  exist- 
ence in  the  Latin  Union  of  a  bimetallic  sys- 
tem with  a  ratio  of  15^  to  i  fixed  between  the 
two  metals,  should  have  been  capable  of  keep- 
ing the  market  price  of  silver  steady  at  approxi- 
mately that  rate.  The  view  that  it  could  only 
affect  the  market  price  to  the  extent  to  which 
there  was  a  demand  for  it  for  currency  pur- 
poses in  the  Latin  Union,  or  to  which  it  was 
actually  taken  to  the  mints  of  those  countries  is, 
we  think,  fallacious.  The  fact  that  the  owner  of 
silver  could,  in  the  last  resort,  take  it  to  those 
mints  and  have  it  converted  into  coin  which 
would  purchase  commodities,  at  the  ratio  of 
15^/2  of  silver  to  i  of  gold,  would,  in  our  opin- 
ion, be  likely  to  affect  the  price  of  silver  in  the 
market  generally,  whoever  the  purchaser  and 
for  whatever  country  it  was  destined.  It  would 
enable  the  holder  of  the  silver  to  stand  out  for  a 
price  approximating  to  the  legal  ratio  and  would 
tend  to  keep  the  market  steady  at  about  that 
point.^' 

Independent  bimetallists  and  international  bi- 
metallists  agree  as  to  the  theoretical  and  prac- 
tical benefits  of  the  double  standard,  but  differ 
as  to  the  ability  of  the  United  States  to  main- 
tain the  parity  alone,  the  former  believing,  and 
the  latter  denying,  that  under  conditions  as  they 
now  exist  our  nation  is  able  to  utilize  all  the 
silver  that  could  come  to  our  mint. 

If  our  government  offered  to  coin  into  mone}^ 
at  a  fixed  ratio  every  ounce  of  gold  and  silver 
presented  at  the  mint,  the  supply  brought  to 
the  mint  would  necessarily  come  from  one  of 
three  sources  —  that  is,  from  silver  bullion  al- 
ready in  existence,  from  silver  coin  of  other 
countries,  or  from  the  annual  product  of  the 
mines. 

As  there  is  no  considerable  quantity  of  silver 
held  in  the  form  of  bullion,  there  could  be  no 
material  increase  in  our  coinage  from  that 
source. 

Whether  silver  coin  would  come  to  our  mint 
from  other  countries  would  depend  entirely  upon 
the  ratio.  The  fear  that,  under  bimetallism,  our 
country  would  be  flooded  with  the  coined  sil- 
ver of  the  world,  is  entirely  without  founda- 
tion, for  the  reason  that  our  ratio,  16  to  i,  is 
more  favorable  to  gold  than  the  ratio  existing 
between  gold  and  silver  in  the  nations  that  have 
a  large  quantity  of  silver  coin.  France,  for 
instance,  is  the  largest  European  holder  of  sil- 
ver, but  as  her  silver  now  circulates  on  a  parity 
with  gold  at  a  ratio  of  15^  to  i,  it  could  only 
come  here  at  a  loss  equivalent  to  about  three 
cents  on  the  dollar. 

Whether  the  mines  would  furnish  an  exces- 
sive amount  of  silver  is  a  question  about  which 
no  one  could  speak  positively,  because  no  one 
can  foresee  new  discoveries  or  estimate  the 
possible  exhaustion  of  mines  now  being  worked. 
There  is,  however,  nothing  in  the  past  to  jus- 
tify a  fear  of  over-production. 

Raising  the  government  price  of  a  precious 
metal  does  not  necessarily  increase  the  pro- 
duction of  it,  neither  does  the  lowering  of  the 
price  necessarily  reduce  the  production.  For 
instance,  the  law  of  1834  reduced  the  govern- 
ment price  of  gold,  and  yet  soon  afterward 
there  was  a  wonderful  increase  in  the  produc- 
tion of  gold.  The  discoveries  of  silver  follow- 
ing   1870    were    not    brought    about    by    an    in- 


crease in  the  price  of  silver,  and  for  several: 
years  the  production  of  silver  increased,  even, 
with  a  falling  market.  The  monetary  use  of  gold> 
and  silver  is  the  controlling  use.  If,  by  agree- 
ment among  all  the  nations,  the  legal  tender 
function  was  withdrawn  from  both  gold  and 
silver,  and  other  money  substituted  for  them, 
both  would  fall  in  value,  just  how  much  no- 
one  knows,  because  a  fall  in  the  price  of  either 
of  the  metals  would  develop  new  uses  and  thus 
increase  the  demand,  which,  in  its  turn,  would 
act  with  the  supply  in  determining  the  ulti- 
mate price.  While  it  is  probable  that  a  higher 
price  for  silver  bullion  would  cause  the  re-open- 
ing of  some  mines  which  have  been  abandoned 
because  of  the  low  price  of  silver,  the  production 
of  silver  would  not  be  likely  to  be  increased  to 
any  such  extent  as  has  been  imagined. 

It  is  not  out  of  place  to  refer,  in  this  con- 
nection, to  another  matter  which  has  been  the 
subject  of  much  speculation,  namely,  the  cost 
of  producing  gold  and  silver.  The  labor  cost 
has  less  influence  on  the  price  of  gold  and  silver 
than  upon  products  of  the  soil.  In  the  case- 
of  agricultural  products,  an  attempt  to  raise  the 
price  of  anj'  kind  of  crop  much  above  the 
cost  of  production  would  immediately  be  fol- 
lowed by  such  an  increase  in  the  crop  as  to 
at  once  cause  a  supply  that  would  reduce  the 
price.  If,  on  the  other  hand,  the  cost  of  pro- 
ducing a  particular  kind  of  crop  is  increased 
out  of  proportion  to  the  price,  the  production 
will  fall  off  until  the  scarcity  of  the  article 
raises  the  price.  In  the  case  of  the  precious 
metals,  however,  the  supply  cannot  be  in- 
creased at  will,  and  therefore  the  price  does 
not  necessarily  vary  with  the  cost  of  production. 
If,  for  illustration,  all  the  gold  mines  were  to 
be  exhausted  excepting  one,  and  this  one  mine 
began  producing  just  the  amount  that  all  the 
mines  now  produce,  but  no  more,  the  price  of 
gold  would  remain  the  same  whether  it  was 
produced  at  $1.00  an  ounce  or  at  i  cent  an 
omice. 

We  have  no  means  of  ascertaining  the  labor 
cost  of  either  gold  or  silver.  About  10  years  ago 
the  director  of  the  mint  was  asked  for  statistics 
in  regard  to  the  labor  cost  of  producing  gold 
and  silver,  and  his  reply  was  that  there  were 
no  statistics  in  regard  to  gold  and  none  of  any 
value  in  regard  to  silver,  because  the  statistics 
were  gathered  from  the  mines  in  operation  and 
did  not  include  the  money  expended  in  prospect- 
ing and  in  mines  that  had  ceased  to  produce. 
No  two  mines  in  the  world  have  produced 
either  gold  or  silver  at  the  same  cost  for  any 
considerable  period.  If  we  take  into  account 
the  money  spent  in  prospecting  and  the  money 
spent  in  the  purchase  of  claims  that  have  proven 
worthless,  as  well  as  the  money  invested  in 
machinery  and  other  appliances,  it  is  probable 
that  more  than  $1.00  has  been-  expended  for 
every  dollar  of  either  gold  or  silver  taken  out 
of  the  earth,  and  it  is  also  probable  that,  dol- 
lar for  dollar,  it  has  cost  less  to  produce  gold 
than  silver;  first,  because  gold  is  often  found  in 
nuggets,  while  silver  is  found  in  veins,  and 
second,  because  gold  is  often  found  on  the  sur- 
face, while  silver  is,  as  a  rule,  a  deep-mine 
product. 

Space  does  not  permit  a  history-  of  the  con- 
flict between  the  standards  in  Europe.  England. 
has  maintained  the  gold  standard  for  about  a 
century  and  has  exerted  a  controlling  influence- 


BIMETALLISM 


on  several  other  European  nations.  During 
this  period  France,  although  free  coinage  is  now 
suspended,  has  been  the  most  loyal  supporter 
of  bimetallism  and  as  late  as  1897  offered  to 
join  the  United  States  in  the  restoration  of 
coinage,  provided  England  and  Germany  would 
do  likewise. 

After  the  gold  discoveries  of  1849,  the  Euro- 
pean financiers  became  alarmed  lest  the  in- 
creased production  of  the  yellow  metal  would 
largely  aid  debtors,  and  there  was  quite  a  senti- 
ment in  favor  of  the  demonitization  of  gold. 
Writers  like  Chevalier  were  complaining  that 
holders  of  fixed  investments  were  in  danger 
of  suffering  from  a  cheap  gold  dollar.  It  was 
exactly  the  same  argument  that  was  made  against 
the  white  metal  a  little  later  when  the  Comstock 
lode  and  other  rich  deposits  of  silver  were  dis- 
covered. 

Bimetallism  in  the  United  States. —  The  bi- 
metallic standard  was  recommended  by  Jeffer- 
son and  Hamilton,  and  adopted  by  our  govern- 
ment by  a  statute  approved  by  George  Wash- 
ington 2  April  1792.  This  law  provided  for  the 
free  and  unlimited  coinage  of  silver  and  gold  at 
the  ratio  of  15  to  i,  the  coins  being  equally 
a  legal  tender  for  all  debts  public  and  private. 
The  Spanish  milled  dollar  then  in  use  in  this 
country  contained  the  same  amount  of  pure  sil- 
ver as  our  present  silver  dollar  and,  the  ratio 
of  15  to  I  having  been  adopted,  the  gold  dollar 
was  made  to  weigh  one  fifteenth  as  much.  The 
silver  dollars  then  coined  (many  of  which  are 
now  in  existence),  are  sometimes  called  the 
**unit  dollars,^'  because  they  have  on  the  edge 
the  following  inscription :  ^'Hundred  Cents,  One 
Dollar,  or  Unit." 

In  1834  (28  June)  the  ratio  was  changed 
from  15  to  I  to  15.988+  to  i,  which  for  con- 
venience has  been  called  16  to  i.  The  change 
was  made  for  the  purpose  of  checking  the 
exportation  of  gold,  but  as  the  new  ratio  under- 
valued silver  it  made  gold  the  money  in  general 
use.  This  law,  supported  by  Thomas  H.  Ben- 
ton, and  approved  by  Andrew  Jackson,  provided 
for  the  free  and  unlimited  coinage  of  gold  and 
silver  into  full  legal  tender  money  at  the  new 
ratio.  In  1837  (28  January)  the  alloy  in  the 
dollar,  both  gold  and  silver,  was  changed  from 
one  twelfth  to  one  tenth,  making  the  weight  of 
the  standard  silver  dollar  41214  grains,  nine 
tenths  fine,  and  the  weight  of  the  standard  gold 
dollar  258-10  grains,  nine  tenths  fine. 

As  the  law  of  1834  undervalued  silver  and 
led  to  the  exportation  of  considerable  quantities 
of  it,  it  became  difficult  to  keep  fractional  cur- 
rency in  circulation,  and  to  remed}'-  this  the 
law  of  1853  was  enacted.  By  the  terms  of  this 
law  subsidiary  silver  (that  is,  coins  of  less  de- 
nomination than  $1.00),  were  reduced  from  full 
weight  to  light  weight  and  made  token  money, 
with  limited  legal  tender,  instead  of  standard 
money.  This  law,  however,  did  not  change  the 
provision  in  regard  to  the  standard  silver  dol- 
lar, the  free  and  unlimited  coinage  of  that 
dollar  still  continuing.  The  subsidiary  silver 
coins  were  redeemable  in  the  standard  mone\% 
either  gold  or  silver.  Sometimes  the  Act  of 
1834  has  been  referred  to  as  establishing  the 
gold  standard,  but  this  is  erroneous.  It  merely 
changed  the  ratio  and  that,  too,  by  reducing  the 
weight  of  the  dearer  dollar,  not  by  increasing 
the  cheaper  dollar.  Equally  erroneous  is  the 
assertion  that  the  Act  of   1853    established  the 


gold  standard.  That  did  not  in  the  least 
change  the  law  relating  to  the  standard  money, 
either  gold  or  silver. 

On  12  July  1873  the  demonetization  of  silver 
was  eft'ected  by  an  act  entitled  "An  Act  Re- 
vising and  Amending  the  Laws  Relative  to  the 
Mints,  Assay  Offices,  and  Coinage  of  the  United 
States. ^^  (A  similar  law  having  the  same  pur- 
pose had  just  before  been  enacted  in  England, 
and  a  copy  of  it  delivered  to  the  director  of  our 
mint.) 

When  this  law  was  passed  the  business  of 
the  country  was  being  transacted  with  paper 
money,  both  gold  and  silver  being  at  a  pre- 
mium—  silver  at  a  greater  premium  than  gold. 
No  attention  was  being  paid  to  the  subject  of 
metallic  money  and  the  purpose  of  the  law  of 
1873  was  not  generally  understood.  In  making 
provision  for  silver  coinage  it  omitted  the  coin- 
age of  the  standard  silver  dollar,  and  substituted 
for  it  a  trade  dollar  of  420  grains  which  was 
intended  for  use  in  the  Orient,  it  being  thought 
that  the  trade  dollar  would  compete  with  the 
Mexican  dollar  in  China  and  other  Eastern 
countries.  In  1874  (20  January)  the  Federal  stat- 
utes were  revised,  and  in  this  revision  a  clause 
was  inserted  limiting  the  legal  tender  of  silver 
coins  to  $5.00.  Neither  the  Act  of  1873  "or  the 
Act  of  1874  was  generally  discussed,  and  it  is 
only  the  recognition  of  a  well-settled  fact  of 
history  to  say  that  this  discrimination  against 
silver  and  in  favor  of  gold  was  not  known 
among  the  people  and  not  thoroughly  discussed 
even  in  Congress.  When  the  matter  became 
known  an  active  agitation  for  the  restoration  of 
silver  at  once  began,  and  nearly  all  of  those 
who  voted  for  the  measure  denied  that  they 
knew  that  the  Act  of  1873  was  intended  to 
demonetize  silver. 

The  suspension  of  silver  coinage  by  the 
United  States  alone  would  not  have  caused  a 
fall  in  the  price  of  silver  as  measured  with  gold, 
but  other  nations  joining  in  the  demonetization 
of  silver  it  soon  became  apparent  that  the  mints 
still  open  could  not  utilize  all  the  silver  avail- 
able for  coinage,  and  the  gold  price  of  silver 
began  to  decline.  The  effort  to  reopen  the  mints 
to  silver  resulted  in  the  passage  of  what  was 
known  as  the  Bland-Allison  Act.  The  bill,  as  it 
passed  the  House,  under  the  _  leadership  of 
Richard  P.  Bland,  of  Missouri,  restored  the 
free  and  unlimited  coinage  of  gold  and  silver 
at  the  ratio  of  16  to  i.  The  opposition  in  the 
Senate  was  sufficient,  however,  to  defeat  the 
bill  in  its  original  form,  and  to  compel  the  ac- 
ceptance of  a  substitute  framed  by  Senator  Alli- 
son, whose  name  was  thus  connected  with  the 
law.  This  compromise  measure  provided  that 
there  should  be  ^'coined  at  the  several  mints  of 
the  United  States  silver  dollars  of  the  weight  of 
412^  grains  troy  of  standard  silver  as  provided 
by  the  Act  of  January  1837.'*  and  also  provided 
that  such  silver  dollars  "together  with  all  silver 
dollars  heretofore  coined  by  the  United  States 
of  like  weight  and  fineness''  should  be  "a  legal 
tender  at  their  nominal  value  for  all  debts  and 
dues  public  and  private,  except  where  otherwise 
expressly  stipulated  in  the  contract. '' 

It  will  be  seen  that  this  law  restored  the 
coinage  of  silver  dollars  under  the  law  of  1837, 
but  did  not  contain  the  former  provision  in  re- 
gard to  the  unlimited  coinage  of  silver  on 
private  account  as  gold  was  then  and  is  now 
coined.     In  order  to  secure  the  bullion  out  of 


BIMETALLISM 


which  to  coin  the  dollars  mentioned  in  the  Act 
of  1878,  the  law  provided  ^<that  the  secretary  of 
the  treasury  is  authorized  and  directed  to  pur- 
chase, from  time  to  time,  silver  bullion,  at  the 
market  price  thereof,  not  less  than  $2,000,000 
worth  per  month,  nor  more  than  $4,000,000 
worth,  and  cause  the  same  to  be  coined  monthlj^, 
as  fast  as  so  purchased,  into  such  dollars.'^ 

In  carrying  out  the  provisions  of  the  law,  the 
Treasury  Department  purchased  the  minimum 
required  rather  than  the  maximum  permitted. 

It  will  be  seen,  also,  that  while  the  silver 
dollar  was  restored  to  general  legal  tender,  a 
provision  was  inserted  that  permitted  the  exclu- 
sion of  the  dollar  by  private  contract  —  that  is, 
private  individuals  were  permitted  to  discrimi- 
nate against  silver,  although  they  were  not 
permitted  to  discriminate  against  gold.  The 
purchase  of  silver  for  coinage  under  this  act 
retarded  the  fall  in  the  price  of  silver,  but  as  it 
did  not  consume  the  entire  surplus  it  was  not 
sufficient  to  restore  the  price  of  bullion  to  the 
coinage  price  of  $1.29  an  ounce. 

The  Bland-Allison  Act  remained  on  the 
statute  books  until  1890,  when  it  was  repealed 
by  what  was  known  as  the  Sherman  Purchase 
Act,  which  provided  for  the  purchase  of 
4,500,000  ounces  of  silver  per  month,  or  so 
much  thereof  as  might  be  offered  at  a  price  not 
exceeding  the  coinage  value,  the  bullion  to  be 
paid  for  by  the  issue  of  treasury  notes,  redeem- 
able in  coin,  and  after  the  first  of  July  1891  only 
so  much  of  the  silver  was  to  be  coined  as  was 
necessary  to  redeem  the  treasury  notes  pre- 
sented. 

This  act  immediately  increased  the  demand 
for  silver  and  raised  the  price  of  silver  bullion, 
not  only  in  the  United  States,  but  all  over  the 
world,  to  about  $1.21  an  ounce.  But  when  it 
was  found  that  even  this  demand  was  not  suffi- 
cient to  utilize  all  the  surplus  silver,  the  price 
again  began  to  fall. 

Secretary  Rusk,  in  the  Agricultural  Report 
of  1890,  called  attention  to  the  fact  that  the 
Sherman  Purchase  Law  raised  the  price  of  sil- 
ver and  declared  that  that  rise  in  price  ^'unques- 
tionably had  much  to  do  with  the  recent  ad- 
vance in  the  price  of  cereals,"  and  added,  '*the 
same  cause  has  advanced  the  price  of  wheat  in 
Russia  and  India,  and  in  the  same  degree  re- 
duced their  power  of  competition.  English 
gold  was  formerly  exchanged  for  cheap  silver, 
and  wheat  purchased  with  the  cheap  silver  metal 
was  sold  in  Great  Britain  for  gold.  Much  of 
this  advantage  is  lost  by  the  appreciation  of 
silver  in  those  countries." 

The  Sherman  Act  w-as  also  a  compromise, 
urged  by  the  opponents  of  silver  to  prevent  the 
passage  of  a  free  coinage  law.  Mr.  Sherman, 
in  his  ^Recollections,^  published  in  1895,  thus 
speaks  of  the  strength  of  the  free  silver  move- 
ment, and  of  the  purpose  of  the  compromise : 

"A  large  majority  of  the  Senate  favored 
free  silver,  and  it  was  feared  that  the  small 
majority  against  it  in  the  other  House  might 
yield  and  agree  to  it.  The  silence  of  the  Presi- 
dent on  the  matter  gave  rise  to  an  apprehension 
that  if  a  free  coinage  bill  should  pass  both 
Houses  he  would  not  feel  at  liberty  to  veto  it. 
Some  action  had  to  be  taken  to  prevent  a  re- 
turn to  free  silver  coinage,  and  the  measure 
evolved  was  the  best  obtainable.  I  voted  for  it. 
but  the  day   it  became  a  law  I   was  ready  to 


repeal  it,  if  repeal  could  be  had  without  sub- 
stituting in  its  place  absolute  free  coinage." 

The  treasury  notes  issued  in  the  purchase  of 
silver  were  made  a  legal  tender  for  the  payment 
of  all  debts  public  and  private,  except  where 
excluded  by  contract,  and  were  redeemable  by 
the  secretary  of  the  treasury  "in  gold  or  silver 
coin  at  his  discretion."  It  will  be  seen  that  the 
option  as  to  the  coin  of  payment  was  reserved 
to  the  government,  but  another  clause  in  the 
measure  which  declared  it  to  be  ''the  estab- 
lished policy  of  the  United  States  to  maintain 
the  two  metals  on  a  parity  with  each  other 
upon  the  present  legal  ratio  or  such  ratio  as  may 
be  provided  by  the  law,"  was  afterward  con- 
strued by  the  Treasury  Department  to  deprive 
the  secretary  of  the  option.  At  any  rate  the 
department  adopted  the  policy  of  paying  in  gold 
when  .gold  was  demanded,  and  although  Secre- 
tary Carlisle  afterward  declared  before  one  of 
the  House  committees  that  it  would  have  been 
better  for  the  government  to  have  reserved  the 
option,  he,  when  he  came  into  office,  followed 
the  precedent  set  by  his  predecessor. 

This  ruling  of  the  Treasury  Department  was 
followed  by  the  presentation  of  treasury  notes 
and  a  demand  for  gold,  and  the  drain  upon 
gold  which  followed  was  used  as  an  argument  in 
favor  of  the  repeal  of  the  purchase  clause  of 
the  law.  The  treasury  note  was  declared  to  be 
an  endless  chain,  although  it  only  became 
an  endless  chain  when  the  department  surren- 
dered the  option  which  the  law  expressly  con- 
ferred upon  it.  It  may  be  added  that  the  same 
endless  chain  argument  has  been  made  against 
the  greenback,  and  can  be  made  against  the  sil- 
ver dollar  if  it  is  ever  made  specifically  redeem- 
able in  gold. 

What  has  sometimes  been  called  "the  silver 
movement"  began  with  the  discovery  of  the  ef- 
fect of  the  law  of  1873,  and  has  continued  with 
varying  force  ever  since.  It  was  called  the  sil- 
ver movement,  not  because  of  partiality  to 
silver,  but  because  silver  was  the  metal  dis- 
criminated against.  It  might  better  be  desig- 
nated as  the  bimetallic  movement,  because  it 
was  an  effort  to  restore  bimetallism,  and  the 
supporters  of  the  movement  asked  for  silver 
nothing  more  than  was  already  granted  to  gold. 
The  movement  did  not  originate  in  the  mining 
States,  but  extended  over  the  entire  country 
and  throughout  other  countries,  the  interest 
being  centred  in  silver  as  a  money  rather  than  in 
silver  as  a  metal. 

During  the  period  that  has  elapsed  since  1873 
three  international  conferences  have  been  held 
with  a  view  to  the  restoration  of  silver  (at  Paris 
in  1878  and  in  1881,  and  at  Brussels  in  1892), 
but  they  have  been  unsuccessful,  largely  because 
other  European  countries  have  hesitated  to  act 
without  England,  and  England,  being  largely  a 
creditor  nation,  has  been  unwilling  to  surrender 
the  advantage  which  a  rising  dollar  has  given 
her  in  the  increased  purchasing  power  of  her 
credits. 

In  the  summer  of  1893,  the  President,  giv- 
ing as  his  reason  the  suspension  of  the  coinage 
of  silver  in  India,  called  Congress  together  in 
extraordinary  session  and  recommended  the  un- 
conditional repeal  of  the  purchase  clause  of  the 
Sherman  Law.  Congressman  Wilson,  chairman 
of  the  Committee  of  Ways  and  _  Means,  and 
leader  of  the  administration  forces  in  the  House, 
introduced  a  bill  identical  in  purpose  and  almost 


BIMETALLISM 


identical  in  language  with  one  introduced  by 
Senator  Sherman  a  j-ear  before.  The  object  of 
this  bill  was  to  repeal  the  purchase  clause  of  the 
Sherman  Law  without  substituting  any  provi- 
sion for  the  further  coinage  of  silver.  It  was 
supported  by  all  who  were  opposed  to  bimetal- 
lism, and  by  some  who  declared  themselves  in 
favor  of  bimetallism  but  criticised  the  purchase 
of  silver  on  the  ground  that  it  was  contrary  to 
the  theory  of  bimetallism.  These  insisted  that  as 
soon  as  the  Sherman  Law  was  repealed  the  re- 
mainder of  the  Democratic  platform  would  be 
carried  out  and  bimetallic  coinage  re-established. 
-  A  few  were  induced  to  support  the  measure 
under  the  belief  that  the  suspension  of  silver 
coinage  here  would  force  European  nations  to  an 
agreement  for  the  restoration  of  bimetallism 
throughout  the  world.  After  a  prolonged  con- 
test this  bill  became  a  law  i  Nov.  1893.  Fol- 
lowing this  an  attempt  was  made  to  secure  the 
coinage  of  the  seigniorage  which  had  accumu- 
lated in  the  treasury'.  This  bill  passed  both 
Houses,  receiving  the  support  of  many  who  voted 
for  the  repeal  of  the  purchase  clause  of  the  Sher- 
man Law,  but  the  measure  was  vetoed  by  the 
President.  The  administration  then  attempted  to 
secure  the  passage  of  a  law  avithorizing  the  issue 
of  gold  bonds,  but  this  was  defeated  in  the 
House  of  Representatives. 

As  the  Act  of  1893  virtually  opened  the  cam- 
paign of  1896,  in  which  the  silver  question 
figured  so  prominently,  it  may  be  well  to  con- 
sider the  platforms  adopted  just  before  and  just 
after  that  date. 

During  the  period  extending  from  1873  to 
1896  the  platforms  of  the  two  leading  parties, 
while  more  or  less  ambiguous  on  the  money 
question,  recognized  the  advantages  of  the 
double  standard.  In  1884  the  Republican  plat- 
form declared  in  favor  of  an  international  con- 
ference to  fix  the  relative  value  of  gold  and 
silver  coin,  while  the  Democratic  platform  de- 
clared in  favor  of  "honest  money,  the  gold  and 
silver  coinage  of  the  Constitution,  and  a  circula- 
tion medium  convertible  into  such  money  with- 
out loss.*  In  1888  the  Democratic  party  reaf- 
firmed the  platform  of  1884,  while  the  Republican 
party  inserted  the  following  plank  in  its  plat- 
form: "The  Republican  party  is  in  favor  of  the 
use  of  both  gold  and  silver  as  money,  and  con- 
demns the  policy  of  the  Democratic  administra- 
tion in  its  efforts  to  demonetize  silver." 

In  1892  the  Republican  platform  said :  "The 
American  people  from  tradition  and  interest 
favor  bimetallism,  and  the  Republican  party 
demands  the  use  of  both  gold  and  silver  as 
standard  money,'*  and  then  followed  a  clause  de- 
manding "that  the  purchasing  and  debt-paying 
power  of  the  dollar,  whether  of  silver,  gold,  or 
paper,  shall  be  equal  at  all  times.* 

The  Democratic  party  that  year  denounced 
the  Sherman  Law  (the  Act  of  1890)  as  a  cow- 
ardly makeshift,  and  demanded  its  speedy  repeal, 
and  then  declared  the  party's  position  as  fol- 
lows: 

"We  hold  to  the  use  of  both  gold  and  silver 
as  the  standard  money  of  the  country,  and  to 
the  coinage  of  both  gold  and  silver  without  dis- 
crimination against  either  metal  or  charge  for 
mintage,  but  the  dollar  unit  of  coinage  of  both 
metals  must  be  of  equal  intrinsic  and  exchange- 


able value  or  be  adjusted  through  international 
agreement,  or  by  such  safeguards  of  legislation 
as  shall  insure  the  maintenance  of  the  parity  of 
the  two  metals,  and  the  equal  power  of  every 
dollar  at  all  times  in  the  markets,  and  in  the 
payments  of  debts;  and  we  demand  that  all 
paper  currency  shall  be  kept  at  par  with,  and  re- 
deemable in,  such  coin.  We  insist  upon  this 
policy  as  especially  necessary  for  the  protection 
of  the  farmers  and  laboring  classes,  the  first 
and  most  defenseless  victims  of  unstable  money 
and  a  fluctuating  currency.'' 

The  Populist  party,  which  polled  about 
1,000,000  votes  that  year,  demanded  "the  free 
and  unlimited  coinage  of  silver  and  gold  at  the 
present  legal  ratio  of  16  to  i.*'  This  was  the 
first  national  platform  which  specifically  named 
the  ratio,  but  a  majority  of  the  Democrats  in 
Congress  and  many  Republicans  had  for  years 
been  voting  for  bills  providing  for  free  and  un- 
limited coinage  at  this  ratio. 

In  the  campaign  of  1896,  the  money  question 
was  the  paramount  issue.  The  Democratic  plat- 
form, adopted  at  Chicago,  demanded  "the  free 
and  unlimited  coinage  of  TDOth  silver  and  gold  at 
the  legal  ratio  of  16  to  i,  without  waiting  for  the 
aidor  consent  of  any  other  nation."  The  People's 
part}^  which  met  two  weeks  later,  adopted  a 
plank  substantially  like  it,  as  did  also  the  Silver 
Republican  partj'. 

The  Gold  Democrats,  who  withdrew  from  the 
Chicago  convention,  met  at  Indianapolis  and  de- 
clared in  favor  of  the  gold  standard. 

The  Republican  party  said :  "We  are  unal- 
terably opposed  to  every  measure  calculated  to 
debase  our  currency  or  impair  the  credit  of  our 
country.  We  are  therefore  opposed  to  the  free 
coinage  of  silver  except  by  international  agree- 
ment with  the  leading  commercial  nations  of  the 
world,  which  we  pledge  ourselves  to  promote, 
and  until  such  agreement  can  be  obtained,  the 
existing  gold  standard  must  be  preserved." 

In  Alarch  1896  a  resolution  was  adopted  in 
the  English  Parliament  pledging  the  government 
to  assist  in  restoring  the  par  of  exchange  be- 
tween gold  and  silver,  and  this  pledge  encour- 
aged many  in  this  country  to  hope  for  an  inter- 
national agreement. 

The  campaign  of  1896  resulted  in  the  election 
of  the  Republican  ticket  by  a  large  majority, 
but  as  that  party  had  committed  itself  to  inter- 
national bimetallism,  the  verdict  at  the  polls  was 
a  victory  for  the  double  standard  rather  than 
for  the  single  gold  standard. 

In  pursuance  of  the  promise  contained  in  the 
Republican  platform,  President  McKinley,  imme- 
diately upon  taking  his  seat,  sent  a  commission 
to  Europe  to  solicit  co-operation  in  the  restora- 
tion of  silver  to  its  former  place  by  the  side  of 
gold,  but  this  commission  failed  to  secure  any 
concessions  from  England  and  no  formal  con- 
ference was  arranged. 

In  1900,  the  Democratic  part\%  the  People's 
party,  and  the  Silver  Republican  party  adhered 
to  the  positions  taken  on  the  money  question  in 
1896,  while  the  Republican  platform'  said :  "We 
renew  our  allegiance  to  the  principle  of  the  gold 
standard  and  declare  our  confidence  in  the  wis- 
dom of  the  legislation  of  the  56th  Congress, 
by  which  the  parity  of  our  money  and  the  stan- 
dard of  our  currency  on  the  gold  basis  has 
been  secured.'* 


BIN  — BINARY  THEORY 


The  election  in  looo  resulted  in  an  increased 
electoral  and  popular  majority  for  the  Republi- 
can ticket,  but  other  questions  over-shadowed 
the  money  question  in  this  campaign,  and  the 
result  was  again  undecisive  as  to  the  standards. 

The  large  and  unexpected  increase  in  the 
output  of  gold  in  Alaska,  the  United  States, 
South  Africa,  and  x^ustralia  has  very  consider- 
ably increased  the  supply  of  money,  and  to  some 
extent  relieved  the  strain  which  began  with  the 
demonetization  of  silver  in  1873,  but  with  the 
white  metal  still  furnishing  nearly  one  half  of 
the  world's  basic  money  there  is  no  reason  to 
believe  from  past  or  present  indications  that  sil- 
ver can  be  dispensed  with  as  a  standard  money. 
The  gold  standard  cannot  be  accepted  as  a 
finality  in  any  country  until  it  is  accepted  as  a 
finality  throughout  the  world,  for  each  nation's 
supply  of  metallic  money  is  influenced  by  the 
demand  created  by  each  other  nation.  It  is 
probable,  therefore,  that  what  is  called  the 
money  question,  will,  in  so  far  as  it  relates  to 
metallic  money,  increase  or  decrease  in  impor- 
tance in  inverse  ratio  to  the  supply  of  money, 
occupying  more  attention  when  a  decrease  in 
the  volume  of  money  reduces  prices  and  being 
less  considered  whenever  an  increase  in  the 
volume  of  money  increases  prices.  See  Dem- 
0CR.\Tic  Party  ;  People's  Party  ;  Republican 
Party  ;  Silver  Republican  Party. 

William  McKinley  and  G.  A.  Hobart  were  the  Re- 
publican candidates  for  President  and  Vice-President 
in  1896  and  William  Jennings  Bryan  and  Arthur  Se- 
wall  the  Democratic  candidates.  The  People's  party 
nominated  Mr.  Bryan,  but  substituted  Thomas  A. 
Watson  for  Mr.  Sewall  for  Vice-President.  The  Silver 
Republicans  endorsed  both  Bryan  and  Sewall.  ^  The 
Gold  Democrats  nominated  John  M.  Palmer  and  Simon 
B.  Buckner.  In  1900  William  McKinley  and  Theo- 
dore Roosevelt  represented  the  Republicans;  and  Wil- 
liam Jennings  Bryan  and  Adlai  E.  Stevenson  repre- 
sented" the  Democrats,  Populists,  and  Silver  Republicans. 

Bibliography. —  ^Coinage  Laws  of  the  United 
States*  ;  English  Gold  and  Silver  Commission, 
Report  for  1888 ;  International  Conferences  of 
1878,  1881,  and  1892  (Reports)  ;  Altgeld  (J.  P.), 
*Live  Questions*  ;  Barker  (Wharton),  'Bi- 
metallism* ;  Byars,  'The  American  Commoner^ 
(a  biographical  work  containing  Speeches  of 
Richard  P.  Bland*  ;  Cernuschi  (Henry),  'No- 
nisma  or  Legal  Tender*  ;  Chevalier,  'Gold^  ; 
Copperthwaite  (J.  Howard),  'Money,  Silver, 
and  Finance';  Del  Mar  (A.),  'Barbara  Vil- 
liers,  or  a  History  of  Monetary  Crimes*  ;  'His- 
tory of  ^loney,'  'History  of  Money  in  Amer- 
ica,' 'History  of  Monetary  Systems,'  'History 
of  Precious  Aletals*  ;  George  (Lyman  R),  'Fall- 
ing Prices*  ;  Gififen  (Robt.),  'The  Case  against 
Bimetallism*  ;  Grimaudet  (Frangois),  'Law  of 
Payment*;  Harvey  (W.  H.),  'Coin's  Financial 
School*  ;  Horton  (Dana  S.),  'Silver  in  Europe*  ; 
Humboldt  (A.  von),  'Fluctuations  of  Gold*; 
Jacobs,  'The  Precious  Metals'  ;  Jevons  (W.  S.), 
*Money  the  Mechanism  of  Exchange*  ;  Keeler 
(B.  C),  'How  'Silver  was  Secretly  Demone- 
tized* ;  Laughlin  (J.  L.),  'History  of  Bimetal- 
lism in  the  United  States*  ;  Laveleye  (Emil 
D.),  'Elements  of  Political  Economy'  ;  Leavitt 
(Samuel),  'Our  Monetary  Wars'  ;  Littleton 
(C.  H.  S.),  'Money  and  Prosperity';  Mill 
(J.  S.),  'Principles  of  Political  Economy'; 
Muhlman,  'Monetary  Systems  of  the  World' ; 
Price  (Bonamy),  'Currency  and  Banking'  ; 
Price  (L.  L.),  'Money  and  Its  Relation  to 
Prices':    Read    (George),    'Valics,   or   the   Sci- 


ence of  Value'  ;  Seyd  (Ernest),  'Bullion  and 
Foreign  Exchanges'  ;  Smith  (Adam),  'Wealth 
of  Nations*  ;  Stokes  (Anson  Phelps),  'Joint 
:Metallism*  ;  Teller  (James  H.),  'Battle  of  the 
Standards'  ;  Walker  (Francis  A.),  'Interna- 
tional Bimetallism'  ;  Walsh  (Archbishop),  'Bi- 
metallism* ;  Watson  (David  K.),  'History  of 
American  Coinage.'  'The  First  Battle'  was  is- 
sued by  Mr.  Bryan  in  1897.  It  contained  a 
brief  history  of  the  silver  movement,  an  account 
of  the  campaign  of  1896  and  reproduces  his 
principal  speeches  on  biinetallism. 

William  Jennings  Bryan, 
Editor  '■The  Commoner.'* 

Bin,  Jean  Baptiste  Philippe  Emile,  zhofi 
bap-test  fe-lep  a-mel.  French  painter:  b.  Paris 
10  Feb.  1825.  He  is  a  pupil  of  Gosse  and 
Cogniet.  In  1878  he  was  made  a  member  of 
the  Legion  of  Honor,  and  in  1881  was  conspicu- 
ous as  one  of  the  founders  of  the  Society  of 
French  Artists.  Since  that  time  he  has  taken 
an  active  part  in  politics  and  has  been  elected 
mayor  of  the  i8th  arrondissemenf.  His  'Pro- 
metheus Chained'  is  in  the  Museum  at  Mar- 
seilles. Among  his  historic  portraits,  are  those 
of  MM.  Clemenceau,  Rousseau,  Deschamps,  etc. 
He  works  principally  in  portraiture  and  decora- 
tive painting,  in  both  of  which  lines  he  has  been 
eminently   successful. 

Binalonan,  Philippines,  a  town  of  the 
province  of  Pangasinan,  Luzon,  situated  in  the 
western  part  of  the  island  of  Luzon,  about  20 
miles  from  the  coast,  at  the  junction  of  several 
highroads.     Pop.  10,295. 

Binan,  Philippines,  a  town  of  the  province 
of  Laguna,  Luzon,  situated  on  the  Bay  Luzon, 
about  15  miles  south  of  Manila,  on  highroads 
connecting  it  with  Cavite,  ^Manila,  and  other 
important  towns.     Pop.  19,786. 

Binary  Arithmetic,  a  method  of  notation 
invented  by  Leibnitz,  but  which  appears  to  have 
been  in  use  in  China  about  4.000  years  ago. 
As  the  term  binary  implies,  there  are  only  two 
characters  in  this  notation;  these  are  I  and  o. 
By  it,  our  i  is  noted  by  i,  our  2  by  10,  3  by  11, 
4  by  100,  5  by  loi,  6  by  no,  7  by  in,  8  by  1000,  9 
by  looi,  10  by  loio,  etc.  The  principle  is  that 
o  multiplies  by  2  in  place  of  by  10,  as  on  the 
common  system.  Some  properties  of  numbers 
may  be  more  simply  presented  on  this  plan  than 
on  the  common  one ;  but  the  number  of  places 
of  figures  required  to  express  a  sum  of  any  mag- 
nitude is  a  fatal  objection  to  its  use.  Indeed, 
Leibnitz  himself  did  not  recommend  it  for 
practical  adoption. 

Binary  Logarithms,  a  system  of  loga- 
rithms devised  by  Euler  for  facilitating  musical 
calculations.  Instead  of  having,  like  the  com- 
mon system  of  logarithms,  i  as  the  logarithm  of 
10,  and  43.429,448  as  the  modulus,  it  had  i  as  the 
logarithm  of  2,  and  the  modulus   1,442,695. 

Bi'nary  Star.     See  Double  Stars. 

Binary  Theory,  in  chemistry,  a  hypothesis 
proposed  by  Davy  to  reduce  the  haloid  salts  (as 
NaCl)  and  the  oxygen  salts  (as  NaNOs)  to 
the  same  type,  the  monad  CI'  being  replaced  by 
the  monad  radical  containing  oxygen  (NOs)'- 
Acids  are  hydrogen  salts,  as  HCl,  or  H(N03)'. 
A  radical  is  only  part  of  a  molecule,  which  can 
unite  with  or  replace  an  element  or  another 
radical,  atomicity  for  atomicity.  Thus  the  dyad 
radical   (SO4)"  can  replace  two  monad  radicals. 


BINBIR-KILISSEH  —  BINGHAMTON 


<N03)'2,  as  in  the  equation  Pb"(N03)2+ 
Mg"(SO4)"=Pb"(SO0"+Mg"(NO3)'2.  A  rad- 
ical cannot  exist  in  a  separate  state. 

Binbir-kilisseh,  ben'ber-ke-le-sa',  some 
ruins  of  ancient  tombs  in  the  pashaHc  of  Kara- 
mania,  Asia  Minor,  20  miles  north-northwest 
of  Karaman,  supposed  to  occupy  the  site  of 
Lystra,  where  the  cripple  was  healed  by  Paul. 

Bindraban,     bin-dra-bun',     or     Brindaban, 

India,  a  town  in  the  Northwestern  Provinces,  in 
the  district  of  ^lattra,  and  33  miles  north-north- 
west of  Agra,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Jumna. 
It  is  famous  as  the  scene  of  the  youthful  sports 
•of  Krishna,  who  has  still  many  temples  here. 
Among  these  is  a  cruciform  pagoda,  which  is 
-one  of  the  most  massy  and  elaborate  of  Brah- 
manical  buildings.     Pop.  31,611. 

Bindweed.     See  Convoloulus. 

Binet,  be-na,  Alfred,  French  psychologist: 
b.  Nice,  8  July  1857.  At  first  he  studied  law 
and  medicine  at  Paris,  but  in  1S80  took  up 
the  study  of  psychology,  both  experimental 
and  pathological,  and  was  later  appointed  di- 
rector of  the  laboratory  of  physiological 
psychology  at  the  Sorbonne,  Paris.  He  has 
been  one  of  the  editors  of  'L'Annee  psycho- 
logique';  has  contributed  numerous  articles 
to  scientific  and  philosophical  periodicals,  in- 
cluding ^^Jind'  ;  and  has  written  "^Animal 
Magnetism^  (translated  into  English)  ;  ^Studies 
in  Experimental  Psychology'  (one  part  of 
which,  on  micro-organisms,  was  translated  sep- 
arately) ;  and  ^Introduction  to  Experimental 
Psychology'    (with  Philippe  and  others). 

Binet,    Victor   Jean   Baptiste    Barthelemy, 

zhon  bap-test  bjir-tal-me,  French  landscape 
painter:  b.  Rouen,  17  March  1849.  He  be- 
longs to  the  realistic  school,  and  made  his 
■debut  in  the  Salon  of  1878,  showing  <The 
Warren.'  One  of  the  most  famous  of  his 
pictures  is  ^The  Plain  at  St.  Aubin-sur- 
Quillebceuf,'  in  the  Museum  at  Amiens.  In 
1889  he  was  awarded  a  first-class  medal  at 
the  Paris  Exposition. 

Bingen,  Germany,  a  town  of  the  grand- 
duchy  of  Hesse-Darmstadt,  on  the  left  bank 
of  the  Rhine  and  the  right  of  the  Nahe. 
Bingen  existed  in  the  time  of  the  Rornans, 
hy  whom  it  was  called  Vincum  or  Bingium. 
The  bridge  over  the  Nahe  is  said  to  have 
been  built  by  Drusus,  and  bears  his  name. 
In  the  neighborhood  are  the  remains  of  a 
castle,  where  the  Emperor  Henrj^  IV.  was 
detained  a  prisoner  in  1105,  and  the  Mause- 
thurm  or  JNIouse-tower,  in  the  middle  of  the 
river,  the  scene  of  the  ancient  legend  of  Arch- 
bishop Hatto,  who  was  devoured  by  rats.  A 
dangerous  passage  on  the  Rhine,  called  the 
Bingerloch,  has  been  opened  up  b}"-  the  blast- 
ing of  sunken  rocks,  leaving  a  channel  of 
210  feet  wide.  Bingen  is  the  market  for  the 
sale  of  wines  produced  in  the  neighborhood. 
Pop.  (1895)  8,187. 

Binger,  Louis  Gustave,  ban-zha,  loo-e, 
goos-tav,  French  soldier  and  African  ex- 
plorer: b.  14  Oct.  1856.  He  made  his  way 
from  the  Upper  Niger  to  Grand  Bassani  m 
1887-9,  thus  connecting  the  French  posses- 
sions with  the  Ivory  Coast.  In  1892  he  was 
commissioner  of  the  French  government  to 
settle  the  Ashanti  boundaries  with  England. 


Bingham,  Hiram,  American  Congrega- 
tional clergyman:  b.  Bennington,  Vt.,  3a 
Oct.  1789;  d.  II  Nov.  1869.  He  graduated 
from  Andover  Theological  Seminary  in  1819; 
and  was  one  of  the  first  missionaries  of  the 
Congregational  Church  to  be  sent  to  the 
Sandwich  Islands,  where  he  acquired  much 
influence  with  the  natives. 

Bingham,  Joel  Foote,  American  clergy- 
man: b.  Conn.  1827.  He  entered  the  Con- 
gregational ministry,  but  in  1871  exchanged 
it  for  that  of  the  Episcopal  Church.  He  has 
written  *The  Christian  Marriage  Ceremony'  ; 
•^The  Twin  Sisters  of  Martigny,'  an  Italian 
story;  ^Francesca  da  Rimini,'  from  the  Italian 
of  Silvio   Pellico. 

Bingham,  John  A.,  American  politician:  b. 
]Mercer,  Pa.,  1815;  d.  Cadiz,  Ohio,  20  March 
1900.  He  studied  at  Franklin  College,  Ohio, 
and  became  a  lawyer  in  1840.  He  was 
elected  to  Congress  as  a  Republican  in  1854, 
and  retained  his  seat  1855-63.  He  was 
chairman  of  the  managers  of  the  House  in 
the  impeachment  of  Judge  Humphreys,  for 
high  treason,  in  1862.  President  Lincoln  ap- 
pointed him  military  judge-advocate  in  1864, 
and  later  in  the  same  3'ear  solicitor  of  the 
United  States  Court  of  Claims.  He  was  special 
judge-advocate  in  the  trial  of  the  assassins  of 
President  Lincoln.  He  sat  in  Congress  again 
1866-73.  He  was  one  of  the  managers  of  the 
impeachment  trial  of  President  Johnson. 
From  1873  to  1885  he  was  United  States  minister 
to  Japan. 

Bingham,  Joseph,  English  clergyman  and 
antiquarian:  b.  Wakefield,  Yorkshire,  1668; 
d.  17  Aug.  1723.  He  distinguished  himself  as 
a  student  at  University  College,  Oxford,  and 
devoted  his  attention  particularly  to  ecclesi- 
astical antiquities.  He  graduated  in  1688, 
and  became  a  Fellow  the  following  year ;  but 
had  to  withdraw  from  the  university  on  the 
charge  of  preaching  unsound  doctrines.  He 
now  became  curate  of  Headbourn-Worthy, 
near  Winchester,  and  there,  while  possessed 
of  a  scanty  living  on  which  his  numerous 
family  could  barely  subsist,  had  the  merit  of 
composing  one  of  the  most  learned  works  of 
which  his  church  can  boast.  This  work, 
^Origines  Ecclesiastics,  or  The  .\ntiouities 
of  the  Christian  Church,'  was  published  in  10 
volumes  octavo  (1708-22),  and  is  still  a  stand- 
ard on  the  subjects  of  which  it  treats.  The 
best  modern  edition  is  that  published  at  the 
Clarendon  Press  (1855,  10  vols.).  It  was  soon 
translated  into  Latin  and  published  in  Ger- 
many. In  1712  he  was  collated  to  the  living 
of  Havant,  near  Portsmouth,  where  he  died. 

Bingham,  Kinsley  S.,  American  legislator: 
b.  Camillus,  N.  Y.,  16  Dec.  1801;  d.  Green 
Oak,  Mich.,  5  Oct.  1861.  He  studied  law  and 
went  to  Michigan  in  1833.  He  was  a  judge 
of  probate,  speaker  of  the  State  House  of 
Representatives;  member  of  Congress 
18-19-51;  governor  of  Michigan  1855-9,  and 
U.  S.  senator  1859-61. 

Binghamton,  N.  Y.,  a  city  and  county-seat 
of  Broome  Count}%  at  the  junction  of  the 
Chenango  and  Susquehanna  rivers,  and  on 
several  railroads;  50  miles  east  of  Elmira.  It 
stands  more  than  850  feet  above  tidewater, 
and  both  rivers  are  here  spanned  by  several 


BINGLEY  —  BINNEY 


bridges.  The  city  is  supplied  with  water  by 
the  Holly  system,  which  cost  over  $1,500,000; 
has  nearly  100  miles  of  streets  lighted  by 
electricity,  and  contains  over  30  churches, 
and  chapels,  public  school  property  valued  at 
over  $425,000,  a  public  library,  two  national 
banks,  and  an  assessed  property  valuation 
exceeding  $20,000,000.  Among  the  attrac- 
tions of  Binghamton,  which  has  been  named 
the  "Parlor  City,"  are  Ross  Park,  Bennett 
Grove,  and  the  driving  parks  and  fair 
grounds.  The  noteworthy  buildings  include 
the  State  asylum  for  the  insane,  U.  S.  gov- 
ernment building,  State  armory,  new  court- 
house, city  hall,  two  orphan  asylums,  the 
Commercial  Travelers'  Home,  an  opera  house, 
and  the  Casino.  Binghamton  ranks  as  the 
third  cigar-manufacturing  city  in  the  United 
States,  and  according  to  the  census  of  1890 
it  then  had  704  manufacturing  establishments, 
employing  $9,058,651  capital  and  10,191  per- 
sons; paying  $4,349,162  for  wages,  and 
$7,659,207  for  material,  and  having  a  com- 
bined output  valued  at  $15,040,152.  Other 
important  manufactures  are  scales,  chemicals, 
furniture,  sheet-metal  work,  glass,  gloves, 
and  refined  oils.  An  interesting  feature  of 
the  city  is  the  large  number  of  cottages  owned 
by  the  working  people.  Binghamton  re- 
ceived a  city  charter  in  1867.  Pop.  (1900) 
.39,647- 

Bingley,  Ward,  Dutch  actor:  b.  Rotter- 
dam, of  English  parents,  1755;  d.  The  Hague, 
1818.  In  1799  he  made  his  debut  on  the 
stage  of  Amsterdam,  and  almost  from  the 
first  took  his  place  at  the  head  of  his  pro- 
fession, not  only  in  the  Dutch  theaters,  but 
also  in  those  which  performed  French  plays 
in  Amsterdam  and  The  Hague. 

Bingley,  England,  a  parish  of  the  west 
riding  of  Yorkshire,  containing  a  town  of 
the  same  name,  on  the  Aire,  55/2  miles  north- 
west of  Bradford.  The  town  contains  the 
interesting  church  of  All  Saints  (restored 
1871)  in  the  Perpendicular  style,  several  other 
places  of  worship,  an  endowed  grammar- 
school,  and  a  mechanics'  institute.  The  chief 
industry  is  worsted-spinning.  Pop.  (1901) 
18,448. 

Bingtang,  bing-tang',  an  island  of  the 
Rhio-Linga  group,  in  the  Malay  archipelago. 
Mount  Bingtang,  its  highest  peak,  1,368  feet 
high,  is  in  lat.  1°  4'  N.,  Ion.  104°  28'  E. ; 
Rhio,  the  Dutch  free  port,  is  in  lat.  54'  40" 
N.,  Ion.  124°  26'  30"  E.  Area  of  the 
island,  403  square  miles;  pop.  with  Rhio,  situ- 
ated on  Tanjong  Pinang,  an  adjoining  islet, 
about  20,000.  The  geological  formation  is 
granite,  overlaid  with  cellular  clay  ironstone. 
Iron  and  tin  are  found,  but  not  as  yet  exten- 
sively mined.  The  gambier  plant  (uncaria 
gambler),  which  produces  terra  japonica,  is 
the  chief  product  of  the  island.  A  large 
number  of  gambier  plantations  are  cultivated 
by  Chinese  colonists,  who  cultivate  black 
pepper  at  the  same  time;  the  refuse  leaves 
of  the  gambier,  after  obtaining  the  coagu- 
lated decoction  of  commerce,  being  excellent 
manure  for  the  latter  plant.  Other  produc- 
tions are  cocoa-palm,  durian-fruit,  much 
prized  by  the  natives,  caoutchouc,  gutta- 
percha, and  damar.  Many  valuable  timber 
trees  are   found  on  the   island.     The  native 


Malays,  who  are  rude  hunters  and  fishermen, 
like  the  Orang  Benua  of  the  Malay  penin- 
sula, are  now  outnumbered  by  the  enterpris- 
ing Chinese. 

Binion,  Samuel  A.,  American  scholar  and 
author:  b.  Balvirziski,  province  of  Suwalki,  Po- 
land, I  May  1842.  He  was  educated  at  the  uni- 
versities of  Breslau  and  Padua  and  in  King's 
College,  London;  was  a  reader  in  the  British 
Museum  and  a  superintendent  of  schools  in 
Seville  and  the  Balearic  Islands ;  and  was  for 
several  years  connected  as  a  post-graduate  with 
the  Johns  Hopkins  University  in  Baltimore^ 
where  he  also  catalogued  the  works  on  Oriental 
languages  in  the  Peabody  Museum.  He  has 
contributed  to  current  encyclopedias,  translated 
from  the  Polish  Sienkiwicz'  "-Quo  Vadis,'  ^With 
Fire  and  Sword,'  and  *^Pan  Michael,'  and  pub- 
lished < Ancient  Egypt,  or  Mizraim.' 

Binmaley,  bm-ma-la'e,  Philippines,  a  town 
of  the  province  of  Pangasinen,  Luzon,  situ- 
ated on  the  Gulf  of  Lingayen,  in  the  western 
part  of  the  Island  of  Luzon,  only  a  few  miles 
east  of  the  town  of  Lingayen.     Pop.  13,787. 

Binney,  Amos,  American  merchant  and 
naturalist:  b.  Boston,  Ivlass.,  18  Oct.  1803; 
d.  Rome,  Italy,  18  Feb.  1847.  He  graduated 
at  Brown  University  in  1821,  engaged  in  busi- 
ness with  success,  and  devoted  his  leisure  to 
natural  science.  He  was  one  of  the  founders, 
and  at  the  time  of  his  death,  president,  of  the 
Boston  Society  of  Natural  History.  His 
writings  on  the  land  shells  of  America  are  in 
the  < Journal'  and  ^Proceedings'  of  that  so- 
ciety. His  chief  work,  ^Terrestrial  and  Air- 
Breathing  Mollusks  of  the  United  States  and 
Adjacent  Territories  of  North  America'  (3 
vols.  1847-51)  was  issued  under  the  direction 
of  Dr.  A.  A.  Gould. 

Binney,  Hibbert,  Canadian  clergyman:  b. 
Nova  Scotia,  12  Aug.  1819;  d._  1887.  He 
graduated  at  Oxford  University  in  1842.  He 
became  bishop  (Anglican)  of  Nova  Scotia 
and  Prince  Edward  Island  in  1851,  this  being 
the  first  instance  of  England  founding  a 
bishopric  in  her  colonies.  He  attended  the 
General  Convention  of  the  Protestant  Epis- 
copal Church  held  in  Chicago  in  1886. 

Binney,  Horace,  American  lawyer:  b. 
Philadelphia,  4  Jan.  1780;  d.  12  Aug.  1875.  He 
graduated  at  Harvard  in  1797;  and  for  many 
years  was  at  the  head  of  the  Pennsylvania 
bar.  He  had  a  number  of  distinguished  cases 
in  his  career;  the  most  noted  one  being  the 
defense  of  the  city  of  Philadelphia  against 
the  executors  of  Stephen  Girard.  He  was  a 
member  of  the  23d  Congress ;  and  a  director 
in  the  United  States  Bank.  He  wrote  many 
valuable  papers,  and  was  the  author  of  *The 
Leaders  of  the  Old  Bar  of  Philadelphia,' 
<The  Privilege  of  the  Writ  of  Habeas  Corpus 
Under  the  Constitution,'  and  ^Reports  of 
Cases  in  the  Supreme  Court  of  Pennsylva- 
nia' (6  vols.). 

Binney,  Thomas,  English  theologian:  b. 
Newcastle-on-Tyne,  1798;  d.  1874.  He  was 
pastor  of  Weigh  House  Chapel,  London,  for  40 
years,  and  was  a  voluminous  writer  on  polemical 
subjects,  his  most  successful  ventures  as  an  au- 
thor being  the  hymn  < Eternal  Light!  Eternal 
Light,'  and  <Is  it  Possible  to  Make  the  Best  of 
Both  Worlds?'   a  work  for  young  men. 


BINNIE  —  BIOGRAPH 


Binnie,  Sir  Alexander  R.,  English  civil 
engineer:  b.  London,  26  March,  1839.  He 
was  educated  at  private  schools.  He  worked 
on  Welsh  railways  1862-6,  and  for  the  Indian 
Public  Works  Department  1868-74;  was  en- 
gineer of  the  city  of  Bradford  1875-90;  con- 
structed the  Nagpore  waterworks,  the  Black- 
wall  tunnel,  the  Bradford  waterworks,  the 
Barking  Road  Bridge,  etc.  In  1897  he  was 
made  chief  engineer  of  the  London  County 
Council.  His  publications  include  articles  and 
reports  on  professional  subjects,  lectures  on 
waterworks,  papers  on  rainfall,  etc. 

Binns,  Charles  Fergus,  Anglo-American 
ceramic  expert:  b.  Worcester,  England,  4 
Oct.  1857.  A  son  of  the  director  of  the 
Royal  Porcelain  Works  in  his  native  city, 
he  was  superintendent  of  various  depart- 
ments there,  1872-97.  Leaving  England  in 
the  last  named  year  he  was  principal  of  the 
Technical  School  of  Science  and  Art,  Tren- 
ton, N.  J.,  1897-1900,  and  since  June,  1900, 
has  been  director  of  the  New  York  State 
School  of  Clay  Working  and  Ceramics.  He 
has  written  'Ceramic  Technology^  (1896); 
<The  Story  of  the  Potter'   (1897). 

Binoc'ular  Mi'croscope,  etc.  See  ]\Iicro- 
scoPE ;  Opera  Gi..\ss;  Telescope;  etc. 

Binomial,  in  algebra,  a  quantity  consist- 
ing of  two  terms  or  members,  connected  by 
the  sign  +  or  — .  The  binomial  theorem  is 
the  celebrated  formula  which  shows  how  to 
obtain  any  power  of  a  given  binomial,  as 
a  -\-  b,  from  the  two  terms,  a  and  b,  and  the 
exponent  of  the  power.  This  theorem,  fre- 
quently called  the  Newtonian  theorem,  on 
which  the  system  of  analysis  is  principally 
founded,  was  known,  as  far  as  relates  to  in- 
tegral positive  exponents,  to  several  mathe- 
maticians before  Newton.  But  Newton  was 
the  first  who  taught  its  application  to  frac- 
tional and  negative  exponents;  and  this  dis- 
covery, one  of  the  most  important  of  those 
made  by  that  great  man,  is  engraved  upon 
his  tombstone. 

Binon'do,  Philippines,  a  native  town  near 
Manila,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Pasig;  now 
a  suburb  of  the  walled  European  city,  hav- 
ing been  annexed  to  it  by  a  magnificent  stone 
bridge  411  feet  in  length.  The  bridge  of 
Binondo  is  regarded  as  the  most  remarkable 
structure  ever  erected  by  Europeans  in  the 
Indian  archipelago. 

Binturong,  a  large  civet  of  the  Malay 
Peninsula  and  Islands,  which  spends  its  life 
in  the  trees,  where  it  is  assisted  in  climbing 
about  by  its  long,  bushy,  prehensile  tail.  It 
passes  the  day  asleep  in  the  top  of  a  tree, 
and  travels  about  at  night  in  search  of  small 
mammals,  birds,  etc.,  but  also  eats  leaves 
and  fruit.  It  is  gray  when  young,  but  black 
when  fully  grown,  and  reaches  a  length  of 
two  and  a  half  feet,  exclusive  of  its  long 
tail. 

Binue,  bin'we,  or  Benue,  Africa,  the  larg- 
est and  most  important  tributary  of  the  river 
Niger.     See  Benue. 

Binyon,  Laurence,  English  poet:  b.  Lan- 
caster, 10  Aug.  1869.  He  has  been  an  assist- 
ant in  the  British  Museum  from  1893.  Be- 
sides editing  the   < Shilling  Garland'    (1895-8) 


he  has  published  '^ Lyric  Poems'  (1894"); 
^Poems'  (1895);  <London  Visions'  (1895-8): 
'The  Praise  of  Life'  (1896);  'Porphyrion  and 
Other  Poems'  (1898);  'Western  Flanders' 
(1898);  'Odes'  (1900);  'Catalogue  of  English 
Drawings  in  the  British  ]\Iuseum'  (1898- 
1902)  ;  'Dutch  Etchers  of  the  17th  Century'  ; 
'Lives  of  John  Crome  and  John  Sell  Cot- 
man.' 

Biobio,  be'o-be'o,  Chile,  an  eastern  prov- 
ince with  the  Argentine  Republic  on  the  east, 
and  the  province  of  Concepcion  on  the  west 
and  north.  It  is  well-wooded,  and  there  is  a 
good  trade  in  timber;  the  river  Biobio  (q.v.) 
flows  through  it,  and  the  railroad  from  Con- 
cepcion to  Angol  crosses  the  western  part. 
Capital,  Los  Angeles;  area,  4,158  square 
miles;  pop.  122,729. 

Biobio,  the  largest  river  of  Chile.  It  has 
a  west-northwesterly  course  of  about  200 
miles,  from  near  the  volcano  of  Antuco  in 
the  Andes  to  Concepcion  on  the  Pacific 
Ocean.  It  is  two  miles  wide  at  its  mouth, 
and  is  navigable  for  100  miles. 

Biogenesis,  the  genesis  or  origin  of  all 
living  beings  from  living  beings.  It  is 
opposed  to  abiogenesis,  which  implies  that 
at  the  present  time  the  simplest,  lowest 
forms  of  life  may  arise  by  spontaneous  genera- 
tion (q.v.).  Biogenesis,  or  biogeny,  is  divided 
into  ontogeny,  or  the  development  of  any 
individual  organism,  and  pJiylogeny,  or  the 
development  of  the  class  or  other  group  of 
organisms,  to  which  the  individual  belongs.  Bi- 
ogenesis also  may  be  extended  to  comprise  the 
different  modes  of  reproduction  (q.v.)  whether 
sexual,  or  asexual,  or  by  fission  or  budding. 
The  principle  of  biogenesis  was  first  placed  on 
a  scientific  basis  by  Harvey,  who  demonstrated 
that  living  beings  arise  from  eggs,  as  stated 
in  his  famous  aphorism,  omne  viviim  ex  ovo. 
As  now  modified  all  organisms  are  known  to 
arise  from  living  matter,  that  is,  either  from 
germs,  spores,  seeds,  or  eggs.     See  Embrvologv. 

Biogenetic  Law.  See  Recapitulation  The- 
ory. 

Biograph,  an  apparatus  that  displays  in 
rapid  sequence  a  long  series  of  photographs. 
It  belongs  to  a  class  of  apparatus  which  fol- 
lowed the  invention  of  the  kinetoscope,  and 
includes  the  vitascope,  cinematograph,  phan- 
toscope,  etc.  It  differs  from  the  kinetoscope 
in  that  instead  of  showing  small  pictures 
through  an  enlarging  lens  by  reflectea  light, 
it  projects  them  on  a  screen. 

The  biograph  may  be  described  as  a 
stereopticon  combined  with  such  mechanism 
as  is  requisite  for  the  precise  manipulation 
of  the  celluloid  picture  film.  When  the  ap- 
paratus is  set  in  motion  the  long  band  of 
celluloid  passes  quickly,  though  not  continu- 
ously, behind  the  projecting  lens,  between 
spools  or  bobbins  which  revolve  at  a  uniform 
rate.  While  thus  passing  from  its  original 
spool  to  the  winding  reel  the  film  encounters 
certain  pulleys  and  toothed  rollers  that  serve 
to  direct  its  movements  accurately.  Along 
its  edges  are  numerous  small  perforations 
into  which  the  teeth  of  the  rollers  fit  with 
precision,  and  by  this  means  the  small  trans- 
parencies are  made  to  occupv  exactly  similar 
positions    when    their    images    are    projected 


BIOGRAPHY 


■upon  the  canvas.  As  each  picture  in  its 
turn  attains  this  critical  position  it  is  niomen- 
taril}'  brought  to  a  standstill.  At  the  same 
time  a  shutter  is  opened  and  an  image  of  the 
picture  flashes  for  an  instant  upon  the  screen. 
The  shutter  is  then  quickly  closed,  the  pic- 
ture resuming  its  motion,  while  its  successor 
in  the  series  is  brought  into  a  similar  fixed 
situation.  This  temporary  stoppage  of  the 
film  (or  rather  of  a  portion  thereof),  as  each 
picture  attains  its  proper  place  behind  the 
projecting  lens,  is  a  very  essential  feature  of 
the  process. 

At  the  instant  of  its  arrival  a  portion  of 
the  film  on  the  preceding  side  of  the  picture 
will  be  in  an  unstrained  or  slacli  condition.  The 
**slack"  is  then  taken  up  by  a  continuously 
moving  sprocket  pulley,  whereupon  a  rod 
or  roller  is  quickly  brought  to  bear  against 
the  now  tightened  film,  pressing  it  to  one  side 
and  as  quickly  releasing  it.  By  this  move- 
ment the  next  picture  is  pulled  into  its  fixed 
position,  while  the  film  is  made  taut  (or 
nearly  so)  on  the  following  side  of  this  pic- 
ture. These  operations  are  repeated  contin- 
uously until  the  entire  film  has  passed 
through  the  holding  device  in  rear  of  the 
lens. 

The  camera  used  in  taking  the  negative 
from  which  motion  pictures  are  made  is  pro- 
vided with  a  similar  mechanism  to  that  em- 
ployed in  showing  the  finished  photographs. 
The  picture  roll  is  replaced  by  a  roll  of  sen- 
sitized film,  upon  which  the  exposures  are 
made  at  the  rate  of  from  25  to  50  per  second. 
The  films  range  in  length  from  50  to  200  feet, 
and  contain,  when  finished,  from  800  to 
,3,000  negatives.  After  the  film  has  been  sub- 
jected to  the  usual  photographic  operations 
it  is  made  to  pass,  in  contact  with  a  second 
sensitized  film,  beneath  an  incandescent  lamp, 
and  by  this  means  the  photographs  are 
printed  upon  the  sensitized  surface.  This 
second  film  is  then  in  turn  passed  through 
the  various  photographic  processes,  and  when 
complete  it  is  wound  on  a  spool  which  may 
then  be  placed  in  the  machine  used  for  exhib- 
iting the  pictures. 

Biog'raphy,  in  its  general  sense,  literature 
treating  of  the  lives  of  individuals;  in  its  re- 
stricted meaning  the  history  of  a  person's  life. 
When  composed  by  the  subject  of  the  narrative 
it  is  called  an  autobiography.  Biography  has 
■existed  in  one  form  or  another  from  the  most 
ancient  times.  In  the  book  of  Genesis  there  are 
biographies,  or  at  least  memoirs  of  Adam,  Noah, 
Abraham,  Isaac,  Jacob,  Joseph,  and  others. 
Homer's  'Odyssey'  may  be  considered  as  an 
extended  biography  of  Ulysses,  limited,  however, 
to  the  most  interesting  period  of  his  life,  that  of 
his  wanderings.  Though  the  "^  Iliad'  may  be 
loosely  called  a  history  of  the  Trojan  war,  yet, 
accurately,  it  is  a  chapter  from  the  biography  of 
Achilles,  describing  calamities  he  brought  upon 
the  Greeks  by  the  revenge  which  he  took  on 
Agamemnon  for  carrying  off  his  female  captive 
Briseis.  Tlie  most  elaborate  Grc^k  biography 
was  Plutarch's  'Parallel  Lives'  ('Bioi  Paral- 
leloi'),  consisting  of  46  memoirs  of  Greek,  Ro- 
man, and  other  celebrities :  it  was  published 
about  80  .^.D.  In  44  b.c.  Cornelius  Nepos  had 
sent  forth  a  biographical  work,  his  'Vit^e  Im- 
peratorum'    ('Lives  of  Commanders').     Under 


the  Greek  and  Roman  civilization,  howeve;,  the 
individual  was  absorbed  in  the  state.  When 
Cmcinnatus  or  Coriolanus  is  mentioned,  we  re- 
call rather  an  act  than  a  person.  The  elder 
Cato  wrote  a  history  of  the  Roman  republic, 
in  which  there  was  not  found  a  single  proper 
name.  He  said  simply :  "The  consul  proposed 
such   a   law,  the  general  gained   such  a  battle." 

Biography  differs  from  history,  properly  so 
called,  in  considering  public  and  national  events, 
if  at  all,  only  in  their  relations  to  a  single  per- 
sonage. It  assumes  various  forms,  being  some- 
times most  interested  in  the  circumstances  and 
external  career,  the  curricnhim  vita,  of  its  sub- 
ject; sometimes  regarding  chiefly  intellectual 
and  moral  qualities  and  development ;  sometimes 
being  hardly  more  than  a  catalogue  of  a  man's 
positions  and  changes  of  position ;  and  some- 
times, like  the  autobiography  of  Goethe,  fit  to 
be  entitled  truth  and  poetry ;  sometimes  being 
formally  narrative  throughout,  but  often  present- 
ing the  hero  also  by  his  letters  and  notes  of  his 
conversation.  A  biography  may  be  a  panegyric 
or  a  diatribe,  or  the  life  of  a  man  may  be  used 
as  only  a  frame  on  which  to  attach  moral  re- 
flections. Its  true  aim,  however,  is  to  reveal 
the  personal  significance  of  those  men  who  have 
played  a  distinguished  part  in  the  world,  either 
by  action  or  by  thought.  History  has  reference 
to  the  development  of  principles,  biography  to 
that  of  character.  To  observe  the  growth  of  a 
nation,  or  of  any  institution  from  the  idea  on 
which  it  was  grounded,  through  its  vicissitudes 
and  conflicts,  is  the  part  of  history.  To  trace 
a  human  life,  to  remark  the  manifold  efforts, 
defeats,  triumphs,  perplexities,  attainments,  sor- 
rows, and  joys  which  fill  the  space  between  the 
cradle  and  the  grave,  is  the  province  of  biog- 
raphy. In  history,  Scipio  at  the  head  of  the 
Roman  legions  subdued  Africa,  and  Agesilaus 
struggled  against  the  misfortunes  of  his  coun- 
try ;  in  biography,  the  former  is  seen  not  only 
gaining  victories,  but  also  gathering  cockle- 
shells on  the  shore,  and  the  latter  not  only 
fighting  after  defeat,  but  also  riding  on  a  hobby- 
horse among  his  children.  Plutarch  says  it  does 
not  follow  because  an  action  is  grejit,  that  it 
therefore  manifests  the  greatness  and  virtue  of 
him  who  did  it ;  but  on  the  contrary,  sometimes 
a  word  or  a  casual  jest  betrays  a  man  more  to 
our  knowledge  of  him  than  a  battle  fought 
wherein  10,000  men  were  slain,  or  sacking  of 
cities,  or  a  course  of  victories.  Xenophon  re- 
marks that  the  sayings  of  great  men  in  their 
familiar  discourses,  and  amid  their  wine,  have 
somewhat  in  them  which  is  worthy  to  be  trans- 
mitted to  posterity. 

I^Todern  biographical  literature  may  be  con- 
sidered to  date  from  the  i/tli  century  since 
which  time  individual  biographies  have  multi- 
plied enormously.  Dictionaries  of  biography 
have  proved  extremely  useful.  Moreri's  'His- 
torical and  Critical  Dictionary'  (1671),  being, 
perhaps,  the  first  of  this  class.  During  the  19th 
century  there  .were  published  the  'Universal 
Biography'  (85  vols.  181 1-62)  ;  'New  General 
Biography'  (46  vols.  1852-66)  ;  Chalmer's  'Gen- 
eral Biographical  Dictionary'  {2,2  vols.  1812-17)  ; 
Rose's  'Biographical  Dictionary'  (12  vols. 
1848-50)  ;  Leslie  Stephen's  'Dictionary  of  Na- 
tional Biography'  (completed  in  63  volumes, 
the  first  of  which  appeared  in  January  1885,  and 
the  last  in  September  1901)  ;  Appleton's 
'Cyclopaedia  of  American   Biography'    (7   vols. 


BIOLOGY 


£887-1900)  ;  While's  ^National  Cyclopaedia  of 
American  Biography^  (New  York)  ;  <Men  and 
Women  of  the  Time'  (London)  ;  ^  Who's  Who' 
(London)  ;  "^ Who's  Who  in  America'  (Chi- 
•cago)  ;  Adams'  < Dictionary  of  American 
Authors'  (1901)  ;  Vapereau's  ^Universal  Dic- 
tionarj'  of  Contemporaries'  (Paris)  ;  < Lamb's 
Biographical  Dictionary  of  the  United  States'  (8 
vols.  1897,  ct  seq.)  ;  and  "^Canadian  Men  and 
Women  of  the  Time.'  Among  works  of  more 
limited  aim  may  be  noted  various  ^  Lives  of  the 
Saints'  ;  Fox's  <Book  of  Martyrs'  ;  various 
*  Lives  of  the  Poets'  ;  Boswell's  ^Life  of  John- 
son' (1791)  :  the  most  noted  of  all  English 
biographies,  Lockhart's  *^  Scott'  (1836-8)  ;  For- 
ster's  ^Dickens'  (1872-4)  ;  Gaskell's  '^Charlotte 
Bronte';  Cross'  ^George  Eliot'  (1884);  Lons- 
dale's <  Sister  Dorothea'  (1878);  ^Life  of 
Tennyson,'  by  his  son  (1897)  ;  <Life  of  Hux- 
ley,' by  his  son  (1901).  Among  notable  au- 
tobiographies are  the  first  Lord  Herbert  of 
Cherbury's  ^Autobiography'  ;  Benvenuto  Celli- 
ni's 'Vita  da  lui  Medesimo  Scritta'  ;  Rousseau's 
< Confessions' ;  Gibbon's  'Memoirs';  Franklin's 
^Autobiography'  ;  Newman's  'Apologia  Pro 
Vita  Sua'  ;  Besant's  'Autobiography'  (1902)  ; 
Trowbridge's  'The  Story  of  My  Life^  (1903)  ; 
Mrs.   Oliphant's  Autobiography'    (1899). 

Biology.  The  study  or  science  of  living 
•organisms,  and  the  phenomena  of  life.  Its  field 
is  the  whole  breadth  of  the  organic  world,  and 
it  seeks  to  mark  the  boundaries  which  separate 
living  from  inorganic  nature, —  to  discover  the 
principles  that  unify  it,  the  processes  by  which 
living  things  have  developed,  the  nature  of  life 
itself  and  the  future  in  store  for  it.  Biology, 
then,  is  the  sum  of  all  the  special  departments 
■of  study  which  deal  with  plants,  animals,  and 
man  in  his  animal  relations,  such  as  botany, 
zoology,  anthropology,  and  their  subordinate  or 
associated  sciences ;  that  is,  bacteriology,  micro- 
scopy, physiology,  and  many  more.  In  his  out- 
reaching  toward  the  causes  and  principles  under- 
lying its  phenomena,  the  philosophical  biologist 
must  therefore  understand  organic  chemistry, 
and  the  laws  of  electricity,  light,  heat,  and 
mechanics,  as  they  relate  to  animal  needs ;  and 
at  the  other  extreme  he  must  consider  psychology 
as  an  integral  part  of  his  domain. 

This  array  of  responsibilities  and  of  objects 
for  investigation  seems  too  formidable  for  any 
one  mind  to  imdertake  or  a  lifetime  to  encom- 
pass, and  it  would  be  were  not  the  realm  of 
living  nature  capable  of  resolution  into  simple 
elements;  unified  in  its  fundamental  structure; 
and  controlled  in  its  developmental  growth  by 
definite  "laws  of  being,"  which  have  come  more 
and  more  clearly  into  view  as  knowledge  of 
details  has  increased.  The  classification  and 
co-ordination  of  the  enormous  mass  of  facts  in- 
cessantly poured  into  his  laboratory  and  library 
by  experimenters  and  observers,  to  illuminate 
the  truth  by  some  generalization,  or  to  exhibit 
a  plan,  law,  type  of  structure,  or  growth,  is  the 
high  purpose  of  the  thoughtful  biologist ;  and 
the  greatest  names  in  the  science, —  Aristotle, 
Leibnitz,  Harvey,  Malpighi,  Linne,  Buffon, 
Lamarck.  Treviranus  (who  in  1802  first  used 
the  term  biology),  Cuvier,  Galvani,  Goethe, 
Lyell.  Von  Baer,  Owen,  De  Blainville.  Leuckart, 
Agassiz,  Darwin,  Wallace.  Kowalewsky,  IMiiller, 
Haeckel.  Marsh,  Cope,  Hyatt,  Weismann,  and 
many  others, —  have  been  those  of  men  who  had 


these  large  aims  in  view,  and  have  contributed 
toward  a  solution  of  the  great  problem  of  life. 
The  living  world  may  be  pictured  as  an  enor- 
mous bundle  of  tangled  and  interlaced  cords  of 
phenomena,  which,  moreover,  are  never  quite 
stationary  and  fixed,  but  are  always  slowly,  in- 
visibly, altering  and  forming  new  entanglements. 
Every  naturalist  is  at  work  upon  some  part  of 
this  bundle,  endeavoring  to  extricate  his  particu- 
lar part.  In  mose  cases  he  pays  so  little  atten- 
tion to  anything  else,  and  is  so  fascinated  with 
the  beauty  of  his  single  strand,  that  he  draws 
but  little  out.  In  other  cases  men  of  larger 
view  or  more  serious  purpose,  or  societies  of 
them  co-operating,  disentangle  more.  The  great 
biologist  is  he  who  can  perceive  those  who  have 
found  a  clue,  and  is  able  to  teach  them  and  the 
others  how  still  more  surely  to  unravel  the  intri- 
cate threads  of  phenomena  that  entwine  and  con- 
ceal the  great  fact  of  life  at  the  centre  of  the 
puzzle. 

To  drop  the  figure,  the  science  of  biology  in 
its  more  restricted  and  ordinary  meaning,  is  the 
co-ordination  of  the  observed  facts  and  mani- 
festations of  the  organic  world  into  laws,  and 
the  discovery  of  the  principle  from  whicH  all 
proceed;  that  is,  its  object  is  to  find  an  answer 
to  the  ever-present  question  of  existence  — 
What  is  Life?  To  this  end  goes  on  the  inces- 
sant collection  of  facts  in  natural  history,  and 
it  goes  on  joyously  because  any  moment  the 
biologist  may  come  upon  some  fact  or  sugges- 
tion which  shall  contribute  to  the  grand  result. 

Progress  has  been  made.  The  study  at  first 
was  nothing  but  a  miscellaneous  gathering  of 
specimens  and  records  of  observations.  Then  a 
crude  sorting  out  began.  Men  at  first  failed  to 
distinguish  between  what  was  animate  and  what 
was  inert.  The  winds,  the  lightning,  volcanoes, 
springs  were  things  of  life.  Later  the  broad 
distinction  of  organic  from  inorganic  was  per- 
ceived, but  even  now  it  is  not  known  whether 
some  of  the  manifestations  of  movement  and 
response  in  certain  "slimes"  are  purely  chemical, 
or  due  to  the  presence  of  actual  life. 

The  next  step  was  the  separation  of  the  two 
great  branches  of  the  organic  world  —  plants 
and  animals.  The  broad  features  of  these 
groups  must  have  been  apparent  to  primitive 
man,  but  it  is  only  within  comparatively  recent 
years  that  such  groups  as  the  sponges,  the 
branching  forms  of  the  corals,  the  spreading 
growths  of  the  polyzoans,  have  been  definitely 
placed  among  the  animals.  The  names,  "sea- 
anemone,"  "moss-animal,"  "zoophyte,"  and  the 
like,  show  the  popular  error  or  doubt  as  to  these 
forms.  The  relationship  of  the  minute  or  even 
miscroscopic  hydroids  and  protozoans  were  still 
longer  in  doubt ;  and  to  this  day  there  is  a  bor- 
derland in  this  great  group  (the  Protozoa)  of 
minute,  unicellular  objects  where  no  one  is  able 
to  draw  a  certain  line  between  what  should  be 
called  a  plant  and  what  an  animal,  or  even 
whether  some  of  the  obj(;cts  are  organic  at  all. 

As  men  perceived  certain  likenesses  and 
unlikenesses  the  sorting  of  plants  and  animals 
went  on  crudely  at  first,  on  purely  superficial 
or  even  fanciful  grounds.  This  sufficed  fairly 
well  for  some  large  and  well-marked  groups, 
as  beasts,  birds,  fishes,  insects,  hardwood  trees, 
and  the  like,  yet  led  to  many  mistakes,  such  as 
placing  whales  with  the  fish,  and  the  bats  witK 
birds.     IMeanwhile  students  here  and  there  had 


BIOLOGY 


become  interested  in  special  groups,  and  each 
called  his  pursuit  a  science.  Thus  arose  Orni- 
thology—  the  study  of  birds:  Conchology,  the 
study  of  shells  (in  which  for  a  long  time  little 
attention  was  paid  to  the  animal  that  made 
them!)  ;  Anatomy  and  Physiology,  the  study  of 
structure,  at  first  confined  wholly  to  the  human 
form,  and  only  lately  to  animals  in  general, 
when  it  was  distinguished  as  Comparative 
Anatomy ;  Botany,  the  study  of  plants ;  and  so 
on.  In  each  men  gathered  and  recorded  speci- 
mens and  facts,  as  a  rule  from  a  single  neigh- 
borhood. Nevertheless,  curiosity  began  to  in- 
quire beneath  the  surface.  Plants  were  pulled 
apart,  animals  dissected,  and  resemblances  and 
contrasts  of  structure  were  noted.  Naturalists 
traveled,  and  found  that  the  creatures  of  the 
world  were  more  numerous  than  had  been  sus- 
pected, and  varied  with  climate,  soil,  height 
above  the  sea,  and  diverse  conditions,  and  when 
records  and  specimens  from  many  localities  were 
gradually  accumulated  in  great  museums,  like- 
nesses and  contrasts  appeared  that  had  not  been 
visible  in  the  small  local  cabinet.  Materials 
were  thus  obtained  for  more  intelligent  arrange- 
ment, and  classification  became  one  of  the  most 
important  sciences  in  the  scope  of  biology.  The 
great  service  an  accurate  arrangement  of  living 
things  would  render  to  an  inquirer  as  to  their 
nature,  was  perceived,  and  scientific  men  every- 
where searched  for  facts  which  should  fill  the 
gaps  in  their  knowledge.  The  criteria  were 
made  more  and  more  exact,  and  as  classification 
was  perfected  it  became  increasingly  evident  that 
the  criteria  for  all  branches  were  substantially 
similar,  and  there  came  to  be  perceived  certain 
plans  of  structure.  One  of  the  latest  and  most 
powerful  aids  to  investigation,  the  result  of  the 
perfecting  of  the  miscroscope,  was  the  science  of 
Embryology,  or  the  study  of  the  development  of 
a  plant  from  the  seed  or  of  an  animal  from  the 
egg.  It  went  hand  in  hand  with  Histology,  the 
study  of  tissues,  and  both  disclosed  the  new 
truth  that  the  structure  of  both  animals  and 
plants  was  at  its  basis  the  same  —  a  cell  filled 
with  **life  substance"  (protoplasm)  ;  and  that 
the  multiplication  of  these  cells  constituted  the 
growth,  and  their  arrangement  and  limit  the 
form  and  bulk,  of  every  animal  and  plant.  It 
was  furthermore  ascertained  that  an  egg  or  a 
seed  (in  which  it  is  believed  that  every  animal 
plant  begins,  in  spite  of  some  apparent  excep- 
tions) was  simply  a  cell  differing,  so  far  as  we 
can  yet  see,  from  other  cells  in  the  body  only 
by  its  possession  of  the  potentiality  of  independ- 
ent life  under  the  fostering  of  suitable  condi- 
tions. Classification  had  already  shown  that  its 
groups  might  be  arranged  in  something  like  a 
series  from  those  very  simply  organized  (the 
one-celled  protozoa  at  the  foot  of  the  list)  up  to 
the  highly  complex.  Now  embryology  showed 
that  the  changes  each  individual  passed  through 
from  egg  to  birth  were  a  series  of  changes  from 
simplicity  to  complexity  and  furthermore  that 
they  suggested  a  parallel  to  the  features  of  the 
successive  groups  in  classification,  especially  to 
those  of  the  subordinate  ranks  of  the  subject's 
own  class.  Palaeontology  enforced  this  by  a 
similar  parallel,  finding  that  the  most  ancient  ani- 
mals fossil  in  the  rocks  were  of  simple  and  gen- 
eralized structure  as  compared  with  those  of 
more  modern   geological   formations:   in   other 


words,  that  structural  development  has  also  been 
historic  development. 

All  these  facts  changed  the  point  of  view  of 
the  biologist.  Instead  of  looking  at  separate 
animals  and  seeking  to  find  differences  upon 
which  to  make  new  species  and  subdivide  groups, 
he  is  now  seeking  for  likenesses  —  points  of 
unity.  It  was  long  ago  suggested  to  thoughtful 
minds  that  the  world  was  not  always  as  we 
found  it,  but  that  for  a  vast  period  there  had 
been  a  slow,  persistent  growth  and  unfolding. 
The  phenomena  of  the  inorganic  world  pointed 
the  same  way,  and  hence  arose  the  "nebular 
hypothesis'' — the  explanatory  theory  that  the 
universe  developed  from  a  gaseous  state,  and 
the  earth,  as  one  of  its  parts,  was  slowly  per- 
fected in  pursuance  of  the  forces  inherent  in  its 
origin.  Biologists  are  only  carrying  this  theory 
out  in  a  detail  when  they  argue  that  the  facts 
in  their  hands  can  be  accounted  for  only  by  the 
supposition  that  the  living  beings  on  the  earth 
have  been  slowly  developed  from  a  primitive 
source,  comparable  to  the  germ-cell,  along  un- 
equal and  ramifying  lines  of  progress  under  the 
influences  of  their  changeable  environment. 
This  is  only  a  detail, —  a  flower, —  of  the  general 
unfolding  of  the  universe  which  is  well  called  its 
evolution;  it  is  an  organic  evolution. 

In  the  light  of  this  grand  generalization 
biology  is  now  progressing  with  an  organized 
force  for  investigation  of  the  great  question  as 
to  the  origin  and  nature  of  life.  This  has  not 
been  answered  by  any  of  the  fruitful  hypotheses, 
like  those  of  Darwin  or  Lamarck,  which  have 
placed  so  effective  tools  in  the  biologist's  hands. 
Toward  the  solution  of  this  problem  all  scien- 
tific men  are  working,  consciously  or  uncon- 
sciously. In  aid  of  this  purpose  are  pushed 
forward  the  incessant  and  world-wide  col- 
lection and  preservation  of  preserved  ani- 
mals and  plants  —  museum  specimens ;  and 
the  systematic  and  accurate  observation  and  rec- 
ord of  local  species  and  their  habits  and  in- 
stincts. Much  of  this  seems  trivial  and  dry  as 
dust  in  the  eyes  of  the  ignorant  or  of  those 
whose  minds,  being  occupied  with  other 
thoughts,  forget  the  reason  and  tendency  for 
these  ever-multiplied  details  of  natural  history. 
Patient  students  toil  to  the  same  end  in  labora- 
tories of  anatomy  and  miscroscopy,  laboriously 
gather  statistics  of  variation,  compile  lists  of 
geographical  distribution,  chisel  out  of  the  rocks 
remains  of  extinct  races,  and  sort  and  re-sort 
in  experimental  classifications  —  all  this  in  order 
to  provide  the  generalizers  of  the  science  with 
more  and  better  factors  for  the  solution  of  the 
great  focal  problem.  What  is  Life,  and  how 
came  it  to  be?  What  has  been  the  net  result  so 
far?  In  one  direction  the  conviction  of  the  uni- 
versal eminence  and  force  of  the  principle  of 
evolution ;  in  another  the  realization  of  the  inde- 
pendent life  and  action  of  each  separate  cell.  To 
the  study  of  the  constitution,  qualities  and  be- 
havior of  the  cell,  whether  standing  alone  in  the 
unfertilized  egg,  or  as  a  naked  monad,  or  one  in 
an  interdependent  association  of  millions  build- 
ing up  a  complex  organism,  has  biology  come  at 
last ;  and  not  until  it  has  vanquished  the  difficul- 
ties presented  by  this  atom  of  living  and  poten- 
tial protoplasm,  the  cell,  will  it  accomplish  its 
full  purpose.  Ernest  Ingersoll. 

Editorial  Staff  '•Encyclopedia  Americana.'' 


BION  OF  ABDERA  — BIOT 


Bi'on  of  Abdera,  Greek  mathematician: 
lived  about  400  b.c.  He  belonged  to  the  family 
■of  Democritus,  and  is  said  by  Diogenes  Laertius 
to  have  been  the  first  who  taught  that  there 
were  countries  in  the  world  where  the  year 
consists  only  of  a  single  day  and  a  single  night, 
■each  lasting  for  six  months.  He  must  there- 
fore have  been  acquainted  both  with  the  spher- 
ical form  of  the  globe  and  the  obliquity  of  the 
ecliptic.  Unfortunately  nothing  more  is  known 
-of  his  history. 

Bion  of  Borysthenes,  Greek  philosopher 
contemporary  with  Erastosthenes  (born  275 
B.C.).  and  with  Zeno  the  Stoic.  He  studied 
philosophy  at  Athens,  first  under  Crates  of  the 
Cynic  school,  then  took  lessons  of  Theodorus, 
surnamed  the  Atheist ;  and  at  last,  considering 
his  studies  completed,  set  up  for  himself.  It 
is  not  easy  to  ascertain  what  his  opinions  were, 
as  onlj'  a  few  fragments  of  his  numerous  writ- 
ings have  been  preserved ;  but  he  was  accused 
of  Atheism,  and  apparently  on  good  grounds,  as 
he  is  said  to  have  regarded  all  questions  relative 
to  the  nature  of  the  gods  and  divine  providence 
as  indifferent.  He  died  at  Chalcis  in  Eubcjea 
about  241  B.C. 

Bion  of  Smyrna,  Greek  pastoral  poet, 
who  flourished  in  the  latter  part  of  the  3d 
century  B.C.  He  was  a  contemporary  of  Theocri- 
tus whose  manner  he  imitated.  On  attaining 
manhood,  Bion  emigrated  to  Sicily,  where  a  con- 
spiracy was  formed  against  him,  and  he  was 
basely  poisoned.  The  poems  of  Bion  were 
■chiefly  pastoral,  occasionally  erotic.  The  frag- 
ments of  them  that  are  extant  fully  justify  the 
■eulogies  of  his  admirer,  Moschus.  Their  senti- 
ments are  tender  and  delicate ;  their  style  is 
copious,  graceful,  and  polished.  Seventeen  short 
poems  and  the  famous  'Lament  for  Adonis^ 
are  preserved  to  us,  the  last-named  furnishing 
the  model  for  Shelley's  'Adonais.^  See  Smyth, 
< Greek  Alelic  Poets'    (igoo). 

Biondo,  Flavio,  byon'do,  fla'vyo,  Italian 
archaeologist:  b.  1388;  d.  1463.  His  encyclo- 
paedias have  served  as  the  foundation  for  all 
subsequent  collections  of  archaeological  know- 
ledge. They  were  called  'Roma  instaurata,^ 
^Roma  triumphans,'   and  'Italia  illustrata.' 

Bionomics,  in  biology,  the  study  of  the 
habits  and  modes  of  life,  and  their  relations  to 
each  other,  to  all  living  beings,  and  to  the  world 
■around  them.  It  corresponds  to  "ecology"  and 
to  "biology,"  as  used  by  German  naturalists. 
Wasmann  defines  biology  in  the  restricted  sense 
of  bionomics  as  — 

"  The  science  of  the  external  conditions  of  existence, 
wliich  pertain  to  organisms  as  individuals  and  at  the 
same  time  regulate  their  relations  to  other  organisms 
and   to   the  inorganic  environment." 

It  therefore,  be  says,  embraces  in  its  restricted 

sense  — 

"  First,  a  knowledge  of  the  mode  of  life  of  animals 
and  jilants,  their  nourishment,  dwelling,  mode  of  propa- 
gation, the  care  of  offspring  and  their  development,  in 
so  far  as  these  present  external  manifestations;  hence 
also,  second,  a  knowledge  of  the  life-relations  that  ob- 
tain between  individuals  of  the  same  and  different 
species  (including  all  the  phenomena  of  parasitism, 
symbiosis,  etc.),  and  hence  also,  third,  a  knowledge  of 
the  conditions  of  existence  which  are  essential  to 
the  life   and    maintenance   of  animals   and  plants." 

By  conditions  of  existence  are  meant  the  action 
en  plants  and  animals  of  climate,  soil,  light, 
gravity,  heat,  the  dryness  or  moisture  in  the  air 
and  soil :  the  nature  of  the  water,  whether  salt. 


fresh,  or  brackish;  currents  of  air,  and  of  wa- 
ter ;  elevation  above  the  sea,  also  any  other 
physical  and  biological  agents  in  causing  varia- 
tion in  or  the  modification  of  organisms.  As 
Wheeler  states : 

"  Whenever  we  undertake  the  detailed  or  exhaustive 
study  of  an  ethological  problem,  we  are  led  imper- 
ceptibly into  the  details  of  physiology,  morphology,  em- 
bryology, taxonomy,  or  chorology,  according  to  the  par- 
ticular  aspect   of   the   subject   under   consideration." 

Many  of  these  subjects,  falling  under  the 
head  of  bionomics,  are  treated  under  the  head 
of  evolution  (q.v.),  as  the  struggle  for  exist- 
ence, mimicry,  etc.  Another  department  of  bio- 
nomics is  geographical  distribution,  and  distri- 
bution in  time,  together  with  migration,  heredity, 
hibernation,  and  seasonal  dimorphism.  The 
word  "bionomics"  seems  preferable  to  "etholo- 
gy," which  has  been  used  as  the  name  of  the 
science  of  ethics ;  it  is  also  the  more  compre- 
hensive term. 

Consult  papers  by  Bessey  ('Science,*  XV.  p. 
593)  ;  Bather  ('Science*  XV.  p.  748)  ;  Wheeler 
('Science,'  XV.  20  June  1902).  The  writings 
of  Reaumur,  Audubon,  Huber,  Lubbock,  Pla- 
teau, Fabre,  Ford,  Wasmann,  Riley,  Wheeler  and 
others  deal  especially  with  the  habits  and  econ- 
omy, or  bionomics  of  insects  (bees  and  ants) 
and  birds. 

Bi'oplasm,  that  portion  of  the  protoplasm 
in  living  bodies  that  possesses  the  physiological 
qualities  of  life.  This  term  was  first  used  by 
Prof.  L.  S.  Beale,  an  English  scientist ;  the  word 
protoplasm  had  formerly  been  used  in  an  anal- 
ogous sense,  but  Prof.  Beale  considered  that  a 
much  wider  meaning  had  been  given  to  this  lat- 
ter term  by  Huxley  and  others  and  therefore  in- 
troduced the  use  of  the  word  bioplasm  with  its 
narrower  signification. 

Biot,  Edouard  Constant,  be-6,  a-doo-ar 
koii-stah,  French  Chinese  scholar  of  erni- 
nence:    (son   of   Jean    Baptiste    Biot)    b.    Paris, 

2  July  1803;  d.  12  March  1850.  After  accom- 
panying his  father  on  a  scientific  tour  to  Italy 
in  1825-6,  he  undertook  the  constrtiction  of  a 
railway  from  Lyons  to  St  fitienne,  the  first  in 
France.  In  1833  he  retired  from  active  life, 
and  devoted  his  leisure  to  the  study  of  the 
Chinese.  He  was  the  author  of  'Causes  de 
I'Abolition  de  I'Esclavage  Ancienne  en  Occi- 
dent' (1840).  As  the  result  of  his  studies  on 
China  he  published  numerous  articles  in  the 
'Journal  des  Savants'  and  'Journal  Asiatique,' 
as  well  as  several  larger  works,  more  especially 
'Dictionnaire  des  Noms,  Anciens  et  Modernes, 
des  Villes  et  Arrondissements  compris  dans 
TEmpire  Chinois'  (1842):  and  'Essai  sur 
THistoire  de  ITnstruction  Publique  en  Chine' 
(1847).  Besides  translations  of  Chinese  works, 
—  for  example.  the  historico-chronological 
'Tcheou-chou-ni-kien  (Paris  1842),  and  the 
'Astronomical  Tchcou-pei,'  —  he  wrote  a  'Notice 
sur  quelques  Procedes  Industriels  connus  eii 
Chine,  au  I7me  Siecle'  ;  an  'Examen  de  di- 
verses  Series  de  Faits  relatifs  au  Climat  de  la 
Chine'  ;  and  'Chine  et  Indo-Chine.'  The  print- 
ing of  his  translation  of  the  Chinese  Imperial 
Geography,  'Tchcou-1i,'  was  interrupted  for 
some  time  by  his  death. 

Biot,  Jean  Baptiste,  be-5,  zhon  bap-test, 
French  mathematician  and  physicist  of  dis- 
tinction:   b.     Paris.    21    April    1/74:     J^    there, 

3  Feb.   1862.     He  was  educated  at  the  College 


BIOTITE  — BIRCH 


Louis-le-Grand,  and  in  1793  entered  the  artillery 
service.  Shortly  afterward  he  entered  the  Ecole 
Polytechnique,  and  thenceforth  devoted  himself 
to  the  study  of  mathematics  and  the  natural 
sciences.  After  teaching  physics  lor  some  years 
at  Beauvais,  he  became  professor  of  the  same 
subject  in  the  College  de  France  in  1800,  and 
in  1803  was  elected  a  member  of  the  Institute. 
In  1804  he  made  a  balloon  ascent  with  Gay- 
Lussac,  and  in  1806  was  made  a  member  of  the 
Bureau  des  Longitudes.  In  1809  he  became 
also  professor  of  physical  astronomy  in  the 
University  of  Paris.  With  the  exception  of 
three  journeys,  undertaken  in  connection  with 
the  measurement  of  a  degree  of  the  meridian, 
—  Hamely,  to  Spain  in  1806-8,  to  Scotland, 
Orkneys,  and  Shetland  in  1817,  and  to  Spain  and 
Italy  in  1824-5, —  his  whole  life  was  quietly 
passed  in  study  and  teaching.  He  published 
some  excellent  text-books,  which  became  widely 
known  beyond  France,  such  as  the  *  Essai  de 
Geometric  Analytique^  ;  'Traite  de  Physique 
Experimentale  et  Mathematique^  ;  and  'Traite 
Elementaire  de  Physique  Experimentale,^  as 
well  as  works  on  the  astronomy  of  the  ancient 
Egyptians,  Indians,  and  Chinese.  His  most 
valuable  contributions  to  science,  however,  are 
chiefly  contained  in  communications  to  learned 
societies  and  periodicals.  There  are  few 
branches  of  physics  which  were  not  advanced 
by  his  labors;  and  in  optics  especially  he  made 
some  valuable  investigations,  particularly  in  con- 
nection with  refraction  and  polarization.  See 
Curves. 

Bi'otite,  a  mineral  of  the  mica  group, 
having  its  characteristic  monoclinic  crystalliza- 
tion and  very  perfect  cleavage.  Its  chemical 
composition  varies  widely,  but  in  general  it 
may  be  said  to  be  a  silicate  of  aluminum,  mag- 
nesium, iron,  potassium  ;  with  hydrogen.  On  ac- 
count of  the  presence  of  magnesium,  it  is  some- 
times called  "magnesia  mica."  In  color,  biotite 
varies  from  green  to  black.  It  has  a  hardness 
of  from  2.5  to  3,  and  a  specific  gravity  of  about 
2.9.  It  is  a  common  constituent  of  granite 
and  gneiss,  and  of  manj-^  eruptive  rocks,  such  as 
andesite  and  trachyte.  Biotite  was  named  for 
the  French  physicist,  J.  B.  Biot  (q.v.). 

Bipen'nis,  a  double-headed  battle-axe,  men- 
tioned in  Homer.  The  Greek  literature  attrib- 
utes its  use  to  the  barbarians,  most  especially 
to  the  Amazons.  Such  axes  have  been  found  in 
stone. 

Bipelta'ta,  a  name  given  by  Cuvier  to  a 
family  of  Crustacea,  so  called  because  the  car- 
apace is  divided  into  two  parts  or  shields  ;  the 
anterior  shield  is  large,  oval  in  shape,  and  cor- 
responds to  the  head ;  the  posterior  is  angulated 
in  outline,  corresponds  to  the  thorax,  and  bears 
the  foot- jaws  and  ordinary  feet.  This  family 
is  one  of  those  making  up  the  order  of  Stovio- 
poda,  and  is  now  very  generally  known  under 
the  name  of  Phyllosomidje. 

Bipes,  bl'pez,  (i)  a  genus  of  reptiles 
belonging  to  the  order  Suaria,  in  which  the  pos- 
terior feet  only  are  visible,  though  the  rudi- 
ments of  the  anterior  extremities  appear  under 
the  skin.  This  genus  is  the  connecting  link 
between  the  lizards  and  the  snakes.  (2)  The 
name  given  to  a  lizard  from  the  Cape  of  Good 
Hope,  which  is  called  Anguis  bipes  Ijy  Linnjeus 
and  Scelotes  bipes  by  Gray. 


Bipont    Editions,   famous    editions    of   the 

Latm  classics,  published  in  Bavaria  in  the  city 
of  Deux  Ponts,  whose  name  in  German  is 
Zwei-briicken,  and  in  Latin  Bipontium.  Tlie 
publication  was  begun  in  1779,  but  after  the 
French  conquest  was  finished  in  Strasburg.  The 
collection  forms  50  volumes  octavo. 

Birago,  be-ra'go,  Karl,  Baron  von,  Aus- 
trian military  engineer :  b.  Cascino,  d'Olmo, 
24  April  1792;  d.  Vienna,  29  Dec.  1845.  He 
studied  mathematics  at  Pavia  ;  was  a  teacher  in 
a  military  school  in  Mailand,  and  in  1825. 
invented  the  military  bridge  which  is  named  for 
him.  He  assisted  at  the  building  of  the  fortifi- 
cations of  Linz,  the  fortifications  of  the  Po  near 
Brescello,  and  in  1839  built  a  military  bridge 
across  the  Po  which  was  especially  successful. 
Nearly  all  the  Continental  armies  have  since 
adopted  his  system  of  bridge  construction.  In 
1844  he  was  in  command  of  the  newly  organ- 
ized Pioneer  and  Pontonier  Corps  and  became 
commander  of  a  brigade.  He  wrote  *  Researches- 
in  European  Bridge  Construction.^ 

Birbhum,  ber'boom,  a  district  of  the  Divi- 
sion Bardwan  in  Bengal.  It  is  crossed  by  a 
few  unimportant  rivers ;  has  hot  springs,  iron 
mines  and  limestqne  deposits.  The  chief  agri- 
cultural product  is  rice ;  there  is  also  a  large 
silk-worm  industry.  For  over  2,000  years  Birb- 
hum was  the  scene  of  the  conflicts  of  the  Ary- 
ans advancing  into  Bengal  from  Hindustan. 

Biquadrat'ic  Equations,  in  algebra,  equations 
containing  but  one  unknown  quantity,  of  which,, 
in  the  equation,  the  highest  power  is  the  fourth. 
An  equation  of  this  kind,  when  complete,  is  of 
the  form  Xi  +  Ax-,  +  Bxn  +  Cx  +  D  =  o,  where 
A,  B,  C,  and  D  denote  any  known  quantities 
whatever.     See  Equation. 

Bir,  ber,  or  Birejik,  a  town  in  Asiatic 
Turkey,  80  miles  northeast  of  Aleppo,  on  the 
side  of  a  steep  hill  on  the  left  bank  of  the 
Euphrates,  which  is  here  about  600  yards  wide,, 
and  10  to  12  feet  deep.  The  town  is  surrounded 
on  the  land  side  by  a  wall,  with  towers  at  the 
angles,  and  pierced  with  loopholes.  The  streets 
are  narrow  but  clean.  In  the  centre,  on  a  steep 
rock,  is  an  old  ruined  fortification.  Bir  has 
long  been  the  point  where  caravans  and  travelers, 
from  Aleppo  to  Orfah,  Diarbekir,  Bagdad,  and 
Persia,  cross  the  Euphrates.     Pop.  8,000. 

Birague,  Rene  de,  be-rjig,  re-na  de,  Italian 
politician:  b.  Milan,  1567  (or  1506):  d.  1588. 
He  incurred  the  hostility  of  Louis  Sforza  the 
duke,  but  in  France,  Francis  I.  received  him 
favorably,  made  him  councilor  of  the  Parliament 
of  Paris,  and  governor  of  Lyonnais,  and  sent 
him  to  the  Council  of  Trent.  Under  Charles. 
IX.  his  advancement  was  still  more  rapid,  and 
in  1570  he  was  made  keeper  of  the  seals.  In 
this  capacity  he  was  a  party  in  the  secret  coun- 
cil at  which  the  massacre  of  St.  Bartholomew 
was  organized.  He  zealously  defended  the 
Catholic  cause  against  the  inroads  of  French 
Calvinism,  both  in  its  religious  and  its  political 
aspects.  He  was  bitterly  hated  by  the  Hugue- 
nots, who  in  consequence  made  many  derogatory 
accusation  against  him.  He  was  made  a  cardinal 
in  1578,  and  held  the  bishopric  of  Lavaur  and  sev- 
eral rich  abbeys.  He  died  chancellor  of  France. 
Birch,  Harvey,  the  principal  figure  in 
Cooper's  novel,  <The  Spy,^  a  romance  of  the 
American  Revolution. 


BIRCH 


Birch,  John,  English  soldier:  b.  7  April 
1616;  d.  10  May  1691.  A  Presbyterian  in  re- 
ligion, he  took  the  side  of  the  Parliament,  acting 
as  a  captain  of  volunteers  at  the  siege  of  Bristol 
by  the  Royalists.  On  the  institution  of  the 
"new  model"  he  was  ordered  to  join  the  army 
of  Fairfax  and  Cromwell  in  the  west  of  Eng- 
land, and  had  Bath  entrusted  to  his  care.  He 
commanded  a  body  of  horse  and  foot  at  the 
storming  of  Bristol,  an  affair  in  which  he  so 
highly  distinguished  himself  as  to  receive  special 
commendation  from  Cromwell  in  his  report  to 
the  Parliament.  In  1645  he  was  sent  against 
Hereford,  and  by  a  stratagem  succeeded  in  gain- 
ing possession  of  the  city,  and  with  this  the 
special  thanks  of  Parliament.  He  objected  to 
many  of  the  proceedings  of  the  party  of  Crom- 
well, and  was  repeatedly  thrown  into  prison. 
He  took  an  active  part  in  bringing  about  the 
restoration  of  Charles  H.,  and  in  the  latter  part 
of  his  life  was  a  prominent  member  of  Parlia- 
ment. He  was  a  man  of  great  personal  strength 
and  stature,  a  rough  but  most  effective  public 
speaker,  and  had  remarkable  talents  for  business 
and  practical  affairs. 

Birch,  Samuel,  distinguished  English 
Egyptologist :  b.  London,  3  Nov.  1813 ;  d.  there, 
27  Dec.  1885.  At  the  age  of  23  he  was  appointed 
an  assistant  in  the  department  of  antiquities  in 
the  British  Museum.  He  gradually  rose  to 
higher  positions  in  the  museum,  and  latterly 
became  keeper  of  the  department  devoted  to 
Egyptian  and  Oriental  antiquities,  a  post  which 
he  retained  till  his  death.  His  whole  life  was 
devoted  to  studies  and  work  connected  with  his 
official  duties,  and  was  naturally  uneventful. 
His  labors  did  much  to  advance  the  study  of 
Oriental  archaeology,  and  his  eminence  in  his 
own  province  was  duly  recognized  by  learned 
bodies  and  institutions.  In  1870  he  assisted  in 
founding  the  Society  of  Biblical  Archaeology, 
and  became  its  first  president,  frequently  con- 
tributing to  its  "^  Proceedings^  and  "^  Transac- 
tions.^ In  1874  he  successfully  presided  over 
the  International  Congress  of  Orientalists  that 
met  in  London  in  that  year.  His  studies  ranged 
over  a  wide  field,  but  it  is  on  his  eminence  as 
an  Egyptologist  that  his  reputation  chiefly  rests. 
It  has  been  said  that  "he  found  the  language  of 
Egypt  a  puzzle,  and  left  it  at  his  death  in  the 
position  of  one  of  the  most  important  philologies 
of  the  world.**  Among  his  works,  exclusive  of 
contributions  to  learned  societies,  encyclopaedias, 
etc.,  are:  "^Introduction  to  the  Study  of  the 
Egyptian  Hieroglyphs^  (to  accompany  Gardi- 
ner Wilkinson's  work  on  Egypt;  1857);  ^His- 
tory of  Ancient  Pottery,  Egyptian,  Assyrian, 
Greek,  Etruscan,  and  Roman'  (1857;  'Himya- 
ritic  Inscriptions  of  Southern  Arabia*  (1863)  ; 
^Dictionary  of  Hieroglyphics  and  Grammar  of 
the  same  in  the  fifth  volume  of  the  English  edi- 
tion of  Bunsen's  *  Egypt's  Place  in  the  Universal 
History^  (1867)  :  'Guide  to  the  Egyptian  Gal- 
leries of  the  British  Museum*  (1874);  <New 
Edition  of  Wilkinson's  Manners  and  Customs 
of  the  Ancient  Egyptians*  (1878).  For  full  ac- 
count of  his  life  and  work,  see  'Transactions  of 
the  Society  of  Biblical  Archaeology*  Vol.  IX. 
(1893). 

Birch,  Thomas,  English  historian:  b.  Lon- 
don, 23  Nov.  1705;  d.  there,  9  Jan.  1766.  His 
early  taste  for  reading  induced  him  to  prefer  a 
literary  life,  which  he  was  permitted  to  choose 


on  condition  of  supporting  himself  by  his  own' 
exertions.  He  took  orders  in  the  Church  in 
1730,  and  obtained  in  1732  a  living  in  Essex.  In 
1734  he  engaged  with  some  coadjutors  in  writ- 
ing the  '•General  Historical  and  Critical 
Dictionary,*  founded  on  that  of  Bayle,  and  com- 
pleted, in  10  volumes  folio,  in  1741.  He  subse- 
quently obtained  various  preferments  in  the 
Church,  and  for  about  20  years  before  his  death' 
held  the  rectories  of  St.  Margaret  Pattens,  Lon- 
don, and  Depden,  in  Suffolk.  Birch  had  formed 
very  extensive  manuscript  collections,  which, 
together  with  his  library  of  printed  books,  he 
bequeathed  to  the  British  Museum.  He  produced 
a  large  number  of  historical  and  biographical 
works  in  the  course  of  his  laborious  life, 
and  served  as  one  of  the  pioneers  of  literature. 
He  collected  fully  and  faithfully,  but  without 
much  discrimination,  materials  relating  to  the 
various  subjects  of  his  research,  which  are  calcu- 
lated to  afford  important  assistance  to  writers 
possessed  of  more  taste  and  judgment.  Among- 
his  works  are:  'Life  of  the  Right  Honorable 
Robert  Boyle*  ;  'Historical  View  of  the  Nego- 
tiations Between  the  Courts  of  England,  France,, 
and  Brussels,*  1592-1617:  'Life  of  Archbishop- 
Tillotson*  ;  'Memoirs  of  the  Reign  of  Queen 
Elizabeth,  from  1581  till  Her  Death*  ;  'Histor>^ 
of  the  Royal  Society  of  London*  ;  'Life  of 
Henry,  Prince  of  Wales.* 

Birch,  Thomas,  American  painter:  b.  Lon- 
don, England,  1779;  d.  Philadelphia,  Pa.,  3  Jan. 
1851.  Coming  to  the  United  States  in  1793,  he 
settled  in  Philadelphia,  and  painted  chiefly 
portraits  until  1807,  when  he  took  up  marine 
painting,  in  which  he  achieved  a  high  reputa- 
tion. A  number  of  his  works  represent  naval 
battles  of  the  War  of  1812,  and  of  these  the 
paintings  representing  the  engagements  between 
the  United  States  and  the  Macedonian,  and  be- 
tween the  Constitution  and  the  Guerriere.  are 
the  best  known.  Both  are  in  the  Harrison  col- 
lection at  Philadelphia. 

Birch-Pfeiffer,  Charlotte,  berH'pflf-er,. 
shar-lot'ta,  German  actress  and  dramatic  writer : 
b.  Stuttgart,  23  June  1800;  d.  24  Aug.  i858,  her 
maiden  name  being  Pfeiffer.  She  first  appeared 
on  the  stage  in  her  13th  year  at  Munich,  and 
soon  acquired  a  great  reputation,  her  special  role- 
being  that  of  the  heroines  of  tragedy.  In  1825 
she  married  Christian  Birch,  a  writer  of  some 
note.  After  playing  with  success  at  places  as  far 
apart  as  St.  Petersburg,  Amsterdam,  and  Buda- 
pest, in  1837  she  took  the  management  of  the 
theatre  at  Ziirich,  and  remained  in  this  capacity 
till  1843.  Next  year  she  was  engaged  for  the 
Theatre  Royal,  Berlin,  and  here  she  remained 
till  her  death.  Her  plays,  mostly  founded  on 
novels,  became  well  known  on  almost  every 
stage  in  Germany,  and  give  evidence  of  real 
dramatic  talent,  as  well  as  of  a  knowledge  of 
stage  effects  and  what  would  suit  the  taste  of 
the  theatre-going  public.  Victor  Hugo's  ^ Notre 
Dame*  and  Charlotte  Bronte's  'Jane  Eyre*  fur- 
nished her  with  materials  for  two  of  her  dramas. 
She  also  wrote  novels  and  tales.  Her  collected 
dramatic  works  appeared  at  Leipsic  in  23  vol- 
umes (1863-80)  ;  her  narrative  writings  in  three 
(1863-5).  Her  daughter  has  become  well  known 
as  a  novelist  under  the  name  Wilhelmine  von 
Hillern. 

Birch  (Bcftila).  a  genus  of  trees  belonging 
to  the  natural  order   (or  sub-order)    Betulacea, 


BIRCH 


which  comprises  only  the  birches  and  alders. 
The  principal  habitats  of  the  trees  of  this  order 
are  North  America,  Europe,  northern  Asia,  and 
the  Himalayas.  The  common  birch  is  hidige- 
nous  throughout  the  north,  and  on  high  situ- 
ations in  the  south  of  Europe.  It  is  extremely 
hardy,  and  only  one  or  two  other  species  of  trees 
approach  so  near  to  the  North  Pole.  There  are 
two  varieties  natives  of  Great  Britain,  Bctula  alba, 
and  B.  alba  pcndula,  or  weeping-birch  ;  the  latter 
by  far  the  more  valuable  and  ornamental.  When 
young  it  may  readily  be  distinguished  by  the 
touch,  its  bark  being  covered  over  with  rough 
exudations,  while  that  of  the  common  tree  is 
soft  and  velvety.  Each  variety  is  found  exclu- 
sively in  some  districts,  but  frequently  they  are 
interspersed.  Throughout  the  most  remote  parts 
of  the  Highlands  of  Scotland  the  birch  is  often 
found  covering  extensive  tracts  or  rocky  eleva- 
tions, where  no  other  ligneous  plant  is  to  be  met 
with.  It  also  grows  in  glens  and  ravines,  adorn- 
ing the  margins  of  lakes  and  rivers,  w'here  the 
silvery  whiteness  of  its  trunk  and  the  light  and 
airy  habit  of  its  spray  form  beautiful  and  inter- 
esting pictures,  even  in  the  absence  of  every 
other  tree.  Though  often  found  associated  with 
the  alder  on  swampy  ground,  yet  few  trees  more 
successfully  resist  drought.  Adapting  itself  to 
various  soils  and  situations,  it  possesses  a  wider 
range  than  any  other  tree.  It  is  well  suited  to 
form  a  cover  on  ground  from  which  Scotch  pine 
timber  has  been  recently  removed ;  the  exuvi?e, 
which  always  overspreads  such  places,  though 
hostile  to  plants  in  general,  are  favorable  to  the 
birch,  which  commonly  springs  up  and  becomes 
the  successor  of  the  pine.  The  common  tree, 
where  it  grows  wild,  attains  a  height  of  about 
30  feet,  and  the  weeping  variety  about  40  feet ; 
b)ut  both  sorts  rise  to  a  much  greater  height 
when  formed  into  plantations,  particularly  when 
interspersed  with  other  trees.  Although  the 
"birch  is  considered  by  no  means  a  valuable  tree, 
yet  its  wood,  which  is  light  in  color,  and  firm 
and  tough  in  texture,  is  used  for  a  variety  of 
purposes.  Not  long  ago,  in  many  parts  of  the 
Highlands,  the  birch  may  be  said  to  have  been 
the  universal  wood,  and  was  used  by  the  High- 
landers for  every  purpose.  They  made  their 
beds,  chairs,  tables,  dishes,  and  spoons  of  it,  and 
«ven  manufactured  ropes  and  horse-harness  by 
lieating  and  twisting  its  spray.  The  brushwood 
is  used  in  forming  wicker  fences  to  prevent  the 
inroads  of  cattle  and  sheep,  in  thatching  cot- 
tages, and  in  forming  brooms  or  besoms.  The 
wood  is  largely  used  for  fish-casks  and  hoops, 
and  for  smoking  hams  and  herrings.  Turners 
use  it  for  trenchers,  bowls,  ladles,  and  other 
wooden  ware.  Ox-yokes,  small  screws,  women's 
shoe-heels,  pattens,  and  in  France  wooden  shoes 
are  made  of  it.  Birch-trees  are  not  unfrequently 
planted  along  with  hazels,  for  the  purpose  of 
procuring  wood  to  be  converted  into  charcoal 
for  forges.  This  charcoal  is  much  esteemed, 
and  the  soot  which  is  formed  on  burning  the 
wood  constitutes  a  good  black  substance  for 
printers'  ink.  Nearly  all  the  other  parts  are 
applicable  to  useful  purposes.  The  bark  is  em- 
ployed in  the  tanning  of  leather ;  and  by  fisher- 
men for  preserving  their  nets  and  cordage,  In 
America,  northern  Europe,  and  Asia  it  is  util- 
ized for  a  great  variety  of  purposes.  The  North 
American  Indians  use  it  for  canoes,  boxes,  buck- 
■ets,  baskets,  kettles,  and  dishes,  curiously  join- 
ing it  together  with  threads  made  of  roots  of 


the  cedar-tree.  It  is  serviceable  in  dj^eing  a  yel- 
low color.  In  Norway  it  is  dried,  ground,  mixed 
with  meal,  and  boiled  with  other  food  for  swine. 
The  houses  or  huts  in  many  parts  of  the  north 
of  Europe  are  covered  with  the  outward  and 
thicker  part  of  the  bark,  instead  of  slates  or 
tiles.  It  is  spun  into  a  coarse  kind  of  cordage, 
woven  into  shoes  and  hats,  and  in  some  places 
even  made  into  drinking  cups.  The  Laplanders 
fasten  together  large  pieces  of  it  to  keep  off  the 
rain.  Abounding  in  resinous  matter,  slices  of 
the  bark  are  sometimes  tied  together  to  make 
torches.  During  a  scarcity  of  corn  it  has,  in 
several  instances,  been  ground  with  bread  corn, 
and  successfully  used  as  food  for  men.  The 
leaves  afford  a  yellow  .dye.  The  sap,  from  the 
amoimt  of  sugar  it  contains,  affords  a  kind  of 
agreeable  wine.  Birch-wine  is  produced  by  the 
tree  being  tapped  by  boring  a  hole  in  the  trunk, 
during  warm  weather,  in  the  end  of  spring,  or 
beginning  of  summer,  when  the  sap  runs  most 
copiously.  It  is  recorded  that  during  the  siege 
of  Hamburg,  in  1814,  many  birch-trees  in  that 
vicinity  were  destroyed  in  this  manner  by  the 
Russian  soldiers.  The  dwarf  birch,  Betula  nana, 
is  a  low  shrub,  a  native  of  parts  of  the  High- 
lands of  Scotland  and  of  Arctic  regions  gen- 
erally. It  is  never  more  than  two  or  three  feet 
high,  and  is  generally  much  less ;  a  full- 
grown  plant  being  thus  a  very  tiny  example  of 
a  tree.  It  is  used  as  fuel,  and  as  stuffing  for 
beds,  and  its  seeds  furnish  food  for  ptarmigan 
and  other  birds.  A  similar  species  is  a  native 
of  the  Antarctic  regions.  Among  others  the 
black  or  river  birch  of  North  America  {B. 
nigra'),  grows  to  the  height  of  70  feet,  and  pro- 
duces hard  and  valuable  timber.  It  is  also 
known  as  the  red  birch,  from  the  redness  of  the 
bark  in  the  young  trees.  Another  American 
species,  the  cherry  birch  or  sweet  birch  (B. 
lenta),  is  also  called  the  black  birch.  It  grows 
to  a  similar  height  with  the  preceding,  and 
yields  even  more  valuable  timber,  used  in  mak- 
ing furniture,  etc.,  being  tough,  fine-grained,  and 
taking  on  a  good  polish.  It  has  been  intro- 
duced into  Great  Britain  though  not  much 
known  there.  The  paper  birch  (B.  papyracca) 
is  another  American  species  which  also  attains 
a  large  size,  and  by  some  is  regarded  as  a  mere 
variety  of  the  white  or  common  birch.  Its 
habitat  extends  within  the  Arctic  Circle,  but  it 
becomes  rare  and  stunted  in  the  extreme  north. 
It  receives  its  name  from  the  fact  that  thin 
strips  of  the  brilliant  white  bark  are  sometimes 
used  as  a  substitute  for  paper.  The  bark  of  this 
species  is  put  to  perhaps  a  greater  variety  of 
uses  than  that  of  any  other,  its  wood  and  sap 
being  also  utilized.  Another  American  birch  is 
the  yellow  birch  {B.  cxcclsa),  so  named  from 
the  golden  color  of  the  outer  bark.  It  is  a  large- 
leaved  species,  yielding  timber  used  for  ship- 
building, etc.,  and  is  a  native  of  the  eastern 
parts  of  Canada  and  the  northeast  of  the  United 
States.  Of  Himalayan  species  may  be  men- 
tioned B.  blwjputfra,  the  Indian  paper  birch. 
Its  thin  papery  bark  has  been  used  as  paper 
from  a  remote  period,  and  is  still  commonly 
used  for  packing  purposes,  for  lining  the  flexible 
tubes  of  hookahs,  and  in  other  ways,  while  the 
wood  is  tough,  and  is  emploj^ed  in  making  arti- 
cles of  various  kinds.  In  its  native  mountains 
it  may  be  found  at  an  altitude  of  10,000  to 
13,000  feet.  Several  of  the  pigmy  species  de- 
serve mention.     B.  pumila,  which   is   generally 


BIRCH. 


1.  Spray  witn  <i,  male  and  t,  female  flowers. 

2.  Twig  with  c,  fruit. 

3-6.  Various  views  of  a  single  male  flower. 
7.  Female  catkin. 
8-10.  Various  views  of  a  single  female  flower. 


-12.  Details  of  fruit  case. 

13.  The  fruit. 

14.  Twig  with  leaf  and  male  flower  buds. 

15.  Section  through  a  branch,  three  years  old. 

16.  Dwarf  Birch  (Betula  Nana). 


BIRCHARD  — BIRD 


less  than  8  feet  tall,  but  sometimes  reaches  a 
height  of  15  feet,  is  found  from  Newfoundland 
to  Minnesota,  and  south  to  Ohio.  B.  glandii- 
Josa,  which  extends  from  Labrador  to  Alaska 
and  south  to  Michigan  and  in  the  mountains  to 
Colorado,  seldom  exceeds  4  feet.  B.  nana,  an 
Arctic  species,  common  to  all  three  continents, 
rarely  reaches  a  height  of  four  feet.  Through- 
out its  range  it  is  an  important  fuel  and  its 
seeds  form  one  of  the  principal  foods  of  ptarmi- 
gan upon  which  the  natives  depend  to  a  large 
extent  for  flesh  food.  Like  the  two  other 
dwarf  species  mentioned,  it  is  a  favorite  shrub 
for  planting  among  rocks.  Other  species,  natives 
of  Europe  and  Asia,  resemble  the  preceding 
more  or  less  in  appearance  and  uses.  See 
Bailey  and  ^Miller,  '  Cj'clopsdia  of  American 
Horticulture^  (1900-2)  ;  Kegel,  ^Monographische 
Bearbeitung  der  Betulacese*  (1861)  ;  DeCan- 
dolle.     'Prodromus    16*     (1869). 

Birchard,  Isaac  James,  Canadian  educator: 
b.  Uxbridge,  Ont.,  11  Oct.  1850.  He  was  princi- 
pal of  a  public  school  in  Toronto,  1874-80; 
master  of  mathematics  at  Brantford  College 
Institute  in  1882-93 ;  'ind  in  1900  was  master  of 
mathematics  in  the  Toronto  College  Institute. 
He  is  best  known  as  the  author  of  the  text- 
took,  *  Plane  Trigonometry  for  Schools  and 
Colleges.^  and  as  the  joint  author  of  ^High 
School  Algebra.^ 

Birchenough,  berch'e-no,  Mabel  (Bradley), 
English  novelist,  third  daughter  of  the  late  H. 
G.  Bradley,  dean  of  Westminster,  and  wife  of 
Henry  Birchenough,  a  writer  on  statistics.  She 
lias  written:  *  Disturbing  Elements';  ^Pots- 
Tierds'  ;  ^Private  Bobs.' 

Bird,  Arthur,  American  musician:  b.  Cam- 
bridge, Mass.,  23  July  1856.  He  conducted  the 
Milwaukee  Musical  Festival  in  1886  and  since 
that  date  has  lived  in  Berlin.  In  addition  to 
a  symphony  and  various  pianoforte  numbers  he 
lias  composed  a  comic  opera,  ^Daphne'  (1897) 
and  a  ballet,  *Rubezahl.' 

Bird,  Charles,  American  military  officer: 
"b.  Delaw'are,  17  June  1838.  He  entered  the 
volunteer  service  in  1861,  as  first  lieutenant,  ist 
Delaware  Infantry ;  was  promoted  lieutenant- 
colonel,  9th  Delaware  Infantry,  in  1864 ;  and 
was  commissioned  colonel  of  the  ist  United 
States  Veteran  Infantry,  24  Dec.  1865.  On 
2  March  1867  he  w^as  brevetted  first  lieutenant 
and  captain  in  the  L^nited  States  army  for  gal- 
lantry in  the  battle  of  Fredericksburg,  major  for 
Spottsylvania,  and  lieutenant-colonel  for  Peters- 
burg, Va.  He  was  appointed  a  second  lieuten- 
ant. 14th  L'nited  States  Infantry,  in  1886;  pro- 
moted to  major  and  quartermaster  in  1895;  ^nd 
commissioned  a  colonel  and  quartermaster  of 
United  States  Volunteers  for  the  war  with  Spain 
in  1898.  He  became  brigadier-general  in  the 
regular  army  16  April  1902  and  was  retired  17 
June  1902. 

Bird,  Edward,  English  painter  of  note :  b. 
Wolverhampton,  12  April  1772;  d.  Bristol  1819. 
He  took  up  art  as  a  profession,  without  any 
Tegular  training,  and  carried  on  a  school  of 
drawing  at  Bristol.  In  1807  he  exhibited  some 
pictures  at  Bath,  and  had  the  good  fortune  to 
find  purchasers  for  them.  In  1809  he  had  a 
picture,  'Good  News,'  in  the  exhibition  of  the 
Royal  Academj',  and  so  successful  was  this 
work  that  his  name  at  onee  became  known.  He 
Vol.  2 — 42. 


was  elected  an  associate  of  the  Academy  in 
1812,  and  his  reputation  was  increased  by  such 
paintings  as  the  'Surrender  of  Calais,'  the 
"Death  of  Eli,'  and  the  'Field  of  Chevy  Chase' 
—  the  last  considered  his  greatest  work.  The 
'Death  of  Eli'  was  sold  for  500  guineas,  and 
was  awarded  a  premiinn  of  300  by  the  British 
Institution.  In  1815  he  became  a  full  member 
of  the  Royal  Academy,  and  he  was  also 
appointed  court  painter  to  Queen  Charlotte. 
Among  his  last  pictures  were  the  'Crucifixion'  ; 
'Christ  led  to  be  Crucified'  ;  the  'Death  of 
Ananias  and  Sapphira'  ;  and  the  'Burning  of 
Ridley  and  Latimer.'  His  talents,  however,  were 
considered  to  be  rather  for  genre  than  for  his- 
toric or  sacred  subjects. 

Bird,  Frederic  Mayer,  American  Episco- 
pal clergyman,  son  of  R.  M.  Bird  (q.v.)  :  b. 
Philadelphia,  28  June  1838.  He  was  rector  at 
Spotswood,  N.  J.,  1870-4 ;  chaplain  and  pro- 
fessor of  psychology.  Christian  evidences,  and 
rhetoric,  at  Lehigh  University.  1881-6 ;  and  act- 
ing chaplain  there,  1893-8.  He  is  noted  as  a 
hymnologist,  and  as  the  collector  of  one  of  the 
most  complete  and  valuable  musical  libraries  in 
the  United  States.  He  edited  several  collec- 
tions of  hymns;  was  associate  editor  of  'Chand- 
ler's Encyclopaedia'  ;  editor  of  'Lippincott's 
Magazine'  (1893-8);  and  published  'The  Story 
of  Our  Christianity'   (1893). 

Bird,  Gelding,  English  medical  and  scien- 
tific writer:  b.  Downham,  Norfolk,  1814;  d.  27 
Oct.  1854.  In  1838  he  took  the  degree  of  M.D. 
at  St.  Andrew's,  and  in  1840  that  of  M.A.  In 
the  latter  j-ear  he  became  a  licentiate  of  the 
Royal  College  of  Physicians,  London,  and  in 
1845  was  elected  a  Fellow.  In  1843  he  was 
appointed  assistant  physician  at  Guy's  Hospital, 
where  he  also  lectured  on  materia  medica ;  and 
in  1847  he  entered  on  a  three  years'  course  of 
lectures  on  the  same  subject  at  the  College  of 
Physicians.  He  took  an  active  interest  in  natural 
history,  chemistry,  and  other  subjects  more  or 
less  connected  with  medicine;  and  his  multi- 
farious occupations  overtaxed  his  strength  and 
undermined  his  health,  so  that  he  died  at  a  com- 
parative early  age.  He  had  by  this  time  acquired 
a  very  large  practice,  and  had  made  his  name 
well  known  in  his  profession,  more  especially 
by  his  researches  in  scientific  medicine.  A  work 
by  which  he  was  more  generally  known  was 
his  'Elements  of  Natural  Philosophy,'  for  many 
years  a  text-book.  A  well-known  work  on 
'Urinary  Deposits'  was  also  published  by  him, 
as  also  'Lectures  on  Electricity  and  Galvanism 
in  their  Physiological  and  Therapeutical  Rela- 
tions' ;  'Lectures  on  Oxaluria'  ;  etc. 

Bird,  Isabella.  See  Bishop,  Isabella  Bird. 

Bird,  John,  English  mathematical  instru- 
ment maker:  b.  in  the  county  of  Durham.  1709^ 
d.  31  March  1776.  He  set  up  in  London  about 
1745  as  a  maker  of  scientific  instruments,  hav- 
ing previously  received  instructions  from  Gra- 
ham, the  greatest  mechanician  of  the  time.  In 
1749  he  received  an  order  to  construct  a  new 
brass  mural  quadrant  of  eight  feet  radius  for  the 
Royal  Observatory.  This  was  used  by  Bradley 
and  by  Maskelyne.  and  continued  serviceable  for 
62  years.  Duplicates  of  it  were  soon  ordered 
for  St.  Petersburg,  Cadiz,  and  the  ficole  Mili- 
taire.  Paris  —  the  last  employed  by  D'Agelet 
and  Lalande  in  determining  the  declinations  of 
50,000  stars.     He  also  furnished  Bradley  with  a 


BIRD  — BIRD-LIME 


new  transit  instrument  and  a  40-inch  movable 
quadrant.  Bird's  marked  superiority  to  all 
other  makers  of  the  day  is  strikingly  exemplified 
by  the  fact  that  in  1767  the  Board  of  Longitude 
paid  him  £500  on  his  agreeing  to  take  an  appren- 
tice for  seven  years,  instruct  other  persons  as 
desired,  and  furnish  upon  oath  descriptions  and 
plates  of  his  methods.  A  result  of  this  arrange- 
ment was  the  publication  of  two  treatises,  named 
respectively  ^The  Method  of  Dividing  Astro- 
nomical Instruments^  (1767),  and  *The  Method 
of  Constructing  Mural  Quadrants'  (1768),  each 
with  a  preface  by  Maskelyne,  the  astronomer- 
royal. 

Bird,  Robert  Montgomery,  American  nov- 
elist:  b.  Newcastle,  Del.,  1803;  d.  Philadelphia, 
22  Jan.  1854.  He  qualified  as  a  physician, 
but  soon  gave  up  the  practice  of  medicine  for 
literature.  He  first  became  known  as  a  dram- 
atist, having  w^ritten  three  tragedies, —  *The 
Gladiator*  ;  ^Oraloosa'  ;  and  <The  Broker  of 
Bogota \ — the  first  of  these  often  acted  by  Edwin 
Forrest.  His  first  novel  was  'Calavar'  (1834), 
his  second  *The  Infidel'  (1835) — both  of  them 
having  their  scene  in  Mexico,  at  the  time  of  the 
Spanish  conquest.  Then  followed  the  ^ Hawks 
of  Hawk  Hollow'  ;  ^Sheppard  Lee'  ;  and  *Nick 
of  the  Woods,  or  the  Jibbenainosay'  (1837)  ; 
the  last  probably  the  most  popular  of  all  his  fic- 
tions. Its  scene  is  laid  in  Kentucky  soon  after 
the  close  of  the  Revolutionary  War,  and  in  it 
we  have  a  lively  picture  of  pioneer  life  at  this 
date,  and  the  relentless  hostilities  between  the 
Indians  and  the  early  settlers.  He  also  wrote : 
*  Peter  Pilgrim,'  a  collection  of  tales  and 
sketches ;  and  *^  Adventures  of  Robin  Day,'  a 
novel. 

Bird,  Birde,  or  Byrd,  William,  English 
composer:  b.  1538;  d.  London,  4  July  1623.  He 
was  trained  in  music  under  Thomas  Tallis,  and 
was  appointed  organist  of  Lincoln  about  1563. 
In  1575  tne  two  composers  obtained  the  mo- 
nopoly for  21  years  of  printing  and  selling  music 
and  music  paper ;  and  on  the  death  of  Tallis  in 
1585  Bird  became  sole  patentee.  His  first  work 
of  importance  was  *  Psalms,  Sonnets,  and  Songs 
of  Sadness  and  Piety,  Made  into  Music  of  Five 
Parts'  (1588).  In  1589  he  published  a  collec- 
tion of  songs,  and  also  a  collection  of  sacred 
pieces  for  five  voices ;  a  second  collection  of 
similar  pieces  appeared  also  in  1591.  In  1607  he 
published  two  books  of  ^Gradualia,'  being  a 
collection  of  motets  for  the  ecclesiastical  year 
of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church;  and  in  161 1 
< Psalms,  Songs,  and  Sonnets.'  He  continued 
all  his  life  a  Roman  Catholic,  but  notwithstand- 
ing this  held  a  lease  from  the  Crown  of  lands 
confiscated  from  a  Roman  Catholic  recusant, 
and  never  lost  the  appointment  which  he  held 
in  the  Protestant  Chapel  Royal.  Bird  was  the 
composer  of  the  first  English  madrigal.  He 
wrote  a  large  number  of  pieces  for  the  virginals, 
and  also  three  masses.  He  was  the  author  of 
a  celebrated  canon,  'Non  nobis,  Domine,' 
often  sung  in  England  by  way  of  grace  after 
meat  at  public  banquets,  and  which  has  never 
ceased  to  be  popular. 

Bird-catching.     See  Trapping. 

Bird-catching  Spider,  a  name  applied  to 
gigantic  spiders  of  the  genera  Mygalc  and 
Epeira,  which  catch  birds  and  suck  their  blood. 
The  species  to  which  the  name  was  originally 
given  was  Mygale  avicularia,  a  native  of  Suri- 


nam and  other  parts  of  tropical  South  America. 
The  body  of  this  insect  is  about  two  inches  long, 
very  hairy,  and  almost  black;  when  the  legs  are 
stretched  out  it  measures  about  a  foot  across. 
It  lives  in  holes  or  crevices  and  does  not  spin  a 
net  proper,  but  makes  a  tubular  nest  for  itself 
in  which  it  lurks  during  the  day,  seeking  its 
prey  by  night.  Other  species  of  Alygale  belong 
to  the  Malay  Archipelago,  as  M.  javanica  and 
M.  siunatrensis.  In  experiments  made  with 
these  spiders  small  birds  have  been  known  to 
dies  in  a  few  seconds  after  being  bitten.  Some 
of  the  web-spinning  spiders  make  webs  strong 
enough  to  entangle  small  birds,  which  thus  be- 
come their  prey. 

Bird-cherry,  in  America,  the  wdld,  red,  pin, 
or  pigeon  cherry  (Prunus  pensyhania)  of  the 
natural  order  Rosacece,  a  tree  20  to  40  feet 
high  of  little  use  except  occasionally  for  orna- 
mental purposes,  as  fuel  and  as  a  stock  for 
grafting  garden  cherries  upon.  Its  red,  thin- 
fleshed  fruit  is  sour  and  somewhat  astringent. 
The  name  is  also  given  to  European,  the  hag- 
berry  of  Scotland  (Prunus  pad  us),  whose  many 
varieties  are  often  cultivated  for  ornament.  It 
sometimes  attains  a  height  of  20  feet,  bears 
racemes  of  flowers  larger  and  a  week 
earlier  than  the  choke-cherry  (Prunus  vir- 
giniana) ,  which  it  somewhat  resembles.  The 
fruit,  which  is  black,  is  smaller  than  the  com- 
mon cherry  and  has  a  disagreeable  taste,  but 
is  greedily  eaten  by  birds.  The  wood,  which  re- 
sembles mahogany,  and  takes  a  good  polish,  is 
used  in  cabinet-making. 

Bird-Uce,  minute  wingless  insects  para- 
sitic under  the  feathers  of  birds  and  hair  of 
certain  mammals,  to  which  they  are  very  annoy- 
ing. They  belong  to  the  sub-order  MallopJiaga, 
a  group  of  wingless  degraded  insects  allied  to 
the  death-tick  (Psocidce),  stone-flies  (Pcrlida:), 
and  the  white  ants,  altogether  constituting  the 
order  Platyptcra.  They  differ  from  true  lice  in 
having  free  jaws  adapted  for  biting,  and  not  a 
sucking  beak.  The  flattened  body  is  corneous, 
hard  above,  and  the  head  is  horizontal,  with 
three-  to  five-jointed  antennae;  the  eyes  are 
small  and  simple ;  the  mandibles  are  small,  like  a 
hook,  and  the  maxillary  palpi,  when  present,  for 
they  are  sometimes  wanting,  are  four-jointed, 
while  the  labial  palpi  are  two-jointed.  The 
thorax  is  small  and  but  two-jointed  apparently, 
as  the  meso-  and  meta-thorax  are  united.  The 
abdomen  is  from  nine-  to  ten-jointed,  while  the 
short,  thick  limbs  have  two-jointed  tarsi  and 
one  or  two  claws. 

Bird-Ume,  a  viscous  substance  used  for  en- 
tangling small  birds  so  as  to  make  them  easily 
caught,  twigs  being  for  this  purpose  smeared 
with  it  at  places  where  the  birds  resort  or  to 
which  they  are  attracted  by  a  call-bird.  It  is 
often  prepared  from  the  middle  bark  of  the 
holly,  which  is  stripped  ofif  in  June  or  July, 
boiled  in  water  for  six  or  eight  hours,  and  the 
water  being  strained  of¥,  is  then  left  to  ferment. 
This  process  may  take  two  or  three  weeks,  dur- 
ing which  it  is  watered  if  necessary.  At  the  end 
of  this  time  it  assumes  a  mucilaginous  form, 
and  after  being  pounded  in  a  mortar  and  worked 
with  the  hands  in  water,  is  fit  for  use.  This 
substance,  when  prepared,  is  of  a  greenish  color 
and  very  tenacious,  ^lice  are  sometimes  caught 
with  it  as  well  as  birds. 


BIRD-TICK  —  BIRDS 


Bird-tick,  one  of  the  horse-tick  or  forest- 
fly  family  {Hippoboscidcc)  of  the  order  Dip- 
tcra.  Like  the  horse-tick  the  body  is  much 
flattened ;  unHke  the  Hippobosca,  or  horse-tick, 
it  has  ocelli,  but  in  the  short  proboscis  it  resem- 
bles the  latter  fly.  In  the  wings  there  are  six 
costal  veins.  There  are  numerous  species,  all  of 
which  are  bird-parasites.  Olfcrsia  americana 
lives  on  the  owl  and  other  birds.  Certain  spe- 
cies of  Lipoptcra  live  on  birds,  but  afterward 
migrate  to  mammals,  finally  losing  their  wings 
through  disuse. 

Bird  of  Paradise  Flower.    See  Strelitzia. 

Birds.  The  birds  form  that  class  (Aves) 
of  warm-blooded  vertebrate  animals  most  dis- 
tinctive, most  easily  defined,  and  most  popu- 
larly known  and  interesting.  They  are  at  once 
distinguished  by  their  covering  of  feathers, 
which  is  possessed  by  no  other  sort  of  animal ; 
and  by  the  modification  of  their  fore-limbs  into 
instruments  for  flight  (wings).  Their  aerial 
existence,  from  which  few  have  wholly  de- 
parted, requiring  great  activity  and  exertion, 
has  called  forth  a  high  perfection  of  organiza- 
tion, especially  in  the  respiratory  and  circulatory 
systems  of  the  body,  and  has  led  to  the  charac- 
teristic spindle-shaped  form,  narrowing  from 
the  full  chest  and  shoulders  toward  a  pointed 
head,  which  will  cleave  the  air  easil}',  and  dimin- 
ishing toward  the  rudder-like  tail.  The  graceful 
form,  to  which  the  beauty  of  birds  is  largely 
due,  has  been  brought  about  by  the  enlarge- 
ment of  the  shoulder-girdle,  and  its  great  pec- 
toral muscles,  and  by  the  necessity  of  an 
increased  capacity  of  chest  to  contain  the  com- 
paratively great  heart  and  lungs.  In  birds 
such  as  ostriches,  cassowaries,  moas,  and  the 
like,  which  have  ceased  to  fly,  and  have  de- 
veloped very  strong  legs ;  or  in  those  like  the 
penguins,  which  have  become  swimmers  and 
divers,  the  changes  of  structure  are  degenera- 
tions from  the  type,  which  is  a  bird  with  powers 
of  flight. 

FHght.  as  well  as  clothing,  is  due  to  the  pres- 
ence of  the  complicated  horny  appendages  grow- 
ing from  the  skin,  called  feathers,  which  are 
peculiar  to  the  class.  Their  structure  is  de- 
scribed under  Fe.\thers.  Those  of  the  body  are 
usuallv  small,  grow  in  certain  definite  tracts 
Csee  Ptervlography),  varying  in  the  different 
groups,  and  form  a  close  jacket,  not  easily  pervi- 
ous to  moisture  and  a  poor  conductor  of  heat, 
'hus  conserving  the  vital  warmth  and  protect- 
ing the  body  against  sudden  changes  of 
temperature.  It  is  shed  (molted)  and  renewed 
semi-annually.  This  body-coat  is  ordinarily 
nearly  uniform  in  length  and  character,  but 
often  is  varied  by  ornamental  plumes,  erectile 
crests,  ruffs,  and  other  modifications,  such  as 
are  seen  in  birds  of  paradise,  herons,  and  many 
others.  The  feathers  are  also  variously  colored 
in  patterns  varying  with  the  groups  and  more 
minutely  with  the  species,  whereby  they  may 
recognize  each  other  and  be  distinguished 
by  us.  These  colors  are  usually  those  of  pig- 
ments incorporated  in  the  web  of  the  feather 
itself,  but  may  be  due  to  minute  scales  on  the 
surface,  which  break  up  the  light,  giving  it  an 
iridescent  or  metallic  sheen,  conspicuous  in 
humming  birds  and  certain  pheasants.  The 
plumage  often  varies,  according  to  age,  sex,  sea- 
son, or  all  three  conditions ;  and  these  colors 
play  an  important  part  in  bird-life  (see  Colora- 


tion Protective;  Natural  Selectiox).  Tlie 
bones  of  the  wing  and  tail  support  very  large, 
strong  "quilP*  feathers,  which,  when  outspread, 
support  the  bird  in  the  air,  and  when  moved  in 
the  proper  manner  carry  it  forward  —  enable  it 
to  fly,  the  mechanism  and  phenomena  of  which 
method  of  locomotion  are  explained  under 
Flight.  The  wing  power  of  most  birds  is  very 
great,  but  the  speed  of  their  flight  is  often  ex- 
aggerated. Few  exact  facts  are  at  hand,  but  it 
is  apparent  that  the  highest  speed  is  nearer  50 
than  100  miles  an  hour,  although  the  latter 
figure  is  often  stated.  Endurance  on  the  wing 
is  more  remarkable.  Many  sea-birds  seem  tire- 
less, and  swallows,  among  land  birds,  are  almost 
incessantly  in  the  air.  During  migrations  a 
large  variety  of  birds,  including  some  of  the 
smallest  and  feeblest,  undertake  rapid  and  ex- 
tensive journeys,  reaching  in  some  cases  almost 
half  around  the  world  ;  and  some  regularly  pass 
over  spaces  of  ocean  as  much  as  2,000  miles  in 
width,  while  a  flight  of  500  miles  from  land  to 
land  is  accomplished  by  many  species.  This  is 
the  more  notable  as  a  feat  because  in  many 
cases  they  are  birds  which  during  nine  tenths 
of  the  year  only  flit  from  bush  to  bush.  In  these 
migratory  journeys  (see  Migration)  birds  often 
fly  very  high  :  but  this  is  the  regular  custom  of 
certain  ones,  especially  vultures,  which  soar  be- 
yond human  sight,  yet  will  swoop  to  the  earth 
in  a  swift  dash,  betraying  great  adaptability  to 
sudden  changes  in  atmospheric  density.  Other 
notable  qualities  are  the  power  (largely  residing 
in  the  tail)  to  suddenly  change  speed  and  direc- 
tion, helping  them  to  dodge  and  elude  winged 
pursuers,  and  to  catch  the  agile  aerial  insects, 
upon  which  many  of  the  smaller  species  depend 
for  subsistence.  The  sharpness  and  quick  ad- 
justability of  eyesight  also  involved  in  this  is 
noteworthy. 

These  abilities  in  flight  have  led  to  the  very 
wide  distribution  of  birds,  which  occur  in  every 
part  of  the  world  j'et  seen  by  man  ;  and  are  the 
most  numerously  represented  of  all  terrestrial 
branches  of  animal  life  in  the  oceanic  islands. 
Nevertheless  very  few  are  cosmopolitan,  and 
not  many  range  beyond  the  confines  of  a  single 
continent,  while  many  are  more  narrowly  re- 
stricted, so  far  at  least  as  their  habitat  in  the 
breeding  season  is  concerned.  Thus  the  geo- 
graphical distribution  of  birds  has  been  found 
perhaps  the  best  criterion  for  the  mapping  out 
of  zoogeographical  regions  (see  Zoogeography). 
The  greater  number  of  families  of  birds  is  tropi- 
cal, and  both,  variety  of  kinds  and  numbers  of 
individuals  decrease  toward  the  poles.  A  striking 
fact  is  the  great  difference  between  the  birds 
of  the  northern  and  the  southern  hemispheres  — 
a  difference  much  more  decided  than  exists 
between  Europe  and  North  America,  or  South 
America  and  Australasia. 

Birds  in  ev-ery  case  reproduce  their  kind  by 
means  of  eggs  protected  by  a  calcareous,  often 
highly-colored  shell,  laid  by  the  mother  a  con- 
siderable time  before  they  are  ready  to  hatch, 
which  consummation  is  brought  about  by  the 
application  of  warmth.  This  may  be  arranged 
for  in  two  ways.  A  few  birds  bury  their  eggs 
in  rotting  vegetation,  or  in  hot  sand,  and  let 
the  chemical  heat  evolved  by  the  ferment  in  the 
former  case,  or  the  sun's  rays  in  the  latter, 
accomplish  the  desired  result.  The  great 
majority,  however,  place  their  eggs  in  some  sort 
of  a   receptacle   (sometimes  a  mere  hollow   on 


BIRDS 


the  ground,  .or  hole  or  niche  in  a  cliff  or  tree, 
sometimes  in  a  burrow  or  nest  of  more  or  less 
elaborate  construction  (see  Nests),  and  there 
brood  upon,  or  "incubate"  them  until  the 
chick  matures  and  emerges.  In  one  class 
of  birds  {Prcccoces)  incubation  is  so  long  con- 
tinued, and  the  embryonic  chick  becomes  so 
far  advanced  before  leaving  the  shell,  that 
it  is  well  coated  with  feathers,  and  can  at 
once  begin  to  take  care  of  itself.  These  birds 
are  the  sea-birds,  water-birds,  game-birds,  and 
their  allies  of  comparatively  low  organization. 
In  another  class  (Altriccs)  of  higher  organiza- 
tion as  a  group,  the  chicks  are  permitted  to 
break  from  the  shell  before  they  have  acquired 
feathers  or  are  able  to  move  about  or  obtain 
food.  They  must  therefore  be  shielded,  de- 
fended, fed,  and  cared  for  by  the  parents  for 
several  days  or  weeks.  Out  of  this  condition 
have  grown  some  of  the  most  interesting,  com- 
plicated, and  delightful  features,  habits,  and  in- 
stincts of  bird-life. 

Birds  as  a  class  are  omnivorous,  but  each  of 
the  various  groups  might  be  characterized  by 
its  food,  which,  more  than  anything  else  in  the 
process  of  evolution,  has  determined  the  various 
types  of  structure,  which  distinguish  the  tribes, 
and  which  are  indexed,  as  it  were,  by  the  form 
of  the  bill  and  feet.  Those  of  lowest  organiza- 
tion,—  nearest  the  ancestral  type, —  are  the  sea- 
birds,  which  live  upon  fish  varied  to  some  ex- 
tent by  mussels  and  other  small  marine  creatures. 
Many  of  the  ducks  and  shore-birds  share  this 
marine  diet,  and  numerous  wading  birds  eat 
fresh-water  fish,  frogs,  crayfish,  and  the  like. 
The  great  body  of  ratite  and  gallinaceous  birds, 
—  ostriches,  emeus,  partridges,  pheasants,  etc., 
that  run  and  nest  on  the  ground. —  are  vegetable- 
eaters,  seeking  green  leaves,  fruits,  seeds, 
lichens,  etc.,  and  picking  up  such  insects 
as  come  in  their  way.  All  the  foregoing 
are  prascocial  birds,  and  the  young  feed  on  the 
same  things  as  their  parents.  These  classes 
have  little  relation  to  mankind  so  far  as  their 
food  is  concerned  except  that  they  sometimes 
devour  too  much  grain  or  spoil  certain  plants. 
Among  the  higher  class,  or  altricial  birds,  the 
fare  is  more  varied,  and  while  there  is  a  very 
numerous  group  (the  cone-billed  or  fringilline 
birds;  see  Finch;  Sp.a.rrow,  etc.),  which  live 
altogether  upon  seeds,  and  a  few  others,  like  the 
kingfishers,  which  catch  fish,  the  great  majority 
indulge  themselves  in  a  miscellaneous  diet  of 
both  vegetable  and  animal  materials.  Some, 
called  "soft-billed,*  and  including  most  of  our 
song-birds,  except  the  finches,  are  mainly  in- 
sect eaters,  some  catching  them  upon  the  wing, 
others  digging  them  out  of  rotten  wood,  and  the 
greater  number  picking  them  off  the  leaves  of 
trees  or  searching  for  them  among  the  herbage. 
Another  large  class,  embracing  the  birds  of 
prey,  and  a  few  others,  like  the  shrikes,  depend 
for  food  upon  capturing  and  devouring  other 
smaller  birds,  together  with  such  small  mam- 
mals, reptiles,  amphibians,  fish,  and  insects  as 
they  are  able  to  seize  and  kill.  These  are  the 
falcons,  owls,  and  their  relatives ;  but  a  related 
group  varies  this  fare  by  feeding  upon  carrion. 
In  the  case  of  all  of  these  altricial  birds,  how- 
ever, except  the  birds  of  prey,  the  young  are 
fed  upon  soft  insect  food,  mainly  worms,  cater- 
pillars and  maggots ;  and  the  period  of  their 
nesting  coincides  with  the  time  when  these  larval 
insects  abound.     In  the  feeding  habits  of  these 


higher  birds  man  has  a  great  interest,  for 
nearl}'  all  of  the  innumerable  insects  which  they 
capture  for  themselves,  or  for  the  nourishment 
of  their  young,  are  such  as  are  annoying  or  in- 
jurious to  him;  and  experience  in  manj'  locali- 
ties has  shown  that  the  destruction  of  bird-life 
is  accompanied  by  a  distressing  increase  of 
noxious  insects.  In  the  same  way  the  hawks 
and  owls,  by  their  incessant  pursuit  of  mice, 
and  other  small  animals  injurious  to  agriculture, 
so  reduce  the  numbers  of  these  pests,  as  greatly 
to  benefit  the  farmer;  while  the  useful  work 
done  by  the  vultures,  as  scavengers,  bj"^  removing 
offal  and  dead  animals,  is  recognized  by  every- 
one in  the  tropical  regions  where  these  birds 
most  abound. 

Nor  does  the  relative  usefulness  of  birds  to 
man  stop  here.  They  not  only  afford  him 
great  pleasure,  by  their  pleasing  colors  and  ani- 
mated behavior,  and  delight  his  ear  by  their 
voices,  but  large  numbers  of  them  furnish  him 
with  excellent  and  even  dainty  food.  Lastly, 
this  group  has  furnished  men  with  several  varie- 
ties of  domestic  poultry,  such  as  the  turkey, 
peacock,  guinea-fowl,  duck,  goose,  and  various 
pigeons  and  chickens,  which  are  among  the 
most  valuable  of  his  animal  possessions. 

Birds  are  extremely  rare  as  fossils,  compared 
with  other  vertebrates,  and  little  is  known  about 
their  evolution.  Four  or  five  hundred  extinct 
species  have  been  described,  as  against  12,000 
living,  and  most  of  them  are  from  very  frag- 
mentary remains.  The  reasons  for  their  scarcity 
is  partly  their  small  size  and  the  slight  construc- 
tion of  their  skeletons,  which  makes  their  bones 
less  likely  to  be  buried  in  sediments  and  pre- 
served as  fossils.  At  a  few  localities,  however, 
as  in  the  Oligocene  strata  of  the  department  of 
Allier  in  France,  and  the  Pleistocene  deposits 
of  Fossil  Lake  in  Oregon,  they  occur  abundantly. 
Birds  have  been  found  as  far  back  in  geological 
time  as  the  Jurassic  Period  of  the  Age  of  Rep- 
tiles. The  supposed  bird-tracks  of  the  more 
ancient  Triassic  sandstones  of  the  Connecticut 
valley  are  now  believed  to  be  mostly,  if  not  all, 
tracks  of  Dinosaurs  (q.v.),  a  group  of  reptiles 
having  many  bird-like  characters.  From  some 
ancient  offshoot  of  this  group  the  birds  are 
probably  descended,  but  the  early  stages  of  their 
evolution  are  not  known.  Jurassic  birds  (see 
Archaeopteryx)  had  teeth  instead  of  a  horn\' 
beak,  a  long  reptilian  tail  and  other  primitive 
characters.  In  the  succeeding  Cretaceous 
Period  the  tail  has  become  short  and  rudimen- 
tary, with  its  feathers  springing  from  a  small 
bony  plate  at  its  tip  as  in  modern  birds,  but 
some  genera  {Ichthyornis,  etc.)  retain  the 
teeth.  In  all  later  birds  the  teeth  are  replaced  by 
a  horny  beak.  They  appear  to  have  changed 
comparatively  little  during  the  Tertiary  and 
Quaternary  Periods,  in  marked  contrast  to  the 
great  evolution  of  the  mammals  during  the  same 
time,  and  most  Tertiary  birds  are  closely  re- 
lated to.  or  included  in  modern  genera.  There 
are  a  few  remarkable  extinct  forms  known, 
among  which  are  the  gigantic  ground-birds  of 
New  Zealand,  Madagascar,  and  elsewhere,  more 
or  less  nearly  related  to  the  modern  ostriches 
and  the  Phorohachos  of  South  America. 

References  to  books  upon  birds  will  be  found 
under   the    title    Ornithology,    where    also    the 
structure,    and    classification    of   birds    are   con- 
sidered. Ernest  Ingersoll, 
Editorial  Staff  ^Encyclopedia  Americana? 


FAMILIAR  AMERICAN  BIRDS 


1.  Yellow-bellied  Woodpecker,  or  Sapsucker.     2.  Black-capped  Titmouse,  or  Chickadee.     3.  Black-and- White  Creeping- 
Warbler.    4.  Wood  Thrush.    .5.  Cedar  Waxwing.  or  Cherr>-  Bird.     6.  Black-billed  Cuckoo.    7.  Tree,  or  Canada  Sparrow. 
8.  Red-eyed  Vireo.    9.  Golden-crowned  Kinglet.     10.  Little  Screech-owl  (red  phase).    11.  American  Redstart. 


PARTS  OF  BIRDS 


1.  Digestive  organs. 

2.  Forms  of  feet. — ■  a,  partially  webbed;  b,  lobe-foot; 
c,  insessorial  foot;  d,  runner's  foot;  e,  walker's  foot; 
f,  palmated  foot;  g,  gressorial  foot;  h,  web  foot;  i, 
cloven  foot;  j,  scansorial  or  yoke  foot;  k,  cloven  web 
foot;  1,  staff-foot;  m,  cramp  foot. 

3.  Forms  of  head  and  bill. — a,  flamingo;  b,  spoon- 
bill;    c,    yellow-hammer;    d,  thrush;    e,  hawk;    f,  pelican; 


g,  avocet;  h,  saw-bill;  i,  scissor-bill;  j,  dove;  k,  shoe- 
bill;  1,  gap  bill;  m,  arassari;  n,  ibis;  o,  song-bird;  p, 
stork. 

4.  Feathers  of  a  bird.— a,  frontal;  b,  crown;  c, 
occipital;  d,  bill;  e,  cheek;  f,  breast;  g,  abdominal;  h, 
rump;  i,  croup;  j  and  k,  sickle  feathers;  1,  back;  m, 
primary  quilis;  n,  secondary  quilis;  o,  coverts;  p,  pin- 
ions;   q,  shoulder-pinions. 


BIRDS  — BIRDS  OF  PARADISE 


Birds,  The,  a  comedy  by  the  Greek  drama- 
tist Aristophanes,  that  appeared  in  414  b.c.  It 
belongs  with  the  writer's  earlier  plays,  in  which 
farcical  situations,  exuberant  imagination,  and  a 
hnguistic  revel,  are  to  be  noted.  The  comedy 
is  a  burlesque  on  the  national  mythology;  the 
author  creates  a  cloudland  for  his  fancy  to  sport 
in  without  restraint. 

Birds  of  America,  The,  the  monumental 
work  of  John  James  Audubon,  the  great  Amer- 
ican naturalist,  first  published  in  England  be- 
tween the  years  1827  and  1830.  It  contained 
colored  illustrations  of  1,065  species  of  birds. 
The  text  is  descriptive  of  the  habits  and  man- 
ners of  the  birds  observed  by  Audubon  himself 
in  his  long  wanderings  over  the  North  American 
continent. 

Bird's-eye  Limestone,  the  old  name  of  a 
rock  of  the  Trenton  formation,  now  called 
Lowville  Limestone.  It  is  a  fine-grained,  dove- 
colored  stone,  in  which  the  crystallized  corals  of 
the  genus  Tetradium  appear  as  whitish  points. 

Bird's-ioot,  iOniifJiofytis) .  a  genus  of  about 
seven  species  of  small  slender  pinnate-leaved, 
white,  pink,  or  yellow  flowered  annual  herbs  of 
the  natural  order  Legtiminosce.  The  common 
and  generic  names  were  suggested  by  the  shape 
of  the  articulated,  cylindrical  pods  which  re- 
semble the  bent  claws  of  a  bird.  The  prin- 
cipal species,  O.  sativiis,  is  used  as  a  forage 
plant. 

Birds'  Nests.    See  Nests. 

Birds'  Nests,  Edible,  the  nests  of  the 
salangane  {Collocalia  fiiciphaga)  and  other  spe- 
cies of  swifts  or  swiftlets,  found  in  the  Malay 
Archipelago,  and  used  as  an  article  of  luxury 
among  the  Chinese.  They  are  particularly 
abundant  in  Sumatra  and  Borneo,  especially  near 
the  north  end  of  the  island.  The  nest  has  the 
shape  of  a  common  swallow's  nest,  is  about  the 
size  of  a  half  teacup,  is  found  in  caves,  particu- 
larly in  sea-cliffs,  and  has  the  appearance  of 
fibrous  gelatine  or  isinglass.  They  appear  to 
be  composed  of  a  mucilaginous  substance  secret- 
ed by  special  glands,  and  are  not,  as  was  for- 
merly thought,  made  from  a  glutinous  marine 
fucus  or  seaweed.  The  finest  nests  at  present 
.are  said  to  bring  as  high  a  price  as  $12  or  $13 
a  pound.  Seventy-five  or  one  hundred  dollars' 
worth  are  said  to  be  sent  to  Singapore  and 
China  annually.  They  are  bought  almost  ex- 
clusively bj'  the  rich  Chinese,  who  consider 
them  a  great  stimulant  and  tonic,  and  are  used 
in  making  soup.  The  finest  are  those  obtained 
before  the  nest  has  been  contaminated  by  the 
young  birds ;  they  are  pure  white,  and  are 
comparativeh"^  scarce.  The  inferior  ones  are 
dark,  streaked  with  blood,  or  mixed  with  feath- 
ers ;  they  are  chiefly  converted  into  glue.  Sorne 
of  the  caverns  in  which  these  nests  are  built 
are  difficult  of  access  and  dangerous  to  climb, 
so  that  none  can  collect  the  nests  but  persons 
brought  up  to  the  trade.  The  following  account 
of  the  traffic  in  these  birds'  nests  is  extracted 
from  Crawfurd's  excellent  work  on  the  East- 
ern Archipelago:  *The  best  nests  are  those 
obtained  in  deep,  damp  caves,  and  such  as  are 
taken  before  the  birds  have  laid  their  eggs 
.  .  .  They  are  taken  twice  a  year,  and  if  regular- 
ly collected,  and  no  unusual  injury  be  offered  to 
the  caverns,  will  produce  very  equally,  the 
quantity  being  very  little,  if  at  all,  improved  by 


the  caves  being  left  altogether  unmolested  for  a 
year  or  two.  Some  of  the  caverns  are  ex- 
tremely difficult  of  access,  and  the  nests  can  only 
be  collected  by  persons  accustomed  from  their 
youth  to  the  office.  The  most  remarkable  and 
productive  caves  in  Java,  of  which  I  superin- 
tended a  moiety  of  the  collection  for  several 
years,  are  those  of  Karang-bolang,  in  the  prov- 
ince of  Baglen,  on  the  southern  coast  of  the 
island.  Here  the  caves  are  only  to  be  ap- 
proached by  a  perpendicular  descent  of  many 
hundred  feet  by  ladders  of  bamboo  and  rattan 
over  a  sea  rolling  violently  against  the  rocks. 
When  the  mouth  of  the  cavern  is  attained,  the 
perilous  office  of  taking  the  nests  must  often  be 
performed  with  torchlight,  by  penetrating  into 
recesses  of  the  rock,  where  the  slightest  trip 
would  be  instantly  fatal  to  the  adventurers,  who 
see  nothing  below  them  but  the  turbulent  surf 
making  its  way  into  the  chasms  of  the  rock. 
The  only  preparation  which  the  birds'  nests 
undergo  is  that  of  simple  drying,  without  direct 
exposure  to  the  sun,  after  which  they  are 
packed  in  small  boxes,  usually  of  half  a  picul 
.  .  .  They  are  consumed  only  by  the  great ;  and 
indeed  the  best  part  is  sent  to  the  capital  for 
the  consumption  of  the  court.  The  sensual 
Chinese  use  them  under  the  imagination  that 
they  are  powerfully  stimulating  and  tonic ;  but 
it  is  probable  that  their  most  valuable  quality 
is  their  being  perfectly  harmless.  The  people 
of  Japan,  who  so  much  resemble  the  Chinese  in 
many  of  their  habits,  have  no  taste  for  the 
edible  nests ;  and  how  the  latter  acquired  a  taste 
for  this  foreign  commodity  is  no  less  singular 
than  their  persevering  in  it.*' 

Birds    of   Passage,    any   migratory    birds. 

See    ^IlGRATION. 

Birds  of  Paradise,  a  family  of  birds  of 
New  Guinea,  northern  Australia,  and  the  neigh- 
boring islands,  which  contains  a  large  number 
of  species,  notable  for  splendid  plumage,  al- 
though they  are  most  nearly  allied  to  the  plainly 
dressed  crows.  The  name  "bird  of  paradise'* 
is  a  translation  of  the  native  name  in  the  Island 
of  Batchian,  "manukdewata,"  meaning  birds  of 
the  gods.  About  50  species  of  these  birds  are 
known,  varying  in  size  from  that  of  a  crow  to 
that  of  a  sparrow ;  all  are  forest  birds,  spend- 
ing their  lives  in  the  tree-tops,  where  many  of 
them  go  about  in  small  flocks,  active  and  noisy, 
but  are  inclined  to  hide  themselves  in  the 
thickest  foliage,  as  though  aware  that  their 
plumage  rendered  them  easily  conspicuous  to 
their  enemies.  None  are  singers,  and  in  most 
cases  the  voice  is  a  loud,  harsh  cry,  or  a  sharp 
whistle,  or  in  some  species,  strange  mewing 
notes.  It  is  related  that  on  some  of  the  islands 
certain  species  were  called  "birds  of  the  sun.'* 
because  of  their  habit  of  joining  in  loud  cho- 
ruses at  sunrise.  Their  diet  consists  mainly  of 
fruit,  and  especially  of  berries  and  seeds ;  the 
fig  and  the  nutmeg  are  especially  eaten,  and 
some  species  suck  honey  from  the  large  tropical 
flowers.  Insects  are  captured  by  all  species, 
as  also  are  the  numerous  snails  inhabiting  the 
trees  and  bushes  of  that  region,  and  the  larger 
forms  devour  frogs  and  lizards.  In  pursuit  of 
insects,  worms,  and  snails,  several  species  spend 
much  of  their  time  scrambling  about  the  trunks 
of  trees,  and  searching  the  bark,  like  creepers. 
The  breeding  habits  of  these  birds  vary  extens- 
ively, and  the  nests  and  eggs  of  many  have  not 


BIRDS  OF  PARADISE 


yet  been  discovered.  The  typical  paradise-birds 
construct  rather  loose,  careless  platforms  of 
sticks  and  leaves,  moss,  etc.,  placed  in  trees  or 
bushes,  and  lay  eggs  which  are  much  streaked 
and  spoiled,  and  vary  in  color  and  patterns. 
The  very  extraordmary  nests  and  play-grounds 
of  that  section  of  the  family  which  is  terrestrial, 
and  inhabits  Australia,  are  described  under 
bower-birds  (q.v.). 

Interest  in  the  birds  of  paradise  centres  in 
their  marvelous  displays  of  plumage.  These 
are  exhibited  in  most  species  by  the  male  alone, 
the  female  being  comparatively  plain  and  simple 
in  her  attire,  as  also  are  the  young  of  both  sexes, 
until  the  young  males  arrive  at  maturity.  This 
dissimilarity  between  the  females  and  males  of 
birds  in  which  the  latter  are  highly  adorned,  is 
a  protective  arrangement,  designed  to  keep  the 
females  from  observation  while  they  are  sitting 
defenseless  upon  their  nests,  where  they  would 
easily  be  discovered,  and  often  killed,  did  they 
wear  the  conspicuous  colors  and  ornaments  of 
their  brilliant  mates.  Natural  selection,  by  keep- 
ing their  colors,  and  those  of  the  inexperienced 
and  comparatively  helpless  young  ones  plain, 
has  tenued  to  preserve  the  species ;  and  at  the 
time  when  the  females  are  brooding  their  mates 
remain  at  a  discreet  distance  from  the  nests,  so 
as  not  to  iDCtray  their  position  to  the  monkeys, 
lemurs,  civets,  serpents,  and  other  searchers 
for  eggs  and  fledglings.  The  same  influence, 
acting  through  sexual  selection  (q.v.),  has  de- 
veloped in  the  males  the  bright  colors  and  eccen- 
tric adornments  which  distinguish  this  group  of 
birds  as  a  means  of  increasing  their  attractive- 
ness in  the  eyes  of  the  females.  The  theory  is 
that  the  most  beautiful  male  will  be  chosen  first 
as  a  mate,  and  will  transmit  to  its  offspring  its 
tendency  toward  ornamentation  or  high  color, 
and  that  thus,  by  constant  rivalry  between  the 
males,  the  excessive  ornamentation  in  this  group 
has  slowly  arisen.  A  justification  for  this  view 
is  found  in  the  fact  that  in  the  courting  season, 
which  occurs  at  the  opening  of  the  rainy  season, 
numbers  of  males  of  each  species  gather  in 
certain  spots,  sometimes  on  the  ground,  but 
more  usually  on  the  limbs  of  the  forest  trees, 
and  go  through  a  great  variety  of  movements 
and  strange  antics,  lifting  their  wings,  spreading 
their  tails,  erecting  their  crests,  and  apparently 
doing  everything  in  their  power  to  display  their 
finery  in  the  eyes  of  the  females,  and  thus  solicit 
them  to  make  a  choice.  Natives  call  these  as- 
semblages, which  usually  occur  at  sunrise,  and 
always  in  the  same  place,  ^^dancing  parties,'* 
and  it  is  during  this  time  that  they  secure 
specimens  for  the  trade,  by  shooting  them  from 
ambush  with  blunt  arrows.  So  persistent  has 
been  the  demand  for  their  skins  and  feathers, 
chiefly  for  millinery  purposes,  that  many  of  the 
species  have  been  nearly  exterminated.  This 
may  easily  occur  from  the  fact  that  the  range 
of  most  of  the  birds  of  paradise  is  very  limited, 
several  species  being  confined  to  a  single  island. 
Their  increase,  too,  is  slow,  as  most  of  them 
lay  only  two  or  three  eggs,  a  condition  which 
has  arisen  from  the  fact  that  their  natural 
enemies  are  comparatively  few.  They  have  oc- 
casionally been  captured  alive,  and  kept  for  a 
time  in  captivity,  even  in  the  zoological  gardens 
of  Europe,  btit  they  do  not  thrive  in  confinement. 
The  best-known  of  the  birds  of  paradise,  is  the 
great  emerald  paradise  bird  (Paradcisea  apoda) 
of  the  Moluccas  which  was  brought  to  Europe 


first  in  1523,  by  the  members  of  Magellan's  com- 
pany, on  their  return  from  the  first  circumnavi- 
gation of  the  world.  They  brought  two  dead 
specimens  which  had  been  given  to  them  in  the 
island  of  Batchian  as  a  mark  of  royal  favor. 
From  these  skins  the  natives,  as  was  their 
custom,  had  cut  off  both  the  wings,  and  the 
feet;  and  this  gave  rise  to  the  absurd  stories  of 
the  early  books,  that  the  paradise  birds  were 
naturally  footless  and  wingless,  never  perched, 
suspended  themselves  by  the  tail-feathers,  etc. 
It  was  also  said  that  they  gazed  perpetually  at 
the  sun,  and  that  the  hen  laid  her  eggs  on  the 
back  of  her  spouse.  This  species  is  as  large  as 
a  crow.  The  male  is  rich  brown,  becoming 
purplish  beneath ;  the  head  and  neck  are  pale 
yellow,  the  forehead,  cheeks,  and  throat,  metallic 
green.  From  the  sides  of  the  body,  beneath  the 
wings,  spring  thick  tufts  of  delicate,  loosely- 
webbed,  golden-orange  feathers,  which,  v'hen 
the  wings  are  lifted,  may  be  lifted  and  spread 
out  so  as  to  seem  to  fall  like  a  shower  over  the 
whole  bird ;  and  the  two  middle  tail-feathers 
are  like  long  wires,  each  with  a  very  slight 
flag-like  web  at  the  tip.  It  would  be  impossible 
to  describe  at  length  the  great  variety  and 
splendor  of  the  plumage  of  these  eccentrically 
ornate  birds,  only  a  few  of  which  may  be  further 
alluded  to.  In  the  red  bird  of  paradise  (Para- 
disca  sangiiinca)  the  plumage  is  like  velvet  in 
a  variety  of  gorgeous  colors,  and  the  tufts  at 
the  sides  are  rich  crimson,  while  the  elegantly 
curling  central  tail-shafts  are  21  inches  in 
length.  A  genus  of  New  Guinea  (Cincinntirus) 
includes  a  number  of  species,  only  about  six 
inches  long,  called  the  king  birds  of  paradise, 
which  are  distinguished  by  large  tufts  of  fan- 
like plumes  on  each  side  of  the  breast.  Another 
genus  (Parotia)  has  as  its  especial  ornament  a 
group  of  three  long  feathers  springing  from 
behind  each  eye,  which  are  in  the  form  of  me- 
tallic wires,  with  a  racket-like  web  at  the  end 
that  may  be  erected  and  moved  about  as  the 
bird  wishes.  Otherwise  the  plumage  is  black, 
except  for  some  vivid  steel-green  and  white 
feathers  about  the  head.  Some  species  have  a 
distinct  shield  of  metallic,  scale-like  feathers, 
upon  the  back  or  upon  the  breast,  which  may 
be  glossy  blue,  or  green,  or  violet,  or  glowing 
scarlet,  or  a  mixture  of  these.  The  acme  of 
this  strange  and  gorgeous  development  in  plu- 
mage seems  to  be  attained  by  the  "superb''  bird 
of  paradise  (LopJwrliiiia  superba),  which  is  cha- 
racterized by  the  presence  of  an  enormous  erec- 
tile forked  shield  of  velvety  hlack  feathers 
arising  from  the  nape  of  the  neck,  and  when  in 
repose  lying  flatly  on  the  back.  So  strange  and 
apparently  incongruous  is  this  shield,  that  it 
might  suggest  to  the  beholder  that  the  tail  of 
some  other  bird  had  been  stuck  on  to  the  skin, 
were  it  not  that  its  feathers  are  of  a  different 
type.  The  ground-color  of  the  plumage  is  of  the 
deepest  black,  but  with  bronze  reflections  on  the 
neck;  while  the  feathers  of  the  head  are  metallic 
green  and  blue.  Spreading  over  the  breast  is 
a  shield  composed  of  narrow  and  rather  stiff 
feathers,  which  extends  in  a  pointed  form,  along 
each  side,  and  is  emarginate  in  the  middle.  In 
color,  this  is  bluish-green,  with  a  satiny  sheen; 
the  back  shield,  on  the  other  hand,  is  velvety  black, 
with  reflections  of  bronze  and  purple,  its  outer' 
most  feathers  exceeding  the  primaries  of  the 
wing  in  length.  The  natives  say  that  the  enor- 
mous crest,  when  displayed  during  the  courtship 


BIRDS  OF  PREY. 


BIRDS    OF    PREY. 


1.  Hobby    (Falco  subbuteo). 

2.  RuppelTs  African  Vulture   (Gyps  Ruppelll). 

3.  Carancho    (Polyborus   Brasiliensis). 

4.  Common  Buzzard   (Buteo  vulgaris). 


5.  Sparrow  Hawk   (Accipiter  Nisus). 

6.  Bataleur  Eagle   (Helotarsus  ecaudatus). 

7.  South    American    Buzzard-Hawk     .Vsturira  polyzona). 

8.  East  Indian  Pigeon-Hawk  or  Turumti   (Falco  chiquera) 


BiRDS  OF  PREY  — BIRETTA 


of  the  female,  is  not  only  raised,  but  spread 
widely  out,  in  a  fan-like  manner,  while  the 
chest  shield  is  similarly  expanded.  Hence  the 
head  of  the  bird  forms  a  circle  of  irregular 
feathers  of  velvety  black  and  emerald,  completely 
concealing  the  rest  of  the  body  when  viewed 
from  the   front. 

General  information  as  to  the  birds  of  para- 
dise vcill  be  found  in  books  of  East  Indian  travel, 
especially  in  ^The  Malay  Archipelago*  (1869), 
by  Alfred  Russel  Wallace,  the  first  naturalist 
to  study  these  birds  attentivel}'  in  their  native 
haunts.  As  early  as  1873,  Daniel  Elliot  com- 
pleted a  magnificent  monograph  of  the  family, 
illustrated  with  colored  folio  plates,  and  in 
1881  was  published  a  second  monograph,  by  Sal- 
vadori.  as  a  part  of  his  general  work  on  the 
ornithology  of  the  Papuan  region.  Still  more 
recently  German  naturalists  have  increased  our 
knowledge  of  this  family  by  many  papers  in 
■German  scientific  periodicals,  which  have  been 
titilized  by  Rothschild  in  the  preparation  of  his 
account  of  these  birds  in  ^Das  Tier-reich*  (Ber- 
lin 1898).  The  most  recent  sketches  are  those 
of  the  'Ro3'al  Natural  History^  (Lond.  1895), 
and  Evans,  ^ Birds*    (Lond.  1900). 

Birds  of  Prey.  This  group  is  a  survival 
of  the  old-fashioned  classification  of  animals  by 
resemblances  in  appearance  and  function,  rather 
than  in  structure.  Broadly  speaking,  a  bird  of 
prey  is  merely  one  which  subsists  by  attacking 
and'  devouring  living  creatures,  and  hence  the 
name  covers  such  birds  as  skuas,  frigate-birds, 
shrikes,  and  fish-catching  birds,  as  well  as  the 
■eagles,  hav.'ks,  and  owls,  to  which  it  is  restricted 
by  popular  usage.  In  all  these  cases  ihe  adapta- 
tions are  for  a  predatory  life,  especially  marked 
in  the  strong  seizing  talons  of  the  hawks  and 
owls,  and  in  their  hooked,  sharp-edged  beaks, 
suitable  for  tearing  and  cutting,  along  with 
which  go  suitable  modifications  of  the  digestive 
organs,  characteristic  of  the  accipiters.  These 
adaptations  bear  a  curious,  yet  natural  likeness 
to  the  claws,  teeth,  etc.,  of  carnivorous  mam- 
mals and  reptiles. 

Birdsall,  William  W.,  American  educator: 
b.  Richmond,  Ind.,  1854.  He  was  graduated 
from  Earlham  College,  Indiana.  1873  and  was  a 
successful  teacher  in  and  head  of  large  secondary 
schools  until  1898.  He  was  president  of  Swarth- 
more  College,  Pennsjdvania,  1898-1902. 

Birdwood,  Herbert  Mills,  English  lawyer: 
b.  Belgaum,  Bombay  Presidency,  29  May  1837. 
He  was  educated  at  Edinburgh  University,  and 
w^as  dean  of  arts  (1868,  1881,  1888,  1890)  and 
syndic  at  the  Bombay  University,  and  vice- 
chancellor  1891-2.  He  entered  the  Bombay  civil 
service  1858 .;  was  made  assistant  collector  and 
magistrate  1859;  assistant  judge  1862;  under 
secretary  to  the  government,  judicial,  political, 
and  educational  departments,  and  secretary  of 
the  legislative  council  1863  ;  acting  registrar  of 
the  high  court,  Bombay  1867;  district  judge 
for  Ratnagiri,  Surat,  and  Thana  1871-80;  judi- 
cial commissioner  and  judge  of  the  sadar 
court,  Sind  1881 ;  three  times  acting  judge  of 
the  high  court,  Bombay  1881-5 :  puisne 
judge  of  the  high  court  of  Bombay  1885-92;  and 
member  of  the  executive  council  of  the  governor 
of  Bombay  1892-7.  His  publications  include 
<  Catalogue' of  the  Flora  of  Matheran  and  Ma- 
Jiableshwar*  ;     <  Catalogue    of    Bills    Introduced 


into  the  Bombay  Legislative  Council  in  1862-5* ; 
and  papers  relating  to  the  constitution  of  the 
council,  the  plague  in  Bombay,  etc. 

Bireme,  a  Roman  ship  of  war  with  two 
banks  of  oars.  It  was  inferior,  in  magnitude 
and  strength,  to  the  trireme. 

Biren,  be-ron,  or  Biron,  Ernest  John  von 
(Duke  of  Courlandj,  Russian  statesman 
(grandson  of  a  groom  of  James,  Duke  of  Cour- 
land,  and  the  son  of  a  Courland  proprietor  of 
the  name  of  Biihren)  :  b.  1687;  d.  28  Dec.  i'/'72. 
He  studied  at  Konigsberg,  secured  the  favor  of 
Anna,  Duchess  of  Courland,  and  niece  of  Peter 
the  Great  of  Russia ;  but  he  was  unsuccessful  in 
b's  attempt  to  obtain  admission  among  the 
Courland  nobility.  When,  in  1730,  Anna  as- 
cended the  Russian  throne  Biren  was  loaded  by 
her  with  honors  and  introduced  at  the  Russian 
court.  Here  he  assumed  the  name  and  arms  of 
the  Dukes  of  Biron  in  France.  Fierce  and 
haughty  by  nature,  he  indulged  his  hatred 
against  the  rivals  of  his  ambition.  The  Princes 
Dolgorucky  were  his  first  victims.  He  caused 
11,000  persons  to  be  put  to  death,  and 
double  that  number  to  be  exiled.  It  is  said  that 
the  empress  often  threw  herself  at  his  feet  to 
induce  him  to  lay  aside  his  severity,  but  that 
neither  her  entreaties  nor  her  tears  were  able 
to  move  him.  The  firmness  of  his  character, 
however,  introduced  vigor  and  activity  into  all 
branches  of  the  administration  throughout  the 
empire.  In  1737  Anna  forced  the  Courlanders 
to  choose  her  favorite  (who  had  in  1722  mar- 
ried a  Courland  lady)  for  their  Duke.  After 
declaring  Prince  Ivan  her  successor,  she  ap- 
pointed Biren  regent.  Anna  died  28  Oct.  1740, 
The  new  regent  acted  with  prudence  and  mod- 
eration. But  a  secret  conspiracy  was  soon 
formed  against  him.  Field  Marshal  Miinnich 
caused  him  to  be  arrested  in  his  bed  during  the 
night  of  19  Nov.  1740,  and  to  be  confined  in 
the  castle  of  Schliisselburg.  He  was  subjected 
to  a  trial ;  but  the  sentence  of  death  was  changed 
into  that  of  imprisonment  for  life,  and  his  for- 
tune was  declared  confiscated.  Together  with 
his  family  he  was  transported  to  Pelym,  in  Si- 
beria, and  thrown  into  a  prison,  of  which 
Miinnich  himself  had  furnished  the  plan.  In  the 
following  year  Elizabeth,  daughter  of  Peter  the 
Great,  being  raised  to  the  Russian  throne  by  a 
new  revolution,  Biren  was  recalled  20  Dec. 
1 74 1,  and  Miinnich  was  obliged  to  occupy  his 
prison.  At  Kasan  the  sledges  met ;  the  travelers 
recognized  each  other,  and  proceeded  on  their 
way  without  interchanging  a  word.  Biren  was 
detained  at  Jaroslav,  and  only  received  his  full 
liberty  in  1762  from  Peter  HI.  When  Catherine 
II.  ascended  the  throne  the  Duchy  of  Courland 
was  restored  to  Biren  in  1763.  He  governed 
with  wisdom  and  lenity,  transferring  the  gov- 
ernment to  his  eldest  son,  Peter. 

Biretta,  a  cap  worn  by  ecclesiastics,  espe- 
cially those  of  the  Roman  Church,  though  .some 
ritualistic  clergymen  of  the  Anglican  Church  also 
wear  it.  It  is  of  considerable  antiquity,  though 
it  has  varied  in  shape  and  material  at  different 
times.  It  is  at  present  a  stiff-sided,  square- 
shaped  cap  with  sharp  edges,  a  flattened  top  sur- 
mounted by  ridges  rising  above  it,  having  in 
the  centre  a  sort  of  tuft  or  tassel.  It  is  made 
of  cloth  or  stuff,  the  color  being  black  for 
priests,  purple  or  violet  for  bishops,  and  scarlet 
for  cardinals.     See  Vestments. 


BIRGE  —  BIRMINGHAM 


Birge,  Edward  Asahel,  American  natural- 
ist: b.  Troy,  N.  Y.,  7  Sept.  1851.  He  graduated 
at  Williams  College  1873 ;  studied  physiology 
and  histology  at  Leipsic  1880-1  ;  became  instruc- 
tor of  natural  history  in  the  University  of  Wis- 
consni  1875;  professor  of  zoology  1879;  dean  of 
the  College  of  Letters  and  Science  in  1891 ;  and 
acting  president  of  the .  university  1900-1.  In 
1894  he  became  director  of  the  Geological  and 
Natural  History  Survey  of  Wisconsin.  He  has 
written  many  articles  and  papers  on  zoology. 

Birge,  Henry  Warner,  American  soldier: 
b.  Hartford,  Conn.,  25  Aug.  1825 ;  d.  New  York, 
I  June  1888.  At  the  outbreak  of  the  Civil  War 
he  organized  the  4th  regiment  Connecticut  Vol- 
unteers, and  was  commissioned  its  major  23 
May  1861.  In  November  1861  his  uncle.  Gov. 
Buckingham  of  Connecticut,  appointed  him 
colonel  of  the  13th  Connecticut  Volunteers, 
which  joined  Butler's  army  at  New  Orleans. 
He  took  part  in  the  siege  of  Vicksburg  and  the 
first  Red  River  campaign ;  commanded  a  divi- 
sion in  Grant's  Virginia  campaign ;  and  was 
with  Sheridan  in  the  latter's  most  brilliant  move- 
ments in  the  Shenandoah  valley.  In  November 
1865  he  resigned  with  the  rank  of  brevet  major- 
general.  His  services  were  recognized  by  an 
appreciative  vote  of  thanks  from  the  legislature 
of   Connecticut. 

Birkbeck,  George,  originator  of  mechanics' 
institutes:  b.  Settle,  Yorkshire,  10  Jan.  1776;  d. 
I  Dec.  1841.  He  studied  medicine  at  Edinburgh 
and  took  the  degree  of  M.D.  in  1799,  among  his 
friends  and  fellow  students  being  Brougham 
and  Jeffrey.  Being  appointed  to  the  chair  of 
natural  and  experimental  philosophy  in  the 
Andersonian  University  at  Glasgow,  in  1799,  he 
delivered  his  first  course  of  lectures.  The  fol- 
lowing year  he  began  to  give  gratuitous  lectures 
to  mechanics,  which  were  soon  largely  attended. 
This  was  the  first  attempt  to  establi,sh  mechanics' 
institutes,  and  to  Dr.  Birkbeck  the  honor  of 
being  their  founder  belongs.  The  Glasgow 
Mechanics'  Institution,  though  not  established 
till  1823,  owed  its  origin  to  these  lectures  de- 
livered by  him.  In  1804  he  settled  as  a  physi- 
cian in  London,  and  was  soon  engaged  in  an 
extensive  practice ;  but  the  extension  of  scientific 
knowledge  to  mechanics  was  ever  in  his 
thoughts,  and  in  1824  he  had  the  happiness  of 
being  elected  pjresident  of  the  London  Me- 
chanics' Institution,  for  which  that  at  Glasgow 
had  led  the  way.  Similar  institutions  soon 
arose  and  prospered  in  all  the  larger  towns 
of  the  kingdom.  Dr.  Birkbeck  was  also 
connected  with  the  foutading  of  University  Col- 
lege, London,  advocated  the  repeal  of  the  tax 
on  newspapers,  and  was  active  as  a  lecturer  and 
promoter  of  various  educational  movements. 
The  London  Mechanics'  Institution  still  exists, 
but  it  is  now  known  as  the  Birkbeck  Literary 
and   Scientific  Institution. 

Birkenhead,  England,  a  parliamentary, 
county,  and  municipal  borough  of  Cheshire,  on 
the  estuary  of  the  Mersey,  opposite  Liverpool. 
Its  growth  has  been  rapid.  It  owes  its  pros- 
perity to  the  same  causes  that  have  made  Liver- 
pool a  great  seaport,  and  may  be  regarded  as 
a  suburb  of  that  city.  Its  docks  have  a  lineal 
quay  space  of  over  nine  miles,  with  a  complete 
system  of  railway  communication  for  the  ship- 
ment of  goods  and  direct  coaling  of  steamers. 
It  has  a  handsome  square,  a  town-hall ;  sessions 


court  and  police  courts ;  market ;  moderr? 
slaughter-houses ;  public  baths ;  and  ranges  of 
dwelling-houses  for  workmen,  unusually  com- 
plete in  their  accommodation  and  in  all  their 
appointments.  The  system  of  drainage  and 
sewerage  is  very  complete.  There  is  a  theo- 
logical college  of  the  Church  of  England  (St. 
Aidan's)  ;  a  free  public  library,  schools  of  art, 
etc.  The  ruins  of  an  ancient  Benedictine  priory 
founded  in  1153  still  exist  in  a  good  state  of 
preservation.  The  ferry  privileges  were  for- 
merly vested  in  the  monks  of  this  priory.  The 
benevolent  institutions  comprise  an  infirmary, 
children's  and  lying-in  hospitals,  and  a  dispen- 
sary. It  has  a  large  public  park  of  114  acres 
beautifully  laid  out,  and  another  and  smaller 
public  park.  Its  magnificent  docks  and  dock 
warehouses,  however,  which  belong  to  the  splen- 
did Liverpool  system,  form  the  distinguishing 
feature  of  Birkenhead.  The  Mersey  tunnel,  4J/2 
miles  long,  including  the  approaches,  21  feet 
high,  and  26  feet  wide,  and  which  cost  $6,100,000,. 
now  connects  Liverpool  with  Birkenhead. 
Communication  with  Liverpool  is  also  kept  up 
by  steam  ferries,  the  property  of  the  corporation, 
which  yield  a  handsome  revenue.  The  corpora- 
tion also  owns  the  gas,  water,  and  electric  light- 
ing plants,  and  the  tramway  lines,  which  were 
introduced  here  by  George  Francis  Train,  one 
of  the  earliest  systems  in  Great  Britain.  The 
water-supply,  which  is  abundant  and  of  excel- 
lent quality,  is  obtained  within  the  borotigh  by 
pumping  from  the  red  sandstone  strata  which 
underlies  it.  Birkenhead  has  gained  a  distin- 
guished name  for  ship-building,  the  extensive 
yards  of  Laird  Bros,  (builders  of  the  famous 
Confederate  ship  Alabama)  being  located  here. 
There  are  machine  and  engineering  works, 
wagon  factories,  flour-mills,  oil-cake  mills,  etc. 
Birkenhead  has  returned  a  member  to  Parlia- 
ment since  1861.  It  received  a  charter  of  incor- 
poration as  a  municipal  borough  in  1877.  Pop. 
(1821)  236;    (1901)    110,926. 

Bir'ket-el-Keroon'  ("lake  of  the  horn^>), 
Egypt,  a  lake  in  the  Fayoom,  about  30  miles  long 
and  6  miles  wide.  It  communicates  with  the 
Nile  and  had  connection  formerly  with  the  ar- 
tificial Lake  Mosris,  with  which  it  has  been  con- 
founded. 

Birkett,  Herbert  Stanley,  Canadian  physi- 
cian: b.  Hamilton,  Ont.,  17  July  1864.  He  grad- 
tiated  at  McGill  University  in  1886;  was  senior 
house  surgeon  to  the  Montreal  General  Hos- 
pital 1886-7 ;  and  assistant  physician  to  the 
Montreal  Dispensary  1887-9.  He  is  a  Fellow 
of  the  American  Laryngologist  Association.  In 
1889  he  was  appointed  demonstrator  of  anat- 
omy at  McGill  University,  and  in  1900  was 
laryngologist  to  the  Montreal  General  Hospital, 
and  aurist  to  the  Mackay  Institute  for  Deaf 
Mutes. 

Birmingham,  Ala.,  ^'the  Pittsburg  of  the 
South,"  the  industrial  head  of  the  entire  South 
between  Atlanta  and  New  Orleans,  and  the  chief 
centre  of  the  iron  and  coal  industry  south  of 
Pennsylvania ;  county-seat  of  Jefferson  County, 
in  the  northern  centre,  midway  between  the 
Coosa  and  Black  Warrior  rivers,  608  feet  above 
the  sea  in  a  valley,  near  where  the  last  Appala- 
chian spurs  sink  to  the  coast  plain ;  96  miles- 
north  of  Montgomery,  the  State  capital,  and  i68- 
miles  west  of  Atlanta,  on  six  trunk  roads :  the: 
Southern,  L.  &  N.,  Kansas  Citj',  M.  &  B..  Cen- 


BIRMINGHAM 


trai  of  G.,  Alabama  G.  S.  (Queen  &  Crescent), 
and  Seaboard  A.  L.  R.R.'s.  It  is  situated  in 
the  heart  of  the  greatest  coal,  iron,  and  lime- 
stone district  of  the  South.  Around  it  lie 
three  huge  coal  fields,  the  Warrior,  Cahaba,  and 
Coosa,  aggregating  over  8,6io  square  miles,  with 
some  60  seams,  more  than  half  of  them  worka- 
ble; the  nearest  deposits  being  only  4  miles 
from  the  city.  Birmingham  is  built  partly  upon 
the  slope  of  Red  Mountain,  named  from  its  out- 
crop of  hematite  iron  ore,  which  extends  many 
miles  in  every  direction  from  the  city,  in  a  vein 
from  6  to  26  feet  thick  with  an  indefinite  depth. 
This  district  produced  in  1902  about  90  per  cent 
of  the  State's  production  of  10,329,479  tons  of 
coal,  2,210,735  tons  of  coke,  and  1,472,211  tons 
of  pig  iron.  Six  hundred  thousand  freight  cars 
were  handled  in  and  out  of  Birmingham,  carry- 
ing 70  per  cent  of  the  entire  tonnage  of  Ala- 
bama in  1902,  and  also  hauling  nearly  1,000,000 
tons  of  limestone.  This  ideal  equipment  for  the 
production  of  iron  and  steel  at  the  lowest  cost, 
is  building  up  a  great  city  with  such  rapidity 
that  no  statistics  can  be  other  than  temporary. 

Business  Interests. —  It  is  estimated  that 
there  are  in  Jefferson  County  more  than  300 
mining  and  manufacturing  plants  of  various 
kinds,  among  which  are  27  blast  furnaces,  7,168 
coke  ovens,  60  coal  mines,  a  large  number  of 
mines  and  stone  quarries,  2  steel  plants,  3  roll- 
ing mills,  a  wire  rod  and  nail  mill,  a  steel  rail 
mill,  besides  other  plants  of  various  kinds. 
There  are  in  Jefferson  County  50,000  wage- 
earners  who  receive  more  than  $2,750,000  per 
month.  The  gross  volume  of  business  in  mining 
and  manufacturing  during  the  year  1902  was 
estimated  at  $60,000,000,  and  the  gross  volume 
of  business  in  the  general  wholesale  and  retail 
trade  amounted  to  about  $42,000,000,  making  the 
total  amount  of  business  for  the  year  1902, 
$102,000,000.  In  1901  alone,  124  new  companies 
were  organized  with  a  capital  of  $8,955,100  and 
existing  corporations  increased  their  capital 
stock  $2,650,000  and  made  extensions  to  their 
plants  costing  over  $4,000,000.  The  record  for 
the  year  1902  will  show  an  increase  of  at  least 
10  per  cent  over  the  year  1901  in  new  companies 
and  in  additional  capital.  The  furnaces  of  the 
district  (including  the  suburbs,  practically  part 
of  the  city,  though  not  yet  formerly  incorpo- 
rated) turned  out  in  1902  1,472,211  tons  of  pig 
iron,  against  1,225,308  in  1901,  and  68,927  in 
1880.  In  1900  it  furnished  six  sevenths  of  the 
total  United  States'  export  of  pig  iron,  but  since 
then  none  of  the  product  has  been  exported  on 
account  of  the  increased  home  demand.  The 
first  steel  plant  .in  the  South  was  started  in 
1897  at  Birmingham,  two  open-hearth  furnaces 
of  160  tons  a  day ;  now^  the  Tennessee  Coal,  Iron 
&  Railroad  Company  has  in  operation  at  Ensley. 
a  suburb,  10  furnaces  and  a  44-inch  blowing 
mill,  capacity  1,000  tons  a  day.  This  is  the 
largest  basic  open-hearth  plant  in  the  world 
except  the  Carnegie  works  at  Homestead. 
There  is  a  casting  plant  and  rail  mill  in  connec- 
tion with  it.  The  Alabama  Steel  and  Ship- 
building Company  began  in  1899  with  $1,000,000 
capital,  and  the  Alabama  Steel  and  Wire  Com- 
pany with  $2,000,000  capital.  Besides  the  plants 
already  mentioned,  Birmingham  has  a  steel  cast- 
ing plant,  a  bi-product  plant,  a  wrought  pipe 
plant,  2  cast  pipe  and  foundry  plants,  2  soil  pipe 
plants,  I  clay  pipe  plant.  2  cement  factories,  1 
chemical  works,  i  fertilizer  factory,  2  breweries. 


I  corn  mill,  i  flour  mill,  5  ice  factories,  r 
gas  and  gasoline  engine  works,  i  iron  and  steel 
bridge  works,  2  boiler  works,  6  foundries  and 
machine  shops,  i  stove  foundry,  3  railroad  shops, 
3  sash  factories,  2  wagon  factories,  i  agricul- 
tural implement  works,  3  printing  and  book- 
binding concerns,  i  hollow  ware  plant,  20  brick 
plants,  15  planing  mills  and  wood-working 
plants,  and  i  packing  company.  Birmingham  is 
also  a  cotton  market,  the  cotton  receipts  for 
1901-2  amounting  to  100,000  bales.  It  has  2 
cotton  factories,  2  cotton-seed  oil  mills,  and  I 
knitting  factory.  Besides  the  unparalleled 
cheapness  of  material,  its  transportation  facilities 
are  shortly  to  be  greatly  increased  by  the  com- 
pletion of  the  government  improvements  on  the 
Warrior  and  Tombigbee  rivers,  by  which  coal 
and  other  products  can  be  transported  to  tide 
water  at  Mobile,  thence  to  the  Atlantic  sea- 
board,   at   greatly   reduced   cost. 

Public  IVorks  and  Institutions. —  Birming- 
ham is  a  handsome  and  solidly  built  city,  with 
wide  avenues,  handsome  dwellings,  and  imposing 
public  buildings.  It  has  a  large  government 
building,  county  court-house,  new  city  hall, 
costing  over  $200,000,  and  three  new  lo-story 
steel-frame  "skyscrapers,"  one  of  them  costing 
over  $600,000.  Among  the  other  notable  build- 
ings are  the  Jefferson  Theatre,  the  Auditorium, 
St.  Vincent's  Hospital,  Hillman's  Hospital, 
Union  Station,  and  Hillman  Hotel.  There  are 
16  or  more  public  parks,  the  most  prominent  of 
which  are  the  Capitol,  North  Birmingham,  East 
Lake,  and  Lakeview.  The  city  has  an  extensive 
waterworks  system,  with  a  reservoir  on  Shade's 
^Mountain,  225  feet  above  the  city,  a  Waring 
system  of  sewerage,  and  over  100  miles  of  street 
railroads,  connecting  it  not  only  with  its  imme- 
diate suburbs,  but  with  points  many  miles  away. 
There  are  over  50  white  churches,  a  public 
library,  11  ho.spitals  and  infirmaries,  13  public 
schools,  16  newspapers,  including  3  dailies.  ^ 
military  organizations,  2  telephone  companies, 
13  private  sciiools  and  colleges,  including  i 
medical  college,  i  dental  college.  2  business  col- 
leges, Howard  College  (Baptist,  at  East  Lake, 
5  miles  northeast,  founded  1841).  Northern  Ala- 
bama (Methodist)  and  a  colored  normal  train- 
ing school.  Its  charitable  institutions  comprise 
St.  Vincent's  Hospital,  Hillman  Hospital.  Mercy 
Home.  Jeffer.son  County  Alms  House,  and  the 
Boys'  Industrial  School  at  East  Lake. 

Finances  and  Government. —  The  assessed 
valuation  of  the  city  property  for  1902  was 
$18,318,408,  which  is  on  about  a  50  percent  basis; 
tax  rate  for  1902.  State,  county,  and  city,  $2.30; 
public  outlay  for  1902,  in':luding  $39,362.60  iot 
public  schools.  $463,489.69.  In  1902.  however,  a 
special  expenditure  of  $229,856  was  made  for 
cement  sidewalks,  street  improvements,  and 
sewers.  The  government  of  the  city  is  in  the 
hands  of  a  mayor  and  city  council,  elected  bien- 
nially, and  an  elected  police  commission  and  a 
nominated   board   of   education. 

The  rapid  development  of  Birmingham's 
business  is  best  shown  by  the  infallible  test  of 
the  clearing  house,  the  only  one  in  Alabama. 
In  1897  the  clearings  amounted  to  $20,907,495  J 
in  1899.  to  $34,469,751.  and  in  1902  to  over 
$56,000,000,  having  nearly  trebled  in  five  years. 
Part  of  this  is  due  to  the  increasing  use  of  the 
Birmingham  banks  by  territory  which  formerly 
sought  those  of  the  other  large  cities.  The  Bir- 
mingham    banks     furnish     funds     for     moving 


BIRMINGHAM 


125,000  bales  of  cotton.  Their  business  often 
exceeds  $1,000,000  a  day.  In  4  years,  1898-1902, 
their  deposits  increased  from  $3,500,000  to 
$9,251,820.  There  are  9  banking  institutions  in 
the  city,  2  national,  with  an  aggregate  capital  of 
$1,848,500. 

Popiilaiion  and  History. — By  the  census,  the 
population  in  1880,  the  first  after  Birmingham's 
settlement,  was  3,086;  in  1890,  26,178;  in  1900, 
38,415.  But  these  figures  tell  only  part  of  the 
story  and  are  very  misleading.  Birmingham  is 
entirely  the  creation  of  the  last  30  years.  The 
future  of  the  district  was  foreseen  as  early  as 
1849,  but  the  first  attempt  t®  realize  it  was 
about  1870,  by  a  company  which  bought  a  large 
tract  of  land  around  Elyton,  then  the  county- 
seat,  now  a  suburb  of  Birmingham,  which 
sought  to  make  that  the  centre  of  the  new  de- 
velopment. It  failed  because  prices  were  too 
high,  and  another  company  bought  a  tract  to  the 
east,  where  stood  a  single  shanty  on  the  spot 
where  the  Florence  Hotel  now  stands,  which 
they  named  Birmingham.  The  next  year  a 
small  iron  furnace  was  erected  and  this  started 
up  coal  mining.  Coal  had  hitherto  lacked  a 
market,  but  in  1874,  50,400  tons  were  mined. 
The  demand  of  the  Oxmoor  furnace  for  coal 
led,  in  1879,  to  the  opening  of  the  Pratt  mines, 
and  with  this  began  the  era  of  great  growth. 
The  population  leaped  in  the  next  decade  from 
3,000  to  26,000,  a  growth  unparalleled  in  United 
States  history,  except  by  Chicago.  Retarded  for 
some  years  by  the  collapse  of  the  boom,  it  still 
had  grown  50  per  cent  by  1900.  In  fact,  the  in- 
crease was  more  than  double  that,  for  the  nomi- 
nal city  is  only  the  business  hub  of  a  large  group 
of  cities  and  towns,  built  up  by  the  same  inter- 
ests and  but  little  removed  from  each  other, 
which  will  probably  in  the  near  future  be  an- 
nexed under  the  name  Greater  Birmingham,  giv- 
ing it  a  population  of  more  than  200,000.  The 
largest  of  these  surrounding  towns  is  Bessemer, 
1 1  miles  away ;  others  are  Ensley,  Pratt  City, 
Elyton,  Gate  City,  Irondale,  Powderly,  West 
End,  Smithfield,  East  Birmingham,  North  Bir- 
mingham, East  Lake,  Woodlawn,  Kingston, 
Jonesville,  and  Avondale.  The  figures  for  the 
county  are  equally  significant:  When  Birming- 
ham was  settled,  it  had  12,345  inhabitants;  in 
1900  it  had  140,420,  practically  all  the  growth  of 
the  Birmingham  district.  The  rapidity  of  the 
city's  present  growth  is  shown  by  the  fact  that  in 
1902  nearly  1,900  new  dwellings  and  business 
buildings  were  erected,  at  a  cost  of  over 
$3,250,000.  Roy  McCullough, 

Secretary  Board  of  Trade. 
Birmingham,  England,  one  of  the  greatest 
manufacturing  cities  of  the  world,  situated  on 
the  River  Rea,  near  its  confluence  with  the 
Tame,  an  affluent  in  the  northwest  extremity  of 
the  county  of  Warwick,  112  miles  northwest  of 
London,  and  nearly  in  the  centre  of  England 
(north  iat.  52°  28'  45",  west  long.  1°  54').  The 
lower  part  of  the  city,  consisting  chiefly  of  old 
houses,  is  crowded  with  workshops  and  ware- 
houses, and  inhabited  principally  by  the  working 
classes;  but  the  upper  part  has  some  fine  streets 
and  buildings,  and  there  are  fine  suburbs  west- 
ward and  southward  of  the  city. 

Public   Bitildinss. — The   town   hall,    built   of 


Anglesey  marble  in  1832,  is  a  rectangular  build- 
ing, modeled  after  the  temple  of  Jupiter  Stator 
at  Rome.  Its  large  hall  is  145  feet  long,  65  feet 
wide,  and  65  feet  high,  seating  2,250  persons,  and 
contains  a  magnificent  organ.  In  this  hall  a 
great  musical  festival  is  held  once  every  three 
years  the  proceeds  of  which  go  to  the  General 
Hospital.  It  was  at  the  Birmingham  Festival 
that  Mendelssohn's  oratorio,  'Elijah,^  was  first 
performed  (1846),  and  Gounod's  *  Redemption' 
and  Elgar's  ^Dream  of  Gerontius'  are  among 
other  famous  works  first  heard  at  this  festival. 
Among  other  public  buildings  of  note  are  the 
council-house,  for  the  accommodation  of  the 
different  corporation  offices,  with  fine  reception 
rooms  and  council  chamber,  erected  1874-S  (cost 
$1,000,000)  ;  the  Victoria  Law  Courts,  a  fine 
edifice  in  terra  cotta  (Renaissance),  (cost  $580,- 
000)  ;  University  buildings,  municipal  technical 
school,  municipal  schools  of  art  and  design, 
Bingley  Hall  (a  large  covered  place  holding 
25,000  persons,  wherein  the  late  John  Bright, 
W.  E.  Gladstone,  and  Joseph  Chamberlain  have 
addressed  vast  audiences),  post-office,  corpora- 
tion baths,  the  stations  of  the  L.  &  N.  W.,  Mid- 
land, and  Great  Western  R.R.'s,  cavalry  bar- 
racks, public  libraries,  the  Exchange  buildings, 
art  gallery  (special  features,  paintings  by  David 
Co.x  and  by  the  Pre-Raphaelite  school  of  artists, 
and  valuable  collections  illustrative  of  industrial 
arts),  Birmingham  and  ^Midland  Institute,  corn 
exchange.  Masonic  hall,  markets,  etc. 

Monuments.  —  The  public  statues  include 
those  of  Queen  "Victoria,  Prince  Albert,  James 
Watt,  Joseph  Priestley,  Lord  Nelson,  Sir  Robert 
Peel,  John  Bright,  Joseph  Sturge,  Thomas  Att- 
wood,  George  Dawson,  Dr.  R.  W.  Dale,  Sir 
Josiah  Mason,  etc. 

Churches,  Hospitals,  etc. — The  mother  church 
of  Birmingham  is  that  of  Saint  Martin's,  or  the 
Old  Church  (built  about  1250,  rebuilt  1875), 
the  parish  registers  of  which  date  from  the  year 
1544;  this  church  contains  several  altar  tombs 
of  the  Birmingham  family.  Saint  Philip's  (re- 
cently constituted  the  cathedral  church)  was 
the  second  parish  church,  built  171 1,  palladian 
style,  restored  1868;  both  churches  contain  fine 
stained-glass  windows  designed  by  Sir  E.  Burne 
Jones,  a  native  of  Birmingham.  Among  the 
more  noteworthy  non-anglican  churches  are  the 
Roman  Catholic  Cathedral  of  Saint  Chad,  a 
noble  Gothic  church  designed  by  Pugin,  richly 
adorned  with  stained-glass  windows,  and  with 
fine  i6th  century  pulpit  and  stalls ;  the  Oratory 
of  S-  Philip  Neri  (founded  by  Cardinal  New- 
man) ;  the  old  Meeting  House  of  Carr's  Lane 
(Congregational),  associated  with  the  labors  of 
John  Angell  James  and  R.  W.  Dale ;  the  Wes- 
leyan  Central  ^Mission  Hall,  erected  1903,  sur- 
mounted by  a  lofty  Renaissance  tower,  and  seat- 
ing over  2,000  persons  (cost  $300,000)  ;  the  two 
LTnitarian  churches,  "Old  Meeting  House*  and 
"Church  of  the  Messiah,"  the  successors  of  the 
old  meeting  houses  destroyed  in  the  memorable 
riots  of  1791.  Among  the  charitable  institutions 
the  most  important  are  the  General  Hospital 
(founded  1766,  rebuilt  on  new  site  1894-7,  cost 
over  $1,000,000);  the  Queen's  Hospital;  Free 
Hospital  for  Sick  Children  ;  Women's  Hospital : 
Ear    and    Throat    Hospital ;     Orthopaedic    and 


BIRMINGHAM 


Spinal  Hospital;  Homoeopathic  Hospital;  Skin 
and  Lock  Hospital ;  Dental  Hospital ;  Eye  Hos- 
pital; Jaffray  Hospital  for  Convalescent  pa- 
tients, etc. 

Educational  Institutions. — The  principal  edu- 
'Cational  institutions  are  the  Birmingham  Uni- 
versity, incorporated  1900,  a  growth  of  Mason 
University  College,  founded  by  Sir  Josiah  Mason 
in  1875  (and  further  endowed  by  public  sub- 
scription with  about  $2,000,000),  which  has  fac- 
ulties of  arts,  science,  medicine,  and  commerce, 
and  new  buildings  for  the  engineering,  physics, 
and  science  sections  generally  are  now  (1907) 
in  course  of  erection  at  a  cost  of  over  $1,500,000; 
Roman  Catholic  College  at  Oscott ;  Wesleyan 
Theological  College  at  Handsworth ;  Saltley 
diocesan  training  college;  Free  Grammar  School 
founded  by  Edward  VI.  out  of  the  endowments 
of  the  older  Birmingham  town  gild,  which  has 
a  central  and  five  branch  schools ;  Blue  Coat 
School ;  Protestant  Dissenting  Charity  School 
(for  maintaining  and  educating  poor  girls  for 
domestic  service)  ;  the  municipal  schools  of  art 
and  design,  and  technical  schools;  industrial 
schools,  and  numerous  public  elementary  schools, 
mostly  erected  by  the  now  defunct  School  Board, 
and  maintained  by  the  council  under  the  Educa- 
tion act,  1902. 

Libraries. — There  is  a  central  free  library, 
having  170,000  volumes  in  its  reference  library, 
a  Shakespeare  Memorial  Library  (11,500  vol- 
umes), and  eleven  lending  libraries,  containing 
over  110,000  volumes;  the  Birmingham  Library, 
an  old  proprietary  library  (established  1779), 
contains  80.000  volumes. 

Parks,  etc. — There  are  ten  public  parks  and 
several  recreation  grounds,  and  the  city  owns 
two  natural  beauty-spots  somewhat  remote  from 
its  boundaries,  viz.  Rednal  Hill  (Lickey),  and 
Warley  Abbej'  estate.  In  Aston  park  (one  of 
the  oldest  belonging  to  the  city)  is  Aston  Hall, 
a  fine  Jacobean  residence  built  by  Sir  Thomas 
Holte  in  1618,  which  was  besieged  in  the  civil 
war  by  the  parliamentary  forces,  December  1643. 
Its  chief  features  are  the  long  gallery,  one  of 
the  finest  in  England,  and  the  great  staircase, 
which  was  injured  during  the  siege.  The  Hall 
is  now  a  public  museum. 

Industries. — The  prosperity  of  Birmingham  is 
attributable  to  the  excellence,  variety,  and  ex- 
tent of  its  hardware  manufactures,  as  well  as 
to  its  geographically  central  situation  on  the 
horder  of  the  great  South  Staffordshire  coal  and 
iron  district,  combined  with  the  command  of 
a  wide  and  ready  transit  by  canal  and  railway. 
There  is  an  extensive  system  of  tramways.  At 
Soho,  in  the  vicinity  of  the  city,  was  the  earliest 
and  one  of  the  largest  steam-engine  manufac- 
tories in  the  world,  belonging  to  Boulton,  part- 
ner of  the  celebrated  James  Watt.  The  Soho 
works  were  founded  in  1757  and  came  into  the 
possession  of  Matthew  Boulton  in  1762.  Not  a 
vestige  of  the  building  now  remains.  One  of  the 
most  important  manufactures  is  that  of  firearms. 
The  number  of  gun-barrels  tested  in  some  recent 
years  has  been  between  500,000  and  600,000. 
The  manufacture  of  swords  is  also  one  of  the 
■staple  trades.  Cast-iron  articles  of  all  kinds, 
and  of  the  m.ost  beautiful  patterns  and  work- 
manship, are  manufactured  at  Birmingham  to  a 
great  extent.      In    former   years    iron-founding 


was  limited  to  large  and  heavy  articles,  but 
is  now  extended  to  the  lightest  and  most  grace- 
ful, in  the  finishing  of  which  bronze  is  very 
generally  employed.  The  manufacture  of  rail- 
way wagons  and  carriages  has  been  very  exten- 
sively developed.  The  quantity  of  solid  gold 
and  silver  plate  manufactured  is  large,  and  the 
consumption  of  silver  in  plating  is  very  great. 
Electro-plating  was  first  practised  in  this  town 
in  1840.  Japanning,  brass-founding,  glass  man- 
ufacturing, and  glass  staining  or  painting,  are 
important  trades.  There  are  also  large  chemical 
works  for  vitriol,  sal-ammoniac,  cobalt,  and 
other  substances.  Steel  pens,  of  which  hundreds 
of  millions  are  manufactured  annually,  pins, 
fancy  seals,  brooches,  clasps,  and  other  trinkets 
are  made  in  immense  quantities.  Bicycles  are 
now  made  in  Birmingham  in  greater  numbers 
than  in  any  other  town. 

Government,  etc. — The  charter  of  incorpora- 
tion dates  from  1838.  By  the  Reform  Act  of 
1S32,  Birmingham  was  constituted  a  borough, 
sending  two  members  to  Parliament.  The  act 
of  1867  gave  it  a  third,  while  that  of  1885  added 
four  others  and  divided  the  borough  into  seven 
parliamentary  districts.  In  1888  it  was  raised 
by  order  in  council  to  the  rank  of  a  city,  and 
by  the  Local  Government  Act  of  that  year,  it 
also  became  a  county  borough.  A  further  order 
in  council  (1896)  conferred  upon  the  chief 
magistrate  of  the  city  the  title  of  lord  mayor. 
In  1891  the  boundaries  of  the  borough  were  ex- 
tended, and  its  area  is  now  12,705  acres  compris- 
ing the  parishes  of  Birmingham  and  Edgbaston, 
and  parts  of  others.  The  borough  is  divided 
into  18  wards,  and  has  18  aldermen  and  54  coun- 
cillors. The  municipal  and  parliamentary  bound- 
aries are  the  same,  the  parliamentary  divisions 
being  North,  South,  East,  West,  Central, 
Bordesley,  and  Edgbaston.  Water  is  now 
brought  from  the  Elan  Valley,  Wales,  a  distance 
of  80  miles,  at  a  cost  of  about  $30,000,000.  The 
corporation  of  Birmingham  has  long  been  rec- 
ognized as  in  the  forefront  of  British  municipal- 
ities, a  reputation  which  it  largely  owes  to  the 
work  done  by  the  Right  Hon.  Joseph  Chamber- 
lain (three  times  mayor).  The  corporation  pur- 
chased the  gasworks  and  waterworks  in  1875, 
and  the  Electric  Company's  rights  in  1898.  In 
1876  an  "Improvement  .\ct'*  was  obtained,  by 
which  at  a  cost  of  about  $10,000,000  a  large  area 
of  insanitary  property  in  the  centre  of  the  city 
was  removed,  and  Corporation  Street  was  laid 
out  on  the  site  thereof. 

History,  Populations,  etc. — The  city  of  Bir- 
mingham is  supposed  to  have  originated  in  a 
Saxon  settlement  formed  in  a  clearing  in  the 
great  central  forest  of  England,  the  forest  of 
Arden,  near  to  the  Icknield  Street,  a  Roman  road 
of  which  an  original  portion  is  still  visible  in 
Sutton  park.  It  was  the  home  of  the  Bermings 
— the  young,  or  progeny  of  Berm,  from  whence 
the  name  is  derived.  It  was  a  place  of  compar- 
atively small  importance  at  the  Conquest,  al- 
though it  is  mentioned  in  Domesday  Book 
(10S6)  where  it  is  called  Bermingham,  a  name 
of  which  there  were  many  corruptions,  chiefly 
arising  from  the  old  pronunciation  and  from 
misspellings,  wherefrom  the  popular  local  •.-.anic 
"Brummagem^^  is  derived.  In  the  14th  centurv 
two  gilds  were  founded,  the  more  important  of 


BIRNAM— BIRNEY 


which  (the  Gild  of  the  Holy  Cross)  exercised 
functions  akin  to  those  of  a  municipal  character, 
until  the  dissolution  of  the  monasteries  and  re- 
ligious houses.  There  was  also  a  priory  or  hos- 
pital of  Saint  Thomas,  and  several  chantries 
attached  to  the  parish  church,  but  all  these  were 
sequestrated  with  the  religious  houses.  Some  of 
the  revenues  of  the  town  gild  were  devoted  by 
Edward  VI.  to  the  foundation  of  the  Free 
Grammar  School.  Birmingham  was  visited  in 
1532  by  John  Leland,  who  wrote  of  it  in  his 
Itinerary  as  having  "many  smiths  in  the  town, 
that  make  knives  and  all  manner  of  cutting 
tools,  loriners  that  make  bits,  and  many  nay- 
lors.^*  Camden,  in  1576,  found  it  "swarming 
with  inhabitants  and  echoing  with  the  noise  of 
hammers  and  hammers.'*  In  the  civil  war  Bir- 
mingham suffered  considerably  at  the  hands  of 
Prince  Rupert  and  the  royalists,  who  encoun- 
tered the  inhabitants  in  a  fierce  hand-to-hand 
fight  in  the  streets,  and  burnt  a  great  many 
houses,  in  1643.  The  plague  also  ravaged  the 
town  in  1665.  The  old  market  town  first  began 
to  outgrow  its  ancient  boundaries  in  1700,  at 
which  date  the  population  was  about  fifteen 
thousand.  Birmingham  began  to  assume  im- 
portance as  a  manufacturing  town  about  the 
middle  of  the  iSth  century.  John  Baskervillc, 
by  his  fine  printing,  John  Taylor  by  innumera- 
ble fancy  articles,  Boulton  and  Watt  by  the  in- 
troduction of  the  steam  engine,  helped  to  make 
Birmingham  "the  toyshop  of  Europe"  as  Burke 
described  it.  In  the  19th  century  the  introduc- 
tion of  steel  pens  and  electro-plated  goods,  gave 
Birmingham  new  fame  as  a  manufacturing  cen- 
tre. It  also  attracted  attention  as  the  centre 
from  whence  spread  the  Reform  agitation  of 
1830,  which  culminated  in  the  Reform  Bill  of 
Earl  Grey,  which  became  law  in  1832.  Bir- 
mingham had  also  an  unenviable  reputation  for 
rioting  and  disturbance  at  the  end  of  the  iSth 
century,  and  the  Priestley  Riot  of  July  1791  is 
among  the  memorable  nncntes  of  that  century. 

The  general  healthfulness  of  Birmingham 
is  probably  due  to  the  large  quantity  of  open 
space  which  it  possesses;  to  the  general  excel- 
lence of  its  drainage,  greatly  facilitated  by  the 
substratum  of  sand  and  gravel  (belonging  to 
the  new  red  sandstone  or  Trias  formation)  on 
which  it  is  built;  and  the  circumstance  that  there 
is  scarcely  an  underground  dwelling  or  cellar 
(used  as  a  dwelling)  within  its  precincts.  In 
1905  the  birth-rate  was  29.2  and  the  death-rate 
16. 1  per  thousand.  In  1801  the  population  was 
75,670;  in  1901,  522.102,  but  this  does  not  take 
into  account  the  densely  populated  boroughs 
and  urban  districts  by  which  the  city  is  closely 
surrounded.  With  the  inclusion  of  these  the 
urban  population  of  the  midland  metropolis 
would  amount  to  820,000. 

Bibliograj^hy. — Bunce  and  Vince,  ^History  of 
the  Corporation  of  Birmingham'  (1878-1902)  ; 
Dent,  'Old  and  New  Birmingham'  (1880); 
*The  Making  of  Birmingham'  (1894);  Hutton, 
'History  of  Birmingham^  (first  pub.  1781)  ; 
Langford,  'A  Century  of  Birmingham  Life' 
(1741-1841;  2  V.   1868). 

R.  K.  Dent, 
Chief   Librarian   Aston  Manor,   and  author  of 
^Old  and  Nezv  Birmingham,^  etc. 


Birnam,  Scotland,  a  hill  in  Perthshire,  irr. 
the  western  highlands,  Scotland,  rendered  fa- 
mous by  its  connection  with  the  history  of  Mac- 
beth, and  immortalized  by  Shakespeare.  It  was 
foretold  to  the  ambitious  thane,  yet  guiltless, 
except  in  thought,  of  bloody  ambition,  that,  un- 
til Birnam  wood  should  come  to  Dunsinane,  his 
life  and  power  could  suffer  no  disaster.  On  the 
approach  of  Malcolm  with  the  avenging  army, 
composed  of  the  loyal  clans,  aided  by  Seward, 
Earl  of  Northumberland,  ignorant  of  the  proph- 
ecy, the  invaders  cut  down  the  boughs  and  bore 
them  as  leafy  screens,  by  which  to  conceal  their 
numbers,  when  the  report  of  "the  moving  for- 
est" marching  upon  Dunsinane  struck  a  fatal 
despair  into  the  soul  of  the  usurper. 

Birney,  David  Bell,  American  military 
officer  (son  of  J.  G.  Birney,  q.v.)  :  b.  Hunts- 
ville,  Ala.,  29  Alay  1825 ;  d.  Philadelphia,  Pa.,  18 
Oct.  1864.  He  was  graduated  at  Andover,  later 
studied  law  in  Cincinnati  and  in  1848  began 
practice  in  Philadelphia  where  he  remained  for 
several  years.  In  April  1861,  upon  the  outbreak 
of  the  Civil  War,  he  entered  the  Union  army 
as  lieutenant-colonel  of  the  2^  Pennsylvania 
Infantry ;  in  the  summer  of  1861  was  commis- 
sioned colonel ;  in  February  1862  was  raised  to 
the  rank  of  brigadier-general  of  volunteers;  and 
was  promoted  major-general  of  volunteers  23 
May  1863.  He  served  throughout  the  Penin- 
sula campaign  (q.v.)  and  with  particular  dis- 
tinction at  the  battles  of  Yorktown  and  Wil- 
liamsburg. He  subsequently  distinguished  him- 
self at  the  second  battle  of  Bull  Run  and  in  the 
battles  of  Fredericksburg  and  Chancellorsville. 
He  was  in  command  of  the  Third  Army  Corps 
during  a  part  of  the  battle  of  Gettysburg ;  from 
May  to  June  1864  was  in  command  of  a  division 
under  Gen.  Hancock;  and  from  July  1864  com- 
manded the  Tenth  Corps  of  the  Army  of  the 
James. 

Birney,  James  G.,  American  politician :  b. 
Danville,  Ky.,  4  Feb.  1792;  d.  Perth  Amboy, 
N.  J.,  25  Nov.  1857.  He  studied  law.  and  re- 
moved early  to  Alabama,  where  he  flourished 
in  his  profession  and  held  the  office  of  district 
attorney.  Having  had  his  attention  turned  to- 
ward the  question  of  property  in  slaves,  in 
1833  he  interested  himself  in  the  organization  of 
a  branch  of  the  Colonization  Society  for  the 
State  of  Alabama.  Soon  afterward,  returning  to 
Kentucky,  he  organized  one  there  also,  of  which 
he  became  president.  But  in  1834.  his  views 
rapidly  advancing,  he  espoused  the  cause  of  im- 
mediate emancipation  in  a  public  letter,  at  the 
same  time  emancipating  all  his  own  slaves,  about 
20  in  number.  This  letter,  the  'Letter  on  Col- 
onization' (1834)  was  shortly  afterwards  fol- 
lowed by  'American  Churches  the  Bulwarks  of 
American  Slavery'  (1840)  ;  'Speeches  in  Eng- 
land' (1840);  and  'Examination  of  the  Decision 
of  the  United  States  Supreme  Court  in  the 
Case  of  Stroder  et  al.  vs.  Graham'  (1850). 
Making  arrangements  to  establish  a  news- 
paper to  disseminate  these  vievi^s  at  Dan- 
ville, where  he  resided,  and  where  he  held 
the  situation  of  professor  in  the  university, 
he  found  it  impossible  to  have  such  a  paper 
printed  in  Kentucky,  and  removed  to  Cincinnati, 
where  he  began  to  issue  the  Philanthrof^ist.     It 


BIRNEY  — BIRTH 


Siad  not  been  long  published  before  it  was  found 
no  less  obnoxious  to  public  sentiment  in  Ohio 
than  it  had  been  in  Kentucky,  and  the  press 
was  thrown  into  the  river.  The  editor,  how- 
«e\er,  managed  to  revive  the  paper,  and,  in  connec- 
tion with  Dr.  Bailey,  made  it  a  powerful  instru- 
ment in  acting  upon  the  opinion  of  the  State. 
About  the  year  1836  he  went  to  New  York  as 
secretary  of  the  American  Anti-Slavery  Society, 
and  for  many  years  devoted  his  time  and 
strength  to  the  furtherance  of  the  objects  of 
that  society  by  letters  and  articles  from  the 
press  and  by  public  addresses  wherever  he  could 
make  an  opportunity  to  be  heard.  His  purpose 
Avas  to  build  up  a  political  parly  upon  the  single 
question  of  slavery,  to  act  upon  the  govern- 
ment within  the  forms  of  the  Constitution ;  and 
he  succeeded  in  forming  an  organization  in  most 
of  the  northern  States,  under  the  name  of  the 
Liberty  Party.  During  his  absence  in  England 
he  was  nominated  in  1840  by  that  party  for  the 
presidency,  but  met  with  little  success.  He  was 
again  nominated  in  1844,  when  he  received  more 
votes.  It  was  charged  upon  his  friends  at  the 
time  that  by  withdrawing  their  votes  from  Mr. 
Clay,  especiall}'  in  the  State  of  New  York,  they 
.accomplished  the  election  of  Mr.  Polk,  thus 
aiming  the  death-blow  at  their  own  projects. 
Previous  to  this,  in  1842.  Mr.  Birney  had  be- 
come a  resident  of  Michigan,  where  not  long 
afterward  he  was  disabled,  by  a  fall  from  his 
horse,  from  taking  the  active  part  in  politics  to 
which  he  had  been  accustomed.  The  latter 
part  of  his  life  was  spent  at  Perth  Amboy,  N.  J. 

Birney,  William,  American  lawyer:  b. 
Madison  County,  Ala.,  28  May,  1819.  He  was 
educated  in  Paris ;  took  part  in  the  Revolution 
•of  1848,  and  was  appointed,  on  public  competi- 
tion, professor  of  English  literature  in  the 
■college  at  Bourges,  France.  In  1861  he  entered 
the  United  States  army  as  a  private,  and  was 
promoted  through  all  the  grades  to  Ijrevet 
major-general.  In  1863-5  he  commanded  a 
division.  His  writings  include  'Life  and  Times 
of  James  G.  Birney-*;  'Plea  for  Civil  and  Re- 
ligious Liberty,'   etc. 

Biron,  be-ron,  Baron  de  (Arm.\nd  de  Gon- 
TAULT.  Jir-miin  de  gon-to),  French  soldier:  b. 
1524;  d.  1592.  He  took  a  prominent  part  in  the 
civil  wars  between  the  Huguenots  and  Catholics, 
and  served  at  the  battles  of  Dreux,  St.  Denis, 
and  Moncontour.  He  was  made  marshal  of 
France  in  1577  by  Henry  HI.  He  negotiated 
the  peace  of  St.  Germain,  and  narrowly  escaped 
the  massacre  of  St.  Bartholomew.  He  recov- 
ered Guienne  and  Languedoc  from  the  Protes- 
tants, served  in  the  Netherlands  again.st  the 
Duke  of  Parma,  and  was  one  of  the  first  to 
recognize  Henry  IV.  as  king.  He  distinguished 
himself  in  various  battles  and  was  killed  at  the 
siege  of  Epernay. 

Biron,  due  de  (Ch.\ri.es  de  Goxtault,  sharl 
de  goii-to).  French  soldier,  son  of  the  preced- 
ing: b.  about  1562;  d.  31  July  1602.  He  served 
Henry  IV.  in  the  field  with  much  zeal  and  cour- 
age, was  raised  to  the  rank  of  Admiral  of 
France  in  1.SQ2,  and  in  1598  was  made  a  peer 
and  duke.  He  thought  himself,  however,  not 
sufficiently  rewarded,  and  began  to  intrigue  with 
the  Spanish  party  against  the  king.  In  1599  be 
concluded  an  agreement  with  the  Duke  of  Savoy 
•and  the  Count  of  Fuentes,  by  which  he  pledged 
Jiimself  to  take  up  arms  against  his  benefactor. 


Meanwhile,  war  being  declared  against  the  Duke 
of  Savoy  (1600;,  Biron  saw  himself  reduced 
to  the  necessity  of  attacking  him.  He  still  con- 
tinued his  negotiatipns  with  the  enemy,  however, 
and  at  last  they  became  known  to  the  king, 
who  interrogated  the  marshal  as  to  his  designs, 
with  promises  of  pardon.  Biron  made  a  partial 
confession  and  continued  his  intrigues  as  before. 
Notwithstanding  this,  Henry  sent  him  in  1601, 
after  the  conclusion  of  peace  with  Savoy,  as  en- 
voy to  Queen  Elizabeth  of  England.  In  the 
meantime  the  Count  of  Fuentes  discovered  the 
whole  plot.  He  was  tried  before  Parliament, 
and  was  beheaded. 

Biron,  Ernest  John.     See  Biren. 

Birrell,  Augustine,  English  essayist:  b. 
Wavcrtrce,  near  Liverpool.  19  Jan.  1850.  He 
graduated  from  Cambridge  and  was  called  to 
the  bar.  In  1903  he  became  a  Bencher  of  the 
Inner  Temple ;  from  1896-9  was  Quain  pro- 
fessor of  law  in  University  College,  London ; 
and  from  1889-1900  represented  Fifeshire  W.  in 
Parliament.  He  is  author  of  charming  critical 
and  biographical  essays  on  literary  subjects, 
collected  in  the  two  series  of  'Obiter  Dicta' 
(1884,  2d  series  1887 J  and  'Res  Judicatae' 
(1892;  ;  'Men,  Women  and  Books'  (1895).  1" 
1S87  be  published  a  'Life  of  Charlotte  Bronte*; 
in  1897  edited  BoswelFs  'Life  of  Johnson,'  in 
i8g8  published  'Life  of  Sir  Frank  Lockwood*  ; 
'Copyright  in  Books'  (1899)  ;  'Collected 
Essays'  (1900);  'Miscellanies'  (1901);  'Wil- 
liam Hazlitt'  (1902).  In  1905  he  became  Presi- 
dent of  the  Board  of  Education  in  the  Liberal 
Cabinet  and  in  1907  Chief  Secretary  for  Ireland. 

Birth,  or  Labor,  in  physiology,  is  the  act  by 
which  a  female  of  the  class  Mammalia  brings 
one  of  her  own  species  into  the  world.  When 
the  foetus  has  remained  its  due  time  in  the  womb, 
and  is  in  a  condition  to  carry  on  a  separate 
existence,  it  is  extruded  from  its  place  of  con- 
finement, in  order  to  live  the  life  which  belongs 
to  its  species  independently  of  the  mother.  The 
womb  having  reached  its  maximum  of  growth 
with  the  increasing  size  of  the  foetus,  its  pe- 
culiar irritability  excites  in  it  the  power  of 
contraction ;  it  thereby  narrows  the  space 
within  and  pushes  out  the  mature  foetus. 
The  period  of  gestation  is  very  different  in 
different  animals,  but  in  each  particular 
species  it  is  fixed  with  much  precision.  In 
the  womb  the  corporeal  frame  of  man  com- 
mences existence  as  an  embryo ;  after 
further  development,  appears  as  a  foetus ;  then 
as  an  immature,  and  finally  a  mature,  child. 
With  its  growth  and  increasing  size  the  mem- 
branes which  envelop  it  enlarge,  the  womb  also 
expanding  to  give  room  for  it.  At  the  end  of 
the  39th  or  the  beginning  of  the  40th  week 
the  child  has  reached  its  perfect  state  and  is 
capable  of  living  separate  from  the  mother; 
hence  follows  in  course  its  separation  from  her, 
that  is,  the  birth. 

Contractions  of  the  womb  gradually  come  on, 
which  are  called,  from  the  painful  sensations 
accompanying  them,  labor-pains.  These  are  of 
two  kinds:  first,  the  preliminary  pangs,  which 
begin  the  labor,  do  not  last  long,  are  not  violent, 
and  produce  the  feeling  of  a  disagreeable  strain- 
ing or  pressure.  When  the  pregnant  female  is 
attacked  by  these  she  is  often  unable  to  move 
from  her  place  till  the  pang  is  over,  after  which 


BIRTH  RATE  — BIRTHWOKT 


she  is  often  free  from  pain  for  some  hours. 
Then  follow  the  true  labor-pains;  these  always 
last  longer,  return  sooner,  and  are  more  violent. 
The  contractions  of  the  womb  take  place  in 
the  same  order  as  the  enlargement  had  previously 
done,  the  upper  part  of  it  first  contracting,  while 
the  mouth  of  the  womb  enlarges  and  grows  thin, 
and  the  vagina  becomes  loose  and  distensible. 
By  this  means  the  foetus,  as  the  space  within  the 
womb  is  gradually  narrowed,  descends  with  a 
turning  motion  toward  the  opening;  the  fluid 
contained  in  the  membranes  enveloping  the  foe- 
tus, as  the  part  making  the  greatest  resistance, 
is  forced  out,  and  forms  a  bladder,  which  con- 
tributes much  to  the  gradual  enlargement  of 
the  opening  of  the  womb.  It  is  therefore  inju- 
rious to  delivery  if  hasty  or  ignorant  midwives 
break  the  membranes  too  soon.  By  repeated 
and  violent  throes  the  membranes  at  length  burst 
and  discharge  their  contents,  and  some  time 
after  the  head  of  the  child  appears.  As  the 
skull-bones  have  not  yet  acquired  their  perfect 
form  and  substance,  but  are  attached  at  the 
crown  of  the  head  only  by  a  strong  membrane, 
and  may  be  brought  nearer  together,  the  head, 
by  the  pressure  which  it  undergoes,  may  be 
somewhat  diminished  in  size  and  squeezed  into 
a  more  oblong  form,  so  as  to  pass  through  the 
opening  of  the  matrix  and  the  pelvis  in  which 
it  is  contained,  and.  finally,  through  the  exter- 
nal parts  of  generation ;  and  when  this  is  done, 
the  rest  of  the  body   soon  follows. 

The  act  of  birth  or  delivery  is  accordingly,  in 
general,  not  an  unnatural,  dangerous,  and  dis- 
eased state  of  the  system,  as  many  timid  women 
imagine.  It  is  a  natural  process  of  development, 
which  is  no  more  a  disease  than  the  cutting 
of  the  teeth  or  the  coming  on  of  puberty, 
although,  like  them,  it  may  give  rise  to  impor- 
tant changes  in  the  body  and  to  various  dis- 
eases. It  is  true  that  the  process  of  child-birth 
requires  a  violent  exertion  of  nature,  but  this 
is  facilitated  by  many  preparatives  and  helps 
adapted  to  the  purpose.  If  the  birth  succeeds 
in  the  way  described,  it  is  called  a  natural  birth. 
For  this  it  is  requisite  that  the  pelvis  should 
be  properly  formed,  and  that  the  opening  should 
permit  a  free  passage  to  the  perfect  fcetus ;  that 
the  growth  and  size  of  the  foetus  should  be 
proportioned  to  the  pelvis,  especially  that  the 
head  should  have  the  size  designed  by  nature, 
proportioned  to  the  diameter  of  the  pelvis ; 
also,  that  there  should  be  a  proper  situation  of 
the  womb,  in  regard  to  the  axis  of  the  pelvis, 
and  a  proper  position  of  the  fcetus,  namely,  the 
head  down,  the  back  of  the  head  in  front  and 
toward  the  opening  of  the  womb,  so  as  to  appear 
first  at  birth :  and,  finally,  that  the  external 
parts  of  generation  should  be  in  a  natural  state. 
An  easy  birth  takes  place  without  any  exces- 
sive strainings  and  in  due  season.  A  diflficult 
birth  proceeds  naturally,  but  is  joined  with 
great  efforts  and  pangs,  and  occupies  a  long 
time  —  over  six  or  eight  hours.  The  cause  of  it 
is  sometimes  the  stiffness  of  the  fibres  of  the 
mother,  her  advanced  years,  the  disproportion- 
ate size  of  the  child's  head,  and  various  other 
causes.  Nature,  however,  finishes  even  these 
births ;  and  women  in  labor  ought  not  to  be 
immediately  dejected  and  impatient  on  account 
of  these  difficulties.  An  unnatural  (or  properly, 
an  irregular)  birth  is  one  in  which  one  or  more 
of  the  above-mentioned  requisites  to  a  natural 
birth    are    wanting.     An   artificial    birth    is   that 


which  is  accomplished  by  the  help  of  art,  with 
instruments  or  the  hands  of  the  attendant. 
Premature  birth  is  one  which  happens  some 
weeks  before  the  usual  time,  namely,  after  the 
seventh  and  be.ore  the  end  of  the  ninth  month. 
Though  nature  has  assigned  the  period  of  40- 
weeks  for  the  full  maturing  of  the  foetus,  it 
sometimes  attains,  some  weeks  before  this  period 
has  elapsed,  such  a  growth  that  it  may  be  pre- 
served alive,  in  some  cases,  after  its  separation 
from  the  mother.  That  it  has  not  reached  its 
mature  state  is  determined  by  various  indica- 
tions. Such  a  child,  for  instance,  does  not 
cry  like  full-grov.^n  infants,  but  only  utters  a 
faint  sound,  sleeps  constantly,  and  must  be  kept 
constantly  warm,  otherwise  its  hands  and  feet 
immediately  become  chilled.  Besides  this,  in  a 
premature  child,  more  or  less,  according  as  it  is 
more  or  less  premature,  the  skin  over  the  whole 
body  is  red,  often  indeed  blue,  covered  with  a 
fine,  long,  woolly  hair,  especially  on  the  sides 
of  the  face,  and  on  the  back ;  the  fontanel  of  the 
head  is  large,  the  skull-bones  easily  moved ;  the 
face  looks  old  and  wrinkled ;  the  eyes  are  gen- 
erally closed ;  the  nails  on  the  fingers  and  toes 
short,  tender,  and  soft,  hardly  a  line  in  length ; 
the  weight  of  such  a  child  is  under  six,  often 
under  five  pounds.  The  birth  is  called  untimely 
when  the  foetus  is  separated  from  the  womb  be- 
fore the  seventh  month.  Such  children  can  be 
rarely  kept  alive ;  there  are  instances,  however, 
of  five  months'  children  living.  Some  writers 
have  contended  that  a  seven  months'  child  is 
more  likely  to  live  than  one  born  a  month  later. 

Late  birth  is  a  birth  after  the  usual  period  of 
40  weeks.  As  this  reckoning  of  the  time  from 
pregnancy  to  birth  is  founded  for  the  most  part 
solely  on  the  evidence  of  the  mother,  there  is 
much  room  for  mistake  or  deception.  The  ques- 
tion is  one  of  much  interest  in  medical  juris- 
prudence, as  the  inquiry  often  arises  whether 
a  child  born  more  than  40  weeks  after  the  death 
of  the  reputed  father  is  to  be  considered  legiti- 
mate or  not.  The  importance  of  the  question 
and  the  uncertainty  of  the  proof  have  occasioned 
a  great  variety  of  opinions  among  medical 
writers.  Most  of  them  doubt  the  truth  of  the 
mother's  assertions  about  such  a  delayed  birth, 
and  give,  as  their  reason,  that  nature  confines 
herself  to  the  fixed  period  of  pregnancy;  that 
grief,  sickness,  etc.,  cannot  hinder  the  growth 
of  the  foetus,  etc.  Others  maintain,  on  the  con- 
trary, that  nature  binds  herself  to  no  fixed 
rules ;  that  various  causes  may  delay  the  growth 
of  the  child,  etc. 

Abortion  and  miscarriage  take  place  when  a 
foetus  is  brought  forth  so  immature  that_  it 
cannot  live.  They  happen  from  the  beginning 
of  pregnancy  to  the  seventh  month,  but  most 
frequently  in  the  third  month.  The  occasions, 
especially  in  those  of  a  susceptible  or  sanguine 
temperament,  are  violent  shocks  of  body  or  mind 
by  blows,  falling,  dancing,  cramp,  passion,  etc. 

Birth  Rate.     See  Vital  Statistics. 

Birthmark.     See  N.^vus. 

Birthright,  any  right  or  privilege  to  which 
a  person  is  entitled  by  birth,  such  as  an  estate 
descendible  by  law  to  an  heir,  or  civil  liberty 
under  a  free  constitution.     See  Primogeniture. 


Birthroot. 
Birthwort. 


See  Trillium. 
See  Aristolochia 


BIRU  — BISCHOFF 


Biru,  the  name  of  a  warlike  chief  of  South 
America  who  flourished  in  the  i6th  century. 
During  an  exploring  expedition  of  Caspar  de 
Morales  in  1515  the  Spaniards  encountered  a 
chief  called  Biru,  by  whom  they  were  repulsed. 
His  territory  extended  on  both  sides  of  the  river 
Biru  or  Piru.  All  the  country  south  of  the 
Gulf  of  Panama  was  soon  characterized  as  the 
Biru  country.  In  1526  this  name  was  given  to 
the  empire  of  the  Incas,  now  known  as  Peru. 

Bisbee,  Arizona,  town  of  Cochise  County, 
the  terminus  of  a  branch  line  of  the  El  Paso  and 
Southwestern  R.R.,  which  connects  with  the 
Soutliern  Pacific  R.R.  at  Benson.  Bisbee  lies  in 
a  canon  of  the  ]\Iule  Pass  Alountain,  about  30 
miles  south  of  Tombstone,  the  county  capital, 
and  is  a  busy  copper  mining  and  smelting  centre. 
Pop.  3,000. 

Bis' cay,  (Spanish  Vizcay.\,  veth-ca-ya),  also 
called  Bilbao,  a  province  of  Spain,  forming  one 
of  the  three  Basque  provinces  (Provincias  Vas- 
congadas),  the  other  two  being  Alava  and  Gui- 
puzcoa.  It  lies  near  the  northeast  corner  of 
Spain,  between  the  Bay  of  Biscay  and  the  pro- 
vinces of  Santander,  Burgos.  Alava,  and 
Guipuzcoa.  The  area  is  850  square  miles ;  the 
population  183,098.  The  surface  is  generally 
mountainous ;  the  principal  river  is  the  Nervion 
or  Ibaizabal.  In  point  of  soil  and  natural  pro- 
ductions Biscay  is  one  of  the  least  favored 
provinces  of  Spain ;  but  the  industry  of  the  in- 
habitants has  been  successfully  exerted  in  con- 
verting naturally  barren  tracts  into  fruitful  fields 
and  verdant  pastures.  The  chief  crops  are  maize 
and  barley.  Many  fine  fruits,  especially  nec- 
tarines, are  raised ;  walnuts  and  chestnuts  every- 
where abound  and  form  a  considerable  export 
to  England  and  Germany.  The  cattle  are  of  a 
small  and  inferior  breed ;  and  the  rearing  of 
sheep  for  wool  is  rendered  difficult  by  the  brush- 
wood which  covers  great  part  of  the  moun- 
tain districts  and  tears  and  destroys  the  fleece. 
Fish  abound  along  the  coast,  and  give  occupa- 
tion to  a  great  number  of  fishing-boats.  The 
most  important  mineral  is  iron,  which  is  found 
of  excellent  quality  throughout  the  province, 
and  is  extensively  worked.  Lead,  copper,  and 
zinc  also  occur.  The  inhabitants  of  Biscay,  who 
are  called  Basques,  are  brave,  active,  and  in- 
dustrious. The  capital  of  Biscay  is  Bilbao ;  of 
Guipuzcoa,  St.  Sebastian ;  of  Alava,  Vittoria ; 
of  Navarre,  Pampeluna. 

Biscay,  Bay  of,  that  portion  of  the  Atlan- 
tic Ocean  which  sweeps  in  along  the  northern 
shores  of  the  Spanish  Peninsula  in  an  almost 
straight  line  from  Cape  Ortegal  to  St.  Jean  de 
Luz,  at  the  western  foot  of  the  Pyrenees,  and 
thence  curves  north  along  the  western  shores 
of  France  to  the  island  of  Ushant.  Its  extreme 
width  is  about  400  miles,  and  its  length  much 
about  the  same.  The  depth  of  water  varies  from 
20  to  200  fathoms,  being  greatest  along  the 
northern  shores  of  Spain.  The  whole  of  the 
southern  coast  is  bold  and  rocky,  and  great  parts 
of  the  French  shores  are  low  and  sandy.  The 
bay  receives  numerous  unimportant  streams  from 
the  mountains  of  Spain,  and.  through  the  rivers 
Loire.  Charente.  Gironde.  and  Adour.  the  wa- 
ters of  half  the  surface  of  France.  Its  chief 
ports  are  Santander.  Bilbao,  and  San  Sebastian, 
in   Spain ;    and   Bayonne,   Bordeaux,    Rochefort, 


La  Rochelle,  and  Nantes,  in  France.  Navi- 
gation of  the  bay  is  proverbially  trying  to  inex- 
perienced voyagers,  and  is  frequently  rendered 
dangerous  by  the  prevalence  of  strong  winds, 
especially  westerly  ones.  Rennel  Current  sweeps 
in  from  the  ocean  round  the  northern  coast 
of  Spain. 

Bisceglie,  be-shal-ya,  Italy,  a  seaport  town 
in  the  province  of  Bari,  13  miles  east-southeast 
of  Barletta,  on  a  rock  on  the  western  shore  of 
the  Adriatic,  surrounded  by  walls,  and  in  general 
badly  built.  It  has  a  cathedral,  two  collegiate 
and  several  other  churches,  convents  for  both 
sexes,  a  seminary,  and  hospital.  The  port  ad- 
mits vessels  of  small  burden  only.  The  town 
being  almost  destitute  of  water,  rain  is  col- 
lected in  large  cisterns  cut  in  the  solid  rock. 
The  neighborhood  produces  good  wine.  Impor- 
tant fairs  are  held  here  twice  a  year.  Pop. 
(1901)  30.855. 

Bischof,  Karl  Gustav  Christoph,  bish'of, 
karl  goo'stav  kris'tof,  German  geologist  and 
chemist:  b.  Nuremberg,  18  Jan.  1792;  d. 
Bonn,  30  Nov.  1870.  He  studied  in  Erlangen ; 
became  professor  of  chemistry  and  technolog;. 
there  in  1819,  and  professor  of  chemistry  and 
mineralogy  at  Bonn  in  1822.  He  devoted  him- 
self especially  to  geological  research  and  ad- 
vanced some  entirely  new  opinions  in  regard 
to  the  formation  of  mountain  ranges.  In  con 
nection  with  his  work  in  this  line  he  wrot  i 
'The  Volcanic  ^Mineral  Springs  of  France  and 
Germany*  ;  *  Concerning  Glaciers  and  their  Re- 
lation to  the  Elevation  of  the  Alps'  ;  and  'Con- 
cerning the  Formation  of  Quartz  and  ^letal 
Ores.-*  His  paper  on  internal  terrestrial  heat 
received  a  prize  from  the  Scientific  Society  of 
Holland;  and  he  also  published  in  English  'Re- 
searches on  the  Internal  Heat  of  the  Globe.* 
His  greatest  work  'Text-book  of  Chemical  and 
Physical  Geolog>-*  is  an  important  contribu- 
tion to  the  development  of  that  phase  of  geo- 
logical research. 

Bischoff,  Joseph  Eduard  Konrad,  bish'of, 
yo'sef  ed'oo-ard  kon'rad,  German  novelist:  b. 
Niedergailbach,  9  Aug  1828.  He  was  fitted  for 
the  priesthood,  studying  at  the  Catholic  Semi- 
nary at  Munich,  and  was  ordained  a  priest,  but 
later  gave  his  whole  attention  to  literary  work 
and  wrote  a  number  of  novels  in  which  he 
attacks  the  Protestant  Reformation  and  the 
modern  movement  in  literature  and  science. 
Among  his  works  are  'Historical  Novels  con- 
cerning Frederick  II.  and  his  Time*  ;  'Gustavus 
Adolphus'  ;  'The  Free  Thinkers'  ;  'The  Social 
Democrats  and  their  Fathers'  :  and  'Otto  the 
Great.' 

Bischoff,  Theodor  Ludwig  Wilhelm,  ta'o- 
dor  lood'vig  vIl'lK-lm.  bish'of.  German  physi- 
ologist: b.  Hanover,  28  Oct.  1807;  d.  Munich, 
5  Dec.  1882.  He  was  educated  at  Bonn :  was 
lecturer  in  the  university  there  in  1833 :  and 
professor  at  Heidelberg  in  1836;  in  1844  he 
went  to  the  university  at  Giessen  ;  and  in  1855  to 
Munich,  retiring  from  active  work  in  1878.  His 
chief  work  was  a  series  of  books  on  the  history 
of  the  development  of  man  and  some  of  the 
higher  animals,  and  his  'Evidence  of  the  Periodic 
Ripening  and  Detachment  of  the  Ova.  independ- 
ently of  Generation  in  Man  and  the  Mammals.* 
He  also  established  the  presence  of  carbonic  acid 
and  oxygen  in  the  blood,  and  studied  the  differ- 
ence between  man  and  the  anthropoid  apes. 


BISCHOFF  —  BISHOP 


Bischoff,  Mount,  Tasmania,  a  town  60 
miles  west  of  Launceston,  which  owes  its  exist- 
ence to  the  discovery  here  in  1872,  by  James 
Smith,  of  some  of  the  richest  tin  mines  in  the 
world.  Between  1884-6  more  than  20,000  tons 
of  tin  ore  had  been  mined.  The  yield  of  pure 
tin  from  the  ore  is  from  70  to  80  per  cent. 
There  is  railwaj'  communication  with  Emu 
Bay,   45  miles  distant. 

Biscuit,  a  thin  cake,  baked  until  crisp  and 
■dry.  In  this  shape  it  is  known  in  the  United 
States  as  a  cracker;  the  name  biscuit  being 
applied  to  a  soft  cake  made  from  dough  raised 
with  yeast.  Plain  biscuits  are  more  nutritious 
than  an  equal  weight  of  bread,  but  owing  to 
their  hardness  and  dryness,  they  should  be  more 
thorough]}'  masticated  to  insure  their  easy  diges- 
tion. When  exposed  to  moisture,  biscuits  are 
apt  to  lose  their  brittleness  and  become  moldy, 
hence  it  is  necessary  to  keep  them  in  a  dry 
atmosphere.  Digestive  biscuits  consist  almost 
entirely  of  bran.  Charcoal  biscuits  contain 
about  10  per  cent  of  powdered  vegetable  char- 
coal. Meat  biscuits,  which  are  very  nutritious, 
contain  either  extract  of  meat,  or  lean  meat 
which  has  been  dried  and  ground  to  a  fine 
powder. 

In  pottery,  articles  molded  and  baked  in 
an  oven,  preparatory  to  the  glazing  and  burn- 
ing. In  the  biscuit  form,  pottery  is  bibulous, 
but  the  glaze  sinks  into  the  pores  and  fuses 
in  the  kiln,  forming  a  vitreous  coating  to  the 
ware. 

Bisharrin,  be-sha-ren',  a  tribe  of  northeast 
Africa,  forming  the  northern  division  of  the 
Beja,  said  to  be  the  Kushites  of  the  Bible.  They 
live  between  the  Red  Sea  and  the  Nile  and 
"between  Egypt  and  Abyssinia ;  they  are  nomadic 
in  habit  and  nominally  Mohammedans.  They 
are  of  Caucasian  race  and  speak  a  well-devel- 
oped Hamitic  language. 

Bishop,  Anna  Riviera,  English  singer:  b. 
London,  1814 ;  d.  New  York,  18  March  1884. 
She  married  Sir  Henry  Rowley  Bishop,  the  com- 
poser, in  1831,  and  was  married  a  second  time 
to  Mr.  Schultz  of  New  York  in  1858.  She  made 
her  first  appearance  as  a  concert  singer  in  1837 ; 
made  a  tour  of  the  Continent  in  1839:  and  1847 
sang  in  United  States,  Canada,  and  Alexico, 
where  she  was  very  popular.  She  lost  her  voice 
in  186S. 

Bishop,  Sir  Henry  Rowley,  English  musi- 
cal composer:  b.  London,  18  Nov.  1786;  d.  30 
April  1855.  He  was  trained  to  his  profession 
under  Signer  Bianchi,  composer  to  the  London 
Opera  House.  In  1809  his  first  important  opera, 
the  < Circassian  Bride,*  was  produced  at  Drury 
Lane  with  great  success ;  but  the  following  even- 
ing, the  theatre,  with  the  score  of  Bishop's 
opera,  was  consumed  by  fire.  Numerous  operas 
and  other  musical  pieces  now  followed  of  his 
composition,  and  from  this  period  to  1826 
upward  of  70  works  were  produced  by  him. 
Among  others  may  be  mentioned  the  music  of 
^Guy  Mannering*  :  <The  Slave'  ;  ^The  Miller 
and  His  Men*  ;  "^Maid  Marian*  ;  ^The  Virgin 
of  the  Sun,*  and  adaptations  of  *^The  Barber 
of  Seville*  and  the  ^Marriage  of  Figaro.*  From 
1810  to  1824  he  acted  as  musical  composer  and 
director  to  Covent  Garden  Theatre.  He  also 
arranged  several  volumes  of  the  'National  Melo- 
dies,* and  completed  the  arrangement  of  the 
music  for  Moore's  "Irish  Melodies,*  commenced 


by  Sir  John  Stevenson.  In  1826  Bishop  produced 
an  opera  called  *Aladdin,*  which  was  not  suc- 
cessful. He  was  elected  Reid  professor  of  music 
in  Edinburgh  University  in  1841,  was  knighted 
in  1842.  and  in  1848  became  professor  of  music 
in  the  Universit}'  of  Oxford.  Some  of  his  work 
is  the  most  popular  of  all  music  among  English- 
speaking  people,  particularly  his  setting  of  John 
Howard  Payne's  "Home  Sweet  Home,'*  and 
"When  the  Bloom  is  on  the  Rye.** 

Bishop,  Isabella  (Bird),  English  author  and 
traveler:  b.  Boroughbridge  Hall,  Yorkshire,  15 
Oct.  1832;  d.  7  Oct.  1904.  She  began  to 
travel  at  the  age  of  22  and  made  her  first 
trip  abroad  in  1855,  when  she  visited  Prince 
Edward's  Island  and  the  United  States,  and 
afterward  circumnavigated  the  globe  three 
times.  In  recent  years  she  spent  much  time 
in  Japan,  and  in  1894-5  made  her  third 
trip  to  Korea.  She  was  in  Seoul  when  the 
war  broke  out,  1894,  and  was  the  first  per- 
son whose  war  correspondence  reached  London. 
She  was  a  Fellow  of  the  Royal  Geographical 
Society.  In  1892  she  was  elected  the  first  lady 
Fellow  of  the  Royal  Geographical  Society  and  in 
1901  rode  1,000  miles  in  Morocco.  She  was 
married  in  1881  to  John  Bishop,  who  died  five 
years  later.  Her  publications  include:  'The 
English  Woman  in  America*  (1856)  ;  'Six 
I^Ionths  in  the  Sandwich  Islands*  (1873)  ;  *The 
Hawaiian  Archipelago*  (1875)  ;  'A  Lady's  Life 
in  the  Rocky  Alountains*  (1874)  ;  'Unbeaten 
Tracks  in  Japan*  (1880)  ;  'Journeys  in  Persia 
and  Kurdistan*  (1892)  ;  'Among  the  Tibetans* 
(1894)  ;  'Korea  and  Her  Neighbors*  (1898)  ; 
'The  Yangtze  Valley  and  Beyond*  (1899)  ; 
'Pictures  from  China*  (1900),  the  three  last- 
named  works  being  the  result  of  three  years 
of  Asiatic  travel. 

Bishop,  John  Remsen,  American  educator: 
b.  New  Brunswick,  N.  J.,  17  Sept.  i860.  He 
was  graduated  at  Harvard  University  in  1882; 
taught  Greek  and  English  at  St.  Paul's  School, 
Concord,  N.  H.,  in  1882-3 :  was  principal  of 
the  Princeton  Preparatory  School  in  1884-7;  in- 
structor of  Greek  and  Latin  at  Hughes  High 
School,  Cincinnati,  in  1888-95  •  principal  of  the 
Walnut  Hills  High  School,  Cincinnati,  1895- 
1904;  and  since  1904  principal  of  the  Eastern 
High  School,  Detroit.  He  is  the  author  of 
'Virgil's  Georgics  Edited  for  Sight  Reading,* 
etc.;  editor  of  'Cicero's  Orations*;  an  active 
promoter  of  local  and  national  educational  or- 
ganizations ;  and  a  member  of  the  American 
Social  Science  Association. 

Bishop,  Louis  Faugeres,  American  physi- 
cian:  b.  New  Brunswick,  N.  J.,  14  March  1864. 
He  graduated  at  Rutgers  College  in  1885,  and  at 
the  New  York  College  of  Physicians  and  Sur- 
geons in  1889.  He  was  resident  physician  of 
St.  Luke's  Hospital,  New  York,  in  1889-92,  and 
secretary  of  the  New  York  Academy  of  Medi- 
cine and  chairman  of  its  Section  of  Aledicine  in 
1900.  His  publications  include  'Theory  and 
Treatment  of  Rheumatism*  :  'Diagnosis  and 
.Treatment  of  Gout*  ;  'Important  Points  in 
the  Treatment  of  Pneumonia,*  etc. 

Bishop,  Seth  Scott,  American  physician: 
b.  Fond  du  Lac,  Wis.,  7  Feb.  1852.  He  gradu- 
ated at  the  Northwestern  University  in  1876. 
He  began  practice  in  Chicago,  and  in  1900  was 
profes.sor  of  otology  in  the  Chicago  Post- 
Graduate  Medical  School  and  Hospital;  Profes- 


BISHOP 


sor  of  diseases  of  the  nose,  throat,  and  ear  in 
the  Illinois  Medical  College ;  and  surgeon  to  the 
Illinois  Hospital  and  the  Post-Graduate  Hospi- 
tal. He  was  also  consulting  surgeon  to  the 
Mary  Thompson  Hospital,  the  Illinois  Masonic 
Orphan's  Home  in  Chicago,  and  the  Silver  Cross 
Hospital  in  Joliet.  He  was  a  member  of  the 
International  Medical  Congress,  the  Pan- 
American  Medical  Congress,  the  American 
Medical  Association,  etc.  He  has  written  <Dis- 
tases  of  the  Ear,  Nose,  and  Throat,  and  Their 
Accessory  Cavities,^  besides  many  monographs, 
and  is  one  of  the  editors  of  ^The  Laryngoscope.^ 

Bishop,  William  Henry,  American  novel- 
ist :  b.  Hartford,  Conn.,  7  Jan.  1847.  He  was 
graduated  at  Yale  in  1867,  and  became  pro- 
fessor of  Spanish  language  and  literature  in  its 
scientific  school  (Sheffield),  resigning  in  Feb- 
ruary 1902  to  spend  several  years  in  travel  in 
Spain  and  elsewhere.  He  became  U.  S.  consul  at 
Genoa,  Italy,  1903,  and  was  transferred  to  Paler- 
mo, I  Jan.  1905.  He  has  written  several  novels, 
including  <Detmold>  (1879)  ;  <Tlie  House  of  a 
Merchant  Prince'  (1882);  *A  Pound  of  Cure  • 
A  Story  of  Monte  Carlo'  (1894)  ;  *^Fish  and 
Men  in  the  Maine  Islands*  ;  *A  House  Hunter 
in  Europe';  'Writins:  to  Rosina,'  a  story;  ^The 
Golden  Justice'  ;  'Choy  Susan  and  Other  Sto- 
ries' ;  n'he  Brown-Stone  Boy  and  Other  Queer 
People,'  and  many  similar  works  ;  also  a  book  of 
travel,  'Old  Mexico  and  Her  Lost  Provinces.' 
Bishop-Auckland,  England,  a  market 
town,  in  the  county  and  nine  miles  southwest 
from  the  city  of  Durham,  is  situated  on  an  emi- 
nence at  the  confluence  of  the  Gaunless  with 
the  Wear,  and  has  much  improved  in  recent 
times.  Near  it  is  Auckland  Palace,  the  episco- 
pal residence,  and  among  its  buildings  are  a  free 
grammar  school  (founded  1605),  St.  Anne 
Chapel,  Edgar  Memorial  Hall,  Lightfoot  Church 
Institute,  and  the  Temperance  Hall.  It  is 
almost  wholly  supported  by  the  coal  traffic. 
Pop.  (1901)  i  1.966. 

Bishop  (Sax.  biscop,  from  Gr.  episcopos, 
a  superintendent),  in  the  Greek,  Latin,  and  An- 
glican churches,  the  title  given  to  those  who  are 
of  the  highest  order  of  the  priesthood,  to  the 
successors  of  the  12  apostles,  in  distinction  from 
the  priests  who  are  the  successors  of  the  72 
disciples :  in  the  Methodist  Episcopal  and  Mora- 
vian churches,  and  in  the  Protestant  churches 
of  Sweden,  Norway,  and  Denmark,  it  is  the  title 
given  to  the  highest  officers  in  the  ministry,  who 
are  not,  however,  regarded  as  a  distinct  order ; 
in  Germany  the  office  is  hardly  more  than  titu- 
lar, and  is  conferred  upon  princes  as  well  as 
ecclesiastics.  The  name  was  borrowed  by  the 
first  Christians  from  the  languages  of  Greece 
and  Rome,  in  which  it  designated  a  civil  magis- 
trate. Thus,  Cicero  was  at  one  time  episcopus 
orce  campanicc.  In  the  New  Testament,  the 
words  bishop  and  presbyter,  or  prie.st,  are  some- 
times interchanged,  as  in  Acts  xx.  17,  28,  and 
St.  John,  in  his  last  two  epistles,  adopts  the 
title  of  priest.  Yet.  as  maintained  by  Roman 
Catholic  writers,  it  does  not  follow  because 
the  names  priest  and  bishop  were  then  applied 
indistinctly,  that  there  existed  no  distinction  be- 
tween the  episcopate  and  the  priesthood.  "There 
might  have  been  confusion  in  the  names.®  says 
St.  Thomas,  "but  not  in  the  character."  The 
identity  of  the  original  signification  of  the  words 
"presbyter"  and  "bishop"  was  acknowledged  by 

\'ol.    2—43. 


the  Christian  fathers  St.  Jerome  and  St.  Angus- 
tine  in  the  5th  century,  and  even  by  Pope  Urban 
II.  at  the  end  of  the  nth  century,  and  it  is  not 
denied  by  many  Episcopalians  even  at  the  pres- 
ent day.  By  the  Council  of  Trent,  however,  the 
doctrine  which  placed  presbyters  and  bishops 
originally  on  a  footing  of  perfect  equality  in 
the  early  Church  was  declared  as  a  heresy,  the 
object  of  which  was  to  deny  to  the  bishops 
of  the  Church  the  priority  of  rank  which  they 
claimed. 

Those  who  adhere  to  the  Episcopalian  form 
of   Church   government,   and   at   the    same   time 
admit    the    original    identity    of    presbyters    and 
bishops,   diff'er   from  the    Presbyterians   in  their 
theory  of  the  origin  of  the  episcopal  authority. 
The    Episcopalians    maintain    that    even    before 
the  words  had  a  separate  meaning  attached  to 
them  the.  distinction  between  bishops  and  subor- 
dinate pastors  existed  in  fact,  and  was  a  regu- 
lar  ecclesiastical    institution,   those    who   held   a 
peculiar   authority   over   others   being  appointed 
originally   by   the   apostles.     The    Presbyterians, 
on   the   other   hand,    believe  that   the   authority 
that    was    undoubtedly   conceded   to   certain    of 
the    "bishops"    or    "presbyters"    when    they    met 
to  consider  the  aff^airs  of  the  Church,  was  not 
due    to    any    formal    appointment,    but    merely 
to  the  mutual  agreement  of  the  assembled  pres- 
byters, and   that  this   distinction   was  no   more 
than  a  mark  of  respect  paid   to  some  member 
who  was  venerable  by  his  age  or  distinguished 
by  his  piety.     But,  whichever  of  these  two  the- 
ories may  be  correct,  there  is   no  doubt  of  the 
fact   that   a   comparatively   early   period   in    the 
history   of   the    Church   a   position   of   authority 
was   acquired    by   the   pastors    of  the   Christian 
communities  belonging  to  certain  places,  and  that 
these  came  to  be  distinguished  from  the  others 
by  the  name  of  bishops.     The  growth  of  this 
authority    was    favored    by   the    doctrine    which 
we  find  stated  in  the  beginning  of  the  2d  cen- 
tury with  regard  to  the  priestly  dignity  being  a 
peculiarly  divine  institution.    The  more  this  doc- 
trine  was   affirmed  the   higher  grew  the  claims 
of  the  bishops.     Ignatius  of  Antioch,  who  died 
about  115,  had  already  declared  every  bishop  to 
be  a  representative  of  Christ,  in  which  we  have 
the   statement  of  the   doctrine   of  the  apostolic 
succession,      that      is      to      say,      the      doctrine 
of   the   transmission  of  the   ministerial   author- 
ity   in    uninterrupted     succession    from    Christ 
to    the    apostles,    and    through    these    from    one 
bishop  to  another.     By  the   foundation  of  new 
churches  in  the  larger  towns   which  were  affil- 
iated  to  the  original   churches,   and  by  the  de- 
pendence of  the  presbyters  in  the  country  dis- 
tricts   upon    those    having    urban    charges,    the 
authority  of  the  bishops  came   to  be  gradually 
extended  over  greater  or  less  dioceses ;   and  at 
the  same  time  the  bishops  began  to  reserve  to 
themselves    peculiar    privileges.      As    the    early 
Church  advanced  and  increased  in  growth,  the 
offices  and  jurisdiction  of  the  bishops  developed 
correspondingly    and    by    the    2d    century    their 
duties    are    clearly    marked    off    from    the    sub- 
ordinate clergy. 

\\Tiile  this  then  was  the  position  of  the 
bishops  in  relation  to  the  presbj^ers,  they  at 
first  considered  themselves  as  standing  on  a 
footing  of  equality  in  relation  to  each  other. 
But  as  certain  of  the  presbyters  in  their  assem- 
blies had  acquired  a  priority  of  rank  over  the 
others,   it    gradually   came   about   in   the   same 


BISHOP 


way  that  the  bishops  of  the  chief  cities  (Jerusa- 
lem, Antioch,  Corinth,  Alexandria,  Constanti- 
nople, Rome)  obtained  a  similar  precedence 
among  the  bishops,  and  received  the  title  of  met- 
ropolitan bishops ;  and  ver^'  early  in  the  history 
of  Christianity  we  find  the  Bishop  of  Rome  claim- 
ing to  be  the  head  of  the  Church  as  the  true  suc- 
cessor of  Peter,  whom  Christ  himself  had  pro- 
nounced to  be  the  rock  on  which  he  would  build 
his  Church.  Roman  Catholic  writers  found 
this  supremacy  of  Peter  upon  the  evidence  of 
Scriptures,  upon  the  a  priori  argument  of  the 
necessity  of  one  supreme  head  both  in  the  matter 
of  government  and  the  preservation  of  the  integ- 
rity of  doctrine,  and  upon  the  testimony  of  early 
ecclesiastical  writers,  who  witness  to  the  tra- 
dition of  the  universal  supremacy  of  the  Roman 
see. 

After  the  transfer  of  the  capital  of  the  Ro- 
man empire  to  Constantinople,  this  city  rapidly 
rose  to  ecclesiastical  importance  and  became  a 
metropolitan  see.  Its  bishops  made  claim  to  be 
the  first  see  in  the  Christian  world  after  Rome 
on  account  of  the  imperial  dignity  of  the  city, 
but  this  assumption  was  stoutly  resisted  by  the 
apostolic  sees  of  the  East,  whom  Rome  always 
sustained  against  Constantinople's  claim.  After 
the  Greek  schism,  Constantinople  assumed  the 
primacy  of  the  Greek  Church.^ 

The  practice  of  solemnly  investing  bishops 
with  their  offices  dates  from  the  7th  century. 
Already  in  the  5th  century  the  Popes  had  begun 
to  send  to  the  newly  elected  metropolitan  bish- 
ops (now  called  archbishops)  the  pallium,  a 
kind  of  official  mantle  worn  by  archbishops,  as 
a  token  of  their  sanction  of  the  choice.  Two 
centuries  later  it  became  the  custom  to  conse- 
crate bishops  by  investing  them  with  the  ring 
and  crosier,  the  former  as  a  token  of  marriage 
with  the  Church,  the  latter  as  a  symbol  of  the 
pastoral  office.  Since  this  investiture  was  what 
gave  validity  to  the  election  of  the  bishops,  it 
became  the  source  of  long-continued  contests 
between  the  Popes  and  the  temporal  sovereigns 
in  the  Middle  Ages.  The  influential  position 
which  the  bishops  occupied  in  the  state  caused 
the  temporal  rulers  to  be  desirous  of  keeping  the 
right  of  investiture  in  their  own  hands,  while 
the  Popes  with  equal  determination  claimed 
the  right  for  themselves.  The  contest  was  most 
bitter  between  the  Popes  and  the  emperors  of 
the  Romans,  as  they  were  called.  It  began  in 
the  nth  century,  but  was  not  settled  till  1122, 
when  it  was  agreed  in  the  concordat  of  Worms 
between  Pope  Calixtus  II.  and  the  Emperor 
Henry  V.  that  the  election  of  bishops  should 
take  place  according  to  the  laws  of  the  Church, 
under  the  direction  of  the  emperor,  and  that 
the  spiritual  investiture  (with  ring  and  crosier) 
should  remain  in  the  hands  of  the  Pope,  while 
the  bishops  were  to  be  invested  with  the  tem- 
poral rights  of  their  office  by  the  emperor. 
This  is  still  the  fundamental  law  of  the  Roman 
Catholic  Church  with  regard  to  investiture.  The 
election  to  a  bishopric  is  for  the  most  part 
in  the  hands  of  the  dean  and  chapter  of  the 
cathedral  of  the  diocese;  but  in  some  cases 
it  is  a  right  of  the  territorial  sovereign.  In 
any  case  papal  confirmation  is  requisite  before 
the  appointment  is  complete.  Roman  Catholic 
bishops  in  England  are  appointed  exclusively  by 
the  Pope. 

When  the  system  of  the  ecclesiastical  rule  was 
matured,   the   almost    absolute   authority    which' 


they  exercised  over  the  clergy  of  their  dioceses ; 
their  intervention  in  the  secular  concerns  of  the 
governments,  to  which  they  soon  rendered  them- 
selves necessary  by  their  superior  information 
and  their  elevated  rank;  the  administration  of 
the  Church  revenues ;  and  their  extensive  eccle- 
siastical as  well  as  criminal  jurisdiction,  drew 
them  into  the  vortex  of  secular  affairs,  some- 
times at  spiritual  expense.  Still  it  continued  to 
be  the  bishop's  duty  to  teach  and  preach  in  his 
own  diocese,  to  watch  over  purity  of  doctrine, 
to  see  that  the  people  were  provided  with  the 
sacraments,  to  visit  the  churches  in  his  dio- 
cese, etc.  The  most  distinctive  functions  of 
their  spiritual  office  remained  as  they  still  are, 
the  ordination  of  the  clergy,  the  consecration  of 
other  bishops,  the  confirmation  of  youth,  the 
consecration  of  churches,  etc.  In  the  Middle 
Ages  they  attached  to  themselves  subordinate 
or  assistant  bishops  called  suffragans  or  coadju- 
tors, who  often  had  intrusted  to  them  the  per- 
formance of  those  functions  which  more  espe- 
cially concerned  the  Church.  The  episcopal 
office  being  such  as  we  have  described  it,  the 
nobility,  and  even  the  sons  of  princes  and  kings, 
strove  to  obtain  a  dignity  which  was  as  honor- 
able as  it  was  profitable,  and  was  not  deemed 
incompatible  with  festivities  and  luxurious  en- 
joyments. The  splendid  establishments  which 
they  were  able  to  maintain  from  the  large  reve- 
nues derived  chiefly  from  rich  donations  to  their 
churches  by  pious  devotees,  gave,  to  the  bishops 
of  Germany  particularly,  a  high  degree  of  dig- 
nity. They  became  princes  of  the  empire,  and 
their  influence  on  public  affairs  was  highly 
important. 

The  Reformation  lessened  the  number  of 
bishops,  and  though  in  some  of  the  Protestant 
countries  of  the  north  of  Europe  the  higher 
clergy  have  retained  the  title  of  bishop,  yet  they 
have  lost  the  greater  part  of  their  former  reve- 
nues and  privileges,  though  in  neither  of  these 
particulars  have  those  of  England  any  reason 
to  complain.  The  English  Church  has  left  to 
its  bishops  more  authority  than  the  rest,  and 
this  is  one  reason  why  it  bears  the  name  of 
episcopal.  To  them  belong  ordination,  confir- 
mation, the  consecration  of  churches,  the  licens- 
ing of  curates,  and  institution  to  benefices.  They 
receive  their  appointment  from  the  Crown.  In 
Prussia,  though  the  majority  of  the  population 
are  Protestants,  the  Roman  Catholic  bishops 
receive  an  annual  allowance  from  the  state. 
Some  bishops  in  the  Roman  Catholic  Church 
are  nominally  in  charge  of  dioceses  in  countries 
which  do  not  acknowledge  the  Christian  faith. 
The  dioceses  of  such  bishops  are  said  to  lie  in 
parfibits  infideUuni  (in  parts  belonging  to  un- 
believers), and  they  are  chiefly  those  that  were 
wrested  from  the  Christian  Church  by  the 
Mohammedans. 

The  appointment  of  bishops  was  one  of  the 
grievances  of  the  American  colonists ;  few 
things  more  exasperated  them  than  the  scheme 
of  appointing  and  sending  out  a  bishop  from 
England.  It  is  said  that  there  was  a  project 
of  making  Dean  Swift  bishop  of  the  American 
colonies.  In  1771.  at  the  instance  of  the  clergy 
of  New  York  and  New  Jersey,  the  plan  was 
again  urged.  The  clergy  of  Virginia  generally 
assented,  but  throughout  America  the  dissent- 
ers and  the  Episcopal  laity  opposed.  After  the 
Revolution  the  case  was  altered.  The  first  Epis- 
copal  bishop,   Samuel   Seabury,  of  Connecticut, 


BISHOP'S  BOOK—  BISMARCK-SCHONHAUSEN 


was  consecrated  by  Scotch  non-juring  bishops  in 
1784.  The  Methodists  began  to  use  the  term 
bishop  in  1787.  The  first  Roman  CathoHc  bishop, 
John  Carroll,  of  Baltimore,  was  consecrated  in 
1790.     See  Archbishop;  Apostolic  Succession. 

Bibliography. —  Baur,  'Christianity  and  the 
Church  in  the  First  Three  Centuries*  ;  Dollin- 
ger,  ^The  First  "Age  of  the  Church  *  ;  Hatch, 
'Organization  of  the  Early  Christian  Churches'  ; 
Lightfoot,  <St.  Paul's  Epistle  to  the  Philip- 
pians'  ;  Moberly,   < Ministerial  Priesthood.* 

Bishop's  Book,  a  handbook  of  instruction 
and  doctrine  compiled  in  1537  by  a  committee 
of  bishops  and  ministers  of  the  Anglican 
Church.  It  is  to  be  found  in  'Formularies  of  the 
Faith  Put  Forth  by  Authority  During  the  Reign 
of  Henry  VIII.> 

Bishops  Suffragan,  a  class  of  bishops  in 
England  appointed  by  the  Crown  to  take  the 
places  of  the  early  bishops  in  partibus,  who  were 
assistants  to  the  active  bishops  of  English  sees, 
and  who  held  their  warrant  at  the  pleasure  of 
the  bishops  to  whom  they  were  assigned.  They 
were  distinguished  from  suffragan  bishops  in 
the  Church  of  England,  as  every  regular  bishop 
was  a  suffragan  of  his  superior  or  metropolitan. 

Biskara,  bes'ka-ra,  or  Biskra,  Algeria,  a 
town  situated  at  the  southern  base  of  the  last 
spurs  of  the  Aures  Mountains,  about  120  miles 
south-southwest  of  Constantine.  The  railway 
from  Philippeville,  on  the  Mediterranean,  termi- 
nates here.  New  Biskara,  or  the  French  town, 
has  (1903)  9,076  inhabitants.  Old  Biskara 
has  a  population  of  about  75,000. 

Bismarck-Schonhausen,  Herbert  Nikolaus, 
Prince  von,  her'bert  nik'5-lows  bes'mark- 
shen'how-sen,  German  statesman :  b.  Berlin, 
28  Dec.  1849;  d.  Friedrichsruhe,  Prussia,  18 
Sept.  1904;  son  of  Otto  Eduard  Leopold 
Prince  von  Bismarck-Schonhausen.  He  served 
as  secretary  to  the  London  Embassy,  and  on 
his  father's  retirement  he  was  provisionally 
charged  with  the  foreign  affairs  of  the  em- 
pire. In  1886  he  was  secretary  of  state,  and  in 
January  1889,  the  emperor  conferred  on  him 
the  first  class  of  the  Order  of  the  Red  Eagle. 
When  his  father  resigned,  Herbert  withdrew 
from  the  diplomatic  service,  and  remained  upon 
his  estate  for  several  years.  In  1893  ^nd  1898 
he  was  a  member  of  the  Conservative  party  in 
the  Reichstag.  His  speeches  are  published- 
under  the  title.  'Politische  Reden>    (1899). 

Bismarck-Schonhausen,  Otto  Eduard  Leo- 
pold, Prince,  ot'to  ed'oo-ard  la'o-puld  bes'- 
mark-shen'how-sen:  b.  of  a  noble  family  of  the 
*Mark"  (Brandenburg),  at  Schonhausen.  i 
April.  1815 :  d.  30  July  i8q8.  He  studied  at 
Gottingen.  Berlin,  and  Greifswald :  entered  the 
army  and  became  lieutenant  in  the  Landwehr. 
After  a  brief  interval  devoted  to  his  estates  and 
to  the  ofiice  of  inspector  of  dikes,  he  became  in 
1846  a  member  of  the  provincial  diet  of  Saxony. 
And  later  he  entered  the  diet  of  Prussia,  when 
he  began  to  attract  attention  as  an  Ultra  Roy- 
alist. He  opposed  the  scheme  of  a  German 
empire  as  proposed  by  the  Frankfort  Parlia- 
ment of  1849.  His  diplomatic  career  began  in 
185 1,  when  he  was  appointed  Prussian  member 
of  the  resuscitated  German  diet  at  Frankfort. 
In  the  diet,  he  gave  open  expression  to  the  long- 
felt  discontent  with  the  predominance  of  Aus- 
tria,   and    demanded    equal    rights    for    Prussia. 


He  remained  at  Frankfort  till  1859,  when  he 
beheld  in  the  approach  of  the  Italian  war  an 
opportunity  of  freeing  Prussia  and  Germany 
from  the  dominance  of  Austria.  In  the  spring 
of  1862  King  William,  on  the  urgent  advice  of 
the  Prince  of  Hohenzollern,  transferred  Bis- 
marck as  ambassador  to  Paris,  in  order  to  give 
him  an  insight  into  the  politics  of  the  Tuileries. 
During  his  short  stay  at  Paris  Bismarck  visited 
London,  and  had  interviews  with  the  leading 
politicians  of  the  time,  including  Lord  Pal- 
merston  and  Disraeli.  In  the  autumn  Bis- 
marck was  recalled,  to  take  the  portfolio  of  the 
ministry  of  foreign  affairs,  and  the  presidency 
of  the  cabinet.  Not  being  able  to  pass  the 
reorganization  bill  and  the  budget,  he  closed 
the  chambers  (October  1862),  announcing  to 
the  deputies  that  the  king's  government  would 
be  obliged  to  do  without  their  sanction.  When 
the  "conflict  era,**  as  it  was  called,  approached 
a  crisis,  the  death  of  the  king  of  Denmark  re- 
opened the  Schleswig-Holstein  question,  and  ex- 
cited a  fever  of  national  German  feeling,  which 
Bismarck  was  adroit  enough  to  work  so  as  to 
aggrandize  Prussia  by  the  acquisition  of  the 
Elbe  duchies. 

The  action  of  France  in  regard  to  the  can- 
didature of  Prince  Leopold  of  Hohenzollern  for 
the  throne  of  Spain  gave  Bismarck  the  oppor- 
tunity of  carrying  into  action  the  intensified  feel- 
ing of  unity  among  Germans.  During  the  war 
of  1870-1,  Bismarck  was  the  spokesman  of  Ger- 
many; he  it  was  that  in  February  1871,  dictated 
the  terms  of  peace  to  France.  Having  been 
made  a  count  in  1866,  he  was  now  created  a 
prince  and  chancellor  of  the  German  empire. 
Following  the  Peace  of  Frankfort  (10  May 
1871),  the  sole  aim  of  Bismarck's  policy,  domes- 
tic and  foreign,  was  to  consolidate  the  young 
empire  of  his  own  creating.  Thus,  conceiving 
the  unity  of  the  nation  and  the  authority  of  its 
government  to  be  endangered  by  the  Church 
of  Rome,  and  its  doctrines  of  papal  infallibility, 
he  embarked  on  that  long  and  bitter  struggle 
with  the  Vatican,  called  the  Kulturkampf,  in 
the  course  of  which  the  Imperial  and  Prussian 
parliaments  passed  a  series  of  most  stringent 
measures  (Falk  or  May  laws)  against  the  Ro- 
man Catholic  hierarchy.  But  Bismarck  had 
underrated  the  resisting  power  of  the  Roman 
Catholic  Church,  and  motives  of  political  ex- 
pediency gradually  led  him  to  modify  or  repeal 
the  most  oppressive  of  the  anti-papal  edicts, 
leaving  the  Roman  Catholics  virtual  masters 
of  the  field.  Otherwise,  his  domestic  policy- 
was  marked,  among  other  things,  by  a  re- 
formed coinage,  a  codification  of  law,  a  na- 
tionalization of  the  Prussian  railways  (as  a  pre- 
liminary step  to  Imperial  State  lines),  fiscal 
reform  in  the  direction  of  making  the  empire 
self-supporting  (that  is,  independent  of  matric- 
ular  contributions  from  its  component  states), 
repeated  increase  of  the  army  and  the  regular 
voting  of  its  estimates  for  seven  years  at  a 
time  (military  septennate),  the  introduction  of 
a  protective  tariff  (1879),  and  the  attempt  to 
combat  social  democracy. 

In  1884  Bismarck  inaugurated  the  career  of 
Germany  as  a  colonizing  power,  a  new  depart- 
ure which  brought  him  into  sharp  but  temporary 
conflict  with  the  England  of  Gladstone.  For  the 
rest,  his  foreign  policy  mainly  aimed  at  isolating 
France  and  rendering  her  incapable  of  forming 
anti-German  alliances.     On  the  other  hand,  he 


BISMARCK  —  BISMUTH 


gradually  combined  the  central  powers  of 
Europe  into  a  peace  league,  aiming  at  counter- 
acting the  aggressiveness  of  Russia  and  France, 
separately  or  combined,  on  the  Danube  or  the 
Rhine.  The  nucleus  of  this  peace  league  was 
formed  in  1879  by  the  Austro-German  Treaty 
of  Alliance  (published  in  February  1888)  which 
Italy  formally  joined  in  1886,  and  which  en- 
titles Bismarck  to  be  called  the  "peacemaker'^ 
and  the  "peacekeeper"  of  Europe,  a  character 
he  first  publicly  acquired  when,  as  "honest 
broker'^  between  Austria  and  Russia,  he  pre- 
sided over  the  Berlin  Congress  in  1878.  The 
phrase,  "man  of  blood  and  iron,"  is  based  on 
the  Iron  Chancellor's  own  use  of  the  words  in 
a  speech  in  1862. 

Bismarck's  life  was  often  threatened,  and 
twice  actually  attempted  —  once  at  Berlin  in 
1866,  just  before  the  Bohemian  campaign,  by 
Ferdinand  Cohen  (or  Blind),  a  crazy  youth 
who  aimed  at  making  himself  the  instrument 
of  popular  dissatisfaction  with  Bismarck,  as 
the  champion  of  absolutism  and  the  fancied 
apostle  of  a  fratricidal  war;  and  again  in  1874 
at  Kissingen,  by  a  Roman  Catholic  tinsmith 
named  Kullmann,  who  was  unquestionably  a 
product  of  Ultramontane  fury  engendered  by 
the   May  laws. 

Emperor  William  died  9  March  1888.  The 
short  reign  of  Emperor  Frederick  followed  and 
then  William  II.  ascended  the  throne.  On  18 
March  1890  Bismarck  fell.  The  last  cause  of 
his  fall  has  not  been  told.  Many  explanations 
have  been  given  —  that  Bismarck  objected  to 
the  labor  rescripts,  that  he  opposed  the  aboli- 
tion of  the  laws  against  Socialists,  that  he  would 
not  tolerate  the  emperor's  direct  consultation 
with  the  other  ministers  or  the  parliamentary 
leaders.  After  the  war  with  Denmark,  King 
William  had  made  Bismarck  a  count.  After 
the  conquest  of  France,  Emperor  William  had 
named  him  prince.  Emperor  William  II.  gave 
him  the  title  of  Duke  of  Lauenburg.  When 
Bismarck's  81  st  birthday  was  celebrated  in  1896, 
there  was  talk  of  a  reconciliation  between  the 
prince  and  his  sovereign.  The  emperor  sent 
his  photograph  to  Bismarck,  the  latter  returned 
thanks,  and  little  by  little  the  way  was  paved 
for  a  meeting  between  the  two  men,  and  event- 
ually for  the  state  visit  which  the  emperor  paid 
to  Bismarck  at  Friedrichsruhe,  where  the  states- 
man died. 

Bibliography. —  Bismarck's  "^ Autobiography'  ; 
Busch,  < Bismarck:  Some  Secret  Pages  of  His 
History^  (2  vols.)  ;  Blum,  <^Das  Deutsche  Reich 
zur  Zeit  Bismarcks'  ;  Sybel,  'The  Founding  of 
the  German  Empire'  ;  Dawson,  'Bismarck  and 
State  Socialism'  ;  Munroe-Smith,  'Bismarck  and 
German  Unity'  ;  'Hoche,  'Bismarck  at  Home'  ; 
Hay  ward,  'Bismarck  in  Private  Life'  ;  and 
^Lives,'  by  Gorlach,  Jacks,  Lowe,  and  Stearns. 

Bismarck,  N.  Dak.,  city  and  capital  of 
the  State ;  and  county-seat  of  Burleigh  Coun- 
ty ;  on  the  Missouri  River,  and  the  Northern 
Pacific  R.R. ;  194  miles  west  of  Fargo.  It 
contains  the  State  capitol  (which  cost  over 
$500,000),  the  State  penitentiary,  court-house, 
city  hall,  opera  house,  a  State  hospital  for  the 
insane.  Saint  Alexius'  Hospital,  Saint  Paul's 
Seminary,  and  an  immense  river  warehouse. 
The  river  is  here  spanned  by  a  bridge  that  cost 
$1,500,000.  Bismarck  has  improved  waterworks, 
electric    lights,    several    flour    mills,    a    national 


bank,  the  State  Library,  and  an  assessed  prop- 
erty valuation  of  nearly  $2,000,000.  The  city  is  a 
supply  and  trade  centre  for  an  extensive  agri- 
cultural section,  and  is  also  a  base  of  supplies 
for  Indian  agencies  and  United  States  military 
posts.  Its  river  traffic  with  stations  above  and 
below  it,  is  very  heavy.  Pop.  (1890)  2,186; 
(1900)   3,319- 

Bismarck  Archipelago,  official  name 
given  by  Germany  to  New  Britain,  New  Ire- 
land, New  Hanover,  and  several  smaller  adjoin- 
ing islands  in  the  South  Pacific,  since  in  1884, 
when  they  became  a  German  dependency. 

Bismark,  Friedrich  Wilhelm,  fred'riH  vil'- 
helm,  bes'mark  (Count  von),  German  gen- 
eral :  b.  Windheim,  Westphalia,  28  July 
1783 ;  d.  18  July  i860.  In  1796  he  en- 
tered the  army  of  Hanover  as  an  ensign, 
and  in  1804  was  attached  to  the  Hano- 
verian legion  in  the  English  army.  The  result 
of  a  duel  forcing  him  to  leave  the  English  ser- 
vice, he  entered  that  of  the  king  of  Wiirtem- 
berg,  in  1807,  and  was  soon  after  appointed  cap- 
tain of  cavalry.  During  the  campaign  in 
Russia,  he  served  under  the  command  of  Ney, 
and  distinguished  himself  at  the  Beresina.  He 
was  made  a  prisoner  at  Leipsic,  but  returned 
to  Wiirtemberg  in  1813.  In  1815  he  received 
the  title  of  count ;  in  1819  he  was  appointed 
brigadier-general.  In  1828  Count  Bismark  in- 
troduced his  system  of  cavalry  tactics  into  the 
Danish  army,  and  was  soon  after  appKjinted 
commander-in-chief  of  the  cavalry  of  Wiirtem- 
berg. He  published  several  military  treatises, 
and  also  a  work  upon  Russia. 

Bismuth,  biz'muth,  a  metallic  element, 
first  accurately  described  by  Pott  in  1739.  It 
was  known  before  that  time,  but  had  been  previ- 
ously confounded  with  antimony  and  zinc,  which 
it  resembles  to  some  extent.  The  origin  of  the 
word  "bismuth"  is  not  known,  although  several 
highly  improbable  derivations  have  been  sug- 
gested. For  example,  miners  often  call  the 
metal  "wismuth,"  and  Mathesius  suggests  that 
this  word  comes  from  "Wisse,"  or  "Wiese," 
meaning  a  meadow ;  because,  he  says,  in  the 
mines  it  is  often  found  covered  with  incrusta- 
tions of  various  colors,  resembling  a  meadow 
covered  with  brilliant  flowers.  Bismuth  occurs 
in  nature  in  the  metallic  form,  and  several 
ores  of  it  are  also  known,  from  which  the  metal 
may  be  easily  obtained  by  roasting  and  smelt- 
ing. The  principal  supply  comes  from  Saxony, 
but  considerable  quantities  are  obtained  from 
Austria,  Norway,  Cornwall,  Spain.  California, 
New  South  Wales,  and  portions  of  South  Amer- 
ica. The  total  consumption  of  the  metal  prob- 
ably does  not  greatly  exceed  50  tons  per  annum, 
and  the  demand  for  it  is  so  variable  that  the 
price  has  ranged  all  the  way  from  50  cents  to 
$5  a  pound.  Bismuth  is  of  a  peculiar  light-red- 
dish color,  and  is  highly  crystalline,  and  so 
brittle  that  it  can  be  readily  pulverized.  It 
melts  at  510°  F.,  and  boils  in  the  vicinity  of 
2300°  F.  Its  specific  gravity  is  about  9.82  at 
54°  F.,  that  of  the  melted  metal,  just  above  the 
point  of  fusion,  being  10.06.  Its  specific  heat  is 
about  0.030  at  ordinary  temperatures,  and  0.036 
just  above  the  melting  point.  Its  coefficient  of 
expansion  is  about  0.000736  per  degree  Fahren- 
heit, its  conductivity  for  heat  is  about  one  fiftieth 
of  that  of  silver,  and  its  electrical  resistance  at 
32°  F.  is  1. 1 5  times  that  of  mercury  at  the  same 


< 

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;^ 


BISMUTHINITE  —  BISON 


temperature.  Bismuth  is  readily  recognized  by 
the  spectroscope,  as  it  shows  a  large  number  of 
characteristic  lines.  Its  chemical  symbol  is  Bi, 
and  its  atomic  weight  is  208.5  for  O  =  16,  and 
206.9  for  H  =  i.  It  has  a  tensile  strength  of 
6,400  pounds  per  square  inch.  According  to 
some  authorities,  the  specific  gravity  of  metallic 
bismuth  is  diminished  by  pressure;  but  Spring 
has  shown  that  this  is  not  the  case.  He  sub- 
jected a  sample  whose  specific  gravity  was 
9.804  to  a  pressure  of  20,000  atmospheres,  and 
found  that  the  specific  gravity  rose  to  9.856, 
while  a  second  compression  increased  it  still 
further,  to  9.863.  Bismuth  expands  upon  solidi- 
fying, but  Tribe  has  shown  that  this  expansion 
does  not  take  place  until  immediately  after  the 
congelation  of  the  metal.  Bismuth  is  the  most 
diamagnetic  substance  known,  a  sphere  of  it 
being  sensibly  repelled  by  a  magnet.  It  has 
marked  thermo-electric  properties  also,  on  ac- 
count of  which  it  is  much  used  in  laboratories 
in  the  construction  of  delicate  thermo-piles.  In 
the  arts,  metallic  bismuth  is  used  chiefly  in  the 
preparation  of  alloys.  By  adding  a  small 
amount  of  it  to  lead,  that  metal  may  be  hard- 
ened and  toughened.  An  alloy  consisting  of 
three  parts  of  lead  and  two  of  bismuth  has  10 
times  the  hardness  and  20  times  the  tenacity  of 
pure  lead.  The  alloys  of  bismuth  with  both 
tin  and  lead  are  extremely  fusible,  and  take 
fine  impressions  of  casts  and  molds.  An  alloy 
of  one  part  of  bismuth,  two  parts  of  tin,  and 
one  part  of  lead,  is  used  by  pewter  workers  as 
a  soft  solder,  and  by  soap-makers  for  molds. 
An  alloy  containing  five  parts  of  bismuth,  two 
of  tin,  and  three  of  lead  melts  at  199°  F.,  and 
is  somewhat  used  for  stereotyping,  and  for  the 
manufacture  of  metallic  writing  pencils.  Thorpe 
gives  the  following  proportions  for  the  better 
known  fusible  metals,  into  which  bismuth  enters  : 

Newton's:  Bismuth,  50;  lead,  31.25;  tin, 
18.75.    Melts  at  202°  F. 

Rose's:  Bismuth,  50;  lead,  28.10;  tin,  24.10. 
Melts  at  203°  F. 

D'Arcet's :  Bismuth,  50 ;  lead,  25 ;  tin,  25. 
Melts  at  201°  F.  (If  250  parts  of  mercury  are 
also  added,  the  resulting  alloy,  or  amalgam, 
melts  at  113°  F.) 

Wood's:  Bismuth,  50;  lead,  25;  tin,  12.50; 
cadmium,  12.50.     Melts  at  149°  F. 

Lipowitz's :  Bismuth,  50 ;  lead,  26.90 ;  tin, 
12.78;  cadmium,  10.40.     Melts  at  149°  F. 

Guthrie's  "eutectic^^  alloy:  Bismuth,  50; 
lead,  20.55;  tin,  21.10;  cadmium,  14.03.  Melting 
point  not  definitely  stated,  but  said  to  be  *'very 
low.» 

The  action  of  heat  upon  some  of  the  fore- 
going alloys  is  remarkable.  Thus,  Lipowitz's 
alloy,  which  solidifies  at  149°,  contracts  very 
rapidly  at  first,  as  it  cools  from  this  point.  As 
the  cooling  goes  on,  the  contraction  becomes 
slower  and  slower,  until  the  temperature  falls 
to  101.3°  F-  From  this  point  the  alloy  expands 
as  it  cools,  until  the  temperature  falls  to  about 
77°  F.,  after  which  it  again  contracts,  so  that 
at  32°  a  bar  of  the  alloy  has  the  same  length 
as  at  115°  F.  Alloys  of  bismuth  have  been 
used  for  making  fusible  plugs  for  steam  boil- 
ers, but  it  is  found  that  they  are  altered  in 
some  unknowm  way  by  prolonged  exposure  to 
heat,  so  that  they  cannot  be  relied  upon,  after 
any  great  length  of  time,  to  melt  at  the  proper 
temperature.  Some  of  the  alloys  of  bismuth 
are  also  used  in  tempering  steel. 


In  its  Compounds,  bismuth  has  an  odd 
valency  —  usually  three,  but  sometimes  five. 
Metallic  bismuth  does  not  oxidize  readily  in 
dry  air  at  ordinary  temperatures,  but  it  burns 
with  a  blue  flame  when  strongly  heated  in  pres- 
ence of  air,  passing  into  the  trioxid,  BisOs.  If 
the  trioxid  is  dissolved  in  a  solution  of  caustic 
potash,  and  nitric  acid  is  subsequently  added, 
bismuth  peroxid  (or  pentoxid,  Bi-Os,  is  pre- 
cipitated. The  trioxid  is  pale  yellow,  and  the 
pentoxid  is  brownish-red.  Both  unite  with  acids 
to  form  salts.  Bismuth  trichlorid,  BiCU,  is 
formed  when  the  metal  is  heated  in  chlorine 
gas ;  it  is  a  white,  crystalline,  deliquescent  sub- 
stance, which  is  decomposed  by  water  with  the 
formation  of  hydrochloric  acid  and  bismuth  oxy- 
chlorid,  BiOCl.  Bismuth  trisulphid,  Bi2S.-!,  is 
thrown  down  as  a  black,  insoluble  precipitate, 
when  a  stream  of  sulphuretted  hydrogen  gas  is 
passed  through  an  acid  solution  of  a  salt  of 
bismuth.  The  trisulphid  also  occurs  native  as 
"bismuth  glance,"  or  Bismuthinite  (q.v.).  Bis- 
muth dissolves  readily  in  nitric  acid,  with  the 
formation  of  the  nitrate,  Bi(N03)3  +  5H,0. 
A  peculiarity  of  the  soluble  bismuth  salts,  as  a 
class,  is  that  their  solutions  are  rendered  milky 
by  the  addition  of  water  in  considerable  excess, 
owing  to  the  formation  of  insoluble  basic  com- 
pounds. The  nitrate,  for  example,  becomes 
transformed  by  this  process  into  a  series  of 
so-called   sub-nitrates. 

In  medicine,  bismuth  is  used  in  the  form  of 
some  one  of  this  metal's  insoluble  salts,  the  solu- 
ble salts  of  bismuth  being  actively  poisonous. 
The  poisoning  closely  resembles  that  caused  by 
lead  (q.v.).  The  insoluble  salts  used  most 
frequently  are  bismuth  subnitrate,  subcarbon- 
ate,  salicylate,  and  subgallate.  These  are  for 
the  most  part  employed  as  gastric  sedatives,  as 
gastro-intestinal  anti-fermentatives,  and  locally 
as  bland  astringent  dressings. 

Bis'muthinite,  a  native  sulphide  of  bis- 
muth, having  the  formula  BijSs.  It  commonly 
occurs  massive,  but  is  also  found  in  needle-like 
crystals  belonging  to  the  orthorhombic  system. 
It  is  opaque,  and  leaden  in  color,  often  with  a 
superficial  yellowish  or  iridescent  coating.  Its 
hardness  is  2,  and  its  specific  gravity  usually 
about  6.5.  In  the  United  States  it  occurs  in 
Connecticut,  California,  North  Carolina,  and 
Utah.  It  is  also  found  in  Mexico  and  Canada, 
and  in  Sweden,  France,  England,  and  Bolivia. 
Where  it  can  be  had  in  quantity,  it  is  mined  as 
an  ore  of  bismuth. 

Bison,  a  form  of  wild  cattle  regarded  by 
some  naturalists  as  constituting  a  genus  Bison, 
separated  from  the  larger  group  Bos,  which  is 
represented  by  the  American  "buflFalo,'*  the 
European  aurochs,  and  some  extinct  species. 
Bisons  diflfer  from  other  cattle,  in  external 
appearance,  mainly  by  their  massive  and  shaggy 
forms.  Their  heads  are  exceedingly  broad,  and 
the  horns  curve  outwardly  from  each  side  of 
the  forehead,  and  are  short,  round,  and  thick. 
A  mop  of  long  and  shaggy  hair  covers  the  fore- 
head, nearly  hiding  the  little  eyes,  and  forms 
a  great  Iseard  upon  the  throat  and  chin,  espe- 
cially of  the  bulls.  In  order  to  support  this 
massive  head,  which  is  usually  carried  low, 
great  spines  rise  from  the  vertebrse  of  the 
back  over  the  shoulders,  giving  attachment  to 
the  huge  muscles  necessary  to  support  the  skull. 
This  makes  the  neck  very  thick,  and  the  fore- 


BISON 


quarters  much  higher  than  the  haunches,  which 
droop  away  from  the  arched  contour  of  the 
back,  over  the  withers.  The  massive  appear- 
ance of  the  fore-quarters  is  increased  by  the 
long  growth  of  hair  on  the  neck,  shoulders,  and 
fore-legs,  which  is  especially  coarse  and  shaggy 
in  bulls,  and  is  of  protection  to  them  in  their 
furious  assaults  upon  one  another  in  the  rut- 
ting season.  This  hair  consists  mainly  of  a 
short,  crisp,  wool-like  growth,  different  from 
that  of  other  cattle,  and  capable  of  being  \yoven. 
Internally,  the  bisons  are  peculiar  in  having  14 
ribs,  instead  of  13 ;  in  the  breadth  and  convex- 
ity of  the  frontal  bones  of  the  skull ;  in  having 
six,  instead  of  four  nasal  bones ;  and  in  the  com- 
parative slenderness  of  the  bones  of  the  limbs. 
The  bisons  are  inhabitants  of  the  northern 
hemisphere,  and,  in  the  era  preceding  the  pres- 
ent, were  represented  by  two  or  three  species  of 
probably  circum-polar  range.  The  race  is  rep- 
resented in  the  Old  World  by  the  aurochs,  now 
preserved  only  in  small,  protected  herds  in 
Russia  (see  Aurochs)  ;  and  in  America,  by 
the  buffalo  (Bison  americaiius),  now  nearly 
extinct. 

The  American  bison  or  buffalo  is  somewhat 
smaller  than  the  aurochs,  and  has  shorter  and 
thicker  horns,  and  a  shorter  tail,  but  its  hump 
and  fore-quarters  are  higher,  and  more  shaggy. 
The  females  are  much  inferior  to  the  males  in 
bulk,  weighing  only  about  1,200  pounds,  whereas 
an  old  bull  in  good  condition  will  weigh  2,000 
pounds.  The  American  animal  differs  in  one 
very  important  respect  from  the  European  spe- 
cies, due  to  the  difference  in  their  habitats. 
The  auroch  was  a  native  of  a  region  covered 
with  forests,  where  large  herds  could  not  find 
open  pasturage  of  any  considerable  extent,  and 
consequently  moved  about  only  in  small  bands, 
whereas  the  American  animal  had  open  to  it 
the  immense,  grassy  prairies  and  plains  of  the 
interior  of  this  continent,  and  was  able,  and  in 
effect,  forced  to  join  into  vast  herds,  so  that 
it  acquired  gregarious  habits.  When  North 
America  was  explored  by  white  men,  the  bison 
was  first  encountered  in  the  valleys  of  the  Alle- 
ghanies,  and  scattered  throughout  the  prairies 
of  the  Mississippi  valley,  north  of  the  Tennessee 
River.  Its  principal  home,  however,  was  upon 
the  grassy  plains,  between  the  IMissouri  River 
and  the  Rocky  Mountains,  where  the  herds 
sometimes  contained  hundreds  of  thousands  of 
individuals,  and  grazed  all  the  way  from  south- 
ern Texas  to  the  shores  of  Great  Slave  Lake. 
They  wandered  through  the  valleys  of  the  Rocky 
Mountains,  to  the  plains  of  New  Mexico,  Utah, 
and  Idaho,  but  seemed  never  to  have  crossed 
the  Sierra  Nevada.  Those  east  of  the  Missis- 
sippi River  were  probably  killed  off  before  the 
beginning  of  the  igth  century,  and  by  1850  none 
remained  east  of  the  dry  plains.  The  building 
of  the  Union  P.  and  Kansas  P.  R.R.'s.  where 
the  early  trains  were  sometimes  stopped  by 
herds  crossing  the  tracks,  soon  led  to  the  dis- 
appearance of  the  animals  from  the  central 
plains ;  and  by  1875  they  w^ere  divided  into  two 
distinct  groups,  a  northern  and  a  southern. 
These  were  rapidly  slaughtered  by  parties  of 
men  who  followed  the  animals  at  all  seasons, 
and  killed  them  for  their  hides,  which,  as 
^buffalo  robes*^  became  more  and  more  valuable, 
until  by  1890  the  Texan  herd  had  been  utterly 
exterminated,  and  of  the  northern  herd,  none 
remained  except  such  as  had  been  gathered  by 


the  government  for  preservation  in  Yellowstone 
Park,  and  a  few  hundred  that  still  survive  in 
the  remote  forests  beyond  the  North  Saskatch- 
ewan. The  herd  in  Yellowstone  Park  amounts 
to  about  100  and  will  probably  be  maintained 
under  the  protection  of  law.  Small  bands  are 
living  in  private  parks  and  zoological  gardens 
in  various  parts  of  the  world.  Thus,  perhaps, 
500  or  6od  living  bisons  remain  as  the  sole  relic 
of  the  millions  of  these  valuable  animals,  which 
half  a  century  ago  ranged  our  western  plains, 
and    which   were   recklessly   wasted. 

The  buffalo  herds  were  made  up  of  small 
companies,  consisting  of  a  patriarchal  old  bull, 
several  cows,  and  a  number  of  young  of  various 
ages,  and  thousands  of  these  companies  would 
graze  in  the  same  region,  all  moving  slowly  in 
the  same  direction,  so  that  travelers  would  never 
be  out  of  sight  of  bisons  during  a  whole  day's 
journey.  They  were  more  or  less  nomadic, 
wandering  from  one  part  of  the  plains  to  the 
other  in  search  of  fresh  pasturage.  Thus  on 
the  approach  of  winter  a  general  movement 
always  took  place  from  the  high,  central  plains 
toward  the  warmer  south,  and  also  into  the 
shelter  of  the  wooded  valleys  of  the  foot-hills. 
In  these  journeys  they  had  the  habit  of  travel- 
ing in  single  file,  thus  forming  long,  narrow 
paths,  which  the  plainsmen  called  ^buffalo 
trails,'^  yet  traceable  in  many  places.  In  spite 
of  their  weight  and  apparent  clumsiness,  they 
swam  rivers  with  ease,  and  climbed  about  the 
mountains  with  remarkable  agility.  Neverthe- 
less they  chose  the  easiest  places,  and  the  well- 
marked  buffalo-trails  were  the  guides  for  ex- 
plorers, and  were  most  deeply  imprinted  in  those 
mountain  passes,  which  are  now  the  highways 
of  commerce.  The  sexes  kept  together  through- 
out the  year,  and  as  is  usual  among  gregarious 
animals,  there  was  constant  fighting  among  the 
bulls  for  the  supremacy  of  their  bands,  the  old 
leaders  being  overthrown  by  j^ounger  and  more 
vigorous  aspirants,  as  soon  as  their  strength 
began  to  wane.  Thus  the  very  best  sires  were 
continually  selected  by  the  law  of  battle,  and 
the  race  kept  at  its  highest  point.  The  herding 
was  a  measure  of  protection  against  the  enemies 
which  hung  upon  the  skirts  of  every  band.  The 
grizzly  bear  was  perhaps  the  only  animal  that 
could  vanquish  a  bison  bull  in  fair  fight,  but 
pumas  and  wolves  were  ever  on  the  watch  to 
seize  any  young  or  feeble  ones  that  strayed 
from  the  band.  When  attacked  the  band  would 
instantly  form  a  close  crowd  with  the  cows  and 
calves  in  the  centre,  protected  by  the  bulls, 
forming  a  circle  with  lowered  heads  on  the  out- 
side. The  calves  were  born  in  the  spring,  a 
single  one,  as  a  rule,  to  each  cow  after  a  gesta- 
tion of  about  nine  months. 

To  the  western  Indians  the  bison  was  the 
principal  resource  for  food  and  shelter,  and 
was  continually  hunted.  In  the  days  before 
firearms,  the  Indians  would  approach  them  on 
foot,  by  creeping  within  bowshot  on  all  fours, 
often  disguised  in  the  skin  of  a  calf  or  an  ante- 
lope; or  would  rush  the  herds  upon  horseback. 
They_  also  had  the  practice  in  rough  countries 
of  driving  the  buffaloes  into  enclosures  or  small 
canyons,  where  they  could  easily  be  slaughtered ; 
or  sometimes  would  force  them  over  a  cliff,  to 
be  killed  by  the  fall.  Besides  eating  the  flesh 
as  fresh  meat,  vast  quantities  of  it  would  be 
cut  into  strips  each  autumn,  and  dried  in  the 
sun  for  winter  use :  while  the  northern   tribes 


BISPHAM  —  BISTINEAU 


chopped  it  into  fine  pieces,  mixed  it  with  ber- 
ries, and  preserved  it  in  skin  bags,  mixed  with 
boiled  fat,  and  so  formed  the  highly  portable  and 
nutritious  food  called  "pemmican."  The  dis- 
appearance of  the  buffalo  consequently  meant 
starvation  to  the  Indians,  as  well  as  the  loss  of 
the  principal  material  for  warm  clothing  and 
bedding,  and  the  Indian  wars  which  raged  upon 
the  plains,  during  the  thjrd  quarter  of  the  19th 
century,  were  mainly  due  to  the  desperate 
efforts  made  by  these  people,  to  preserve  their 
hunting-grounds. 

Species  of  fossil  bisons  have  been  found 
both  in  Europe  and  America,  associated  with 
the  remains  of  mammoths,  mastodons,  and  other 
extinct  animals  of  the  Quaternary  Period.  Some 
of  these  extinct  bisons  exceeded  in  size  any  of 
the  living  species,  the  bony  horn-cores  in  one 
being  six  feet  from  tip  to  tip  (the  length  of  the 
horns  themselves  must  have  been  considerably 
greater)  ;  the  height  of  this  species  is  estimated 
to  have  been  over  six  feet  at  the  shoulder. 

The  literature  relating  to  the  American  buf- 
falo is  as  extensive  as  the  story  of  the  western 
States.  The  most  complete  and  special  accounts 
are:  J.  A.  Allen's  monograph,  ^The  American 
Bisons*  republished  by  the  United  States  Geo- 
logical Survey  in  1875 ;  ^ind  W.  T.  Hornaday's 
^Extermination  of  the  American  Bison,*  in  the 
annual  report  of  the  Smithsonian  Institution  for 
1887.  For  the  more  picturesque  and  adventur- 
ouii  side  of  the  animal's  history,  and  its  hunt- 
ing, consult  Audubon's  ^Quadrupeds  of  Amer- 
ica* ;  Catlin's  *  North  American  Indians*  ; 
Gregg's  *  Commerce  of  the  Prairies*  ;  Dodge's 
<Black  Hills*;  ^Butler's  <Great  Lone  Land*  ; 
and  the  accounts  of  western  explorations  by 
such  writers  as  Pike,  Fremont,  Marcy,  Long, 
Emory,  and  Stansbury. 

Bispham,  bis'pam,  David  S.,  baritone 
singer:  b.  Philadelphia,  Pa.,  5  Jan.  1857,  of 
Quaker  parentage.  Educated  at  Haverford  Col- 
lege, Pennsylvania,  he  later  studied  music  and 
singing  in  England  and  Italy.  His  debut  was 
made  as  the  Due  de  Lonqueville  in  *The  Ba- 
soche,*  London,  in  1891,  and  since  then  he  has 
been  the  principal  baritone  of  the  Royal  Opera 
Company,  Covent  Garden,  London,  occasionally 
visiting  the  United  States  on  an  operatic  tour. 
An  accomplished  linguist,  he  is  equally  at  home 
in  German,  French,  or  Italian,  but  his  greatest 
successes  have  been  in  Wagnerian  roles,  such  as 
^Alberich*  and  ^Wolfram.* 

Bissagos,  bis-sa'goz,  a  group  of  islands. 
about  20  in  number,  near  the  west  coast  of 
Africa,  opposite  the  mouth  of  the  Rio^  Grande, 
between  lat.  10°  and  12°  N.,  belonging,  like 
the  mainland  opposite,  to  Portugal.  The  largest, 
Orango,  is  about  2=;  miles  in  length,  and  most 
of  them  are  inhabited  by  a  rude  negro  race. 
The  inhabitants  cultivate  maize,  bananas,  and 
palms,  but  their  chief  employment  is  in  fishing. 
Most  of  the  islands  are  under  native  chiefs, 
who  are  nominally  vassals  of  Portugal.  At 
Bolama,  or  Bulama.  once  a  British  settlement, 
"but  abandoned  in  1793,  there  is  a  thriving  Por- 
tuguese town,  which  is  the  seat  of  government. 

Bissao,  bes-sa'o,  an  island  and  Portuguese 
station  closer  to  the  African  coast  than  the 
Bissagos  and  opposite  the  Jeba's  delta.  Before 
the  prohibition  of  slavery  by  the  Portuguese 
government  It  was  an  important  slave  market. 


Bissell,  Edwin  Cone,  American  biblical 
scholar :  b.  Scoharie,  N.  Y.,  2  March  1832 ;  d. 
Chicago,  9  April  1894.  He  prepared  for  the 
ministry  at  Union  Theological  Seminary,  N.  Y., 
and  held  Congregational  pastorates  at  West- 
hampton,  Mass.,  San  Francisco,  Cal.,  and  Win- 
chester, Mass.,  and  was  professor  of  Hebrew  in 
the  Hartford  Theological  Seminary,  1881-92,  and 
at  the  McCormick  Presbyterian  Seminary,  Chi- 
cago, 1892-4.  He  published:  *The  Historic 
Origin  of  the  Bible*  (1873)  ;  <The  Pentateuch: 
Its  Origin  and  Structure*  (1885);  'Biblical 
Antiquities*  (1888)  ;  < Genesis  Printed  in  Col- 
ors, Showing  the  Original  Sources  from  which 
it  is  Supposed  to  Have  Been  Compiled*  (1892)  ; 
'The  Apocrypha  of  the  Old  Testament,  with 
Historical  Introductions,*  his  greatest  work 
(1880). 

Bissell,  William  Henry  Augustus,  Ameri- 
can prelate  of  the  Episcopal  Church :  b.  Ran- 
dolph, Vt.,  10  Nov.  1814;  d.  Burlington,  Vt.,  14 
May  1893.  Entering  the  Episcopal  ministry  in 
1839,  he  was  successively  rector  at  West  Troy, 
Lyons,  and  Geneva,  N.  Y.,  and  3  June  1868  was 
consecrated  second  bishop  of  the  diocese  of 
Vermont. 

Bissell,  Wilson  Shannon,  American  law- 
yer: b.  New  London,  N.  Y.,  31  Dec.  1847;  d.  Buf- 
falo, 6  Oct.  1903.  He  graduated  at  Yale  Univer- 
sity in  1869 ;  and  studied  law  in  Buffalo  with 
Lansing,  Cleveland  &  Folsom.  In  1872  he  formed 
a  partnership  with  Lyman  K.  Bass,  the  firm  of 
which  Grover  Cleveland  became  a  member  in 
1873.  When  Mr.  Cleveland  was  elected  governor 
of  New  York  the  firm  was  dissolved.  Subse. 
quently  it  was  reorganized,  and  in  1900  consisted 
of  Bissell,  Carey  &  Cooke.  He  has  been  a  dele- 
gate to  several  State  conventions  ;  in  1884  was  a 
Democratic  presidential  elector;  and  in  1893-5, 
during  Mr.  Cleveland's  second  term  as  President, 
was  postmaster-general  of  the  United  States. 

Bissen,  Hermann  Wilhelm,  bis'sen,  her'- 
man  vil'helm,  Danish  sculptor :  b.  Schleswig, 
1798 ;  d.  Copenhagen,  10  March  1868.  From 
1823  to  1833  he  studied  in  Rome  under  Thor- 
waldsen,  who,  in  his  will,  commissioned  him  to 
complete  his  unfinished  works.  In  1850  he  was 
made  director  of  the  Academy  of  Arts.  Copen- 
hagen. Among  his  masterpieces  are  the  'Val- 
kyrie,* 'Cupid  Sharpening  His  Arrow,*  and 
'Moses*  ;  his  'Orestes.*  and  a  frieze  134  feet 
long,  perished  in  the  burning  of  the  Christian- 
borg  at  Copenhagen  (1884). 

Bissex'tile,  the  ancient  name  of  leap  year, 
so  called  from  the  sixth  day  before  the  calends 
of  March  being  repeated  or  taken  twice.  See 
Calendar. 

Bisson,  Alexandre,  be-s6n,  a-leks-andr, 
French  dramatist  and  musical  composer:  b. 
1848.  His  vaudeville,  'Four  Cuts  with  a  Pen- 
knife.* won  for  him  instant  celebrity.  'The 
Deputy  from  Bombignac*  is  his  masterpiece. 
Other  comedies  or  operettas  were:  'The  Late 
Toupinel*  :  'The  Joys  of  Paternity*  ;  'The 
Pont-Biquet  Family.*  With  Theodore  de  La- 
jarte  he  was  joint  author  of  a  'Grammarof 
Music*  and  of  a  'Little  Encyclopaedia  of  Music* 

Bistineau,  bis-te-no',  a  lake  in  northwest- 
ern Louisiana,  dividing  Bossier  and  Bienville 
parishes,  about  30  miles  in  length  from  north  to 
south  and  2  in  breadth.    It  receives  the  Dauchite 


BISTORT  —  BITTER-SWEET 


River  from  the  north,  and  communicates  with 
Red  River  by  an  outlet  at  its  sout'iern  extrem- 
ity.    It  is  navigable  for  steamboats. 

Bis'tort  {Polygonum  Bistorta),  a  perennial 
plant  of  the  buckwheat  family,  and  from  its 
astringent  properties  (it  contains  much  tannin) 
sometimes  used  medicinally.  It  bears  a  raceme 
of  flesh-colored  flowers.  It  is  also  called 
adder's-wort  and  snake-weed,  from  being  a  sup- 
posed remedy  against  snake  bites.  The  Ameri- 
can representative  is  a  naturalized  plant  {P. 
vivipivum),  found  on  Alpine  summits  of  New 
England  and  on  the  shores  of  Lake  Superior 
and  northward.  It  bears  an  erect  spike  of  flesh- 
colored  flowers. 

Bistre,  bis'ter,  a  reddish  brown  water- 
color,  generally  obtained  from  the  soot  that  col- 
lects in  chimney-flues.  This  is  pulverized  and 
washed  to  remove  the  saline  ingredients.  The 
finest  sediment  is  then  dissolved  in  vinegar,  to 
which  gum-water  is  afterward  added.  It  was 
formerly  much  used  for  making  painters'  cray- 
ons, and  also  for  a  paint  in  water-color  de- 
signs. Sepia,  however,  is  now  preferred  to  it, 
as  it  has  a  more  agreeable  color  and  is  more 
easily  employed. 

Bithur,  be-thoor',  India,  a  town  12  miles 
northwest  of  Cawnpore,  on  the  right  bank  of  the 
Ganges.  In  the  Indian  mutiny  it  had  some 
notoriety  conferred  on  it  from  being  the  resi- 
dence of  Nana  Sahib,  also  styled  the  rajah  of 
Bithoor.  The  town  was  long  the  abode  of  a 
line  of  Mahratta  chiefs,  the  last  of  whom  died 
without  issue  in  185 1.  His  adopted  son.  Nana 
Sahib,  whose  proper  name,  however,  was  Dhun- 
doo  Punt,  claimed  the  succession,  but  his  title 
was  ignored  by  the  East  India  Company,  a  pro- 
ceeding which  is  believed  to  have  stimulated 
him  to  his  subsequent  deeds  of  atrocity.  Gen. 
Havelock  gained  a  brilliant  victory  over  the 
rebels  in  the  vicinity,  and  subsequently  quanti- 
ties of  treasure  belonging  to  the  Nana  were  dis- 
covered by  the  troops  in  a  well  close  to  the 
palace.     Pop.  7,000. 

Bithyn'ia,  anciently  a  country  in  Asia 
Minor,  on  the  Black  Sea,  the  Bosporus,  and  the 
Sea  of  Marmora,  and  bounded  on  the  south  by 
Phrygia.  In  early  times  it  was  called  Bebrycia, 
from  the  Bebrycians  who  inhabited  it.  Before 
the  time  of  Croesus,  Bithynia  was  an  independ- 
ent state,  under  its  own  princes.  After  the 
death  of  Prusias  I.,  in  the  war  against  Croesus, 
it  fell  into  the  power  of  the  Lydians,  560  B.C. ; 
into  that  of  the  Persians,  555  B.C. ;  and  into  that 
of  Alexander,  334  B.C.  The  restorer  of  the 
Bithynian  throne  was  Bias  or  Bas,  a  native 
prince,  at  the  court  of  one  of  whose  successors, 
Prusias  II..  Hannibal  took  refuge,  and  where 
he  ended  his  life  by  poison,  183  B.C.  Nicomedes, 
the  la.st  king  of  this  race,  bequeathed  his  king- 
dom to  the  Romans,  75  b.c.  The  famous  cities 
of  Nicomedia,  Nicaea,  and  Heraclea  were  in 
Bithynia.  In  the  nth  century  Bithynia  was 
conquered  by  the  Seljuks.  In  1298  a  new  king- 
dom was  founded  there  by  the  Ottoman  Turks, 
of  which,  in  1327,  Prusa  was  the  capital.  See 
Ramsay,  ^Historical  Geography  of  Asia  Minor^ 
(1890). 

Biting-lice.      See  Bird-lice. 

Biton,  bl'ton,  Greek  mathematician,  of  un- 
certain date,  but  supposed  to  have  been  a  con- 
temporary of  Archimedes,  wrote  a  work  of  some 


interest  on  warlike  engines,  and  dedicated  it 
to  Attalus.  king  of  Pergamos.  It  is  to  be  found 
in  the  'Mathematici  Veteres^  of  Thevenot.  (2) 
The  son  of  Cyclippe  mentioned  in  the  legend  of 
Cleobis  and  Biton. 

Bitter,  Arthur,  pseudonym  of  Samuel 
Haeerstich,  Swiss  poet  and  story  writer :  b. 
Ried,  near  Schlosswyl,  21  Oct.  1821 ;  d.  Bern,  20 
Feb.  1872.  Novelettes,  stories,  and  poems  pro- 
ceeded from  his  pen  for  many  years,  all  charac- 
terized by  sympathy  of  tone  and  inoffensive 
realism.  <  Tales,  Romances,  and  Poems^ 
(1865-6),  being  most  pleasing. 

Bitter,  Karl  Theodore  Francis,  Austro- 
American  sculptor :  b.  Vienna,  Austria.  6  Dec. 
1867.  He  came  to  the  United  States  in  1889 
and  soon  acquired  world-wide  reputation.  He 
executed  the  sculpture  on  the  main  buildings  of 
the  World's  Columbian  Exposition,  and  was  ap- 
pointed director  of  sculpture  at  the  Pan-Ameri- 
can Exposition  at  Buffalo,  and  the  Louisiana 
Purchase  Exposition  at  Saint  Louis. 

Bitter  Almonds.  In  medicine  the  oil  of 
bitter  almonds,  containing  prussic  acid,  is  used 
as  a  gastric  sedative  and  as  an  antispasmodic. 
See  Prussic  Acid. 

Bitter  Ash,    the  quassia  tree.    See  Quassia. 

Bitter-root,  Lczvisia  rediviva,  a  plant  of 
Canada  and  part  of  the  United  States,  order 
Portiilacecc,  so  called  from  its  root  being  bitter 
though  edible,  and  indeed  esteemed  as  an  article 
of  food  by  whites  as  well  as  Indians.  From  the- 
root,  which  is  long,  fleshy,  and  tapering,  grow 
clusters  of  succulent  green  leaves,  with  a  fleshy 
stalk  bearing  a  solitary  rose-colored  flower  ris- 
ing in  the  centre,  and  remaining  open  only  in 
sunshine.  Flower  and  leaves  together,  the- 
plant  appears  above  ground  for  only  about  six 
weeks.  California  bitter-root  (Echinocystis^ 
fabacea)  and  Natal  bitter-root  (Gerardanthus- 
macrorhisa)  both  belong  to  the  gourd  family. 

Bitter  Root  Mountains,  a  range  of  the 
Rocky  Mountains,  in  Montana,  deriving  its 
name  from  a  plant  with  rose-colored  blossoms, 
whose  slender  roots  are  used  by  the  Indians 
for  winter  food.  The  chief  surnmits  are  Lolo 
Peak  and  St.  Mary's  Peak. 

Bitter  Root  River,  a  tributary  of  the  Co- 
lumbia in  Montana,  flowing  north  into  Clark's 
River  in  Missoula  County;  length  about  iiO' 
miles.     Gold  has  been  found  in  this  region. 

Bitter  Root  Valley,  a  valley  on  the  east 
of  the  Bitter  Root  range,  in  Montana.  90  miles 
long  and  7  miles  wide,  enwalled  by  lofty  moun- 
tains, and  abounding  in  farms  and  cornfields. 

Bitter  Spar,  rhomb-spar,  the  crystallized 
form  of  dolomite  or  magnesian  limestone.  The 
name  is  derived  from  the  magnesia  contained 
in  it,  the  taste  of  salts  of  magnesia  being  bitter. 

Bitter-sweet,  Dulcamara,  or  Woody  Night- 
shade, Solatnim  Dulcamara,  a  sprawling  vine  of 
the  natural  order  Solanacea,  native  of  Europe 
and  Asia,  and  introduced  into  the  United  States. 
It  has  purplish  or  blue  flowers  arranged  in 
cymes  which  are  succeeded  by  attractive  inedi- 
ble berries.  The  leaves  have  been  used  medi- 
cinally in  the  form  of  an  extract.  The  name,, 
properly  false  bitter-sweet,  is  given  to  Celastrus- 
scandcns,  a  handsome  climber  of  the  natural 
order  Celastracea  found  from  eastern  Canada 
to  South  Dakota  and  southward  to  New  Mexico. 


BITTER-SWEET  — BITUMEN  PROCESS 


It  often  grows  20  feet  tall  and  is  perhaps  most 
attractive  on  account  of  its  orange-yellow  fruits 
which  split  open  and  expose  the  crimson  seeds. 
Both  seeds  and  fruits  remain  attached  to  the 
plants  during  the  winter. 

Bitter-Sweet,  a  once  popular  narrative 
didactic  poem  by  J.  G.  Holland,  published  1858. 
It  contains  about  3,500  lines,  and  is  descriptive 
of  New  England  rural  life. 

Bitter  Vetch,  a  name  applied  to  two  kinds 
of  leguminous  plants:  (i)  Ervuin  ervilia,  a  len- 
til cultivated  for  fodder  ;  and  (2)  all  the  species  of 
Orobus,  for  example,  the  common  bitter  vetch 
O.  tuberosus,  a  perennial  herbaceous  plant  with 
racemes  of  purple  flowers  and  sweet  edible 
tubers. 

Bittern,  a  bird  of  the  heron  family  and 
genus  Botaurus,  several  species  of  which  exist 
in  various  parts  of  the  world.  The  bitterns 
differ  from  the  herons  in  their  lesser  size, 
shorter  neck,  comparative  shortness  of  the  legs, 
and  superior  length  of  toes,  and  in  their  noctur- 
nal habits  and  loud  voices.  Otherwise  their 
haunts,  food,  and  manner  of  life  closely  re- 
semble those  of  herons  (q.v.).  The  only  North 
American  species  is  the  common  bittern  (B. 
lentiginosus) ,  which  is  spread  throughout  the 
United  States  and  southern  Canada  in  all  suit- 
able places,  often  close  to  towns.  Its  length 
is  about  25  inches,  and  the  plumage  is  tawny 
brown  of  various  shades,  excessively  variegated 
everywhere ;  the  neck  is  striped  with  dull  yellow 
and  has  on  each  side  a  dark  patch.  Both  sexes, 
and  the  young,  are  alike  in  plumage.  The  Old 
World  species  {B.  stellaris)  is  very  similar,  but 
has  more  red  on  the  upper  parts,  and  green 
about  the  head.  It  is  found  numerously  from 
Ireland  to  Japan,  in  India  and  throughout  all 
Africa.  Other  species  or  varieties  spread  the  range 
of  the  genus  to  New  Zealand  and  the  South 
Sea  Islands.  The  one  great  peculiarity  of 
the  bitterns,  to  which  they  owe  their  Latin 
and  many  local  names,  is  their  extraordinary 
vocal  utterance  in  spring,  which  in  the  European 
species  is  likened  to  booming  by  everyone  who 
has  heard  it,  and  has  been  called  "a  loud  and 
awful  voice. *^  The  old  fable  that  this  sound 
was  produced  in  some  mysterious  way  by  the 
bird  while  it  held  its  beak  plunged  into  the  mud 
is  untrue;  and  the  flesh  is  no  longer  esteemed 
as  a  dainty,  as  it  was  some  centuries  ago.  The 
voice  of  the  American  bittern  is  a  droning, 
thumping  noise,  which  has  been  likened  to  the 
driving  of  a  stake  with  an  axe,  or,  more  often, 
to  the  working  of  an  old-fashioned  pump- 
handle.  Hence  the  rural  names,  "stake-driver,* 
*mire-drum,"  "bog-pumper,'^  "thunder-pump," 
and  the  like.  Nuttall  attempted  to  suggest  the 
sound  of  the  syllables  "pump-au-gah" ;  but  Sam- 
uels succeeds  better.  He  writes :  "In  the  mat- 
ing season,  and  during  the  first  part  of  the  period 
of  incubation,  the  male  has  a  peculiar  love-note, 
that  almost  exactly  resembles  the  stroke  of  a 
mallet  on  a  stake ;  something  like  the  syllables 
'chunk-a-lunk  -  chunk,  quank  -  chunk  -  a  -  lunk  - 
chunk.  ^  I  have  often,  when  in  the  forests  of 
northern  Maine,  been  deceived  by  this  note  into 
believing  that  some  woodman  or  settler  was  in 
my  neighborhood,  and  discovered  my  mistake 
only  after  toiling  through  swamp  and  morass 
for  perhaps  half  a  mile.* 

A  genus  of  smaller  birds,  Ardetta,  is  known 
as  that  of  the  "least  bitterns.*    One  species  {A. 


exilis)  occurs  over  most  of  North  America,  and 
related  species  belong  to  South  America.  They 
are  intermediate  between  the  true  bitterns  and 
the  night-herons. 

Consult  Coues,  *  Birds  of  the  Northwest^ 
(1874)  ;  and  Newton,  *  Dictionary  of  Birds* 
(1896),  and  the  other  authorities  therein  cited. 

Bittern,  or  Salt  Oil,  the  name  given  to  the 
syrupy  residue  from  evaporated  sea-water  after 
the  common  salt  has  been  taken  out  of  it. 
The  syrup  contains  salts  of  magnesium,  which 
give  it  a  bitter  taste,  and  it  is  employed  as  a 
source  of  them.  It  is  also  one  of  the  sources  of 
bromine.  Bittern  procured  from  the  salt  works 
at  Epsom,  England,  was  formerly  the  source 
of  sulphate  of  magnesium,  hence  styled  Epsom 
salts.     See  Salt. 

Bitternut,      See  Hickory. 

Bitters,  a  class  of  compounds  largely  em- 
ployed as  appetizers  and  digestants.  They  are 
for  the  most  part  alcoholic  drinks  to  which 
some  plant  containing  a  bitter  principle  is  added. 
The  bitter  principles  are  either  alkaloids, 
as  in  the  quinine  of  calisaya,  or  amaroids, 
W'hich  are  widely  distributed  in  plants.  The 
most  commonly  employed  bitters  are  quassia, 
gentian,  angostura,  cascarilla,  wild  cherry,  and 
cinchona.  Medicinally  bitters  are  classed  as 
simple  and  aromatic,  the  latter  containing  vola- 
tile oils  in  addition  to  the  bitter  principles.  The 
simple  bitters  mostly  used  are  quassia,  gentian, 
and  calumba.  The  aromatic  bitters  are  cas- 
carilla, eupatorium  (boneset),  angostura,  ser- 
pentaria,  and  chamomile. 

Bitterwood,  various  trees  and  shrubs  of 
the  genus  Xylopia  of  the  natural  order  Sima- 
lubiacccc,  noted  for  the  bitterness  of  their  wood 
which  is  used  for  funiture  because  of  its  resist- 
ance to  insects.  One  Brazilian  species  {X. 
sericea)  furnishes  a  peppery  fruit  and  a  cordage 
fibre.  The  name  bitterwood  is  also  given  to 
Picrcenia  excelsa  (Quassia  excclsa  of  some  bot- 
anists) belonging  to  the  natural  order  Simani- 
bacccE.  This  tree  is  a  native  of  the  West  Indies 
and  is  used  like  quassia  (q.v.). 

Bit'tinger,  Lucy  Forney,  American  his- 
torical writer :  b.  Cleveland,  Ohio,  29  Aug.  1859. 
She  has  published  ^Memorials  of  Rev.  J.  B. 
Bittinger*  (1891);  *  History  of  the  Forney 
Family  of  Hanover,  Pennsylvania'  (1893)  ;  and 
^The  Germans  in  Colonial  Times,*  (1901),  a 
work  of  much  value. 

Bitu'men,  a  general  term,  perhaps  first 
used  by  Pliny,  and  including  various  native 
hydrocarbons,  such  as  petroleum,  asphaltum, 
elaterite,  and  grahamite.  The  bitumens  are 
probably  all  of  vegetable  origin,  and  while  not 
confined  to  any  particular  geological  formation, 
they  occur  most  abundantly  at  or  near  the 
earth's  surface,  often  in  connection  with  rocks 
containing  organic  remains. 

Bit'umen  Process,  the  first  known  method 
of  fixing  the  image  of  the  camera,  so  as  to 
make  it  permanent.  The  blackening  action  of 
light  upon  salts  of  silver  was  known  in  the 
i8th  century,  but  no  method  was  known  for 
fixing  the  image  obtained  with  salts  of  silver 
until  about  1838.  The  bitumen  process  was 
perfected  in  1827  by  a  Frenchman,  Nicephore  de 
Niepce.  He  coated  plates  of  metal  with  a  solu- 
tion of  asphaltum  in  oil  of  lavender,  and  then, 
after  drying  them,  he  exposed  them  for  a  pro- 


BITUMINOUS  COAL  — BIVALVES 


digious  length  of  time  in  a  camera.  A  very 
faint  image  was  the  result.  The  plate  \yas  sub- 
sequently immersed  in  a  developer  consisting  of 
one  part  of  oil  of  lavender  and  lO  parts  of  pe- 
troleum, which  slowly  dissolved  the  parts  un- 
affected by  light,  leaving  a  permanent  picture 
formed  of  those  parts  of  the  asphaltum  that  the 
light  had  rendered  insoluble.  Subsequently 
Daguerre  became  associated  with  Niepce,  and 
together  they  improved  the  bitumen  process 
until  Daguerre  said  that  "the  time  required  to 
procure  a  photographic  copy  of  a  landscape  is 
from  seven  to  eight  hours ;  but  single  monu- 
ments, when  strongly  lighted  by  the  sun,  or 
which  are  themselves  very  bright,  can  be  taken 
in  about  three  hours."  See  Camera;  Photog- 
raphy. 

Bitu'minous  Coal.     See  Coal. 

Bituminous  Limestone,  a  limestone  im- 
pregnated with  asphaltum  or  mineral  pitch. 
Petroleum  grades  insensibly  into  maltha,  and 
this  in  turn  into  asphalt  or  solid  bitumen.  The 
term  bituminous  limestone  is  therefore  applied 
to  almost  any  limestone  carrying  hydrocarbon 
compounds  having  an  asphaltic  base,  as  dis- 
tinguished from  the  paraffine  base  of  many 
petroleums.  Bituminous  limestone  is  foimd  at 
many  localities  in  the  United  States,  particularly 
in  Indian  Territory,  California,  and  Arkansas. 
Its  chief  commercial  use  is  as  a  paving  material, 
but  it  also  serves  as  a  source  of  asphaltic 
products. 

Bivalves,  those  mollusks  of  the  class 
Pelecypoda  (q.v.)  whose  coverings  consist  of 
two  concave  shell  plates   or  valves. 

Bivalves,  (for  example,  the  clam)  are  entire- 
ly protected  by  the  valves,  which  are  connected 
by  a  hinge,  consisting  of  a  large  tooth  or  teeth 
(usually  three),  and  a  ligament.  In  the  clam 
both  valves  are  alike,  in  the  scallop  the  hinge 
margin  is  eared,  and  the  shell  is  marked  with 
radiating  ridges,  while  in  most  bivalves  there 
are  simple  lines  of  growth.  On  the  interior, 
which  is  usually  lined  with  mother-of-pearl,  are 
either  one  (in  oysters  and  scallops)  or  two 
(clams,  etc.)  roundish  muscular  impressions 
made  by  the  single  or  the  two  adductor  muscles 
by  which  the  valves  are  closed.  The  shell  is 
often  covered  by  an  epidermis.  The  hinge  is 
situated  directly  over  the  heart,  and  is  therefore 
dorsal  or  "hjemal."  The  shell  is  secreted  by  the 
thickened  edge  of  the  mantle  or  body-walls. 
There  is  in  bivalves  in  distinction  from  snails 
(Gastropoda)  no  head,  and  the  mouth  is  not 
armed  with  teeth  or  a  lingual  ribbon,  present  in 
snails.  The  mouth  is  small  with  soft  lips,  and 
in  each  side  is  a  pair  of  labial  palpi.  The  short 
oesophagus  opens  into  a  small  stomach  which 
receives  the  contents  of  the  liver.  The  long 
intestine  is  coiled  in  the  visceral  mass,  the  solid 
disk-like  portion  of  the  body  in  the  clam  and 
oyster ;  the  intestine  also  passes  through  the 
ventricle  of  the  heart,  and  then  ends  opposite 
the  upper  division  of  the  siphon.  This  heart 
is  three-chambered,  consisting  of  a  ventricle  and 
two  auricles.  The  siphon  forms  the  so-called 
head  of  the  clam,  though  it  is  situated  at  the 
posterior  end  of  the  body ;  it  forms  a  double 
tube,  ending  in  an  excurrent  and  incurrent 
orifice  surrounded  by  a  circle  of  tentacles  which 
are  sensitive  to  the  touch.  The  siphon  is  very 
long  in  the  clam  (Mya)  and  other  bivalves 
which  burrow  in  the  sand  or  mud  and  live 
in  deep  holes.     Locomotion   is   effected  by  the 


so-called  "foot,*  which  is  a  wedge-shaped  or 
hatchet-shaped  fleshy  tongue-like  mass  situated 
at  the  front  end  under  the  mouth.  Its  hatchet- 
shape  gives  the  name  Pelecypoda  to  the  class. 
This  foot  is  enormous  in  the  razor-fish,  which 
burrows  with  extreme  rapidity  in  the  sand.  In 
fixed  bivalves,  such  as  the  oyster  and  mussel, 
the  foot  and  siphon  are  reduced  by  atrophy 
or  are  entirely  w^anting.  There  being  no  head, 
there  are  usually  no  ej^es,  except  in  the  scallops, 
where  they  are  numerous,  large,  and  situated 
on  the  thickened  edge  of  the  mantle.  Bivalves 
breathe  by  one  pair,  more  usually  two  pairs,  of 
leaf-like  gills ;  situated  on  each  side  of  the 
visceral  mass.  The  individuals  are  bisexual,  each 
being  male  or  female.  The  nervous  system  con- 
sists of  three  pairs  of  ganglia,  connected  by  a 
nerve-thread.  The  supraoesophageal  ganglion  is 
the  so-called  "brain,*  being  situated  over  the 
mouth ;  the  pedal  ganglion  is  in  the  centre  of 
the  foot,  while  the  visceral  ganglion  is  near  the 
middle  of  the  body.  Most  bivalves  possess  an 
organ  of  hearing:  or  of  equilibration,  a  very 
minute  otocyst  situated  in  the  centre  of  the 
foot,  and  connected  by  a  nerve  with  the  pedal 
ganglion.  The  ovaries  are  yellowish,  volumin- 
ous glands  forming  the  larger  part  of  the 
visceral  mass.  These  mollusks  are  very  prolific, 
the  oyster  laying  about  2,000,000  eggs. 

In  the  oyster  (Ostrea)  or  in  Anomia  the 
shell  is  inequilateral,  one  valve,  usually  the  left 
and  lower  one,  being  fixed  to  some  object,  and 
the  intestine  does  not  pass  through  the  ventricle ; 
in  Area  the  ventricle  is  double.  In  Lueina  and 
Corbis  there  is  but  one  gill  on  each  side,  and 
in  Peeten,  Spondylus,  and  Trigonia  the  gills 
are  reduced  to  comb-like  processes.  Contrary 
to  the  habits  of  most  bivalves,  the  scallop  can 
skip  over  the  surface  of  the  water  by  violently 
opening  and  shutting  its  shell.  Trigonia  is  also 
capable  of  leaping  a  short  distance,  while  Lima 
is  an  active  flyer  or  leaper.  The  American 
oyster  is  dioecious,  while  most  mollusks  are 
monoecious  or  hermaphroditic.  The  foot  varies 
much  in  form ;  in  the  mussel,  Pinna,  Cyelocar- 
dia,  and  the  pearl-oyster  it  is  finger-shaped  and 
grooved,  with  a  gland  for  secreting  a  bundle  of 
threads,  the  byssus,  by  means  of  which  it  is 
anchored  to  the  bottom.  The  foot  in  the  quo- 
hog,  Neulinia  and  Clidiophora,  is  large,  these 
mollusks  being  very  active  in  their  movements. 
In  Glycimeris  the  fringe  is  toothless,  much  as 
in  the  oyster.  In  Mactra  the  middle  tooth  of  the 
hinge  is  large,  the  corresponding  cavity  large 
and  triangular.  In  Saxieava  and  Panopcca,  the 
pallial  line  is  represented  by  a  row  of  dots. 
In  Macoma  the  siphons  are  very  long. 

Lithodomns,  the  date-shell,  one  of  the  mus- 
sels, bores  into  corals,  oyster  shells,  etc. ;  the 
common  Saxieava  excavates  holes  in  mud  and 
soft  limestone,  as  does  Gastroehocna,  PJwlas,  and 
Petricola.  Certain  boring  lamellibranchs,  such 
as  Pholas,  are  luminous. 

A  very  aberrant  form  of  bivalve  mollusk  i.s 
Clavagella,  in  which  the  shell  is  oblong,  with 
flat  valves,  the  left  cemented  to  the  sides  of  a 
deep  burrow.  The  tube  is  cylindrical,  fringed 
above,  and  ending  below  in  a  disk,  with  a  mi- 
nute central  fissure,  and  bordered  with  branch- 
ing tubules.  In  Aspcrgillum.  the  watering-pot 
shell,  the  small  bivalve  shell  is  cemented  to  the 
lower  end  of  a  long  shelly  tube,  closed  below 
by  a  perforated  disk  like  the  nose  of  a  watering- 
pot. 


BIVALVE   MOLLUSCA. 

'-'  Cytheria  dione.  *,  ^  Cardium    aculeatum.  •'-^  Ilemicardium  cardissa. 

'*  Hippopus  maculatus. 


10.13  Tridacua  squamosa. 


BIXBY  — BLACAS 


Bivalves,  in  growing,  pass  through  a  pre- 
swimming  larval  stage  called  a  "trochosphere.** 
resembling  a  top,  and  moved  by  a  circlet  or  zone 
of  cilia.  After  a  while  two  flaps  (vela)  arise  on 
each  side  of  the  mouth,  forming  the  vegliger 
stage;  meanwhile  the  shells  arise,  and  as  they 
become  larger  and  heavier,  the  young  bivalve 
sinks  to  the  bottom,  and  begins  to  use  its  "foot" 
for  burrowing. 

Some  bivalves  arrive  at  maturity  in  a  single 
year.  The  fresh-water  mussels  live  from  lo  to 
12  years,  while  the  giant  clam  (Tridacna  gigaii- 
tea)  probably  lives  from  sixty  years  to  a  cen- 
tury. 

The  bivalves  began  to  appear  in  the  Cam- 
brian Period  ;  they  became  more  frequent  in  the 
Ordovician  and  Silurian,  but  they  did  not  abound 
until  toward  the  Mesozoic  Age,  since  the  seas 
during  the  Palsozoic  Age  were  crowded  with 
brachipods  (q.v.).  Oysters  date  from  the  be- 
ginning of  the  IMesozoic.  The  genus  Muciila 
and  its  allies  are  very  primitive  forms,  and 
nearly  allied  to  the  earliest  known  bivalves.  Of 
about  15.000  known  species  of  bivalves,  two 
thirds  (10,000)  are  fossil. 

The  class  Pelecypoda  (or  Lamellibranchiata) 
is  divided  by  the  gill  characters  (see  Parker  and 
Haswell's  Zoology)  into  five  orders,  namely: 
(i)  Protohranchia.  (2)  Filibranchia,  (3) 
Pseudo-lamellibranchia.  (4)  Eulamellibranchia, 
(5)  Scptibranchia:  and  by  Dall.  from  the  hinge- 
characters,  into  three  ordinal  groups:  Priono- 
dcsmacca,  Anomalodesmacca.  and  Tcleodesma- 
cea.  In  Neumayr's  group  Palccoconcha,  now 
forming  a  part  of  the  Prionodesmacea,  are  in- 
cluded certain  primitive  types  which  appear  to 
have  given  origin  to  certain  more  modern 
groups.  For  further  information  and  the  litera- 
ture of  the  subject  see  Mollusca. 

Bixby,  James  Thompson,  American  au- 
thor and  clergyman :  b.  Barre,  Mass.,  30  July 
1843.  He  graduated  at  Harvard  in  1864.  and 
became  a  Unitarian  minister.  He  has  published: 
'Similarities  of  Physical  and  Religious  Knowl- 
edge* (1876);  'The  Crisis  in  Morals'  (1891)  ; 
'Religion  and  Science  as  Allies'  (1895)  ;  'Ethics 
of  Evolution'  (1900)  ;  'The  New  World  and  the 
New  Thought'    (1902). 

Bizet,  Alexander  Cesar  Leopold,  be-za, 
a-leks-andr  sa-zar  la-6-p61d  (better  known  as 
George  Bizet),  French  composer:  b.  Paris,  25 
Oct.  1838;  d.  there,  3  June  1875.  He  studied  with 
Halevy,  whose  daughter  he  married,  and  at  the 
Paris  Conservatory.  His  operas  include:  'The 
Pearl  Fishers'  (1863)  ;  'The  Fair  Maid  of 
Perth'  (1867);  'Djamileh'  (1872);  and  'Car- 
men' (1875),  his  most  famous  composition, 
which  retains  all  its  early  popularity  and  is 
founded  on  Merimee's  novel  of  that  name. 

Bjerregaard,  byer-re-gard,  Carl  Henry 
Andrew,  Danish-American  w-riter:  b.  Fred- 
ricia,  Denmark.  24  May  1845.  He  served  five 
years  in  the  Danish  army,  and  came  to  America 
in  1873.  He  has  been  librarian  of  the  Astor 
Library.  New  York,  from  1879,  and  has  written : 
'Mysticism  and  Nature  Worship'  ;  'Being  and 
the  Philosophical  History  of  the  Subject.' 

Bjornson,  Bjornstjerne,  byern'son,  byern'- 
sher-ng,  Norwegian  novelist,  poet,  and  dram- 
atist: b.  Kvikne,  8  Dec.  1832.    He  entered  the 


University  of  Christiania  in  1852,  and  he  speed- 
ily became  known  as  a  contributor  of  articles 
and  stories  to  newspapers  and  as  a  dramatic 
critic.  From  1857  to  1859  he  was  manager  of 
the  Bergen  theatre,  producing  during  that  time 
his  novel,  'Arne'  (1858),  and  his  tragedy  of 
'Halte  Hulda.'  He  was  at  Christiania  part 
editor  of  the  Aftenblad  in  i860,  then  lived  sev- 
eral years  abroad,  and  in  1866  became  editor  of 
the  'Norsk  Folkeblad.'  In  1869-72  he  was  co- 
director  of  a  Copenhagen  periodical,  and  much 
of  his  later  life  has  been  passed  abroad.  The 
democratic  tendencies  to  be  found  in  his  novels 
have  found  a  practical  outcome  in  the  active  part 
taken  by  him  in  political  questions  bearing  upon 
the  Norwegian  peasantry  and  popular  represen- 
tation. He  has  been  for  a  long  period  the  leader 
of  the  Norwegian  republicans,  and  the  national 
entity  symbolized  by  the  change  made  in  the 
Norwegian  flag  on  i  Jan.  1901  is  more  nearly 
due  to  him  than  to  any  one  else.  He  is  the 
greatest  distinctively  Norwegian  writer  of  his 
day,  and  his  popularity  among  his  countrymen  is 
very  great.  In  1880-1  he  traveled  and  lectured 
in  the  United  States.  His  dramas  include: 
'Sigurd  Jorsalfar'  (1872)  ;  'Mary  Stuart  in 
Scotland'  (1864);  'The  Newly  Wedded  Pair' 
(1866);  'Sigurd  Slembe'  (1872);  'The  Editor' 
(1874);  'A  Bankruptcy'  (1875);  'The  King' 
(1877)  ;  'Leonarda'  (1879)  ;  'The  New  Svstem' 
(1879);  *A  Glove'  (1883);  'Beyond  Our 
Strength'  (1883) ;  'Geography  and  Love'  ^1885). 
His  verse  includes:  'Poems  and  Songs'  (1870)  ; 
'Arnljot  Gilline,'  an  epic  (1870).  Besides  the 
pastoral  tales:  'Arne'  (1858);  'A  Happy  Boy' 
(i860);  'The  Fisher  Maiden'  (1868);  'Syn- 
ncEve  Solbakken.'  he  has  written  the  novels: 
'The  Bridal  March'  (1873)  ;  'Magnhild'  (1877); 
'Captain  Mansana'  (1879)  I  'The  Heritage  of 
the  Kurts'  (1884);  'In  God's  Way'  (1889); 
'Absalom's  Hair'  ;  etc.  See  Boyesen,  'Essays 
on  Scandinavian  Literature'  (1895)  ;  Gosse,  'An 
Essay  on  the  Writings  of  Bjornson'  (1895); 
Brandes,  'Moderne  Geister'    (1897). 

Bjornstjerna,  byern'sher  -  na,  Magnus 
Frederick  Ferdinand,  mag-noos  fred'er-ik  fer'- 
de-nand  (Count),  Swedish  statesman  and  au- 
thor: b.  Dresden,  10  Oct.  1779;  d.  Stockholm,  6 
Oct.  1847.  He  was  educated  in  Germany,  and 
in  1793  proceeded  to  Sweden  to  enter  the  army. 
At  the  storming  of  Dessau  he  received  a  severe 
contusion  from  a  cannon-ball,  but  he  was  able, 
notwithstanding,  to  be  present  at  the  battle  of 
Leipsic.  He  afterward  concluded  the  capitula- 
tion of  Liibeck  with  Gen.  Lallemand.  and  re- 
ceived the  surrender  of  the  fortress  of  Maest- 
richt.  He  concluded  with  Prince  Christian 
Frederick  at  Moss  the  convention  which  was 
followed  by  the  union  of  Norway  and  Sweden. 
He  published  'The  British  Rule  in  the  East 
Indies'  and  'Theogony,  Philosophy,  and  Cos- 
mogony of  the  Hindoos'   (1843). 

Blacas,  Pierre  Louis  Jean  Casimir,  bla-ka, 
pe-ar  loo-e  zhon  (Due  de),  French  statesman: 
b.  Aups,  Var.,  12  Jan.  1771 ;  d.  Kirchburg,  Aus- 
tria, 17  Nov.  1839.  He  was  cabinet  minister 
in  the  time  of  Louis  XVIII.,  and  a  confidential 
adviser  of  the  Bourbons ;  twice  minister  to 
Naples ;  ambassador  to  Rome  to  negotiate  the 
concordat  of  1817;  went  into  exile  upon  the 
banishment  of  Charles  X. ;  and  offered  the  king 
his  fortune,  which  was  not  accepted.    He  was  so 


BLACK 


faithful  to  the  Bourbons  as  to  be  unpopular 
with  the  people.  He  was  a  large  collector  of 
antiquities  and  founded  the  Egyptian  Museum 
at  Paris. 

Black,  Adam,  Scotch  publisher:  b.  Edin- 
burgh, 20  Feb.  1784;  d.  there,  24  Jan.  1874.  In 
1808  he  began  business  as  a  bookseller,  and 
later  with  his  nephew,  Charles  B.  Black,  estab- 
lished a  publishing  house  in  Edinburgh.  Their 
most  famous  publications  were:  *^ Encyclopaedia 
Britannica,^  and  the  ^Waverly  Novels.^  Adam 
Black  was  twice  lord  provost  of  Edinburgh, 
and  in  1856-65  represented  that  city  in  Parlia- 
ment. He  declined  the  honor  of  knighthood, 
and  a  statue  was  erected  in  Edinburgh  in  recog- 
nition of  his  public  services  in  1877. 

Black,  Alexander,  American  author :  b.  New 
York,  7  Feb.  1859.  He  has  published  <The 
Story  of  Ohio^  (1888)  ;  'Photography  Indoors 
and  Out>  (1894);  ^Miss  Jerry>  (1895);  ^A 
Capital  Courtships  (1897)  ;  'Miss  America^ 
(1898)  ;  'Modern  Daughters^  (1899)  ;  'The  Girl 
and  the  Guardsman ^    (1900). 

Black,  Charles  Clarke,  American  lawyer: 
b.  Mount  Holly,  N.  J.,  29  July  1858.  He  stud- 
ied law  and  was  admitted  to  the  New  Jersey 
bar  in  1881.  He  has  since  practised  in  Jersey 
City,  and  has  published  'Proof  and  Pleadings 
in  Accident  Cases^  (1886)  ;  'New  Jersey  Law 
of  Taxation^  (1893)  ;  'Law  and  Practice  in 
Accident  Cases^   (1900). 

Black,  Frank  Swett,  American  lawyer :  b. 
Limington,  Me.,  8  March  1853.  He  graduated 
at  Dartmouth  College  in  1875 ;  was  editor  of  the 
Journal  in  Johnstown,  N.  Y. ;  studied  law  at 
Troy  in  the  office  of  Robertson  &  Foster,  and 
was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1879.  He  won 
much  popularity  by  his  activity  in  prosecuting 
the  men  who  murdered  Robert  Ross  in  the 
election  riots  in  Troy  in  1892.  In  1895-7,  he 
was  a  member  of  Congress,  and  in  1897-9  gov- 
ernor of  New  York. 

Black,  James,  American  prohibitionist :  b. 
Lewisburg,  Pa.,  23  Sept.  1823;  d.  16  Dec.  1893. 
He  joined  a  temperance  society  at  the  age  of  17, 
and  throughout  his  life  was  a  determined  advo- 
cate of  prohibition  and  legislation  for  its  en- 
forcement. He  was  the  first  to  propose  the 
formation  of  a  temperance  partv,  was  one  of 
the  committee  that  called  a  national  convention  to 
organize  the  Prohibition  party  (q.v.)  and  was 
elected  its  president  when  the  convention  met 
in  Chicago,  i  Sept.  1869.  At  the  Columbus, 
Ohio,  convention,  22  Feb.  1872,  he  was  m.ade 
the  first  nominee  of  the  party  for  President  of 
the  United  States.  His  ticket  received  5,608 
votes  in  the  election  of  that  year.  He  pub- 
lished: 'Is  There  a  Necessity  for  a  Prohibition 
Party  ?s  (1876)  ;  ^^istorv  of  the  Prohibition 
Party)   (1880)  ;  'The  Prohibition  Party >   (1885). 

Black,  Jeremiah  Sullivan,  American  jurist 
and  statesman :  b.  Glades,  Somerset  county,  Pa., 
ID  Jan.  1810;  d.  York,  Pa.,  19  Aug.  1883.  At 
17  years  of  age  he  entered  the  law  office  of 
Chauncey  Forward,  in  Somerset,  an  eminent 
member  of  the  bar,  and  was  admitted  to  the 
courts  in  1830,  being  still  in  his  minority.  In 
April,  1842,  he  was  appointed  by  the  governor 
president  judge  of  the  judicial  district  in  which 
he  resided,  and  confirmed  by  the  Senate  upon  a 
strict  party  vote.    In  1851,  when  a  change  in  the 


State  Constitution  made  the  judges  elective. 
he  was  nominated  as  judge  of  the  Supreme 
Court  by  the  Democratic  convention,  before 
which  he  was  not  a  candidate.  Of  the  10  can- 
didates named  by  the  two  parties,  he  obtained 
the  largest  popular  vote.  Under  the  mode  of 
drawing  provided  by  the  Constitution,  a  three 
years'  term  was  assigned  to  him,  and  he  became 
chief  justice  of  the  court.  In  1854  he  was  re- 
elected to  this  place,  by  a  majority  of  47,000 
votes,  though  the  candidate  for  Governor  on  the 
same  ticket  was  defeated  by  37,000.  On  5 
March  1857,  while  engaged  in  the  discharge 
of  his  judicial  duties  at  Philadelphia,  he  re- 
ceived a  telegraphic  despatch  from  President 
Buchanan,  tendering  him  the  appointment  of 
Attorney-General  of  the  United  States.  He 
soon  after  appeared  on  behalf  of  the  government, 
in  a  disputed  land  claim  from  California,  involv- 
ing an  important  principle  upon  which  hundreds 
of  similar  cases  depended.  He  achieved  a  great 
success,  at  once  becoming  famous  as  a  jurist. 

In  December,  i860,  Mr.  Black  succeeded  Mr. 
Cass  as  Secretary  of  State.  After  the  election 
of  Lincoln,  Judge  Black  retired  to  his  law  prac- 
tice. In  1868,  he  was  counsel  for  President 
Johnson  in  the  famous  impeachment  trial.  In 
1877  he  appeared  as  counsel  for  S.  J.  Tilden 
before  the  Electoral  Commission.  Besides  a 
great  jurist.  Judge  Black  was  a  brilliant  conver- 
sationalist, classical  scholar,  and  powerful  ora- 
tor. His  collected  'Essays  and  Speeches^  were 
published  in   1885. 

Black,  John  Charles,  American  lawyer,  sol- 
dier, and  statesman:  b.  Lexington,  Miss.,  27 
Jan.  1839.  He  entered  the  Union  army  in  i86r 
as  colonel  of  the  37th  Illinois  Volunteers ;  was 
severely  wounded  in  the  service ;  and  was  brev- 
etted  brigadier-general.  After  the  war  he  was 
elected  Congressman-at-large  from  Illinois;  was 
appointed  commissioner  of  pensions  by  Presi- 
dent Cleveland  during  the  latter's  first  term, 
and  United  States  attorney  for  the  northern 
district  of  Illinois  during  his  second  term. 

Black,  Joseph,  Scottish  chemist:  b.  Bor- 
deaux, France,  1728;  d.  Edinburgh,  6  Dec.  1799. 
He  studied  medicine,  and  in  1754  delivered  a 
thesis.  'De  Humore  Acido  a  Cibis  Orto  et  Mag- 
nesia Alba,)  in  which  he  ascribes  the  difference 
between  the  mild  and  caustic  alkalies  to  the 
presence  of  fixed  air  (carbonic  acid)  in  the 
former.  The  discovery  of  carbonic  acid  is  of 
interest  not  only  as  having  preceded  the  other 
gases  made  by  Priestley,  Cavendish,  and  others, 
but  as  having  preceded  in  its  method  the  expla- 
nation given  by  Lavoisier  of  the  part  played 
by  oxygen  in  combustion.  In  1756  he  was  ap- 
pointed professor  of  medicine  and  lecturer  on 
chemistry  in  the  University  at  Glasgow;  and 
in  1766  to  the  same  chair  in  Edinburgh.  No 
teacher  inspired  his  disciples  with  such  a  zeal 
for  study;  his  lectures,  therefore,  contributed 
much  to  make  the  taste  for  chemical  science 
general  in  England.  Upon  Lavoisier's  proposal, 
the  Academy  of  Sciences  in  Paris  appointed  him 
one  of  its  eight  foreign  members.  Black  did 
not  adopt  the  Lavoisierian  system  until  he  was 
satisfied  that  it  was  more  accurate  than  that  of 
which  he  had  been  so  long  a  teacher.  In  his 
later  courses,  however,  he  taught  the  anti- 
phlogistic system.  His  'Lectures  on  Chemistry^ 
appeared  in   1803. 


BLACK  — BLACK-BELLIED  PLOVER 


Black,  William,  Scottish  novelist:  b.  Glas- 
gow, 13  Nov.  1841 ;  d.  Brighton,  England,  10 
Dec.  1898.  He  first  studied  art,  but  eventually 
became  connected  with  the  Glasgow  press.  In 
1864  he  went  to  London,  and  in  the  following 
year  joined  the  staflf  of  the  Morning  Star,  for 
which  he  was  special  correspondent  during  the 
Austro-Prussian  war  of  1866.  His  first  novel, 
^Love  or  Marriage*  (1868),  was  only  moder- 
ately successful,  but  his  *In  Silk  Attire'  (1869), 
^Kilmeny'  (1870),  <The  Monarch  of  ]\Iincing 
Lane,*  and  especially  *A  Daughter  of  Heth* 
(1871),  gained  him  an  increasingly  wide  circle 
of  readers.  For  four  or  five  years  he  was  as- 
sistant editor  of  the  Daily  News,  but  in  1874  his 
connection  with  journalism  practically  ceased. 
His  other  works  include:  *The  Strange  Adven- 
tures of  a  Phaeton*  (1872),  containing  descrip- 
tions of  scenery  much  praised  by  Ruskin ;  *A 
Princess  of  Thule*  (1873)  ;  'The  Maid  of  Kil- 
leena*  (1874)  ;  <Three  Feathers*  (1875)  ;  ^Mad- 
cap Violet*  (1876)  ;  ^Green  Pastures  and  Picca- 
dilly* (1877);  'Macleod  of  Dare*  (1878); 
^White  Wings,  a  Yachting  Romance*  (1880); 
<Sunrise*  (1880);  <The  Beautiful  Wretch* 
(1881)  ;  <Shandon  Bells*  (1883)  ;  « Judith  Shake- 
speare* (1884);  <White  Heather*  (1885);  ^Sa- 
tina  Zembra*  (1887)  ;  *The  Strange  Adventures 
of  a  House-Boat*  (1888);  <In  Far  Lochaber* 
(1889);  ^The  New  Prince  Fortunatus*  (1890); 
^'Wolfenberg*  (1892)  ;  ^Highland  Cousins* 
(1894J:  <Briseis*  (1896);  and  <Wild  Eelin* 
(1898)  Black's  novels  have  enjoyed  much  pop- 
ularity es_pecially  in  the  United  States.  His 
subject";  are  drawn  from  many  lands,  but  it  is  in 
dealing  with  the  Scottish  Highlands  that  he  is  at 
his  best.  He  also  wrote  a  *^Life  of  Goldsmith* 
foi  the  English  Men  of  Letters  series.  See 
Wemyss  Reid,  ^William  Black,  Novelist*  (1902). 

Black  Acts.  Acts  of  the  Scottish  Parlia- 
ments from  1424  to  1594,  so  called  from  their 
teing  printed  in  black-letter.  The  term  "Black 
Act**  is  also  applied  to  an  act  of  George  I.  with 
reference  to  the  "Blacks,**  a  body  of  armed  deer- 
stealers  and  poachers,  who  infested  Epping  For- 
est. 

Black  and  Tan  Terrier.     See  Terriers. 

Black  Art,  the  art  or  pretended  art  or 
practice  of  producing  wonderful  effects  by  the 
aid  of  superhuman  beings  or  of  departed  spirits 
or  the  occult  powers  of  nature.  The  reason 
why  it  was  called  black  was  that  proficients  in 
it  were  supposed  to  be  in  league  with  the  pow- 
ers of  darkness.  A  large  proportion  of  magical 
rites  are  connected  with  the  religious  beliefs  of 
those  using  them,  their  efficacy  being  ascribed 
to  supernatural  beings.  There  is,  however,  a 
non-spiritual  element  in  magic  which  depends 
on  certain  imagined  powers  and  correspond- 
ences in  nature,  that  can  be  utilized  in  various 
ways.  In  savage  countries  the  native  magician 
is  often  sorcerer  and  priest,  and  sometimes  chief 
of  the  tribe.  Among  the  ancient  Egyptians 
magic  was  worked  into  an  elaborate  system  and 
ritual,  and  it  was  regularly  practised  among  the 
Babylonians  and  Assyrians,  as  well  as  in  Greece 
and  Rome.  Alexandria,  from  the  2d  to  the  4th 
century,  became  the  headquarters  of  theurgic 
magic,  in  which  invocations,  sacrifices,  dia- 
grams, talismans,  etc.,  were  systematically  em- 
ployed. This  system,  influenced  by  Jewish 
magical     speculation,    had     a     strong    hold     in 


mediaeval  Europe,  and  many  distinguished 
names  are  found  among  its  students  and  pro- 
fessors. The  magic  which  still  holds  a  place 
among  the  illiterate  and  ignorant  classes  has 
come  down  by  tradition  in  popular  folk-lore. 
The  name  natural  magic  has  been  given  to  the 
art  of  applying  natural  causes  to  produce  sur- 
prising effects.  It  includes  the  art  of  perform- 
ing tricks  and  exhibiting  illusions  by  means  of 
apparatus,  the  performances  of  automaton  fig- 
ures, etc.  See  Alchemy  ;  Astrology  ;  Charm  ; 
Divination  ;  Legerdemain  ;  Witchcraft. 

Black  Ash,  a  mixture  of  25  per  cent  of 
caustic  soda  with  calcium  sulphide,  quicklime, 
and  unburnt  coal,  obtained  in  the  process  of 
rnaking  sodium  carbonate.  The  mixture  of  so- 
dium sulphate,  chalk,  and  powdered  coal  is  fused 
in  a  furnace,  gases  escape,  and  the  residue  is  the 
black  ash,  which  is  lixiviated  with  warm  water, 
and  the  solution,  evaporated  to  dryness,  yields 
soda  ash,  an  impure  sodium  carbonate.  See 
Sodium. 

Black  Assize,  a  judicial  sitting  of  the 
courts  held  at  Oxford  in  1577,  and  rendered 
historical  by  the  pestilential  and  deadly  fever 
which  was  introduced  into  the  court  from  the 
jail,  and  swept  away  judges,  jurymen,  and 
counsel,  and  extended  itself  into  the  town  and 
neighborhood.  The  superstitions  of  the  age 
invested  it  with  a  special  character,  and  it  was 
remarked  that  no  women  nor  poor  people  died 
of  it. 

Black  Bass,  Duck,  etc.     See  Bass  ;  Duck. 

Black  Beauty,  His  Grooms  and  Com- 
panions, a  story  by  Anna  Sewall.  It  is  writ- 
ten in  the  form  of  a  horse  autobiography,  and 
is  really  a  tract  on  the  proper  treatment  of 
horses.  The  story  is  told  with  simplicity  and 
restraint,  and  its  vogue  has  been  great,  and  its 
influence  very  wide. 

Black  Beetle,  the  English  name  for  a 
cockroach,  especially  the  Oriental  cockroach 
(q.v.)  ;  also  less  commonly  for  the  dark-colored 
beetles  of  the  bad-smelling  genus  Blaps. 

Black-bellied  Plover,  or  Black-breast,  one 

of  the  largest  of  the  American  plovers  (Cliara- 
dritis  squatarola),  also  known  throughout  the 
northern  parts  of  the  Old  World,  where  it  is 
known  as  "gray'*  or  "Swiss"  plover,  and  whence 
it  goes  in  winter  to  all  parts  of  the  southern 
hemisphere.  It  breeds  in  the  Arctic  regions,  and 
is  known  in  the  United  States  onlv  in  its  spring 
and  fall  migrations  which  are  carried  along  the 
coasts,  so  that  the  bird  is  rare  throughout  the 
interior.  Great  flocks  sometimes  visit  Eng- 
land in  autumn,  spreading  over  cultivated  fields, 
and  remaining  until  the  coming  of  frost.  It  is 
about  11.50  inches  in  lene'h,  and  has  a  large 
round  head,  and  large  Cjcs,  whence  the  gun- 
ner's names,  "bullhead,**  "beetlehead,**  and  "ox- 
eye.»  In  general  form  it  resembles  the  golden 
plover  (q.v.),  but  has  a  distinct  though  small 
hind  toe.  The  general  aspect  is  gray,  dusky  on 
the  back,  with  the  throat,  breast,  and  a  large  part 
of  the  abdomen  black,  and  the  tail  barred  with 
black;  bill  and  feet  black.  It  is  a  favorite  object 
of  sport,  and  the  young  migrants  in  autumn  are 
delicious  eating;  but  it  is  not  as  easily  shot  as 
most  of  the  shore-birds.  It  breeds  along  the 
shores  of  the  Arctic  Ocean. 


BLACK  BELT  — BLACK  EARTH 


Black  Belt,  an  agricultural  region  of  Ala- 
bama;  70  miles  wide,  extending  entirely  across 
the  State,  between  33°  and  31°  4°';  so  called 
from  the  fact  that  the  negroes  greatly  pre- 
dominate in  numbers,  raising  vast  quantities 
of  cotton  from  the  richest  of  lands.  It  includes 
17  counties,  with  over  500,000  inhabitants. 

Black-cap,  the  name  of  various  birds  hav- 
ing the  crown  of  their  head  black.  In  the 
United  States  it  is  given  most  often  to  the 
common  titmouse,  the  chickadee  (q.v.)  ;  and  to 
a  small  fly-catching  warbler,  Sylvania  pusilla, 
an  olive  and  yellow  bird  with  the  top  of  the 
head  crested  with  black.  In  England  the  com- 
mon "black-cap"  (Curruca  atricapilla)  is  a  small 
warbler,  closely  related  to  the  nightingale,  and 
one  of  the  sweetest  of  _  European  song-birds, 
which  is  frequently  kept  in  cages. 

Black  Cat,  an  American  fur-bearing  ani- 
mal. 

Black  Cockade,  a  badge  first  worn  by  the 
American  soldiers  during  the  Revolution,  and 
later,  during  the  hostility  toward  France  occa- 
sioned by  the  X.  Y.  Z.  Correspondence  (q.v.), 
adopted  by  the  Federalists  as  a  patriotic  em- 
blem and  as  a  rejoinder  to  the  tri-colored 
cockade  worn  by  the  Republicans  as  a  mark  of 
affection  toward  France. 

Black  Co'hosh.     See  Cimicifuga. 

Black  Death,  The,  one  of  the  most  mem- 
orable of  the  epidemics  of  the  Middle  Ages,  Avas 
a  great  pestilence  in  the  14th  century,  which 
devastated  Asia,  Europe  and  Africa.  It  was  an 
Oriental  plague,  marked  by  inflammatory  boils 
and  tumors  of  the  glands,  such  as  break  out  in 
no  other  febrile  disease.  On  account  of  these 
boils,  and  from  the  black  spots  (indicative  of 
putrid  decomposition)  which  appeared  upon  the 
skin,  it  has  been  generally  called  the  Black 
Death.  The  symptoms  were  many,  though  all 
were  not  found  in  every  case.  Tumors  and 
abscesses  were  found  on  the  arms  and  thighs  of 
those  affected,  and  smaller  boils  on  all  parts  of 
the  body ;  black  spots  broke  out  on  all  parts  of 
the  skin,  either  single,  united,  or  confluent. 
Symptoms  of  cephalic  affection  were  frequent ; 
many  patients  became  stupefied  and  fell  into  a 
deep  sleep,  losing  also  their  speech  from  palsy 
of  the  tongue ;  others  remained  sleepless,  with- 
out rest.  The  fauces  and  tongue  were  black, 
and  as  if  suff^used  with  blood.  No  beverage 
would  assuage  the  burning  thirst.  The  plague 
spread  with  the  greater  fury  as  it  communicated 
from  the  sick  to  the  healthy;  contact  with  the 
clothes  or  other  articles  which  had  been  used 
by  the  infected  induced  disease,  and  even  the 
breath  of  the  sick,  who  expectorated  blood, 
caused  contagion  far  and  near.  As  it  advanced, 
not  only  men  but  animals  fell  sick  and  expired. 
In  England  the  plague  first  broke  out  in  the 
county  of  Dorset,  whence  it  advanced  through 
the  counties  of  Devon  and  Somerset  to  Bristol, 
and  thence  reached  Gloucester,  Oxford  and  Lon- 
don. Probably  few  places  escaped,  perhaps  not 
any,  for  the  annals  of  contemporaries  report 
that  throughout  the  land  only  a  tenth  part  of 
the  inhabitants  remained  alive.  From  England 
the  contagion  was  carried  by  a  ship  to  Norway, 
where  the  plague  broke  out  in  its  most  frightful 
form,  with  vomiting  of  blood,  and  throughout 
the  whole  country  spared  not  one  third.  The 
sailors  found  no  refuge  on  their  ships,  and  ves- 
sels whose  crews  had  perished  to  the  last  man 


were  often  seen  drifting  on  shore.  The  whole 
period  of  time  during  which  the  Black  Death 
raged  with  destructive  violence  in  Europe  was 
(with  the  exception  of  Russia,  where  it  did  not 
break  out  until  1351)  from  1347  to  1350;  from 
this  latter  date  to  1383  there  were  various  pesti- 
lences, bad  enough,  indeed,  but  not  as  violent 
as  the  Black  Death.  Ireland  was  much  less 
heavily  visited  than  England,  and  the  disease 
seems  scarcely  to  have  reached  the  mountainous 
regions  of  that  land ;  and  Scotland,  too,  would 
perhaps  have  remained  free  from  it  had  not  the 
Scotch  availed  themselves  of  the  discomfiture  of 
the  English  to  make  an  irruption  into  England, 
which  terminated  in  the  destruction  of  their 
army  by  the  plague  and  the  sword  and  the  ex- 
tension of  the  pestilence  through  those  who  es- 
caped over  the  whole  country.  It  may  be  as- 
sumed that  Europe  lost  by  the  Black  Death  some 
25,000,000  of  people,  or  about  one  fourth  of  her 
entire  population.  That  her  nations  could  re- 
cover so  quickly  from  this  terrible  loss  without 
retrograding  more  than  they  did  is  a  most  con- 
vincing proof  of  the  indestructibility  of  human 
society  as  a  whole.  In  Hungary,  and  afterward 
in  Germany,  rose  the  brotherhood  of  the  Flagel- 
lants, who  undertook  to  expiate  the  sins  of  the 
people  and  avert  the  pestilence  by  self-imposed 
sufferings.  While  the  wanderings  of  the  Flagel- 
lants threw  society  into  confusion,  and  helped 
to  spread  the  plague,  the  horrors  of  the  time 
were  further  heightened  by  the  fearful  persecu- 
tions to  which  the  Jews  were  subjected,  from  a 
popular  belief  that  the  pestilence  was  owing  to 
their  poisoning  the  public  wells.  The  people 
rose  to  exterminate  the  Hebrew  race,  of  whom, 
in  Mayence  alone,  12,000  were  cruelly  murdered. 
They  were  killed  by  fire  and  by  torture  wherever 
they  could  be  found,  and  for  them  to  the  terrors 
of  the  plague  were  added  those  of  a  populace 
everywhere  infuriated  against  them.  In  some 
places  the  Jewish  people  immolated  themselves 
in  masses ;  in  others,  not  a  soul  of  them  survived 
the  assaults  of  their  enemies.  No  adequate  no- 
tion can  be  conveyed  of  these  horrors.  To  ag- 
gravate the  pestilence,  the  poison-panic  made 
the  people  shut  up  their  wells.  With  terror  of 
poison  and  of  plague  in  a  state  of  society  rude 
at  the  best,  but  now  disorganized,  what  means 
were  available  to  mitigate  or  prevent  the  suffer- 
ings of  the  people  were  rendered  altogether 
nugatory. 

Black  Duck.      See  Dusky  Duck. 

Black  Earth,  a  deposit  in  South  Russia, 
extending  over  the  steppes  that  border  on  the 
Black  Sea,  and  the  depressed  area  to  the  north 
of  the  Caspian,  with  a  breadth  from  north  to 
south  of  from  200  or  300  to  nearly  700  miles.  It 
varies  in  color  from  dark  brown  to  black,  and 
in  thickness  from  a  foot  or  two  up  to  six  or 
seven  yards,  occasionally  reaching,  it  is  said, 
even  to  60  feet.  It  is  composed  chiefly_  of  sili- 
ceous sand  (about  70  per  cent),  alumina  and 
other  ingredients  {2^,  per  cent),  and  organic 
matter  (about  seven  per  cent).  It  appears  to 
be  unfossiliferous.  It  bears  the  same  relation 
to  the  glacial  accumulations  of  Russia  that  the 
loess  of  the  Rhine,  the  Danube,  etc.,  does  to 
those  of  central  Europe,  and  is  probably  the 
fine-grained  silt  derived  from  the  torrents  and 
flooded  rivers  that  escaped  from  the  melting 
snows  and  glaciers  of  the  glacial  period.  Ac- 
cording   to    some    geologists,    however,    it    may 


BLACK-EYED  SUSAN  — BLACK  FRIDAY 


owe  its  origin  to  the  action  of  the  wind.  It  is 
supposed  by  them  to  be  simply  an  accumulation 
of  wind-blown  dust  —  the  finely  sifted  material 
being  fixed  by  the  abundant  grasses  of  those 
steppe  regions. 

Black-eyed  Susan,  the  name  of  a  once 
popular  comedy  by  Douglas  Jerrold.  It  ap- 
peared in  1829  and  was  founded  on  Gay's  ballad 
*  Sweet  William's  Farewell  to  Black- Eyed 
Susan.  ^ 

Black  Flags,  an  organization  of  Chinese 
rebels  who  established  themselves  in  the  Red 
River  valley  in  Tonquin,  after  the  suppression 
of  the  Taiping  Rebellion  in  southern  China 
(1850-4).  From  their  warlike  character  and 
desperate  deeds  they  were  called  Black  Flags 
as  distinguished  from  the  peaceable  Yellow 
Flags.  They  assisted  the  Tonquinese  and  Chi- 
nese in  opposing  the  French  wars  (1873,  1882, 
and  1885),  with  signal  results.  Their  principal 
object  was  plunder.  They  were  responsible  for 
the  appalling  massacre,  in  1884,  of  French  mis- 
sionaries and  native  Christians,  to  the  number 
of    10,000. 

Black  Fly,  a  species  of  the  genus  Simu- 
lium,  the  common  black  fly  of  northern  New 
England,  Canada,  and  Labrador  probably  being 
6".  molestmn.  In  this  tormenter  of  travelers  and 
fishermen  the  body  is  short  and  thick,  the 
labrum  is  free,  sharp  as  a  dagger,  and  the  pro- 
boscis is  well  developed  and  draws  blood  pro- 
fusely. It  is  black,  with  a  broad  silvery  ring 
on  the  legs.     The   species  are  numerous. 

The  cylindrical  larva  is  furnished  with  short 
antennjE,  and  near  the  mouth  are  two  flabelli- 
form  appendages.  The  pupa  has  eight  very  long 
lateral  filaments  on  the  front  of  the  thorax,  and 
the  posterior  end  of  the  body  is  enclosed  in  a 
semi-oval  membranous  cocoon,  open  in  front, 
and  posteriorly  attached  to  some  submerged 
plant  such  as  eel-grass.  The  fly  leaves  the  pupa 
beneath  the  water.  She  deposits  her  eggs  on  the 
rocks  in  a  compact  layer  a  few  inches  above  the 
surface  of  the  water.  The  eggs  of  the  Hun- 
garian or  **Columbacz  midge"  are  enveloped 
in  a  yellowish-white  slime  and  deposited 
at  the  end  of  May  or  early  in  June  upon 
stones  or  grass  over  which  water  flows,  or  in 
the  brooks  of  the  more  elevated  regions.  The 
number  laid  is  variously  estimated  at  from 
500  to  5,000.  The  food  of  the  larva  of  the 
buffalo-gnat  has  been  proved  to  be  carnivorous, 
and  it  is  supposed  that  the  larvEe  of  all  the 
species  live  on  animal  matter,  though  possibly 
in  some  cases  on  dead  leaves.  On  hatching 
the  larvae  become  attached  to  plants,  etc.,  or  to 
each  other,  by  a  silken  thread,  forming  long 
floating  strings.  When  the  fly  issues  from  the 
submerged  pupa-case  she  rises  to  the  surface, 
then  being  protected  by  a  fine  silky  covering  of 
hairs.  The  adult  fly  in  central  New  York  issues 
about  the  first  of  April,  and  those  apparently 
of  a  new  brood  the  first  of  June;  after  this  there 
is  a  succession  of  generations  throughout  the 
season ;  the  development  of  a  single  brood 
occupying  about  two  months.  The  larva  hiber- 
nates. 

While  the  black  fly  of  Maine,  and  presum- 
ably of  Labrador,  is  of  the  species  S.  molestum, 
that  of  the  St.  Lawrence  valley  has  been  named 
S.  invenustum,  and  is  said  to  be  different  from 
that  of  Lake  Superior.  A  remarkably  large 
species    is    known    as    5".    pictipes;    its    larvse 


and  pupae  were  found  in  the  rapids  of  the  Au 
Sable  River,  and  also  similar  ones  on  the  north 
shore  of  Lake  Superior. 

The  black  fly  is  mostly  active  in  the  bright 
sun-light,  mostly  disappearing  on  cloudy  days, 
but  it  is  known  to  crawl  under  one's  clothes  and 
to  bite  in  the  night.  The  bite  is  often  severe, 
the  creature  leaving  a  large  clot  of  blood  behind 
it.  The  best  preventive  is  oil  of  tar,  and  the 
use  of  various  ointments. 

Black  Forest  (German,  Schwarzwald),  a 
chain  of  mountains  in  the  grand-duchy  of  Baden 
and  the  kingdom  of  Wiirtemberg.  It  runs  al- 
most parallel  with  the  Rhine,  from  south  to 
north,  often  only  from  15  to  20  miles  distant; 
is  about  85  miles  long,  and  from  east  to  west  in 
the  southern  part  about  30  miles  wide;  in  the 
northern  about  18.  The  Danube,  as  well  as  many 
other  rivers,  rises  in  these  mountains.  Those 
on  the  west  side  run  into  the  Rhine;  those  on 
the  east  side  into  the  Danube.  The  Black  For- 
est is  rather  a  chain  of  elevated  plains  than  of 
isolated  peaks.  The  highest  summit,  the  Feld- 
berg,  measures  4,900  English  feet.  Except  from 
June  to  September,  these  mountains  are  gen- 
erally covered  with  snow,  and  even  during  this 
period  are  not  entirely  free  from  it.  Among 
the  many  valleys  of  this  chain,  the  Murgthal  is 
particularly  celebrated  for  its  beautiful  scenery. 
The  whole  chain  consists  of  primitive  mountains : 
its  skeleton  throughout  is  granite;  its  higher 
points  are  covered  with  sandstone,  and  other 
layers  of  less  consequence.  On  the  western  side, 
at  the  foot,  appears  gneiss.  Porphyry  and  clay- 
slate  are  found  on  several  heights,  as  likewise 
silver,  lead,  copper,  iron,  cobalt,  and  other  min- 
erals. The  forests  are  extensive,  and  consist 
mostly  of  pines  and  similar  species.  The  raising 
of  cattle  is  the  principal  branch  of  husbandry 
carried  on  in  this  district.  The  ground  is  not 
fertile,  and  the  inhabitants  scattered  over  the 
mountains  live  very  frugally,  and  are  very 
industrious.  The  vast  quantity  of  timber  grow- 
ing here  has  long  been  a  considerable  source  of 
revenue.  The  timber  of  the  Black  Forest  was 
always  highly  prized  by  the  Dutch,  and  the  ex- 
port to  Holland  is  still  largely  carried  on,  the 
trees  being  conveyed  down  the  Rhine  in  the  form 
of  rafts.  Many  saw-mills  are  kept  at  work  cut- 
ting up  the  timber ;  and  the  forests  also  give  em- 
ployment to  charcoal-burners,  potash-boilers,  etc. 
The  manufacture  of  the  well-known  wooden 
clocks,  toys,  etc.,  is  another  important  branch 
of  industry,  in  which  many  persons  are  em- 
ployed. Watches  are  also  made,  as  well  as  or- 
chestrions and  other  musical  instruments.  Neu- 
stadt,  Friberg,  Hornberg,  and  Furtwangen  are 
central  points  of  the  manufacture  of  wooden 
wares,  the  commerce  in  which  embraces  all 
Europe,  and  extends  to  America  and  Australia. 

Black  Friars,  friars  of  the  Dominican 
order :  so  called  from  the  color  of  their  habit. 
See  Dominicans;  Orders,  Religious. 

Black  Friday,  the  name  given  in  the 
United  States  to  two  days  that  ushered  in  finan- 
cial panics.  First,  Friday,  24  Sept.  1869,  when 
the  attempt  of  Jay  Gould  and  James  Fisk,  Jr., 
to  create  a  corner  in  the  gold  market  by  buying 
all  the  gold  in  the  banks  of  New  York  city, 
amounting  to  $15,000,000,  culminated.  For  sev- 
eral days  the  value  of  gold  had  risen  steadily, 
and  the  speculators  aimed  to  carry  it  from  144 
to  200.    Friday  the  whole  city  was  in  a  ferment. 


BLACK  GUM  — BLACK  HOLE  OF  CALCUTTA 


the  banks  were  rapidly  selling,  gold  was  at  \62y2, 
and  still  rising.  Men  became  insane,  and  every- 
where the  wildest  excitement  raged,  for  it 
seemed  probable  that  the  business  houses  must 
be  closed,  from  ignorance  of  the  prices  to  be 
charged  for  their  goods.  But  in  the  midst  of 
the  panic  it  was  reported  that  Secretary  Bout- 
well  of  the  United  States  treasury  had  thrown 
$4,000,000  on  the  market,  and  at  once  gold  fell, 
the  excitement  ceased,  leaving  Gould  and  Fisk 
the  winners  of  $11,000,000.  The  second  was  19 
Sept.  1873,  when  numerous  failures  on  the  New 
York  Stock  Exchange  precipitated  the  panic  of 

1873- 

The  term  was  first  used  in  England,  being 
applied  in  the  first  instance  to  the  Friday  on 
hhicli  the  news  reached  London,  6  Dec.  1745, 
that  the  young  pretender,  Charles  Edward,  had 
arrived  at  Derby,  creating  a  terrible  panic ;  and 
finally  to  11  May  1866,  when  the  failure  of 
Overend,  Gurney  &  Company,  London,  the  day 
before  was  followed  by  a  widespread  financial 
ruin.  Good  Friday  is  also  known  as  Black  Fri- 
day in  some  countries,  because  of  the  use  of  black 
vestments  and  draperies  in  the  churches. 

Black  Gum,  Sour  Gum,  or  Pepperidge. 
See  Tupelo. 

Black  Hawk,  chief  of  the  Sac  Indians :  b. 
Kaskaskia.  111.,  1767;  d.  near  Fort  Des  Moines, 
3  Oct.  1838.  He  was  made  chief  of  the  Sacs 
in  1788;  and  in  1804  repudiated  the  first  agree- 
ment made  by  the  Sacs  and  Foxes  with  the 
United  States  to  give  up  their  lands  east  of 
the  Mississippi.  The  possession  of  the  terri- 
tory was  disputed  for  a  number  of  years ;  in 
1823  the  majority  of  the  two  tribes  moved  across 
the  river,  and  a  treaty  with  the  United  States, 
ceding  the  disputed  territory,  was  signed  in 
1830.  Black  Hawk,  however,  objected  to  the 
whites  occupying  the  vacated  territory,  and  in 
June  1831,  he  began  the  Black  Hawk  war  by 
crossing  the  Mississippi  with  a  small  force  and 
attacking  some  Illinois  villages.  Driven  off  by 
the  militia  under  Gen.  Gaines,  he  returned  in 
the  spring  of  1832  with  a  larger  force  and  began 
to  massacre  the  white  settlers.  The  Indians 
were  however  defeated  by  United  States  troops 
in  two  battles  near  the  Wisconsin  River,  21  July 
1832,  and  near  the  Bad-Axe  River,  1-2  Aug. 
1832.  The  war  was  brought  to  an  end  by  the 
surrender  of  Black  Hawk  in  the  latter  part  of 
August.  He  was  kept  a  prisoner  till  1833,  then 
rejoined  his  tribe  on  their  reservation,  near  Fort 
Des  Moines. 

■  Bibliography. —  Drake,  ^Life  of  Black 
Hawk>  ;  Patterson,  <Life  of  Black  Hawk>  ; 
Snelling,  *Life  of  Black  Hawk^  ;  Thwaite, 
^ Story  of  the  Black  Hawk  War'  (Wisconsin 
Historical  Society  ^Papers'  Vol.  XII.). 

Black-Hawk  War.     See  Black  Hawk. 

Black  Hills,  a  region  in  South  Dakota, 
extending  into  Wyoming.  It  was  purchased 
from  the  Indians  in  1876,  for  whom  it  had  been 
one  of  the  finest  hunting  grounds  in  the  West. 
In  1877-8  thousands  of  miners  went  there,  and 
in  1880  there  had  already  sprung  into  existence 
three  towns,  Deadwood,  Central  City,  and  Lead- 
ville.  Around  these  lay  also  groups  of  smaller 
towns  and  villages.  From  1880  the  gold  mines 
yielded  about  $4,000,000  annually,  and  the  silver 
mines  about  $3,000,000  annuallv.  The  region  is 
also  rich  in  copper,  lead,  iron  and  mica.     The 


soil  is  fertile  and  the  hills  have  abundant  facili- 
ties for  the  grazing  of  cattle.  Thrifty  farmers 
have  settled  there,  and  many  of  them  have  good 
farms  and  fine  improvements.  Good  school- 
houses  have  also  been  built  in  different  settle- 
ments.    See  South  Dakota. 

Black  Hole  of  Calcutta,  a  small  chamber, 
20  feet  square,  in  Fort  William,  Calcutta.  On 
the  capture  of  Calcutta  by  Surajah  Dowlah,  20 
June,  1756,  the  English  garrison,  consisting  of 
146  men,  under  the  command  of  Mr.  Holwell, 
were  locked  up  for  the  night  in  the  common 
dungeon  of  the  fortress,  a  strongly  barred  room, 
18  feet  square,  and  never  intended  for  the  con- 
finement of  more  than  two  or  three  men  at  a 
time.  There  were  only  two  windows,  and  a  pro- 
jecting veranda  outside  and  thick  iron  bars 
within  materially  impeded  what  little  ventila- 
tion there  might  be,  while  conflagrations  raging 
in  different  parts  of  the  fort  gave  the  atmos- 
phere an  unusual  oppressiveness.  The  unhappy 
creatures,  exhausted  with  previous  fatigue,  were 
packed  so  tightly  in  their  prison  that  it  was  with 
difficulty  the  door  could  be  closed.  A  few  mo- 
ments sufficed  to  throw  them  into  a  profuse  per- 
spiration, the  natural  consequence  of  which  was 
a  raging  thirst.  One  of  the  soldiers  stationed  in 
the  veranda  was  offered  1,000  rupees  to  have 
them  removed  to  a  larger  room.  He  went  away, 
but  returned  saying  it  was  impossible.  The 
bribe  was  then  doubled,  and  he  made  a  second 
attempt  with  a  like  result ;  the  nabob  was  asleep, 
and  no  one  dared  wake  him.  By  nine  o'clock 
several  had  died,  and  many  more  were  delirious. 
A  frantic  cry  for  water  now  became  general, 
and  one  of  the  guards,  more  compassionate 
than  his  fellows,  caused  some  to  be  brought  to 
the  bars,  where  Mr.  Holwell  and  two  or  three 
others  received  it  in  their  hats,  and  passed  it 
on  to  the  men  behind.  In  their  impatience  to 
secure  it  nearly  all  was  spilt,  and  the  little  they 
drank  seemed  only  to  increase  their  thirst.  Self- 
control  was  soon  lost ;  those  in  remote  parts  of 
the  room  struggled  to  reach  the  window,  and 
a  fearful  tumult  ensued,  in  which  the  weakest 
were  trampled  or  pressed  to  death.  They  raved, 
fought,  prayed,  blasphemed,  and  many  then  fell 
exhausted  on  the  floor,  where  suffocation  put  an 
end  to  their  torments.  About  11  o'clock  the 
prisoners  began  to  drop  off  fast.  At  length, 
at  six  in  the  morning,  Surajah  Dowlah  awoke, 
and  ordered  the  door  to  be  opened.  Of  the  146 
only  23,  including  Mr.  Holwell  (from  whose  nar- 
rative, published  in  the  ^Annual  Register'  for 
1758,  the  account  of  this  event  is  partly  derived), 
remained  alive,  and  they  were  either  stupefied 
or  raving.  Fresh  air  soon  revived  them,  and 
the  commander  was  then  taken  before  the  na- 
bob, who  expressed  no  regret  for  what  had  oc- 
curred, and  gave  no  other  sign  of  sympathy  than 
ordering  the  Englishman  a  chair  and  a  glass 
of  water.  Notwithstanding  this  indifference, 
Mr.  Holwell  and  some  others  acquit  him  of  any 
intention  of  causing  the  catastrophe,  and  as- 
cribe it  to  the  malice  of  certain  inferior  of- 
ficers, but  many  think  this  opinion  unfounded. 
Holwell  and  three  others  were  sent  prisoners 
to  Muxadavad ;  the  rest  of  the  survivors  ob- 
tained their  liberty,  and  the  dead  bodies  were 
carelessly  thrown  into  a  ditch.  The  Black  Hole 
is  now  used  as  a  warehouse,  and  an  obelisk,  50 
feet  high,  was  erected  in  memory  of  the  vic- 
tims. 


BLACK  JACK  — BLACK  RIVER 


Black  Jack.  i.  A  term  loosely  applied  by 
miners  to  blende,  the  sulphuret  of  zinc,  or  to 
any  other  ore  which  resembles  it  in  being  ob- 
noxious to  them,  if  in  no  other  respect. 

2.  One  of  several  small  oak  trees  of  the 
southeastern  coast,  especially  Qucrcus  Mary- 
landica,  which  has  a  rough,  dark,  scaly  bark, 
and  peculiar  broadly  wedge-shaped  3-5  lobed 
leaves,  dark  green  and  lustrous  above,  and 
somewhat  rusty  beneath. 

Black  Knight,  The,  a  name  given  by  ro- 
mantic writers  to  various  heroic  characters.  In 
Scott's  ^Ivanhoe^  Richard  Cceur  de  Lion  mas- 
querades as  the  Black  Knight.  The  Knight  Es- 
plandian,  son  of  Amadis  of  Gaul  and  Oriana,  is 
also  so  called.  In  the  Arthurian  legend  the  Black 
Knight,  Sir  Peread,  was  one  of  the  four  brothers 
who  kept  the  passage  of  Castle  Dangerous. 

Black  Law,  in  the  United  States  the  name 
given  to  certain  laws  in  force  before  the  Civil 
War  in  many  of  the  northern  and  border  States 
discriminating  against  free  negroes  who  might 
become  citizens.  Such  laws  excluded  negroes 
from  the  public  schools  and  from  the  militia, 
forbade  them  to  testify  in  court  against  a  white 
man,  or  in  any  case  in  which  a  white  man  was 
interested. 

Black  Lead.     See  Graphite. 

Black  Letter,  that  variety  of  type  other- 
Avise  designated  Gothic,  and  which  in  a  modified 
form  is  the  ordinary  type  made  use  of  in  Ger- 
many, although  in  recent  years  there  has  been  a 
tendency  to  employ  the  Roman  letter,  the  Gothic 
tj'pe  being  considered  injurious  to  the  eyes. 
The  earliest  printed  books  were  in  black  letter. 
See  Printing. 

Black  Lilly.      See  Fritillary. 

Black  List,  a  list  of  bankrupts  or  other 
persons  whose  names  are  officially  known  as 
failing  to  meet  pecuniary  engagements.  The 
term  is  also  applied  to  a  list  of  employees  who 
have  been  discharged  by  a  firm  or  corporation 
and  against  whom  some  objection  is  made  and 
reported  to  other  firms  or  corporations  to  pre- 
vent them  obtaining  employment.  Blacklisting 
is  made  a  punishable  ofifense  by  the  laws  of  some 
States.  See  Eddy,  ^Laws  of  Combinations^ 
(1901). 
^  Black  Monday,  (i)  A  name  for  Easter 
Monday,  in  remembrance  of  the  dreadful  ex- 
periences of  the  army  of  Edward  III.,  before 
Paris,  on  Easter  Monday  14  April  1360.  Many 
soldiers  and  horses  perished  from  the  extreme 
cold.  (2)  The  27th  of  February,  1865,  a  memor- 
able day  in  Melbourne,  Australia,  when  a  des- 
tructive sirocco  prevailed  in  the  surrounding 
country. 

Black  Mountains,  the  culminating  group 
of  the  Appalachian  system,  named  from  the  dark 
growth  of  balsam-firs  and  other  evergreens 
which  cover  their  summits.  Their  position  is  in 
Yancey  and  Buncombe  counties.  North  Carolina, 
between  the  main  central  ridges  on  the  west  and 
a  portion  of  the  Blue  Ridge  on  the  east.  Un- 
like the  other  ridges  of  the  Alleghanies,  they 
lie  for  the  most  part  transverse  to  the  g:eneral 
trend  of  the  range,  and  give  this  direction  to 
the  great  valleys  and  rivers  included  between 
them.  They  rise  from  a  district  of  great  eleva- 
tion, the  height  of  the  valley  at  Asheville,  on 
the  French  Broad  River,  being  about  2,000  feet 
above  the  sea,  and  that  of  Toe  River,  at  Burns- 
V'ol.  2  —  44 


ville,  Yancey  County,  about  2,500  feet.  From 
this  plateau  the  drainage  is  toward  the  Ohio  in 
a  northerly  direction  by  the  branches  of  the 
Great  Kanawha,  by  those  of  the  Holslon  and  the 
French  Broad  toward  the  southwest,  and  by 
those  of  the  Yadkin  and  the  Catawba  into  the 
Pedee  and  Santee  toward  the  southeast.  This 
position  at  the  sources  of  streams  flowing  in 
such  diverse  directions,  long  since  pointed  out 
this  district  as  probably  the  most  elevated  east 
of  the  Rocky  Mountains.  The  chief  peaks  are 
Mitchell,  6,710,  and  Clingman's  Peak,  Guyot's 
Peak,  or  Balsam  Cone,  Sandoz  Knob,  Hairy 
Bear,  Cat  Tail  Peak,  Gibbe's  Peak,  Sugar  Loaf, 
or  Hallback  Peak,  Potato  Top,  Black  Knob, 
Bowler's  Pyramid,  Roan  Mountain,  all  of  which 
are  above  6,500  feet  in  height. 

Black  Prince  (Edward,  Prince  of  Wales), 
the  son  of  Edward  III.  of  England.  He  is  thus 
styled  in  history  by  reason  of  the  color  of  his 
armor.  He  died  in  1376  and  his  son  became 
king  in  1377  as  Richard  II. 

Black-quarter,  an  apoplectic  disease  which 
attacks  cattle,  indicated  by  lameness  of  the  fore- 
foot, one  of  the  limbs  swelling,  and  after  death 
being  suffused  with  black  blood,  which  also  is 
found  throughout  the  body.  The  disease,  which 
chiefly  attacks  young  cattle,  is  due  to  undrained 
fertile  pasture,  or  to  the  too  rapid  transference 
of  the  cattle  from  poorer  to  richer  soils.  It  is 
difficult  to  cure,  but  may  be  prevented  by  thor- 
ough draining  or  by  giving  regular  doses  of  nitre 
to  all  the  animals.  The  usual  treatment  con- 
sists in  blood-letting,  cutting  into  the  swollen 
parts,  and  administering  first  nitre  and  after- 
ward ammonium  acetate  and  purgatives.  In  the 
United  States  the  disease  is  especially  prevalent 
in  Texas,  Kansas,  Nebraska,  South  Dakota,  and 
Colorado. 

Black  Republic,  a  name  applied  to  the 
Republic  of  Haiti,  which  is  under  the  dominion 
of  the  African  race. 

Black  Republicans,  a  name  applied  to 
those  members  of  the  Republican  party, 
who  resisted  the  introduction  of  slavery  into 
any  State  where  it  was  not  already  recog- 
nized. 

Black  River,  the  name  of  several  Ameri- 
can rivers,  (i)  A  river  which  rises  in  New  York 
in  Herkimer  County,  and  after  passing  through 
Oneida  and  Lewis  counties,  changes  its  course 
at  a  place  called  Great  Bend,  passes  by  Water- 
town,  and  flows  through  Black  River  Bay  into 
Lake  Ontario.  Near  Turin,  in  Lewis  County, 
it  has  a  fall  of  about  63  feet.  Below  the  fall, 
it  is  navigable  to  Carthage,  a  distance  of  40 
miles.  The  whole  length  of  the  river  is  125 
miles,  and  its  breadth  at  Watertown  (six  miles 
from  its  mouth)  is  60  yards.  (2)  A  river  of  Mis- 
souri and  Arkansas,  also  known  as  the  Big  Black 
River,  the  largest  affluent  of  White  River.  It 
rises  in  the  southeastern  part  of  the  former 
State,  takes  a  southerly  course,  enters  Arkan- 
sas, and  joins  the  White  River  40  miles  below 
Batesville.  During  nine  months  of  the  year  it 
is  navigable  for  a  distance  of  100  miles  from 
its  mouth.  Its  entire  length  is  about  400  miles. 
Trout  and  other  excellent  fish  are  caught  in  its 
waters  in  great  abundance.  (3)  A  river  of  Wis- 
consin. It  rises  in  Marathon  County  and  en- 
ters the  Mississippi  15  miles  above  La  Crosse, 
after  a  course  of  225  miles.  (4)  A  river  of  Ver- 
mont which  rises  in  the  town  of  Plymouth  and 


BLACK  RIVER  FALLS —  BLACKADDER 


is  a  tributary  of  the  Connecticut.  Its  abun- 
dant water  power  is  utilized  by  various  manu- 
factories along  its  course,  (s)  A  portion  of  the 
Washita  River  in  Louisiana  between  the  mouth 
of  the  Tensaw  River  and  the  Red  River;  also 
sometimes  styled  Black  River. 

Black  River  Falls,  Wis.,  a  city  and  the 
county-seat  of  Jackson  County,  171  miles 
north  of  Milwaukee.  A  fine  water  power  is 
afforded  by  the  falls  of  the  Black  River,  and 
there  are  flour  and  lumber  mills,  wagon  and 
other  factories,  foundaries,  machine  shops, 
and  nurseries.  There  are  iron  mines  in  the 
neighborhood,  and  kaolin  deposits  from 
which  fire-brick  are  manufactured.  Pop. 
(1900)   1,938. 

Black  Rock  Desert,  a  tract  of  nearly  1,000 
square  miles,  north  of  Pyramid  Lake,  in  Ne- 
vada. In  summer  it  is  a  barren  level  of  alkali 
and  in  winter  covered  in  places  with  shallow 
water.     Called  also  "Mud  Lakes.® 

Black  Rod,  Usher  of  the,  an  officer  of  the 
House  of  Lords,  appointed  by  letters  patent 
from  the  Crown,  and  employed  to  execute  orders 
for  the  commitment  of  parties  guilty  of  breach 
of  privilege  and  contempt,  to  assist  at  the  in- 
troduction of  peers  and  other  ceremonies ;  and 
to  summon  the  Commons  to  attend  in  the  House 
of  Lords  when  the  royal  assent  is  given  to  bills. 
His  proper  title  is  gentleman-usher  of  the  black 
rod ;  that  of  his  deputy,  yeoman-usher. 

Black  Rood  of  Scotland,  a  cross  of  gold 
in  the  form  of  a  casket,  alleged  to  contain  a 
piece  of  the  true  Cross.  It  was  brought  to  Scot- 
land in  the  nth  century  by  Margaret,  queen  of 
Malcolm  III. ;  was  bequeathed  as  an  heirloom, 
and  regarded  as  a  sacred  relic.  It  was  delivered 
to  Edward  I.  in  1291,  but  restored  to  Scotland 
after  the  Peace  of  Northampton  in  1328.  It 
was  finally  taken  in  battle  by  the  English  in 
1346,  and  hung  in  the  Cathedral  of  Durham  un- 
til the  Reformation,  when  it  disappeared. 

Black  Saturday,  4  Aug.  1621;  so  called  in 
Scotland  because  a  violent  storm  occurred  at 
the  very  moment  the  parliament  was  sitting  to 
enforce  episcopacy  on  the  people.  The  name 
has  also  been  applied  to  10  Sept.  1547  on  which 
date  the  disastrous  battle  of  Pinkie  was  fought. 

Black  Sea  (Lat.  Pontus  Euxinus),  a  sea 
situated  between  Europe  and  Asia,  and  bounded 
on  the  west  by  Turkey,  Bulgaria,  and  Rumania, 
northwest,  north  and  east  by  the  Russian  do- 
minions, and  on  the  south  by  Anatolia  (Asia 
Minor),  being  connected  with  the  Mediterranean 
by  the  Bosporus,  and  with  the  Sea  of  Azov  by 
the  Strait  of  Yenikale.  The  area  of  the  Black 
Sea  and  the  Sea  of  Azov  amounts  to  168,500 
square  miles.  The  water  is  not  so  clear  as  that 
of  the  Mediterranean,  and,  on  account  of  the 
many  large  rivers  which  fall  into  it, —  the  Dan- 
ube, Dniester,  Dnieper,  Don,  Kuban,  etc., —  be- 
ing less  salt,  freezes  more  readily.  The  tempests 
on  this  sea  are  sometimes  tremendous  in  win- 
ter, as  the  land  which  confines  its  agitated  wa- 
ters gives  to  them  a  kind  of  whirling  motion ; 
but  being  practically  clear  of  islands  and  rocks 
its  navigation  is  not  difficult  on  the  whole.  In 
1854  one  of  its  tremendous  storms  occasioned  a 
very  serious  loss  to  the  shipping  of  the  allied 
British  and  French.  The  fisheries  in  the  Sea 
of  Azov  and  the  Black  Sea  are  not  unimportant, 
various  kinds   of  valuable   fish  both  large  and 


small  being  taken ;  among  others,  several  species 
of  sturgeon.  Caviare  is  made  on  the  coast,  as 
well  as  fish-glue,  fish-oil,  and,  from  the  spawn 
of  the  sea  mullet,  botargo.  The  chief  ports  are 
Odessa,  Kherson,  Nicolaiev,  Sebastopol,  Novo- 
rossisk,  Batoum,  Trebizond,  Samsun,  Sinope, 
and  Varna.  '  It  contains  no  islands  of  any  note. 
After  the  capture  of  Constantinople  (1453)  the 
Turks  excluded  all  but  their  own  ships  from  the 
Black  Sea  till  1774,  when  the  Russians  obtained 
the  right  to  trade  in  it,  the  same  right  being  ac- 
corded to  Austria  in  1784,  and  to  Britain  and 
France  in  1802.  The  preponderance  thereaftei 
gained  by  Russia  was  one  of  the  causes  of  the 
Crimean  war,  by  which  she  was  compelled  to 
cease  keeping  armed  vessels  on  it,  the  sea  being 
declared  neutral  by  the  Treaty  of  Paris  in  1856. 
In  1871,  however,  the  sea  was  deneutralized  by 
a  conference  of  the  European  powers  (France 
being  unrepresented)  at  London  in  response  to 
a  protest  from  Russia. 

Black  Tin,  tin  ore  w^hen  dressed,  stamped, 
and  washed  ready  for  smelting,  forming  a  black 
powder.     See  Tin. 

Black-vomit,  a  form  of  vomiting  occurring 
usually  in  severe  cases  of  yellow  fever,  due  to 
the  presence  of  blood  in  the  stomach.  See  Yel- 
low Fever. 

Black  Wad,  an  ore  of  manganese,  used  in 
making  chlorine  gas  and  as  a  drying  ingredient 
in  paints.  It  is  an  earthy  variety  of  the  diox- 
ide found  in  low-lying  districts,  and  is  often 
mixed  with  oxides  of  cobalt  or  copper. 

Black  Walnut.     See  Walnut. 

Black  Warrior,  an  American  merchant 
vessel,  seized  and  confiscated  by  Cuban  customs 
officers  in  May  1854.  This  seizure  was  used  as 
an  excuse  for  proposed  filibustering  expeditions 
against  Cuba.  Spain,  however,  made  compensa- 
tion for  the  seizure. 

Black  Warrior,  a  river  of  Alabama,  formed 
by  the  confluence  of  the  Locust  and  Mulberry 
forks.  It  flows  into  the  Tombigbee  near  De- 
mopolis,  after  a  course  of  300  miles,  and  is  nav- 
igable in  its  lower  course  to  Tuscaloosa. 

Black  Watch,  The,  a  famous  British  regi- 
ment, originating  as  a  body  of  Highlanders, 
raised  about  1668,  for  the  purpose  of  keeping 
the  peace  in  the  Highlands,  and  so  n?med  frcm 
their  dark  dress.  They  were  embodied  in  the 
regular  army  under  the  title  of  the  42d  regi- 
ment in  1739.  It  first  distinguished  itself  in  the 
battle  of  Fontenoy  (i745)-  From  1750  till 
1767  the  regiment  was  in  America,  and  on  its 
return  it  received  the  title  of  Royal  Highland- 
ers. It  again  served  in  America  during  the 
War  of  Independence;  and  in  1801  it  particu- 
larly distinguished  itself  in  Egypt  at  the  battle 
of  Alexandria.  The  Black  Watch  was  also 
present  at  Napoleon's  final  defeat  in  the  battle 
of  Waterloo.  It  has  gained  special  mention  for 
its  conduct  at  the  Alma,  in  the  Ashantee 
war,  and  at  Tel-el-Kebir.  The  regiment 
was  practically  annihilated  in  the  Boer  war  in 
1901.  Few  English  regiments  surpass  them  for 
number  of   engagements  or  battle  honors. 

Black  Water  State,  a  popular  nickname 
for  Nebraska. 

Blackadder,  John,  Scottish  preacher:  b. 
1615;  d.  December  1685.  He  entered  the  Pres- 
byterian ministry  and  when,  in  1662,  the  episcopal 


WHITE    BLACKBERRY.    "ICEBERG/ 


BLACKBERRY  —  BLACKBIRD 


form  of  church  government  was  forced  upon  a 
people  who  were  generally  repugnant  to  it, 
Blackadder,  so  far  from  complj'ing  with  the 
new  system,  employed  himself  for  several  suc- 
cessive Sundays  in  exposing  what  he  considered 
its  unlawfulness,  and,  in  his  own  words,  en- 
tered his  ^dissent  in  heaven*^  against  it.  He 
was  obliged  to  demit  his  charge  in  favor  of  an 
Episcopal  incimibent,  and  in  1670,  having  per- 
formed worship  at  a  conventicle  near  Dunferm- 
line, where  the  people  had  armed  themselves  for 
self-defense,  he  was  summoned  before  the  privy 
council,  but  contrived  to  elude  their  power.  On 
one  occasion  he  preached  at  Kinkell,  near  St. 
Andrews ;  the  people  flocked  from  the  metropoli- 
tan city  to  hear  him,  notwithstanding  all  the 
injunctions  and  surveillance  of  Archbishop 
Sharpe.  It  is  said,  that  on  Sharpe  desiring  the 
provost  to  send  out  the  militia  to  disperse  the 
cong:regation,  he  was  informed  that  it  was  im- 
possible—  the  militia  had  gone  alreadv  as  wor- 
shippers. After  spending  several  months  in 
Holland,  in  1680  he  returned  to  Scotland,  and 
in  the  succeeding  year  was  apprehended,  and 
confined  in  the  state  prison  upon  the  Bass  Rock, 
where  he  died.  See  Crichton,  ^Life  of  Black- 
adder'    (1823). 

Blackberry,  various  species  of  Rubus 
(q.v.),  in  which  the  drupelets  adhere  to  the  re- 
ceptacle after  ripening.  Two  general  types  are 
common:  the  trailing  or  dewberry  (q.v.),  and 
the  upright,  which  is  more  generally  known  as 
the  blackberry.  The  leading  or  representative 
species  of  this  group  is  the  very  variable  R.  nig- 
robaccus  (R.  villosiis  of  some  botanists),  which 
since  1841,  when  the  first  variety  was  introduced, 
has  developed  numerous  varieties  and  has  be- 
come in  America,  but  not  elsewhere,  an  im- 
portant commercial  fruit.  It  is  used  chiefly  as 
a  dessert  fruit,  but  is  also  preserved,  canned  and 
evaporated.  The  plant  thrives  best  on  a  north- 
ern slope  and  on  rather  heavy,  loamy  soils  re- 
tentive of  moisture  but  well  drained.  The  soil 
must  not  be  rich  in  nitrogenous  food,  since  this 
tends  to  increase  wood  at  the  expense  of  fruit- 
fulness.  On  light  soils  the  plants  are  likely  to 
sufl'er  from  lack  of  moisture  in  drj'  seasons. 
Potash  fertilizers  are  required  jn  abundance. 
Plants  are  usually  propagated  from  root  cuttings 
or  suckers,  and  when  one  season  old  the  smaller 
varieties  are  set  in  the  field  usually  three  by 
eight  feet  apart,  the  larger  four  by  ten  or  else  in 
checks  six  by  six  feet  or  more.  When  set  in 
checks  cultivation  may  be  given  both  ways.  For 
cultivation,  diseases,  etc.,  see  Raspberry.  In 
Europe  the  bramble  {R.  fruticosus)  is  called 
the  blackberry.  It  is  not  extensively  cultivated. 
Consult:  Bailey  and  Miller,  < Cyclopaedia  of 
American  Horticulture*  (1900-2)  ;  Card,  "^Bush 
Fruits'   (1901). 

Blackberry  Lily  (Leopard  Flower)  (Bel- 
amcanda  punctata),  a  perennial  herb,  out  of  the 
two  species  of  its  genus  of  the  natural  order 
Iridacece,  native  of  Japan  and  China  and  long 
cultivated  as  a  garden  plant  for  its  orange,  red- 
spotted  flowers.  Its  popular  names  were  sug- 
gested by  the  blackberry-like  clusters  of  round- 
ish seeds  and  the  spotted  flowers.  The  seed 
stalks  are  occasionally  used  for  decoration  with 
dried  grass.  The  seeds  may  be  sown  in  a  sunny 
place  where  the  soil  is  light  and  rich,  and  in 
after  years  the  root-stocks  may  be  divided. 


Blackbird,  the  name  given  to  two  distinct 
species  of  birds:  (i)  The  American  grakles 
(q.v.)  of  the  family  Icteridcc,  which  consists  of 
about  a  dozen  species  differing  in  size  and  color. 
(2)  The  English  song-thrush  or  ^'merle."  Four 
species  are  known  in  the  eastern  States,  namely : 
the  purple  grakle,  and  rusty  grakle,  the  red- 
winged  blackbird,  and  the  cow-bird. 

The  most  familiar  American  one  is  the  crow- 
blackbird,  more  properly  termed  purple-grakle, 
because  of  the  iridescent  or  metallic  gloss  on 
its  plumage.  This  bird  is  found  throughout  the 
entire  East,  and  as  far  west  as  Dakota.  It  is 
the  largest  variety,  being  12  inches  in  length. 
In  the  spring  flocks  of  these  grakles  are  found 
among  the  advance  guard  of  the  returning  hosts 
of  the  homeward-bound  migrants,  although 
many  remain  in  the  southern  States  throughout 
the  entire  winter  season.  Their  nests,  located 
along  the  edges  of  the  swamps,  are  rude,  strong 
structures  of  sticks  and  reeds,  placed  among 
the  branches  of  bushes,  in  the  tops  of  tall  pine 
trees,  or  in  holes  of  old  tree-stumps.  The  eggs 
are  remarkably  varied  in  size,  shape  and  color, 
some  being  pointed,  others  long  and  slender, 
while  others  are  nearly  globular,  the  length 
averaging  about  1.25  by  .90  of  an  inch.  The 
color  is  any  shade  of  dirty  white,  light-blue  or 
green,  and  the  markings  consist  of  confused 
blotches,  scratches,  and  straggling  lines  of  vari- 
ous dark  tints.  A  bird  similar  in  its  habits  and 
mode  of  life  to  the  purple-grakle  is  the  rusty 
blackbird,  lacking  only  the  metallic  hues,  its 
plumage  being  rusty  black.  The  marshes  where 
they  breed  are  great  centres  of  blackbird  popu- 
lation, and  there  they  collect  in  great  flocks 
of  young  and  old  as  the  end  of  the  season  ap- 
proaches. At  this  time  they  visit  any  neighbor- 
ing fields  of  Indian  corn,  sometimes  in  hordes, 
to  tear  open  the  husks,  feed  upon  the  milky 
kernels,  and  make  themselves  obno.xious  to  the 
farmers,  although,  indisputably,  they  are,  on  the 
whole,  beneficial  by  their  destruction  of  insects. 
The  red-winged  blackbird  (Agelceus  phceni- 
ccus),  a  variety  of  which  is  also  found  on  the 
Pacific  coast,  varies  in  color  from  the  bird  of 
the  eastern  States,  in  the  fact  that  it  has  on  the 
wing  a  dark,  blood-red  patch,  bordered  witK 
pure  white,  the  other  possessing  only  the  scarlet 
patches  on  each  shoulder,  from  which  it  takes 
its  name.  The  nests  of  the  red -winged  black- 
bird are  placed  near  the  ground,  among  reeds  or 
in  small  bushes  and  swamps.  The  eggs  are 
smaller  and  lighter  in  color  than  those  of  the 
grakle,  but  resemble  them  in  the  scrawled  mark- 
ings. The  French-Canadians  call  them  "officer- 
birds.''  The  impression  upon  the  beholder,  as  he 
gazes  at  the  prodigious  flocks  of  tens  of  thou- 
sands of  these  red-epauleted  blackbirds,  when 
gathered  upon  the  marshes  preparing  for  the  fall 
migrations,  and  wheeling  in  regular  lines  as  they 
fly,  their  epaulets  glistening  in  the  sun,  is  that 
of  an  army  of  soldiers.  Besides  these,  there  is 
found  in  the  middle  west  the  handsomest  of  the 
family,  the  yellow-headed  blackbird  (Xanthoce- 
phalus  xanthoceplwlus),  in  which  the  whole  head 
and  throat  are  rich  orange-yellow.  The  females 
of  many  species  are  strikingly  contrasted  in 
plumage  to  their  mates,  having  only  a  streaked 
brown  dress  instead  of  glossy  black  and  red  or 
yellow  of  the  males.  The  young  resemble  the 
females  in  their  protected  dullness  of  plumage. 
For  the  English  Blackbird,  see  Song  Thrush. 
For  the  cow-bird,  see  Cow-Bird. 


BLACKBREAST  —  BLACKFISH 


The  name  is  given  to  various  other  birds, 
prevailingly  black  in  plumage,  as,  for  example, 
to  the  bobolink  (q.v.),  which  is  called  "skunk 
blackbird,"  because  of  the  resemblance  in  its 
black  and  white  markings  to  those  of  a  skunk; 
and  to  the  ani  of  Florida  and  the  West  Indies, 
which  is  commonly  termed  "savanna  blackbird.*^ 

See  Baird,  Brewer  and  Ridgway,  < North 
American  Birds'  (Boston  1874)  ;  IngersoU, 
<Wild  Life  of  Orchard  and  Field*    (1902). 

Blackbreast,  a  local  name  among  Ameri- 
can sportsmen  for  (i)  the  black-bellied  plover 
(Charadrius  squatarola)  ;  (2)  the  dunlin 
(Tringa  alpina),  also  called  "blackheart.^* 

Blackbuck,  the  common  small  antelope 
{Antilope  cervicapra),  of  the  plains  of  India 
and  Assam.  This  is  the  typical  antelope,  with 
horns  from  16  to  20  inches  long,  rising  in  an 
elegant  spiral  from  the  top  of  the  head.  The 
body  is  blackish  brown  above,  sharply  contrasted 
with  white  on  the  under  parts,  and  with  a  con- 
spicuous white  ring  around  each  eye.  These 
handsome  little  antelopes  go  about  ordinarily  in 
family  parties,  but  sometimes  gather  in  large 
herds,  and  are  a  favorite  object  of  sport  in  In- 
dia, where  they  are  usually  chased  on  horseback 
with  greyhounds  —  sometimes  also  with  the 
cheeta  (q.v.),  or  by  the  aid  of  falcons.  They 
are  so  swift  that  the  best  of  dogs  are  required 
to  catch  them.  They  continue  numerous  be- 
cause they  are  never  hunted  by  the  native  Hin- 
dus, on  account  of  religious  prejudices.  Con- 
sult: Baker,  *^Wild  Beasts  and  Their  Ways,* 
and  other  writers  upon  the  sport  and  natural 
history  of  India. 

Blackburn,  Henry,  English  journalist  and 
art  critic:  b.  Portsea,  15  Feb.  1830.  He  was 
educated  at  King's  College,  London.  Beside 
contributions  to  newspapers  and  magazines,  he 
has  written  ^Life  in  Algeria*  (1864);  <Art  in 
the  Mountains :  the  Story  of  the  Passion  Play  in 
Bavaria*    (1870);  ^Breton  Folk*    (1879);  etc. 

Blackburn,  Joseph  Clay  Styles,  American 
lawyer:  b.  Woodford  County,  Ky..  i  Oct.  1838; 
was  graduated  at  Centre  College,  Danville,  Ky., 
in  1857;  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1859,  and  prac- 
tised in  Chicago.  During  the  Civil  War  he 
served  in  the  Confederate  army,  and  after  the 
war  resumed  practice  in  Kentucky.  In  1871  he 
was  elected  to  the  Kentucky  legislature,  and  in 
1874  to  Congress ;  and  was  a  United  States 
Senator  in  1885-97  and  again  elected  for  the 
term  1901-7.  During  the  presidential  campaign 
of  1896  he  was  a  leader  in  the  free  coinage  sil- 
ver movement. 

Blackburn,  Luke  Pryor,  American  physi- 
cian: b.  Fayette  Count}',  Ky.,  16  June  1816; 
d.  14  Sept.  1887;  was  graduated  at  Transyl- 
vania University,  Lexington,  Ky.,  in  1834,  and 
began  practising  in  that  city.  When  cholera 
broke  out  in  the  town  of  Versailles  he  went  there 
and  gave  his  services  free  during  the  epidemic. 
In  1846  he  went  to  Natchez,  Miss.,  and  in  1848, 
when  yellow  fever  appeared  in  New  Orleans,  as 
health  officer  of  Natchez,  he  originated  the  first 
quarantine  against  New  Orleans  that  had  ever 
been  known  in  the  Mississippi  valley.  During 
the  Civil  War  he  was  a  surgeon  on  the  staff 
of  Gen.  Price.  In  1875,  when  yellow  fever 
broke  out  in  Memphis,  he  hastened  to  the  city 
and  organized  a  corps  of  physicians  and  nurses, 
and  in  1878  gave  his  services  to  the  yellow  fever 


sufferers  at  Hickman,  Ky.  He  was  elected 
governor  of  Kentucky  in  1879.  He  founded  the 
Blackburn  Sanitarium  for  Nervous  and  Mental 
Diseases  in  1884. 

Blackburn,  William  Maxwell,  American 
Presbyterian  clergyman  and  educator:  b.  Car- 
lisle, Ind.,  31  Dec.  1828;  d.  1900.  He  became 
president  of  the  University  of  North  Dakota 
in  1884  and  of  Pierre  University,  South  Dakota, 
in  1885,  and  president-emeritus  of  the  last  (now 
Huron  College)  in  1898.  He  wrote  ^St.  Patrick 
and  the  Early  Irish  Church*  ;  ^Admiral  Coligny 
and  the  Rise  of  the  Huguenots*  ;  <  History  of 
the  Christian  Church,*  etc.;  and  the  <Uncle 
Ahck*   series  of  juvenile  stories. 

Blackburn,  England,  a  municipal,  parlia- 
mentary, and  county  borough  in  Lancashire,  21 
miles  north-northwest  from  Manchester.  There 
is  a  free  grammar  school,  founded  by  Queen 
Elizabeth  in  1557;  a  free  school  for  girls, 
founded  by  William  Lej'land  in  1765 ;  a  technical 
school,  and  a  free  library.  The  town-hall,  in- 
firmary, exchange,  municipal  offices,  county 
court,  county  police  station,  opera  house,  library 
and  museum,  and  union  workhouse  are  all  mod- 
ern and  handsome  buildings.  There  are  two 
public  parks,  one  beautifully  situated  on  the 
declivity  of  Revidge  Hill.  The  railways  all  con- 
verge, and  pass  through  one  large  railway  sta- 
tion belonging  to  the  Lancashire  &  Y.  Ry.  Com- 
pany. The  corporation  owns  all  the  public 
utilities.  Blackburn  is  one  of  the  chief  seats  of 
the  cotton  manufacture,  there  being  upward  of 
140  mills,  as  well  as  works  for  making  cotton 
machinery  and  steam-engines.  The  cottons 
made  in  the  town  and  vicinity  have  an  annual 
value,  of  about  $25,000,000.  Pop.  (1901) 
127,527. 

Blackcock,  or  Heathcock,  a  large  Euro- 
pean grouse  {Teirao  tctrix),  so  called  because 
of  the  glossy  black  color  of  the  cock.  The  fe- 
male is  grayish,  mottled  in  darker  colors,  and 
is  called  "grayhen,**  or  "heathhen.**     See  Caper- 

CALLIE. 

Blackfeet  Indians,  a  tribe  of  Indians  in- 
habiting the  United  States  and  Canada  from 
the  Yellowstone  to  Hudson  Bay.  They  received 
this  name  from  the  fact  that  the  first  ones  seen 
by  white  men  wore  leggings  blackened  by 
traveling  over  the  burnt  prairie.  They  call 
themselves  "plainsmen.**  At  the  end  of  the 
first  quarter  of  the  19th  century  they  numbered 
nearly  50,000.  In  1903,  less  than  6,000  re- 
mained, of  whom  nearly  half  were  on  the  reser- 
vation in  ]\Iontana. 

Blackfin.      See  Bluefin. 

Blackfish,  any  one  of  a  variety  of  dark- 
colored  fishes,  both  of  America  and  Europe. 
For  the  American  "blackfish,**  see  Tautog  ;  Sea- 
bass,  and  Minnow.  The  English  "blackfish** 
is  a  kind  of  mackerel  (Centrolophtis  niger), 
about  two  feet  long.  It  occurs  rather  abun- 
dantly off  the  south  coast  of  Europe,  and  is  much 
esteemed  as  a  food  fish. 

The  name  is  also  given  to  a  small  "killer** 
whale  of  the  genus  Globiocephalus,  which  goes 
about  in  herds  that  often  enter  harbors.  They 
are  sought  by  fishermen  for  the  sake  of  a  small 
amount  of  oil,  resembling  sperm-oil,  to  be  ob- 
tained from  their  fat,  and  also  for  the  sake  of 
their  beef-like  flesh.  The  common  blackfish  of 
the  Atlantic  is  G.  brachypteriis,  and  that  of  the 


BLACKGUARD  ~  BLACKMAIL 


North  Pacific  G.  scammoni.  Sailors  give  the 
name  <'blackfish*^  to  the  ^^caaing,'^  or  "pilot** 
whale  (q.v.),  and  to  various  other  small  ceta- 
ceans. Consult:  Bullen,  ^Cruise  of  the  Cacha- 
lot* ;  Scammon,  ^Marine  Mammals  of  North 
America.*     See  also  Killer. 

Blackguard,  a  term  used  in  the  i6th  cen- 
tury for  the  lowest  menials  of  a  noble  house, 
the  scullions  who  cleaned  pots  and  pans.  It 
was  also  used  of  the  hangers-on  of  an  army, 
camp  followers,  then  a  rabble,  and  to  vaga- 
bonds in  general. 

Blackhead,  the  name  for  several  animals, 
characterized  by  the  blackness  of  the  head ;  es- 
pecially in  the  United  States:  (i)  the  scaup 
duck;  (2)  a  common  minnow,  the  fathead  (q.v.). 
The  name  is  also  applied  to  the  accumulations 
of   dirt   found   in   the   sebaceous   follicles.     See 

ACARUS. 

Blackheath,  England,  an  elevated  heath  in 
the  county  of  Kent.  It  borders  on  Green- 
wich Park,  and  is  about  five  miles  from  St. 
Paul's,  London.  It  contains  267  acres,  and  is 
a  place  of  popular  resort,  much  used  for  cricket- 
playing.  In  183 1  Wat  Tyler  and  John  Ball 
mustered  their  followers  here.  Jack  Cade  oc- 
cupied the  same  position  twice  in  1450.  In  1497 
the  Cornish  insurgents,  under  Lord  Audley, 
were  routed  there  by  the  king's  forces.  Black- 
heath  has  been  the  scene  of  many  historical  pa- 
geants and  processions,  as  it  was  formerly  the 
custom  for  the  mayor  and  corporation  of  the 
city  of  London,  and  even  the  king  and  court, 
to  repair  thither  to  meet  illustrious  foreigners 
from  the  Continent.  Henry  IV.  met  there 
(1400)  the  Byzantine  emperor,  Michael  Paleeo- 
logus ;  the  corporation  of  London  there  met 
Henry  V.,  on  his  return  from  Agincourt,  and 
the  year  afterward,  the  Emperor  Sigismund. 
The  most  splendid,  and  one  of  the  last  of  all, 
was  the  reception  of  Anne  of  Cleves,  by  Henry 
VIII.,  January  1541 ;  she  was  conducted  through 
Greenwich  Park  to  the  palace  at  Greenwich, 
followed  by  prodigious  numbers  of  nobility  and 
gentry,  and  1.200  privileged  citizens,  clad  in  vel- 
vet and  chains  of  gold. 

Blackhorse,  a  fish,  one  of  the  suckers  of 
the  Mississippi  valley  (Cycleptus  elongatus)  ; 
also  known  as  the  Missouri  or  gourdseed 
sucker.  It  is  about  two  feet  long,  with  a  small 
head,  suggesting,  in  profile,  that  of  a  horse,  and 
becomes  almost  jet-black  in  spring.  See 
Sucker. 

Blackie,  John  Stuart,  Scottish  poet,  littera- 
teur, and  professor :  b.  Glasgow,  1809 ;  d.  2 
March  1895.  He  was  educated  at  the  universi- 
ties of  Aberdeen  and  Edinburgh ;  subsequently 
went  to  Gottingen,  Berlin,  and  Rome,  where  he 
continued  his  studies,  which  were  chiefly  con- 
nected with  philologj'.  In  1834  he  published  a 
translation  of  Goethe's  ^  Faust,*  and  the  same 
j-ear  became  an  advocate  at  the  Scottish  bar; 
in  1841  he  accepted  the  chair  of  humanity  in 
Marischal  College,  Aberdeen.  This  position  he 
held  imtil,  in  1852,  he  was  appointed  to  the  pro- 
fessorship of  Greek  in  the  University  of  Edin- 
burgh, a  chair  which  he  resigned  in  1882.  By 
his  unwearied  eft'orts  to  preserve  the  Gaelic  lan- 
guage, he  succeeded  in  raising  $60,000,  with 
which  sum  a  Celtic  chair  was  endowed  in  Edin- 
burgh University.  Among  his  more  important 
writings  are:   <Lyric  Poems';  ^Horner  and  the 


Iliad*  ;  ^Musa  Burschicosa' ;  ^Horse  Hellenicse' ; 
*  Self-culture*  ;  ^  Songs  of  Religion  and  Life*; 
^Lays  of  the  Highlands  and  Islands* ;  'Lay  Ser- 
mons* ;  'Altavona*  ;  <  Wisdom  of  Goethe* ;  'Life 
of  Burns*;  'Scottish  Song*;  and  'Song  of 
Heroes.*  His  biography  has  been  published 
(2  vols.)   by  Anna  M.  Stoddart. 

Blacking,  the  article  employed  in  blacking 
boots  and  shoes,  usually  contains  for  its  principal 
ingredients  oil,  vinegar,  ivory,  or  bone  black, 
sugar  or  molasses,  and  strong  sulphuric  acid, 
though  every  manufacturer  has  his  own  recipe, 
and  endeavors  to  turn  it  to  best  account  by  con- 
cealing its  composition  and  puffing  its  merits. 
Blacking  is  used  either  liquid  or  in  the  form  of 
a  paste,  but  both  are  obtained  from  the  same 
ingredients,  the  only  difference  being  that  in 
making  the  paste  a  portion  of  the  liquid  is  with- 
held. A  celebrated  old  English  blacking  con- 
sists of  18  ounces  of  caoutchouc  dissolved  in  9 
pounds  of  hot  rape-oil,  60  pounds  ivory-black, 
45  pounds  molasses,  and  20  gallons  vinegar,  of 
strength  No.  24,  in  which  i  pound  finely  ground 
gum-arabic  has  been  dissolved.  The  whole  mix- 
ture, after  being  carefully  triturated  in  a  grind- 
ing mill,  receives  12  pounds  sulphuric  acid,  in 
small  successive  quantities,  stirring  strongly  for 
half  an  hour.  The  stirring  is  continued  for  half 
an  hour  daily  during  a  fortnight,  and  then  3 
pounds  of  gum-arabic  are  added,  after  which 
the  stirring  is  resumed,  and  continued  as  before 
for  another  fortnight.  This  gives  fine  liquid 
blacking;  the  paste  is  obtained  within  a  week 
by  wnthholding  8  of  the  20  gallons  in  which  the 
gum-arabic  is  dissolved. 

Blackleg,  a  cattle  disease.  See  Black  Quar- 
ter. 

Blackmail,  originally  a  certain  rate  of 
money,  corn,  cattle,  or  the  like,  anciently  paid,  in 
the  north  of  England  and  in  Scotland,  to  certain 
men  who  were  allied  to  robbers,  to  be  protected 
by  them  from  pillage.  It  was  carried  to  such  an 
extent  as  to  becom^e  the  subject  of  legislation. 
Blackmail  was  levied  in  the  districts  bordering 
the  Highlands  of  Scotland  till  the  middle  of  the 
l8th  century.  In  the  United  States,  in  common 
language,  and  in  general  acceptation,  it  is  equiva- 
lent to,  and  synonymous  with,  extortion — the 
exaction  of  money,  either  for  the  performance 
of  a  duty,  the  prevention  of  an  injur}',  or  the 
exercise  of  an  influence.  It  supposes  the  service 
to  be  unlawful  and  the  payment  involuntary. 
Not  unfrequently  it  is  extorted  by  threats,  or  by 
operating  upon  the  fears  or  the  credulity  or  by 
promises  to  conceal,  or  offers  to  expose,  the  weak- 
nesses, the  follies,  or  the  crimes  of  the  victim. 
There  is  moral  compulsion,  which  neither  ne- 
cessity nor  fear,  nor  credulity  can  resist.  The 
New  York  statutes  upon  the  subject  have  been 
adopted  in  substance  by  many  other  States  of  the 
Union.  These  statutes  provide,  substantially, 
that  a  person  who  knowing  the  contents  thereof, 
and  with  intent,  by  means  thereof,  to  extort  or 
gain  any  money  or  other  property,  or  to  do,  abet, 
or  procure  any  illegal  or  wrongful  act,  sends, 
delivers,  or  in  any  manner  causes  to  be  for- 
warded or  received,  or  makes  and  parts  with 
for  the  purpose  that  there  may  be  sent  or  de- 
livered, any  letter  or  writing,  threatening  to 
accuse  any  person  of  a  crime,  or  to  do  any  injury 
to  any  person  or  to  any  property,  or  to  publish 
or  connive  at  publishing  any  libel,  or  to  expose 
or  impute  to  any  person  any  deformity  or  dis- 


BLACKMORE  —  BLACKSNAKE 


grace  is  punishable  by  imprisonment  for  a  term, 
usually,  not  exceeding  five  years.  In  New  York 
and  in  various  other  States  it  is  also  a  misde- 
meanor for  any  person  who,  under  circumstances 
not  amounting  to  robbery,  or  an  attempt  at 
robbery,  with  intent  to  extort  or  gain  any  money 
or  other  property,  verbally  makes  such  a  threat 
as  would  be  criminal  under  the  statute  men- 
tioned above,  and  it  is  immaterial  whether  a 
threat  made  as  specified  in  the  statute,  is  of 
things  to  be  done  or  omitted  by  the  offender,  or 
by  any  other  person. 

Blackmore,    Richard    Doddridge,    English 
novelist :  b.  Longworth,  Berkshire,  7  June  1825  ; 
d.   20  Jan.   1900.     His   father,   curate  of  Long- 
worth,  and  a  graduate  of  Exeter  College,  Ox- 
ford, was  a  man  of  scholarly  character;  among 
his   ancestors   on   his   mother's    side   Blackmore 
numbered  Philip  Doddridge,  the  Non-Conformist 
divine.     Blackmore  was   educated  at   Blundell's 
School   at  Tiverton  and  at  his  father's   college, 
which  he  entered  in  1843  with  a  good  reputation 
for  scholarship,  and  where  he  had  a  successful 
career.     In  one  of  his  long  vacations  he  began 
<The  ]Maid  of  Sker,^   which  was  not  published 
till  1872.     He  was  graduated  in  1847,  with  M.A. 
in  1852.    In  1852  he  married  IMiss  Lucy  Maguire, 
and   while   supporting   himself   in   London   read 
law  in  the  Inner  Temple.     Admitted  to  the  bar 
the  same  year,  he  had  some  success  as   a  con- 
veyancer, but  finding  London  life  detrimental  to 
his  health,  gave  up  his  work  and  in  1855  became 
classical    master    at    Wellesley    House    School, 
Twickenham    Common.     In    1853   he    published 
his  first  volume,    ^ Poems  by  Melanter,'    and  a 
little  later  <Epullia,>  also  an  anonymous  volume 
of  verses.    In  1855  appeared  <The  Bugle  of  the 
Black  Sea,)  and  in  i860  <The  Fate  of  Franklin. > 
About   this   time   a   legacy   from   his   uncle,   the 
Rev.  H.  H.  Knight,  enabled  him  to  build  him- 
self a  substantial  country  house,  Gomer  House, 
at    Teddington,    near    Twickenham.      Here    he 
lived  the  rest  of  his  life,  devoting  his  mornings 
to  the  raising  of  fruits  and  flowers,  famous  for 
quality  but  costing  him  an  average  loss  of  £250 
a  year.    The  remainder  of  his  time  he  gave  over 
to    literature.      A    translation    of    two    of    the 
Georgics  of  Virgil,  entitled  'The  Farm  and  Fruit 
of     bld>      (1862),     was     followed     by     <  Clara 
Vaughan'  (1864)  and  'Cradock  NowelP  (1866), 
neither  very  successful  novels.     His  third  novel, 
<Lorna  Doone>    (1869),  after  a  somewhat  slow 
start,  became  one  of  the  great  popular  novels  of 
the    century;    up    to    the    time    of    Blackmore's 
death  it  had  gone  through  nearly  50  editions, 
and  has  now  assumed  the  place  of  a  semi-classic. 
Uneven  in  structure,  often  prolix,  exaggeratedly 
romantic,  occasionally  falling  into  a  false  metri- 
cal prose,  it  nevertheless  continues  to  hold  the 
interest  of  its  readers  through  the  fine  sense  of 
the  Devon  country  where  the  scene  is  laid,  the 
very  real  and  human  country  types,  and  the  es- 
sentially   manlv    character    of    its    hero,    John 
Ridd.     Up  to  the  time  of  his  death,  Blackmore 
continued  to  produce  novels  at  the  rate  of  about 
two  in  five  years.     Of  these  the  most  important 
are  <The  Maid  of  Sker,>  regarded  by  the  author 
as    his    best,    ^Springhaven'     (1887)    which    he 
thought  superior  to  "^Lorna  Doonc,'   <Alice  Lor- 
raine'   CT875).  and  <Cripps  the  Carrier^    (1876). 
The  other  titles  are:      <Erema,  or  My  Father's 
5in>  (1877),  <Mary  Annerley>  (1880),  <Chnsto- 


welP  (1882),  <The  Remarkable  History  of 
Tommy  Upmore'  (1884),  <Kit  and  Kitty' 
(1889),  <Perleycross>  (1894),  < Tales  from  the 
Telling  House'  (1896),  and  *^I)arieP  (1897).  A 
volume  of  verse,  'Fringilla'  (1895),  completes 
the  list  of  his  published  work.  No  life  has  as 
yet  been  published,  and  most  of  the  commentary 
on  him  is  to  be  found  in  magazine  articles  and 
^^^^^^3-  _  W.  T.  Brewster, 

Professor  of  English  in  Columbia  University. 

Blackpool,  England,  a  town  and  county  bor- 
ough on  the  west  coast,  and  in  the  Blackpool 
Division  of  North  Lancashire,  between  the  es- 
tuaries of  the  Ribble  and  Wyre,  27  miles  south- 
west of  Lancaster,  which  has  of  late  years 
attracted  many  visitors  by  its  advantages  as  a 
watering  place.  It  affords  excellent  accommoda- 
tion for  visitors  in  the  numerous  hotels,  hydro- 
pathic establishments,  and  lodging-houses,  and 
consists  of  ranges  of  loft}'  houses  about  three 
miles  long  facing  the  sea,  in  front  of  which  ex- 
tends an  excellent  promenade  and  carriage  drive. 
The  town  is  abundantly  supplied  with  the  means 
of  amusement  and  recreation,  including  theatres, 
concert  rooms,  fine  winter  gardens,  aquarium, 
extensive  pleasure-grounds,  park  of  60  acres,  a 
great  steel  tower  over  500  feet  high,  a  gigantic 
wheel,  and  other  attractions.  There  are  a  court- 
house and  three  markets,  several  churches,  six 
council  schools,  eight  non-provided  schools  and 
one  for  higher  education,  libraries  and  news- 
rooms. Blackpool  was  incorporated  as  a  muni- 
cipal borough  on  21  Jan.  1876,  and  as  a  county 
borough  I  Oct.  1904.    Pop.  (1903)  48,000. 

Blacksnake,  or  Blue  Racer,  a  common  colu- 
brine  serpent  (Zamenis  constrictor)  found 
throughout  the  United  States,  and  the  adjacent 
parts  of  Canada.  The  typical  eastern  black- 
snake  is  uniform  lustrous  black  above,  and  slate- 
color  beneath,  the  lower  jaw,  chin,  and  some- 
times upper  edges  of  the  lip-plates  white,  the 
tongue  black.  Western  specimens  are  bright 
olive-green,  with  the  entire  under  surface 
greenish-white,  varying  to  bright  yellow,  which 
accounts  for  the  name,  "blue"  or  «green  racer," 
often  heard  in  the  Mississippi  valley.  The 
3-oung,  under  18  inches  in  length,  are  variegated 
with  dark  blotches  upon  olive,  and  light  mar- 
gins to  the  scales,  especially  on  the  sides.  The 
female  is  larger  than  the  male,  but  rarely  if 
ever  exceeds  six  feet  in  length.  This  is  one 
of  the  most  numerous  and  vigorous  of  Ameri- 
can snakes,  making  its  home  in  hollow  stumps 
and  underground  dens.  At  the  approach  of  win- 
ter, many  are  likely  to  gather  together  in  simi- 
lar retreats,  and  remain  there  in  a  torpid  condi- 
tion until  spring,  entangled  into  a  ball,  for  the 
sake  of  mutual  warmth.  Its  motions  are  of  the 
swiftest,  it  being  capable  of  running  with  great 
rapidity  and  of  scaling  trees,  sometimes  to  a 
height  of  100  feet  above  the  ground,  where  it 
searches  from  branch  to  branch  for  birds'  eggs, 
young  squirrels,  etc.  It  seeks  much  of  its  food 
in  swamps  and  along  streams,  mainly  frogs, 
toads,  eggs  and  young  of  birds,  insects,  and 
other  snakes.  Cope  says:  «The  constricting 
power  of  blacksnakes  is  not  sufficient  to  cause 
inconvenience  to  a  man,  but  might  seriously 
oppress  a  child.  ...  It  is  easy  to  unwmd  the 
snake  with  the  free  hand  and  arm.»  The  black- 
snake  is  harmless,  and  its  bite  is  no  worse  than 


BLACKSTOCK  HILL  —  BLACKSTONE  RIVER 


that  of  a  mouse.  It  is  readily  tamed,  and  shows 
some  intelligence.  It  is  courageous  and  will 
sometimes  attack  an  enemy,  moving  forward 
with  the  head  raised  a  foot  or  two  above  the 
ground,  and  waving  about  with  a  most  terrifying 
aspect.  Its  principal  enemies  are  the  badger 
and  skunk,  and  it  seems  to  hold  a  special  ani- 
mosity toward  the  copperhead  and  rattlesnakes, 
whose  trail  it  follows,  at  night,  by  its  power  of 
scent;  and  having  overtaken  the  object  of  its 
pursuit,  it  leaps  upon  it,  avoiding  its  stroke  by 
its  swiftness,  wraps  itself  about  it,  and  slowly 
crushes  its  victim  to  death,  after  which  it 
swallows  it  whole.  The  blacksnake  breeds  dur- 
ing the  summer,  the  female  laying  15  or  20  eggs 
at  a  time  in  the  hollow  of  a  sunny  bank,  or  in 
the  midst  of  a  decayed  stump,  around  which  she 
stays,  guarding  her  young  until  they  reach  a 
considerable   age. 

Several  other  species  of  the  genus  belong  to 
the  southwestern  United  States,  Mexico,  and 
the  West  Indies,  and  the  Texan  whipsnake  (q.v.) 
is  a  near  relative.  The  '^'^chainsnake"  is  some- 
times called  "mountain  blacksnake.'^  Other 
blackish  serpents  known  as  blacksnakes  include 
a  colubrine  of  Jamaica  (Ocyophis  atcr)  ;  the 
death  adders  (q.v.)  of  Australia  and  Tasmania, 
and  some  others  notable  for  dark  hues.  One  of 
the  most  widespread  of  the  native  names  of  the 
East  Indian  Cobra  de  Capello  has  the  meaning 
^blacksnake.''  Consult:  Cope,  'Snakes  of  North 
America.^ 

Blackstock  Hill,  South  Carolina,  a  locality 
where,  on  20  Nov.  1780,  the  patriots  of  the  State, 
under  Gen.  Sumter  defeated  Tarleton's  cavalry 
after  a  sharp  encounter. 

Blackstone,  William,  the  first  inhabitant 
of  Boston,  was  an  Episcopal  minister,  who  set- 
tled there  as  early  as  1625  or  1626,  and  died  26 
May  167s,  on  Blackstone  River,  a  few  miles 
north  of  Providence.  On  the  arrival  of  Gov. 
Winthrop  at  Charlestown,  in  the  summer  of 
1630,  it  is  stated  in  the  records  of  that  place  that 
'*Mr.  Blackstone,  dwelling  on  the  other  side  of 
Charles  River,  alone,  at  a  place  by  the  In- 
dians called  Shawmut,  where  he  only  had 
a  cottage,  at  or  not  far  off  from  the  place,  called 
Blackstone's  Point,  he  came  and  acquainted  the 
governor  of  an  excellent  spring  there,  withal 
inviting  him  and  soliciting  him  thither ;  where- 
upon, after  the  death  of  Mr.  Johnson  and  divers 
others,  the  governor,  with  IN.Ir.  Wilson,  and  the 
greatest  part  of  the  Church,  removed  thither." 
At  a  court  held  in  April  1633,  50  acres  of  land 
near  his  house  in  Boston  were  granted  to  him 
forever.  In  1634  he  sold  his  land  and  became 
the  first  white  settler  within  the  present  limits 
of  Rhode  Island. 

Blackstone,  Sir  William,  English  lawyer, 
and  the  most  popular  writer  on  the  laws  and 
constitution  of  his  country:  b.  London,  10  July 
1723;  d.  14  Feb.  1780.  He  was  educated  on  the 
foundation  of  the  Charter  House,  whence  in 
1738  he  was  removed  to  Pembroke  College,  Ox- 
ford. He  was  much  distinguished,  both  at 
school  and  at  the  university,  and  at  an  early 
age  compiled  a  work  for  his  own  use,  entitled 
the  < Elements  of  Architecture,'  which  has  been 
much  praised.  Having  chosen  the  profession  of 
the  law,  he  was  in  due  time  entered  at  the  Middle 
Temple,  and  on  this  occasion  published  the  ad- 
mired verses  called  the  *  Lawyer's  Farewell  to 
His  Muse,'   which  appeared  in   'Dodsley's  Mis- 


cellany.^ In  1743  he  was  elected  Fellow  of  All- 
Souls  College,  Oxford,  and  in  1746  was  called  to 
the  bar,  and  commenced  the  practice  of  law.  Be- 
ing deficient  in  elocution,  and  not  possessed  of 
the  popular  talents  of  an  advocate,  his  progress 
was  slow.  Having  attended  the  courts  of  law 
at  Westminster  for  seven  years,  without  success, 
he  determined  to  quit  the  practice  of  his  pro- 
fession, and  retire  to  his  fellowship  at  O.xford. 
The  system  of  education  in  the  English  universi- 
ties supplying  no  provision  for  teaching  the  laws 
and  constitution  of  the  country,  Blackstone 
undertook  to  remedy  this  defect  by  a  course  of 
lectures  on  that  important  subject;  and  the 
manner  in  which  he  executed  the  task  has  con- 
ferred a  lasting  distinction  on  Oxford.  His  first 
course  was  delivered  in  1753,  and  was  repeated 
for  a  series  of  years  with  increasing  effect  and 
reputation.  These  lectures  doubtless  suggested 
to  Mr.  Viner  the  idea  of  founding,  by  his  will, 
a  liberal  establishment  in  the  University  of  Ox- 
ford for  the  study  of  the  common  law ;  and 
Black.stone  was,  with  great  propriety,  chosen  the 
first  Vinerian  professor.  His  engagements  at 
Oxford  did  not  prevent  his  occasional  practice  as 
a  provincial  barrister;  and  in  1754,  being  en- 
gaged as  counsel  in  a  contested  election  for  the 
county  of  Oxford,  he  was  led  into  considerations 
on  the  elective  franchise,  which  produced  his 
work  entitled  'Considerations  on  Copyholds.^ 
In  1759  he  published  a  new  edition  of  the 
Great  Charter  and  Charter  of  the  Forest,  with 
an  historical  preface;  and  during  the  same 
year,  the  reputation  which  he  had  obtained  by 
his  lectures  induced  him  to  resume  his  attend- 
ance at  Westminster  Hall,  when  business  and 
the  honors  of  his  profession  soon  crowded  in 
upon  him.  In  1761  he  was  elected  member  of 
Parliament  for  Hindon,  made  king's  counsel 
and  solicitor-general  to  the  queen.  About  this 
time  he  also  married,  and  thereby  losing  his 
fellowship,  was  appointed  principal  of  New 
Inn  Hall ;  which  ofiice,  with  the  Vinerian  pro- 
fessorship, he  resigned  the  next  year.  In  1765 
he  also  published  the  first  volume  of  his  'Com- 
mentaries on  the  Laws  of  England'  ;  a  work  of 
greater  merit  than  any  which  had  yet  appeared 
on  the  subject.  The  real  merit  and  talents  of 
Blackstone,  backed  by  political  tendencies  which 
are  generally  favorable  to  advancement,  now 
made  him  an  object  of  ministerial  favor,  and  he 
was  offered  the  post  of  solicitor-general  in  1770, 
and,  declining  it,  was  made  one  of  the  justices 
of  common  pleas,  which  station  he  held  until 
his  death,  in  his  57th  year. 

Blackstone,  Mass.,  town  in  Worcester  Co., 
on  the  Blackstone  River,  and  on  the  New  York, 
New  Haven  and  Hartford  R.R.  It  is  an 
important  manufacturing  town  and  the  centre 
of  an  extensive  agricultural  region.  It  has 
numerous  churches,  schools,  library,  weekly 
newspapers,  electric  lights,  and  excellent  water 
power.     Pop.  (1890)  6,138;   (1900)  5.72I. 

Blackstone  River,  a  river  of  eastern  New 
England ;  rises  in  Paxton  and  Holden  townships, 
Worcester  County,  Mass.,  flows  southeast  into 
the  State  of  Rhode  Island,  and  empties  into  the 
Providence  River,  near  Providence,  where  it  is 
known  as  the  Seekonk.  It  is  over  50  miles 
long,  and  falls  over  700  feet,  thus  affording 
abundant  water-power,  and  for  a  great  part  of 
its  course  flows  through  an  almost  continuous 
village  of  manufacturing  establishments. 


BLACKTAIL  —  BLACKWELL 


Blacktail,  the  name  of  two  different  spe- 
cies of  western  American  deer,  notable  for  the 
blackness  of  the  tail  as  compared  with  the  snowy 
white  tail  of  the  eastern  or  "white-tailed*^  deer. 
One  of  them  is  more  suitably  called  "mule*'  deer, 
and  is  described  elsewhere  under  that  title.  The 
other  is  the  Columbian  or  Pacific  Coast  deer 
{Cervns,  or  Odocoileus,  columbiamis) . 

The  Columbian  blacktail  is  somewhat  smaller 
than  the  mule  deer,  with  relatively  shorter  ears 
and  finer  hair.  The  general  color  in  summer  is 
red  or  reddish-yellow;  in  winter  the  color  is 
more  varied.  The  coat  is  then  brownish-gray, 
darkest  along  the  spine;  top  of  head,  chestnut 
and  black;  face  gray,  with  a  black  spot  on  the 
forehead,  passing  backward  as  a  stripe  over 
each  eye;  chin  white,  behind  which  is  a  black 
patch ;  upper  throat,  posterior  portion  of  under 
part,  and  base  of  tail,  white;  chest,  sooty;  legs, 
dark  cinnamon,  white  inside,  and  rest  of  under 
parts  covered  with  black;  upper  surface  of  the 
tail,  black.  The  antlers  of  the  buck  resemble 
those  of  the  mule  deer.  This  deer  is  limited  to 
the  Pacific  coast,  from  central  California  north- 
ward to  Alaska,  and  does  not  pass  east  of  the 
coast  ranges  of  mountains.  It  is  a  deer  of  the 
woods,  frequenting  the  foot-hills  and  valleys 
especially  those  covered  with  small  brush ;  and 
its  habits  and  gait,  more  nearly  resemble  those 
of  the  white-tailed  deer,  than  of  the  mountain- 
loving  mule  deer.  Its  hunting  affords  excellent 
sport,  and  its  venison  is  highly  prized.  See 
also  Deer.  Consult:  Farell,  ^Big  Game  in 
North  America^  and  VanDyke,  <The  Deer 
Family.' 

Blackthorn,  a  shrub  or  small  tree.  See 
Sloe. 

Blackwater  Fever,  an  obscure  disease  of 
■uncertain  causation  that  is  prevalent  in  Africa, 
and  is  said  to  be  present  in  other  parts  of  the 
world.  By  many  it  is  regarded  as  a  very  severe 
form  of  malaria,  a  malignant  _  form,  associated 
with  great  prostration  and  with  bloody  urine. 
By  others  it  is  considered  a  disease  of  itself  and 
due  to  a  special  parasite  of  the  blood.  The 
question  will  undoubtedly  be  settled  within  a 
short  time  as  soon  as  skilled  physicians  have  the 
opportunity  of  studying  the  disease  in  Africa, 

Blackwell,  Mrs.  Antoinet  Louisa  (Brown), 
American  woman  suffragist  and  Unitarian  min- 
ister: b.  Henrietta,  N.  Y.,  20  May  1825.  A  grad- 
uate of  Oberlin  (1847),  she  "preached  on  her 
own  orders,*  at  first  in  Congregational  churches, 
becoming  at  length  a  champion  of  women's  rights. 
She  married  Samuel  C,  a  brother  of  Dr.  Eliza- 
beth Blackwell  (1856).  She  has  written  <  Shad- 
ows of  Our  Social  System'  (1855);  <The  Is- 
land Neighbors'  (1871),  a  novel  of  American 
life;  'Sexes  Throughout  Nature'    (1875),  etc. 

Blackwell,  Elizabeth,  the  first  woman 
who  ever  received  the  degree  of  M.D.  in  the 
United  States:  b.  Bristol,  England,  3  Feb. 
1821.  Elizabeth,  a  girl  of  17  years  at  the  time 
of  her  father's  death,  and  one  of  the  elder  of 
nine  children,  opened  a  school,  which  she  con- 
ducted successfully  for  several  years.  But  her 
energetic  temperament  and  strong  desire  for  the 
acquisition  of  knowledge  demanded  a  wider  field ; 
and  long  reflection  having  persuaded  her  that 
some  avenue  should  be  opened  to  women  whom 
either  necessity  or  choice  impelled  to  gain  a 
subsistence  by  their  own  exertions,  she  felt  that 


her  path  of  duty  lay  in  that  direction.  She  re- 
solved to  become  a  physician,  and  to  return 
again  to  teaching  to  acquire  the  requisite  means 
of  education.  A  situation  as  governess  was 
found  in  the  family  of  Dr.  John  Dixon,  of  Ashe- 
ville,  N.  C,  where  she  remained  a  year,  having 
access,  during  that  time,  to  a  medical  library, 
and  receiving  from  Dr.  Dixon  some  direction  as 
to  her  reading,  but  no  encouragement  in  her 
purpose.  At  the  end  of  the  year  she  removed  to 
Charleston,  S.  C,  still  acting  as  a  teacher  of 
music,  but  pursuing  her  studies  with  the  aid 
and  sympathy  of  Dr.  S.  H.  Dixon,  subsequently 
professor  of  the  institute  and  practice  of  medi- 
cine in  the  University  of  New  York.  Miss 
Blackwell  next  went  to  Philadelphia,  and  passed 
six  months  in  study  under  Dr.  Allen  and  Dr. 
Warrington,  of  that  city.  During  that  time  she 
made  formal  application  to  the  medical  schools 
of  Philadelphia,  New  York,  and  Boston,  for  ad- 
mission as  a  student.  In  each  instance  the  re- 
quest was  courteously  but  firmly  denied,  on 
the  ground  of  a  want  of  precedent  for  such 
an  admission,  and  of  the  impropriety  of  such  an 
innovation  upon  established  custom.  Several  of 
the  professors,  however,  avowed  a  sincere  inter- 
est in  her  hopes  and  purposes,  and  some  of  them 
urged  her  to  seek  admission  into  one  or  another 
of  the  schools  under  the  disguise  of  a  feigned 
name  and  male  attire.  She  declined  to  take  into 
consideration  any  such  suggestion,  for,  though 
anxious  to  obtain  a  medical  education  for  her- 
self, she  was  hardly  less  desirous  of  asserting 
her  right  to  it  as  a  woman.  Undismayed  by 
these  difficulties,  however,  she  next  made  appli- 
cation to  10  other  medical  schools  in  different 
parts  of  the  country,  which  was  rejected  by  all 
except  those  at  Geneva,  N.  Y.,  and  at  Castleton, 
Vt.  At  Geneva,  the  faculty,  after  expressing 
their  own  acquiescence,  laid  the  proposition  be- 
fore their  students,  leaving  the  decision  with 
them.  The  young  men  unanimously  assented  to 
the  reception  of  the  new  pupil,  and  pledged 
themselves  that  no  conduct  of  theirs  should  ever 
cause  her  to  regret  the  step  she  had  taken.  It 
is  to  their  credit  that  they  faithfully  observed 
this  pledge  during  the  two  subsequent  collegiate 
years  that  she  passed  among  them.  Here  Miss 
Blackwell  took  her  degree  of  M.D.,  in  regular 
course,  in  January  1849.  During  her  connec- 
tion with  the  college,  but  when  not  in  attendance 
there  upon  lectures,  she  pursued  a  course  of 
clinical  study  in  Blockley  Hospital,  in  Philadel- 
phia. The  spring  after  her  graduation  she  went 
to  Paris  and  remained  six  months  as  a  student 
in  the  Maternite,  devoting  herself  to  the  study 
and  practice  of  midwifery.  The  next  autumn 
she  was  admitted,  as  a  physician,  to  walk  the 
hospital  of  St.  Bartholomew,  in  London,  where 
she  could  not  have  been  received  as  a  student. 
After  nearly  a  year  spent  in  St.  Bartholomew's 
she  returned  to  New  York,  where  she  practised 
her  profession  with  credit  and  success,  and  es- 
tablished the  New  York  Infirmary  for  Women 
and  Children,  and  the  Woman's  Medical  Col- 
lege. In  1859  she  registered  as  a  physician  in 
England,  and  since  1869  has  practised  in  Lon- 
don and  Hastings;  she  founded  the  National 
Health  Society  in  London,  and  assisted  in  found- 
ing the  London  School  of  Medicine  for  Women. 
Her  works  include:  <Phvsical  Education  of 
Girls'  ;  < Religion  of  Health'  ;  'Counsel  to  Par- 
ents on  Moral  Education'  ;  'Pioneer  in  Opening 


BLACKWELL  —  BLADDER 


the  Medical  Profession  to  Women^  ;  ^The  Hu- 
man Element  in  Sex^  ;  *^  Decay  of  Municipal 
Representative  Institutions.^ 

Blackwell,  Lucy  Stone.    See  Stone,  Lucy  B. 

Blackwell,  Thomas,  Scottish  writer:  b. 
Aberdeen,  4  Aug.  1701 ;  d.  Edinburgh,  1757. 
After  receiving  the  rudiments  of  his  education 
at  the  grammar-school  of  his  native  city,  he 
entered  Marischal  College,  where  he  took  the 
degree  of  A.M.  in  1718.  A  separate  professor- 
ship of  Greek  had  not  existed  in  this  seminary 
previous  to  1700.  Blackwell,  having  turned  his 
attention  to  Greek,  was  honored  in  1723,  when 
only  22  years  of  age,  with  a  Crown  appointment 
to  this  chair.  His  'Inquiry  into  the  Life  and 
Writings  of  Horner^  was  published  at  London 
in  1737.  A  second  edition  of  the  work  appeared 
in  1746,  and  shortly  after  "^Proofs  of  the  Inquiry 
into  Homer's  Life  and  Writings.^  In  1748  he 
published  anonymously  'Letters  Concerning  My- 
thology.^ In  the.  course  of  the  same  year  he 
was  advanced  to  be  principal  of  his  college.  In 
1750  he  opened  a  class  for  the  instruction  of  the 
students  in  ancient  history,  geography,  and  chro- 
nology. In  1752  he  obtained  the  degree  of 
LL.D.,  and  in  the  subsequent  year  published,  in 
quarto,  the  first  volume  of  'Memoirs  of  the 
Court  of  Augustus.^  A  second  volume  appeared 
i"  I755j  ^iid  a  third,  which  was  posthumous,  and 
left  unfinished  by  the  author,  was  prepared  for 
the  press  by  John  Mills,  Esq.,  and  published  in 
1764. 

Blackwell's  Island,  N.  Y.,  an  island  in  the 
East  River  belonging  to  New  York  city.  It 
has  an  area  of  about  120  acres,  and  contains  the 
penitentiary,  almshouse,  lunatic  asylum  for  fe- 
males, workhouse,  blind  asylum,  hospital  for 
incurables,  and  a  convalescent  hospital.  Nearly 
all  of  these  buildings  were  erected  from  granite 
quarried  on  the  island,  by  convict  labor,  the 
style  of  architecture  being  of  a  turreted  and 
battlemented  design  of  the  feudal  character. 
The  island  is  bordered  by  a  heavy  granite  sea 
wall,  also  built  by  the  convicts,  and  a  large 
amount  of  farming  and  gardening  is  carried  on 
by  inmates  of  the  penitentiary. 

Blackwood,  Adam,  Scottish  writer:  b. 
Dunfermline,  1539;  d.  1613.  Scotland,  during 
his  youth,  was  undergoing  the  agonies  of  the 
Reformation.  He  therefore  found  it  no  proper 
sphere  for  his  education,  and  went  to  Paris, 
where,  by  the  liberality  of  his  youthful  sover- 
eign. Queen  IMary,  then  residing  at  the  Court 
of  France,  he  was  enabled  to  complete  his  studies, 
and  to  go  through  a  course  of  civil  law  at  the 
University  of  Toulouse.  Having  now  acquired 
some  reputation  for  learning  and  talent,  he  was 
patronized  by  James  Beaton,  the  expatriated 
Archbishop  of  Glasgow,  who  recommended  him 
very  warmly  to  Queen  ]\Iary  and  her  husband 
the  dauphin,  by  whose  influence  he  was  chosen 
a  member  of  the  Parliament  of  Poitiers,  and 
afterward  appointed  to  be  professor  of  civil  law 
at  that  court.  His  first  work  was  one  entitled 
^De  Vinculo  Religionis  et  Imperii,  Libri  Duo' 
(Paris  1575),  to  which  a  third  book  was  added 
in  1612.  His  next  work  was  entitled  'Apologia 
pro  Regibus,'  and  professed  to  be  an  answer  to 
George  Buchanan's  work,  'De  Jure  Regni 
apud  Scotos.'  He  next  published,  in  French, 
an  account  of  the  death  of  his  benefactress. 
Queen  Mary,  under  the  title.  'Martyre  de  Maria 
Stuart  Reyne  d'Escosse'    (Antwerp,  Svo.  1588). 


At  the  end  of  the  volume  is  a  collection  of 
poems  in  Latin,  French,  and  Italian,  upon  Mary 
and  Elizabeth;  in  which  the  former  princess  is 
praised  for  every  excellence,  while  her  murder- 
ess is  characterized  by  every  epithet  expressive 
of  indignation  and  hate.  In  1644,  30  years  after 
his  death,  appeared  his  'Opera  Omnia,'  in  one 
volume,  edited  by  the  learned  Naudeus,  who  pre- 
fixes an  elaborate  eulogium  upon  the  author. 

Blackwood,  William,  Scottish  bookseller, 
known  as  the  projector  and  publisher  of  'Black- 
wood's Magazine*  :  b.  Edinburgh,  20  Nov.  1776; 
d.  16  Sept.  1834.  He  settled  in  his  native  city 
as  a  bookseller  in  1804,  and  soon  added  the 
trade  of  a  publisher  to  his  original  business. 
The  first  number  of  'Blackwood's  Magazine'  ap- 
peared on  I  April  1817,  and  from  the  first  was 
conducted  in  the  Tory  interest.  It  was  started 
just  at  the  time  when  the  general  peace  which 
had  been  established  in  Europe  was  beginning 
to  reanimate  the  hopes  of  the  Whigs,  and  when 
it  was  all  the  more  necessary  for  the  Tories  to 
defend  by  the  press  that  preponderance  which 
they  still  held  in  Parliament.  Mr.  Blackwood 
was  fortunate  enough  to  secure  as  his  coadjutors 
in  his  new  literary  undertaking  most  of  the  lead- 
ing authors  of  the  day  belonging  to  the  Tory 
party,  among  them  Sir  Walter  Scott,  John  Gib- 
son Lockhart,  Hogg  (the  Ettrick  Shepherd), 
Prof.  Wilson  (Christopher  North),  De  Quincey 
(the  English  Opium-eater),  and  others.  All 
that  was  connected  with  the  management  of  the 
magazine  he  took  into  his  own  hands,  and  he 
himself  selected  the  articles  for  each  nmnber  — 
a  task  for  which  he  was  admirably  qualified, 
for  although  he  wrote  little  himself,  he  was  an 
admirable  judge  of  literary  works.  The  new 
magazine  on  its  first  appearance  entered  upon  a 
campaign  against  the  Edinburgh  'Review,'  com- 
bating both  its  political  views  and  its  literary 
decisions.  From  the  first  it  attracted  a  great 
deal  of  attention,  and  its  success  was  decided  by 
the  appearance  of  the  'Noctes  Ambrosianae,'  a 
series  of  articles  in  the  form  of  dialogues,  in 
which  the  current  questions  in  politics  and  lit- 
erature were  discussed  with  the  most  pungent 
sarcasm  and  inexhaustible  humor.  The  brilliant 
articles  of  Dr.  Maginn  added  not  a  little  to  its 
reputation,  and  constantly,  as  the  original  con- 
tributors withdrew,  new  and  valuable  accessions 
were  made  to  the  staff  of  its  supporters.  After 
his  death  his  business  continued  to  be  carried 
on  by  his  sons,  and  the  magazine,  although  it 
has  perhaps  lost  some  of  its  former  reputation 
(or  notoriety),  still  keeps  its  place  as  one  of  the 
leading  periodicals. 

Blackwood.   See  Dalberqia. 

Blacky/cod's  Magazine.  See  Blackwood, 
William. 

Bladder,  the  muscular  organ  that  in  man 
and  the  lower  animals  holds  the  urine.  The 
kidneys  .secrete  urine  constantly,  the  bladder 
stores'  it  and  only  empties  itself  at  more  or  less 
definite  intervals.  In  man  the  bladder  is  a  flat- 
tened rounded  to  conical  organ  about  the  size  of 
an  orange,  and  holding  under  normal  conditions 
about  16  ounces  of  urine  (one  pint).  It  is  sit- 
uated in  the  lower  portion  of  the  abdominal 
cavity  just  behind  the  pubic  bone,  which  serves 
as  a  protection.  Its  general  shape  is  rounded 
triangular,  the  flat  side  being  above,  the  ureters 
leading  from  the  kidneys  entering  at  the  cor- 
ners;   the    pointed    end    corresponding    to    the 


BLADDER-NUT  —  BLADDERWORM 


opening  into  tlie  urethra,  through  which  canal 
the  urine  is  voided.  The  walls  of  the  bladder 
are  made  up  of  several  layers ;  the  outer  wall 
is  of  peritoneum  in  part,  or  serous  and  connective 
tissue  combined.  The  greater  part  of  the  wall 
is  made  up  of  mvoluntary  muscle  fibre,  arranged 
longitudinally  and  circularly ;  the  innermost  coat 
is  thin  and  delicate, —  the  mucous  membrane, — 
and  is  lined  throughout  by  layers  of  regularly 
flattened  squamous  epithelial  cells.  The  nervous 
supply  of  the  bladder,  by  means  of  which  it  is 
emptied,  is  complex  and  probably  threefold.  It 
is  under  the  influence  of  the  sympathetic  nervous 
system  of  the  hypogastric  plexus ;  there  are  sub- 
sidiary centres  in  the  spinal  cord  and  higher  up 
in  the  human  cortex  certain  voluntary  efforts 
have  their  influence  on  the  bladder  control.  The 
primary  centres  of  control  are  in  the  sympathetic. 
These  cause  the  bladder  in  the  young  infant  and 
also  in  the  patient  whose  spinal  cord  and  cen- 
tres are  diseased  to  be  emptied  and  in  the  so- 
called  irritable  bladder  it  is  probable  that  this 
part  of  the   mechanism   is  mostly  affected. 

There  is  a  very  marked  relation  between  the 
skin  activities  and  the  kidney  and  bladder  ac- 
tion, for  while  the  skin  is  acting  freely  as  in 
exercise  in  warm  weather,  a  large  amount  of 
water  is  thus  given  off,  which  in  cold  weather  is 
eliminated  through  the  kidneys  and  thus  by  the 
bladder.  This  is  noted  daily  when  in  cold 
weather  one  leaves  the  warm  house  and  shortly 
after  walking  in  the  cold  of  the  outside  air, 
the  desire  to  urinate  becomes  urgent.  Irrita- 
bility of  the  bladder,  particularly  in  children, 
and  bedwetting  is  often  a  very  troublesome  com- 
plaint. It  may  be  due  to  a  variety  of  causes, 
excessive  irritation,  however,  would  probably  not 
result  in  bedwetting,  particularly  in  older  chil- 
dren, if  the  control  (inhibition)  normally  main- 
tained by  the  brain  were  not  cut  off  by  deep 
slumber.  The  treatment  is  always  medical  and 
is  often  very  difficult.  Infection  of  the  bladder 
frequently  occurs  and  leads  to  many  serious 
complications.  (See  Cystitis.)  Stones  also  de- 
velop in  the  bladder.     (See  Calculus.) 

Paralysis  of  the  bladder  per  se  is  a  rare  af- 
fection;  paralysis  of  the  sphincter  that  controls 
the  outlet  may  result  from  a  variety  of  causes. 
It  usually  results  in  incontinence  of  urine.  Re- 
tention is  an  opposite  condition  and  is  frequently 
due  to  loss  of  sympathetic  nerve  action,  such  as 
follow  labor,  or  an  operation,  or  from  the 
anaesthesia  of  opium,  belladonna,  or  similar  nar- 
cotics. It  may  also  be  due  to  mechanical  ob- 
struction, in  old  men,  particularly  being  due  to 
an  hypertrophied  prostate  gland. 

Bladder-nut  (Staphylen),  the  type  genus  of 
the  order  Sapindacece,  consisting  of  eight  species 
of  ornamental  shrubs  or  small  trees,  natives  of 
the  northern  hemisphere.  The  common  blad- 
der-nut (S.  pinnata)  a  native  of  Europe  and 
Asia,  which  attains  a  height  of  15  feet,  and  is 
often  planted  for  ornament,  bears  panicles  of 
whitish  flowers  in  late  spring.  The  American 
bladder-nut  (5".  trifolia),  which  ranges  from 
Quebec  to  Minnesota  and  southward  to  South 
Carolina  and  Missouri,  bears  nodding  panicles 
or  umbel-like  recemes  of  white  flowers  and,  like 
several  of  the  other  species,  is  used  in  shrub- 
beries. The  wood  of  the  two  species  mentioned 
is  white  and  hard  and  is  used  in  turning.  The 
flower  buds  are  pickled  like  capers  and  the  seeds 
sometimes  eaten.  The  common  name  is  sug- 
gested by  the  inflated  capsule  and  the  hard  shell 


of  the  seed;  the  generic  name  by  the  resem- 
blance of  the  raceme  to  a  bunch  of  grapes,  the 
staphyle  of  the  Greek  language. 

Bladderworm,  Cysticercus  or  immature 
stage  of  the  tapeworm,  the  hydatid  of  physicians. 
By  far  the  most  injurious  species  is  Tcsnia  tchino- 
coccus,  more  frequently  causing  death  than  any 
other  entozoon.  In  its  adult  or  strobila  state 
this  worm  only  infests  the  dog  and  wolf,  but 
its  larva,  the  hydatid  of  physicians,  frequently 
occurs  in  the  human  body.  It  is  very  small, 
seldom  exceeding  six  millimetres  in  length,  there 
being  but  four  segments,  including  the  head, 
which  has  a  pointed  rostellum,  with  a  double 
crown  of  large-rooted  hooks ;  there  are  four 
suckers  present,  and  the  last  segment,  when 
sexually  mature,  is  as  long  as  the  anterior  ones 
taken  together.  The  hydatid  (Proscolex)  forms 
large  proliferous  vesicles,  in  which  the  scolices 
(echinococcus  heads)  are  developed  by  budding 
internally.  About  5,000  eggs  are  developed  in 
a  single  segment  (Proglottis).  The  six-hooked 
embryos  develop,  are  expelled  from  the  dog,  and 
find  their  way  in  drinking  water  or  in  food  into 
the  human  intestines,  whence  they  bore  into  the 
liver,  their  favorite  habitat,  or  are  carried  along 
the  blood  vessels  into  some  other  organ,  where 
they  develop  into  bladder-like  bodies,  called 
hydatids.  In  its  earliest  stages  the  hydatid  is 
spherical  and  surrounded  by  a  capsule  of  con- 
densed connective  tissue  of  its  host.  By  the 
fourth  week  the  young  F.  ecliinococcus  is  one- 
fiftieth  of  an  inch  long,  and  it  is  probably  many 
months  before  the  echinococci  heads  are  entirely 
developed.  When  this  stage  is  reached  the  tape- 
worms become  sexually  mature  in  from  seven 
to  nine  weeks  after,  when  the  milk-white  worms 
may  usually  be  found  imbedded  in  the  mucus 
of  the  duodenum  and  upper  part  of  the  small 
intestines,  with  their  heads  attached  to  the  vil- 
lous surface  of  the  intestine.  The  hydatids  or 
cysts  in  which  the  echinococci  develop  are  of 
three  kinds, —  exogenous,  endogenous,  and  multi- 
locular, —  and  lie  imbedded  in  the  parenchyma 
of  the  liver,  etc.,  and  are  filled  with  a  clear 
amber-colored  fluid.  The  echinococcus  heads, 
first  on  the  inner  surface  of  the  cyst  and  in  the 
interior  of  the  echinococcus  head  (brood- 
capsule),  develops  a  second  brood  of  scolices, 
contained  in  a  secondary  cyst.  Finally,  a  ter- 
tiary cyst,  containing  tertiary  or  granddaughter 
scolices,  arises.  In  such  cases  the  number  of 
tapeworms  which  arise  from  one  embryo  is 
naturally  enormous,  and  the  parent  vesicle  may 
reach  a  very  considerable  size,  being  sometimes 
as  large  as  a  man's  head.  In  consequence  of 
this  enormous  growth  the  vesicles  frequently  ob- 
tain an  irregular  shape;  while  on  the  other 
hand  the  tapeworms  which  develop  from  them 
remain  very  small,  and  carry,  as  a  rule,  only 
one  ripe  proglottis.  Sometimes  the  secondary 
hydatids  will  develop  scolices  and  granddaughter 
vesicles  before  the  original  maternal  hydatid  has 
acquired  echinococcus  heads. 

So  long  as  the  tapeworm  head  (scolex)  re- 
mains attached  to  the  body  of  the  bladder-worm 
and  in  the  host  of  the  latter,  it  never  develops  into 
a  sexually  mature  tapeworm ;  although  in  many 
cases  it  grows  to  a  considerable  length  (Cysticer- 
cus fasciolaris  of  the  house-mouse) .  The  blad- 
derworm mu.st  enter  the  alimentary  canal  of 
another  animal  before  the  head  can,  after  sepa- 
ration from  the  body  of  the  bladderworm.  de- 
velop into  the  sexuallv  mature  tapeworm      This 


BLADDERWORT  —  BLAINE 


transportation  is  effected  passively,  the  new  host 
eating  the  flesh  or  organs  of  the  animal  infected 
with  Cysticerci.  The  tapeworms,  therefore,  are 
principally  found  in  the  Carnivora,  the  Insecti- 
vora,  and  the  Omnivora,  which  receive  the  blad- 
derworms  in  the  flesh  of  the  animals  on  which 
they  feed.  The  vesicles  are  digested  in  the 
stomach,  and  the  cestode  head  becomes  free  as 
a  scolex.  The  latter  is,  perhaps,  protected  from 
the  too  intense  action  of  the  gastric  juice  by  its 
calcareous  concretions,  and  at  once  enters  the 
small  intestine,  fastens  itself  to  the  intestinal 
wall,  and  grows  by  gradual  segmentation  into  a 
tapeworm.  From  the  scolex  the  chain  of  pro- 
glottides proceeds  as  the  result  of  a  growth  in 
length  accompanied  by  segmentation,  a  process 
which  is  to  be  looked  upon  as  a  form  of  asexual 
reproduction  (budding  in  the  direction  of  the 
long  axis).  The  development  of  the  scolex 
is  then  to  be  explained  as  a  metamorphosis,  cha- 
racterized by  the  individualization  of  certain 
stages  of  the  development.  But  the  whole  life- 
history  is  a  case  of  metagenesis,  inasmuch  as  the 
sexual  proglottides  alternate  with  the  asexual 
scolex.     See  Tapeworm. 

Bladderwort,  Utricularia,  a  genus  of 
about  150  species  of  largely  aquatic  herbs  of 
the  natural  order  Lentibulariacea,  widely  dis- 
tributed throughout  the  world,  but  especially 
abundant  in  the  tropics.  The  aquatic  species 
are  remarkable  for  the  little,  sometimes  valved, 
bladders  which  entrap  and  digest  aquatic  insects 
and  other  water  animals.  The  bladders  which 
are  at  first  filled  with  water  become  inflated  with 
air  at  flowering  time  so  that  the  flower  instead 
of  being  submerged  like  the  rest  of  the  plant, 
is  raised  above  the  surface  until  after  blossom- 
ing, when  water  again  fills  the  bladders,  the 
plants  sinking  to  the  bottom,  where  the  seeds 
are  ripened.  These  aquatic  species,  of  which 
about  a  dozen  with  yellow  or  blue  flowers  are 
natives  of  the  United  States,  are  common  in 
ditches,  ponds,  and  marshes  throughout  the 
world.  They  are  sometimes  cultivated  in 
aquaria  more  as  curiosities  than  for  any  intrin- 
sic beauty.  In  the  marsh  species  the  bladders 
are  less  effective  and  numerous  than  in  the  pond 
species,  and  in  the  terrestrial  kinds  they  are 
small,  abortive,  and  useless.  These  last  have 
leaves  of  ordinary  forms  and  are  often  tuberous, 
whereas  members  of  the  first  group  have  much 
dissected  foliage  like  other  pond  plants  and  are 
rootless.  Some  of  the  tropical  species  are  showy 
epiphytes  and  are  cultivated  in  hot-houses  like 
orchids,  with  some  of  which  they  compare  in 
beauty.  Consult:  Bailey,  < Cyclopedia  of  Ameri- 
can   Horticulture^     (1900-2). 

Bla'densburg,  Maryland,  a  small  town  in 
Prince  George  County,  on  the  east  branch  of  the 
Potomac,  about  six  miles  east  from  Washington, 
with  a  population  in  1900  of  463.  At  the  bridge 
over  the  Potomac  west  of  Bladensburg,  the  bat- 
tle with  the  English  which  preceded  the  cap- 
ture of  Washington,  took  place  toward  the  latter 
part  of  the  War  of  1812,  Gen.  Ross  and  Admiral 
Cockburn  with  about  5,000  men,  appeared  in 
Chesapeake  Bay  to  attack  Washington.  The 
American  forces  fell  back  to  Bladensburg  and 
awaited  the  British.  The  Americans  numbered 
about  7.000,  but  were  scattered  and  untrained. 
On  24  Aug.  1814,  the  British  advanced  to  the 
attack.  The  American  artillery  held  them  in 
check  for  a  time,  but  the  troops  pushed  forward. 


The  Americans  fled  in  wild  disorder ;  the  confu- 
sion spread  and  soon  Gen.  Winder,  the  American 
commander,  gave  orders  for  a  general  retreat. 
The  American  loss  was  76  men ;  the  British  more 
than  500  killed  and  wounded.  Bladensburg  is 
famous  in  American  history  as  the  site  of  the 
duelling  ground,  where  many  famous  duels 
growing  out  of  quarrels  in  Washington  were 
fought,  as  that  in  which  Barron  killed  Decatur 
in   1820. 

Blagoveshtchensk,  blii  -  go  -  vyesh'chensk, 
Russia,  a  town  of  eastern  Siberia,  capital  of  the 
province  of  the  Amoor,  and  of  the  general  gov- 
ernment of  the  Amoor,  on  the  river  Amoor, 
where  it  receives  the  Zeya,  near  the  Chinese  town 
of  Aigoon.  Founded  as  a  military  post  in 
1856  it  is  now  an  important  place,  with  sec- 
ondary schools,  theological  seminary,  etc.  Pop. 
(1903)    37,841. 

Blaikie,  William,  American  athlete  and 
writer  on  physical  training:  b.  York,  N.  Y.,  1843; 
d.  there  6  Dec.  1904.  He  became  a  lawyer  in 
New  York.  He  has  written  <Ho\v  to  Get 
Strong  >  (2d  ed.  1880);  <  Sound  Bodies  for  our 
Boys  and  Girls  >  (1883). 

Blaikie,  William  Garden,  Scotch  clergy- 
man: b.  Aberdeen,  1837;  d.  11  June  1899.  He 
was  graduated  at  the  University  of  Aberdeen; 
ordained  a  minister  of  the  Established  Church  in 
1842;  joined  the  Free  Church  in  1843;  and  was 
appointed  professor  of  apologetics  and  pastoral 
theology  in  New  College,  Edinburgh,  1868.  He 
was  a  delegate  to  the  Presbyterian  General  As- 
sembly of  the  United  States  in  1870 ;  took  a 
leading  part  in  the  formation  of  the  Alliance  of 
the  Reformed  Churches ;  and  was  editor  of  the 
<Free  Church  Magazine^  in  1849-53;  the  ^  North 
British  Review*  in  1860-3;  the  <  Sunday  Maga 
zine*  in  1871-4;  and  the  'Catholic  Presbyterian* 
in  1879-83.  His  writings  include  'Bible  His- 
tory in  Connection  with  General  History* 
(1859)  ;  'Bible  Geography*  (i860)  ;  'Glimpses 
of  the  Inner  Life  of  David  Livingstone*  (1880)  ; 
'Public  Ministry  and  Pastoral  Methods  of  Our 
Lord*  (1883)  ;  'Leaders  in  Modern  Philan- 
thropy*   (1884),  etc. 

Blaine,  Ephraim,  American  soldier:  d. 
Carlisle,  Pa.,  1808.  He  entered  the  army  as  a 
colonel,  at  the  commencement  of  the  Revolution- 
ary War,  and  was  subsequently  made  commis- 
sary-general. His  services  were  gallant  and  pa- 
triotic. He  was  with  Washington  in  many  of 
the  most  trying  scenes  of  the  Revolution,  and 
enjoyed  the  confidence  of  his  chief  to  the  fullest 
extent.  During  the  "dark  winter**  at  Valley 
Forgt,  the  preservation  of  the  American  army 
from  starvation  was  in  a  great  degree  owing  to 
the  exertions  and  sacrifices  of  Col.  Blaine. 

Blaine,  James  Gillespie,  American  states- 
man: b.  West  Brownsville,  Pa.,  south  of  Pitts- 
burg, 31  Jan.  1830 ;  d.  27  Jan.  1893.  His  father, 
a  cultivated  landowner,  was  a  Presbyterian  of 
Scotch-Irish  blood ;  his  mother  was  a  Catholic. 
He  was  a  precocious  boy  with  a  strong  taste  ior 
history  and  literature,  and  the  star  of  his  de- 
bating club  as  orator  and  parliamentarian.  _At 
13  he  entered  Washington  College  in  his  native 
county,  graduated  at  17,  and  after  teaching  and 
studying  law,  removed  to  Augusta,_  Me.._  in 
1854.  He  entered  journalism  and  politics,  joined 
the  new  Republican  party  the  next  year,  was  a 
delegate  to  its  first  (Fremont)  convention  in 
1856,  and  in  1858  became  chairman  of  the  State 


BLAINVILLE 


Republican  committee  —  an  extraordinary  posi- 
tion at  28  after  but  four  years'  residence. 
He  remained  such  for  20  years,  the  almost  omnip- 
otent dictator  of  the  party's  State  action.  In 
1858,  also,  he  was  elected  to  the  legislature,  and 
re-elected  three  more  terms,  being  speaker  the 
last  two ;  and  in  1862  was  sent  to  Congress,  and 
re-elected  six  additional  terms  to  the  House. 
In  the  House  he  was  the  most  efifective  and  dex- 
terous of  debators,  an  adept  at  parliamentary 
law,  of  instant  readiness  and  endless  resource ; 
and  outside  he  became  earl}'  the  most  captivat- 
ing, magnetic,  and  brilliant  of  party  leaders.  With 
a  prodigious  and  instant  memory  both  for  facts 
and  faces,  saturated  with  political  history  and 
the  records  of  all  prominent  public  men,  with 
great  charm  of  utterance  and  exuberant  geni- 
ahty  of  manner,  he  excited  in  the  mass  of  his 
party  the  most  enthusiastic  devotion ;  but  un- 
fortunately in  the  "independent"  wing  an  equally 
invincible  distrust,  which  ultimately  defeated 
his  most  cherished  ambition.  As  congress- 
man, his  most  noted  positions  were  oppos- 
ing Thaddeus  Stevens'  reconstruction  plans  for 
putting  the  South  under  military  government, 
and  of  cutting  down  the  representation  of  the 
States  when  readmitted  to  a  basis  of  legal 
voters ;  opposing  the  payment  of  the  public 
debt  in  greenbacks ;  and  supporting  the  agitation 
which  led  to  Great  Britain's  admitting  her  cit- 
izens' right  to  change  their  allegiance  (1870). 
From  1869  to  1874  he  was  speaker,  and  gained 
the  highest  reputation  for  parliamentary  ability, 
firmness,  impartiality,  and  dispatch  of  business. 
The  tremendous  reaction  of  1874  against  Grant's 
second  term  swept  the  Democrats  into  control  of 
the  House  by  an  immense  majority,  and  Mr. 
Blaine  became  the  leader  of  the  Republican  mi- 
nority. An  envenomed  struggle  at  once  began. 
As  a  matter  of  party  tactics,  and  to  pave  the 
way  for  the  election  of  1876,  Mr.  Blaine  sought 
to  inflame  Republican  feeling  by  dwelling  on 
the  harshest  memories  of  the  war;  the  Dem- 
ocrats retorted  by  a  series  of  attacks  on  his 
personal  integrity  in  the  speakership,  as  evidence 
of  which  they  cited  letters  to  a  Boston  broker 
which  had  been  kept  by  a  clerk  named  Mulligan. 
(See  Mulligan  Letters.)  He  exhibited  and 
read  the  letters  on  the  floor  of  the  House  to 
prove  that  they  contained  nothing  discreditable ; 
but  the  charges,  in  the  hands  of  his  enemies, 
remained  one  of  the  influences  which  twice  lost 
him  the  nomination  and  at  last  the  election  to  the 
presidency.  In  1876  he  received  285  votes,  much 
the  largest  single  vote,  on  the  first  ballot  at  the 
Republican  convention,  and  351  on  the  seventh ; 
his  imminent  success  then  produced  a  coalition 
on  Gen.  Hayes.  Senator  Morrill  of  Maine  becom- 
ing secretary  of  the  treasury,  Mr.  Blaine  was 
chosen  senator  for  the  unexpired  term,  and  the 
following  winter  for  the  full  term.  He  opposed 
the  electoral  commission  on  the  ground  that  Con- 
gress was  conferring  powers  beyond  its  own ; 
opposed  Hayes'  withdrawal  of  the  troops  that 
upheld  the  carpet-bag  governments ;  opposed  the 
Bland  Silver  I3ill  and  the  adoption  of  the  gold 
standard  alike,  believing  bimetallism  feasible  and 
preferable;  advocated  ship  subsidies,  and  rigid 
prohibition  of  Chinese  immigration.  In  1880 
the  attempt  at  a  third  term  for  Grant  was  de- 
feated by  the  Blaine  forces,  who  gave  him  284 
on  first  ballot ;  but  after  six  days  and  35  ballots, 
seeing  that  Blaine  could  not  be  nominated,  united 
with  the  Sherman  party  to  nominate   Garfield, 


by  399  to  Grant's  306.  Garfield  made  him  secre- 
tary of  state,  and  in  his  short  tenure  he  planned 
a  Pan-American  Congress,  attempted  medi- 
ation between  victorious  Chile  and  crushed  Peru, 
and  attempted  to  cancel  the  Clayton-Bulwer 
Treaty  (q.v.).  But  the  speedy  assassination  of 
Garfield,  and  the  accession  of  Arthur,  the  lieuten- 
ant of  Blaine's  mortal  enemy,  Roscoe  Conkling, 
made  his  place  tmtenable,  and  on  19  December 
he  resigned.  He  at  once  began  his  two-volume 
^Twenty  Years  in  Congress,'  a  work  of  great 
charm  and  value ;  issuing  the  first  volume  in 
1884,  in  time  to  do  good  work  conciliating  sup- 
port for  the  next  election.  But  meantime  a 
memorable  political  letter  to  a  New  York  State 
friend,  widely  published,  was  taken  as  a  cue  to 
his  adherents  in  that  State  to  vote  against  the 
administration  candidate;  and  caused  such  a 
heavy  fall  in  the  Republican  vote  for  governor 
that  S.  J.  Folger,  secretary  of  the  treasury,  was 
overwhelmed,  and  Grover  Cleveland,  the  mayor 
of  Buft'alo,  in  high  repute  for  having  crushed  a 
ring  of  plunderers  there,  was  elected  by  192,000 
plurality.  This  unprecedented  victor}^  in  the 
largest  State  of  the  Union  gave  Mr.  Cleveland 
the  Democratic  nomination  for  President  in 
1884 ;  and  when  Mr.  Blaine  was  at  last  nomi- 
nated by  the  Republicans  (541  out  of  813  on 
fourth  ballot),  the  Independents  carried  out  the 
threat  of  many  years  b}'  bolting  the  nomination 
and  mostly  voting  for  Cleveland,  who  carried 
New  York  by  1,047  and  with  it  the  electoral 
majority.  After  his  defeat  he  issued  the  second 
volume  of  his  work  (1886),  and  the  next  year  a 
volume  entitled  ^Political  Discussions.^  Again  a 
candidate  in  1888,  he  withdrew  in  favor  of  Harri- 
son, and  was  made  secretary  of  state  once  more ; 
he  resumed  his  Pan-American  policy,  made  a 
futile  attempt  to  induce  Great  Britain  to  join 
in  preserving  the  seals  from  extermination  (see 
Bering  Se.\  Question),  and  favored  a  reciproc- 
ity commercial  policy  which  made  many  of  his 
old  opponents  draw  toward  him.  He  resigned 
in  June  1892,  in  hope  of  securing  the  next 
Republican  nomination,  but  found  it  out  of  the 
question.  He  died  early  the  following  year,  of 
Bright's  disease.  His  life  was  written  by  his 
kinswoman,  Gail  Hamilton  (1895). 

Blainville,     Henri     Marie     Ducrotay     de, 

6h-re  ma-re  dii-kro-ta  de,  French  naturalist: 
b.  Arques,  near  Dieppe,  1778;  d.  I  May  1850. 
He  studied  medicine  and  the  allied  sciences  at 
Paris,  and  obtained  his  degree  of  M.D.  in  1808. 
He  was  for  a  time  assistant  to  Cuvier,  whose 
influence  helped  to  place  him  in  the  chair  o£ 
anatomy  and  zoology  in  the  Faculty  of  Sciences 
at  Paris  in  1812.  Unfortunately  misunderstand- 
ings soon  arose  between  the  master  and  his 
comparatively  youthful  rival,  and  ultimately  ter- 
minated in  an  open  rupture.  In  1825  Blainville 
was  admitted  to  the  Academy  of  Sciences  as  the 
successor  of  Lacepede,  and  on  the  death  of  La- 
marck in  1829,  the  chair  which  he  held  in  the 
Museum  of  Natural  History  having  been  di- 
vided, the  department  of  mollusca,  zoophytes,^ 
and  worms  was  committed  to  Blainville,  whose 
important  works  on  these  groups  made  it  impos- 
sible to  confer  it  on  any  other.  In  1832  he 
quitted  this  department  to  become  the  not  un- 
worthy successor  of  Cuvier  in  the  chair  of  com- 
parative anatomy  in  the  same  establishment. 
His  works,  contained  both  in  the  more  impor- 
tant collections  of  the  period,  and  in  separate 
treatises,   are  too  numerous  to  be   enumerated. 


BLAIR 


but  mention  is  especially  due  to  <L'Organisa- 
tion  des  Animaux,  ou  Principes  d'Anatomie 
Comparee^  (1822)  ;  'Manuel  de  Malacologie  et 
de  Conchyliologie  avec  Atlas  de  100  Planches^ 
(1825)  ;  'Cours  de  Physiologie  Generale^ 
(1829-32)  ;  'Manuel  d'Actinologie'  1834)  ; 
'Sur  les  Principes  de  la  Zooclassie^  (1847)  ;  and 
above  all,  the  gigantic  but  unhappily  unfinished 
work  entitled  *Osteographie  ou  Description 
Iconographique  Comparee  du  Squelette  et  du 
Systeme  Dentaire  des  Cinq  Classes  d'Animaux 
Vertebres,  Recents  et  Fossiles^    (1839-50). 

Blair,  Andrew  Alexander,  American  chem- 
ist: b.  Kentucky,  20  Sept.  1848.  He  graduated 
at  the  United  States  Naval  Academy,  1866;  was 
chief  cheinist  to  the  United  States  Commission 
to  test  iron,  steel,  and  other  metals,  1875-8,  and 
to  the  United  States  Geological  Survey  and  loth 
census,  1879-81.  Since  then  he  has  been  en- 
gaged in  general  practice.  Besides  reports  to  the 
government  and  contributions  to  scientific  jour- 
nals he  has  published  'The  Chemical  Analysis 
of  Iron :  Complete  Account  of  all  the  Best- 
Known  Methods  for  the  Analysis  of  Iron,  Steel, 
etc.>    (Phila.  1888). 

Blair,  Austin,  American  la\vyer:  b.  Caro- 
line, N.  Y.,  8  Feb.  1818;  d.  Jackson,  Mich.,  6 
Aug.  1894.  He  graduated  at  Union  College  in 
1839 ;  studied  law  in  Oswego,  N.  Y.,  and  re- 
moved to  Jackson,  Mich.,  where  he  was  ad- 
mitted to  the  bar  in  1842.  He  was  elected  to 
the  legislature  in  1846;  became  conspicuous  in 
the  convention  which  established  the  Republi- 
can party  in  Michigan ;  and  was  elected  gover- 
nor of  Michigan  in  i860.  He  w^as  a  member 
of  Congress   (1866-70). 

Blair,  Francis  Preston,  American  journal- 
ist and  politician:  b.  Abingdon,  Va.,  12  April 
1791 ;  d.  Silver  Spring,  Md.,  18  Oct.  1876.  In 
early  life  he  was  a  Jacksonian  Democrat.  He 
edited  the  Washington  Globe  from  1830  to  1845. 
Through  his  anti-slavery  sentiments  he  became 
one  of  the  founders  of  the  Republican  party, 
but  in  later  years  returned  to  the  Democratic 
faith. 

Blair,  Francis  Preston,  Jr.,  American  sol- 
dier and  statesman  (son  of  the  preceding)  :  b. 
Lexington,  Ky.,  19  Feb.  1821  ;  d.  St.  Louis,  Mo., 
5  July  1875.  He  was  a  representative  in  Con- 
gress from  Missouri  (1857-9  and  i86i-3)_;  be- 
came a  major-general  in  the  Union  ariny  in  the 
Civil  War,  taking  an  active  part  in  the  Vicks- 
burg  campaign  and  Sherman's  march  to  the 
sea;  was  an  unsuccessful  Democratic  candidate 
for  Vice-President  in  1868,  and  United  States 
senator  (1870-3). 

Blair,  Henry  William,  American  legis- 
lator :  b.  Campton,  N.  H.,  6  Dec.  1834.  He  re- 
ceived an  academic  education ;  was  admitted  to 
the  bar  in  1859;  served  through  the  Civil  War, 
becoming  lieutenant-colonel  of  the  15th  New 
Hampshire  Volunteers,  and  was  twice  wounded. 
After  serving  in  both  branches  of  the  State 
legislature  he  was  a  member  of  Congress 
(1875-9  and  1893-5),  and  United  States  Sena- 
tor (1879-89).  He  is  the  author  of  what  was 
known  as  the  "Blair  Common  School  Bill,^^  de- 
signed to  distribute  a  certain  amount  of  Fed- 
eral money  for  educational  purposes  among  the 
various  States  in  proportion  to  the  number  of 
illiterates.  He  was  a  strong  opponent  of  Chi- 
nese immigration,  and.  when  he  was  appointed 
and  confirined  United  States  minister  to  Qiina, 


that  government  objected  to  receiving  him.  He 
has  been  an  active  worker  in  the  cause  of  tem- 
perance and  other  reforms. 

Blair,  Hugh,  Scottish  divine:  b.  Edin- 
burgh, 7  April  1718;  d.  27  Dec.  1800.  He  corn- 
menced  his  academic  career  at  Edinburgh  Uni- 
versity in  1730.  In  1741  he  was  licensed  as  a 
preacher,  and  the  following  year  was  ordained 
to  the  parish  of  Collessie,  Fife,  but  a  few  months 
after  he  was  elected  to  the  second  charge  of 
the  Canongate,  Edinburgh.  In  1754  he  received 
one  of  the  city  charges,  that  of  Lady  Yester's 
church,  and  in  1758  one  of  the  charges  of  the 
High  Church.  In  1759  he  commenced  a  course 
of  lectures  to  students  upon  the  principles  of 
literary  composition;  and  in  1762  he  was  made 
professor  of  rhetoric  and  belles-lettres  in  the 
University  o-f  Edinburgh,  being  the  first  that 
ever  occupied  this  chair.  He  continued  the 
course  till  1783,  when  he  published  his  lectures, 
which  received  very  high  praise.  In  1763  he 
published  a  dissertation  on  the  'Poems  of  Os- 
sian,^  in  the  authenticity  of  which  he  firmly 
believed. 

It  was  not  till  1777  that  he  could  be  pre- 
vailed upon  to  offer  to  the  world  any  of  those 
sermons  with  which  he  had  so  long  delighted  a 
private  congregation.  One  of  the  sermons  hav- 
ing been  sent  by  Strahan,  the  king's  printer, 
to  Dr.  Johnson  for  his  opinion,  Strahan 
received  from  him  the  following  characteristic 
note:  "I  have  read  over  Dr.  Blair's  first  ser- 
mon with  more  than  approbation ;  to  say  it  is 
good  is  to  say  too  little.^'  Strahan  there- 
upon agreed  to  purchase  the  volume,  with  Mr. 
Cadell,  for  $500.  The  sale  was  so  rapid  and 
extensive,  and  the  approbation  of  the  public 
so  high,  that  the  proprietors  voluntarily  doubled 
the  stipulated  price.  The  volume  speedily  fell 
under  the  attention  of  George  III.,  and  by  royal 
mandate  a  pension  of  $1,000  a  year  was  bestowed 
on  Dr.  Blair.  During  the  subsequent  part  of  his 
life  Dr.  Blair  published  three  other  volumes  of 
sermons ;  and  it  might  safely  be  said  that  each 
successive  publication  only  tended  to  deepen  the 
impression  produced  by  the  first. 

Blair,  James,  American  clergyman  and 
educator:  b.  Scotland,  1656;  d.  Williamsburg, 
Va.,  I  Aug.  1743.  In  1685  he  was  sent  as  a  mis- 
sionary to  Virginia  by  Dr.  Compton,  Bishop  of 
London.  There  he  secured  the  confidence  of 
the  planters,  and  proved  himself  far  in  advance 
of  his  contemporaries  on  the  question  of  slav- 
ery. In  1689  Sir  Francis  Nicholson  appointed 
him  "commissary,^*  the  highest  ecclesiastical  of- 
fice in  the  colony.  This  ofiice  gave  him  a  seat 
in  the  Council  of  the  colonial  government;  he 
presided  over  the  trials  of  clergymen,  and  pro- 
nounced sentence  upon  conviction  of  crimes  or 
misdemeanors.  His  great  desire  was  to  see  a 
college  established  in  the  colony.  The  Assembly 
and  governor  warmly  sympathized  with  his  pro- 
ject; he  went  to  England  and  laid  his  plan  be- 
fore William  and  Mary,  and  on  14  Feb.  1692,  a 
charter  for  the  college  was  granted,  the  bishop 
of  London  being  appointed  chancellor  and  Blair 
president,  and  the  institution  named  "William 
and  Mary.**  Its  opening  was  repeatedly  de- 
layed, and  Blair  did  not  enter  on  his  duties  as 
president  until  1729.  but  his  enthusiasm  never 
wavered,  and  his  efforts  were  finally  crowned 
with  success.  He  left  his  library  to  the  college. 
He  wrote  'Our  Saviour's  Divine  Sermon  on  the 
Mount'    (London  1722,  4  vols.;  3d  ed.  1740),  a 


BLAIR  — BLAKE 


work    highly    considered    throughout    the    i8th 
century. 

Blair,  John,  Scotch  chronologist  and 
geographer:  d.  24  June  1782.  He  went  to  Lon- 
don about  the  middle  of  the  18th  century.  In 
1754  the  publication  of  a  work  in  folio,  en- 
titled "^The  Chronology  and  History  of  the 
World  from  the  Creation  to  1753  a.d.,'  gained 
him  great  reputation.  He  dedicated  his  work  to 
Lord  Chancellor  Hardwicke,  and  in  1757  was  ap- 
pointed chaplain  to  the  Princess  Dowager  of 
Wales,  and  mathematical  tutor  to  the  Duke  of 
York,  whom  he  accompanied,  in  1763,  on  a  tour 
to  the  Continent,  having  already  received  sev- 
eral ecclesiastical  preferments.  On  his  return 
to  England  he  published,  in  1768,  a  new  edition 
of  his  *  Chronological  Tables,^  with  14  maps  of 
ancient  and  modern  geography  annexed. 

Blair,  John  Insley,  American  philanthro- 
pist :  b.  Belvidere,  N.  J.,  22  Aug.  1802 ;  d.  2  Dec. 
1899.  In  early  life  he  was  a  merchant  and 
banker ;  subsequently  becoming  the  individual 
owner  of  more  miles  of  railroad  property  than 
any  other  man  in  the  world.  He  acquired  a 
very  large  fortune ;  loaned  the  Federal  gov- 
ernment more  than  $1,000,000  in  the  early  part  of 
the  Civil  War ;  built  and  endowed  at  a  cost  of 
more  than  $600,000  the  Presbyterian  Academy 
in  Blairstown,  N.  J. ;  rebuilt  Grinnell  College, 
Iowa  ;  erected  Blair  Hall  and  made  other  gifts 
to  Princeton  University ;  was  equally  liberal  to 
Lafayette  College ;  and  had  erected  more  than 
100  churches  in  different  parts  of  the  West,  be- 
sides laying  out  many  towns  and  villages  on 
the  lines  of  his  numerous  railroads. 

Blair,  Montgomery,  American  lawyer:  b. 
Franklin  County,  Ky.,  10  May  1813 ;  d.  Silver 
Springs,  Md.,  27  July  1883.  He  was  graduated 
at  the  United  States  Military  Academy  in  1835  ; 
resigned  from  the  army,  1836 ;  was  admitted  to 
the  bar,  1839,  and  began  practice  in  St.  Louis. 
He  was  judge  of  the  court  of  common  pleas, 
1843-9 ;  removed  to  Maryland  in  1852 ;  was 
United  States  solicitor  in  the  court  of  claims, 
1855-8.  He  acted  as  counsel  for  the  plaintiff  in 
the  widely  known  Dred  Scott  case.  In  1861-4 
he  was  postmaster-general.  In  1876-7  he  acted 
with  the  Democratic  party  in  opposing  Hayes' 
title  to  the  office  of  President. 

Blair,  Robert,  Scotch  clergyman  and  poet: 
(eldest  son  of  the  Rev.  David  Blair,  one  of  the 
ministers  of  Edinburgh,  and  chaplain  to  the 
king)  :  b.  Edinburgh,  1699 ;  d.  Athelstaneford, 
1746.  He  was  ordained,  in  1731,  minister  of 
Athelstaneford,  in  East  Lothian,  where  he  spent 
the  remainder  of  his  life.  He  was  a  man  of 
learning  and  of  elegant  taste  and  manners.  A 
botanist  and  florist ;  he  was  also  skilled  in  opti- 
cal and  microscopical  knowledge,  on  which  sub- 
jects he  carried  on  a  correspondence  with  some 
learned  men  in  England.  He  was  a  man  of  sin- 
cere piety  and  very  assiduous  in  discharging  the 
duties  of  his  clerical  functions.  His  best-known 
poem,  ^The  Grave,^  was  chiefly  composed  be- 
fore his  ordination.  It  was  first  printed  in  1743, 
and  is  now  esteemed  as  one  of  the  standard 
classics  of  English  poetical  literature,  in  which 
rank  it  will  probably  remain  longer  than  many 
works  of  greater  contemporary  or  even  present 
fame. 

Blake,  Edward,  English  statesman:  b. 
Cairngorm,  Ont.,  Canada,  13  Oct.  1833.     He  was 


educated  at  Upper  Canada  Cpllege  and  Toronto 
University ;  was  called  to  the  bar  in  1856  and 
engaged  in  practice  in  Toronto.  He  entered 
public  life  in  1867 ;  was  premier  of  Ontario, 
1871-2;  minister  of  justice,  1875-7,  and  the 
recognized  leader  of  the  Canadian  Liberal  party, 
1880-91.  He  declined  the  appointments  of  chan- 
cellor of  upper  Canada  in  1869,  chief  justice  ot 
Canada  in  1875,  ^nd  chief  justice  of  Ontario  in 
1897,  and  also  the  honor  of  knighthood.  In 
1892  he  was  invited  by  the  leaders  of  the  Anti- 
Parnellites  in  Ireland  to  enter  the  British  House 
of  Commons  as  the  representative  of  an  Irish 
constituency.  Consenting,  he  removed  to  South 
Longford,  was  elected  for  that  district,  and  in 
1895  was  re-elected.  In  1896  he  was  appointed 
a  member  of  the  judiciary  committee  of  the 
privy  council. 

Blake,  Eli  Whitney,  American  inventor: 
b.  Westboro,  Mass.,  27  Jan.  1795 ;  d.  New 
Haven,  17  Aug.  1886.  He  graduated  at  Yale 
University  in  1816,  and  began  business  with  his 
uncle,  Eli  Whitney,  in  the  manufacture  of  fire- 
arms. In  1834  he  founded,  near  New  Haven, 
Conn.,  the  pioneer  factory  for  the  manufacture 
of  domestic  hardware.  In  1857  he  invented  the 
widely-known  stone-  and  ore-crusher  called  the 
Blake  crusher,  which  introduced  a  new  era  in 
road-making  and  mining  industries,  and  is  used 
throughout  the  world. 

Blake,  Francis,  American  inventor:  b. 
Needham,  Mass.,  25  Dec.  1850.  He  served  for 
13  years  on  the  United  States  Coast  Survey,  part 
of  the  time  engaged  in  field  work  and  its  reduc- 
tion to  determine  dififerences  of  longitude  be- 
tween the  observatories  at  Greenwich,  Paris, 
Cambridge,  and  Washington.  Having  devoted 
himself  to  the  study  of  experimental  physics,  in 
1878  he  invented  the  famous  Blake  transmitter, 
which  is  the  telephonic  transmitter  now  most 
widely  used  throughout  the  world.  He  has  also 
patented  other  electrical  devices. 

Blake,  John  Laurie,  American  clergyman 
and  author:  b.  Northwood,  N.  H.,  21  Dec.  1788; 
d.  Orange,  N.  J.,  6  July  1867.  He  was  educated 
at  Phillips  Exeter  Academy  and  at  Brown  Uni- 
versity. He  first  entered  the  Congregational 
ministry,  but  in  a  short  time  became  an  Episco- 
palian and  was  ordained  in  that  Church.  He 
settled  in  Pawtucket,  and  later  in  Hopkinton. 
N.  H.,  and  in  1822  removed  to  Boston.  He 
continued  to  teach  in  this  school  till  1830,  then 
devoted  himself  to  literary  work.  While  a 
teacher  he  published  several  text-books,  pre- 
pared for  his  own  classes,  and  was  editor  of 
the  "^Gospel  Advocate.^  His  greatest  work,  a 
^Biographical  Dictionary,^  was  first  published  in 
1835. 

Blake,  Mrs.  Lillie  (Devereux)  Umstead, 
American  advocate  of  woman's  rights  and  novel- 
ist :  b.  Raleigh,  N.  C,  1835.  Her  first  husband, 
Frank  G.  Quay  Umstead,  died  in  1859 ;  she  mar- 
ried Grenfill  Blake  in  1866,  who  died  in  1896. 
She  has  written  and  spoken  much  on  woman 
suffrage,  and  her  novels  bear  on  this  theme. 
She  has  written  ^Southwold^  (1859)  ;  ^Rock- 
ford^  (1863)  ;  *  Fettered  for  Life^  (new  ed. 
1885);  'Woman's  Place  To-Day>  (1883),  a 
reply  to  Dr.  Morgan  Dix's  'Lenten  Lectures 
on  Women, ^  which  attracted  attention;  etc. 
In  1900  she  was  president  of  the  Civic  and 
Equality   Union. 


BLAKE 


Blake,  Mary  Elizabeth  McGrath,  American 
poet  and  writer:  b.  Dungarven,  Ireland,  i  Sept. 
1840.  In  verse  she  has  written  < Poems'  (1882)  ; 
< Youth  in  Twelve  Centuries'  (1886)  ;  etc.  Of 
her  travels  may  be  named  <0n  the  Wing' 
(1883);    ^A  Summer  Holiday.' 

Blake,  Robert,  British  admiral:  b.  Bridge- 
water,  Somerset,  August  1599;  d.  17  Aug.  1657. 
After  attending  the  grammar  school  of  his  na- 
tive place  he  was  sent  to  Wadham  college,  Ox- 
ford, where  he  took  the  degree  of  B.A.  in  1617. 
On  his  return  to  Bridgewater  he  lived  quietly 
on  the  fortune  left  him  by  his  father,  and  was 
led  to  embrace  the  principles  of  the  Puritans, 
by  whose  interest  he  was  elected  member  for 
Bridgewater  in  the  Parliament  of  1640.  This 
being  soon  dissolved,  he  lost  his  election  for  the 
next,  and  immediately  sought  to  advance  the 
cause  in  a  military  capacity  in  the  war  which 
then  broke  out  between  the  king  and  the  Par- 
liament. He  soon  distinguished  himself  by  his 
activity.  In  1649  he  was  sent  to  command  the 
fleet  in  conjunction  with  Cols.  Deane  and  Pop- 
ham,  and  thus  commenced  the  naval  career 
which  has  given  him  so  distinguished  a  place 
in  British  history.  He  immediately  sailed  to 
Kinsale  in  quest  of  Prince  Rupert,  whom  he 
attempted  to  block  up  in  that  port.  The  prince 
escaped  to  Lisbon,  where  Blake  followed  him ; 
and,  being  refused  permission  to  attack  him 
in  the  Tagus  by  the  king  of  Portugal,  he  took 
several  rich  prizes  from  the  Portuguese  (against 
whom  the  Parliament  declared  war),  and  fol- 
lowed Rupert  to  Malaga,  where,  without  asking 
permission  of  Spain,  he  attacked  him  and  nearly 
destroyed  the  whole  of  his  fleet.  On  his  re- 
turn to  England  he  was  made  warden  of  the 
Cinque  Ports,  and  soon  after  reduced  the  islands 
of  Scilly  and  Guernsey.  In  1652  he  was  made 
sole  admiral,  and  on  the  19th  of  May  was  at- 
tacked in  the  Downs  by  Van  Tromp  with  a  fleet 
of  45  sail,  the  force  of  Blake  amounting  only 
to  23.  He  fought  so  bravely,  however,  that 
Van  Tromp  was  obliged  to  retreat.  He  then 
continued  his  cruise,  took  a  number  of  Dutch 
merchantmen,  and  after  several  partial  actions 
drove  the  enemy  into  their  harbor  and  returned 
to  the  Downs.  On  29  May  he  was  again  attacked 
by  Van  Tromp,  whose  fleet  was  now  increased 
to  80  sail.  Blake  engaged  this  vast  force  with 
a  very  inferior  number  and  an  unfavorable 
wind ;  but,  after  every  possible  exertion,  was 
obliged  to  retreat  into  the  Thames,  on  which 
Van  Tromp  was  so  much  elated  that  he  sailed 
through  the  Channel  with  a  broom  at  his  mast- 
head, to  signify  that  he  had  swept  the  sea  of 
British  ships.  In  the  February  following,  Blake, 
having  with  great  diligence  repaired  his  fleet,  put 
to  sea  with  60  sail,  and  soon  after  met  the 
Dutch  admiral,  who  had  70  sail  and  300  mer- 
chantmen under  convoy.  During  three  days  a 
furious  running  fight  up  the  Channel  was  main- 
tained with  obstinate  valor  on  both  sides,  the 
result  of  which  was  the  loss  of  11  men-of-war 
and  30  merchant  ships  by  the  Dutch,  while 
that  of  the  English  was  only  one  man-of-war. 
It  was  in  April  of  this  year  that  Cromwell 
assumed  the  sovereignty,  on  which  occasion 
Blake  and  his  brother  admirals  issued  a  dec- 
laration that,  notwithstanding  this  change,  they 
resolved  to  persist  in  faithfully  performing  their 
duty  to  the  nation.  "It  is  not  for  us,"  said 
Blake  to  his  officers,  "to  mind  state  affairs,  but 
to  keep  the  foreigners  from  fooling  us."     On  3 


June  he  again  engaged  Van  Tromp  with  dubious 
success ;  but,  renewing  the  action  the  next  day, 
he  forced  the  Dutch  to  retire  with  a  consider- 
able loss  in  ships  and  men.  On  his  return  he 
was  received  by  Cromwell  with  great  respect, 
and  returned  member  in  the  new  Parliament 
for  Bridgewater.  Aware  of  his  aff'ection  for  a 
republican  government,  the  protector  was  not 
displeased  at  having  occasion  to  send  him,  with 
a  strong  fleet,  to  enforce  a  due  respect  to  the 
British  flag  in  the  Mediterranean.  He  sailed 
first  to  Algiers,  which  submitted,  and  then  de- 
molished the  castles  of  Goletta  and  Porto  Fer- 
ino,  at  Tunis,  because  the  dey  refused  to  deliver 
up  the  British  captives.  A  squadron  of  his  ships 
also  blocked  up  Cadiz  and  intercepted  a  Spanish 
plate  fleet.  Being  now  very  sick,  he  resolved  to 
do  one  more  service  to  his  country  before  his 
death,  and  sailed  with  24  ships  to  Santa  Cruz, 
in  Tenerift'e,  and,  notwithstanding  the  strength 
of  the  place,  burned  the  ships  of  another  Spanish 
plate  fleet  which  had  taken  shelter  there,  and  by 
a  fortunate  change  of  wind  came  out  without 
loss.  His  brother  having  failed  in  some  part 
of  duty  during  this  service,  he  immediately  re- 
moved him  from  his  command.  Finding  his 
disorder  making  rapid  progress  he  then  sailed 
for  England,  and  expired  while  the  fleet  was 
entering  Plymouth  Sound.  His  body  was  hon- 
ored with  a  magnificent  public  funeral,  and  in- 
terred in  Westminster  Abbey,  whence  it  was, 
with  pitiful  spite,  removed  at  the  Restoration 
and  buried  in  St.  Margaret's  churchyard.  So 
disinterested  was  he  that,  after  all  his  rich 
captures  and  high  posts,  he  scarcely  left  behind 
him  $2,500  of  acquired  property,  freely  sharing 
all  with  his  friends  and  seamen,  into  whom  he 
infused  that  intrepidity  and  spirit  of  enterprise 
by  which  the  British  navy  has  been  ever  since 
so  highly  distinguished. 

Blake,  William,  English  poet,  painter, 
and  engraver:  b.  London,  28  Nov.  1757;  d.  12 
Aug.  1857.  At  the  age  of  10  he  was  sent  to 
a  drawing-school,  and  four  years  later  he  was 
apprenticed  for  seven  years  to  the  engraver 
James  Basire,  for  whom  he  drew  from  the 
monuments  in  the  older  London  churches  and 
Westminster  Abbey.  In  1778  he  studied  in  the 
Royal  Academy,  and  about  this  time  he  began 
to  engrave  for  the  booksellers,  among  his  chief 
productions  being  plates  after  Stothard  for  the 
< Novelists'  Magazine.'  To  the  first  exhibition 
of  the  Royal  Academy  he  sent  a  drawing  en- 
titled "^The  Death  of  Earl  Godwin.'  He  mar- 
ried in  1782,  and  for  the  three  years  1784-7 
carried  on  a  printseller's  shop  in  partnership 
with  another  engraver.  From  his  earliest  years 
Blake  was  a  mystic.  He  believed  that  all  things 
exist  in  the  human  imagination  alone,  and  had  a 
wonderful  power  of  imaginative  vision  which 
enabled  him  to  see  angels  in  trees  and  in  fields, 
great  men  of  past  times,  etc.  His  *  Songs  of 
Innocence,'  verse  and  designs  (1789),  and  the 
companion  ^ Songs  of  Experience'  (i794)>  were 
reproduced  by  himself  and  his  wife  by  a  process 
which  he  believed  to  have  been  revealed  to  him 
in  a  dream  by  a  dead  brother.  Between  1793 
and  1800  he  produced  a  large  number  of  designs, 
among  them  537  illustrations  for  Young's  <Night 
Thoughts.'  In  1800  he  became  acquainted, 
through  Flaxman,  with  the  poet  William  Hayley, 
who  gave  him  artistic  commissions,  and  for 
three  years  he  lived  in  his  neighborhood  at  Felp- 
ham.     He  next  produced  the  designs  to  Blair's 


BLAKE  —  BLANC 


^Grave'  (engraved  by  Schiavonetti),  which 
stand  in  the  forefront  of  his  artistic  work.  In 
1808  he  sent  to  the  Royal  Academy  the  pictures 
<  Christ  in  the  Sepulchre  Guarded  by  Angels,^ 
and  'Jacob's  Dream, ^  the  last  pictures  he  exhib- 
ited there.  From  1813  till  his  death  he  had  a 
staunch  friend  and  patron  in  the  painter  John 
Linnell.  It  was  about  this  time  that  he  exe- 
cuted the  series  of  pencil  drawings  known  as 
•Spiritual  Portraits.^  The  highly  prized  wood- 
cuts to  Thornton's  '^VirgiP  were  executed  in 
1820,  and  in  1825  he  produced  for  Linnell  his 
wonderful  •  Inventions  to  the  Book  of  Job,-* 
which,  containing  22  engravings,  21  original  de- 
signs in  colors,  with  the  original  colored  draw- 
ings by  the  artist  (the  property  of  the  Earl  of 
Crewe),  sold  in  London,  in  1903,  for  $28,000. 
He  also  executed  a  series  of  engravings  and  de- 
signs from  the  *^Divina  Commedia.*  At  the  sale 
just  mentioned  12  drawings  in  colors  for 
•L'Allegro^  and  'II  Penseroso'  brought  $9,800, 
and  the  original  colored  issue  of  'America,  a 
Prophecy,^  sold  for  $1,475.  Among  Blake's 
other  writings  are :  'Poetical  Sketches^  (1783); 
'Gates  of  Paradise^  (i793)  ;  'Prophetic  Books,^ 
sadly  incoherent,  but  with  splendid  designs 
(i793~i8o4).  The  only  complete  edition  of  his 
works  is  that  of  E.  J.  Ellis  and  W.  B.  Yates 
(3  vols.  1893).  Consult  Gilchrist's  'Life' 
(1863).  and  ' Works >  by  Swinburne  (1868), 
and  Story   (1893). 

Blake,  William  Phipps,  American  min- 
eralogist :  b.  New  York,  i  June  1826.  Graduat- 
ing at  the  Sheffield  Scientific  School  in  1852,  he 
joined  the  United  States  Pacific  Railroad  ex- 
ploring expedition  (1853)  as  mineralogist  and 
geologist.  In  1861  he  became  mining  engineer  for 
the  Japanese  government,  and  with  R.  Pumpelly 
organized  the  first  school  of  science  in  Japan. 
As  an  expert  in  his  specialty  he  was  connected 
in  important  capacities  with  the  Paris  Exposition 
of  1867,  the  Vienna  Exposition  (1873),  United 
States  Centennial  Exhibition  (1876),  Paris  Uni- 
versal Exposition  (1878),  and  drafted  the  sys- 
tem of  classification  of  United  States  ores  and 
minerals  at  the  Columbian  Exposition  (1893). 
He  has  .conducted  important  explorations  in 
Alaska,  California,  and  NeA'ada,  and  the  chief 
mining  districts  of  the  United  States,  frequently 
publishing  his  results  in  valuable  reports  and 
scientific  papers.  Publications:  'Silver  Ores  and 
Silver  Mines'  (1861)  ;  'California  Minerals' 
(1863)  ;  'Production  of  the  Precious  Metals' 
(1867)  ;  'Iron  and  Steel'  (1873)  ;  'Ceramic 
Art  and  Glass'  (1878)  ;  'History  of  the  Town 
of  Hamden,  Conn.'  ;  'Life  of  Captain  Jona- 
than Mix.' 

Blake,  William  Rufus,  American  actor:  b. 
Halifax,  N.  S.,  1805 ;  d.  Boston,  22  April  1863. 
His  first  appearance  on  the  American  stage 
was  at  the  old  Chatham  Theatre,  New  York, 
under  the  management  of  Mr.  Barrere,  in  1824, 
as  Frederic  in  'The  Poor  Gentleman,'  and  in 
Elliston's  favorite  character  in  'The  Three  Sin- 
gles.' His  success  was  great.  Jesse  Rural,  in 
'Old  Heads  and  Young  Hearts,'  was  one  of 
his  best  parts.  Mr.  Blake  was  a  fluent  and 
effective  speaker.  He  was  stage  manager  of  the 
Tremont  Theatre,  Boston,  joint  manager  of  the 
Walnut  Street  Theatre,  Philadelphia,  and  stage 
manager  of  the  Broadway  Theatre,  New  York. 

Blakeley,  Johnston,  American  naval  offi- 
cer:   b.    near    Seaford,    County   Down,    Ireland, 


October  1781 ;  lost  at  sea,  1814.  His  father  emi- 
grated to  the  United  States  in  1783,  and  event- 
ually made  his  home  in  Wilmington,  N.  C. 
Johnston  graduated  at  the  University  of  North 
Carolina  in  1800,  and  on  5  February  of  that 
year  entered  the  navy  as  midshipman,  and  rose 
to  the  rank  of  captain.  On  i  May  1814  he 
left  Portsmouth,  N.  H.,  in  command  of  the 
new  sloop-of-war  Wasp,  and  very  shortly  ap- 
peared in  the  English  Channel,  spreading  terror 
among  the  merchant  ships  and  seaport  towns. 
On  28  June  he  fought  and  defeated  the  British 
sloop  Reindeer,  for  which  exploit  Congress 
voted  him  a  gold  medal.  On  i  September  he 
destroyed  the  Avon  and  on  the  21st,  near  the 
Azores,  took  the  Atlanta,  which  he  sent  home  to 
Savannah.  On  9  October  the  Wasp  was  spoken 
by  the  Swedish  bark  Adonis ;  and  that  was 
the  last  ever  heard  of  the  vessel  and  of  those 
on  board  of  her.  It  seems  probable  that,  being 
heavily  armed  and  sparred,  the  vessel  foundered 
in  a  gale. 

Blakelock,  Ralph  Albert,  artist:  b.  New 
York,  15  Oct.  1847.  He  graduated  at  the  Col- 
lege of  the  City  of  New  York  in  1867,  and  it 
was  intended  that  he  should  follow  his  father's 
profession  of  medicine,  but  he  developed  a 
strong  taste  for  music  and  the  arts,  and  with- 
out a  master  taught  himself  painting.  He  has 
painted  landscapes,  moonlight  scenes,  and  In- 
dian figures ;  one  of  the  last-named  represents 
the  Ta-vo-kok-i,  or  circle-dance  of  the  Kavavite 
Indians.  His  work  is  very  striking  on  account 
of  its  harmonious  color-schemes.  His  studio 
is  in  New  York. 

Blakesley,  Joseph  Williams,  English  clergy- 
man :  b.  London,  6  March  1808;  d.  Lincoln,  18 
April  1885.  He  graduated  at  Trinity  College, 
Cambridge,  in  1831 ;  was  Fellow  there  1831-45, 
and  select  preacher  1840-3 ;  became  a  member 
of  the  New  Testament  Committee  on  Bible  Revi- 
sion in  1870;  became  dean  of  Lincoln  in  1872. 
His  publications  include  'Life  of  Aristotle' 
(1839)  ;  'Conciones  Academicge'  (1843)  ;  and 
an  edition  of  'Herodotus'   (2  vols.,  1852-4). 

Blakey,  Robert,  English  writer:  b.  Mor- 
peth, Northumberland,  18  May  1795 ;  d.  Belfast, 
26  Oct.  1878.  He  bought  the  Newcastle  Liber- 
ator in  1838,  and  got  himself  into  trouble  with 
the  government  on  account  of  certain  alleged 
seditious  articles  which  he  published.  In  1848 
he  became  professor  of  logic  and  metaphysics  at 
Queen's  College,  Belfast.  Among  his  works  are 
'Treatise  on  tbe  Divine  and  Human  Wills'  ; 
'History  of  Moral  Science'  ;  'Historical  Sketch 
of  Logic'  ;  'Temporal  Benefits  of  Christianity' ; 
and  'The  Angler's  Song  Book.' 

Blanc,  bloii,  Anthony,  American  clergy- 
man: b.  Sury,  France,  11  Oct.  1792;  d.  New 
Orleans,  20  June  i860.  He  was  ordained  to  the 
Roman  Catholic  priesthood  in  1816 ;  went  to 
Annapolis,  Md.,  in  1817;  was  appointed  bishop 
of  New  Orleans  in  1835 ;  and  became  archbishop 
there  in   1850. 

Blanc,  Jean-Joseph-Louis,  zhoii-zhd-sef- 
loo-e,  French  historian,  publicist,  and  socialist: 
b.  Madrid.  29  Oct.  181 1  ;  d.  6  Dec.  1882.  He 
studied  with  great  success  in  the  college  at  Ro- 
dez,  and  completed  his  education  at  Paris.  He 
was  for  a  short  time  an  attorney's  clerk,  after- 
v/ard  a  teacher  of  mathematics  and  a  private 
tutor.     Subsequently  at   Paris  he  devoted  him- 


BLANC  —  BLANCHARD 


self  to  the  career  of  journalism,  fighting  stoutly 
in  the  ranks  of  the  militant  democracy.  In  1839 
he  founded  the  Revue  du  Progres,  in  which  first 
appeared  his  great  work  on  socialism,  ^De  I'Or- 
ganisation  du  TravaiP  (separately  published  in 
1840).  In  this  work  he  condemns  individual 
and  competitive  rivalry  in  labor;  society  should 
not  be  subjected  to  a  perpetual  combat,  but 
should  form  a  harmonious  whole,  in  which  each 
member  should  contribute  according  to  his  abili- 
ties and  be  recompensed  according  to  his  needs. 
In  1841-4  appeared  his  *Histoire  de  Dix  Ans' 
(1830-40),  in  which  he  vigorously  exposed  the 
trickery  and  jobbery  of  the  government  of  Louis 
Philippe,  and  which  greatly  contributed  to  bring 
about  its  downfall.  On  the  outbreak  of  the 
revolution  of  1848  Blanc  was  elected  a  member 
of  the  provisional  government,  and  appointed 
president  of  the  commission  for  the  discussion 
of  the  question  of  labor.  He  has  been  unjustly 
charged  with  creating  and  organizing  the  disas- 
trous scheme  of  national  workshops,  a  scheme 
which  he  strenuously  opposed.  After  the  closing 
of  these  workshops,  and  the  June  insurrection 
of  1848,  he  was  prosecuted  for  conspiracy,  but 
escaped  to  England,  where  he  took  up  a  length- 
ened residence.  During  this  period  he  wrote  the 
Ibulk  of  his  famous  "-Histoire  de  la  Revolution 
Frangaise^  (12  vols.  1847-62).  His  other 
works  are:  ^Lettres  sur  I'Angleterre^  (1865-7); 
<Histoire  de  la  Revolution  de  1848^  (1870)  ; 
^Questions  d'Aujourd'hui  et  de  Demain^ 
(1873-4)  ;  etc.  On  the  downfall  of  the  second 
empire  (1870)  Blanc  returned  to  Paris  and  be- 
came a  member  of  the  National  Assembly  in 
1880. 

Blanc,  Ludwig  Gottfried,  lood'vig  got'- 
fred,  German  philologist,  b.  Berlin,  19  Sept. 
1781 ;  d.  Halle,  18  April  1866.  He  was  educated 
at  the  French  Theological  Seminary  in  Berlin 
and  ordained  as  pastor  at  Halle.  In  181 1  he 
was  accused  of  taking  part  in  a  conspiracy 
against  the  king  of  Westphalia,  and  was  irn- 
prisoned  at  Magdeburg,  and  later  at  Kassel,  until 
released  in  1813  by  a  Russian  skirmishing  corps. 
He  was  chaplain  in  the  Prussian  army  in  the 
war  of  1814-15  ;  from  1822  was  professor  of  the 
Romance  languages  at  the  University  of  Halle; 
and  in  i860  was  appointed  preacher  at  the  ca- 
thedral in  that  city.  He  was  an  authority  on  the 
Romance  languages  and  especially  on  the  works 
of  Dante.  In  connection  with  his  study  of 
Dante  he  wrote  a  'Dante  Vocabulary^  (in 
French)  ;  'Attempt  at  a  Philological  Explana- 
tion of  Several  Disputed  Points  in  the  "Divine 
Comedy'^  ^  ;  and  translated  the  'Divine  Com- 
edy^ into  German.  He  has  written  also  'Gram- 
mar of  the  Italian  Language^  ;  and  a  'Hand- 
book of  the  Most  Remarkable  Facts  of  Nature 
and  the  History  of  the  Earth  and  Its  Inhabi- 
tants.' 

Blanc,  Marie  Therese,  ma-re  ta-raz 
(Therese  Bextzon),  French  novelist  and  lit- 
terateur: b.  Seine-Port,  21  Sept.  1840.  She  has 
been  for  many  years  on  the  editorial  staff  of  the 
<Revue  des  Deux  Mondes,^  to  which  she  has 
contributed  notable  translations  and  reviews  of 
many  American,  English,  and  German  authors. 
Her  literary  essays  on  these  contemporaneous 
writers  were  collected  in  'Foreign  Literature 
and  Customs^  (1882).  and  'Recent  American 
Novelists^  (1885).  Her  first  work  to  attract 
attention  was  'A  Divorce^   (1871),  published  in 

Vol.    2 — je. 


the  'Journal  des  Debats.*  Two  other  novels, 
'A  Remorse*  (1879),  and  'Tony>  (1889),  were- 
crowned  by  the  French  Academy.  Other  stories 
are  'Georgette*  and  'Jacqueline*  (1893);  'Con- 
dition of  Woman  in  the  United  States*   (1895)- 

Blanc,  Paul  Joseph,  pol  zho-zef,  French 
genre  painter:  b.  Paris  1846;  d.  Paris  5 
July  1904.  He  studied  under  Bin  and  Ca- 
banel.  He  won  the  Grand  Prix  de  Rome  in 
1867 ;  the  first-class  medal  of  the  Paris  Salon 
in  1S72;  the  decoration  of  the  Legion  of  Honor 
in  1878;  and  the  first-class  medal  in  the  Paris 
Exposition  of  1889.  One  of  his  best-known 
works  is  a  decorative  composition  depicting  the 
consecration,  baptism,  and  triumph  of  Clovis. 

Blanc,  Mont.      See  Moxt  Blanc. 

Blanchard,    blan-shard,    Edward    Laman, 

English  dramatist  and  novelist :  b.  London, 
1820;  d.  1889.  His  novels,  'Temple  Bar*  and 
'A  Man  Without  a  Destiny,*  evinced  no  special 
talent  for  story-telling;  on  the  other  hand  he 
composed  for  Drury  Lane  Theatre  about  100 
Christmas  pantomimes  in  the  vein  of  grotesque 
burlesque,  among  them  'Sinbad  the  Sailor,* 
which  were  received  with  unbounded  popular 
favor. 

Blanchard,  Emile,  a-mel  bloh-shar,  French 
naturalist :  b.  Paris,  6  March  1819.  He  is  espe- 
cially renowned  as  an  entomologist,  and  is  the 
author  of  many  scientific  works,  including 
'Researches  into  the  Organization  of  Worms' 
(1837)  ;  'Natural  History  of  Orthopterous  and 
Neuropterous  Insects*  (1837-40);  'History  of 
Insects,  etc.*    (1843-5). 

Blanchard,  Frangois,  fran-swa,  French 
aeronaut :  b.  1753 ;  d.  1809.  He  displayed  great 
ingenuity  by  the  invention  of  a  hydraulic  ma- 
chine in  the  19th  year  of  his  age,  and  afterward 
in  the  construction  of  a  flying  ship,  which,  by 
means  of  a  counterpoise  of  six  pounds,  was 
raised  to  more  than  20  feet  from  the  ground. 
He  eagerly  availed  himself  of  the  discoveries  of 
the  brothers  Montgolfier,  and  the  improvements 
of  the  same  by  Prof.  Charles  and  M.  Robert  in 
Paris.  After  having  made  his  first  aerostatic 
voyage.  4  March  1784,  he  crossed  the  Channel 
from  Dover  to  Calais,  1785,  with  Dr.  Jeffries, 
a  gentleman  of  Boston.  For  this  exploit 
he  was  rewarded  by  the  king  of  France 
with  a  present  of  $2,400  and  a  pension  of  $240. 
In  the  same  year,  at  London,  he  first  made 
use  of  a  parachute  invented  by  him,  or,  accord- 
ing to  others,  by  Etienne  Montgolfier.  After 
having  performed  many  aerostatic  voyages  in 
foreign  countries  also,  he  \yas  accused  of  propa- 
gating revolutionary  principles,  and  imprisoneo 
(1793)  in  the  fortress  of  Kufstein,  in  the  Tyrol. 
Havmg  obtained  his  liberty,  he  made  his  46th 
ascent  in  the  city  of  New  York  in  1796.  In 
1798  he  ascended  with  16  persons  in  a  large 
balloon  at  Rouen,  and  descended  at  a  place  15 
miles  distant.  In  1807  his  aerostatic  voyages 
amounted  to  more  than  66.  His  wife  continued 
to  make  aerial  voyages.  In  181 1  she  ascended 
in  Rome,  and  after  going  a  distance  of  60 
miles  she  rose  again  to  proceed  to  Naples.  In 
June  1819  having  ascended  from  Tivoli,  in 
Paris,  her  balloon  took  fire  at  a  considerable 
height,  from  some  fire-works  which  she  carried 
with  her.  The  car  fell  in  the  Rue  de  Provence, 
and  the  aeronaut  was  dashed  to  pieces. 


BLANCHARD  —  BLANCHING 


Blanchard,  Jacques,  zhak,  French  painter: 
b.  Paris,  1600;  d.  1638.  He  received  the  first 
lessons  of  his  art  from  Bellori,  his  rnaternal 
uncle,  studied  some  time  at  Lyon,  and  in  1624 
repaired  to  Rome.  After  two  years  he  visited 
Venice,  studied  the  works  of  Titian  and  the 
other  great  colorists  of  his  school,  and  executed 
several  paintings  which  gave  him  a  name.  After 
his  return  to  Paris  he  executed  a  great  number 
of  works,  which  procured  him  the  surname  of 
Hhe  French  Titian."  His  best  piece,  a  *^  Descent 
of  the  Holy  Spirit,^  is  in  the  cathedral  at  Notre 
Dame. 

Blanchard,  Jonathan,  American  educator: 
b.  Rockingham,  Vt,  19  Jan.  1811;  d.  Wheaton, 
111.,  14  May  1892.  He  graduated  at  Lane  Theo- 
logical Seminary  in  1832  and  was  ordained  a. 
Presbyterian  minister  in  1838.  He  was  Ameri- 
can vice-president  of  the  World's  Anti-Slavery 
Convention  in  London  in  1843 ;  and  in  1846 
became  president  of  Knox  College  at  Galesburg, 
111.  He  was  president  of  Wheaton  College,  111., 
1880-2 ;  and,  on  resigning,  was  chosen  president- 
emeritus,  and  subsequently  gave  most  of  his 
time  to  editing  ^The  Christian  Cynosure.^ 

Blanchard,  Thomas,  American  inventor:  b. 
Sutton,  Worcester  County,  Mass.,  24  June  1788; 
d.  16  April  1864.     He  joined  his  brother  in  the 
manufacture  of  tacks  lay  hand,  and  at  the  age 
of     18    commenced    his    invention    of    a    tack- 
machine,  which  in  six  years  he  brought  to  such 
perfection  that  by  placing  in  the  hopper  the  iron 
to  be  worked,   and  applying  the  motive  power, 
500   tacks   were   made   per   minute    with    better 
finished  heads  and   points  than   had  ever  been 
made  by  hand.     He  sold  the  patent  for  $5,000. 
About  this  time  various  attempts  were  made  in 
the  United   States  armories  at   Springfield   and 
Harper's   Ferry,  to  turn  musket-barrels  with  a 
uniform    external    finish.     Blanchard    undertook 
the  construction  of  a  lathe  to  turn  the  whole  of 
the  barrel  from  end  to  end,  by  the  combination 
of   one    single    self-directing    operation.     About 
three  inches  of  the  barrel  at  the  breech  was  partly 
cylindrical  and  partly  with  flat  sides ;  these  were 
all  cut  by  the  same  machine,  ingeniously  chan- 
ging to  a  vibrating  motion  as  it  approached  the 
breech.     The   superintendent  of  the   Springfield 
armory  contracted  with  Mr.  Blanchard  for  one 
of    his    machines.     While    it    was    in    operation 
one   of   the    workmen    remarked   that    his    own 
work  of  grinding  the   barrels   was  done   away 
with.     Another,  employed  on  the  wooden  stocks, 
which   were   then   all   made  by  hand,   said   that 
Blanchard  could  not  spoil  his  job,  as  he  could 
not  make  a  machine  to  turn  a  gunstock.     Blanch- 
ard   answered    that    he    was    not    sure,    but    he 
would   think   about    it,   and    as   he   was   driving 
home  the  idea  of  his  lathe  for  turning  irregular 
forms    suddenly    struck   him.     The   principle   of 
this   machine   is,    that    forms   are   turned    by   a 
pattern  the  exact  shape  of  the  object  to  be  pro- 
duced, which  in  every  part  of  it  is  successively 
brought  in  contact  with  a  small  friction-wheel; 
this    wheel    precisely    regulates    the    motion  _  of 
chisels   arranged    upon   a   cutting  wheel    acting 
upon   the  rough  block,   so  that  as  the   friction- 
wheel  successively  traverses  every  portion  of  the 
rotating    pattern,    the    cutting    wheel    pares    off 
the   superabundant   wood   from   end   to   end   of 
the  block,  leaving  a  precise  resemblance  of  the 
model.     This   remarkable   machine,   with   modi- 
fications  and   improvements,   is   in   use   in   the 


national  armories  as  well  as  in  England,  and 
in  various  forms  is  applied  to  many  operations  in 
making  musket-stocks,  such  as  cutting  in  the 
cavity  for  the  lock,  barrel,  ramrod,  butt-plates, 
and  mountings,  comprising,  together  with  the 
turning  of  the  stock  and  barrel,  no  less  than  13 
different  machines.  Beside  gunstocks,  it  is  also 
applied  to  a  great  variety  of  objects,  such  as 
busts,  shoe  lasts,  handles,  spokes,  etc.  Mr. 
Blanchard  was  also  interested  at  an  early  day  in 
the  construction  of  railroads  and  locomotives, 
and  in  boats  contrived  to  ascend  rapid  rivers. 
He  also  invented  a  machine  for  cutting  and  fold- 
ing envelopes,  a  steam  wagon,  and  a  process  for 
bending  heavy  timbers. 

Blanche  of  Bourbon,  Castilian  queen:  b. 
1338.  She  was  the  daughter  of  Peter,  Duke  of 
Bourbon,  and  in  1353  married  Peter,  king  of 
Castile,  surnamed  the  Cruel.  Don  Frederick, 
Peter's  natural  brother,  had  been  deputed  to 
meet  her  at  Narbonne  and  bring  her  into  Spain, 
and  she  is  said  to  have  so  far  forgotten  herself 
as  to  conceive  a  violent  passion  for  him.  Ru- 
mors to  this  effect  had  reached  the  king's  ears, 
and  though  he  celebrated  the  marriage  he  soon 
showed  that  he  had  placed  his  affections  else- 
where. He  shortly  after  declared  the  marriage 
null,  imprisoned  the  queen  in  the  castle  of 
Medina  Sidonia,  and  is  said  to  have  gotten  rid 
of  her  by  poison. 

Blanche  of  Castile,  French  queen:  b.  1187; 
d.  Milan,  November  1252.  She  was  the 
daughter  of  Alphonso  IX.,  married  Louis  VIII. 
of  France  and  became  the  mother  of  Louis  IX. 
(«St.  Louis").  On  the  death  of  her  husband 
she  anticipated  the  formal  appointment  of  a 
regency  by  procuring  the  immediate  coronation 
of  her  son,  and  during  his  minority  held  the 
reins  of  government  in  his  name  with  distin- 
guished ability  and  success.  In  1244,  when  St. 
Louis  took  his  departure  for  the  Holy  Land 
she  again  became  regent  and  gave  new  proofs 
of  her  talents  and  virtues.  Her  days  are  said 
to  have  been  shortened  by  the  long  absence  of 
her  son,  and  a  prevailing  rumor  that  he  had 
resolved  to  remain  permanently  in   Palestine. 

Blanche,  August  Theodor,  ow'goost  ta'6- 
dor  blansh,  Swedish  dramatist  and  novel- 
ist: b.  Stockholm,  17  Sept.  181 1;  d.  Stockholm, 
30  Nov.  1868.  His  comedies  and  farces, — more 
particularly  <Jennv.  or  the  Steamboat  Trip'  ; 
<The  Doctor >  ;  <the  Rich  Uncle'  ;  and  <The 
Foundling' — have  made  all  Sweden  laugh; 
while  his  realistic  fictions, —  among  them  ^The 
Spectre'  ;  H'ales  of  a  Cabman,'  and  ^Sons  of 
North   and   South,' — are  eagerly  read. 

Blan'chet,  Joseph  Goderick,  Canadian 
statesman:  b.  Saint  Pierre,  1829.  He  studied 
medicine,  graduating  from  the  College  of  Saint 
Anne ;  but  has  been  especially  active  in  public 
life ;  he  has  been  mayor  of  Levis,  speaker  of  the 
Provincial  legislature  of  Quebec  for  seven  years, 
and  member  of  the  Canadian  Assembly,  from 
which  he  resigned  on  account  of  the  law  on  dual 
representation. 

Blanching,  the  process  which  prevents  or 
checks  the  formation  of  chlorophyll  and  other 
substances  in  plants  by  excluding  light.  Tt  alters 
the  flavor  as  well  as  lightens  the  color  of  celery, 
sea-kale,  asparagus,  etc.,  and  is  generally  accom- 
plished by  covering  the  plants  with  earth,_  boards, 
straw,  paper,  etc.,  or,  in  a  small  way,  by  inverted 
flower-pots,  kegs,  barrels,  etc. 


BLANCO  — BLAND 


Blanco,  Antonio  Guzman,  an-to'nyo  gooz'- 
man  blan'ko,  Venezuelan  soldier:  b.  Cara- 
cas, 29  Feb.  1828 :  d.  29  July  1899.  He  became 
prominent  in  the  Federalist  revolts,  1859-63,  and, 
when  his  party  triumphed,  was  made  first  vice- 
president  in  1863  under  Falcon,  who  was  de- 
posed in  the  revolution  of  1868.  Blanco  led  a 
successful  counter-revolution  in  1870,  became 
president,  and  retained  the  office  till  1882.  In 
1893  he  was  appointed  minister  to  France,  where 
he  resided  till  his  death. 

Blanco,  Jose  Felix,  ho'sa  fa-leks,  Venezue- 
lan historian :  b.  Mariana  de  Caracas,  24  Sept. 
1782;  d.  Caracas,  8  Jan.  1872.  At  different 
times  he  acted  in  the  capacity  of  priest,  soldier, 
and  statesman.  He  was  one  of  the  leaders  in 
the  revolution  at  Caracas,  19  April  1810,  and 
was  the  first  editor  of  the  great  historical  work, 
^Documentos  para  la  historia  de  la  vida  publica 
del  Libertador,^   etc. 

Blanco,  Pedro,  pa'dro,  Bolivian  states- 
man: b.  Cochabamba,  19  Oct.  1795;  d.  Sucre, 
January  1829.  He  joined  the  Spanish  army  in 
1812,  but  soon  deserted  to  the  patriots,  and 
served  with  them  till  the  end  of  the  revolution. 
In  1828  he  became  a  general,  and  in  the  same 
year,  when  Sucre  fell,  was  made  president  of 
Bolivia,  but  was  superseded  in  the  revolution  of 
31    Dec.   1828.     He  was  shot  in  Sucre. 

Blanco,  Ramon  y  Arenas,  ra'mon  e  a-ra- 
nas,  ]\I.\RQcis  DE  Pexa  Plata,  Spanish  sol- 
dier: b.  San  Sebastian,  Spain,  1833;  d.  IMadrid, 
4  April  1906.  He  began  his  military  career 
in  1855  as  lieutenant;  was  promoted  captain  in 
1858,  and  won  the  rank  of  lieutenant-colonel  in 
the  war  with  San  Domingo.  In  1894  Blanco 
went  to  the  Philippines  as  governor  of  ]Min- 
danao.  When  he  returned  to  Spain  he  was 
assigned  to  the  Army  of  the  North,  and  in 
the  war  with  the  Carlists  made  a  brilliant 
record.  He  successfully  stormed  Pena  Plata, 
for  which  achievement  he  was  created  a  mar- 
quis with  that  title.  He  succeeded  Gen.  Weyler 
as  captain-general  in  Cuba,  and  his  career  was 
marked  by  deeds  of  blood  and  violence.  When 
in  command  at  the  Philippines  he  ordered  169 
prisoners  to  be  thrown  into  a  dungeon,  where 
they  were  left  for  two  days.  When  the  guard 
opened  the  door  they  were  all  dead  from  asphyx- 
iation. In  the  second  Cuban  insurrection  1,500 
defenseless  prisoners  were  slaughtered  by  his 
orders.  At  Cavite  the  Spanish  captured  several 
native  leaders,  and.  by  Blanco's  instructions, 
after  being  tortured,  the  unhappy  wretches  were 
disemboweled  and  their  bleeding  bodies  hung 
on  the  gates  of  the  city.  The  Spanish  govern- 
ment permitted  him  to  resign  his  post  in  Cuba 
before  the  day  set  for  the  American  occupation. 

Blanco,  Encalada,  Manuel,  ma-noo-el 
blan-ko-en-ka-la'da,  Spanish-American  sol- 
dier: b.  Buenos  Ayres,  5  Sept.  1790;  d.  5  Sept. 
1875.  He  distinguished  himself  in  the  Chilean 
war  of  independence.  He  was  chosen  president 
of  Chile  in  July  1826,  but  soon  resigned  and  was 
made  general  of  the  army.  He  unsuccessfully 
invaded  Peru  in  1837,  and  was  not  allowed  to 
retire  till  he  had  signed  a  treaty  of  peace.  Chile 
annulled  this  treaty,  and  he  was  court-martialed, 
but  freed.  In  1847  he  was  intendant  of  Valpa- 
raiso, and  in  1853-8  minister  to  France. 


Blanco,  blan'ko.  Cape  (literally,  Svhite 
cape"),  a  name  given  to  a  great  number  of  capes 
by  the  Spaniards,  Portuguese,  and  Italians.  It 
corresponds  to  the  French  caf>  blanc.  The  name 
is  as  common  and  as  unphilosophical  as  that  of 
White  Hill,  Black  River,  etc.  The  cape  best 
known  by  this  name  is  a  headland  on 
the  west  coast  of  Africa,  in  lat.  20°  47'  N.,  and 
Ion.  16°  58'  W.,  the  extremity  of  a  rocky  ridge 
which  projects  from  the  Sahara  in  a  westerly 
direction,  and  then  bending  southward  forms  a 
commodious  harbor  called  the  Great  Bay.  Cape 
Blanco  was  first  discovered  by  the  Portuguese 
in  144 1. 

Bland,  Edith  Nesbit  (E.  Nesbit),  English 
writer:  b.  London,  15  Aug.  1858.  She  was  mar- 
ried to  Hubert  Bland,  1879.  She  has  written 
several  volumes  of  verse,  as  well  as  a  series  of 
popular  children's  books  and  several  novels. 
Her  published  works  include:  ^Lays  and 
J.egends>  (1886-92);  ^Leaves  of  Life^  (1888); 
^A  Pomander  of  Verse^  (1895)  ;  <Grim  Tales^ 
(1893);  'Something  Wrong>  (1893);  'The 
Marden  Mystery*  (1896)  ;  <  Songs  of  Love  and 
Empire*      (1897);      'The     Secret     of     Kyriels* 

(1898)  ;    ^The  Story  of  the  Treasure   Seekers* 

(1899)  ;  ^ Pussy  and  Doggy  Tales*  (1899)  ;  'The 
Book  of  Dragons*  (1900)  ;  <The  Would-be 
Goods*  ;  'Nine  Unlikely  Tales*  ;  'Thirteen  Ways 
Home*  (1901)  ;  ^Five  Children  and  It*  (1902)  ; 
^The  Red  House*  (1902);  with  Hubert  Bland, 
^The  Prophet's  Mantle*  (1889)  ;  with  Barron, 
^The  Butler  in   Bohemia*    (1894). 

Bland,  Richard  Parks,  American  legis- 
lator :  b.  near  Hartford,  Ky.,  19  Aug.  1835 ;  d. 
Lebanon,  Mo.,  15  June  1899.  He  received  an 
academical  education,  and,  between  1855  and 
1865,  practised  law  in  Missouri,  California,  and 
Nevada,  and  was  engaged  for  some  time  in  min- 
ing. In  1865  he  settled  in  Rolla,  Mo.,  and 
practised  there  till  he  removed  to  Lebanon 
in  the  same  State.  He  was  a  member  of 
Congress  in  1873-95  ^rid  from  1897  till  his 
death.  In  1896  he  was  a  conspicuous  candidate 
for  the  presidential  nomination  in  the  Demo- 
cratic National  Convention,  but  on  the  fourth 
ballot  his  name  was  withdrawn,  and  the  vote 
of  his  State  was  cast  for  William  J.  Bryan. 
Mr.  Bland  was  best  known  as  the  leader  in  the 
Lower  House  of  Congress  of  the  Free-Silver 
movement,  and  the  author  of  the  Bland  Silver 
Bill.  At  the  time  of  his  death  he  was  a  member 
of  the  committees  on  coinage,  weights  and  mea- 
sures, and  expenditures  on  public  buildings. 

Bland,  Theodoric,  American  military  offi- 
cer: b.  Prince  George  County,  Va.,  1742;  d.  I 
June  1790;  he  studied  medicine  in  the  Univer- 
sity of  Edinburgh,  and  for  a  time  practised  in 
England.  He  returned  home  in  1764,  wrote 
against  Gov.  Dunmore  under  the  name  of  Cas- 
sius ;  and  was  active  in  his  profession  until 
the  outbreak  of  the  Revolutionary  War,  when  he 
sided  with  the  Colonists,  and  became  captain 
of  the  first  troop  of  Virginia  cavalry.  In  1777  he 
joined  the  main  army  as  a  lieutenant-colonel, 
and  later  became  a  colonel.  He  distinguished 
himself  at  the  battle  of  Brandywine,  and  was 
placed  in  command  of  the  prisoners  taken  at 
Saratoga,  who  were  marched  to  Charlotteville, 
Va.  In  1780-3  he  was  a  member  of  the  Conti- 
nental Congress,  and  was  a  representative  from 
Virginia  to  the  First  Federal  Congress  in  1789. 


BLANK  VERSE  — BLANQUI 


Blank  Verse,  verse  without  rhyme.  This 
was  the  invariable  form  of  the  poetry  of  the 
ancients,  but  it  is  now  peculiar  to  the  Italian, 
English,  and  German  languages.  The  poetry  of 
the  Anglo-Saxons  and  the  earliest  English 
poetry  was  not  rhymed,  yet  it  is  not  generally 
called  blank  verse,  as  their  versification  had  a 
peculiarity  of  its  own  called  alliteration.  When 
rhyme,  however,  was  once  introduced  into  Eng- 
lish verse,  it  was  for  a  long  time  regarded  as 
the  exclusive  form  of  versification,  and  the  Earl 
of  Surrey,  who  was  beheaded  by  order  of  Henry 
VIII.  in  1547,  is  said  to  have  been  the  first  to  use 
blank  verse  in  England,  namelJ^  in  his  transla- 
tion of  the  second  and  fourth  books  of  Virgil's 
*^neid.^  The  most  common  form  of  blank 
verse  in  English  poetry  is  the  decasyllabic,  such 
as  that  of  Milton's  ^Paradise  Lost^  and  the 
dramas  of  Shakespeare.  From  Shakespeare's 
time  it  has  been  the  kind  of  verse  almost  uni- 
versally used  by  dramatic  writers.  Dryden,  in- 
deed, after  the  Restoration,  introduced  ryhme 
into  his  tragedies,  in  imitation  of  the  French 
rhymed  plays ;  but  after  keeping  the  stage  for 
a  number  of  years,  they  became  intolerable  to 
the  English  ear,  and  the  introduction  of  rhyme 
into  the  drama  has  never  since  been  attempted 
in  England.  Shakespeare  not  uncommonly  ends 
a  scene  with  a  few  lines  of  rhyme,  although  the 
rest  of  the  scene  is  in  blank  verse,  and  in  the 
subordinate  play  interwoven  with  the  action  of 
Hamlet  blank  verse  is  used  throughout.  The 
first  use  of  the  term  blank  verse  is  said  to  be 
in  Hamlet,  ii.  2:  "The  lady  shall  say  her  mind 
freely,  or  the  blank  verse  shall  halt  for't.'' 

Blanket  (that  is  "fine  white^^  goods),  a 
heavy  bed  or  horse  cover,  of  a  fabric  with  a  thick 
soft  nap  on  both  sides.  Originally  made  entirely 
of  wool,  and  still  so  in  the  finest  grades,  the  bulk 
of  medium  and  cheap  blankets  are  now  made 
with  a  cotton  chain  or  warp  and  a  wool  filling, 
as  cheaper,  stiffer,  and  little  less  durable  in 
good  condition.  In  the  finest  grades  of  Amer- 
ican blankets,  the  filling  is  Australian  wool,  the 
longest  and  softest  fibre  known ;  the  warp  of 
American  wool.  The  cheapest  ones  have  for 
filling  the  shorter  combings  of  wool,  shoddy, 
etc. ;  ordinary  horse  blankets  the  same  or  still 
coarser  half-cleaned  wool,  and  largely  animal 
hair.  Of  late  also  an  immense  quantity  of  all- 
cotton  blankets  are  made,  the  nap  being  cotton 
wool ;  these  have  competed  less  with  wool 
blankets  than  with  comfortables,  whose  sale  for 
a  time  they  cut  in  half.  They  are  used  for 
economy,  where  heavy  blankets  are  not  needed, 
and  to  replace  cotton  sheeting  in  cold  rooms, 
for  children,  etc.  The  most  famous  blankets 
in  the  world  are  those  of  the  Mysore  in  India, 
so  delicate  that  one  18  feet  long  can  be  rolled 
inside  a  hollow  bamboo.  In  the  United  States 
they  are  a  specialty  in  southwestern  Indian 
domestic  manufacture,  especially  among  the 
quite  civilized  Navajos  (q.v.),  whose  rough 
hand  looms  and  stick  shuttles  turn  out  blan- 
kets weighing  20  pounds  or  more,  and  selling 
for  $1  and  $2  a  pound,  much  prized  by  Alaskan 
and  Klondike  gold-seekers.  But  of  civilized 
rnanufacture,  the  finest  are  from  California, 
JNevada,  and  Oregon,  and  from  Minneapolis; 
sorne  of  these  retail  for  $25  per  pair  with  a 
weight  of  less  than  10  pounds.  Maine,  Ohio, 
?.r.d  West  Virginia  also  produce  very  fine 
goods.     Below  the  above  fancy  price,  of  which 


much  is  loading  for  short  runs,  prices  range 
for  all-wool  blankets  from  $20,  the  highest  usu- 
ally kept  in  stock,  down  to  $7.50,  and  for  cot- 
ton-warp down  to  $2,  all-cotton,  $1.  Few 
blankets  have  been  imported  into  this  country 
since  i860.  The  early  manufacture  here  was 
"a  series  of  costly  and  futile  experiments,^^  ex- 
cept a  few  coarse  ones  for  army  or  navy 
use,  and  for  slaves  on  plantations,  for  which 
in  1831  a  mill  was  started  in  Pendleton, 
S.  C. ;  another  to  make  "Indian'^  blankets  was 
opened  in  Buffalo  the  same  year.  But  the 
first  effective  attempt  was  under  the  sharp 
tariff  of  1842,  soon  swept  away  by  the 
moderate  one  of  1847.  The  tariff  bill  of  1857, 
however,  which  formed  one  of  the  southern 
counts  for  secession,  ta.xed  imported  blankets  so 
heavily  that  by  1861  importations  had  practically 
ceased.  In  i860  the  United  States'  total  manu- 
facture was  616,400  pairs,  mainly  in  New  Eng- 
land, Pennsylvania,  and  California.  In  1880  this 
had  increased  to  4,400,000,  gross  value  $6,840,000, 
and  the  prices  had  dropped  so  much  that  the 
cheaper  grades  had  gone  out  of  use ;  the  foreign 
commissioners  at  the  Centennial  of  1876  reported 
that  for  weight,  thickness,  softness,  and  perfec- 
tion of  surface,  nothing  in  Europe  compared 
with  the  American,  and  that  the  European 
cheaper  grades  could  not  be  sold  even  to  the 
Indians.  But  competition  had  so  glutted  the 
market  that  in  1878  a  great  auction  was  held  in 
New  York  to  clear  them  off,  at  heavy  sacrifice. 
In  i8go  the  manner  of  report  was  changed  to 
square  yards, —  20,793,644  of  "house  blankets,*^ 
valued  at  $7,153,900,  and  5,507,074  of  horse 
blankets,  $1,721,516.  For  some  reason,  probably 
the  larger  use  of  comfortables,  the  use  of  the 
all  or  part-wool  article  fell  off  heavily  in  the  last 
decade  —  to  18,155,505  square  yards,  valued  at 
$5,200,959;  though  horse  blankets  increased  to 
7>3i5>304.  valued  at  $1,740,988  or  about  the  same 
as  before.  The  chief  seats  of  manufacture  were 
Pennsylvania  for  all-wool,  and  Massachusetts 
for  cotton-warp,  though  Indiana,  Minnesota, 
California,  and  several  other  States  furnished 
large  quantities. 

The  nap  is  formed  in  the  finest  grades,  and 
till  recently  was  so  altogether,  by  pulling  up  the 
fibre  with  teazles ;  these  have  now  been  replaced 
in  the  cheaper  makes  with  steel  teeth  or  brushes 
on  revolving  cylinders,  which,  however,  are  too 
inflexible  and  liable  to  tear  the  goods  to  be 
trusted  with  expensive  ones.  The  use  of  Jac- 
quard  patterns  with  two  or  three  colors,  in 
place  of  printed  ones,  is  another  change  which 
has  popularized  blankets  by  increasing  their 
beauty. 

Blanqui,  blaii-ke,  Jerome  Adolphe,  French 
economist:  b.  Nice,  1798;  d.  1B54.  While  study- 
ing medicine  at  Paris  he  made  acquaintance 
with  Jean  Baptiste  Say,  and  was  induced  to 
devote  himself  to  the  study  of  economics.  He 
succeeded  Say  in  the  Conservatoire  des  Arts  et 
Metiers  as  professor  of  industrial  economy. 
Blanqui,  who  favored  a  free-trade  policy,  pub- 
lished, among  other  works,  ^Precis  Elementaire 
d'ficnnnmie  Politique^  and  ^Histoire  de  I'ficono- 
mie  Politique  en  Europe.' 

Blanqui,  Louis  Augusta,  French  revolu- 
tionist: b.  Nice,  7  Feb.  1805;  d.  i  Jan.  1881.  He 
made  himself  conspicuous  chiefly  by  his  passion- 
ate advocacy  of  the  most  extreme  political  opin- 


BLANQUILLO  —  BLASPHEMY 


ions,  for  which'  he  suffered  with  the  pride  of 
a  martyr.  He  was  one  of  the  foremost  fighters 
in  all  the  French  revolutions  of  the  19th  cen- 
tury. In  1830  he  was  decorated  for  his  valor 
at  the  barricades.  In  1848  he  figured  as  the 
chief  organizer  of  the  popular  movement  under 
the  provisional  government.  He  took  the  lead 
also  in  the  revolutionary  attentat  of  15  May,  the 
aim  of  which  was  to  overthrow  the  Constituent 
Assembly.  At  the  head  of  an  excited  mob  he 
demanded  of  the  French  representatives  the 
resuscitation  of  the  Polish  nationality,  while  one 
of  his  friends  pronounced  the  dissolution  of  the 
Assembly.  For  his  share  in  these  disturbances 
he  was  rewarded  with  a  10  years'  imprisonment 
in  Belleisle.  In  1861  Blanqui  was  sentenced  to 
another  imprisonment  of  four  years.  After  the 
downfall  of  the  second  empire  in  1870,  Blanqui 
resumed  his  revolutionary  activity,  and,  in  1871, 
took  a  prominent  part  in  forming  the  Commune. 
Being  too  unwell  to  endure  transportation  to 
New  Caledonia,  he  was  condemned  to  imprison- 
ment for  life,  from  which  he  was  released  in 
1879.     He  spent  nearly  half  of  his  life  in  prison. 

Blanquillo,  blan-kel'yo,  a  fish  of  the  Gulf 
of  Mexico  (Caiilolatihis  chrysops),  related  to 
the  tile-fish.  The  name  is  also  given  in  southern 
California  to  the  yellow-tail  (q.v.). 

Blarney,  Ireland,  a  village  four  miles 
northwest  of  the  city  of  Cork,  near  the  stream 
of  same  name,  here  crossed  by  a  handsome 
bridge  of  three  arches.  It  is  a  small  but  well- 
built  place ;  and  besides  the  parish  church,  con- 
tains a  national  school.  Flax  and  cotton  were 
formerly  manufactured  to  some  extent,  but  both 
of  these  branches  have  now  decayed.  Spinning 
and  dyeing  woolen  3'arn  is,  however,  still  car- 
ried on ;  and  there  is  an  extensive  tweed  manu- 
factory employing  a  number  of  people.  Blarney 
Castle  stands  on  an  isolated  limestone  rock  at 
the  junction  of  the  Blarney  and  Comane. 
Erected  in  the  15th  century,  it  was  the  scene  of 
several  interesting  historical  events ;  but  de- 
rives its  chief  notoriety  from  a  stone  in  its 
northeast  angle,  several  feet  from  the  top,  bear- 
ing a  Latin  inscription,  recording  the  date  of  the 
erection,  and  called  the  "Blarney  Stone.'^  To 
this  stone  tradition  ascribes  the  faculty  of  com- 
municating to  all  who  kiss  it  that  species  of 
most  persuasive  fluency  of  speech  commonly 
called  "blarney.^^  The  "groves  of  Blarney'^  are 
extensive  and  interesting,  and  beneath  the  castle 
there  are  also  some  curious  natural  caves. 

Blaser  ble'zer,  Gustav,  German  sculptor: 
b.  Diisseldorf,  9  ]\Iay  1813;  d.  Cannstatt,  20 
April  1874.  He  was  associated  11  ji-ears  with 
Ranch  and  for  that  time  shared  in  all  his  work. 
In  1845  he  went  to  Rome,  but  returned  to  Berlin 
when  appointed  to  design  one  of  the  groups  for 
the  "Schlossbriicke.^  His  group,  ^Minerva 
Leading  a  Young  Warrior  to  Battle,'  is  thought 
to  be  the  best  of  the  series.  Among  his  other 
works  are  a  statue  of  St.  Matthew  in  the  church 
at  Helsingfors ;  the  ^Prophet  DanieP  ;  Barussia 
in  the  new  museum  at  Berlin ;  the  statues  of 
Jeremiah,  Daniel,  and  Charlemagne  for  the 
church  at  Potsdam ;  the  equestrian  statue  of 
Frederick  William  III.  at  Cologne;  ^Hospital- 
ity-*  ;  and  many  busts,  including  one  of  Lincoln 
and  one  of  Washington. 

•Blashfield,  Edwin  Howland,  American  art- 
ist: b.  New  York,  15  Dec.  1848;  studied  in 
Paris  under  Leon  Bonnat ;  and  began  exhibiting 


in  the  Paris  Salon  in  1874.  He  returned  to  the 
United  States  in  1881,  and  has  since  distin- 
guished himself  by  the  execution  of  large  deco- 
rative works.  Among  his  noteworthy  produc- 
tions in  this  line  are  one  of  the  domes  of  the 
Manufacturers'  building  in  the  World's  Colum- 
bian Exposition,  the  great  central  dome  of  the 
Library  of  Congress,  and  the  new  apartment  of 
the  appellate  court  in  New  York ;  besides  ceil- 
ing and  panel  work  in  the  residences  of  C.  P. 
Huntington,  W.  K.  Vanderbilt,  and  George  W. 
C.  Drexel,  and  in  the  Astoria  ballroom  and  sev- 
eral clubhouses  in  New  York. 

Bla'sius,  St.,  or  St.  Blaise,  Bishop  of  Se- 
baste,  in  Armenia,  is  said  to  have  suffered 
martyrdom  about  316,  by  order  of  Agricola. 
governor  of  Cappadocia  and  little  Armenia.  His 
feast  day  is  celebrated  in  the  Greek  church  on  il 
February  and  he  is  commemorated  in  the  oldest 
martyrologies  of  the  Roman  church.  In  the 
Roman  iMartyrology,  3  February  is  assigned  to 
him.  He  is  the  patron  saint  of  wool-combers, 
his  flesh  having  been  torn  by  iron  combs.  He  is 
especially  invoked  in  diseases  of  children  and 
animals,  and  ailments  connected  with  the 
throat  are   more   particularly  in    his    province. 

Blasphemy,  is  somewhat  variously  defined. 
According  to  the  most  general  definition, 
it  means  the  speaking  irreverently  of  the 
mysteries  of  religion ;  and  formerly,  in  Roman 
Catholic  countries,  it  also  included  the  speaking 
contemptuously  or  disrespectfully  of  the  Holy 
Virgin  or  the  saints.  Public  blasphemy  has  been 
considered  by  the  Catholic  Church  as  an  un- 
pardonable sin,  and  it  was  formerly  punished 
with  death  by  the  municipal  laws.  The  77th 
novel  of  Justinian  assigned  this  punishment  to 
it ;  and  the  capitularies  inflicted  the  same  pun- 
ishment upon  such  as,  knowing  of  an  act  of 
blasphemy,  did  not  denounce  the  offender.  The 
former  laws  of  France  punished  this  crime  with 
fine,  corporal  punishment,  the  gallows,  and 
death,  according  to  the  degree  and  aggravation 
of  the  offense.  The  records  of  the  parliaments 
supply  numerous  instances  of  condemnation  for 
this  crime,  and  many  of  punishment  by  death ; 
others  of  branding  and  mutilation.  A  man  was 
for  this  offense  condemned  to  be  hanged,  and  to 
have  his  tongue  afterward  cut  out,  and  the  sen- 
tence was  executed  at  Orleans  as  late  as  1748. 
But  it  is  remarked  by  a  writer  in  the  French 
^Encyclopedie  Moderne,'  that  we  should  form  an 
erroneous  opinion  from  the  present  state  of 
society  of  the  effect  of  this  offense,  and  the  dis- 
orders it  might  introduce  in  former  times;  for 
religion  was  once  so  intimately  blended  with 
the  government  and  laws,  that  to  treat  the  re- 
ceived articles  of  faith  or  religious  ceremonies 
with  disrespect  was  in  effect  to  attack  civil 
institutions. 

By  the  common  law  of  England,  as  stated 
by  Blackstone,  blasphemy  consists  in  denying 
the  being  and  providence  of  God,  contumelious 
reproaches  of  Jesus  Christ,  profane  scoffing  at 
Holy  Scripture,  etc.,  and  is  punishable  by  fine 
and  imprisonment,  or  corporal  punishment;  the 
offense  is  also  statutory,  the  statute  9  and 
10  William  III.  cap.  xxxii.,  declaring  that  if 
any  one  shall  deny  any  of  the  persons  of  the 
Trinity  to  be  God,  or  assert  that  there  are  more 
gods  than  one,  or  deny  the  truth  of  Christianity 
or  of  the  Scriptures,  he  shall  be  incapable  of 
holding  any  office;  and  for  a  second  offens&  be 


BLAST  FURNACE 


disabled  from  suing  any  action,  or  being  an 
executer,  and  suffer  three  j^ears'  imprisonment. 
By  the  law  of  Scotland,  as  it  stood  under 
acts  of  1661  and  1695,  the  punishment  of  blas- 
phemy was  death.  Blasphemy  consisted  of  rail- 
ing at  or  cursing  God,  or  of  obstinately  persist- 
ing in  denying  the  existence  of  the  Supreme 
Being,  or  any  of  the  persons  of  the  Trinity. 

The  early  legislation  of  the  American  colo- 
nies followed  that  of  the  mother  country,  and 
in  some  of  them  the  crime  of  blasphemy  was 
punished  with  death;  but  the  penalty  was  miti- 
gated before  the  establishment  of  independence, 
and  imprisonment,  whipping,  setting  on  the  pil- 
lory, having  the  tongue  bored  with  a  red-hot 
iron,  etc.,  were  substituted.  Several  penalties 
against  blasphemy  are  to  be  found  in  the  laws 
of  some  of  the  New  England  States,  according 
to  which  it  is  provided  that,  if  any  person  shall 
blaspheme,  by  denying,  cursing,  or  contumeli- 
ously  reproaching  God,  his  creation,  govern- 
ment, or  final  judging  of  the  world,  or  by  curs- 
ing or  reproaching  Jesus  Christ  or  the  Holy 
Ghost,  or  contumeliously  reproaching  the  Word 
of  God,  consisting  of  the  commonly  received 
books  of  the  Old  and  New  Testament,  he  is 
liable  to  imprisonment  for  a  term  not  exceed- 
ing five  years.  But  the  most  direct  and  public 
violations  of  these  laws  are  passed  over  with- 
out punishment  or  prosecution,  due  probably  to 
the  provisions  of  the  National  and  State  Consti- 
tutions, guaranteeing  religious  liberty,  and  the 
freedom  of  speech.  In  many  States,  the  offense 
of  blasphamy,  not  being  a  subject  of  special 
statutory  provision,  is  only  punishable  either  as 
an  offense  at  common  law,  or  a  violation  of  the 
statute  laws  against  profane  swearing. 

Blast  Furnace,  a  modern  mechanical  appli- 
ance, or  structure  built  of  refractory  material 
in  which  metallic  ores  are  smelted  in  contact 
with  fuel  and  flux,  the  combustion  of  the  fuel 
being  accelerated  by  air  under  pressure.  The 
materials  are  fed  in  at  the  top  of  the  furnace, 
and  after  the  ores  are  reduced,  the  metal,  or 
in  some  cases  the  matte,  and  the  resulting  slag 
are  tapped  in  a  molten  state  at  or 'near  the  bot- 
tom; as  a  rule,  the  slags,  being  of  less  specific 
gravity  than  the  metal,  float  upon  it.  The  sizes 
of  blast  furnaces  vary  from  a  few  feet  to  over 
100  feet  in  height,  a  horizontal  section  through 
the  structure  showing  either  circular  or  rectangu- 
lar interiors,  the  circular  form  being  adopted 
for  the  larger  sizes,  while  those  of  smaller 
height  are  often  made  rectangular  to  permit  of 
introducing  a  number  of  tuyeres  with  air  noz- 
zles into  a  narrow  hearth. 

A  vertical  section  of  a  modern  American 
blast  furnace  shows  at  the  lower  part,  the  hearth 
or  crucible  of  the  shape  desired,  into  which  the 
air  is  admitted  under  pressure  through  tu3'-eres. 
On  this  hearth  is  superposed  an  inverted  frustum 
of  a  cone  forming  the  boshes,  and  above 
these  the  shaft  of  the  furnace  ascends  in  the 
form  of  a  right  cone.  The  shafts  are  inclosed  by 
shells  of  sheet  steel  or  by  crinolines  formed  of 
bands  and  beams,  and  carried  on  columns.  The 
boshes  are  usually  secured  bj'  bands  and  the 
crucibles  by  sheet  and  metal  jackets.  The  mate- 
rials are  charged  into  the  shaft  so  that  layers  of 
fuel  alternate  with  layers  of  ore  and  flux,  the 
taper  of  the  shaft  being  sufficient  to  permit  of  ex- 
pansion as  the  materials  are  heated,  and  facilitate 
their  delivery  to  the  hopper  formed  by  the  boshes. 


where  reduction  of  the  ores  takes  place.  The 
reduced  ore,  meeting  the  burning  fuel  near  the 
tuyeres,  is  melted,  and  the  liquid  slag  and  metal 
drop  into  the  hearth  or  crucible  (the  cinder  or 
slag  floating  on  the  liquid  metal),  from  which 
they  are  tapped  out  from  time  to  time.  By 
heating  the  blast  before  it  enters  the  tuyeres 
combustion  is  accelerated,  and  the  furnaces  pro- 
duce increased  quantities  of  metal  with  reduced 
fuel  consumption  per  unit  of  product. 

The  large  blast  furnaces  smelt  ores  of  iron 
or  manganese,  or  of  iron  and  manganese,  and 
are  from  40  to  106  feet  in  height,  a  cross  sec- 
tion at  the  top  of  the  boshes  showing  a  circle 
from  10  feet  to  23  feet  in  diameter.  The  blast 
is  heated  to  1,000°,  and  sometimes  to  1,200°,  or 
1,400°  F.,  and  is  forced  into  the  crucibles  'or 
hearth  through  from  6  to  20  tuyeres,  at  pres- 
sures from  5  to  15,  and,  at  times,  exceeding  20 
pounds  per  square  inch.  The  blast  furnaces 
smelting  silver  or  copper  ores  seldom  exceed  30 
feet  in  height,  the  horizontal  section  being  rec- 
tangular, and  the  blast  pressure  but  a  fraction  of 
a  pound.  A  modern  blast  furnace  will  produce 
from  300  to  600  tons  of  pig  iron  daily,  requiring 
from  1,000  to  2,000  tons  of  ore,  fuel  and  flux 
to  be  fed  into  it.  The  cost  for  construction  and 
equipment  of  one  of  these  modern  furnaces, 
with  its  necessary  railroad  tracks,  storage  room 
and  bins  for  receiving  the  raw  material,  the 
mechanism  for  elevating  it  to  the  top  of  the 
stack,  with  sufficient  blowing  engines,  boilers, 
hot  blast  stoves,  etc.,  ranges  from  $400,000  to 
$800,000. 

As  a  rule,  blast  furnaces  smelting  other  ores 
than  those  of  iron  have  the  top  of  the  furnace 
stack  open,  while,  in  those  producing  iron,  the 
top  is  usually  sealed  by  a  bell  closing  against  a 
hopper,  to  distribute  the  stock  in  the  wide  throat 
of  the  furnace  and  to  control  the  gases  which 
are  the  result  of  the  smelting  operation,  so  as  to 
employ  the  calorific  value  of  these  gases  for 
heating  the  blast  or  for  generating  steam  in 
boilers  to  operate  machinery.  The  practica- 
bility of  using  these  gases  in  engines,  where  the 
gas,  in  exploding,  gives  impetus  to  a  piston,  has 
also  been  demonstrated.  The  blast  is  heated 
in  hot  blast  stoves,  generally  cylinders  from  14 
to  25  feet  in  diameter  and  from  50  to  115  feet 
high,  filled  with  checker  work  of  fire  brick. 
These  stoves  are  placed  in  series;  the  gas  being 
admitted  to  and  burned  in  a  stove  raises  the 
temperature  of  the  masonry,  after  which  the 
gas  is  shut  off  and  the  blast  forced  through  the 
highly  heated  checkers.  By  alternating  a  series 
of  stoves  on  gas  or  blast,  at  intervals  of  one  or 
two  hours,  a  nearly  uniform  temperature  is 
maintained. 

The  blast,  after  passing  through  the  hot  blast 
stoves,  is  conveyed  in  iron  or  steel  conduits, 
lined  with  fire  brick,  to  tuyeres,  set  in  the  walls 
of  the  crucible.  These  tuyeres  are  formed  of 
an  inner  and  outer  shell  with  closed  ends,  water 
circulating  between  the  two  shells.  The  tuy- 
eres are  mostly  made  of  bronze  or  copper  and 
are  set  in  larger  tuyere  blocks  (also  water 
cooled)  of  iron  or  bronze.  Nozzles  connect  the 
lined  air  conduits  to  the  tuyeres.  The  cooling 
water  required  by  a  modern  blast  furnace 
amounts  to  millions  of  gallons  daily.  A  large 
furnace  requires  a  boiler  equipment  of  from 
3,000  to  3.500  horse  power  for  its  blowing,  pump- 
ing and  elevating  machinery,  electric  plant,  etc 


Copyright  by  the  Scientific  American. 

MODERN  BLAST  FURNACE,  SHOWING  AUTOMATIC  HOISTING  AND  CHARGING 

EQUIPMENT. 


BLAST  FURNACE  PRACTICE 


Blast  furnaces  are  numerous  in  Great  Brit- 
ain, Germany,  France,  Belgium,  Spain,  Russia, 
Austria-Hungary,  Sweden,  and  they  also  exist 
in  Canada,  ^lexico,  Italy,  China,  India,  and 
Japan.  Data  as  to  the  number  of  these  is  not 
at  hand,  but  the  pig  iron  production  of  various 
countries  gives  an  approximate  idea.  In  1905 
these  figures  (in  metric  tons)  were  approxi- 
mately as  follows :  United  States  25,340,258 
tons;  United  Kingdom  9,746,221  tons;  Germany 
10,987,623  tons;  France  3,077,000  tons  (for  the 
first  six  months  of  1906,  1,573,504  tons)  ;  Russia 
2,125,000  tons;  Austria-Hungary  1,372,300  tons; 
Belgium  1,310,200  tons;  Sweden  531,200  tons; 
Spain  383,100  tons;  Canada  475,491  tons;  Italy 
31,300  tons;  all  other  countries  (estimated) 
655,000  tons ;  making  a  total  production  of  about 
54,054,783  tons. 

It  is  impossible  to  give  the  total  number  of 
blast  furnaces  in  the  United  States,  for  the  rea- 
son that  the  number  of  those  used  for  producing 
copper,  silver,  etc.,  are  not  collated,  but  lists  of 
the  furnaces  employed  in  reducing  iron  ores  are 
carefully  reported  by  the  American  Iron  and 
Steel  Association.  There  were  in  1906,  in  the 
United  States,  a  total  of  424  blast  furnaces, 
whose  aggregate  reported  capacity  amounted  to 
over  25,000,000  long  tons  of  pig  iron,  but  as  all 
of  these  furnaces  are  not  active  at  one  time  (on 
31  Dec.  1905  only  313),  it  is  more  equitable  to 
consider  the  practical  production  as  between 
that  reported  and  the  greatest  annual  output, 
which,  in  1905,  amounted  to  22,992,380  long  tons, 
valued  at  $382,450,000  See  Steel  ;  Iron  and 
Steel;  Foundry  Practice;  etc. 

Blast  Furnace  Practice,  Modem.  The  first 
requisite  for  the  conduct  of  Blast  Furnace 
Practice  is  equipment,  and  therefore  although 
the  space  allotted  for  this  article  is  very  limited, 
a  brief  description  of  the  apparatus  required  to 
obtain  modern  furnace  practice  is  necessary. 

The  construction  of  the  Duquesne  Blast  Fur- 
naces in  1902  and  1903  marked  a  great  advance 
in  the  evolution  of  the  modern  blast  furnace, 
for  the  labor  of  filling  the  furnaces  formerly 
done  by  hand  was  performed  mechanically,  and 
their  size  far  exceeded  any  previously  built. 
The  capacity  predicted  of  600  tons  per  day  and 
actually  accomplished,  was  the  most  marked 
achievement,  as  it  was  fully  50  per  cent  greater 
than  any  furnace  production  at  that  time.  These 
furnaces  were  100  feet  high  and  were  equipped 
with  powerful  blowing  engines  of  large  capacity. 

The  ore  was  handled  in  and  out  of  stock 
pile  mechanically,  by  means  of  a  large  gantry 
crane  euipped  with  a  scraper  bucket  spanning 
the  ore  yard.  The  stock  house  was  equipped 
with  steel  bins  for  ore,  stone,  and  coke,  and  the 
furnaces  were  filled  by  an  inclined  hoist,  oper- 
ating a  cylindrical  bucket,  which  w^as  deposited 
in  the  stock  house  on  a  low  car  and  transferred 
to  the  bin  chutes  for  filling. 

This  bucket  was  closed  by  a  bell,  to  the  rod 
of  which  the  hoist  rope  was  hooked  when  the 
tub  was  hoisted,  and  this  bell  when  lowered  on 
top  discharged  the  contents  automatically  into 
the  receiving  hopper,  thus  forming  a  complete 
ring  in  layers  of  m.aterial  in  this  hopper  each 
time  a  tub  was  hoisted. 

The  success  of  these  stacks  was  followed 
rapidly  by  the  construction  in  different  parts  of 
the  country  of  stacks  of  similar  dimensions,  but 


differing  somewhat  in  equipment,  particularly  in 
the  charging  mechanism.  These  furnaces  for  a 
while  gave  good  results,  but  later  were  a  grave 
disappointment,  owing  to  the  almost  universal 
failure  of  their  linings  after  a  few  months'  oper- 
ation, while  the  Duquesne  furnaces  made  over 
one  million  tons  on  their  first  lining,  a  result 
which  the  writer  believes  to  have  been  clearly 
shown  since  to  be  due  entir  'y  to  the  good  dis- 
tribution obtained  by  the  mechanical  charging 
apparatus  installed  at  the  Duquesne  Works. 

The  hoist  and  di.stributing  mechanism  in- 
stalled at  Duquesne  seemed  to  engineers,  when 
built,  more  complicated  and  expensive  than  was 
necessary,  and  at  the  same  time  they  aimed  to 
make  a  still  greater  reduction  in  the  labor  em- 
ployed, but  they  failed  to  appreciate  the  import- 
ance of  good  stock  distribution  on  top  of  the 
furnace  and  how  it  was  accomplished  by  the 
Duquesne  design. 

The  usual  construction  now  adopted  for 
charging  the  furnace  is  mechanical  stock  hand- 
ling, storage  bins,  and  skip  hoists  equipped  with 
single  or  double  skips.  These  dumping  skips 
are  responsible  for  the  short  life  of  the  fur- 
nace linings,  for,  in  discharging  their  load  on 
top  of  the  furnace,  they  cause  a  sorting  of  the 
stock,  the  finer  parts  dropping  down  near  the 
dumping  point  of  the  skip,  and  the  lumps  going 
farthest  away.  It  was  quite  possible  to  obtain 
a  uniform  layer  in  the  furnace  of  coke^  lime- 
stone, and  ore,  but  the  fact  that  more  of  the 
lumps  went  to  the  side  of  the  furnace  farthest 
from  the  skip  made  the  gases  channel  on  that 
side  and  thus  cut  the  inwall  by  concentrating 
the  smelting  action  to  that  side  of  the  furnace. 
Good  stock  distribution  may  be  obtained  by  me- 
chanically filled  furnaces  provided  with  any 
kind  of  skip  hoists  by  the  use  of  the  rotary  dis- 
tributor, of  which  there  are  three  distinct  types. 

From  the  bins,  an  electrically  driven  larry 
should  weigh  and  deliver  the  stock  to  the  skip 
at  the  foot  of  the  inchned  furnace  hoist.  Plants 
operating  on  lake  ore  must  receive  most  of  their 
yearly  requirements  during  warm  weather,  and 
hence  a  stocking  equipment  is  required,  and 
even  at  all  furnaces  some  form  of  stocking  plant 
is  desirable. 

When  the  plant  is  located  on  navigable  water 
and  receives  its  ore  that  way,  the  unloading 
machines  operating  grab  buckets  are  arranged 
to  deliver  the  material  into  the  stock  piles, 
from  whence  it  is  recovered  by  another  grab 
bucket,  operated  by  a  gantry  crane  spanning  the 
ore  yard,  and  delivering  its  load  into  an  elec- 
trically driven  transfer  car  serving  the  stock 
bins.  When  two  or  more  large  furnaces  are 
located  away  from  navigable  water,  and  hence 
receiving  all  the  stock  by  rail,  a  mechanical  car 
dumper  is  an  economy. 

Considering  next  the  power  equipment,  we 
find  that  the  water  tube  boiler  gives  the  best  re- 
sults WMth  waste  gas  as  a  fuel,  but  for  more 
than  two  furnaces,  much  greater  economy  _  is 
obtained  by  burning  the  gas  direct  in  the  cylin- 
der of  the'  gas  engine,  and  thus  furnishing  the 
electric  power  required  to  drive  auxiliary-  ma- 
chinery about  the  plant,  and  in  the  gas  driven 
blowing  engine  the  blast  required  for  the  fur- 
nace. In  plants  where  the  water  tube  boiler  is 
still  in  use,  the  steam  engines  are  compounded 
and  the  cxhau.st  steam  condensed  in  a  central 
condenser  of  large  capacity. 


BLAST  FURNACE  PRACTICE 


Furnace  gas  is  made  much  more  efficient 
under  boilers,  if  cleaned  before  use,  and  if  go- 
ing to  internal  combustion  engines,  a  thorough 
cleaning  is  absolutely  necessary. 

For  use  under  boilers,  the  cleaning  may  be 
effected  by  the  wet  dust  catcher  of  the  contact 
type,  where  the  gas  is  repeatedly  directed  against 
a'  surface  of  water  kept  clean  by  circulation. 

Such  dust  catchers  remove  95  per  cent  of 
the  solid  matter  in  the  gas,  absorbing  less  than 
I  per  cent  of  moisture,  and  reducing  the  temper- 
ature about  S  per  cent.  For  use  in  the  gas 
engines,  the  gas  must  be  thoroughly  cooled  and 
scrubbed  to  remove  the  solid  matter  very  com- 
pletely, for  which  a  great  variety  of  devices 
are  used.  It  is  good  practice  to  pass  all  the 
gas  through  a  good  contact  wet  dust  catcher 
and  thus  retain  most  of  the  initial  heat  for  the 
gas  to  be  burned  in  the  stoves,  subjecting  the 
balance  to  a  more  thorough  treatment  for  use 
in  the  gas  engines. 

No  furnace  plant  to-day  is  complete  without 
some  means  of  regulating  the  amount  of  mois- 
ture admitted  into  the  furnace  in  the  blast,  and 
the  most  satisfactory  way  to  do  this  is  to  re- 
duce the  amount  to  the  lowest  possible  mini- 
mum. This  is  accomplished  by  refrigeration  of 
the  air  admitted  to  the  air  cylinders  of  the 
blowing  engines,  a  process  patented  by  James 
Gayley,  and  accomplishing  greater  economical 
results  than  was  estimated  possible  in  that  di- 
rection. 

h-on  Ores. — Such  ores  are  smelted  when  con- 
taining from  40  per  cent  and  upwards,  and,  in 
case  of  calcareous  ores,  even  lower  grade  ma- 
terial has  been  treated  profitably,  but  the  costs 
of  manufacture  increase  very  rapidly  as  the 
yield  in  metallic  iron  drops  in  the  mixture.  It 
is,  therefore,  important  to  give  attention  to  the 
preparation  of  the  ore  before  smelting,  with  the 
view  of  removing  objectionable  elements.  This 
concentration  frequently  removes  considerable 
phosphorus  which  is  practically  unaffected  by 
the  smelting  process,  and  occasionally  reduces 
the  sulphur,  which  is  always  a  difificult  and  ex- 
pensive element  to  remove. 

In  concentration,  it  is  usually  necessary  to 
crush  fine,  which  leaves  the  product  in  a  finely 
divided  state,  and,  as  the  ore  grains  decrease 
in  size  below  what  would  stay  on  a  60  mesh 
sieve,  the  difficulty  ot  smelting  increases ;  hence 
two  methods  are  used  to  agglomerate  this  fine 
product  and  thus  render  it  more  easily  and 
economically   smelted. 

One  is,  briquetting  either  with  or  without 
binder,  in  the  latter  case,  it  is  necessary  to  burn 
the  product  in  a  continuous  furnace.  The  other 
is  nodulizing,  that  is,  agglomerating  by  u.se  of 
the  rotary  kiln.  This  latter  process  practically 
removes  all  the  sulphur,  that  occasions  any 
trouble  in  the  smelting ;  breaking  up  sulphates, 
as  well  as  sulphides.  Ores  carrying  6  per  cent 
of  sulphur,  contain  after  such  treatment,  less 
than  .3-10  of  I  per  cent.  Some  ores,  principally 
the  soft  brown  hematites,  found  quite  abund- 
antly in  the  Southern  states,  are  best  concen- 
trated by  washing. 

The  point  necessary  to  emphasize  in  dis- 
cussing this  subject  is  the  importance  of  bring- 
ing the  material  for  smelting  into  the  blast  fur- 
nace as  pure  as  possible,  consistent  upon  se- 
curing the  proper  slag  volume  for  good  working. 

Fuels. — For  the  blast  furnace,  coke  (q.v.)   is 


to-day  the  most  commonly  used,  on  account  of 
the  wide  distribution  of  coking  coals,  but  anthra- 
cite is  still  used  largely  by  the  plants  within 
easj'  radius  of  the  anthracite  field  of  Pennsyl- 
vania and  charcoal  is  still  used,  where  timber  is 
abundant. 

The  development  of  the  retort  oven,  partic- 
ularly with  the  saving  of  by-products,  has  made 
possible  the  coking  of  coal  that  is  practically 
non-coking,  in  the  ordinary  beehive  oven.  At 
the  same  time,  it  has  reduced  the  cost  of  coking 
from  40  cents  to  $1.50  per  ton  of  coke,  depend- 
ing upon  the  nature  of  the  coal  and  the  market 
value  of  the  by-products  at  the  ovens. 

With  fuel,  as  witli  ores,  it  is  important  to 
eliminate  earthy  impurities  before  the  smelt- 
ing operation.  It  is  therefore  found  advanta- 
geous to  wash  coal,  high  in  sulphur  and  ash, 
that  is,  such  as  will,  in  the  raw  state,  give  a 
coke  over  1.25  per  cent  in  sulphur  and  15  per 
cent   in   ash. 

By-product  coke,  however,  lacks  the  silvery 
color  of  beehive  coke,  and  is  not  quite  as  effi- 
cient in  the  blast  furnace  pound  per  pound  of 
the  carbon  contents.  It  is  also  frequently  high 
in  moisture,  due  to  faulty  methods  of  quench- 
ing. 

In  order  of  efficiency  in  the  blast  furnace, 
charcoal  comes  first,  next  anthracite,  beehive 
coke,   retort   coke. 

Small  furnaces  operate  with  lower  fuel  con- 
sumption on  anthracite  than  on  coke  and  it  is 
always  necessary  to  lighten  the  burden  when 
changing  such  furnaces  from  anthracite  to  coke 
fuel.  Other  things  beings  equal,  the  fuel  with 
high  combined  carbon  is  more  efficient  in  the 
blast  furnace  than  one  of  lower  carbon  content. 
For  example,  the  best  coke  from  the  Pocahon- 
tas region  is  more  efficient  than  the  best  Con- 
nellsville;  the  former,  while  a  soft  coke,  has 
from  5  to  7  per  cent  of  ash,  while  the  latter, 
although  hard  and  silvery,  has  from  10  to  12 
per  cent  of  ash. 

Fluxes. — Purity  is  here  a  desideratum  as  well 
as  in  ores  and  fuels,  but  the  only  way  it  can  be 
obtained  is  by  choosing  as  pure  a  deposit  as 
possible,  then  strip  off  the  overlying  earth 
carefully,  and,  in  quarrying,  thro'U'  out  stratas 
or   dykes   of  silicious  material. 

It  is  important  that  the  flux  for  the  furnace 
be  crushed  to  conform  with  the  average  of  the 
stock,  which  ordinarily  means,  broken  to  pass 
a  three-inch   ring. 

Both  Dolomite  and  Calcite  are  used  as  flux, 
the  latter  is  a  itiore  active  desulphurizing  agent, 
but  does  not  make  as  fluid  a  slag,  and  this  lack 
of  fluidity  oflfsets  to  a  large  extent  its  greater 
affinity  for  sulphur.  While  the  greater  fusibil- 
ity of  dolomite  slag  increases  the  opportunities 
of  calcium  present  to  combine  with  the  sulphur, 
and  hence  as  a  rule,  one  flux  is  as  efficient  as 
the  other,  as  a  purifying  agent  in  the  blast 
furnace   process. 

Ihroughout  the  South,  dolomite  is  used  when 
basic  pig  is  desired  and  calcite  when  foundry 
iron  is  sought.  In  other  words,  dolomite  is 
found  to  give  low  silicon  and  low  sulphur,  while 
calcite  gives  higher  silicon  in  the  pig. 

Blast. — Each  furnace  should  be  equipped 
with  blowing  engines,  capable  of  delivering  the 
full  quota  of  air  at  30  lbs.  pressure,  if  neces- 
sary, and  provided  with  governors,  to  give  a 
constant  speed  without   regard  to  the  pressure 


BLAST  FURNACE  PRACTICE 


of  the  blast.  This  practice  has  been  one  im- 
portant cause  of  the  very  large  production  ob- 
tained for  American  blast  furnaces,  and  has 
been  adopted  by  some  of  the  English  iron  mas- 
ters,  after   remodelling   their  plants. 

The  volume  of  the  blast  required  for  a  mod- 
ern stack  is  85  cu.ft.  per  min.  for  each  ton  of 
pig  made  per  24  hours  and  weighs  nearly  i^ 
times  all  the  solid  materials  charges  into  the 
furnace,  hence  any  variations  in  the  quantity  or 
temperature  of  this  blast,  acts  quickly  upon  the 
smelting  process  going  on  in  the  furnace. 

In  the  desire  to  return  as  much  heat  as  pos- 
sible to  the  furnace,  the  use  of  the  iron  pipe 
stove,  where  the  maximum  temperature  of  the 
blast  is  limited  to  950°F.,  has  been  superseded 
by  the  firebrick  stove,  where  the  temperature 
is  only  limited  by  the  refractory  quality  of  the 
firebrick  lining. 

The  iron  pipe  stoves  have  the  advantage  of 
maintaining  a  nearly  constant  temperature  of 
the  blast,  so  long  as  there  is  gas  enough  to  fully 
supply  the  burners  in  the  stove  setting,  but  has 
the  disadvantage  of  cooling  off  very  rapidly, 
when  blast  is  taken  off  the  furnace  for  any  pur- 
pose. 

Firebrick  stoves  drop  in  temperature  from 
50°  to  250° F.  from  the  beginning  to  the  end  of 
an  hour's  blow,  the  usual  period,  but  hold  their 
heat  when  closed  up  tightly  during  a  shut 
down  of  the  furnace  for  a  short  period. 

The  best  results  Avith  use  of  firebrick  stoves 
is  obtained  by  means  of  a  good  recording  pyrom- 
eter to  give  the  temperature  of  the  blast  going 
into  the  furnace  and  by  introducing  cold  air 
through  a  tempering  pipe,  so  as  to  hold  the 
mixture  of  cold  and  hot  blast  at  the  tempera- 
ture desired. 

It  is  a  good  practice  to  maintain  the  temper- 
ature of  the  stoves  two  hundred  degrees  (200°) 
hotter  than  the  blast  going  into  the  furnace, 
as  a  reserve  to  be  called  upon,  should  the  fur- 
nace turn  cold.  With  blast  at  constant  volume 
and  temperature,  there  is  still  another  variable, 
which  needs  controlling,  and  that  is  the  humid- 
ity  of  this   blast. 

The  humidity  of  the  atmosphere  may  vary 
from  9  grains  in  the  summer  to  as  low  as  i 
grain  in  the  winter,  and  between  these  extremes, 
the  humidity  varies  widely  and  rapidly  during 
even  a  few  hours  of  any  day.  Just  the  importance 
of  this  variable  to  furnace  operation  was  never 
demonstrated  until  ^Ir.  James  Gayley  con- 
structed at  the  Isabella  furnaces  in  the  year 
1904  his  desiccating  apparatus  to  furnish  dry 
air  for  that  plant.  This  trial  showed  that  with 
blast  at  less  than  2  grains  of  moisture  per  cubic 
foot,  a  saving  of  20  per  ceiit  of  the  fuel  required 
per  ton  of  coke  was  effected,  while  theoretically 
only  37-10  percent  was  expected.  Since  these 
astounding  results,  many  eft'orts  have  been  made 
by  prominent  metallurgists  to  explain  the  dis- 
crepancy between  the  actual  and  theoretical 
saving,  current  metallurgical  literature  contains 
much  of  interest  on  this  subject.  < 

Gas. — The  waste  gases  issuing  from  the  fur- 
nace consist  principally  of  nitrogen,  carbonic 
oxide  (CO),  carbonic  acid  (C  d.)  and  water 
in  the  form  of  steam. 

The  ratio  C  O  and  C  O2  indicates  the  char- 
acter of  the  combustion  taking  place  in  the  fur- 
nace hearth,  the  larger  the  percentage  of  C  O2, 
the  better   the    combustion   and   the   lower   the 


fuel  consumption.  A  good  average  ratio  for 
the  United  States  is  C  O-2  and  C  O2-1,  that  is 
(2  to  i).  In  rare  instances  it  has  been  as  low 
as  i^  toi,  but  with  a  hot  furnace  making 
foundry  or  high  silicon  pig,  it  may  reach  4  to  i, 
or  in  speigle  manufacture,  from  10  to  15  to  i, 
depending  on  the  mixture  being  smelted. 

1  o  obtain  the  maximum  economy  in  iron 
smelting,  every  effort  is  made  to  utilize  the  heat 
units  escaping  in  the  waste  gases.  This  is  ac- 
complished in  two  ways.  One  portion  is  used 
in  heating  the  blast,  as  already  described,  and 
the  remainder  is  burned  for  power,  either  under 
water  tube  boilers,  for  the  generation  of  steam, 
or  in  the'  cylinder  of  gas  engines,  about  65  per 
cent  of  the  total  waste  gas  produced  being 
usually  available  for  this  purpose,  and  the  bal- 
ance 35  per  cent  going  into  the  stoves  for  heat- 
ing the  blast. 

The  modern  furnace  is  a  large  producer  of 
power  in  excess  of  its  own  requirements,  es- 
pecially when  the  gas  is  utilized  in  gas  driven 
engines.  Such  engines  may  furnish  the  blast 
required,  and  electrical  energy  for  distribution 
about  the  furnaces,  providing  also  an  excess  for 
sale  or  distribution  elsewhere,  amounting  to 
800  H.P.  per  ton  of  pig  per  hour. 

Cinder  or  Slag. — This  by-product  in  the 
manufacture  of  pig  iron  is  a  silicate  of  the 
oxides  of  the  metals  not  reduced  in  the  pro- 
cess. Various  attempts  have  been  made  to 
utilize  this  material,  and  it  is  quite  extensively 
used  for  road  making  and  for  railroad  ballast. 
For  this  purpose  it  is  frequently  run  when  hot 
onto  an  endless  chain  of  cast  iron  pans,  and  dis- 
charged broken  and  chilled,  in  cars  for  distribu- 
tion. This  method  has  the  advantage  of  making 
the  surface  of  the  slag  vitreous,  and  thus  im- 
pervious to  water. 

The  most  remunerative  use  for  furnace  slag 
of  certain  composition  is  in  the  manufacture  of 
slag  cement.  For  this  purpose  the  slag  must 
not  be  over  4  per  cent  in  magnesia  and  from  12 
to  14  per  cent  in  alumina.  Two  kinds  of  slag 
cement  are  manufactured,  the  ordinary  Puzzo- 
lani,  made  direct  from  the  slag  without  reburn- 
ing,  and  slag  Portland  cement,  made  by  clinker- 
ing  the  slag  in  a  rotary  kiln  and  then  grinding. 
When  slag  is  intended  for  cement  purposes  it 
is  granulated,  that  is,  run  while  hot  into  water, 
which  breaks  it  up  in  the  form  of  sand.  Such 
material  is  also  useful  to  replace  sand  in  mak- 
ing concrete. 

Granulated  cinder  is  light  or  heavy,  depend- 
ing upon  the  amount  of  water  used  in  quench- 
ing. In  the  first  case,  it  seems  to  consist  of 
small  globules  of  chilled  cinder,  in  the  latter, 
it    resembles    sand. 

The  quantity  of  slag  made  per  ton  of  pig 
produced  varies  from  600  lbs.  per  gross  ton 
of  pig  to  3,000  lbs.  and  over.  The  slag  has  an 
important  bearing  on  the  quality  of  the  pig 
made,  and  is  one  of  the  great  purifying  agents 
of  the  blast  furnace.  The  greater  part  of  the 
furnace  slag  produced,  however,  is  unutilized, 
and  is  usually  tapped  into  iron  cars  called  ladles 
and  hauled  in  the  fluid  state  to  the  bank, 
where  it  is  poured  out. 

Iron  Product. — This  metal  is  a  crude  carbide 
of  iron,  containing  about  94  per  cent  of  metallic 
iron,  from  3.25  per  cent  to  3.75  per  cent  of  car- 
bon and  graphite,  silicon  varying  usually  from 
y2  per  cent  to  4  per  cent,  and  sulphur  usually 


BLASTING 


from  .01  per  cent  to  .10  per  cent,  while  the  phos- 
phorus in  Bessemer  pig  is  less  than  .10  per  cent 
and  in  low  phosphorus  pig  down  to  .03  per  cent, 
and  in  basic  from  .10  per  cent  to  3  or  4  percent, 
depending  on  the  ores  used.  In  the  manufac- 
ture of  pig  iron,  it  is  possible  to  vary  the  per- 
centage of  carbon  somewhat  and  the  proportions 
of  carbon  to  graphite. 

It  is  also  possible  to  control  the  sulphur,  and 
the  silicon,  but  the  phosphorus  must  be  con- 
trolled solely  by  the  choice  of  the  materials 
charged.  This  choice  also  influences  the  for- 
mation of  other  elements  under  discussion,  but 
in  case  of  phosphorus,  it  is  the  only  means  for 
effecting  such  control  or  regulation. 

Practically  all  of  the  phosphorus  contained  in 
the  fuel  flux  and  ore  passes  into  the  product, 
except  a  loss  when  making  high  silicon  foundry 
iron  of  about  7  per  cent  by  volatilization,  and 
this  loss  may  be  increased  to  10  per  cent  in 
the  manufacture  of  speigle. 

The  usual  way  of  handling  the  pig  product 
is  to  run  the  metal  while  hot  into  moulds  made 
in  sand,  forming  a  runner  called  a  sow  and  short 
branches  about  three  feet  long,  called  pigs. 

In  case  of  gray  iron,  this  metal  is  broken 
hot,  when  it  has  first  solidified,  and  then  cooled 
with  water  and  loaded  into  cars.  This  iron  has 
considerable  sand  adhering  to  the  surface  of 
the  pigs,  and  for  that  reason  is  unsuited  to 
melt  in  the  open  hearth  furnace,  where  the 
lining  is  made  of  basic  material.  In  order  to 
obtain  iron  free  from  sand,  and  to  reduce  the 
arduous  work  of  breaking  this  product  hot,  and 
carrying  same  by  hand  into  cars  for  shipment, 
various   devices   have  been   constructed. 

The  Uehling  pig  machine  is  the  most  com- 
mon device  employed  to  make  sandless  pig.  It 
consists  of  an  endless  chain  of  moulds,  which 
are  filled  at  one  point  and  after  spraying  with 
water,  discharge  the  pig  into  a  transverse  pan 
conveyer,  which  carries  the  pig  under  water, 
where  it  is  thoroughly  cooled  and  afterwards 
is  delivered  into  cars   for  shipment. 

Another  form  is  provided  with  moulds  and 
pans  made  of  soft  flange  steel,  and  these  when 
filled,  pass  into  a  tan  where  they  are  sub- 
merged, the  metal  cooled,  and  then  delivered 
into  cars.  Still  another  form  consists  of  a  sub- 
stantial turntable  on  which  the  moulds  are 
mounted. 

When  it  is  not  necessary  to  obtain  sandless 
pig,  the  mechanical  pig  breaker  is  used.  In  the 
operation  of  this  device  the  metal  is  cast  in 
sand  and  the  whole  bed  is  removed  mechan- 
ically by  a  travelling  crane  or  trolley  to  the 
breaker,  where  the  pigs  are  broken  and  fall 
into  cars. 

With  the  pig  machines  the  metal  must  be 
first  run  into  cars  or  ladles,  from  which  it  is 
poured  into  the  machine,  but  with  the  pig 
breaker  no  ladles  are  required,  the  metal  going 
direct  into  sand  beds,  as  when  it  is  to  be  handled 
by  hand.  Sandless  pig  may  also  be  obtained 
by  equipping  the  cast  house  with  cast  iron 
moulds  or  «chills,»  which  are  washed  with  loam 
while  hot,  thus  making  it  easy  to  lift  the  pig 
when  it  is  cooled. 

Pig  iron  before_  the  advent  of  the  pig  ma- 
chine, and  even  since  for  some  purposes,  is 
graded  according  to  fracture  as  follows : 

No.  I,  No.  2,  No.  3  forge,  mottled  and  white. 


the  first  No.  i  and  No.  2  being  made  in  a  hot 
furnace  and  white  in  a  cold  furnace.  No.  i  is 
called  the  highest  grade  and  contains,  as  a  rule, 
the  lowest  sulphur,  and  the  highest  percentage 
of  graphitic  carbon ;  white  is  called  the  lowest 
grade  and  is  usually  high  in  sulphur,  low  in 
graphite  and  high  in  combined  carbon.  These 
grades  are  practically  obliterated  in  machine 
cast  pig,  and  the  iron  is  usually  sold  by  anal- 
ysis. This  method  of  classifying  also  obtains 
at  large  steel  plants,  where  most  of  the  pig  is 
taken  direct,  that  is,  in  the  fluid  state,  to  the 
Bessemer  or  Open  Hearth  for  treatment. 

Blast  Furnace  Lines. — In  the  blast  furnace 
the  hearth  represents  the  grate  surface,  and  its 
area  determines  the  amount  of  fuel  burned  per 
unit  of  time,  hence,  the  production  of  the  fur- 
nace. The  top  of  the  furnace  controls  the  dis- 
tribution of  the  charged  materials,  and  has  an 
important  bearing  on  the  working  of  the  fur- 
nace, the  character  of  the  combustion  taking 
place  in  the  hearth,  and  hence  the  burden  or 
amount  of  charge  the  coke  unit  is  capable  of 
carrying   in    smelting. 

The  bosh  determines  to  a  large  extent,  de- 
pending upon  its  height  and  angle  of  slope,  the 
regularity  of  the  working  of  the  furnace,  by 
assisting  or  retarding  the  descent  of  the  charge 
in  the  smelting  zone. 

The  largest  furnaces  in  the  United  States 
at  this  writing  are  built  with  the  hearth  and 
top  diameters  practically  equal,  i5'-6"  to  i6'-o", 
while  the  diameter  of  the  bosh  is  usually  25  per 
cent  greater  and  the  angle  of  the  slope  approx- 
imately 74°. 

The  tendency  of  the  last  five  years  has  been 
to  increase  the  hearth  and  top  diameters,  while 
the  bosh  has  remained  about  the  same  in  diam- 
eter, but  lower  in  height.  These  changes  seem 
to  cause  the  stacks  to  work  with  greater  regu- 
larity, and  larger  outputs  on  burdens  composed, 
largely,  of  fine  ore,  and,  at  the  same  time,  the 
loss  of  ore  in  flue  dust  has  been  materially  re- 

^"^^^-  David   Baker, 

Consulting  Metallurgical  Engineer,  Philadelphia. 

Blasting,  the  technical  term  for  splitting  and 
breaking  up  any  object  by  means  of  gunpowder 
or  some  of  the  other  powerful  explosives  now  in 
use.  The  operation,  which  is  of  extensive  use 
in  quarrying,  mining,  and  other  branches  of  en- 
gineering, is  often  performed  by  boring  a  hole 
in  the  substance  to  be  exploded,  by  means  of  an 
iron  rod,  called  a  jumper,  filling  it  with  gun- 
powder, and  igniting  this  by  means  of  a  match, 
burning  so  slowly  as  to  allow  the  parties  em- 
ployed to  remove  to  a  sufficient  distance  before 
the  explosion  takes  place.  At  one  time  it  was 
supposed  that  the  force  of  the  explosion  de- 
pended on  the  firm  packmg  of  the  gunpowder  in 
the  hole  by  means  of  small  chips  of  stone,  sand, 
etc.  It  has  since  been  ascertained  that  loose 
sand  is  as  effectual  as  firm  packing,  which  in 
consequence  has  been  generally  laid  aside.  One 
of  the  most  important  modern  improvements  in 
blasting  is  the  firing  of  the  charge  by  electricity. 
This  mode  is  more  especially  applicable  to  sub- 
marine blasting,  and  was  first  practised  for  that 
purpose  by  Gen.  Pasle^',  in  1839.  The  only  thing 
necessary  is  to  make  an  interruption  in  the  con- 
ducting wire  at  the  point  where  the  explosion  is 
to  take  place.     In  passing  the  electric  current, 


BLASTOMERYX  —  BLAUBOK 


a  spark  produced  at  the  interruption  fires  the 
charge.  The  effect  being  instantaneous  the  op- 
erator can  fire  any  number  of  charges  simulta- 
neously. Gun-cotton  is  often  employed  in  blast- 
ing, and  nitro-glycerine  has  also  been  found  to 
be  a  very  powerful  agent  in  such  operations,  but 
its  use  requires  the  utmost  caution,  as  it  is  very 
liable  to  explode  unexpectedly  with  most  dis- 
astrous results.  The  same  objection  does  not 
apply  to  dynamite,  which  is  quite  as  efYective 
and  perfectly  harmless  when  properly  handled. 
For  removing  small  volumes  of  rock  in  mines, 
quarries,  and  other  engineering  enterprises  at  a 
single  blast,  small-shot  blasting  is  the  most 
common  method  employed.  This  consists  of 
drilling  a  small  number  of  holes  in  the  rock 
from  1 54  to  3  inches  in  diameter  and  from  i8 
inches  to  several  feet  in  depth  which  are  then 
filled  with  dynamite  or  blasting-powder  or  some 
other  safe  and  easily  handled  explosive,  and 
properly  connected  by  fuse  or  with  a  magneto- 
machine  or  electric  battery  by  electric  wires. 
The  space  above  the  explosive  is  then  plugged 
up  with  sand,  dirt,  clay,  or  other  matter,  and 
the  charge  exploded.  For  breaking  the  rock 
into  small  pieces  so  as  to  be  more  easily  re- 
moved (as  in  excavating  for  a  foundation)  the 
holes  are  drilled  close  together  and  heavily 
charged,  but  where  it  is  unnecessary  to  break 
into  small  pieces  (as  in  quarrying)  and  large 
shapely  masses  are  more  desirable  the  holes  are 
drilled  in  rows  with  greater  distance  between 
and  filled  with  a  smaller  amount  of  explosive. 
This  will  split  the  rock  practically  along  one  line 
and  will  not  shatter  it  as  in  the  first  case.  In 
excavating  tunnels,  it  is  in  many  cases  desirable 
to  remove  a  mass  of  rock  the  size  of  the  tunnel 
cross-section,  an  object  which  is  generally  ac- 
complished by  drilling  and  firing  a  small  num- 
ber of  converging  holes,  thus  forming  and  re- 
moving a  cone-shaped  or  wedge-shaped  centre- 
core.  This  central  opening  thus  formed  is  en- 
larged by  drilling  and  blasting  successive  rings 
of  holes  around  it. 

For  removing  vast  quantities  of  rock  or 
blowing  up  ledges,  the  best  method  is  mine 
blasting.  For  this  purpose  shafts  are  sunk 
either  vertically,  or  horizontally,  or  both,  into 
the  ledge  to  be  removed  ;  enormous  quantities  of 
powder,  dynamite,  or  other  explosives  are  placed 
at  the  bottom  or  end  of  the  shafts,  which  are 
then  closed  up  by  rocks,  earth,  etc.,  and  the 
charge  is  fired  either  by  fuse  or  by  electricity, 
most  generally  the  latter. 

One  of  the  greatest  mine  blasting  operations 
ever  attempted  was  the  removal  of  the  reefs  in 
the  East  River,  near  New  York,  known  as  Hell 
Gate.  An  entrance  shaft  was  sunk  on  the  Long 
Island  shore,  from  which  the  reef  projected. 
From  this  shaft  nearly  20  tunnels  were  bored  in 
all  directions,  extending  from  200  to  240  feet, 
and  connected  by  lateral  galleries.  Upward  of 
52,000  pounds  of  dynamite,  rend  rock,  and  pow- 
der were  used,  and  millions  of  tons  of  rock  were 
dislodged.  In  May  1894  a  vertical  cliff,  Greben 
Point,  was  blown  up  in  order  to  remove  a  rock 
obstruction  in  the  Danube  River,  known  as 
the  "Iron  Gates* ;  in  1889  the  face  of  a  quarry 
at  South  Bethlehem,  N.  Y.,  was  broken  down 
by  a  mine  blast  and  in  1886  the  same  operation 
was  carried  out  at  Crarae  Quarry  in  Argyllshire, 
Scotland ;  and  on  t8  Dec.  1899  a  granite  mound, 


known  as  Vesuvius  Butte,  was  blown  up  in 
order  to  secure  a  sufficient  quantity  of  rock  to 
build  a  dam  near  Teller,  Colorado.  Surface 
blasting  is  generally  used  to  remove  reefs  and 
obstructions  to  navigation,  high  explosives  such 
as  dynamite,  gun-cotton,  or  nitro-glycerine  be- 
ing the  only  effective  agencies  in  an  unconfined 
space,  as  the  detonation  is  so  sudden  that  the 
shock  is  instantly  transmitted  to  the  rock  with 
which  it  is  in  contact.  Numerous  important  im- 
provements have  been  made  in  blasting  by  the 
substitution  of  rock  boring  machines  for  hand 
labor.  Of  such  machines,  in  which  the  jumper 
or  drill  is  repeatedly  driven  against  the  rock 
by  compressed  air  or  steam,  being  also  made  to 
rotate  slightly  at  each  blow,  there  are  many 
varieties.     See  also  Explosives. 

Blastomeryx.     See   Merycodus. 

Blatchford,  Samuel,  jurist:  b.  New  York, 
9  March  1820;  d.  Newport,  R.  I.,  7  July  1893. 
He  graduated  at  Columbia,  1837;  became  sec- 
retary to  Gov.  W.  H.  Seward  of  New  York,  and 
practised  law  at  Auburn,  N.  Y.,  as  a  member 
of  the  governor's  firm,  1845-54.  In  1854  he 
settled  in  New  York  as  head  of  the  firm  of 
Blatchford,  Seward  &  Griswold.  Though  he 
attained  success  in  general  practice,  it  was  his 
application  to  admiralty  law  that  gave  him  his 
widest  repute.  On  3  May  1867  he  was  appointed 
judge  of  the  United  States  district  court  for  the 
Southern  district  of  New  York ;  in  March  1878, 
judge  of  the  United  States  circuit  for  the  sec- 
ond circuit;  and  in  March  1882  he  became  an 
associate  justice  of  the  United  States  supreme 
court.  Here  he  continued  to  give  close  atten- 
tion to  admiralty  cases,  and  also  rendered  im- 
portant decisions  on  bankruptcy,  copyright,  pat- 
ent, and  libel  cases.  Publications:  ^Reports 
of  Cases  in  Prize  in  the  Circuit  and  District 
Courts  for  the  Southern  District  of  New  York 
1861-5^  (1866)  ;  ^Reports  of  Cases  in  the  Cir- 
cuit Court  of  the  United  States,  Volumes  4-6' 
(1867-9)  ;  'Circuit  Court  Reports  for  the  Sec- 
ond Circuit,  1847-75^  (12  vols,  octavo)  ;  'Re- 
ports of  the  Circuit  Courts  of  the  United  States, 
Second  Circuit,  Volumes  13-20^  (N.  Y.  1877- 
83,  8  vols.)  ;  with  E.  Howland  and  E.  R.  Olcott, 
'United  States  District  Court  Reports  (Admi- 
ralty Cases  Decided  by,  Judge  Betts)  for  the 
Southern  District  of  New  York,  1827-47' 
(N.    Y.,    2    vols,    octavo). 

Blatchley,  Willis  Stanley,  naturalist:  b. 
Madison,  Conn.,  6  Oct.  1859.  He  graduated  at 
Indiana  State  University  1887,  and  was  success- 
ively an  assistant  on  the  Arkansas  Geological 
Survey  1889-90,  a  member  of  Scoville's  scien- 
tific expedition  to  Mexico  1891,  and  assistant  on 
the  United  States  Fish  Commission  in  1893.  In 
1894  he  was  elected  State  geologist  of  Indiana, 
and  re-elected  1898  and  1902.  Besides  his  an- 
nual reports  his  scientific  writings  include : 
'Gleanings  from  Nature'  (1899)  ;  'Locustidae 
and  Blattidre  of  Indiana'  (1892)  ;  'Some  In- 
diana .ALcrididae'  ( 1891-8)  ;  'Descriptions  of 
New  Species  of  Orthoptera' ;  'A  Nature  V/oo- 
ing'    (1902)  ;  etc. 

Blat'tidae.     See  Cockroach. 

Blaubok,  blow'bok,  a  large  antelope  of 
South  Africa.    {Hippctragns  nigcr).     It  is  of  a 


BLAUVELT  —  BLEACHING 


bluish  hue,  and  has  long,  stout  horns  which 
sweep  back  from  its  forehead  like  those  of  its 
relatives,  the  isabel  and  equine  antelopes.  It 
formerly  occurred  in  large  herds,  but  had  a 
limited  habitat,  and  is  now  probably  extinct. 

Blauvelt,  blow'velt,  Mme.  Lillian  Evans 
(Mrs.  Wm.  F.  Pendleton),  prima  donna:  b. 
Brooklyn,  N.  Y.,  about  1870,  of  Welsh  and 
Dutch  ancestry.  When  eight  years  old  she  rnade 
her  debut  as  a  violinist.  She  studied  (voice) 
with  M.  Jacque  Bouh}',  of  Paris,  for  three  years. 
Her  debut  in  opera  was  made  at  the  Theatre 
de  la  Mormari,  Brussels,  and  she  has  taken  the 
principal  roles  in  ^Faust,^  < Romeo  and  Juliet,^ 
^Myna,^  etc.  Of  late  her  work  has  been  chiefly 
in  concert  and  oratorio.  Besides  Great  Britain, 
(ianada,  and  the  United  States,  she  has  sung  in 
Russia,  Germany,  France,  Italy,  Holland,  Bel- 
gium, Austria-Hungary,  and  Switzerland. 

Blavatsky,  bla-vats'ke,  Helene  Petrovna, 
Russian  theosophist:  b.  Yekaterinoslay,  Russia, 
1831  ;  d.  London,  8  May  1891.  She  traveled  in 
all  parts  of  the  world  and  succeeded  in  entering 
Tibet.  In  1873  she  came  to  the  United  States, 
founded  the  Theosophical  Society  in  New  York, 
and  aided  in  establishing  <The  Theosophist.^ 
She  studied  the  East  Indian  esoteric  doctrines 
and  Buddhist  philosophy,  and  by  her  writings 
contributed  to  make  this  philosophy  popular.  She 
wrote  <Isis  Unveiled';  ^The  Secret  Doctrine'; 
<Key  to  Theosophy.'      See  Theosophy. 

Blazing  Star.  Various  hardy  perennial 
plants.     See  Liatris. 

Blazonry,  the  art  of  describing  a  coat  of 
arms  in  such  a  way  that  an  accurate  drawing 
may  be  made  from  the  verbal  statements  given. 
To  do  this  a  knowledge  of  the  points  of  the 
shield  is  particularly  necessary.  Mention  should 
be  made  of  the  tincture  or  tinctures  of  the 
field;  of  the  charges  which  are  laid  immediately 
upon  it,  with  their  forms  and  tinctures ;  which 
is  the  principal  ordinary,  or,  if  there  is  none, 
then  which  covers  the  fess  point ;  the  charges  on 
each  side  of  the  principal  one;  the  charges  on 
the  central  one,  the  bordure  —  with  its  charges; 
the  canton  and  chief,  with  all  charges  on  them ; 
and,  finally,  the  differences  or  marks  of  the 
cadency  and  the  baronet's  badge. 

Bleaching  (Fr.  blancJiiment,  ^^ whitening'' ) , 
the  process  of  removing  the  coloring  matters 
from  fabrics  of  cotton,  linen,  wool,  silk,  etc., 
or  from  the  raw  materials,  and  also  from  straw, 
wax,  and  other  substances,  and  leaving  them 
perfectly  white.  Steeping  cloths  in  lyes  ex- 
tracted from  the  ashes  of  plants,  appears  to 
have  been  practised  by  the  ancient  Egyptians  for 
this  purpose.  In  modern  times  the  Dutch  have 
almost  monopolized  the  business,  at  least  till 
within  about  100  years.  Previous  to  this  time 
the  brown  linens  manufactured  in  Scotland 
were  regularly  sent  to  Holland  to  be  bleached. 
A  whole  summer  was  required  for  the  opera- 
tion; but  if  the  cloths  were  sent  in  the  fall  of 
the  year,  they  were  not  returned  for  12  months. 
It  was  this  practice  which  caused  the  name  of 
Hollands  to  be  given  to  these  linens.  The 
Scotch  introduced  the  business  of  bleaching  for 
themselves  about  the  year  i749'>  but  it  was  long 
believed  that  the  peculiar  properties  of  the  water 
about  the  bleaching  grounds  of  Haarlem  gave  to 
this  neighborhood  advantages  which  no  other 
region  couid  possess.  The  use  of  chlorine  as 
a   bleaching  agent  was  first   proposed  by   Ber- 


thollet  in  1785,  and  shortly  afterward  intro- 
■duced  into  Great  Britain,  where  it  was  first  used 
simply  dissolved  in  water,  afterward  dissolved 
in  alkali,  and  then  in  the  form  of  bleaching 
powder,  commonly  called  chloride  of  lime,  the 
manufacture  of  which  was  suggested  by  Mr. 
Tennant,  of  St.  RoUox,  Glasgow,  in  1798.  At 
first  he  passed  the  chlorine  into  milk  of  lime, 
and  thus  obtained  the  solution  known  as  bleach 
liquor.  In  1799  he  took  out  a  patent  for  ab- 
sorbing chlorine  by  dry  lime,  and  thus  obtained 
bleaching  powder.  Bleaching  powder  has  little 
bleaching  action  till  the  chlorine  is  liberated  by 
the  action  of  an  acid.  The  best  bleaching  pow- 
der contains  about  36  per  cent  of  available 
chlorine ;  that  is,  chlorine  which  is  liberated  by 
acid. 

In  Silesia  and  Bohemia,  where  the  chlorine 
process  is  not  adopted,  the  linens  are  exposed 
to  a  fermenting  process,  then  washed,  and 
steeped  in  alkaline  liquors,  with  alternate  ex- 
posures upon  grass,  which  processes  are  re- 
peated a  great  number  of  times  for  60  to  70- 
days ;  but  to  render  them  properly  white,  they 
are  afterward  passed  through  a  bath  acidulated 
with  sulphuric  acid,  then  treated  again  with 
the  potash  lye  several  times  and  alternately  ex- 
posed on  the  grass,  and  finally  thoroughly 
cleansed  by  washing  in  a  revolving  cylinder 
called  a  dash-wheel.  This  machine  is  also  em- 
ployed in  the  English  and  Scotch  processes  for 
washing  the  goods  without  subjecting  them  tO' 
unnecessary  wear.  The  frequent  repetition  of  the 
different  processes  is  rendered  necessary  by  the 
complete  diffusion  of  the  coloring  matters 
through  the  flax  fibres,  and  their  close  union 
with  them ;  each  operation  decomposing  and 
removing  in  succession  small  portions  only. 

In  the  bleaching  of  cotton  cloth,  the  pieces^ 
after  being  singed,  by  passing  them  over  a  red- 
hot  plate  or  a  semi-cylinder  of  iron  or  copper> 
are  steeped  in  lukewarm  water  or  old  lyes,  till 
they  are  completely  soaked,  which  loosens  any 
paste  or  filth  got  during  weaving;  they  are  then 
well  washed  through  the  dash-wheel,  and  put 
through  the  hydro-extractor  or  drying  machine. 
If  the  cotton  is  in  the  hank,  this  process  of 
steeping  and  washing  is  not  required. 

The  mechanical  operations  of  the  bleaching 
house  vary  considerably,  according  to  the  qual- 
ity of  the  goods  and  the  facility  for  mechanical 
appliances.  In  the  chemical  operations  of  whit- 
ening the  cloth  there  is  little  variation,  further 
than  that  heavy  fabrics  require  longer  time  and 
more  frequent  repetition  of  the  processes.  The 
first  operation,  after  steeping  and  washing,  is 
boiling.  The  boiling  liquor  is  made  by  adding 
a  quantity  of  water  to  slaked  lime,  and  when 
the  grosser  particles  of  lime  have  settled  to  the 
bottom  of  the  vessel,  the  milky  liquor  is  put 
into  the  boiler,  or,  it  may  be,  filtered  through 
a  cloth.  Some  bleachers  use  with  the  lime 
a  little  carbonate  of  soda ;  the  quantity  of  lime 
varies  from  four  pounds  to  eight  pounds  for 
every  100  pounds  of  cotton,  and  from  one  pound 
to  two  pounds  of  soda  ash,  where  this  is  used. 
The  boilers  used  for  boiling  the  goods  are 
called  kiers,  and  many  kinds  are  used,  the  boil- 
ing liquid  being  made  to  shower  over  the  goods 
and  percolate  down  through  them.  This  is 
effected  by  having  a  false  bottom  or  frame 
fitted  inside  the  boiler  at  about  one  third  of 
its  depth  from  the  bottom,  upon  which  the  goods 
are  laid.     The  space  between  the  false  bottom 


BLEACHING 


and  real  bottom  of  the  boiler  is  filled  with  the 
liquor  or  lye,  connected  with  which  is  a  pipe  lead- 
ing to  the  top  of  the  boiler.  When  the  heat  is 
applied,  either  by  steam  or  fire,  and  the  liquor 
begins  to  boil,  it  is  forced  up  through  this  pipe, 
which  is  made  to  shower  its  contents  over  the 
surface  of  the  goods.  This  boiling  is  continued, 
according  to  the  quality  of  the  goods,  from  6 
,o  12  hours.  The  goods  are  now  removed  from 
the  boiler  and  washed  in  water ;  they  are  then 
passed  through  dilute  hydrochloric  acid,  again 
washed,  and  boiled  for  12  hours  with  dilute 
caustic  soda,  after  which  they  are  passed  into  a 
solution  of  bleaching  powder  contained  in  a 
large  stone  or  wooden  trough  or  cistern,  where 
they  are  left  for  from  two  to  four  hours.  The 
bleaching  solution  is  prepared  by  first  dissolving 
a  quantity  of  bleaching  powder  in  water  in  a 
large  cask  and  allowing  the  whole  to  settle;  a 
quantity  of  the  clear  liquor  is  then  drawn  from 
the  cask  and  put  into  the  large  bleaching  cis- 
terns, which  have  been  previously  nearly  filled 
with  water.  To  ascertain  the  necessary  quan- 
tity of  this  strong  bleaching  liquor  to  be  added 
to  the  troughs  or  cisterns,  a  certain  measure  of 
sulphate  of  indigo  is  taken  in  a  graduated  vessel, 
termed  a  test  glass,  and  then,  according  to  the 
number  of  graduated  measures  of  the  bleaching 
solution  required  to  decolor  the  sulphate  of 
indigo,  the  strength  of  the  bleaching  liquor  is 
regulated.  These  test  glasses  and  sulphate  of 
indigo  are  carefully  prepared  for  the  purpose. 

Instead  of  dash  wheels,  a  more  improved 
method  of  cleaning  and  washing  is  adopted  by 
some  bleachers  previous  to  boiling  the  goods. 
They  are  all  sewed  together,  end  to  end,  mak- 
ing one  line  of  the  whole.  This  line  of  pieces 
is  drawn  along  by  machinery  between  rollers 
and  squeezers,  with  a  plentiful  supply  of  water, 
and  having  been  thus  thoroughly  washed  and 
cleaned,  is  at  last  laid  out  by  a  mechanical  con- 
trivance into  the  bleaching  trough.  The  goods 
are  allowed  to  steep  in  the  bleaching  liquor 
from  two  to  four  hours ;  they  are  then  lifted 
and  washed,  either  by  the  dash  wheel  or  rollers, 
as  before,  and  are  then  laid  in  a  sour,  made 
by  adding  about  one  pint  of  hydrochloric  or 
sulphuric  acid  to  every  four  gallons  of  water. 
After  steeping  in  the  sour  for  four  hours,  the 
goods  are  again  washed,  as  before,  and  are  sub- 
jected to  another  boiling  for  eight  hours;  but 
this  time  the  lye  is  caustic  soda  or  potash,  gen- 
erally the  former,  made  caustic  by  boiling  to- 
gether a  quantity  of  soda  ash  and  slaked  lime, 
and  allowing  the  sediment  to  settle,  and  using 
only  the  clear  solution.  About  eight  pounds  of 
soda  ash  suffice  for  100  pounds  of  goods.  After 
the  boiling  the  goods  are  again  washed  and 
steeped  in  the  bleaching  liquor  for  eight  hours, 
and  again  washed  and  soured  —  the  sour  in  this 
case  being  always  made  with  sulphuric  acid. 
Light  fabrics  require  no  further  treatment ;  but 
heavy  fabrics  need  a  clearing  process,  which  is 
a  repetition  of  the  last  course,  the  liquors  being 
generally,  however,  a  little  weaker,  and  the 
processes  shorter.  Cotton,  in  the  hank,  under- 
goes the  same  operation,  except  in  the  washings, 
which  are  performed  by  hand,  not  with  the 
wheel.  The  goods  being  bleached  and  dried  by 
the  extractor,  are  now  prepared  for  the  opera- 
tions of  finishing.  For  this  ourpose  they  are 
stretched  by  women  to  their  breadth,  and  the 
folds,  as  much  as  possible,  taken  out  by  beating 
hem;   then   they  are  stitched  together  by   the 


ends  with  a  sailor's  needle,  and  being  thus  pre- 
pared for  the  mangle  the  cloth  is  now  starched, 
common  wheat  flour  and  a  portion  of  porcelain 
clay  being  employed.  It  is  then  subjected  to 
to  the  action  of  the  stiffening  machine,  and  hav- 
ing been  thus  impregnated  with  starch,  the 
superfluous  portion  of  which  is  pressed  out  as 
it  passes  through  the  rollers  above,  the  goods  are 
then  hung  upon  rails  in  an  apartment, 
called  the  stove,  heated  by  two  furnaces  from 
which  flues  are  led  through  the  room.  The  heat 
thus  generated  is  sometimes  so  great  that  the 
workmen,  in  hanging  up  the  cloth,  are  obliged 
to  throw  oft"  most  of  their  clothes.  When  the 
goods  are  dried  thoroughly,  they  are  taken 
from  the  stove  and  carried  10  the  damping  ma- 
chine, where  they  are  subjected  to  the  action 
of  a  shower  of  water.  When  the  cloth  comes 
from  the  damping  machine,  it  may  be  seen 
covered  with  wet  spots,  the  greater  portion, 
however,  being  dry;  but  after  remaining  some 
time  it  becomes  uniformly  damp.  The  goods 
are  now  passed  through  the  calender;  they  are 
then  regularly  folded  and  put  into  a  Bramah 
press,  with  a  sheet  of  pasteboard  between  each, 
and,  being  sufficiently  pressed,  they  are  then 
finished  for  the  market.  The  process  has  been 
greatly  shortened  by  the  introduction  of  the 
Mather-Thompson  process  (1884).  In  this  pro- 
cess an  important  feature  is  the  use  of  the 
steamer  kier,  in  which  the  goods  are  submitted 
to  the  action  of  low-pressure  steam.  The  ma- 
terial is  passed  through  soda  lye,  squeezed,  and 
washed;  then  through  boiling  caustic  soda, 
squeezed,  and  run  into  a  steamer  kier,  where  it 
is  boiled  for  four  hours  under  a  pressure  of  four 
pounds,  washed  with  hot  water,  and  then  passed 
continuously  through  a  series  of  vats  containing 
water,  bleaching  powder  solution,  carbonic  acid 
gas,  water,  alkaline  solution,  water,  bleaching 
powder,  carbonic  acid  gas,  water,  hydrochloric 
acid. 

The  bleaching  of  linen  is  conducted  after  a 
similar  manner  to  that  of  cotton ;  but  there  is 
much  more  coloring  matter  in  the  former  than 
in  the  latter,  and  it  is  therefore  found  necessary 
in  the  bleaching  of  linen  to  repeat  the  boiling  in 
lye  and  the  steeping  in  chloride  of  lime  three 
or  four  times.  An  electrolytic  method  of 
bleaching  (the  Hermite  process)  has  recently 
been  introduced.  The  chlorine  for  bleaching  is 
liberated  by  the  action  of  an  electric  current  on 
solutions  of  calcium  or  magnesium  chloride. 
Wool  and  silk  cannot  be  bleached  with  chlorine, 
so  sulphur  dioxid,  usually  prepared  by  burning 
sulphur,  is  used  instead.  In  the  case  of  wool, 
the  material  is  well  washed  with  water  and 
scoured  with  alkaline  solutions  to  remove  fatty 
matters.  It  is  then  exposed,  while  still  wet,  to 
the  action  of  sulphur  dioxid  in  a  brick 
chamber  for  six  or  eight  hours, —  or  it  may 
be  soaked  for  several  hours  in  a  solution  of 
sulphurous  acid, —  after  which  it  is  well  washed. 
Silk  is  treated  with  dilute  acid,  then  worked 
in  a  soap  bath  for  about  20  minutes  to  remove 
the  gummy  matter  present,  after  which  it  is 
rinsed,  tied  up  in  bags  of  cotton,  and  boiled 
for  from  one  to  three  hours  in  water,  and  rinsed 
in  dilute  alkali  and  finally  in  water.  The 
bleaching  is  effected  by  stoving  in  sulphur  di- 
oxid, exactly  as  in  the  case  of  wool.  In  place 
of  sulphur  dioxid,  hydrogen  peroxid  is  coming 
into  use  for  both  wool  and  silk  bleaching. 


BLEACHING  POWDER  — BLEEDING 


Bleaching  Powder,  a  compound  of  lime, 
chlorine,  and  oxygen,  greatly  used  for  bleaching 
purposes,  and  as  a  disinfectant.  It  is  commonly 
known  also  as  "chloride  of  lime,^^  a  name  some- 
what unfortunately  chosen,  since  it  appears  to 
imply  that  the  substance  is  simple  chloride  of 
the  element  calcium,  which  is  far  from  being  the 
case.  Its  precise  chemical  nature  has  never 
been  satisfactorily  demonstrated,  but  it  is  be- 
lieved to  consist  essentially  of  a  mixture  of 
calcium  chloride  and  calcium  hypochlorite.  In 
preparing  bleaching  powder  on  a  commercial 
scale,  slaked  lime  is  spread  out,  in  a  thin  layer, 
on  the  floor  of  a  chamber  constructed  of  stone, 
or  lined  with  lead.  Chlorine  gas  is  then  ad- 
mitted to  the  chamber,  and  allowed  to  act  upon 
the  lime  until  the  latter  has  absorbed  consid- 
erable of  it,  and  has  been  superficially  trans- 
formed into  the  substance  desired.  The  lime 
on  the  floor  is  then  thoroughly  raked  over, 
so  as  to  expose  a  fresh  surface  to  the  chlorine, 
and  the  process  is  continued  until  samples  of 
the  powder,  withdrawn  for  the  purpose  of 
analysis,  are  found  to  contain  about  y]  per 
cent  of  available  chlorine.  The  lime  used  in 
the  process  should  be  as  free  from  magnesia 
as  possible,  as  otherwise  more  or  less  of  the 
chlorine  is  wasted  by  the  formation  of  unde- 
sirable compounds  of  chlorine  and  magnesium. 
The  chlorine  used  in  the  manufacture  of  bleach- 
ing powder  has  been  largely  produced,  in  the 
past  by  heating  manganese  dioxid  with  the 
hydrochloric  acid  obtained  as  a  by-product  in 
the  manufacture  of  soda  from  common  salt. 
The  tendency  in  recent  times,  however,  has  been 
toward  the  more  direct  manufacture  of  soda  by 
the  electrolysis  of  a  solution  of  salt  in  water. 
Free  chlorine  gas  is  given  off  at  the  anode 
during  this  electrolytic  process,  and  this  is  now 
largely  utilized  for  the  manufacture  of  bleaching 
powder ;  bleaching  powder  and  soda  being  both 
produced  in  the  same  factory.  _  Large  works 
embodying  this  idea  are  in  operation  at  Niagara 
Falls,  and  most  of  the  soda  and  bleaching 
powders  manufactured  in  the  United  States  now 
come  from  that  place.  Bleaching  powder  is 
white,  or  nearly  so,  and  has  a  strong  smell 
of  chlorine.  Its  disinfecting  properties  are  sup- 
posed to  be  due  to  the  slow  liberation  of  that 
gas,  which  is  a  powerful  germicide. 

Bleak,  or  Blick  (Leuciscus  alhurnus),  a 
small  river  fish,  six  or  seven  inches  long,  of  the 
carp  family.  It  somewhat  resembles  the  dace. 
Its  back  is  greenish,  otherwise  it  is  of  a  silvery 
color,  and  its  silvery  scales  are  used  in  the 
manufacture  of  artificial  pearls.  It  is  a  good 
food  fish. 

Bleak  House,  a  novel  by  Charles  Dickens 
(1853).  Its  secondary  theme  is  the  monstrous 
injustice  and  even  ruin  often  wrought  by  delays 
in  the  old  Court  of  Chancery,  which  defeated 
all  the  purposes  of  a  court  of  justice. 

Blechen,  Karl  Eduard,  karl  ed'oo-ard 
bhen'en,  German  landscape  artist:  b.  Kottbus, 
1798;  d.  1840.  After  studying  art  in  Italy  for 
some  years  he  settled  in  Berlin  in  1830  and 
became  professor  at  the  Academy  of  Fine  Arts 
there  in  1835.  The  first  representative  of  the 
Berlin  landscape  school,  he  painted  'Villa  Este^  ; 
*  Villa  Borghese^  ;  <View  Near  Nami*  ;  <View 
of  Naples^  ;   'View  at  Tivoli^  ;  etc. 


Bled'soe,  Albert  Taylor,  American  clergy- 
man and  writer :  b.  Frankfort,  Ky.,  9  Nov. 
1809 ;  d.  Alexandria,  Va.,  i  Dec.  1877.  He  was 
assistant  secretary  of  war  of  the  Southern 
Confederacy,  and  successively  an  Episcopal  and 
a  Methodist  minister.  He  was  also  professor 
of  mathematics  at  Kenyon  College  and  at  Miami 
University,  1833-6.  Besides  editing  the  'South- 
ern Review'  and  contributing  frequently  to  lead- 
ing literary,  scientific,  and  theological  period- 
icals, he  wrote  'Examination  of  Edwards  on 
the  WilP  (1845);  ^Theodicy>  (new  ed.  1853); 
'Philosophy  of  Mathematics'    (1868)  ;  etc. 

Bleecker,  Ann  Eliza,  American  poet. 
daughter  of  Brandt  Schuyler :  b.  New  York, 
Oct.  1752;  d.  Tomhanick,  near  Albany,  N.  Y., 
23  Nov.  1783.  She  married,  in  1769,  John  J. 
Bleecker,  and  moved  to  Tomhanick,  whence 
she  was  driven  by  the  news  of  the  approach  of 
Burgoyne's  army.  Her  husband  had  already 
left  to  provide  m.eans  of  escape,  when  she  was 
obliged  to  fly  on  foot,  in  the  midst  of  her  family, 
and  of  a  crowd  of  other  helpless  persons,  for 
refuge  from  the  advancing  savages.  After  en- 
during great  horrors  and  distresses,  they  made 
their  escape  to  Albany,  and  thence  by  water  to 
Red  Hook,  where  they  remained  until  the  sur- 
render of  Burgoyne  enabled  thein  to  return  to 
their  home.  Her  poems  were  written  as  sug- 
gested by  occasions,  without  a  view  to  publica- 
tion. She  possessed  a  sportive  fancy,  with 
much  tenderness  of  feeling,  but  the  sad  ex- 
periences of  her  life  produced  upon  her  such 
an  effect,  that  she  destroyed  "all  the  pieces  that 
were  not  as  melancholy  as  herself.®  Her  poems 
are  to  be  found  in  the  earlier  numbers  of  the 
'New  York  Magazine,'  and  a  collection  of  her 
stories  and  "poetics*  in  a  volume  published  in 
1793.  by  her  daughter  Margaretta. 

Bleeding,  the  escape  of  blood  from  thv"". 
arteries  or  veins.  Bleeding  may  be  external,  and 
thus  readily  seen  and  prevented  by  proper  sur- 
gical measures,  or  it  may  take  place  internally, 
into  one  of  the  large  body  cavities,  and  is  then 
a  serious  matter.  The  amount  of  blood  that  is 
in  the  human  body  varies  from  one  tenth  to  one 
twelfth  of  the  weight  of  the  individual,  and  of 
this  from  40  to  60  per  cent  may  be  lost  without 
resulting  in  death  from  the  direct  effects  of 
bleeding.  Death  may  result  in  some  individuals 
from  the  loss  of  much  smaller  quantities,  but 
most  persons  can  lose  two  fifths  of  their  blood 
and  not  die.  Bleeding  varies  widely  in  its 
rapidity.  Some  wounds  ooze,  others  well-up, 
and  again  bleeding  may  be  very  rapid  when 
a  large  vessel  has  been  cut. 

Bleeding  from  a  vein  or  an  artery  may  be 
recognized  by  the  dark  color  and  regular  flow 
from  the  former,  and  the  brighter  red  and 
spurting  or  throbljing  flow  from  the  latter.  If 
bleeding  is  taking  place  while  pressure  is  being 
applied  to  a  cut  these  differences  may  not  be  so 
pronounced.  In  emergencies  bleeding  from  an 
artery  may  be  stopped  by  direct  and  hard  pres- 
sure of  the  carefully  cleaned  finger  immediately 
over  the  source  of  the  issuing  jet  of  blood.  ThiJ 
pressure  must  be  hard  and  continued.  This 
will  permit  time  to  find  the  chief  artery  that  is 
supplying  the  bleeding  vessel,  and  as  soon  as 
this  is  found  pressure  upon  it  will  further  aid 
in  suppressing  the  flow.  Thus  the  brachial 
artery  can  be  found  on  the  inside  of  the  arm  by 
feeling  on  the  patient's  well  side,  and  firm  pres- 


BLEEDING  HfiART  YARD  — BLENDE 


sure  on  it  will  stop  all  bleeding  in  the  parts 
below,  as  in  a  cut  wrist  or  cut  hand.  Pressure 
on  the  femoral  artery  in  the  groin  will  control 
all  bleeding  below  the  point  of  pressure.  As 
pressure  by  means  of  the  finger  is  difficult  to 
maintain,  an  improvised  apparatus  may  be  made 
of  a  knotted  napkin  or  large  handkerchief.  This 
may  be  placed  about  the  arm  or  leg,  the  knot 
brought  to  press  on  the  artery  and  then  by 
means  of  a  short  stick  the  whole  may  be  made 
to  tightly  compress  the  entire  limb.  (See 
Tourniquet).  Pressure  of  this  kind  should 
not  be  too  prolonged,  or  serious  damage  to  the 
parts  may  result.  Venous  bleeding  is  usually 
controlled  by  direct  pressure  of  the  limb  on  the 
side  away  from  the  heart  and  by  direct  pressure 
of  antiseptic  gauze.  In  oozing,  direct  pressure 
of  antiseptic  gauze  or  direct  application  of  hot 
water,  118-120°  R,  is  most  effective.  Powders, 
cobwebs,  iron,  alum,  etc.,  are  not  advisedly  used. 

Internal  hemorrhage  is  extremely  important, 
since  the  blood  cannot  be  seen,  and  one  has  to 
rely  on  the  symptoms  solely.  These  are  usually 
a  beginning  sense  of  faintness  or  weakness,  and 
perhaps  some  nausea.  The  extremities  com- 
mence to  get  cold  and  white,  the  face  becomes 
pale  and  anxious,  and  the  patient  may  com- 
mence to  have  air-hunger.  He  desires  the  win- 
dows to  be  opened  wide,  thinking  thereby  to 
get  more  air.  Thus  the  beginning  symptoms  are 
very  similar  to  those  of  a  severe  fainting  spell. 
But  as  the  bleeding  continues  there  is  increas- 
ing restlessness  with  increased  air-hunger ;  there 
may  be  cold,  clammy  sweat  over  the  patient's 
body;  there  is  sighing  to  gasping  respiration, 
and  the  heart-beat  is  hard  to  hear  and  it  may  be 
impossible  to  feel  the  pulse  beat.  The  patient 
may  die  in  convulsions,  the  face  becoming 
deeply  cyanosed,  and  the  respirations  spasmodic 
or  convulsive  in  type.  If  the  patient  does  not 
die  he  will  have  a  long,  tedious  convalescence. 
Prompt  medical  or  surgical  aid  is  imperative 
in  all  such  cases.  The  best  temporary  stimulant 
is  an  enema  of  hot  (118-120°  F.)  salt  solution, 
one  teaspoonful  to  the  pint,  which  is  allowed  to 
run  in  and  out  of  the  rectum,  a  quart  or  two 
at  a  time. 

Bloodletting. —  This  procedure  was  one  much 
in  vogue  in  former  years,  and  while  still  a 
most  desirable  operation  to  perfonn  for  certain 
types  of  disease,  the  conditions  brought  about 
by  its  use  are  now  largely  induced  by  other 
means.  In  conditions  of  poisoning,  some  cases 
of  pneumonia,  and  in  some  apoplexies,  bleeding 
is  still  performed  by  competent  medical  practi- 
tioners, and  is  advocated  in  most  manuals  of 
practice.  It  is  its  indiscriminate  use  for  all  ills 
that   has  fallen   out  of  favor. 

Bleeders. —  Certain  individuals  have  a  ten- 
dency to  bleed  inordinately  from  even  the  slight- 
est wound.  They  are  called  "bleeders,"  and  are 
frequently  found  in  families,,  most  of  the  mem- 
bers of  which  have  like  traits.  The  pulling  of 
a  tooth  is  often  followed  by  continuous  hemor- 
rhage. The  causes  for  this  idiosyncrasy  are  not 
all  known.  In  some  an  insufficient  quantity  of 
calcium  salts  in  the  blood  has  been  thought  to 
be  the  most  important  cause. 

Bleeding  Heart.     See  Dicentra. 

Bleeding  Heart  Yard,  a  squalid  locality  in 
London,  mentioned  by  Dickens  in  < Little  Dor- 
rit.^     The  origin  of  the  name  is  unknown. 


Bleek,  Friedrich,  fred'riH  blak,  German 
biblical  scholar  and  critic :  b.  Arensbok,  Hol- 
stein,  4  July  1793 ;  d.  27  Feb.  1859.  He  was 
appointed  professor  of  theology  at  Bonn,  1829, 
and  spent  the  remainder  of  his  life  there.  Ha 
was  the  author  of  much  esteemed  commentaries 
and  expository  books,  valuable  Introductions  to 
the  Old  and  New  Testaments  (1860-2),  his  most 
important  work  bein<T  one  on  the  'Epistle  to  the 
Hebrews'    (1828-40). 

Bleek,  Wilhelm  Heinrich  Immanuel,  vil'- 
helm  hln'riH  im-man'oo-el,  German  philolo- 
gist, son  of  Friedrich  Bleek  (q.v.)  :  b.  Berlin,  8 
March  1827 ;  d.  Cape  Town,  17  Aug.  1875.  !•- 
1855  he  went  to  South  Africa  and  devoted  him- 
self to  the  study  of  the  language,  manners,  and 
customs  of  the  natives.  In  i860  he  was  ap- 
pointed public  librarian  at  Cape  Town,  and  his 
researches  were  rewarded  with  a  pension  from 
the  civil  list.  He  was  principal  author  of  the 
'Handbook  of  African,  Australian,  and  Poly- 
nesian Philology*  (1858-63),  his  other  chief 
productions  being  'Vocabulary  of  the  Mozam- 
bique Languages*  (1856)  ;  'Comparative  Gram- 
mar of  South  African  Languages*  (1862); 
'Hottentot  Fables  and  Tales*  (1864)  ;  and  'The 
Origin  of  Language*    (iT 


Bleibtreu,  Georg,  ga-orn  blTp'troi,  Ger- 
man artist :  b.  Xanten,  Rhenish  Russia,  27 
March  1828;  d.  Berlin,  16  Oct.  1892.  His  first 
important  picture  was  the  'Destruction  of  the 
Kiel  Turner-Corps  at  Flensburg*  (1852)  and  his 
subsequent  works  are  also  battle  pieces.  Among 
them  are  'Episode  from  the  Battle  of  Waterloo* 
(1858)  ;  'Battle  of  Koniggratz*  ;  'Surrender  of 
Napoleon  after  Sedan*  ;  'Attack  of  Saxon  Corps 
at  Saint  Privat*   (1880). 

Bleibtreu,  Karl  August,  karl  ow'goost 
bllp'troi,  German  poet  and  novelist :  b.  Berlin, 
13  Jan.  1859.  He  is  one  of  the  foremost  repre- 
sentatives of  the  youngest  German  school  in 
literature,  and  a  pronounced  realist.  All  his 
views  are  radical,  as  shown  by  the  very  titles  of 
his  works;  for  example.  'Revolution  in  Litera- 
ture* (1885);  'Literature's  Struggle  for  Life.* 
He  also  wrote  'Dies  Irse*  ;  'Napoleon  at  Leip- 
sic*  ;  'Cromwell  at  Marston  Moor.*  His 
dramas  are:  'Lord  Byron*  (1888);  'The  Day 
of  Judgment*  ;  'The  Queen's  Necklace*  ;  etc. 

Bleichroder's,  bllh're-derz,  a  celebrated 
banking  house  in  Berlin,  established  by  Samuel 
Bleichroder,  who  died  in  1855,  continued  by  his 
son,  Gerson  Bleichroder,  who  died  in  1893,  ana 
subsequently  by  the  two  sons  of  the  latter. 
Under  the  patronage  of  Bismarck  it  entered 
into  commercial  relations  with  the  Prussian  gov- 
ernment, rendering  material  assistance  in  1866 
and  again  in  1871.  Gerson  Bleichroder  was 
raised  to  the  hereditary  peerage  in   1872. 

Blemmyes,  blem'i-ez,  or  Blemyes,  a  people 
of  ancient  Ethiopia,  who  for  several  centuries 
after  Christ  gave  much  trouble  to  the  Romans 
during  their  occupation  of  northern  Africa. 
Their  influence  extended  to  a  period  as  late  as 
the   7th   century. 

Blende  (German,  "to  blind,**  in  allusion  to 
the  fact  that  the  mineral  is  easily  mistaken  for 
galena,  and  yet  yields  no  lead).  A  native  sul- 
phide of  zinc,  having  the  formula  ZnS,  and 
known  also  as  sphalerite.  It  crystallizes  in 
tetrahedral    forms    belonging    to    the    isometric 


BLENHEIM  — BLENHEIM    HOUSE 


system,  and  has  a  very  perfect  cleavage.  It  is 
commonlj'  brown,  black,  or  yellow,  but  may 
have  other  colors  also,  and  may  be  nearly  color- 
less when  pure.  Its  hardness  is  from  3.5  to  4, 
and  its  specific  gravity  is  about  4.00.  It  usually 
occurs  massive,  with  dodecahedral  cleavage,  and 
is  found  commonly  in  connection  with  galena, 
and  also  in  deposits  of  considerable  extent  in 
cavities  in  limestone.  It  is  a  valuable  ore  of 
zinc,  and  is  mined  near  Joplin,  Mo.,  in  Corn- 
wall (England),  and  in  various  parts  of  the 
United  States,  notably  in  Kansas,  Illinois,  and 
Colorado.  The  miners  of  Cornwall  call  it 
*mock  lead*  and  ^^black-jack.® 

Blenheim,  blen'Tm,  or  Blindheim,  a  Bava- 
rian village  about  23  miles   from  Augsburg, 
the  theatre  of  a  great  battle,  fought  13  Aug. 
1704    (also    called    the    battle    of    Hochstadt, 
from    another    village    of     this    name     in     the 
vicinity),    in    which    Marlborough    and    Prince 
Eugene,     commanding    the    allied    forces    of 
England   and   the    German    empire,   gained   a 
brilliant  victory  over  the   French  and   Bava- 
rians.    The    latter    armies    were    drawn    into 
the  engagement  under  the  most  unfavorable 
circumstances.     Both  these  armies  amounted 
to    56,000    men,    while    the    forces    of    Marl- 
borough and  Eugene  w^ere  about  52,000.     The 
first  had  throwm  their  troops  chiefly  into  the 
two     villages     of     Blenheim     and     Kinzingen, 
which   they  considered  as  points  of  support 
for  their  wings,  though  at  too   great  a   dis- 
tance   in    front    of    their    main    position.     A 
large  proportion  of  cavalry  was  in  the  cen- 
tre,  since   each   army,    the    Bavarian   as   well 
as  the  French,  had  their  horse  on  their  wings, 
and    in    this    w^ay   those    of   two    wings    must 
necessarily  join   each   other.     Both  the   com- 
manders  would   undoubtedly  have   perceived 
and    corrected   this    mistake,   as   Tallard,   the 
French    general,    had    in    Blenheim    alone    27 
battalions   of  infantry;  but  they  expected   so 
little  to  be   attacked,   that  when  the   line   of 
the    allies   began   to    move,    13    August,   at  two 
o'clock  in  the  morning,  they  supposed  them 
to    be    marching    off.     The    greatest    part    of 
their    cavalry   was    sent   to    forage.     Even    at 
seven   o'clock,  when  the   heads   of  the   eight 
columns     with     which     Eugene   -and     Marl- 
borough    advanced     toward     the     Nebelbach 
w'ere  to  be  seen,  Tallard  thought  the  whole 
a    stratagem   intended   to   cover    the    retreat; 
but   he   soon    saw   his   error.     The   dispersed 
troops    were   recalled   in   the    greatest   hurry, 
and  the  cannon  were  drawn  up  in  line.     The 
French   and   Bavarians   made   every   exertion 
to  prevent  the  passage  of  the  enemy  over  the 
small  stream  of  Nebelbach,  and  the  capture 
of   the   two   villages,  the   conquest   of   which 
was  considered  by  Marlborough  and  Eugene 
as    decisive.     Their    line    of    attack    w^as    un- 
commonly long,  about  four  and  a  half  miles. 
Marlborough,    in    order   to    secure    his    right 
wing,    attacked    Blenheim,    but   wnthout    suc- 
cess;  he   then   changed   his   plan,   and   threw 
himself    with    his    principal    forces    into    the 
wide    interval    between    the    right   wing    and 
the    centre    of    the    enemy,    leaving    only    as 
many  troops  before  Blenheim  as  were  neces- 
sary to   check  the  body  which   occupied  this 
position.     At    five    o'clock    in    the    afternoon 
he   succeeded,  after  great  efforts,  in  passing 
the  Nebelbach,  by  which  his  victory  was  de- 
cided.    Tallard  himself  was  among  the  pris- 


oners; his  son  was  killed.  The  consequences 
of  the  battle  Avere  decisive.  Bavaria,  as 
Marlborough  had  anticipated,  fell  into  the 
power  of  Austria. 

Blenheim  Dog.     See  Terriers. 

Blenheim  House,  the  name  of  the  seat  of 
the    Duke    of    Marlborough,    in    the    parish    of 
Woodstock,  and  county  of  Oxford.     The  estate 
having  been   given    by    Queen    Anne   to    Marl- 
borough   for   his    eminent    services.    Parliament 
granted  the  sum  of  half  a  million  sterling  to 
erect  a  suitable  family  seat.     The  building  was 
intrusted    to    Sir    John    Vanbrugh,    and    called 
Blenheim,    from    the    village    where    the    Duke 
gained  his  great  victory.    In  this  park  once  stood 
the  royal    palace  of  Woodstock,   where  Alfred 
is    said   to    have   resided,    and    which    was    the 
favorite   residence    of    Henry    II.,    who    erected 
a  house  in  the  park  for  his  favorite  mistress, 
Rosamond     Clififord,    whence    the    well-known 
legend    of    Woodstock-bower,    Queen    Eleanor, 
and  the  Fair  Rosamond.     Edward  III.  was  also 
much  attached  to  this  palace,  in  which  his  eldest 
son,  the  illustrious  Black  Prince,  was  born,  as 
well    as    his    youngest    son,    Thomas,    Duke    of 
Gloucester,    usuall}'    called    Thomas    of    Wood- 
stock, from  that  event.     Richard  II.  likewise 
kept  his  court  here,  at  which  time  the  poet 
Chaucer   resided    at   Woodstock,   in   a   house 
wdiich  stood  near  the  present  entrance  to  the 
park.     During    the    civil    wars    of    the     17th 
century  it  was  for   some   time   defended   for 
the  king;  but  it  ultimately  surrendered,  and 
was    much    injured    and    dilapidated    by    the 
parliamentarians.     The     usual     approach     to 
Blenheim  from  Woodstock  is  through  a  tri- 
umphal arch  or  portal.     In  front  of  the  build- 
ing stands  a  sculptured  column  130  feet  high, 
surmounted  by  a  statue  of  the  duke,  whose 
victories   and   achievements   are   recorded   on 
tablets    round    the    base.     The    front    of    the 
house  measures  348  feet  from  wing  to  wing, 
and   although   architectural   critics   find   many 
faults   in   detail,   the   general    effect   is   in   the 
highest  degree  noble  and  commanding.     The 
interior   is    extremely    magnificent;    the    hall, 
supported    by    Corinthian    pillars,    is    67    feet 
high;    and    the    ceiling    was    painted    by    Sir 
James     Thornhill,     the     design     representing 
Victory  crowning  the   Duke.     The  gallery  and 
bow-window  room  abound  in  portraits  by  the 
most  eminent  masters,  both  foreign  and  Eng- 
lish.    On  the  tapestry  of  the  latter  are  figured 
the  various  battles  gained  by  the  same  great 
general,    and    more    especially   that    of    Blen- 
heim.    The    saloon,    a    noble    and    spacious 
apartment,  communicates  with  the   hall,  and 
occupies    the    entire    breadth    of    the    centre. 
The  lower  part  is  lined  with  marble,  and  six 
of  its  compartments  are  decorated    with  pic- 
tures   by    La    Guerre,    representing    the    inhabi- 
tants of  the  different  nations  of  the  world  in 
appropriate    costume.     On    the    ceiling    is    a 
representation  by  the  same  artist,  of  the  vic- 
torious  Duke  arrested   in   his  career  by    Peace 
and  Time.     The  remaining  principal  subjects 
of  admiration   are  the  library,   theatre,  state 
drawing-room,  blue  and  green  drawing-room, 
grand  cabinet,  the  dining-room,  etc.     In  the 
chapel,  which  forms  one  of  the  wings,   is  a 
fine   marble  monument  by   Rysbrack,  to  the 
great   Duke  and   his   almost   equally   celebrated 
duchess,   Sarah.     The   gardens   and   grounds. 


BLENKER  —  BLENNY 


•which  are  exceedingly  spacious,  were  laid  out 
by  Brown,  who  contrived  to  make  a  most 
admirable  use  of  the  small  river  Glyme  in 
the  formation  of  a  lake,  or  piece  of  water, 
v;hich  is  justly  deemed  one  of  the  greatest 
beauties  of  the  place.  It  is  crossed  by  sev- 
eral arches,  and  at  the  middle  or  grand  ap- 
proach is  a  magnificent  bridge,  the  span  of 
the  centre  arch  of  which  is  loi   feet. 

Blanker,  blenk'er,  Louis,  German-Ameri- 
can soldier:  b.  Worms,  Germany,  1812;  d. 
16  Oct.  1863.  He  took  an  active  part  in  the 
revolutionary  movement  of  1848  in  Germany 
and  was  forced  to  leave  his  native  land,  emi- 
grating to  the  United  States.  He  organized 
the  8th  regiment  of  New  York  Volunteers  at 
the  outbreak  of  the  Civil  War,  and  was  its 
colonel.  He  was  pfl-omoted  to  the  rank  of 
brigadier-general  at  the  first  battle  of  Bull 
Run,  and  engaged  in  the  battle  of  Cedar  Keys 
in  1862.  He  died  of  wounds  received  while 
at  Warrenton,  V'a. 

Blennerhas'sett,  Harman,  English  emi- 
grant in  America:  b.  Hampshire,  England,  8 
Oct.  1764;  d.  on  the  island  of  Guernsey,  2 
Feb.  1831.  He  sprang  from  a  wealthy  and 
highly  connected  house  which  traced  its  an- 
cestry back  to  Edward  III.;  was  educated  at 
Westminster  School,  London,  and  Trinity 
College,  Dublin,  graduating  1790.  The  young- 
est of  three  sons,  he  studied  for  the  law,  but 
the  death  of  his  brothers  soon  after  made  him 
head  of  the  family.  Early  in  1796  he  privately 
married  his  sister's  daughter,  Margaret  Ag- 
new,  a  beautiful  and  highly  accomplished  girl 
of  18,  also  of  excellent  family,  her  father 
having  been  lieutenant-governor  of  the  Isle 
of  Man,  and  her  grandfather  an  English  of- 
ficer killed  at  Germantown.  This  incestuous 
union  brought  its  ultimate  punishment  from 
nature  in  a  family  of  physical  and  moral 
wrecks;  but  a  more  immediate  one  was  en- 
tire social  ostracism,  which  soon  drove  him 
to  break  his  entail  and  sell  his  estates,  ex- 
cept some  reserved  incomes,  and  come  to 
America  with  his  wife  and  a  library  and  philo- 
sophical apparatus.  Arriving  i  Aug.  1796, 
he  finally,  in  1798,  settled  on  a  small  island 
in  the  Ohio  River  a  few  miles  below  Park- 
ersburg,  W.  Va.,  and  spent  $60,000  on  a 
house  and  grounds,  pictures,  and  statuary. 
This  was  for  years  the  show  place  of  America 
west  of  the  Alleghanies,  and  drew  a  stream  of 
notable  guests,  whom  he  entertained  with 
elaborate  hospitality.  Here  he  read,  made 
music,  which  was  his  chief  passion,  and  dab- 
bled in  feeble  absent-minded  scientific  experi- 
ments. In  1805  Aaron  Burr  (q.v.)  was  one  of 
his  guests,  and  then  or  next  year  induced  him 
to  join  in  the  scheme  for  a  southwestern  em- 
pire, to  include  Mexico;  Blennerhassett  was 
to  be  prime  minister  and  a  duke,  and  perhaps 
ambassador  to  England.  He  was  a  tirnid, 
dreaming,  futile,  unadventurous  man.  but,  like 
many  such,  may  have  fancied  himself  a  great 
statesman  and  hero  in  posse.  He  may,  per- 
haps, have  consented  because  Mexico  was 
farther  from  Great  Britain  than  the  Ohio, 
and  the  canker  of  his  life  was  fear  lest  chance 
should  disclose  his  secret  to  his  friends  and 
children.  His  wife,  much  the  stronger  nature 
of  the  two,  was  certainly  ambitious  for  him, 
and  he  would  not  have  embarked  in  such  a 

Vol.    2—46. 


venture  without  her  approval.  Anyway,  he 
advocated  Burr's  "colonization^^  plan  in  the 
papers,  and  invested  a  great  sum  in  arms,  am- 
munition, provisions,  boats,  etc.,  on  the  faith 
of  obligations  from  Burr's  son-in-law  Allston, 
which  were  largely  defaulted.  The  scheme 
fell  through;  Blennerhassett  was  twice  ar- 
rested, imprisoned  and  tried  for  treason,  but 
discharged  in  1807  on  the  acquittal  of  Burr. 
His  place,  however,  had  been  wantonly  in- 
jured by  the  militia,  and  was  seized  by  his 
creditors  and  turned  into  a  hemp  field.  The 
mansion  was  converted  into  a  granary  and 
was  finally  burned  by  accident.  Blennerhas- 
sett now  settled  in  Xatchez,  and  soon  after 
bought  a  i,ooo-acre  cotton  plantation  on  the 
Mississippi,  a  few  miles  above  Port  Gib- 
son, which  he  called  La  Cache.  It  was  un- 
successful, and  the  War  of  1812  injured  his 
commercial  speculations;  and  in  1819  he  sold 
it  for  $28,000  and  removed  to  Montreal,  prac- 
tising law  in  hope  of  obtaining  a  judgeship 
through  his  old  schoolmate,  the  Duke  of 
Richmond.  This  failing,  he  returned  to  Eng- 
land in  1822  in  hope  of  winning  back  his 
property  by  a  reversionary  action-  and  then 
of  obtaining  employment  through  an  influence 
which  no  longer  existed.  In  1824  he  came 
back  after  his  family.  Everything  failed  him, 
though  he  and  his  wife  were  decently  treated; 
at  last  his  health  gave  way,  and  he  died  at 
Port  St.  Pierre  on  the  island  of  Guernsey. 
He  was  generous  with  his  money  while  he 
had  it,  and  helped  out  of  financial  difificulties 
several  of  the  musicians  he  consorted  with. 
His  wife,  though  disinherited,  had  always 
had  an  income  paid  her  by  her  sisters;  and 
in  1838  received  a  property  by  the  will  of  her 
husband's  maiden  aunt.  In  1840  she  came  to 
the  United  States  to  push  a  claim  before  Con- 
gress for  the  island  property,  and  indemnity 
for  the  ravages  of  the  militia.  Henry  Clay 
favored  it,  and  its  passage  was  probable;  but 
before  it  came  up  she  died  in  New  York,  16 
June  1842.  The  story  of  her  being  left  penni- 
less with  a  dependent  family  (the  youngest 
was  19  at  his  father's  death),  and  of  her  dying 
in  poverty  and  being  buried  by  sisters  of 
charity,  are  fictions.  She  had  some  literary 
ambitions,  and  while  in  Montreal  wrote  two 
volumes  of  verse.  *The  Deserted  Isle^ 
(1822),  and  'The  Widow  of  the  Rock,  and 
Other  Poems^    (1824). 

Bibliography.- —  Therese  Blennerhassett- Ad- 
ams, 'The  True  Story  of  Harman  Blenner- 
hassett,^ in  the  'Century'  (Vol.  62  1901)  ;  'The 
Blennerhassett  Papers*  (1864)  ;  Safford,  'Life 
of  Blennerhassett'  (1835)  '>  Pidgin,  'Blenner- 
hassett,* a  romance  (1902). 

Blenny.  These  small  fishes  of  the  spiny- 
rayed  marine  family  Blcunida,  frequent 
rocky  coasts  and  shallows,  in  seas  of  all  parts 
of  the  world.  Their  elongated  bodies,  some 
of  which  are  scaleless.  are  remarkable  for  the 
abundance  of  slimy  matter  with  which  they 
are  covered.  These  fishes  are  extraordinary 
in  possessing  but  one  dorsal  fin.  which  in 
some  species  is  deeply  divided;  and  in  having 
the  faculty  of  using  their  ventral  fins  to  aid 
them  in  moving  about  among  the  rocks  and 
sea-weed.  They  are  frequently  deprived  of 
water,  by  the  ebb  of  the  tide,  when  they  are 
capable  of  subsisting  for  some  hours.     Small 


BLENORRHCEA  —  BLESSINGTON 


crustaceans  form  their  main  food.  In  some 
species  the  eggs  are  retained  in  the  oviduct 
until  they  hatch,  so  that  the  young  are  pro- 
duced alive. 

Blenorrhoea,  an  old  term  signifying  a 
muco-purulent  discharge  from  any  mucous 
membrane.  This  discharge  is  usually  creamy 
white  and  consists  usually  of  water,  mucus, 
epithelial  cells,  white  blood  cells,  or  pus  cells, 
and  bacteria.  At  the  present  time  a  blenor- 
rhagic  discharge  is  definitely  named  according 
to  the  structure  involved.  Thus  a  blenorrhoea 
of  the  eyes  is  termed  a  purulent  conjuncti- 
vitis ;  of  the  vagina,  leucorrhoea ;  of  the  ure- 
thra, gleet  or  urethritis ;  if  a  urethritis  of 
infectious  origin,  gonorrhoea,  etc.  Treatment 
is  usually  local  and  general.  Tonic  stimulat- 
ing applications  may  be  locally  applied,  and 
the  general  health  built  up  as  thoroughly  as 
possible. 

Blepharitis,  an  inflammation  of  the  margin 
of  the  eye-lids  and  hair  follicles.  It  may  con- 
sist of  a  very  slight  hyperasmia  or  redness 
that  causes  itching  and  discomfort.  This 
form  may  be  due  almost  entirely  to  eye- 
strain and  proper  glasses  will  usually  cure  it. 
The  disease  may  be  more  extensive,  involv- 
ing the  margin  and  the  follicles,  with  redness 
and  swelling  and  whitish  scales.  The  eye- 
lashes may  drop  out,  but  usually  are  regrown, 
and  there  is  much  itching  and  discomfort. 
This  form  may  also  result  from  refractive 
errors,  or  may  be  the  index  of  a  bad  consti- 
tutional state  from  poor  food,  bad  surround- 
ings, or  it  may  follow  the  infectious  diseases, 
notably  measles.  A  more  persistent  form  is 
associated  with  ulceration  and  loss  of  the 
eyelashes.  This  is  usually  a  very  chronic 
type  and  resistant  to  treatment.  In  the  man- 
agement of  all  forms,  all  errors  of  refraction 
should  be  corrected  by  properly  adjusted 
glasses, —  not  on  opticians'  prescriptions, — 
and  the  local  treatment  by  stimulating  oint- 
ments. 

Bl€re,  bla-ra,  a  French  town,  in  the  de- 
partment of  Indre-et-Loire,  on  the  Cher,  15 
miles  east-southeast  of  Tours.  It  contains  a 
notably  fine  i6th  century  chapel.  Pop. 
(1896)  3,269.  In  the  vicinity  is  the  Chateau 
Chenonceaux,  built  in  the  time  of  Francis  I., 
and  still  in  excellent  preservation.  It  was 
given  by  Henry  II.  to  his  mistress,  Diana  de 
Poitiers,  who  was  dispossessed  on  the  death 
of  Henry  by  Catherine  de  jMedici.  In  the 
latter  part  of  the  i8th  century  it  was  fre- 
quented by  Fontenelle,  Voltaire,  Rousseau, 
and  all  the  wits  of  the  time,  who  were  drawn 
together  by  the  then  owner  of  the  chateau, 
Madame  Dupin,  widow  of  a  fennier-gencral 
;who  died  in  1799.  See  Cook,  *01d  Tou- 
raine.^ 

Bles,  Henri,  6n-re'  bles,  Flemish  painter: 
b.  probably  at  Dinant,  about  1480;  d.  1550. 
Very  little  is  known  of  his  career,  and  the 
^Adoration  of  the  Magi^  in  the  Dresden  Gal- 
lery is  his  only  signed  picture.  He  is  known 
to  have  been  a  very  prolific  artist,  and  almost 
all  the  European  galleries  contain  paintings 
ascribed  to  him. 

Blesbok,  bles'bok,  one  of  the  African  hart- 
beests,  now  rare,  which  was  distinguished  by 
the  violet  color  of  its  coat.    See  Hartbeest. 


Blessing,  or  Benediction.  The  expression 
of  wishing  one  well  soon  gave  rise,  in  early 
ages,  to  a  solemn  act,  accompanied,  like  other 
solemnities  of  those  periods,  by  symbolic  signs, 
this  was  the  blessing  or  benediction.  In  patri- 
archal times,  when  the  authority  of  the  head 
of  a  family  included  that  of  the  priest  and  the 
civil  ruler,  the  blessing  of  course  appertained 
chiefly  to  him,  on  account  of  his  venerable  cha- 
racter, and  when  the  priests  began  to  form  a 
separate  class,  became,  in  certain  cases,  a  pre- 
rogative of  theirs.  As  the  authority  of  the 
father,  in  the  infancy  of  every  nation,  is  ex- 
tremely great,  the  idea  soon  sprung  up  that 
his  prayers,  invoking  the  favor  of  the  Deit}% 
were  more  effectual  than  those  of  others,  and 
that  whatever  he  blessed  would  be  likely  to 
receive  the  favor  of  God.  The  same  importance 
was  soon  attributed  to  blessings  conferred  by 
a  priest.  The  heathens,  the  Jews,  and  many 
Christian  sects,  have  cherished  this  idea.  By  the 
Jewish  institutions,  certain  benedictions  were 
reserved  to  the  priest ;  the  same  is  the  case  in 
the  Roman  Catholic  Church,  in  which  different 
benedictions  are  appropriated  to  different  degrees 
of  the  clergy.  We  shall  mention  only  a  few 
of  them.  The  Roman  Catholic  bishops  alone 
can  confer  those  benedictions  which  are  con- 
nected with  unction,  and  are  called  consecra- 
tions, as,  for  instance,  the  consecration  of  kings 
and  queens,  of  the  cup  and  patera,  the  church 
and  altar.  To  them  also  is  confined  the  bene- 
diction of  abbots  and  abbesses,  of  knights,  and 
the  holy  oil.  For  the  benediction  of  the  holy 
vestments,  etc.,  they  may  employ  a  substitute. 
Eveiy  Roman  Catholic  clergyman  may  confer  the 
benediction  on  the  occasion  of  betrothment ;  also 
the  marriage  benediction ;  may  bless  the  fruits 
of  the  earth,  and  the  holy  water.  The  benedic- 
tion of  a  bishop  is  eagerly  sought  for  by  a  faith- 
ful Roman  Catholic,  as  contributing  peculiarly  to 
his  spiritual  welfare ;  and  the  Catholic  clergy,  in 
general,  use  the  benediction  as  a  salutation  or 
reward  for  a  service,  etc.  When  the  Pope  rides 
or  walks  out  the  Roman  Catholics  kneel  to  re- 
ceive his  blessing,  which  he  gives  by  a  motion  of 
his  hand.  In  his  ante-chamber  are  often  seen 
things  of  different  kinds,  rosaries,  etc.,  in  large 
quantities,  which  he  blesses  in  passing  by.  The 
Roman  Catholic  Church  blesses  things  animate 
and  inanimate,  and  this  is  believed  by  many  to 
preserve  them  from  sickness,  injury,  etc.  Among 
most  Protestant  bodies  there  is  a  blessing  pro- 
nounced upon  the  people  at  the  close  of  a  reli- 
gious service,  that  of  the  Church  of  England 
being  contained  in  the  ■Pra3'er  Book.  Roman 
Catholics  in  many  cases  use  the  consecrated 
water  in  giving  the  benediction. 

Blessington,  Margaret  (Countess  of)  :  b. 
Knockbrit,  near  Clonmel,  Ireland,  i  Sept. 
1789;  d.  Paris,  4  June  1849.  She  was  the 
daughter  of  Edmund  Power,  and  at  the  age  of 
15  was  married  to  a  Capt.  Farmer,  who  died  in 
1817.  A  few  months  after  his  death  she  mar- 
ried Charles  John  Gardiner,  Earl  of  Blessington. 
In  1822  they  went  abroad  together,  and  continuec 
to  reside  on  the  Continent  till  the  Earl's  death  in 
Paris,  in  1829,  when  Lady  Blessington  returned 
to  London  and  took  up  her  abode  in  Gore 
House.  Kensington,  which  had  been  bequeathed 
to  her  by  her  husband.  Here_  for  many  years 
she  held  those  celebrated  reunions  and  soirees, 
at  which  the  most  distinguished  literary  cha- 
racters in  London  were  wont  to  assemble.    The 


BLICHER  — BLIND 


fascination  of  her  manners  and  conversation, 
with  her  genial  warm-heartedness  of  character, 
rendered  these  gatherings  most  attractive ;  but 
certain  equivocal  circumstances  in  relation  to 
her  connection  with  a  Count  d'Orsay  prevented 
their  being  frequented  much  by  respectable 
female  society.  The  count  had  married  a  daugh- 
ter of  Lord  Blessington  by  his  first  wife,  and 
been  separated  from  her  shortly  afterward,  but 
after  the  death  of  his  father-in-law,  resided  with 
the  countess  during  the  remainder  of  her  life. 
Lady  Blessington  had  made  her  debut  as  an 
authoress  in  1822  by  the  publication  of  two 
volumes  of  ^ Sketches.^  In  1832  she  contributed 
to  the  ^New  Monthly  Magazine,*  "Conversa- 
tions with  Lord  Byron,**  considered  by  many  as 
the  best  of  her  productions.  She  also  wrote 
numerous  novels,  including,  among  others,  'The 
Belle  of  a  Season';  'The  Two  Friends*; 
'Strathern*;  and  'The  Victims  of  Society.* 
None  of  these  have  much  literary  merit,  but  de- 
scribe scenes  in  fashionable  life  with  considera- 
ble power,  and  enjoyed  at  the  time  a  large  share 
of  popularity.  She  acted  as  editress  for  several 
years  of  'Heath's  Book  of  Beauty*  and  the 
'Keepsake,*  and  also  of  another  annual,  the 
'Gems  of  Beaut3^*  In  1849  she  proceeded  to 
Paris,  whither  Count  d'Orsay  had  previously 
gone,  in  the  hope  of  obtaining  an  appointment 
under  Louis  Napoleon,  with  whom  they  had 
been  intimate  during  his  exile  in  England,  Con- 
sult Madden,  'Life  of  the  Countess  of  Blessing- 
ton*   (1855). 

Blicher,  Steen  Steensen,  stan  stan'sen 
bliH'er,  Danish  poet  and  novelist:  b.  Vium, 
Jutland,  II  Oct.  1782;  d.  Spentrup,  26  March 
1848.  His  first  work  was  a  translation  of  'Os- 
sian'  (2  vols.  1807-9),  a^d  his  first  original 
poems  appeared  in  1814,  but  attracted  little 
notice.  He  quickly  won  a  national  reputation 
with  his  novels,  and  in  1842  appeared  his  master- 
piece of  novel  writing,  'The  Knitting  Room,* 
a  collection  of  short  stories  in  the  Jutland 
dialect. 

Blida,  ble-dii',  a  fortified  town  of  Algeria, 
30  miles  inland  from  Algiers,  well-built,  with 
modern  houses  and  public  edifices,  the  centre  of 
a  flourishing  district,  and  having  a  good  trade. 
There  are  cedar  and  cork  trees  in  the  neigh- 
borhood and  mines  of  copper  and  lead.  The 
principal  exports  are  oranges,  grain,  tobacco, 
raisins,  etc.  It  is  one  of  the  chief  stations  on 
the  railway  connecting  Oran,  Algiers,  and  Con- 
stantine.     Pop.    (1896)    13,026. 

Bligh,  William,  English  navigator:  b.  Ply- 
mouth. England,  9  Sept.  i7.S4;  d.  7  Dec.  1817. 
He  acquired  considerable  celebrity  from  having 
been  the  commander  of  the  ship  Bounty  when 
the  crew  mutinied  in  the  South  Seas  and  car- 
ried her  off.  She  had  been  fitted  out  for  the 
purpose  of  procuring  plants  of  the  bread-fruit 
tree,  and  introducing  these  into  the  West  Indies. 
Bligh.  who  had  sailed  with  Capt.  Cook,  ob- 
tained the  command,  and  in  December  1787. 
left  Spithead  for  Otaheite.  where  he  arrived, 
and  remained  till  April  1789.  Having  loaded 
his  vessel  with  plants  he  set  sail  and  was  pro- 
ceeding on  his  voyage  for  Jamaica  when  he 
was  seized  in  bed,  bound,  and  brought  on  deck 
The  launch  was  lov.-ered.  and  Bligh.  with  18 
men  supposed  to  be  well  disposed  to  him.  were 
forced  into  it,  with  no  other  provision  than  1 50 
pounds   of  bread,   32  pounds    of   pork,   a   little 


rum  and  wine,  and  28  gallons  of  water.  Thus 
scantily  provided  they  found  themselves  in  the 
open  sea,  not  far  from  the  island  of  Tofoa,  in 
lat.  19°  S.  and  Ion.  184''  E.,  and  managed  by 
admirable  skill  and  perseverance,  though  not 
without  enduring  fearful  hardships,  to  reach  the 
island  of  Timor  in  41  days,  after  running  nearly 
4,000  miles  without  the  loss  of  a  single  man. 
Ultimately  12  of  the  number  reached  England. 
Of  these,  Bligh  was  one,  and  in  a  second  voyage 
accomplished  the  object  of  the  first  bj'  giving 
the  bread-fruit  tree  to  the  West  India  Islands. 
When  several  of  the  mutineers  were  afterward 
tried  at  Portsmouth,  sufficient  evidence  was  ob- 
tained to  show  that  Bligh  himself  was  not  free 
from  blame,  and  had  on  many  occasions  been 
too  much  inclined  to  play  the  tyrant.  This 
feature  in  his  character  was  afterward  mani- 
fested on  a  larger  scale.  In  1805  he  was  ap- 
pointed governor  of  New  South  Wales,  and 
acted  so  harshly  that  the  other  authorities  inter- 
fered and  put  him  in  confinement.  On  his 
return  he  was  made  an  admiral.  See  Pitcairn 
Island. 

Blighia,  bli'i-a,  a  genus  of  numerous  trees 
and  shrubs  of  the  natural  order  Sapindacem,  the 
principal  species  of  which  is  B.  saoida  {Ctioania 
saoida  of  some  botanists),  the  akee  tree  indige- 
nous to  west  tropical  Africa  and  naturalized  in 
the  West  Indies  since  the  close  of  the  17th 
century.  It  is  also  planted  in  southern  Florida. 
The  tree  attains  a  height  of  30  feet,  bears 
pinnate  ash-like  leaves  and  very  fragrant  whitish 
flowers,  from  which  by  crude  distillation  the 
colored  people  obtain  a  cosmetic  and  which 
would  probably  yield  a  valuable  perfume  under 
proper  management.  The  rich,  red  fruits,  as 
large  as  goose  eggs,  are  used  for  dessert  and 
largely  also  in  cookery.  In  Jamaica  the  tree 
is  cultivated  as  high  as  3.000  feet  above  sea- 
level,  although  it  can  withstand  slight  frosts. 
Cuoania  anacardioidcs,  which  also  bears  an  edi- 
ble fruit,  has  been  introduced  into  California, 
and  C.  clegantissima  is  sometimes  raised  in 
warm  greenhouses  for  its  attractive  foliage  and 
racemes  of  white  flowers. 

Blight,  an  indefinite  term  applied  to  any 
diseased  state  of  cultivated  plants,  but  gradu- 
ally being  restricted  to  plant  diseases  caused 
either  by  bacteria  or  fungi.  See  sections  on 
diseases  in  articles  on  various  plants. 

Blight,  American,  an  English  and  Austra- 
lian name  for  the  woolly  apple  louse  or  "apple 
blight,"  one  of  the  aphides   (q.v.). 

Blight-bird,  a  small  insectivorous  bird 
{Zostcrops  cacnilcsccus)  of  New  Zealand, 
which  devours  the  "blight**  or  plant-lice  on  fruit 
trees.     It  is  one  of  the  white-eyes   (q.v.). 

Blimbing,  Bilimbi,  Cucumber-tree  {Aver- 
rlioa  bilimbi),  a  tropical  tree  of  the  natural  order 
Geraniacccr.  native  of  southern  Asia,  where  it 
is  largely  cultivated  and  whence  it  has  been  in- 
troduced in  other  tropical  countries.  It  is 
extensively .  raised  in  South  America.  The  tree 
attains  a  height  of  15  feet,  bears  racemes  of  red 
flowers  followed  by  smooth  cucumber-shaped 
green  fruits  as  large  as  hen's  eggs,  which  are 
highly  esteemed  for  their  acid  pulp.  The  ca- 
rambola  (q.v.)  is  a  close  relative. 

Blind,  blint.  Karl,  German  political  agi- 
tator and  writer  on  history,  mytholog}",  and 
Germanic  literature :  b.  Mannheim,  4  Sept.  1826 ; 


BLIND 


d.  London.  Eng.,  31  May  1907.  He  was  edu- 
cated at  Heidelberg  and  Bonn,  and  from  his 
student  days  till  he  settled  in  England  in  1852 
he  was  continually  engaged  in  agitating  or  in 
heading  risings  in  t!:e  cause  of  German  freedom 
and  union,  being  frequently  imprisoned.  The 
democratic  propaganda  was  afterward  supported 
by  his  pen ;  and  he  wrote  political  and  biog- 
raphical works:  < Fire-burial  Among  Our  Ger- 
manic Forefathers^  ;  'Teutonic  Cremation*  ; 
<Yggdrasil,  or  The  Teutonic  Tree  of  Exist- 
ence* ;  biographies  of  Freiligrath,  Ledru  Rollin, 
and  Francis  Deak. 

Blind,  Mathilde,  German-English  poet : 
b.  Mannheim,  21  March  1847 ;  d.  London,  26 
Nov.  1896.  She  went  to  England  in  1849.  and 
won  fame  bv  her  writings:  'The  Prophecy  of 
St.  Oran,  and  Other  Poems'  (Lond.  1881) ;  'Life 
of  George  Eliot>  (1883)  ;  'Madame  Roland* 
(1886)  ;  'Tlie  Heather  on  Fire,'  a  tale  (1886)  : 
'Ascent  of  Man>  (1889);  'Dramas  in  Minia- 
ture>  (1892)  ;  'Songs  and  Sonnets>  (1893)  ;  and 
'Birds  of  Passage^   (1895). 

Blind.  The  loss  of  the  sense  by  means  of 
which  man  receives  an  idea  of  the  world  that 
surrounds  him,  clothed  in  light  and  color,  is  an 
event  as  melancholy  as  it  is  frequent.  Blindness 
is  different:  (i)  In  its  degrees,  some  persons 
being  partially  blind,  retaining  a  slight  perception 
of  light,  with  the  power  of  distinguishing  very 
brilliant  colors,  and  the  general  outlines  of  bod- 
ies ;  others  being  entirely  deprived  of  the  fac- 
ulty of  seeing.  (2)  In  its  causes:  some  men 
are  blind  from  their  birth;  others  have  become 
blind  by  local  diseases  of  the  eyes, —  for  instance, 
—  by  inflammation,  suppuration,  cancer  of  the 
eye-ball,  spots,  films,  tumors  on  the  cornea  (by 
which  its  transparency  is  destroyed),  also  by 
closure  of  the  pupil,  by  a  turbid  state  of  the 
humors,  by  a  debility  of  the  optic  nerve,  or  by 
general  diseases  of  the  body,  violent  fevers,  ner- 
vous fevers,  plethora,  and  tendency  of  the  blood 
to  the  head,  erysipelas  in  the  face,  smallpox, 
scarlet-fever,  etc.,  or  by  excessive  exertion  of 
the  eyes,  by  which  the  optic  nerve  is  enfeebled ; 
for  which  reason,  some  classes  of  mechanics 
and  artists,  as  blacksmiths,  laborers  in  glass  and 
smelting  houses,  watch-makers,  etc.,  not  unfre- 
quently  lose  their  sight,  and  in  northern  coun- 
tries, which  are  covered  with  snow  for  a  long 
time,  and  which  dazzle  the  eyes  by  the  reflec- 
tion of  the  sunbeams,  as  well  as  in  the  sandy 
deserts  of  Africa,  blindness  is  a  frequent  com- 
plaint. Old  age  is  sometimes  accompanied  with 
blindness,  occasioned  by  the  drying  up  of  the 
humors  of  the  eye,  or  by  the  opacity  of  the 
cornea,  the  crystalline  lens,  etc.  There  are  sev- 
eral causes  which  may  produce  blindness  from 
birth.  Sometimes  the  eyelids  adhere  to  each 
other,  or  to  the  eye-ball  itself,  or  a  membrane 
covers  the  eyes ;  sometimes  the  pupil  of  the 
eye  is  closed,  or  adheres  to  the  cornea,  or  is 
not  situated  in  the  right  place,  so  that  the  rays 
of  light  do  not  fall  in  the  middle  of  the  eye; 
besides  other  defects.  Those  who  are  born  blind 
have  no  idea  of  vision,  and  are  entirely  desti- 
tute of  all  the  ideas  derived  from  the  sense  of 
sight.  They  cannot,  therefore,  be  sensible  of 
their  misfortune  in  the  same  degree  as  those 
who  have  lost  their  sight  at  a  later  period.  Ex- 
perience has  shown  that  those  who  acquire  the 
power  of  seeing  after  being  born  blind,  or  having 
lost  their  sight  in  their  childhood,  form  very 
different    ideas    of    visible    objects    from    other 


persons.  A  young  man,  whom  Cheselden 
couched  for  a  cataract,  at  the  moment  he  re- 
ceived sight  imagined  that  all  the  objects  which 
he  saw  were  in  contact  with  his  eyes ;  he  could 
not  distinguish  objects,  although  of  very  dif- 
ferent forms.  Those  with  which  he  was  already 
familiar  by  the  touch  he  examined  with  great 
attention,  in  order  to  recognize  them  another 
time;  but  having  too  many  things  to  notice  at 
once,  he  soon  forgot  all  that  he  had  observed. 
He  wondered  that  those  persons  whom  he  loved 
most  were  not  handsomer  than  others.  Before 
he  received  his  sight  he  had  expressed  a  great 
desire  to  obtain  this  sense.  The  other  senses 
of  persons,  who  have  been  blind  for  a  long  time, 
become  more  exquisite,  perhaps,  because  they 
are  not  subject  to  the  distraction  produced  by 
the  sight  of  so  many  objects.  The  blind,  there- 
fore, are  often  distinguished  for  a  remarkable 
mental  activity,  and  a  wonderful  development 
of  the  intellectual  powers.  Their  touch  and 
hearing,  particularly,  become  very  acute.  Thus  it 
is  related  of  a  blind  man,  who  lived  at  Puiseaux, 
in  France,  and  was  a  chemist  and  musician,  that 
he  could  accurately  estimate  the  proportions  of 
objects,  could  judge  of  the  distance  of  fire  by 
the  degree  of  heat,  determine  the  quantity  of 
fluid  in  vessels  by  the  sound  it  produced  while 
running  from  one  vessel  into  another,  and  the 
proximity  of  objects  by  the  effect  of  the  air 
upon  his  face.  He  determined  very  accurately 
the  weights  of  bodies  and  the  capacities  of  ves- 
sels. The  celebrated  Saunderson,  professor  of 
mathematics  at  Cambridge,  lost  his  sight  in  his 
early  youth.  He  invented  several  processes  to 
facilitate  his  studies  in  arithmetic  and  geometry. 
His  sense  of  touch  was  so  acute  that  he  dis- 
tinguished spurious  coins  merely  by  letting  them 
pass  through  his  fingers,  though  they  were  so 
well  executed  that  even  skilful  judges  were 
deceived  by  them. 

When  it  is  a  case  of  imparting  instruction  to 
persons  destitute  of  sight,  it  is  necessary  to  have 
recourse  to  the  other  senses  to  supply  the  want 
of  the  eye.  If,  for  instance,  we  wish  to  teach 
them  the  arts  of  reading  and  writing,  letters  must 
be  prepared  which  will  be  palpable  to  the  touch, 
and  the  hand  guided  until  they  are  able  to 
copy  them.  If  we  wish  to  communicate  to  them 
a  knowledge  of  the  surface  of  the  earth,  globes 
and  maps  must  be  prepared  with  the  divisions, 
etc.,  in  relief.  Knowledge  obtained  in  this  way 
must,  of  course,  be  acquired  much  more  slowly 
than  that  received  by  the  sight.  The  senses  of 
touch  and  of  sight  differ  in  this  respect,  that  the 
former  ascends  by  degrees  from  the  perception 
of  parts  to  the  perception  of  the  whole,  while 
the  latter  views  the  whole  at  a  single  glance.  It 
is  therefore  evident  that  the  blind  cannot  be 
instructed  in  the  common  schools  destined  for 
those  who  see:  in  the  first  place,  because  the 
means  of  instruction  by  the  touch  are  wanting; 
and  secondly,  because  the  progress  of  the  other 
children  would  be  retarded  by  the  slow  appre- 
hension of  the  blind  pupils.  (See  Blind,  Edu- 
cation OF  THE.) 

The  occupations  in  which  the  blind  are  found 
capable  of  engaging  are  such  as  the  making  of 
baskets  and  other  kinds  of  wicker-work,  brush- 
making,  rope  and  twine-making,  the  making  of 
mats  and  matting,  knitting,  netting,  fancy  work 
of  various  kinds,  cutting  fire-wood,  the  sewing 
of  sacks  and  bags,  the  carving  of  articles  in 
wood,  etc.    Piano-tuning  is  also  successfully  car- 


BLIND,    EDUCATION    OF   THE 


ried  on  by  some,  the  typewriter  is  used  by  others 
and  the  cleaning  of  clocks  and  watches  has  also 
been  occasionally  practised  by  them.  Skilled 
musicians  are  sometimes  foimd  among  the  blind. 

Reading  Room  for  the  Blind. —  By  an  act  of 
Congress  passed  in  1879,  entitled  an  Act  to  Pro- 
mote the  Education  of  the  Blind,  $250,000  was  set 
apart  to  be  permanently  invested  in  securities  of 
the  United  States,  the  proceeds  of  which  were 
to  be  applied,  through  the  American  Printing 
House  for  the  Blind  at  Louisville,  to  the  making 
of  books  and  apparatus  used  in  the  education  of 
the  blind,  to  be  annually  distributed  to  the 
schools  for  the  blind  in  the  several  States  in 
proportion  to  attendance.  For  almost  a  quarter 
of  a  century  this  benefaction  has  been  available 
for  the  youthful  blind  of  the  country  in  the 
schools,  and  the  books  in  embossed  characters 
have  multiplied  amazingly.  The  catalogue  now 
embraces  nearly  or  quite  every  title  in  popular 
literature  and  technical  subjects,  and  as  only  the 
best  books  are  printed  in  raised  letters,  the  en- 
tire catalogue  constitutes  the  finest  and  best 
library  of  equal  numbers  in  the  world.  There  is 
a  steady  increase  in  t'le  number  of  visitors  in 
the  reading  room  for  the  blind  in  the  library  of 
Congress.  To  Helen  Marr  Campbell  is  given  by 
many  the  credit  of  having  taken  the  initial  steps 
to  procure  this  reading  room.  She  was  a  fre- 
quent visitor  to  the  crowded  rooms  of  the  old 
Congressional  Library,  and  often  found  the  ex- 
periences there  far  from  agreeable.  The  few 
books  for  the  blind  were  often  difficult  to  obtain 
and  equally  difficult  to  read  in  cramped  rooms, 
and  too  often  under  the  scrutiny  of  curious  and 
annoying  strangers.  Going  to  John  Russell 
Young,  then  librarian,  she  made  a  request  for  a 
special  reading  room  in  behalf  of  the  blind  read- 
ers of  Washington.  He  was  quick  to  see  the 
justice  of  the  request,  and  at  once  placed  the 
fitting  up  of  Pavilion  No.  7  in  the  new  library  in 
charge  of  the  second  assistant  librarian,  David 
Hutcheson.  This  is  in  the  extreme  northwest- 
ern corner  of  t'^e  ground  floor  of  the  great  build- 
ing and  is  a  large  and  well-appointed  room, 
with  square  bay  windows  and  a  groined  ceiling 
resting  upon  massive  pillars.  The  alcoves  along 
the  eastern  wall  are  filled  with  the  specially  pre- 
pared books  for  the  blind  ;  the  Bible,  making  so 
many  large  volumes  that  it  completely  fills  one 
of  the  alcove  shelves. 

Dictionary  for  the  Blind. —  The  first  general 
dictionary  ever  issued  in  any  country  or  lan- 
guage was  published  in  1903  by  the  Maryland 
School  for  the  Blind.  It  contains  40,000  words, 
with  complete  diacritical  marks  and  definitions 
and  fills  18  volumes.  In  the  last  10  years  more 
books  have  been  printed  for  the  blind  than  in 
all  previous  time.  This  is  due  largely  to  the 
rapid  spread  of  the  New  York  point  system  of 
printing  for  the  blind.  The  new  dictionary,  as 
well  as  all  the  books  from  the  Maryland  School 
printing  house,  is  printed  in  New  York  point. 
The  American  Printing  House  for  the  Blind  at 
Louisville  expends  its  annual  subsidy  of  $10,000 
entirely  in  New  York  point  printing.  The  annual 
appropriation  of  $1,000  by  the  State  of  New 
York  for  the  publication  of  general  literature  for 
the  blind  department  of  the  State  Library  at  Al- 
bany goes  into  New  York  point.  The  Interna- 
tional Sunday-School  Lessons  go  out  weekly 
over  the  United  States  in  New  York  point. 
Three  periodicals  are  published  in  it.  There  is 
an  excellent  musical  library  in  it,   includmg  a 


dictionary  of  6.000  musical  terms.  The  Society 
of  St.  Francis  Xavier  uses  the  system  in  its  pub- 
lishing house  for  the  blind. 

Photophonic  Books  for  the  Blind. —  A  sheet 
of  transparent  paper  contains,  printed  upon  a 
black  background,  a  number  of  small  white 
.squares,  separated  from  each  other  by  intervals 
one,  two,  or  more  lengths  of  a  square  in  size. 
These  squares,  together  with  the  intervals,  rep- 
resent the  letters  of  the  alphabet,  exactly  as  do 
the  dots  and  dashes  of  Morse.  In  order  to 
enable  the  blind  to  read  these  letters,  the  printed 
sheet  is  placed  in  a  frame  between  two  thin 
plates  of  glass  fully  exposed  to  the  light,  and 
an  opaque  piece  of  cardboard,  or  some  other 
material,  with  a  square-shaped  opening  in  the 
centre,  is  moved  by  the  reader  along  the  priiited 
lines  from  left  to  right.  Whenever  the  opening 
passes  over  one  of  the  white  transparent  squares, 
the  rays  of  light  illuminating  the  printed  sheet 
pass  through  this  opening,  and,  by  means  of  a 
photophonic  apparatus,  are  changed  into  sound. 
In  this  way,  the  blind  reader  receives  the  letters 
in  the  form  of  sounds  separated  by  longer  or 
shorter  intervals  of  silence,  and  his  ear  fulfills 
the  functions  of  the  eye. 

Blind,  Education  of  the. — When  it  is  stated 
that  prior  to  1830  the  blind  of  America  were  to 
be  found  "moping  in  hidden  corners  or  de- 
graded by  the  wayside,  or  vegetating  in  alms- 
houses,^^ it  is  the  adult  blind  that  is  meant. 
Still  blind  children  were  occasionally  found  in 
these  places,  though  it  could  scarcely  be  said' 
that  they  were  vegetating,  as  could  be  said  of 
the  untrained  deaf  children. 

The  British  census  of  185 1  first  showed  the 
world  that  over  80  per  cent  of  the  blind  are 
adults.  Our  schools  for  the  blind  were  started, 
first,  because  of  the  wide-spread  interest  in  the 
results  of  educating  the  young  deaf  and  dumb, 
which  furnished  inspiration  for  new  fields  of 
educational  endeavor ;  secondly,  because  the 
country  was  coming  to  the  conviction  that  all 
the  children  of  the  state  should  receive  educa- 
tion both  as  a  matter  of  public  policy  and  as  a 
private  right;  and  thirdly,  because  reports  of 
what  had  been  accomplished  abroad  in  schools 
for  the  blind  were  being  promulgated  in  our 
land.  By  1830  the  more  progressive  states  of 
the  east  were  ready  to  give  their  blind  children 
school  training.  In  that  year  the  government 
first  included  in  the  national  census  the  deaf 
and  dumb  and  the  blind.  The  work  of  the  blind 
was  to  begin  with  scientific  foreknowledge  as  to 
their  number.  In  1829  certain  gentlemen  in 
Boston  obtained  the  incorporation  of  the  "Now 
England  Asylum  for  the  Blind. '>  By  a  most 
fortunate  circumstance,  the  interest  and  ser- 
vices were  obtained  of  a  graduate  of  Brown 
University,  Dr.  Samuel  G.  Howe,  who  after 
finishing  his  medical  studies  had  chivalrously 
gone  to  the  aid  of  the  Greeks.  Dr.  Howe 
went  at  once  to  Europe  to  study  methods  of 
instruction.  Upon  his  return,  in  1832,  the 
school  was  opened  with  six  pupils.  In  New 
York  the  act  of  incorporation  of  the  New  York 
Institution  for  the  Blind  was  passed  in  1831 ; 
but  funds  were  needed  and  no  one  went  abroad 
to  study  methods.  This  school  opened  in  March, 
1832,  antedating  by  a  few  months  the  school  at 
Boston.  In  the  very  same  year  a  German 
teacher  of  the  blind,  a   Mr.   Friedlander,  mcst 


BLIND,  EDUCATION  OF  THE 


opportunely  came  to  Philadelphia,  in  the  hope 
of  starting  a  school  for  the  blind  there.  Hav- 
ing trained  certain  blind  children  he  exhibited 
their  accomplishments,  first,  to  a  few  influential 
people,  secondly,  before  a  large  audience  among 
whom  he  distributed  a  leaflet,  ^-Observations 
on  the  instruction  of  blind  persons.^^  A  meet- 
ing of  public-spirited  citizens  followed,  funds 
were  liberally  contributed,  fairs  held,  and  the 
success  of  the  cause  was  assured.  The  Penn- 
sylvania institution  for  the  instruction  of  the 
blind  was  opened  in  1833,  fully  ten  months  be- 
fore an  act  of  incorporation  was  obtained.  The 
three  schools  at  Boston,  New  York,  and  Phila- 
delphia are  called  the  pioneer  schools.  All 
sprang  from  private  effort  and  private  funds. 
A.11  were  incorporated  as  private  institutions, 
and  remain  so  to  this  day.  Two  similar  in- 
stitutions for  the  blind  have  arisen  in  this 
country,  that  at  Baltimore  and  that  at  Pittsburg. 

The  origin  of  the  State  schools  dififers  from 
that  of  the  type  above  given  only  in  that  classes 
of  trained  pupils  from  the  earlier  schools  were 
exhibited  before  the  state  legislatures,  as  well 
as  before  the  people.  State  appropriations  fol- 
lowed and  the  institutions  were  inaugurated  as 
state  institutions.  The  new  schools  sprang  into 
being  with  astonishing  rapidity.  There  were 
in  1899  forty  schools  for  the  blind  in  the  United 
States,  and  every  State  in  the  union  makes  pro- 
vision for  its  blind  of  school  age  either  in  its 
own  school  or  in  that  of  a  neighboring  state. 
In  our  sparsely-settled  country,  especially  west 
of  the  Alleghenies  and  south  of  Maryland,  great 
efforts  had  to  be  made  to  find  the  children  and 
still  greater  eff^orts  to  persuade  the  parents  to 
send  them  to  school.  In  certain  states  where 
the  amount  of  the  public  fund  seemed  to  pre- 
clude a  special  grant  for  the  blind,  pupils  of 
this  class  were  brought  together  in  connection 
with  a  school  for  the  deaf  and  dumb,  forming 
"dual  schools,"  as  they  are  called.  These  in- 
stitutions could  not  help  being  unfair  to  their 
blind  contingent ;  for  in  nearly  every  such  case 
the  blind  came  to  a  school  already  established 
as  a  school  for  the  deaf,  and  under  the  superin- 
tendence of  a  man  especially  interested  in  the 
education  of  the  deaf;  moreover,  the  number 
of  the  deaf  pupils  usually  far  exceeded  that  of 
the  blind.  There  are  still  a  few  of  these  dual 
schools,  but  wherever  possible  they  have  been 
divided  into  two  distinct  institutions.  In  north- 
ern schools  the  colored  blind  are  educated  with 
the  white;  in  southern  schools  it  is  best  for  the 
colored  to  have  schools  of  their  own.  Both  the 
whites  and  they  prefer  this  arrangement.  The 
first  school  for  the  colored  blind  was  opened  in 
North  Carolina  in  1869. 

All  the  institutions  for  the  blind  were  in 
their  very  inception  schools.  The  pioneer 
schools  imported  literary  teachers  from  Paris 
and  handicraft  teachers  from  Edinburgh.  At 
first  only  the  brighter  class  of  pupils  came 
under  instruction.  Teaching  them  was  easy. 
They  progressed  with  amazing  strides ;  all  was 
enthusiasm ;  exhibitions  were  called  for  and 
widely  given  (Dr.  Howe's  pupils  gave  exhibi- 
tions in  17  states)  ;  large  editions  of  the  various 
annual  reports  were  exhausted.  Soon,  however, 
less  bright  pupils  came  to  be  admitted ;  then 
the  curriaulum  of  studies  began  to  sober  down 
to  the  practical  and  comprehensive  one  pre- 
vailing  to-day.      Whatever    occupation   the   boy 


or  girl  expects  to  follow  after  leaving  school, 
it  is  assumed  he  will  follow  it  better  and  thus 
live  more  happily  and  worthily  if  he  has  a 
general  education.  When,  as  was  formerly  the 
case,  the  period  or  term  of  schooling  allowed 
pupils  was  shorter  than  it  is  now,  they  were  not 
admitted  before  the  age  of  eight  or  nine.  Now 
that  kindergarten  departments  have  been  uni- 
versally added  to  the  schools,  the  pupils  are 
urged  to  enter  at  an  early  age ;  because  experi- 
ence has  shown  that  at  home  these  little  blind 
folks  are  coddled  rather  than  trained,  so  much 
so  in  fact  that  by  the  time  many  of  them  come 
to  school  their  natural  growth  of  body  and  mind 
has  been  so  interfered  with  by  inaction,  that  all 
the  efforts  of  the  schools  cannot  make  up  for 
lost  time  and  opportunity.  The  principle  of 
periodicity  of  growth  has  now  come  to  be 
understood  and  the  importance  of  applying  the 
proper  stimulus  at  the  period  most  sensitive  to 
it,  comprehended.  Children  with  good  sight 
and  hearing  have  got  along  without  kinder- 
garten training,  and  so  have  blind  children, 
but  of  all  the  useful  means  of  reaching  and 
developing  the  average  blind  child  none  is  so 
effective  as  the  properly-conducted  kindergarten. 
The  practical  knowledge  of  things  comes  to 
the  blind  through  the  hand,  their  fingers  being 
veritable  projections  of  their  brains.  Thus  must 
their  hands  not  only  be  trained  to  sensitiveness 
of  touch  but  to  be  strong  and  supple,  so  that 
they  may,  indeed,  be  dexterous ;  for  as  their 
hands  are  so  are  their  brains.  The  kinder- 
garten cultivates  ear  and  heart  and  hand  and 
brain  as  nothing  else  does.  Even  color  is  not 
wholly  omitted  in  kindergartens  for  the  blind. 
Many  see  colors,  and  those  who  do  not  love 
to  talk  about  them  and  certainly  derive  some 
indirect  value   for   considering   them. 

Blind  children  with  kindergarten  training  are 
more  susceptible  to  instruction  than  those  with- 
out it.  Above  this  department  the  course  of 
studies  in  American  schools  requires  from  seven 
to  eight  years,  which  means  a  primary,  a  gram- 
mar and  a  high  school  education,  or  instruction 
in  object  lessons,  reading,  writing,  spelling, 
grammar,  composition,  arithmetic,  history,  physi- 
ology, botany,  zoology,  geology,  physics,  algebra, 
geometry,  civics,  English  literature,  typewriting 
and  sometimes  Latin  and  modern  languages. 
Not  a  few  pupils  have  fitted  for  college  where 
they  took  the  regular  course  with  the  seeing 
students,  and  from  which  they  were  graduated 
usually  with  distinction.  Formerly  much  of 
the  teaching  was  oral,  which,  in  many  cases, 
was  apt  to  be  more  pleasant  than  profitable 
to  the  pupil.  Since  the  general  introduction  of 
the  embossed  text  book  and  tangible  writing, 
the  pupil  has  been  forced  to  depend  more  and 
more  upon  himself,  obviously  with  better  re- 
sults. In  fact,  the  work  has  been  growing  more 
and  more  practical.  The  methods  of  teaching 
the  blind  correspond  in  general  to  those  of 
teaching  other  hearing  children.  The  com- 
mon appliances  have  but  to  be  raised  and  en- 
larged as  in  maps  and  diagrams,  or  simply  made 
tangible,  which  may  be  done,  for  example,  by 
notching  an  ordinary  ruler  so  that  the  gradua- 
tions can  be  felt. 

Industrial  training  has  been  an  integral  part 
of  the  school  course  from  the  beginning.  Re- 
cently educational  manual  training  has  been 
generally    introduced     as     preliminary    to     the 


BLIND,  EDUCATION  OF  THE 


trades.  Sloyd  has  been  found  especially  adapted 
to  the  blind.  The  handicrafts  —  chair-caning, 
hammock-making,  broom-making,  carpet-weav- 
ing, and  a  few  others,  alone  remain  of  all  the 
many  trades  taught  at  one  time  or  another  in 
our  schools.  Manual  occupations  of  some  kind 
will  always  be  taught,  even  were  it  evident  that 
none  of  them  would  be  followed  by  the  blind 
as  trades ;  for  it  is  by  doing  and  making  that 
the  blind  especially  learn  best.  Then,  it  is  essen- 
tial that  they  be  kept  occupied.  In  the  past, 
before  the  introduction  of  such  varieties  of 
labor-saving  machinery  as  the  last  half  century 
has  seen,  many  of  the  discharged  pupils  fol- 
lowed some  manual  trade  and  succeeded  in  sub- 
sisting by  it.  To-day  this  is  less  and  less  pos- 
sible. The  mind  itself  of  the  blind  is  least 
trammeled  by  the  lack  of  sight ;  hence  some 
pursuit  where  intelligence  is  the  chief  factor 
would  seem  to  be  best  adapted  to  his  condition. 
Music,  of  course,  opens  up  his  most  delightful 
field.  It  is  said  that  all  the  force  of  the  super- 
intendents of  the  early  schools  was  required  to 
prevent  the  institutions  from  becoming  mere  con- 
servatories of  music.  To-day  only  those  pupils 
pursue  music  in  regular  course  who  have  talent 
for  it ;  but  even  those  are  not  allowed  to  neglect 
other  studies  for  it.  It  is  the  experience  of  the 
American  schools,  as  of  the  European,  that  the 
profession  of  music  offers  to  the  educated  and 
trained  musician  who  is  blind,  a  field  in  .which 
he  can  work  his  way  with  least  hindrance  from 
his  lack  of  sight,  and  many  are  they  who  have 
found  in  it  a  means  of  livelihood  for  them- 
selves and  their  families.  A  few  in  nearly  every 
school  fit  themselves  to  be  tuners  of  pianos. 
The  American  schools  for  the  blind  were 
founded  upon  embossed  books.  Dr.  Howe 
states  somewhere  that  the  simple  reading  from 
embossed  print  did  more  to  establish  the  schools 
in  the  country  than  any  other  one  thing.  Extraor- 
dinary pains  were  taken  by  Dr.  Howe  and 
his  assistants  to  perfect  a  system  which  should 
be  at  once  readily  tangible  to  the  fingers  of  the 
blind  and  legible  to  the  eyes  of  their  friends. 
The  resiJt  was  the  small  lower-case  letter  of  Dr. 
Howe,  the  Boston  line  print,  as  it  is  often 
called.  To  this  the  jury  gave  preference  before 
all  other  embossed  systems  exhibited  at  the 
great  exhibition  of  the  industry  of  all  nations, 
in  London,  in  1851.  Backed  by  such  indorse- 
ment and  all  the  authority  of  Dr.  Howe  the 
system  was  rapidly  adopted  into  the  American 
schools.  It  was  then  the  theory  that  the  blind 
would  be  further  isolated  from  their  friends  if 
their  alphabets  were  dissimilar.  The  blind  of 
themselves  had  devised  a  writable  system  —  ar- 
bitrary and  composed  of  dots  or  points  —  one 
which  they  could  both  read  and  write.  But  the 
early  superintendents  would  not  countenance  it. 
However,  many  of  the  blind  failed  to  read  the 
line-letter  system ;  because  to  read  it  requires 
extreme  nicety  of  touch,  which  all  the  blind 
"by  no  means  have.  Characters  composed  of 
points,  not  of  lines,  are  scientifically  adapted 
to  touch  reading.  In  the  33d  report  of  the 
New  York  institution,  Supt.  William  B.  Wait 
wrote :  "Now,  which  is  the  more  important, 
that  all  the  young  blind  should  be  able  to  read, 
thus  being  made,  in  fact,  like  the  seeing,  or  that 
they  should  be  taught  an  alphabet  zvhich  in 
some  sort  resembles  that  used  by  the  seeing, 
l3Ut  by   doing  which   only  34  per  cent  of  them 


will  ever  be  able  to  read  with  any  pleasure  or 
profit?'*  This  attitude  of  the  New  York  school 
was  the  outcome  of  statistics  gathered  from 
seven  institutions,  in  which  664  pupils  were  in- 
volved, and  of  experiments  made  by  Mr.  Wait 
with  his  own  pupils,  using  a  system  scientifically 
devised  by  him,  composed  of  points  in  arbitrary 
combination.  This  was  in  1868.  At  the  next 
convention  of  the  American  instructors  of  the 
blind,  it  was  resolved  "That  the  New  York  hori- 
zontal point  alphabet  as  arranged  by  Mr.  Wait 
should  be  taught  in  all  institutions  for  the  educa- 
tion of  the  blind.*'  Europe  was  a  long  time 
accepting  a  writable  point  system.  That  of 
Louis  Braille,  devised  in  1829,  though  much 
used  by  individuals,  was  not  officially  adopted 
into  the  Paris  school  where  it  originated  until 
1854.  In  contrast,  America  devised,  printed, 
spread,  and  resolved  to  accept  its  writable  sys- 
tem in  less  than  one-half  the  time.  The  benefits 
of  a  tangible  writable  system  are  vast.  It  puts 
the  blind  more  nearly  on  a  par  with  the  seeing, 
particularly  as  pupils  in  school.  Its  adoption 
here,  next  to  that  of  tangible  printing,  makes 
obtainable  the  ideal  of  American  schools  for 
the  blind.  Every  tangible  system  has  its  defects. 
French  "braille"  as  adopted  into  England  has 
antiquated  abbreviations  and  contractions  for 
the  use  of  adults ;  and  is  involved  with  rules 
allowing  much  bad  use,  like  the  omission  of  all 
capitals.  The  New  York  point  as  printed  also 
laid  itself  open  to  much  criticism  as  to  "good 
use.'*  The  American  braille,  the  latest  system, 
combining  the  best  features  of  French  braille 
and  of  New  York  point,  was  devised  by  a  blind 
teacher  of  the  Perkins  institution.  It  takes  full 
account  of  "good  use,"  and  those  who  use  the 
system  deem  it  very  satisfactory.  In  1892,  when 
the  American  braille  system  was  adopted  into 
several  schools,  a  typewriter  for  writing  braille 
was  invented,  and  this  was  followed  by  the  in- 
vention of  another  machine  for  embossing  braille 
directly  on  plates  of  thin  brass  from  which  any 
number  of  duplicates  could  be  struck  off  on 
paper.  Here  was  a  means  of  creating  a  new 
library  at  once.  But  the  chief  value  of  the  in- 
vention lay  in  the  fact  that  as  the  machine  was 
simple  and  inexpensive  and  could  be  operated 
if  necessary  by  a  blind  man,  any  institution 
could  have  a  printing  office  of  its  own.  And 
several  schools  immediately  established  such 
offices,  from  which  they  issued  at  once  whatever 
their  school  classes  demanded.  By  co-operating 
in  the  selection  of  the  books  to  be  embossed 
these  schools  have  created  in  the  space  of  seven 
years  a  library  of  books  in  American  braille 
than  which  there  is  no  superior  in  any  svstem  in 
any  country,  and  they  have  added  an  immense 
amount  of  music  in  the  braille  music  notation, 
which  is  the  same  all  over  the  world.  A  type- 
writer, and  a  machine  for  embossing  brass 
plates  in  the  New  York  point  system,  have  also 
appeared. 

The  Association  of  American  instructors 
was  formed  in  1871,  has  met  biennially  ever 
since,  usually  as  the  guest  of  one  or  another  of 
the  institutions.  The  proceedings  of  each  con- 
vention have  been  published.  The  principles 
underlying  the  scheme  for  educating  the  blind 
being  to  make  them  as  little  as  possible  a  class 
apart  from  the  rest  of  the  community,  it  has  not 
been  deemed  wise  to  attempt  to  establish  p 
national    college    for    the    higher    education     of 


BLIND  FISHES  — BLINDAGE 


those  capable  of  taking  it,  but  efforts  are  mak- 
ing towards  enabling  the  brighter  and  worthier 
pupils  to  attend  one  of  the  colleges  for  the 
seeing,  at  the  expense  of  the  states  or  the 
schools  from  which  thej'^  come.  The  school  in- 
struction of  the  blind  is  comparatively  an  easy 
matter.  The  work  is  less  of  a  science  than  the 
more  difificult  task  of  instructing  the   deaf. 

When  an  exhaustive  census  of  the  gradu- 
ates from  all  over  the  country  was  compiled,  it 
revealed  the  following  encouraging  facts :  i6 
became  superintendents  of  other  institutions ; 
214  became  teachers  or  were  otherwise  em- 
ployed in  institutions ;  34  became  ministers  of 
the  gospel;  84  authors,  publishers,  or  lecturers; 
310  were  engaged  as  teachers  of  music  or  were 
vocalists  outside  of  institutions ;  69  had  been 
organists  in  churches  ;  125  piano  tuners  ;  937  had 
been  engaged  as  teachers,  employees,  and  work- 
ers in  handicraft ;  277  were  storekeepers,  etc. ; 
45  bcame  owners  and  managers  of  real  estate ; 
760  (mostly  women)  were  employed  at  house- 
work at  home  or  in  families,  or  at  sewing  with 
machines,  or  by  hand,  and  78  were  in  homes  of 
employment.  Further,  according  to  the  nth 
census  of  the  United  States  (1890)  when  there 
were  50,568  blind  in  the  land,  but  2,560  were 
found  in  almshouses.  What  proportion  of  these 
ever  attended  our  schools,  will  never  be  known, 
but  it  must  be  remembered  that  blindness  is  an 
affliction  of  old  age. 

Bibliography. — Cary,  T.G.,  <  Memoir  of  Thomas 
Handasyd  Perkins^  (1856)  ;  Diderot,  'An  Essay 
on  Blindness'  (1895)  ;  Hauy,  V.,  'An  Essay  on 
the  Education  of  the  Blind'  (1894) ;  Howe,  J.  W., 
'Memoir  of  Dr.  S.  G.  Howe>  (1877)  ;  Howe,  S. 
G.,  Fort}'-three  Annual  Reports  of  the  Perkins 
Institution  (1833-1875)  ;  Kitto,  J.,  'The  Lost 
Senses'  (1852)  ;  Mell,  A.,  ^Encyclopadisches 
Handbuch  des  Blinden-wesens'  (1899)  ;  Pres- 
cott.  W.  H.,  "^The  Blind,'  in  'Biographical  and 
Critical  Essays'  (1846)  ;  Robinson,  E.  B.  F., 
'The  True  Sphere  of  the  Blind'  (1896); 
Rutherford,  J.,  'William  Moon  and  his  Work 
for  the  Blind'  (1898)  ;  Sizeranne,  M.  de  la, 
Les  Aveugles  par  un  Aveugle  (1891)  ;  Sturgis, 
D.,  ^The  Kindergarten  for  the  Blind'  (New 
England  Magazine,  Dec,  1895,  P-  433)  ;  *The 
Mentor'  (i89i;-94)  ;  Wickersham,  J.  P.,  < His- 
tory of  Education  in  Pennsylvania'  (1886). 
Edward  Ellis  Allen, 
Principal  Pennsylvania  Institution  for  the 
Instruction  of  the  Blind. 

Blind  Fishes.     See  Cave  Animals. 

Blind  Spot.  The  place  of  entry  of  the 
optic  nerve  in  each  retina  is  insensitive  to  light. 
Mariotte  in  1668  first  demonstrated  the  existence 
of  the  blind  spot.  Its  existence  may  be  easily 
shown  as  follows :  Pin  a  large  sheet  of  paper 
against  the  wall  so  that  a  cross  marked  thereon 
may  be  at  the  level  of  the  eyes ;  fix  the  position 
of  the  head  b}'^  means  of  a  headrest  (a  ruler 
about  50  centimeters  in  length,  held  by  the  teeth 
at  one  end,  the  other  end  resting  against  the 
paper,  is  a  convenient  headrest)  ;  with  one  eye 
closed  or  covered,  look  steadily  at  the  cross 
with  the  other  eye ;  move  a  pencil,  that  has  been 
covered  with  paper  so  that  the  point  only 
shows  black,  from  the  cross  toward  the  temporal 
side  of  the  field  of  vision  ;  mark  on  the  paper 
the  position  at  which  the  pencil  point  dis- 
appears ;  move  the  pencil  farther  and  mark  the 


position  at  which  the  point  re-appears.  By  mov- 
ing the  point  in  various  directions  near  this 
place  on  the  paper,  and  marking  the  positions 
where  the  pencil  point  disappears,  and  re-appears, 
a  series  of  marks  may  be  made  which  furnish  an 
outline  figure  of  the  form  of  the  blind  spot.  The 
diameter  of  the  blind  spot  (1.5  mm.)  corresponds 
to  a  visual  angle  varying  from  3°  39'  to  9°  47'. 
The  average  is  about  6°.  An  image  of  light 
sufificiently  small  thrown  upon  the  optic  nerve 
by  means  of  the  ophthalmoscope,  gives  rise  to 
no  sensations.  These  experiments  show  that  at 
the  blind  spot  we  see  nothing,  yet,  as  we  look 
at  this  page  with  one  eye  only  the  surface  ap- 
pears to  be  covered  with  letters  in  the  regular 
forms ;  there  is  no  blank  space  corresponding  to 
the  blind  spot.  In  binocular  vision  the  blind 
spot  of  one  retina  is  covered  with  a  sensitive 
portion  of  the  other  retina.  Why  we  should 
not  be  aware  of  our  inability  to  see  a  continuous 
field  with  one  eye,  is  a  problem  for  which  there 
are  two  proposed  explanations.  The  blind  spot 
may  be  filled  out  by  association,  whose  nature 
is  determined  by  the  character  of  the  surround- 
ing field,  or,  by  eye  movements  which  serve  as 
retinal  local  signs  for  the  insensitive  region. 
Propably  the  two  processes  are  necessary  and. 
aid  each  other  in  presenting  to  the  mind  the- 
continuous  visual  field.  Consult:  Ladd,  ^Ele- 
ments of  Physiological  Psychology'  ;  Helmholtz, 
'Physiologische  Optik'  (1901)  ;  Sandford, 
'Course  in  Experimental  Psychology'  ex.  113,. 
114;  Wundt,  'Physiologische  Psychologic' 
(1893)  :  Titchener,  ^Experimental  Psychology.' 
Blind  Tom  (Bethune^  Thomas),  a  musical' 
freak:  b.  about  the  middle  of  the  19th  century. 
He  was  a  negro  slave  in  Georgia,  and  was  born 
blind  and  with  very  weak  mental  development. 
He  showed  remarkable  aptitude  for  music  and 
after  hearing  a  piece  played  once  could  repro- 
duce it  accurately  on  the  piano.  He  also  per-^ 
formed  other  musical  wonders,  and  for  several 
years  was  exhibited  in  various  cities.  His  lack 
of  intellect  developed  into  almost  brutal  idiocy, 
and   he   disappeared   from  the  public  eye. 

Blindage,  in  operations  against  fortresses,, 
the  name  of  all  preparations  which  tend  to  in- 
tercept the  view  of  the  enemy.  There  are  sev- 
eral species:  (i)  A  fascine  placed  across  the 
embrasures,  to  prevent  the  enemy  from  observ- 
ing what  passes  near  the  cannon.  (2)  Blinds 
before  port-holes  are  shutters  made  of  strong 
planks,  placed  before  the  port-holes,  as  soon  as 
the  guns  are  discharged,  to  obstruct  the  enemy's 
view.  (3)  Single  and  double  blinds.  The  for- 
mer consists  of  three  strong  perpendicular  posts, 
five  feet  in  hei-ght,  between  which  are  planks 
covered  with  iron  plates  on  the  outside,  and  thus 
made  shot-proof.  This  screen  is  furnished  with 
rollers,  to  enable  the  laborers  in  the  trenches 
to  push  it  before  them.  The  latter  consists  of 
large  wooden  chests,  on  four  block  wheels,  filled 
with  earth,  or  bags  of  sand,  and  serve  likewise- 
in  the  trenches,  etc.,  to  cover  the  soldiers  from 
the  fire  of  the  enemy.  (4)  Chandeliers  used  to 
protect  the  workmen  in  the  trenches.  Two 
square  beams  of  timber  are  placed  parallel, 
and  at  a  distance  of  six  feet,  on  the  ground,  and 
fastened  by  two  cross  beams.  Upon  the  ends 
perpendicular  posts  are  erected,  and  the  inter- 
val is  filled  up  with  fascines,  at  least  to  a  height 
of  five  feet.  (,5)  Coverings  placed  over  the 
most  exposed  parts  in  the  saps  or  the  fortres-s. 


BLINDNESS  — BLISS 


These  are  made  of  beams  over  which  hurdles  or 
fascines  are  spread,  that  finally  receive  a  suffi- 
ciently thick  layer  of  earth  as  a  covering.  Dur- 
ing the  Boer  war  of  1899-1902  Ladysmith, 
Mafeking,  and  Kimberley  were  largely  defended 
by  means  of  bomb-proof  shelters  or  blinds. 

Blindness,  inability  to  see,  resulting  from 
disease  or  injury  of  the  external  eye.  of  the 
light-receiving  portions  of  the  eye,  the  retina, 
of  the  nerve-conducting  paths,  the  optic  tracts, 
or  of  the  light-perceiving  or  intellectual  centres 
in  the  occipital  cortex  of  the  brain.  It  may  be 
transitory  or  permanent,  partial  or  complete, 
congenital  or  acquired,  curable  or  incurable. 
There  is  a  form  of  night-blindness,  in  which  dim 
light  fails  to  give  impressions ;  or  of  day-blind- 
ness, in  which  excess  of  light  is  obstructive  to 
vision.  Certain  regular  or  irregular  areas  on 
the  retina  may  be  blind ;  one  half  of  one  eye  or 
of  both  eyes  may  be  blind.  Blindness  to  cer- 
tain colors  is  a  well-known  form  of  this  affec- 
tion. Objects  may  look  too  small,  or  too  large, 
or  be  distorted.  See  Amaurosis  ;  Amblyopia  ; 
Blind;   Eve,  Diseases  of. 

Blinds,  screens  or  shutters  to  prevent  too 
strong  a  light  from  shining  in  at  a  window, 
or  to  keep  outsiders  from  seeing  in.  Venetian 
blinds  are  made  of  slats  of  wood,  so  connected 
as  to  overlap  each  other  when  closed,  and  to 
show  a  series  of  open  spaces  for  the  admission 
of  light  and  air  when  in  the  other  position. 

Blindsnake,  a  family  of  small  serpents 
{Typhlopidcc}  having  worm-shaped  bodies,  only 
a  few  inches  in  length,  very  rigid,  and  suited  for 
burrowing.  These  little  snakes  exist  in  all  warm 
countries,  and  lead  a  subterranean  life,  worming 
their  way  through  the  loose  top-soil,  and  feed- 
ing on  earth-worms,  grubs,  and  insects.  Their 
eyes,  through  disuse,  have  become  minute  and 
weak,  and  in  many  species  almost  covered  by 
overlapping  plates.  In  India  thej'^  sometimes 
come  out  upon  the  surface  after  showers,  when 
they  are  regarded  with  superstitious  dread  by 
the  natives ;  but  they  are  perfectly  harmless. 
Many  species  inhabit  Mexico  and  tropical 
America,  two  or  three  occurring  in  New  Mexico 
and  Texas,  where  they  are  frequently  found  in 
ant-hills. 

Blindstory.    See  Triforium. 

Bliss,  Aaron  Thomas,  American  politician: 
b.  Smithhald,  N.  Y.,  22  May  1837 ;  d.  16  Sept. 
1906.  He  served  in  the  Federal  army  during  the 
Civil  War,  and  was  for  six  months  a  prisoner 
in  Andersonville,  Columbia,  and  other  Southern 
prisons.  In  1865  he  settled  in  Saginaw,  Mich., 
where  he  engaged  in  lumbering,  banking,  and 
other  business  ei^terprises.  He  was  a  member 
of  Congress,  1889-91,  was  elected  governor 
of  Michigan  in  1900,  and  re-elected  4  Nov. 
1002. 

Bliss,  Cornelius  Newton,  American  mer- 
chant and  statesman :  b.  Fall  River.  Mass.,  26 
Jan.  1833.  He  was  educated  in  New  Orleans; 
entered  his  stepfather's  counting  room  there; 
engaged  in  the  commission  business  in  Boston, 
and  became  head  of  the  dry  goods  commission 
house  of  Bliss,  Fabyan  &  Company,  New  York, 
in  1881.  He  was  a  member  of  the  Pan-Ameri- 
can Conference ;  chairman  of  the  New  York  Re- 
publican State  Committee  1877-8:  and  treasurer 
of  the  National  Republican  Committee  in  1892 
and    1896;   declined  to  be  a   candidate  for  gov- 


ernor of  New  York  in  1885  and  1891  ;  and  was 
secretary  of  the  Interior  Department  in  Presi- 
dent McKinley"s  Cabinet  in  1897-8. 

Bliss,  Daniel,  American  missionary:  b, 
Georgia,  Vt.,  17  Aug.  1823.  He  graduated 
at  Amherst  College  in  1852,  and  at  the 
Andover  Theological  Seminary  in  1855;  was 
ordained  a  Congregational  minister  17  Oct.  1855; 
engaged  in  missionary  work  in  Syria  in  1855-62 ; 
and  in  1866  became  president  of  the  Syrian 
Protestant  College  of  Beyrout.  His  publica- 
tions include:  'Mental  Philosophy^  and  'Na- 
tional  Philosophy,*    both   in  Arabic. 

Bliss,  Edwin  Elisha,  American  mission- 
ary': b.  Putney,  Vt.,  12  April  1817;  d.  Constanti- 
nople, 29  Dec.  1892.  He  graduated  at  Amherst 
College  in  1837,  and  at  Andover  Theological 
Seminary  in  1842;  was  ordained  as  a  mission- 
ary in  1843,  and  joined  the  American  Mission  in 
Turkey,  being  stationed  at  Trebizond,  1843-52; 
Marsovan,  Armenia,  1852-6;  and  at  Cons:anti- 
nople  after  1856.  In  addition  to  the  ordinary 
work  of  a  missionary  he  edited,  1865-92,  the 
'Messenger,*  published  at  Constantinople  in  the 
Turkish  and  Armenian  languages,  and  compiled 
a  number  of  text-books,  notably  the  'Bible 
Handbook,*   in  Armenian. 

Bliss,  Edwin  Munsell,  American  mission- 
ary: b.  Erzerum,  I  urkev,  12  Sept.  1848.  He 
was  educated  at  Robert  College,  Constantinople ; 
at  the  high  school,  Springfield,  Mass.,  and  at 
Amherst  College,  where  he  graduated  in  1871, 
later  taking  a  course  at  Yale  Divinity  School. 
In  1872  he  was  sent  to  Constantinople  as  agen*: 
for  the  American  Bible  Society,  and  traveled  in 
Turkey  and  Persia.  On  his  return  to  the  United 
States  in  1888  he  edited  the  'Encyclopaedia  of 
Missions.*  He  has  also  written  'The  Turk  in 
Armenia,  Crete,  and  Greece,*  and  'A  Concise 
History  of  Missions.*  Since  1896  he  has  been 
associate  editor  of  the  New  York  'Independent.* 

Bliss,  Frederick  Jones,  American  explorer 
(son  of  Daniel  Bliss,  q.v.)  :  b.  Mount  Lebanon, 
Syria,  2t,  Jan.  1859.  He  graduated  at  Amherst 
College  in  1880,  and  at  the  Union  Theological 
Seminary  in  New  Y'ork  in  1887 ;  was  principal  of 
the  preparatory  department  of  the  Syrian  Prot- 
estant College  of  Beyrout  for  three  years;  was 
appointed  explorer  to  the  Palestine  Exploration 
Fund  in  1890,  and  is  best  known  for  his  excava- 
tions and  finds  in  Jerusalem  in  1894-7.  Here  he 
unearthed  an  ancient  city  wall  with  towers,  be- 
sides streets,  drains,  stairways,  churches,  and 
other  structures.  He  has  published  'Mounds  of 
Many  Cities* ;  'Excavations  at  Jerusalem,*   et'- 

Bliss,  George,  American  lawyer:  b. 
Springfield,  Mass.,  3  May  1830 ;  d.  near  Wake- 
field, R.  I.,  2  Sept.  1897.  He  graduated  at 
Harvard  College  in  185 1  ;  studied  for  two  years 
in  Berlin  and  Paris,  and  after  his  return  read 
law  principally  at  the  Harvard  Law  School. 
He  established  himself  in  practice  in  New  York. 
In  1859-60  he  was  private  secretary  to  Gov. 
Morgan;  in  1861  was  appointed  to  his  staff; 
in  1862  became  paymaster-general  of  New 
York ;  and  in  that  and  the  following  year  or- 
ganized three  regiments  of  United  States  col- 
ored infantry  under  instructions  from  the 
secretary  of  war.  In  1866  he  was  appointed  at- 
torney for  the  Metropolitan  boards  of  excise  and 
health  :  in  1872,  United  States  attorney  for  the 
Southern  District  of  New  York,  and  in  1881  a 


BLISS  —  BLISTER-BEETLE 


special  assistant  to  the  United  States  attorney- 
general  for  the  prosecution  of  the  'Star  Route' 
postal  cases.  He  drafted  the  New  York  charter 
of  1873 ;  drew  up  the  New  York  Consolidation 
Act,  and  was  author  of  the  first  tenement-house 
act  for  the  city.  He  published  three  editions 
of  the  *Law  of  Life  Insurance'  and  four  edi- 
tions of  the  <^ Annotated  Code  of  Civil  Proce- 
dure.^ 

Bliss,  Philip  Paul,  American  singing  evan- 
gelist:  b.  Clearfield  County,  Pa.,  9  July  1838; 
killed  in  railroad  accident,  Ashtabula,  Ohio,  29 
Dec.  1876.  He  received  some  musical  instruc- 
tion from  G.  W.  Root,  but  was  very  largely 
self-taught.  His  evangelistic  work  was  done 
chiefly  in  conjunction  with  Maj.  D.  W.  Whittle 
and  D.  L.  Moody,  who  became  his  warm  friend 
and  admirer.  He  had  a  fine  personal  presence,  a 
gift  of  ready  and  effective  speech,  and  these, 
combined  with  his  wonderful  voice,  which  ap- 
pealed strongly  to  the  hearts  of  the  multitude, 
gave  him  great  power  over  his  audiences.  He 
frequently  composed  both  the  words  and  music 
of  the  songs  which  have  made  his  name  known 
throughout  Christendom.  Of  these  the  most 
popular  are :  "Hold  the  Fort,  for  I  am  Com- 
ing";  «Down  Life's  Dark  Vale  We  Wander"; 
«Jesus  Loves  Me» ;  "Hallelujah!  'Tis  Done» ; 
and  "Pull  for  the  Shore,  Sailor."  His  services 
as  a  revivalist  were  in  demand  throughout  the 
United  States  and  Canada.  His  songs  appeared 
in  the  following  named  collections:  *^The 
Charm>  (1871)  ;  <The  Song  Tree'  (1872)  ;  <The 
Joy'    (1873);  'Gospel  Songs'    (1874). 

Bliss,  Porter  Cornelius,  American  diplo- 
matist: b.  Erie  County,  N.  Y.,  28  Dec.  1838; 
d.  New  York,  2  Feb.  1885.  He  was  educated 
at  Hamilton  and  Yale  colleges ;  became  private 
secretary  to  James  Watson  Webb,  United  States 
minister  to  Brazil ;  explored  the  Gran  Chaco 
for  the  Argentine  government ;  compiled  the  va- 
rious Indian  dialects,  and  investigated  the  an- 
tiquities of  that  region ;  and  in  1866  became  pri- 
vate secretary  to  Charles  A.  Washburn,  United 
States  minister  to  Paraguay.  He  was  com- 
missioned by  President  Lopez  to  write  a  history 
of  Paraguay,  and  while  doing  so  war  broke  out 
between  that  country  and  Brazil,  and  he  was 
imprisoned  and  tortured  on  suspicion  of  being  a 
Brazilian  spy.  It  required  the  presence  of  an 
American  squadron  to  effect  his  release.  In 
1869-70  he  edited  the  Washington  Chronicle; 
in  1870-4  he  was  secretary  of  the  United  States 
legation  in  Mexico,  and  during  that  time  made 
several  archaeological  explorations  and  wrote  on 
the  opportunities  of  American  enterprise  in  that 
country.  In  1874-8  he  was  an  associate  editor 
of  'Johnson's  Universal  Cyclopaedia,'  and  in 
1879  went  to  South  America  as  correspondent 
for  the  New  York  Herald. 

Bliss,  William  Dwight  Porter,  American 
clergyman :  b.  Constantinople,  1856.  He  grad- 
uated at  Amherst  College  in  1878,  and  at  Hart- 
ford Theological  College  in  1882 ;  was  ordained 
a  Congregational  clergyman :  became  an  Episco- 
pal priest  in  1887 ;  organized  the  first  Christian 
Socialist  Society  in  the  United  States  in  1889, 
and  was  president  of  the  National  Reform 
League.  He  edited  'The  Dawn'  (1889-96)  ; 
'The  American  Fabian'  (1895-6)  ;  and  the  'En- 
cyclopaedia of  Social  Reform,'  and  published  a 
'Handbook  of  Socialism.^ 


Bliss,  William  Julian  Albert,  American 
physicist :  b.  Washington,  D.  C,  1867.  He  grad- 
uated at  Harvard  University  in  1888  and  pur- 
sued a  course  of  studies  in  electrical  engineering 
at  Johns  Hopkins,  Baltimore,  at  which  university 
he  became  successively  assistant  in  physics 
(1895-8),  associate  (1898-1901),  and  professor 
in  the  latter  j^ear.  He  is  the  author  of  several 
works  bearing  on  his  profession. 

Blister,  a  local  collection  of  blood  serum 
beneath  the  cuticle.  Blisters  may  be  produced 
by  a  variety  of  agents.  In  all  instances,  how- 
ever, there  is  irritation  of  the  part ;  this  is  fol- 
lowed by  dilated  blood  vessels  and  an  exudation 
of  the  serum  from  the  blood  vessels  near  the  ir- 
ritant. Medicinally,  blistering  agents  or  irri- 
tants may  be  classified  in  four  principal  groups, 
as  follows :  rubefacients,  when  redness  alone 
is  produced ;  vesicants,  when  blistering  is 
brought  about;  pustulants,  when  the  blisters 
are  usually  small  and  contain  pus;  and  eschar- 
otics,  when  burning  or  destruction  of  tissue 
may  take  place.  Heat  is  an  excellent  illustra- 
tion. Mild  heat  will  cause  redness ;  tempera- 
ture above  125°  to  400°  F.  will  cause  blister- 
ing; temperature  above  400°  will  burn;  and 
high  temperatures  can  char.  The  most  com- 
monly used  blistering  agents  are  heat  (the  hot 
iron  iaeing  lightly  touched  to  the  skin),  mustard, 
capsicum,  mezereum,  turpentine,  and  canthar- 
ides.  The  hot  iron  and  cantharides  are  pre- 
ferred, because  their  actiorf  can  be  controlled. 
Mustard  mixed  with  cold  water  makes  an  ex- 
cellent rubefacient,  but  it  is  not  advised  to  be 
used  as  a  vesicant.  Blisters  are  used  to  influ- 
ence deep-seated  and  chronic  joint,  muscle,  and 
tendon  troubles.  For  general  purposes  of  coun- 
ter-irritation rubefacients  are  more  serviceable 
than  vesicants. 

Blister-beetle,  or  Spanish  Fly,  an  oil- 
beetle  of  the  family  Meloidcr,  in  which  there  is 
a  small  head  and  a  distinct  neck ;  the  wing- 
covers  and  sides  of  the  body  without  any  co- 
adaptation,  while  each  claw  of  the  feet  bears  a 
long  appendage  closely  applied  beneath  it.  The 
integument  is  soft,  flexible,  and  many  of  the 
species  contain  a  substance  which  forms  an  ac- 
tive vesicant,  called  cantharadine.  The  Spanish 
fly  (Lytta  vesicatoria)  is  larger  than  any  of  our 
native  species,  is  of  a  bright  shining  green,  and 
when  powdered  and  applied  to  the  skin  raises 
blisters.  It  inhabits  the  south  of  Europe,  and  is 
usually  imported  from  Spain.  Our  native  blis- 
ter-beetles, when  dried,  can  also  be  used  for 
producing  blisters  or  making  blister-plasters. 
They  are  black  or  gray,  and  occur  on  potato 
plants,  on  the  flowers  of  the  golden-rod,  etc. 
Their  transformations  are  wonderfully  compli- 
cated, since  they  pass  through  more  than  one 
larval  stage  (see  Metamorphosis).  The  fe- 
males lay  their  eggs  in  the  earth ;  the  young,  on 
hatching,  are  of  a  singular  primitive  shape, 
called  a  "triungulin,"  which  is  very  active,  enter- 
ing the  egg-pods  and  devouring  the  eggs  of  lo- 
custs. It  soon  molts,  assuming  a  different  but 
still  active  larval  stage;  it  molts  again,  enter- 
ing its  third  larval  stage,  when  it  resembles  the 
grub  of  a  May  beetle  (scarabaeid  stage).  In 
the  fourth  stage  the  grub  is  helpless,  lying  on  one 
side;  it  increases  rapidly  in  size,  and  when  fully 
grown  leaves  the  remains  of  the  egg-pod  it  has 
been  living  on  and  forms  a  small  cavity  near 
by.    Here  it  lies  motionless  on  its  side,  but  grad- 


BLISTER-STEEL  — BLOCK    BOOKS 


ually  contracting  till  the  skin  separates  and  is 
pushed  down  to  the  end  of  the  body,  disclosing 
the  semi-pupa  or  coarctate  larva,  which  hiber- 
nates. In  the  spring  the  skin  bursts  and  dis- 
closes a  sixth  larval  form  like  the  fourth.  In 
this  stage  it  is  again  active,  burrowing  in  the 
earth,  but  taking  no  food,  and  in  a  few  days 
passes  into  the  pupa  state.  Other  species  of  the 
family  pass  through  a  similar  hypermetamor- 
phosis. 

Blister-steel.     See  Steel  ^Iaxufacture. 

Blithedale    Romance,    The,    the    third    of 

Nathaniel  Hawthorne's  romances,  published 
1852.  It  was  the  outcome  of  an  intimate  ac- 
quaintance with  the  members  of  the  Brook  Farm 
(q.v.)  Community,  and  immortalized  the  brief 
attempt  of  that  little  group  of  transcendentalists 
to  realize  equality  and  fraternity  in  labor.  It  is 
more  objective  and  realistic  than  Hawthorne's 
other  works,  and  therefore  in  a  sense  more  or- 
dinary. Its  central  figure  is  Zenobia,  a  beautiful, 
intellectual,  passionate  woman ;  drawn  as  to 
some  outlines,  perhaps,  from  Margaret  Fuller. 
At  the  time  it  opens  she  has  taken  up  her  abode 
at  Blithedale  Farm,  the  counterpart  of  Brook 
Farm.  The  other  members  of  the  community 
are  Hollingsworth,  a  self-centred  philanthro- 
pist ;  a  Yankee  farmer,  Silas  Forster,  and  his 
wife ;  Miles  Coverdale,  the  relater  of  the  story ; 
and  Priscilla,  who  is  Zenobia's  half-sister, 
though  of  this  fact  Zenobia  is  ignorant.  'The 
Blithedale  Romance^  is  a  brilliant  instance  of 
Hawthorne's  power  as  a  story-teller.  No  scene 
in  the  whole  range  of  fiction  is  more  realistic 
than  the  finding  of  Zenobia's  body  in  the  dead 
of  night ;  drawn  from  the  dank  stream,  a 
crooked,  stiff  shape,  and  carried  to  the  farm- 
house where  old  women  in  nightcaps  jabber  over 
it.  Nothing  could  be  more  in  the  manner  of 
Hawthorne  than  his  comment  that  if  Zenobia 
could  have  foreseen  her  appearance  after  drown- 
ing, she  would  never  have  committed  the  act. 

Blizzard,  a  peculiarly  fierce  and  cold  wind, 
accompanied  by  a  very  fine,  blinding  snow  which 
suffocates  as  w'ell  as  freezes  men  and  animals 
exposed  to  it.  The  origin  of  the  word  is  du- 
bious. It  came  into  general  use  in  American 
newspapers  during  the  bitterly  cold  winter  of 
1880-1,  although  some  papers  claim  its  use  as 
early  as  the  seventies.  Such  a  storm  comes  up 
very  suddenly  and  overtakes  the  traveler  without 
premonition.  The  sky  becomes  darkened,  and  the 
snow  is  driven  by  a  terrible  wind  which  comes 
with  a  deafening  roar.  One  of  the  most  severe 
of  these  storms  recorded  in  the  West  was  that 
of  January  1888  which  extended  from  Dakota  to 
Texas.  The  thermometer  in  some  places  fell 
from  74°  to  — 28°  F.,  and  in  Dakota  to  — 40°. 
The  number  of  deaths  amounted  to  235.  Chil- 
dren were  frozen  on  their  way  home  from 
school,  and  farmers  in  their  fields,  and  travelers 
were  suffocated  by  the  fine  snow.  The  blizzard 
which  will  long  be  remembered  in  the  eastern 
States  began  11  March  1888,  and  raged  until  the 
14th,  New  York  and  Philadelphia  being  the  cities 
most  affected.  The  wind  at  one  time  blew  at 
the  rate  of  46  miles  an  hour.  The  streets  and 
roads  were  'blocked,  railroad  trains  snowed  up 
for  days,  telegraphic  communication  cut  off, 
and  many  lives  were  lost. 

Blizzard  State,  a  nickname  for  South 
Dakota. 


Bloat,  Hoven,  or  Tympanites,  a  diseased 
condition  of  sheep  or  cattle,  consisting  of  disten- 
tion of  the  first  stomach  (rumen)  and  com- 
monly caused  by  an  overabundance  of  legumi- 
nous diet.  Animals  unaccustomed  to  graze  in 
clover  are  liable  to  the  malady,  but  over-eating 
of  grain  may  also  produce  bloat.  The  use  of 
cathartic  remedies,  such  as  Epsom  salts  or  lin- 
seed oil,  will  often  prove  effective,  except  in 
severe  cases.  Sometimes  the  accumulation  of 
gas  in  the  rumen  is  so  abundant  and  distressing 
that  relief  must  be  obtained  by  an  incision  made 
by  a  surgical  instrument. 

Bloch,  Karl  Heinrich,  Danish  painter:  b. 
Copenhagen,  1834;  d.  1890.  He  studied  at  the 
Copenhagen  Academy  and  in  1852  went  to  Italy 
where  he  spent  about  12  years.  In  1883  he  be- 
came a  professor  in  the  Academy  in  which  he 
had  been  trained.  Although  his  chief  paintings 
are  historical,  he  was  also  successful  in  nature- 
studies,  and  some  of  his  pictures  are  notable 
for  their  humorous  characteristics.  Among  his 
works  are:  <  Peasant's  Cottage';  <  Roman 
Street  Barber'  ;  'James  of  Scotland  Visiting 
Tycho  Brahe'  ;  'Christian  II.'  ;  and  two  fres- 
coes in  the  Copenhagen  University. 

Bloch,  Marcus  Eliezer,  Jewish  naturalist: 
b.  Anspach  (of  poor  parents),  1723;  d.  1799. 
In  the  19th  year  of  his  age  he  understood 
neither  German  nor  Latin,  nor  had  he,  with  the 
exception  of  some  rabbinical  writings,  read  any- 
thing. Nevertheless  he  became  tutor  in  the 
house  of  a  Jewish  surgeon  in  Hamburg.  Here 
he  learned  German  and  Latin,  and  besides  ac- 
quired some  knowledge  of  anatomy.  His  prin- 
cipal work  is  the  'Natural  History  of  Fishes' 
(folio,  1785-99),  adorned  with  many  colored 
plates. 

Block,  or  Blok,  Adriaen,  Dutch  navigator 
who  visited  Manhattan  (now  New  York)  about 
1613  and  again  in  1614  in  the  Tiger.  This  ship 
being  accidentally  burned  he  built  the  Unrest, 
a  craft  of  16  tons,  in  which  he  coasted  as  far 
north  as  Nahant,  discovering  the  Housatonic 
and  the  Connecticut  rivers  and  the  island  which 
bears  his  name.     See  Block  Island. 

Block,  a  mechanical  contrivance  consisting 
of  one  or  more  grooved  pulleys  mounted  in  a 
casing  or  shell  which  is  furnished  with  a  hook, 
eye,  or  strap  by  which  it  may  be  attached  to 
an  object,  the  function  of  the  apparatus  being 
to  transmit  power  or  change  the  direction  of 
motion  by  means  of  a  rope  or  chain  passing 
round  the  movable  pulleys.  Blocks  are  single, 
double,  treble,  or  four-fold,  according  as  the 
number  of  sheaves  or  pulleys  is  one,  two,  three, 
or  four.  A  running  block  is  attached  to  the 
object  to  be  raised  or  moved ;  a  standing  block 
is  fixed  to  some  permanent  support.  Blocks  also 
receive  different  denominations  from  their 
shape,  purpose,  and  mode  of  application. 

Block  Books,  before,  and  for  a  short  time 
after,  the  invention  of  printing,  books  printed 
from  wooden  blocks,  each  the  size  of  a  page 
and  having  the  matter  to  be  reproduced,  whether 
text  or  picture,  cut  in  relief  on  the  surface. 
These  were  intended  for  the  popular  use  and 
were  adorned  with  crude  paintings,  the  mak- 
ers of  block  books  and  card  painters  being  the 
same  till  about  the  opening  of  the  15th  century. 
As  their  work  increased  in  favor  they  devised 
the    process    of    block    printing,    cutting    into 


BLOCK  COAL  — BLOCKADE 


wooden  blocks  or  metal  plates  in  such  a  man- 
ner as  to  leave  letters  and  pictures  in  relief,  and 
after  applymg  color  to  these,  taking  impres- 
sions from  them.  One  or  both  sides  of  the 
sheet  were  printed  from  these  blocks.  See  also 
Printing. 

Block  Coal,  the  name  of  certain  kinds  of 
bituminous  coal  having  a  tendency  to  break  into 
forms  approaching  the  cube.     See  also  Coal. 

Block  Island,  an  island  in  the  Atlantic 
Ocean,  midway  between  Montauk  Point,  L.  L, 
and  Point  Judith,  R.  I.  ;  eight  miles  long,  and 
from  two  to  five  miles  wide.  It  belongs  to  the 
State  of  Rhode  Island,  from  the  shore  of  which 
it  is  about  lo  miles  distant.  It  has  become  a 
noted  summer  resort,  and  constitutes  the  town- 
ship of  New  Shoreham.     Pop.  (1900)  1,396. 

Block  Printing.      See  Printing. 

Block  System,  a  system  of  working  the 
traffic  on  railroads  according  to  which  the  line 
is  divided  into  short  sections,  each  section  with 
a  signal  and  telegraphic  connection  at  the  end. 
The  essential  principle  of  the  system  is  that  no 
train  is  allowed  to  enter  upon  any  one  section 
till  that  section  is  signalled  wholly  clear,  so  that 
between  two  successive  trains  there  is  not  merely 
an  interval  of  time,  but  also  an  interval  of 
space.     See  Railway  Signals. 

Block  Tin.      See  Tin. 

Blockade'  is  the  rendering  of  intercourse 
with  the  seaports  of  an  enemy  unlawful  on  the 
part  of  neutrals,  and  it  consists  essentially  in 
the  presence  of  a  sufficient  naval  force  to  make 
such  intercourse  difficult.  It  must  be  declared 
or  made  public,  so  that  neutrals  may  have  no- 
tice of  it.  If  a  blockade  is  instituted  by  a  suf- 
ficient authority,  and  maintained  by  a  suffi- 
cient force,  a  neutral  is  so  far  affected  by  it 
that  an  attempt  to  trade  with  the  place  invested 
subjects  vessel  and  cargo  to  confiscation  by  the 
blockading  power.  The  term  is  also  used  to  de- 
scribe the  rtate  of  matters  when  hostile  forces 
sit  down  around  a  place  and  keep  possession  of 
all  the  means  of  access  to  it,  so  as  entirely  to 
cut  off  its  communication  with  the  outside 
world,  and  so  compel  surrender  from  want  of 
supplies. 

To  be  sufficient,  the  blockade  must  be  effect- 
ive and  made  known.  By  the  convention  of 
the  Baltic  powers  of  1780,  and  again  in  1801, 
and  by  the  ordinance  of  Congress  of  1781,  it  is 
required  that  there  should  be  a  number  of  ves- 
sels stationed  near  enough  to  the  port  to  make 
the  entry  apparently  dangerous.  The  govern- 
ment of  the  United  States  has  uniformly  in- 
sisted that  the  blockade  should  be  made  effective 
by  the  presence  of  a  competent  force  stationed 
and  present  at  or  near  the  entrance  of  the  port. 
(I  Kent  Com.  145.)  But  an  accidental  absence 
of  the  blockading  force,  or  the  circumstance  of 
being  blown  off  by  the  wind,  if  the  suspension 
and  reason  of  the  suspension  are  known,  will 
not  be  sufficient  in  law  to  remove  a  blockade. 
But  negligence  or  remissness  on  the  part  of 
cruisers  stationed  to  maintain  the  blockade  may 
excuse  persons',  under  certain  circumstances,  for 
violating  the  blockade.  Taylor  ('Interna- 
tional Public  Law,^  p.  767),  upon  this  subject, 
says: 

"  Under  that  rule  the  eovernment  of  Great  Brita''n 
ncturally  accepted  the  contention  of  that  of  the 
United    States,   made   during  the    American    Civil   War, 


to  the  effect  that  the  legal  efficiency  of  the  blockade 
CI  Charleston, —  usually  maintained  by  one  ship  lying 
off  the  bar  between  the  two  principal  channels,  with 
two  or  three  others  cruising  outside  within  signalling 
distance, —  w-as  not  destroyed  by  the  absence  of  the 
Niagara,  a  blockading  vessel  whose  withdrawal,  in 
the  attempt  to  intercept  a  cargo  of  arms  e.xpected 
at  another  part  of  the  coast,  left  the  harbor  open  for 
at  least  tive  days.  It  was  admitted,  under  the  British 
rule,  that  there  was  no  cessation  of  the  Charleston 
blockade,  despite  the  fact  that  a  large  number  of  ves- 
sels succeeded  in  passing  it,  owing  to  the  peculiar  na- 
ture of  the  coast.  As  there  is  no  rule  requiring  the 
blockading  squadron  to  remain  witliin  a  certain  dis- 
tance of  the  place  blockaded,  provided  access  is  really 
interdicted,  Buenos  Ayres  was  held  to  have  been  suf- 
ficiently blockaded  by  vessels  stationed  in  the  vicinity 
of  Monte  Video;  and,  in  like  manner,  the  blockade 
of  Riga  was  maintained,  during  the  Russian  war  in 
1854,  at  a  distance  of  one  hundred  and  twenty  mile? 
from  the  town  by  a  ship  in  the  Lyser  Ort,  a  channel 
three  miles  wide,  forming  the  only  navigable  entrance 
to    the    gulf." 

When  on  21  Nov.  1806,  the  Berlin  Decree  of 
Napoleon  I.  declared  the  whole  British  Islands 
in  a  state  of  blockade,  that  blockade,  being  ludi- 
crously ineffective,  was  illegal ;  so  also,  though 
to  a  somewhat  less  extent,  were  the  British  Or- 
ders in  Council  of  li  and  21  Nov.  1807,  which 
placed  France  and  all  its  tributary  states  in  a 
state  of  blockade.  The  retaliatory  Napoleonic 
Milan  Decree  of  27  Dec.  1807,  extending  the 
previously  announced  blockade  to  the  British 
dominions  in  all  quarters,  labored  to  a  still 
greater  extent  under  the  same  defect.  More  ef- 
fective, as  being  more  limited  in  area,  were  the 
blockades  of  the  Elbe  by  Great  Britain  in  1803, 
those  of  the  Baltic  by  Denmark  in  1848-9  and 
1864,  those  of  the  ports  of  the  Confederate  States 
of  America  by  President  Lincoln  on  19  April 
1861,  and  that  of  the  Cuban  ports  by  the  United 
States  in  1898. 

To  involve  a  neutral  in  the  consequences  of 
violating  the  blockade,  it  is  absolutely  necessary 
that  he  have  due  notice  of  it.  This  communica- 
tion may  be  communicated  in  two  ways,  either 
actuallj^  by  a  formal  notice  from  the  blockading 
power,  or  constructively,  by  notice  to  his  gov- 
ernment, or  by  the  notoriety  of  the  fact.  Formal 
notice  is  not  required ;  any  authentic  informa- 
tion is  sufficient.  Phillimore,  'International 
Law^  (page  397)  ;  Taylor,  'International  Pub- 
lic Law^  (1901,  p.  768).  A  violation  may  be 
either  by  going  into  the  place  blockaded,  or  by 
coming  out  of  it  with  a  cargo  laden  after  the 
commencement  of  the  blockade.  For  a  masjcr  to 
place  himself  so  near  a  blockaded  port  as  to  be  in 
a  condition  to  slip  in  without  observation  is  a 
violation  of  the  blockade,  and  raises  the  pre- 
sumption of  a  criminal  intent.  The  sailing  for  a 
blockaded  port,  knowing  it  to  be  blockaded,  is,  it 
seems,  such  an  act  as  may  charge  the  party  with 
a  breach  of  the  lilockade.  (i  Kent  Com.  150;  5 
Cranch,  335.)  By  provision  in  the  treaties  be- 
tween the  United  States  and  Greece,  Prussia,  and 
Sweden  and  Norv/ay,  it  is  agreed  that  vessels 
arriving  at  a  port  supposed  at  the  time  of  de- 
parture to  be  blockaded  shall  not  be  captured 
and  condemned  for  an  attempt  to  enter,  unless 
on  proof  that  they  had  or  could  have  learned 
of  the  continuance  of  the  blockade,  but  an  at- 
tempt to  re-enter  after  warning  will  subject 
them  to  condemnation.  Vessels  in  pert  before 
the  establishment  of  the  blockade  are  to  be  per- 
mitted to  depart  with  their  cargoes.  They  are 
usuallv  allowed  from  15  to  45  days  in  which 
to  make  their  exit.  Any  one  running  a  block- 
ade does  so  at  his  peril;  his  government,  by  in- 
ternational  law,   cannot  protect   him   from    for- 


BLOCKHOUSE  —  BLOEMFONTEIN 


ieiting  his  vessel  with  its  cargo,  and  his  liberty 
if  he  be  captured  by  the  blockading  fleet.  See 
International  Law;  U.  S.,  Diplomacy  of  the. 

Blockhouse,  in  fortification,  a  house  made 
of  beams  joined  together  crosswise,  and  often 
doubled,  with  a  covering  and  loopholes,  large 
enough  for  from  25  to  100  men.  In  addition  to 
this,  it  is  commonly  covered  wMth  earth,  to  ren- 
der it  entirely  bomb-  and  fire-proof.  Forts  of 
this  kind  are  often  fitted  up  to  receive  cannon. 
Blockhouses  are  generally  built  in  the  form  of 
a  square  or  a  cross.  Their  use  is  to  afford  a 
feeble  garrison  of  an  important  place,  which  is 
very  much  exposed,  an  opportunity  of  holding 
out  against  the  cannonade  and  assault  of  the 
enemy  till  they  are  relieved.  They  also  serve 
for  bomb-proof  guardhouses,  and  places  of  last 
resort,  in  the  interior  of  intrenchments,  and  in 
the  covered  passages  of  fortresses,  where  the 
cannon  are  stationed.  Blockhouses  were  much 
employed  as  a  defense  against  Indians  in  Amer- 
ica, by  the  French  in  Algeria,  and  by  the  Span- 
ish in  Cuba,  where  a  line  of  blockhouses  con- 
nected by  wire  barricades  was  built  across  the 
island  in  1898. 

Blocks  of  Five,  a  political  expression  in 
the  United  States,  originating  in  the  presidential 
campaign  of  1888.  A  letter  purporting  to  have 
been  written  by  the  treasurer  of  the  Republican 
National  Committee  to  the  chairman  of  the  In- 
diana State  Committee,  recommending  securing 
^'floaters  in  blocks  of  five.-**  This  was  construed 
to  mean  the  bribery  of  voters  at  wholesale  rates. 
The  Democratic  managers  circulated  the  letter 
.as  widely  as  possible,  before  election.  Proceedi- 
ings  for  libel  were  afterward  begun,  but  never 
brought  to  trial. 

Blocksberg,  the  name  of  several  eleva- 
tions in  Germany,  particularly  the  Brocken 
(q.v.),  forming  the  summit  of  the  Hartz  Moun- 
tains and  the  highest  point  in  the  northern  part 
of  the  empire. 

Blod'get,  Lorin,  American  statistician :  b. 
near  Jamestown,  N.  Y.,  25  May  1823 ;  d.  Phila- 
delphia, 24  March  1901.  He  was  educated  at 
Hobart  College ;  appointed  assistant  professor  at 
the  Smithsonian  Institution,  Washington,  D.  C, 
in  charge  of  researches  on  climatology,  185 1 ;  was 
employed  on  the  Pacific  Railroad  survey  for  the 
War  Department,  1852-6  ;  and  was  engaged  in  the 
United  States  treasury  department,  1863-77.  He 
was  also  editor  of  the  Philadelphia  North 
American,  and  secretary  of  the  board  of  trade 
-of  that  city,  1858-64.  He  is  credited  with  hav- 
ing laid  the  foundation  of  American  climatology. 
His  publications  include  *The  Climatology  of  the 
United  States*  (1857),  a  work  that  met  high 
favor  in  the  United  States  and  Europe;  ^Com- 
mercial and  Financial  Resources  of  the  United 
States*  ;  and  about  150  volumes  of  reports. 

Blod'gett,  Henry  Williams,  American  ju- 
rist: b.  Amherst,  Mass.,  21  July  1821  ;  d. 
Waukegan,  111.,  9  Feb.  1905.  He  was  edu- 
<:ated  at  Amherst  Academy;  studied  survey- 
ing and  engineering ;  was  admitted  to  the  bar 
in  1844 ;  and  settled  in  Waukegan,  111.,  to  prac- 
tise, in  the  following  year.  He  served  in  the 
lower  house  of  the  legislature,  1852-4,  and  in  the 
State  Senate,  1859-65 ;  and  was  United  States 
district  judge  for  the  Northern  District  of  Il- 
linois.   1869-93,   when   he   retired.     He   was   ap- 


pointed one  of  the  counsel  on  the  part  of  the 
United  States  before  the  arbitration  tribunal  on 
the  Bering  Sea  fur-seal  controversy  between  the 
United  States  and  Great  Britain,  in  1892. 

Blodgett,  Samuel,  American  inventor:  b. 
Woburn,  Mass.,  i  April  1724;  d.  Haverhill, 
Mass.,  I  Sept,  1807.  He  took  part  in  the  French 
and  Indian  war ;  was  a  member  of  the  expedition 
against  Louisburg  in  1745;  and  subsequently  be- 
came a  judge  of  the  court  of  common  pleas  in 
Hillsboro  County,  N.  H.  He  was  the  inventor 
of  an  apparatus  by  which  he  recovered  a  val- 
uable cargo  from  a  sunken  ship  near  Plymouth, 
Mass.,  in  1783.  His  success  led  him  to  go  to 
Europe  for  similar  enterprises.  He  met  with  no 
encouragement  in  Spain,  and  in  England  pro- 
posed to  raise  the  Royal  George,  which  went 
down  off  Spithead  with  800  persons  on  board, 
but  his  proposition  was  not  accepted.  In  1793 
he  began  the  construction  of  the  canal  around 
Amoskeag  Falls  in  the  Merrimac  which  now 
bears  his  name,  but  did  not  live  to  complete  the 
work. 

Bloede,  ble'de,  Gertrude,  American  poet 
and  novelist,  better  known  as  Stuart  Sterne: 
b.  Dresden,  Saxony,  10  Aug.  1845;  d.  Baldwin, 
L.  I.,  14  Aug.  1905.  She  wrote  in  verse  <  Angelo' 
(new  ed.  1879);  <  Giorgio  and  Other  Poems' 
(1881) ;  <  Beyond  the  Shadow,  and  Other  Poems' 
(1888);  <Piero  da  Castiglione';  and  <The  Story 
of  Two  Lives, '  a  novel. 

Bloemaert,  bloo'mart,  or  Blom,  Abraham, 
Dutch  painter:  b.  Gorkum  about  1565;  d. 
Utrecht,  1647,  or  more  probably  1657.  His  paint- 
ings are  reproached  with  various  faults,  yet  he  is 
distinguished  by  the  brilliancy  of  his  coloring 
and  the  richness  of  his  invention.  He  painted 
all  sorts  of  objects,  but  his  landscapes  are  the 
most  esteemed.  He  had  four  sons,  of  whom 
Cornelis  (b.  Utrecht,  1603;  d.  Rome,  1680),  w-as 
a  distinguished  engraver. 

Bloemen,  Jan  Frans  van,  Flemish  painter: 
b.  Antwerp,  1662;  d.  Rome,  1748  (?).  He  was 
surnamed  ^'Orizzonte,**  an  allusion  to  the  great 
beauty  of  the  coloring  he  put  into  his  land- 
scapes. 

Bloemen,  Pieter  van,  Flemish  painter, 
brother  of  Jan  Frans :  b.  Antwerp,  1651  ;  d.  1662. 
After  study  in  Italy  he  was  appointed  dean  of 
the  Guild  of  St.  Luke  in  his  native  city.  His 
work  is  chiefly  landscapes  and  military  subjects. 
He  is  known  as  Standaert. 

Bloemfontein,  bloom'fon-tin.  Orange 
River  Colony,  South  Africa,  the  chief  town  and 
seat  of  government  of  the  colony,  680  miles 
northeast  of  Cape  Town,  situated  in  an  elevated 
and  healthy  region.  It  stands  on  a  plain  sur- 
rounded by  low  hills,  and  is  regularly  laid  out, 
having  a  large  market-square  in  the  centre.  It 
has  several  fine  buildings,  including  the  Angli- 
can cathedral,  the  Dutch  Reformed  church,  and 
other  places  of  worship ;  the  presidency ;  the 
tow^n-hall ;  the  post-office ;  the  library ;  the  na- 
tional museum  ;  the  new  Raadzaal,  or  council- 
chamber  of  the  legislature ;  the  old  Raadzaal ; 
Grey  College  and  St.  Andrew's  College  for 
boys;  the  Eunice  Institute  for  girls;  a  govcin- 
ment  hospital  and  a  cottage  hospital ;  a  lunatic 
asylum,  etc.  It  is  on  the  main  railway  line  of 
the  Colony,  which  is  continuous  with  the  Cape 
Colony  and  Transvaal  systems.  Pop.  about 
8,000,  half  being  whites. 


BLOIS  —  BLOMMAERT 

In  the  war  between  Great   Britain  and   the  ham,     5     Aug.     1857.      He    studied     for     the 

South  African  and  Orange  Free  State  republics  church    at    Cambridge,   where    he    took    high 

in  1899-1900  it  was  the  seat  of  important  mili-  honors;    and    after    filHng    several    curacies,, 

tary  operations.     In  June  1899,  a  conference  was  and    acting    for    a    time    as    chaplain    to    the 

held  here  between  President  Kruger  of  the  South  bishop  of  London,  was  presented  to  the  rec- 

African    Republic,   and    Sir   Alfred    Milner,   the  tory   of    St.    Botolph,    Bishopsgate.      In    1824 

British   commissioner   of   Cape    Colony,    with   a  he  was  made  bishop  of  Chester,  and  in  1828 

\iew  of  averting  war.     After  the  appointment  of  bishop  of  London.     He  acquired  considerable 

Lord  Roberts  to  the  supreme  command  of  the  renown  as  a  classical   scholar  from  the  edi- 

British   forces  operating  against   the   Boers,   he  tions    published    by    him    of    several    of    the 

led  an  expedition  against  the  city  and  forced  its  dramas    of    ^schylus,    and    he    also    published 

surrender  on  13  March  1900,  President  Steyn  es-  an    edition    of    Callimachus,    which    is    much, 

caping  capture.     Soon  afterward  the  part  of  the  esteemed.     Along  with  Rennel,  he  edited,  in 

republic  occupied  by  the    British  was   formally  1812,    the    ^Musse    Cantabrigienses,'    and    in 

placed  under  British  administration.  1814,    along    with    Monk,    the    'Posthumous 

Blois,    blwa     (anciently    Blesum),    France,  Tracts^  of  Porson,  followed  two  years  after- 

the  capital  of  the  department  Loir-et-Cher,  99  ward   by   the    <Adversana   Porsoni.>      In   his 

miles   south-southwest   of   Paris,   situated   on  ecc  esiastical     capacity     he     displayed     great 

the  right  bank  of  the   Loire,  from  which   it  ^ea  land  energy,  more  churches  having  been 

rises    in    the    form    of    an    amphitheatre.      It  ^uilt   m    London    under    his    episcopate    than 

consists  of  an  upper  town,  with  very  narrow  ""f^      t^at      of      any      bishop      since      the 

a.nd    crooked    streets;    a    lower    town,    with  Reformation.      He    incurred,    however,    some 

many    handsome    houses,   extending   along   a  animadversions   on   his    proceedings   in   rela- 

handsome  quay;  and  of  Several  suburbs,  with  tion    to    the    Tractarian    controversy    by    a 

one    of   which    it   communicates    by   a    stone  vacillating  policy    which  gave  satisfaction  to 

bridge    of    II    arches.     The    city    is    furnished  "Either  of  the  parties. 

with  spring  water  through  an  old  Roman  Blomfield,  Edward  Valentine,  English 
aqueduct,  in  excellent  preservation.  Thierry,  clergyman  (brother  of  the  preceding):  b, 
the  historian,  was  born  here.  The  castle  1/88;  d.  October  1816.  He  studied  at 
of  Blois  is  rich  in  historical  associations.  Caius  College,  Cambridge,  and  excited  the 
It  was  long  occupied  by  the  counts  of  highest  expectations.  Among  several  prizes 
the  name,  and  became  a  favorite  residence  which  he  gained  was  a  medal  assigned  him^ 
of  the  kings  of  France.  Louis  XII.  was  in  1809  for  his  beautiful  ode  'In  Desidenum 
born,  Francis  I.,  Henry  II.,  Charles  IX.,  Porsoni.'  In  1812  a  fellowship  m  Em- 
and  Henry  III.  held  their  courts  in  it;  and  manuel  College  was  conferred  on  him.  In 
the  Guises,  by  a  cruel  though  not  unjust  1813  he  visited  Germany,  where  he  ac- 
retribution,  were  murdered  in  it.  When  quired  a  good  knowledge  of  the  _  German 
Maria  de'  Medici  was,  in  1617,  exiled  from  language,  and  became  acquainted  with  Wolf 
the  court,  she  resided,  probably  as  a  prisoner,  in  Berlin,  and  Schneider  in  Breslau.  After 
in  this  castle,  whence,  18  months  later,  she  his  return  he  wrote  in  the  'Museum  Crit- 
escaped  through  a  high  window,  which  is  icum,^  or  'Cambridge  Classical  Researches,' 
also  an  object  of  curiosity.  In  1814,  on  the  remarks  on  German  literature  which  were 
approach  of  the  European  armies  to  Paris,  received  with  approbation.  The  University 
the  Empress  Maria  Louisa  and  the  council  of  Cambridge  appointed  him  one  of  the 
of  regency  repaired  for  a  while  to  this  place,  preachers  of  St  Mary's  Church.  He  began 
Afterward  the  castle  was  entirely  neglected,  a  translation  of  Schneider's  'Gnechisch- 
and  even  used  as  barracks  for  cavalry.  Deutches  Lexicon,'  but  did  not  live  to- 
During  the  later  years  of  Louis  Philippe's  finish  it.  Matthias's  'Griechische  Gram- 
reign,  this  curious  specimen  of  architecture  matik,'  however,  he  translated  completely, 
was  carefully  and  tastefully  restored.  Blois  His  translation  was  published  by  his  brother 
has  several  literary  and  scientific  societies,  and  was  everywhere  well  received.  He  was 
a  botanical  garden  founded  by  Henry  IV.,  in  Switzerland  in  1816  with  his  pupil,  a  young 
a  public  library  with  19,000  volumes,  a  de-  nobleman,  and  in  his  haste  to  return  to  Cam- 
partmental  college,  and  a  diocesan  seminary,  bridge  on  hearing  that  he  was  appointed 
It  trades  in  wines,  spirits,  vinegar,  staves,  proctor  for  the  following  year,  the  fatigue  of 
and  licorice,  while  it  produces  serges,  hosiery  rapid  traveling  occasioned  a  sickness  of 
and  gloves,  cutlery  and  hardware.  Pop.  which  he  died. 
(1896)  23,542.  Blomfield,  Reginald,  English  architect:  b. 

Blok.  Petrus  Johannes,  pa-troos  yo-han-es,  20   Dec.    1856.      He   was   educated   at    Exeter 

Dutch    historian:     b.    Helder,     1855.     He    was  College,  Oxford.    He  is  architect  to  the  Army 

educated  at  Leyden;  in  1884  became  professor  and  Navy  Society  and  among  his  many  im- 

of    history    at    Croningen    and    later    at    the  portant     professional     works     are     'Brocklesby 

University  of  Leyden.     He  was  also  Queen  Park.'    'Caythorpe   Court,'    'Holbrook   House.' 

Wilhelmina's    tutor    in    history.      His    work  ^New      Buildings      at      Haileybury      College,' 

has    been    chiefly    in    social-political    history  ^Lady     Margaret     Hall.'      'Portsea     Institute.' 

of    the    Netherlands.      He    is    the    author     of  He     has     published     'The     Formal     Garden 

'History  of  the   People   of  the   Netherlands'  in    England'    (1892);    <A   History   of   Renais- 

(translated  into  English);  'Eene  Hollandsche  sance   Architecture   in    England'    two   works   of 

stad    in    de    Middeleuwen'    and    'Eene    Hoi-  great  value   (1897);   'Short  History  of  Renais- 

landsche     stad     onder     de     Bourgondisch-Oos-  sance  Architecture  in  England'    (1900). 
tenrijksche  Heerschappy.'  Blommaert,    blom-mart,     Philip,     Flemish 

Blom'field,  Charles  James,  English  divine:  philologist:    b.    Ghent    about    1809.      He    has 

b.   Burv-St.-Edmunds,   Suffolk,   1786;   d.    Ful-  done  much  for  the  literature  of  his  country 


BLOMMAERT  —  BLOOD 


by  an  edition  of  the  old  Flemish  poets  of 
the  nth,  I2th,  13th,  and  14th  centuries,  with 
glossaries,  notes,  and  emendations.  He  has 
also  republished  the  "^Nibelungenlied,'  trans- 
lated into  Dutch  iambics.  His  best  work, 
however,  is  the  ^Aloude  geschiedenis  der  Bel- 
gen  of  Nederduitschers,^  in  which  he  vindi- 
cates the  claims  of  his  country  to  an 
independent  national  existence  and  national 
literature.  Blommaert  also  writes  French 
well,  and  is  a  contributor  to  the  ^Messager 
des  Sciences  Historiques.^ 

Blommaert,  Samuel,  Colonial  patroon:  b. 
1590;  d.  1670.  He  bought  a  tract  of  land  al- 
most equal  in  size  to  the  present  State  of 
Delaware,  extending  from  Cape  Henlopen 
to  the  mouth  of  the  Delaware  River.  The 
deed  for  this  land  given  him  by  Peter 
Minuit,  and  his  Council  is  the  oldest  deed 
for  land  in  Delaware.  He  formed  a  company 
to  provide  for  the  settlement  of  this  land,  and 
a  colony  was  started,  but  destroyed  by  the 
Indians  after  a  few  years  in  revenge  for  an 
act  of  the  governor,  Gillis  Hosset. 

Blond,  Jacques  Christophe  le,  zhak 
kris-tof  le  blondt,  printer  of  engravings:  b. 
Frankfort-on-the-Main,  1670;  d.  Paris,  1741. 
He  was  bred  a  painter,  and  in  171 1  went  to 
Amsterdam,  and  some  years  after  to  England. 
He  conceived  the  idea  of  an  establishment 
to  print  engravings  in  colors,  and,  obtaining 
means,  produced  many  copies  of  engravings 
and  pictures,  which  of  course  had  defects, 
and  the  experiment  failed.  He  now  devoted 
himself  to  producing  the  cartoons  of  Raphael 
in  tapestry,  but  this  failed  also,  and  he  soon 
after   died. 

Blon'del,  a  confidential  servant  and  in- 
structor in  music  of  Richard  Cceur  de  Lion 
of  England,  about  the  year  1190.  While  his 
master  was  the  prisoner  of  the  Duke  of  Aus- 
tria, Blondel  went  through  Palestine  and  all 
parts  of  Germany  in  search  of  him.  He  under- 
stood, it  is  said,  that  a  prisoner  of  rank  was 
confined  in  Lowenstein  Castle,  and  has- 
tened  hither.  Placing  himself  under  a  grated 
tower,  he  began  to  sing  one  of  the  French 
lays  which  he  had  formerly  composed  for 
Richard.  Scarcely  had  he  finished  the  first 
stanza  when  a  voice  from  the  dungeon  of  the 
tower  responded.  Thus  he  discovered  his 
king,  delivered  him,  and  gained  the  name  of 
the  ^'faithful  Blondel.*  Gretry's  fine  opera, 
<  Richard  Coeur  de  Lion,^  is  founded  on  this 
anecdote. 

Blondin,  Charles  Emile  Gravelet,  sharl 
a-mel  grav-la  blon-daii,  French  acrobat:  b. 
St.  Omer,  Pas-de-Ca)ais,  1824;  d.  London, 
22  Feb.  1897.  He  was  trained  at  Lyons, 
where  he  made  such  rapid  progress  that  he 
was  designated  «The  Little  Wonder. »  After 
making  a  several  years'  tour  of  the  United 
States,  on  30  June  1859,  before  a  crowd  of 
25,000  persons,  he  crossed  the  Falls  of  Niag- 
ara on  a  tight-rope  in  five  minutes;  on  4  Tuly 
he  crossed  blindfold,  trundling  a  wheelbar- 
row; on  19  August  he  carried  a  man  on  his 
back;  on  14  Sept.  i860  he  crossed  on  stilts 
in  the  presence  of  the  Prince  of  Wales.  His 
engagement  at  the  Crystal  Palace  in  1862, 
where  he  performed  on  a  rope  249  yards  long, 
and  170  feet  from  the  ground,  drew  immense 


crowds.  After  several  years'  retirement  he 
reappeared  in  1880,  and  in  1888  again  per- 
formed in  London,  where  he  died. 

Blood,  Thomas  (^commonly  called  Colonel 
Blood):  b.  Ireland.  1618;  d.  1680;  was  a  dis- 
banded ofiicer  of  Oliver  Cromwell,  and  a  man 
distinguished  in  various  audacious  enter- 
prises. He  made  an  attempt  to  steal  the 
crown  and  regalia  from  the  tower,  in  which 
he  almost  succeeded.  Being,  however,  taken, 
he  confessed  his  purpose  without  showing  the 
least  fear  of  death.  Charles  XL  from  idle 
curiosity,  went  to  see  him,  and  Blood  per- 
suaded the  monarch  to  pardon  him.  Charles 
even  bestowed  an  estate  with  $2,500  a  year 
upon  him,  while  poor  Edwards,  the  keeper  of 
the  jewel-office,  who  valiantly  defended  the 
crown  and  was  wounded,  lived  forgotten. 

Blood,  the  yellowish  to  reddish  liquid 
alkaline  medium  present  in  the  arteries  and 
veins,  the  chief  tissue  of  oxidation  in  the 
animal  body.  The  composition  and  character 
of  the  blood  varies  very  widely  in  different 
animals,  and  hence  this  description  is  con- 
fined more  particularly  to  the  human  blood. 
From  the  standpoint  of  cell-structure  the 
blood  is  a  tissue  made  up  of  a  liquid  plasma 
and  solid  cells  or  corpuscles.  It  contains  at 
least  four  separate  and  important  ingredients, 
the  plasma,  or  blood  serum;  red  cells,  or 
erythrocytes;  white  cells,  or  leucocytes;  and 
blood  plates.  About  one  tenth  to  one  twelfth 
of  the  entire  body  is  blood,  of  which  nine 
tenths  is  water. 

Plasma. —  The  greater  portion  (56  per 
cent)  of  the  blood  is  plasma.  This  plasma  is 
composed  of  90  per  cent  water  containing 
gases,  mineral  salts,  fats,  nitrogenous  bodies, 
and  carbohydrates  in  solution.  It  is  a  clear 
yellowish  fluid.  The  mineral  salts  are  sodium 
chloride,  common  salt,  the  most  abundant; 
sodium  carbonate,  which  renders  the  blood 
alkaline;  potassium  chloride,  potassium  sul- 
phate, calcium  phosphate,  sodium  phosphate, 
magnesium  phosphate,  and  calcium  chloride. 
Traces  of  other  inorganic  salts  are  fre- 
quently found.  The  gases  in  the  blood 
plasma  are  oxygen,  nitrogen,  and  carbon 
dioxide.  Of  the  organic  constituents  the  non- 
nitrogenous  ones  are  the  fats  and  carbohy- 
drates, with  small  amounts  of  fatty  coloring 
matters,  lipochromes,  cholesterin,  and  sarco- 
lactic  acid.  The  fats  are  present  in  variable 
quantities,  being  particularly  abundant  fol- 
lowing a  meal.  They  are  the  glycerides  of 
stearic,  oleic,  and  palmitic  acids.  The  carbo- 
hydrates are  at  least  three,  glycogen,  dex- 
trose or  grape  sugar,  and  animal  gums.  The 
non-proteid  nitrogenous  constituents  of  the 
plasma  consist  largel}'  of  the  waste  extrac- 
tives. The  most  important  of  these  are 
urea,  kreatin,  kreatinin,  uric  acid,  and  hip- 
puric  acid.  Three  ferments  or  enzymes  are 
thought  to  be  present  in  the  plasma  — a 
diastatic  ferment,  converting  starches  into 
sugars;  a  glycolytic  enzyme,  breaking  up 
sugar,  and  a  lipase,  or  fat-splitting  enzyme.  Tn 
addition,  there  is  the  ferment  that  causes  coagu- 
lation. Whether  this  is  present  in  the  serum 
or  in  the  white  cells  is  a  matter  of  inquiry.  The 
proteids  of  the  plasma  are  serum  albumins, 
globulins  (serum  globulin  and  fibrinogen), 
and  nucleo-proteids. 


BLOOD  — BLOOD  FEUD 


Red  Cells.—  These  are  the  most  abundant 
of  the  formed  elements  of  the  blood,  making 
up  99  per  cent  of  the  corpuscles.  There  are 
thought  to  be  in  man  at  least  5,000,000  red 
blood-cells  to  every  cubic  millimetre  of 
blood;  their  size,  therefore,  is  very  small, 
averaging  in  man  7.8  m.mm.  They  are  flat- 
tened circular  disks,  with  double  depressed 
centres,  one  fourth  as  thick  as  broad.  In 
the  embryo  and  in  certain  diseased  states 
the  red  blood-cells  have  a  nucleus,  but  the  nor- 
mal red  blood-cell  in  man  has  lost  this  cell- 
structure.  Practically  all  of  the  mammals, 
save  the  camel  tribe,  have  circular  red  blood- 
cells;  the  camels  and  most  of  the  lower  ani- 
mals have  oval  red  blood-cells;  in  the  lower 
animals  they  are  mostly  nucleated.  There  is 
also  great  variation  in  size  in  the  red  cells 
of  the  various  animals,  being  largest  among 
the  amphibia  (Amphiuma  75  m.mm.).  The 
red  blood-cells  are  mostly  manufactured  in 
the  marrow  of  the  long  bones.  The  chemical 
structure  of  the  red  cells  is  complex,  but 
they  contain  an  iron  compound,  hemoglobin, 
which  is  the  most  important  constituent  of 
the  blood  in  the  process  of  respiration  and 
oxidation;  by  it  the  complex  processes  of 
chemical  interchange  in  the  body  (metabolism) 
are  made  possible.  Poisoning  of  the  hemo- 
globin and  the  loss  of  its  function  means 
death  by  asphyxia.  The  hemoglobin  gives  the 
reddish-yellow  tinge  to  the  blood,  and  the  dif- 
ferences in  shade  between  venous  blood  and 
arterial  blood  are  due  to  the  state  of  oxidation 
of  the  hemoglobin. 

White  Cells  —  Leucocytes. —  These  are  much 
less  numerous  than  the  red  cells,  varying 
in  number  from  5,000  to  20,000  to  the 
cubic  millimetre.  At  least  five  different  forms 
of  white  cells  are  normally  present  in  human 
blood.  These  are  large  and  small  lympho- 
cytes, polymorpho-nuclear  neutrophiles,  eosi- 
nophiles,  and  transitional  forms.  Mast  cells 
are  another  form  of  varying  occurrence.  The 
polymorph  neutrophiles  are  the  most  nu- 
merous of  the  leucocytes  and  make  up  the 
greater  mass  in  pus-cells.  In  shape  and  size 
these  white  cells  differ,  but  all  are  spherical, 
some  smaller  than  the  red  cells  (6.7  m.mm.), 
but  mostly  larger  (about  10  m.mm.),  and  all  have 
one  or  more  nuclei.  The  leucocytes  are 
formed  in  a  number  of  lymphatic  tissues,  the 
haemolymph  glands,  the  spleen,  etc.,  and  are 
among  the  most  interesting  of  the  constitu- 
ents of  the  blood,  since  one  of  their  chief 
functions  is  to  protect  the  body  from  disease- 
producing  micro-organisms.  They  may  be 
aptly  termed  the  human  body's  «army  of  the 
interior»  in  the  fight  with  disease-causing 
agents.  They  are  useful  both  physically  (by 
eating,  as  it  were,  the  bodies  of  invading  bac- 
teria—  phagocytosis,  q.v.)  or  chemically  (in 
J.e  elaborating  of  certain  counter-poisons  — 
antitoxins,  q.v.),  or  in  the  manufacture  of  spe- 
cific immunizing  bodies  for  the  blood-serum 
(see  Immunity).  Their  careful  study  in 
diseased  conditions  is  very  helpful  in  arriv- 
ing at  a  diagnosis  of  the  disease  process. 

Blood  Plates. —  These  are  of  frequent  oc- 
currence, but  as  yet  little  is  known  of  their 
function.  They  are  thought  to  be  globulin- 
like in  their  nature,  and  of  use  in  the  phe- 
nomenon of  coagulation;   others   claim  them 


as     nucleo-proteids,    made    from    the    white 
blood-cells. 

Functions  of  the  Blood. —  These,  as  already 
indicated,  are  numerous.  Through  the 
haemoglobin,  blood  is  the  great  oxidizing  me- 
dium. It  carries  products  for  anabolism  and 
products  of  katabolism,  and  is  the  great  equal- 
izer, by  arterial  pressure,  of  the  osmotic  pres- 
sures of  all  the  cells  of  the  body.  As  a  means 
of  defense  in  the  struggle  with  parasitic  in- 
vaders the  blood  is  the  most  important  of 
the  body's   bulwarks.     See   Blood   Diseases. 

(Consult  Ewing,    Xlinical   Pathology  of  the 
Blood^    (1902),    with   a   most   exhaustive  bibli 
ography    on    all    blood    subjects.     For    physiol- 
ogy see  Schafer,  *  Physiology,^  Vol.  I.,  1898.) 

Blood,  Avenger  of,  in  Scripture,  the  near- 
est relation  of  any  one  that  had  died  by  man- 
slaughter or  murder,  so  called  because  it  fell 
to  him  to  punish  the  person  who  was  guilty 
of  the  deed.  In  the  political  law  of  Israel 
the  practice  of  punishment  by  the  nearest 
relative,  which  had  alwaj^s  been  prevalent, 
was  allowed  to  continue,  while  rules  were 
laid  down  to  prevent  the  chief  abuses  con- 
nected with  it.  The  distinction  was  sharply 
drawn  between  murder  and  manslaughter. 
For  the  former  no  ransoin  or  satisfaction  was 
permitted.  In  the  case  of  the  latter,  however, 
there  were  six  cities  set  apart  out  of  the 
number  which  the  Levites  occupied,  placed 
at  suitable  distances  over  the  extent  of  the 
land,  three  on  each  side  of  the  Jordan,  with 
roads  leading  to  them  which  were  well  kept 
up,  and  these  were  cities  of  refuge  to  which 
the  manslayer  might  flee,  and  within  which 
he  might  dwell  in  safety  without  fear  of  the 
avenger.  But  he  was  not  permitted  to  return 
to  his  own  place;  in  fact,  he  had  no  safety, 
if  he  left  his  place  of  refuge,  until  the  death 
of  the  high-priest  during  whose  term  of  office 
his  misfortune  had  occurred.  See  Cities  of 
Refuge, 

Blood  Clam,  or  Blood  Quohog,  a  local 
name  given  in  Narragansett  Bay  to  Area  or 
Scapliarca,  transversa,  a  common  bivalve  rang- 
ing from  Narragansett  Bay  to  Georgia,  in  ref- 
erence to  the  reddish  spots  on  the  inside  of  the 
edge  of  the  shell,  and  to  the  reddish  flesh- 
color  of  the  ovaries.  It  is  not  used  as  an  article 
of  food. 

Blood,  Council  of,  the  name  popularly 
applied  to  the  Council  of  Troubles,  estab- 
lished by  the  Duke  of  Alva,  in  the  Nether- 
lands, in  1567.  Although  it  had  no  charter 
or  authority  from  any  source,  it  was  omnipo- 
tent and  superseded  all  other  authorities.  In 
the  first  three  months  alone  its  victims  num- 
bered 1,800,  and  soon  there  was  hardly  a 
Protestant  house  in  the  Netherlands  that  had 
not  furnished  a  victim. 

Blood  Diseases.  Many  disorders  are  classed 
under  this  head.  See  AN-i:MiA;  Bleeding; 
Chlorosis  ;  Circulation  ;  H.^smophilia  ;  Leu- 
c^mia;   Pernicious  An.emi.'s.. 

Blood  Feud,  the  right  of  individual,  or 
family,  vengeance  in  cases  of  bloodshed.  In  a 
very  primitive  state  of  society  the  tendency 
toward  private  instrumentality  in  the  punish- 
ment of  crime  is  largely  unchecked.  In  pass- 
ing from  this  stage  to  the  highly  organized 
system  of  legal  penalties  enforced  by  modern 


BLOOD. — The  General  Distribution  of  the  Blood  Vessels. 
Arteries  are  shown  in  red,   the  veins  in  blue. 


H,  the  heart.  1,  left  side  r,  right  siae.  Arising  from  the  heart  is  the  main  artery  Aorta  (A).  The  letter  is 
put  on  the  vessel  at  some  distance  from  the  heart,  near  where  it  gives  off  the  branches  <  in  red>  for  the  head  and 
arms,  and  at  the  point  where  it  arches  backwards  and  downwards  to  pass  through  the  chest  and  the  belly  till  at 
A,  it  gives  off  branches  for  the  legs.  Running  alongside  the  arteries  are  represented  in  blue,  veins  At  K,  is 
represented  the  position  of  the  kidneys  and  their  veins.  L,  represents  veins  of  the  lung.  J,  jugular  vein.  Ch 
outhnes  of  the  chest. 


BLOOD-FLOWER  —  BLOOD-RAIN 


civilized  governments,  the  regulation  cf  the 
blood  feud  was  a  marked  step  in  the  advance- 
ment of  the  race.  It  is  trr^  that  the  right  of 
private  vengeance  was  recognized,  but  it  was 
put  under  restrictions  and  gradually  nar- 
rowed in  its  action.  The  slayer  had  the  right 
of  sanctuary,  illustrated  by  the  cities  of  refuge 
in  Israel  under  the  Mosaic  economy,  by  the 
altars  of  pagan  deities  and  by  the  churches 
of  the  Middle  Ages.  The  danger  of  dragging 
entire  clans  into  retributive  warfare  to 
avenge  a  single  murder  was  averted  bv  limit- 
ing the  right  of  vengeance  to  the  immediate 
family,  or  the  next  of  kin  to  the  one  slain,  and 
the  privilege  of  purchasing  exemption  by 
the  weregild  tended  to  check  a  blood  penalty. 
The  acceptance  of  the  blood-money  was 
iinallj-  made  obligatorv.  The  amount  of  the 
fine  imposed  upon  the  murderer  varied  among 
the  Anglo-Saxons  according  to  the  rank  of 
'he  victim.  The  family  feuds  among  the 
mountain  whites  in  certain  sections  of  the 
United  States  form  an  interesting  modern  in- 
stance of  the  survival  of  the  primitive  insti- 
tution of  blood  feud.     See  Asylum,  Right  of. 

Blood-flower,  or  Blood-lily,  a  genus 
(H(riiia)ithus)  of  about  60  species  of  summer- 
and  autumn-blooming  bulbous-rooted  plants 
of  the  natural  order  Amaryllidacccc,  natives 
mostly  of  South  Africa,  named  from  thie  gen- 
eral color  of  their  flowers,  which  are  arranged 
in  umbels  arising  on  an  often  beautifully  col- 
ored scape  either  before  the  foliage  or  from 
a  rosette  of  radical  leaves.  The  few  species 
cultivated  in  American  greenhouses  have  not 
become  widely  popular,  but  are  worthy  of 
more  extended  culture,  since  the  individual 
flowers  are  often  two  inches  in  diameter  and 
the  umbel  sometimes  a  foot  across.  They 
may  be  cultivated  like  the  nerine.  Since  some 
of  the  most  attractive  species  reproduce 
slow^ly,  the  bulbs  are  often  cut  in  two  horizon- 
tally and  treated  like  hyacinth  bulbs  simi- 
larly cut.  Several  new  bulbs  form  around.the 
margin  of  the  cut  halves.  Consult  Bailey  and 
Miller,  'Cyclopedia  of  American  Horticul- 
ture^   (igoo-2). 

Blood  Indians,  or  Kino  Indians,  a  tribe 
of  North  American  Indians  of  the  Siksika 
Confederacy,  dwelling  in  the  Northwest  Ter- 
ritories of  Canada. 

Blood-letting.   See  Bleeding. 

Blood-lily.    See  Blood-flower. 

Blood-money,  money  paid  to  the  next  of 
kin  of  a  man  who  met  with  his  death  at  the 
hands  of  another,  accidentally  or  with  pre- 
meditation. The  Greeks  called  it  iroivrj,  the 
Latins  poena,  the  Franks.  Allemanni,  and 
Scandinavians  manbote,  xvclirgcld,  or  zvyrgilt, 
the  British  Celts  named  it  saarliard.  and  the 
Irish  Celts  eric.  The  institution  still  flour- 
ishes in  many  communities  of  Asia  and  Africa. 
In  English  criminal  law  the  term  blood-money 
was  also  applied  to  rewards  paid  to  informers 
against  highway  robbers,  thieves,  burglars, 
and  utterers  of  false  coin  or  forged  bank- 
notes. Laws  empowering  such  payments  were 
passed  between  1692  and  1742.  In  1813  the  to- 
tal amount  paid  in  this  way  was  £18.000.^  By 
this  time  a  number  of  persons  made  a  living 
out  of  these  laws  by  entrapping  unwary  and 
foolish    people   into    the   commission   of   the 

Vol.   2 — 47. 


crime  of  forging  or  uttering  false  coin,  and 
then  informing  against  them.  As  early  as 
1756  one  McDaniel  had  brought  to  the  scaf- 
fold and  earned  the  blood-money  of  no  less 
than  70  victims.  Parliament,  recognizing  the 
abuses  the  system  had  engendered,  repealed 
all  the  laws  relating  thereto,  except  iu  rela- 
tion to  the  forgers  of  bank-bills,  in  which 
case  the  informer  can  still  get  nis  pecuniary 
reward. 

Blood-pheasant,  one  of  the  small  quail- 
like pheasants  of  the  Himalayan  genus  If!<a- 
gencs,  whose  throat  and  breast  are  blood- 
red. 

Blood-poisoning.  From  the  standpoint  of 
bacteriology  blood-poisoning  may  be  of  two 
distinct  types :  It  may  be  due  to  the  presence 
of  the  poisonous  toxins  taken  up  by  the  blood, 
in  which  case  it  is  called  bacteriaeniia  or 
sapra^mia,  sometimes  septicaemia ;  or  it  may 
result  from  the  toxins  plus  the  micro-organ- 
isms in  the  blood  itself,  a  true  blood  infec- 
tion, in  which  case  it  is  termed,  septicaemia, 
or  pyaemia.  The  bacteria  most  frequently 
found  in  the  blood  in  cases  of  septicaemia  or 
p.vaemia  are  the  Streptococcus  pyogenes  aureus. 
Staphylococcus  pyogenes  aureus.  Diplococcus 
lanceolatus.  in  pneumonia.  Bacillus  typhosus. 
in  typhoid,  and  occasionally  others.  See 
Py.emia. 

Blood  Pressure.  The  pressure  of  the  cir- 
culating blood  varies  very  markedly  in  the  three 
great  divisions  of  the  vascular  system,  the  ar- 
teries, capillaries  and  veins,  being  lowest  in  the 
latter,  highest  in  the  arteries,  and  intermediate 
in  the  capillaries.  The  arterial  pressure  is  the 
most  important  from  the  practical  standpoint 
of  the  physician,  and  depends  on  four  factors : 
the  strength  of  the  heart's  pulsations,  the  degree 
of  peripheral  resistance,  the  elasticity  of  the 
arterial  wall,  and  the  volume  of  the  circulating 
blood.  Although  subject  to  not  inconsiderable 
fluctuations,  the  arterial  pressure  during  health 
is  fairly  constant,  and  in  disease  its  study  is 
of  great  importance,  both  for  purposes  of  diag- 
nosis and  of  treatment.  In  a  general  way  its 
variations  may  be  estimated  by  feeling  the  pulse 
and  judging  the  pressure  by  the  resistance  of 
the  artery  to  the  fingers,  but  it  has  been  found 
of  value  to  make  more  accurate  observations  by 
means  of  special  instruments,  or  sphygmoman- 
ometers. Numerous  forms  of  these  are  in  use, 
among  the  newer  ones  being  Gartner's  tonom- 
eter, and  the  various  modifications  of  the  Riva- 
Rocci  instrument  devised  by  Cook,  Stanton, 
and  Janeway.  Elevations  of  arterial  tension  are 
commonly  observed  in  certain  diseases  of  the 
heart,  arteries,  and  kidneys  ;  while  the  pressure 
is  low  in  wasting  diseases,  after  severe  hemor- 
rhage or  grave  injuries,  and  with  impending 
death.  The  blood  pressure  may  also  be  raised 
or  lowered  by  the  administration  of  appropriate 
drugs.  (See  Circul.^tion.)  Consult  Janeway, 
'The  Clinical  Study  of  Blood  Pressure*  (New 
York  1904). 

Blood-rain,  showers  of  grayish  and  red- 
dish dust  mingled  with  rain,  which  occasion- 
ally fall,  usually  in  the  zone  of  the  earth  which 
extends  on  both  sides  of  the  Mediterranean 
westwardly  over  the  Atlantic  and  eastwardly 
to  Central  Asia:  the  red  color  being  due  to  the 
presence  of  a  red  oxide  of  iron. 


BLOOD-STAINS  — BLOODY    SHIRT 


Blood-stains,  in  medico-legal  investiga- 
tions, are  subjects  of  some  importance,  par- 
ticularly when  murder  is  suspected  and  so- 
called  blood-stains  are  to  be  investigated. 
The  first  question  to  be  _  determined  is 
whether  the  suspected  stain  is  blood  of  any- 
animal;  secondly,  is  it  human  blood  or  that  of 
a  lower  animal.  To  determine  the  first  ques- 
tion certain  tests  have  been  devised.  These 
are  (i)  the  guaiac  test,  by  which  blood 
brought  in  contact  with  tincture  of  guaiac 
and  hydrogen  peroxide  develops  a  blue  color 
(not,  however,  conclusive) ;  (2)  the  haemin 
test,  by  which  crystals  are  produced  from 
the  haemoglobin  and  identified  under  the 
microscope;  (3)  the  spectroscope  test,  which 
gives  a  spectrum  of  haemoglobin;  (4)  the  mi- 
croscope test,  by  which  the  blood-corpuscles 
are  identified.  To  answer  the  second  ques- 
tion requires  either  (i)  the  microscopical  ex- 
amination that  determines  the  size,  shape,  and 
qualities  of  the  blood-corpuscles;  or  (2)  a 
much  more  reliable  serum  test,  by  which 
human  serum,  if  brought  in  contact  with  the 
blood  of  an  alien  animal,  causes  dissolution 
of  the  blood-corpuscles  of  that  animal's 
blood.  By  this  serum  test  it  is  possible  to 
detect  any  blood  of  any  animal. 

Blood-transfusion.  See  Infusion;  Trans- 
fusion. 

Blood-vessels.  See  Arteries  ;  Capillaries  ; 
Heart- Veins. 

Blood  of  Our  Saviour,  an  order  of  knight- 
hood, known  also  as  the  Order  of  Our  Re- 
deemer, and  the  Precious  Blood  of  Jesus 
Christ.  It  was  instituted  in  Mantua,  Italy, 
in  1608,  by  Duke  Vincenzo  Gonzaga,  and  con- 
sisted of  20  members.  Upon  the  collar  was  the 
legend  Domine  probasti  me,  and  on  the  pendant. 
Nihil  isto   friste  recepto. 

Bloodbird,  a  black  honey-eater  of  south- 
ern Australia,  whose  head,  neck,  breast,  and 
back   (of  the  male)   are  scarlet  red. 

Bloodhound,  a  dog  of  the  **hound^^  build, 
commonly  used  for  tracking  fugitives.  It 
usually  stands  from  25  to  27  inches  high  at 
the  shoulders  and  weighs  about  90  pounds. 
In  appearance  it  is  of  a  sedately  noble  ex- 
oression,  with  a  wise-looking,  wrinkled  face. 
its  color  is  black,  mingled  with  a  rich  tan 
on  the  legs;  a  few  are  all  tan.  Its  coat  is 
short  and  glossy;  the  ears  large  and  pendant; 
and  the  eyes  deeply  sunken,  and  showing  a 
third  lid  or  «haw.»  It  has  a  somewhat  loose 
akin  for  so  muscular  a  dog,  and  quite  a  dew- 
lap in  front  of  the  throat.  It  has  a  wonder- 
ful power  of  scent,  by  means  of  which,  aided 
by  judicious  training,  it  is  enabled  to  follow 
the  footsteps  of  a  particular  man,  though  they 
may  be  crossed  and  recrorised  a  thousand 
times  by  other  footsteps,  and  though  they 
lead  over  bare  pavements. 

The  true  bloodhound  si'fifers  from  an  un- 
fortunate name,  which  seems  to  suggest 
bloodthirstiness,  a  quality  very  far  removed 
from  his  real  disposition.  The  term  "blood- 
hounds originally  meant  simply  that  the  dog 
was  thoroughbred  in  the  same  sense  that  a 
horse  or  other  animal  is  of  "blood'^  or 
«blnoded»  stock.  In  the  early  davs  the  Span- 
iards introduced  into  Cuba  and  South  Amer- 
ica  dogs  which   had  some  of  the  character- 


istics of  the  bloodhound,  but  were  really  » 
cross  between  the  ferocious  war-dog  of  the 
ancients  and  the  big  Spanish  pointer.  The.se. 
dogs  had  evil  dispositions  and  were  capable 
of  great  ferocity,  and  their  sins  have  befin 
visited  on  the  real  but  innocent  bloodhound. 
The  true  bloodhound  will  trail  a  man  to  the 
last  of  its  strength,  but  will  not  voluntarily 
attack  him.  When  it  has  located  him,  it  will 
keep  guard  and  prevent  his  escape;  and  may, 
if  attacked,  use  its  great  powers  in  self-de- 
fense, but  not  in  the  savage  manner  generally- 
attributed  to  it;  it  is  not  in  its  nature  to  be  cruel. 

Bloodroot.     See  Sanguinaria. 

Blood'stone.     See  Heliotrope;  Hematite. 

Bloodworm,  the  larvse  of  species  of  Chi- 
loiioimis.  gnats  allied  to  the  mosquito.  The- 
worms  live  in  fresh-water  pools  and  sluggish 
streams.  They  are  long,  slender,  and  worm- 
like, and  certain  species  are  blood-red  in 
color.  The  flies  have  very  feathery  antennae 
and  do  not  bite.  The  larvae  usually  have  no- 
tracheae.  The  red  color  of  these  larvse  is  due- 
to  haemoglobin,  a  substance  that  has  the 
power  of  attracting  and  storing  oxygen,  and 
giving  it  off  to  the  tissues  as  they  require  it. 
Such  larvje  are  able  to  live  in  burrows  which, 
they  construct  in  the  mud.  Some  of  them,, 
provided  plentifully  with  haemoglobin,  are  in 
consequence  able  to  live  at  great  depths  (it  is 
said  even  at  1,000  feet  in  Lake  Superior),  and. 
come  to  the  surface  only  occasionally.  A  few 
are  able  even  to  tolerate  salt  water,  and  have 
been  fished  up  from  considerable  depths  in 
the  sea.  It  is  a  remarkable  fact  that  these- 
physiological  capacities  differ  gpeatly  within, 
the  limits  of  the  one  genus,  Chironojiius,  for 
some  of  these  species  are  destitute  of  haemo- 
globin, and  have  to  live  near  the  surface  of 
the  water;  in  these  there  is  a  well-developed, 
tracheal  system. 

Bloodwort.     See  S.\nguinaria. 

Bloody  Assizes,  the  name  given  by  the- 
people  to  a  series  of  trials  held  in  England 
by  the  infamous  Judge  Jeffreys,  in  1685.  after 
the  suppression  of  the  Duke  of  Monmouth's- 
rebellion.  Upward  of  300  persons  were  exe- 
cuted after  short  trials;  very  many  were 
whipped,  imprisoned,  and  fined;  and  nearly 
1. 000  were  sent  as  slaves  to  the  American, 
plantations.     See  Jeffreys,   George. 

Bloody  Bill,  in  American  politics,  an  act; 
sometimes  called  the  Force  Bill,  passed  by 
Congress  2  March  1833.  Its  aim  was  to  en- 
force the  tariff-law  of  1832,  which  the  legis- 
lature of  South  Carolina  had  declared  null 
and  void.    See  \J.  S.,  Tariff  in  the. 

Bloody  Falls,  the  lowest  cataract  of  the 
Coppermine  River  in  the  Northwest  Terri- 
tories of  Canada;  so  named  because  of  a  mas- 
sacre here  of  Eskimos  by  Chippewa  Indians- 
in  1770. 

Bloody  Mary,  a  popular  designation  of 
Mary,  Queen  of  England,  on  account  of  the 
persecutions  of  the  Protestants  during  her 
reign  ( 1553-8) • 

Bloody  Shirt,  a  term  used  about  1880  in 
Congress,  to  revive  the  memories  of  the  Civil 
War  by  impassioned  allusions  as,  ^^to  wave  the- 
bloody  shirt.'^ 


BLOODY   TOWER  — BLOOMFIELD-ZEISLER 


Bloody  Tower,  a  term  popularly  applied 
to  that  portion  of  the  Tower  of  London  in 
which  Richard  III.  is  alleged  to  have  caused 
the  murder  of  his  nephews,  Edward  V.  and 
the  Duke  of  York. 

Bloom,  the  powdery  or  w^axy  protective 
film  upon  fruits,  as  grape  and  plum;  and 
upon  leaves  and  stems,  as  cabbage.  It  is  es- 
pecially noticeable  upon  desert  plants.  See 
also  Xerophytes. 

Bloom,  a  lump  of  puddled  iron,  which 
leaves  the  furnace  in  a  rough  state,  to  be 
subsequently  rolled  into  bars  or  other  form 
into  which  it  may  be  desired  to  convert  the 
metal.  Also  a  lump  of  iron  made  directly 
from  the  ore  by  a  furnace  called  a  bloomery. 
See  also  Iron. 

Bloomer,  Amelia  Jenks,  American  re- 
former; b.  Homer,  N.  Y.,  27  May  1818;  d. 
Council  Bluffs,  30  Dec.  1894.  She  was  mar- 
ried in  1840  to  Dexter  C.  Bloomer,  of  Seneca 
Falls,  N.  Y.,  where  for  several  years  she  and 
her  husband  w^ere  engaged  in  publishing  a 
semi-monthly  periodical.  In  1S49  she  began 
publishing  ^The  Lily*  in  the  interests  of 
temperance  reform  and  women's  rights;  in 
1853,  on  removing  to  Alount  Vernon,  Ohio,  she 
resumed  its  publication  there,  and  also  be- 
came associate  editor  of  'The  Western  Home 
Journal.*  In  1855  the  couple  removed  to 
Council  Bluffs,  Iowa,  where  Mr.  Bloomer  be- 
came an  organizer  of  the  Republican  party 
in  that  .State,  and  a  Federal  official  and  a 
judge.  She  carried  on  her  reformatory  work 
for  many  years.  ]\Irs.  Bloomer  will  be  re- 
membered longest  because  of  her  personal 
adoption  and  her  active  advocacy  of  a  cos- 
tume which  had  been  devised  by  Mrs.  Eliza- 
beth Smith  Miller,  and  which  became  more 
popularly  known  as  the  Bloomer  cos- 
tume,    (q.v.) 

Bloomer  Costume,  a  style  of  dress  intro- 
duced about  the  year  1849  by  Mrs.  Amelia  Jenks 
Bloomer  (q.v.j,  who  proposed  thereby  to  effect 
a  complete  revolution  in  female  dress  and  add 
materially  to  the  health  and  comfort  of  her 
sex.  It  consisted  of  a  jacket  with  close  sleeves, 
a  skirt  reaching  a  little  below  the  knee,  and 
a  pair  of  Turkish  pantaloons  secured  by  bands 
around  the  ankles.  Though  adopted  rather  ex- 
tensively in  America,  it  was  unable  to  hold  its 
ground  against  the  united  strength  of  prejudice 
and  ridicule,  and  abroad  it  scarcely  made  further 
way  than  furnishing  a  favorite  subject  of  bur- 
lesque on  the  stage,  and  of  ridicule  in  the  pages 
of  the  comic  papers.  One  or  two  "strong- 
mmded'*  women  who  ventured  to  brave  public 
opinion  in  London  by  donning  the  new  costume, 
were  persecuted  by  the  mob. 

Bloomfield,  Joseph,  American  soldier:  b. 
Woodbridge,  N.  J. ;  d.  Burlington.  N.  Y.,  3  Oct. 
1823.  When  the  Revolutionary  War  broke  out 
he  was  studying  law,  but  joined  the  cause  of  the 
colonists  with  enthusiasm.  In  1776  he  received 
a  captain's  commission  in  the  3d  New  Jersey 
regiment,  served  with  distinction  throughout  the 
war,  and  was  mustered  out  a  major.  Resuming 
his  legal  studies,  he  acquired  a  successful  prac- 
tice in  Burlington,  was  elected  attorney-general, 
and  twice  (1801,  1812)  governor  of  the  State. 
During  the  War  of  1812  he  commanded  a  bri- 
gade.    From  1817  to  1821  he  was  a  representa- 


tive in  Congress,  and  as  chairman  of  the  Com- 
mittee on  Revolutionary  Pensions  he  reported 
the  bill  granting  pensions  to  soldiers  of  the 
Revolutionary  army.  In  1793  he  was  appointed 
a  trustee  of  Princeton,  and  during  his  eight 
years'  membership  of  the  board,  did  much  to 
promote  the  interests  of  that  college. 

Bloomfield,  Maurice,  American  educator: 
b.  Bielilz.  Austria,  23  Feb.  1855.  He  came  to 
the  United  States  in  1857;  entered  the  University 
of  Chicago,  and  was  graduated  at  Furman  Uni- 
versity, in  Greenville,  S.  C,  in  1877 ;  took  a 
course  in  Sanskrit  and  comparative  philology  in 
Yale  College  1877-8 ;  and  was  a  Fellow  of  Johns 
Hopkins  University  i878-;9.  He  continued  his 
studies  in  Berlin  and  Leipsic  1879-81  ;  became 
an  associate  in  Johns  Hopkins  University  in 
1881  ;  and  subsequently  professor  of  Sanskrit 
and  comparative  philology  there.  He  published 
numerous  grammatical  and  philological  papers; 
edited  for  the  first  time  f'-om  the  original  San- 
skrit MSS.  the  <Sutra  of  Kauqika' ;  translated 
the  'Atharva-Veda*  in  the  'Sacred  Books  of  the 
East*  ;  and  has  since  been  engaged  in  compiling 
a   'Concordance  of  the  Vedas.* 

Bloomfield,  Robert,  English  poet:  b.  Hon- 
ington,  1766;  d.  August  1823.  He  learned  to 
read  at  the  village  school,  and  in  1781  was  sent 
to  learn  the  trade  of  a  shoemaker  with  his 
brother  in  London.  The  visiting  of  several 
places  of  worship,  a  debating  society,  Covent 
Garden  Theatre,  and  the  reading  of  sundry 
books,  called  forth  his  faculties,  and  he  became 
almost  unconsciously  a  poet.  Hearing  him  one 
day  repeat  a  song  which  he  had  composed,  his 
astonished  brother  prevailed  on  him  to  offer  it 
to  the  'London  Magazine,*  and  it  was  accepted. 
The  piece  was  called  'The  Milkmaid.*  A  sec- 
ond, 'The  Sailor's  Return,*  likewise  found  a 
place  in  that  journal.  Thomson's  'Seasons,* 
'Paradise  Lost,*  and  other  works  of  this  kind, 
now  became  the  subjects  of  his  constant  study. 
In  the  country,  where  he  resided  for  a  short 
time  in  1786,  he  first  conceived  the  idea  of  his 
poem,  'The  Farmer's  Boy,*  which  is  charac- 
terized b}^  a  spirit  of  rural  simplicity  and  inno- 
cence. It  was  written  under  the  most  unfavor- 
able circumstances,  in  a  garret.  It  was  first 
shown  to  Capel  Lofft  in  1798,  who  was  so  much 
pleased  with  it  that,  in  conjunction  with  his 
friend  Hill,  he  had  it  printed  in  1800.  Bloom- 
field was  patronized  by  the  Duke  of  Grafton, 
who  bestowed  on  him  a  small  annuity  and  made 
him  an  under-sealer  in  the  seal-office.  This 
situation  he  was  forced  to  resign  on  account  of 
ill  health.  He  then  worked  again  at  his  trade 
as  a  shoemaker,  and  emplo^-ed  himself  in  con- 
structing .Eolian  harps.  Engaging  in  the  book 
trade  he  became  a  bankrupt,  and  in  the  latter 
part  of  his  life  was  afflicted  with  violent  head- 
aches and  became  nearly  blind.  He  was  grad- 
ually reduced  to  such  a  state  of  nervous  irrita- 
bility that  apprehensions  were  entertained  of 
his  becoming  insane.  These  fears  were  termi- 
nated by  his  death. 

Bloomfield-Zeisler,  Fanny,  American  pian- 
ist :  b.  Bielitz,  Austrian  Silesia,  16  July  1866. 
She  came  to  Chicago  with  her  parents  in  her 
second  year,  and  at  an  early  age  displayed 
marked  musical  talent,  which  was  later  devel- 
oped by  study  abroad,  chiefly  under  Leschetizky 
at  Vienna.  Since  1895  she  has  played  regularly 
in  the  principal  cities  of  the  United  States.     In 


BLOOMFIELD  —  BLOUNT 


1893-5  she  made  a  tour  of  the  chief  cities  in 
Germany,  everywhere  meeting  with  great  ap- 
plause. In  the  spring  of  1898  she  made  a  suc- 
cessful English  tour. 

Bloomfield,  N.  J.,  a  township  in  Essex 
County,  on  the  Delaware,  L.  &  W.,  and  the 
Erie  R.R.'s,  the  Morris  Canal,  and  trolley  lines 
connecting  with  Newark,  the  Oranges,  Jersey 
City,  and  other  cities  ;  10  miles  northwest  of  New 
York.  It  was  founded  in  1685,  under  the  name 
of  Watsessing,  and  received  its  present  name 
from  Gen.  Joseph  Bloomfield  in  1796.  The  old- 
est church  in  the  town  dates  from  this  year. 
Bloomfield  once  ranked  as  an  educational  centre. 
Here  were  located  in  addition  to  other  similar 
institutions,  the  Bloomfield  Classical  School, 
Madam  Cooke's  Female  Seminary,  and  a  Pres- 
byterian Theological  Seminary,  the  edifice  of 
the  latter  being  now  occupied  by  a  German  the- 
ological seminary.  It  has  a  fine  Mountainside 
Hospital ;  contains  the  residences  of  many  New 
York  business  men ;  and  is  engaged  in  the  man- 
ufacture of  church  and  cabinet  organs,  woolen 
goods,  hats,  shoes,  rubber  goods,  tissue  and  pho- 
tographic paper,  saddlery,  hardware,  electric  ele- 
vators, and  a  variety  of  brass  goods.  It  has  a  na- 
tional bank,  daily  and  weekly  newspapers,  an  as- 
sessed property  valuation  of  nearly  $4,000,000  and 
a  total  debt  of  about  $250,000.    Pop.  (igoo*  9,668. 

Bloomington,  111.,  city  and  county-seat  of 
McLean  County,  situated  near  the  geographical 
centre  of  the  state,  126  miles  south  of  Chicago 
and  on  the  Illinois  Central,  Chicago  &  Alton, 
Big  Four,  and  Lake  Erie  &  Western  R.R.'s. 

Manufactures  and  Industries. —  Bloomington 
is  in  the  heart  of  the  famous  Illinois  corn  belt, 
surrounded  by  one  of  the  richest  and  most  pro- 
ductive agricultural  sections  in  the  world,  and 
where  the  largest  nurseries  in  the  state,  com- 
prising over  1,000  acres,  are  located.  It  is  en- 
gaged in  the  manufacture  of  farm  implements, 
flour  and  feed,  stoves  and  furnaces,  brick  and 
tile,  canned  goods,  harness,  store  fixtures,  and 
portable  elevators ;  has  a  coal  shaft  lifting  700 
tons  of  coal  per  day,  a  bevel  glass  plant,  orna- 
mental iron  works,  paper  and  cigar  factories,  a 
brewery  and  a  pork-packing  establishment. 

Banks. — -There  are  seven  banks  —  three  na- 
tional and  four  state  —  with  a  combined  capital 
and  surplus  of  $1,700,000,  and  deposits  of 
$5,000,000. 

Parks. —  The  city  has  three  beautiful  parks 
and  is  noted  for  its  fine  brick  pavements,  having 
more  than  any  other  city  of  its  size. 

Churches,  Educational  Institutions,  Etc. — 
There  are  32  churches  of  all  denominations,  a 
fine  public  school  system,  with  a  high  school,  12 
grammar  schools,  3  parochial  schools  and  sev- 
eral excellent  private  schools;  a  commercial 
college,  a  college  of  oratory  and  one  of  music. 
Bloomington  has  one  of  the  largest  and  best 
selected  public  libraries  in  the  state  and  several 
law  libraries.  The  Illinois  Wesleyan  University 
(q.v.)  and  the  Soldier's  Orphan  Home  are  lo- 
cated here,  and  the  Illinois  State  Normal  Uni- 
versity (q.v.),  which  has  long  been  known  as 
one  of  the  best  institutions  in  the  Lmion  for  the 
education  of  teachers,  is  situated  at  Normal,  a 
suburb  about  two  miles  distant  from  the  court- 
house, and  connected  by  electric  railway.  Among 
the  public  buildings  are  a  large  court-house,  two 
opera-houses,  and  several  commodious  public 
halls. 


History, Government, Etc. —  The  citywas  first 
settled  by  pioneers  from  New  England  and  Ken- 
tucky and  became  a  borough  in  1831  and  was  in- 
corporated in  185 1.  The  government  is  vested 
in  a  mayor  and  board  of  aldermen,  composed  of 
14  members,  who  are  elected  biennially.  The 
city  has  an  electric  railway  system,  operating 
over  20  miles  of  track,  and  a  well-trained  fire 
department ;  is  lighted  by  gas  and  electricity  and 
controls  its  water-works.  Pop.  (1905)  28,286. 
,      Adlai  E.  Stevenson. 

Bloomington,  Ind.,  city  and  county-seat  of 
Monroe  County,  on  the  Monon  and  the  In- 
dianapolis Southern  R.R.'s ;  60  miles  south  of 
Indianapolis.  It  is  in  a  limestone  and  quarry 
region;  is  the  seat  of  the  Indiana  State  Uni- 
versity (q.v.)  ;  and  besides  its  farming  and 
quarrying  interests  has  important  manufactur- 
ing concerns,  especially  in  the  lines  of  leather 
and  hardware.  The  city  has  the  Monroe  County 
Library,  a  national  bank,  several  daily  and  weekly 
periodicals,  and  a  property  valuation  of  over 
$1,500,000.  It  was  settled  in  1818  and  was  in- 
corporated as  a  city  in  1876.     Pop.   (1900)  6,460. 

Bloomsburg,  Pa.,  a  town  and  county-seat 
of  Columbia  Co. ;  on  the  Susquehanna  River, 
the  Pennsylvania  Canal,  and  several  railroads ; 
40  miles  west  of  Wilkesbarre.  It  is  in  an  iron 
and  limestone  region ;  contains  a  number  of 
iron  furnaces  and  foundries,  silk  mills,  brass 
and  copper  tube  works,  furniture  and  desk  fac- 
tories, carpet  factories,  etc. ;  is  the  seat  of  the 
State  Normal  School  and  a  literary  institute, 
and  has  an  assessed  property  valuation  of  about 
$2,500,000.     Pop.   (1900)   6,170. 

Blouet,  Paul,  pol  bloo-a  (Max  O'Rell), 
French  lecturer  and  author :  b.  Brittany,  France, 
2  March  1848;  d.  Paris,  24  May  1903.  In  early 
life  he  was  an  officer  in  the  French  army,  but  in 
1873  went  to  England  and  became  a  teacher. 
After  the  publication  of  his  first  book,  'John 
Bull  and  His  Island'  (1883),  he  abandoned 
teaching  and  devoted  himself  to  literature.  His 
works  include  'John  Bull  and  His  Daughters' 
(1884);  'Jonathan  and  His  Continent'  (1888, 
with  Tack  Allvn)  ;  'A  Frenchman  in  America' 
(1891")  ;   'John  Bull  &  Co.'    (1894)- 

Bloundelle-Burton,  John  Edward,  English 
novelist :  b.  3  March  1850.  He  vvas  educated 
for  the  army,  has  lived  and  traveled  in  the  United 
States  and  many  European  countries  and  has 
been  a  correspondent  of  various  English  and 
French  journals.  His  published  works  include: 
<The  Silent  Shore'  (1886);  'His  Own  Enemv' 
(1887);  'Across  the  Salt  Seas'  (1898);  'The 
Scourge  of  God'  (1898)  ;  'Fortune's  My  Foe' 
(1899);  'A  Bitter  Heritage'  (1899);  'The 
Seafarers'  :  'Servants  of  Sin'  (1900)  ;  'A  Van- 
ished Rival'  (1901);  'The  Year  One'  (1901): 
•llie  Fate  of  Valsee'   (1902). 

Blount,  James  H.,  American  legislator:  b. 
Macon,  Ga.,  12  Sept.  1837 ;  d.  8  March.  1903.  He 
first  came  into  public  notice  in  1865,  when,  after 
having  served  in  the  Confederate  army  he  was 
a  delegate  to  the  Georgia  constitutional  conven- 
tion. Thereafter  he  devoted  himself  to  the 
practice  of  law  until  1872,  when  he  was  elected 
to  Congress  from  the  Sixth  District  of  Georgia. 
He  held  his  seat  by  successive  re-elections  till 
1893,  when  he  declined  a  further  term.  As  he 
finished  his  last  term  the  House  paid  him  the 
unusual  honor  of  suspending  its  proceedings  to 
give  the  members   an  opportunity  to   testify  to 


BLOUNT— BLOWING  MACHINES 


their  appreciation  of  his  worth.  In  his  last 
term  he  was  chairman  of  the  Committee  on  For- 
eign Affairs,  and  his  famiharity  with  American 
relations  with  other  countries  led  President 
Cleveland  to  appoint  him  commissioner  para- 
mount to  Hawaii  in  March,  1893,  for  the  pur- 
pose of  investigating  the  deposition  of  the  royal 
government  and  the  establishment  of  the  Amer- 
ican protectorate  over  the  kingdom.  On  his  ar- 
rival in  Honolulu  he  at  once  caused  the  Amer- 
ican flag  to  be  hauled  down  from  the  Provisional 
Government  House,  and  the  United  States  ma- 
rines to  be  withdrawn  from  the  locality.  This 
proceeding  led  to  considerable  excitement  in 
the  United  States ;  the  withdrawal  of  United 
States  Minister  Stevens  from  Honolulu;  the 
appointment  of  Commissioner  Bloimt  as  his 
successor ;  and  a  renewal  both  in  Washington 
and  Honolulu  of  the  agitation  for  the  annexa- 
tion of  Hawaii  to  the  United  States.  On  the 
completion  of  his  mission  IMinister  Blount  re- 
tired to  his  large  Georgia  estates.    See  Hawaii. 

Blount,  William,  American  statesman :  b. 
North  Carolina,  1754;  d.  Knoxville,  Tenn.,  21 
March  1816.  He  was  a  delegate  from  his  na- 
tive State  to  the  Continental  Congress  in  1782, 
1783,  1786,  and  1787;  a  signer  of  the  Federal 
Constitution  in  1787,  and  governor  of  the  ter- 
ritory south  of  the  Ohio  (1790).  In  1796  he 
was  chosen  president  of  the  Convention  of  Ten- 
nessee, and  was  elected  the  same  year  by  that 
State  to  a  seat  in  the  U.  S.  Senate.  But  in  1797 
he  was  expelled  from  that  body  for  having,  as 
it  was  alleged,  instigated  the  Creeks  and  Cher- 
okees  to  assist  the  British  in  conquering  the 
Spanish  territories  near  the  United  States.  His 
impeachment  merely  served  to  increase  his  pop- 
ularity at  home,  where  he  was  promptly  elected 
a  member  of  the  State  Senate  and  chosen  pres- 
ident thereof. 

Blow,  John,  English  musical  composer : 
b.  1648;  d.  1708.  He  became  organist  of  West- 
minster Abbey  at  the  age  of  21,  and  in  1676 
also  organist  of  the  Chapel  Royal,  and  obtained 
the  degree  of  Doctor  of  Music.  In  1680  he  re- 
signed his  post  in  Westminster  Abbey  to  his 
pupil  Purcell.  In  1699  he  was  appointed  corn- 
poser  to  the  Chapel  Royal.  He  was  a  volumi- 
nous composer,  but  many  of  his  works  have 
never  been  printed.  Among  his  sacred  pieces 
are  upward  of  100  anthems,  14  church  services, 
and  various  other  compositions.  A  number  of 
his  secular  compositions  for  one,  two.  or  three 
voices,  with  accompaniment,  were  published  un- 
der the  name  of  *Amphion  Anglicus.* 

Blow-f!y,  a  common  fly  belonging  to  the 
family  Miiscid(C.  It  is  the  large,  noisy  fly  which 
enters  houses,  and  was  named  Calliphora  voiui- 
toria  by  Linn?eus.  It  is  black  on  the  head  and 
thorax,  while  the  abdomen  is  steel-blue.  It  is 
similar  to  the  flesh-fly  in  habits,  but  instead  of 
living  larvae  it  deposits  its  eggs  which  are  long 
and  cylindrical,  in  stacks  ("fly-blowsw)  on  meat, 
cheese,  etc.  The  larv?e  hatch  in  24  hours;  they 
become  fully  grown  in  probably  five  or  six 
days,  and  transform  into  pup?e  enclosed  by  a 
brown  shell  (puparium),  formed  by  the  drying 
and  contraction  of  the  larval  skin.  Oily  or 
greasv  substances  are  avoided  by  them,  and  by 
all  other  flies,  and  a  cloth  dipped  in  kerosene 
oil  and  suspended  in  a  room  will  keep  them 
from  entering  it.    Another  blow-fly  is  CalUphora 


crythrocct^hala,  common  to  Europe  and  North 
America. 

Blowgun,  a  weapon  formerly  used  by  the 
Indians  uihabitating  the  shores  of  the  Gulf  of 
Mexico  and  still  emploved  by  some  of  the  In- 
dian tribes  of  South  America,  botli  in  war  and 
for  killing  game.  It  consists  of  a  long,  straight 
tube  in  which  a  small  poisoned  arrow  is  placed, 
and  forcibly  expelled  by  the  breath.  The  tube 
or  blowgun,  called  gravatdna,  puncuna,  etc.,  is 
8  to  12  feet  long,  the  bore  not  generally  large 
enough  to  admit  the  little  finger.  It  is  made  of 
reed  or  of  the  stem  of  a  small  palm.  A  sight 
is  affixed  to  it  near  the  end.  The  arrows  used 
are  15  to  18  inches  long,  made  of  the  spines 
of  another  palm,  sharply  pointed,  notched  so  as 
to  break  off  in  the  wound,  and  their  points 
covered  with  curari  poison.  A  little  soft  down 
of  the  silk-cotton  tree  is  twisted  round  each 
arrow,  so  as  exactly  to  fit  the  tube. 

Blowing  Machines.  The  term  blowing 
machine  or  blower  is  applied  to  various  forms  of 
mechanical  arrangements  employed  for  the  pro- 
duction of  artificial  currents  of  air  for  ventilat- 
ing purposes,  for  forced  draught  for  furnaces, 
etc.  They  are  also  employed  as  exhausters  for 
the  removal  of  smoke  and  fumes  from  smelting 
works,  foundries,  etc.,  for  the  removal  of  saw- 
dust and  wood  planings  from  saw  mills  and 
planing  mills,  and  for  handling  such  material 
as  emery,  coffee,  metal  filings,  etc. 

The  various  forms  of  blowers  may  be  con- 
veniently divided  into  the  following  general 
classes : 

Bellows. — These  comprise  the  earliest  forms 
of  blowing  machines  and  are  also  the  most 
familiar  at  the  present  time.  In  their  earlier 
forms,  still  used  in  some  oriental  countries,  they 
consisted  of  simple  bags  of  skin  each  equipped 
with  a  valve  and  nozzle.  A  more  elaborate  ap- 
plication of  the  same  principle  is  found  in  the 
ordinary  domestic  bellows  and  those  used  in  the 
blacksmith's  shops.  The  only  point  of  interest 
in  this  connection  is  the  means  employed  to 
maintain  a  continuous  blast.  This  is  accom- 
plished by  introducing  a  third  board  between 
the  upper  and  lower  boards  of  the  ordinary 
bellows.  The  middle  board  is  fixed  or  arranged 
to  remain  stationary.  This  board  and  the  lower 
board  are  provided  with  valves  which  open  in- 
wardly. A  weight  attached  to  the  lower  board 
keeps  the  lower  chamber  filled  with  air,  so  that 
when  the  lower  board  is  raised  by  means  of  a 
lever  or  some  similar  arrangement,  the  air  in 
the  lower  chamber  is  forced  into  the  upper 
chamber.  The  outlet  nozzle  is  attached  to  the 
upper  chamber,  and  the  upper  board  is  suf- 
ficiently weighted  to  press  the  air  out  through 
the  nozzle  in  a  continuous  stream,  which  is 
maintained  by  the  relatively  large  quantity  of 
air  which  is  always  present  in  the  upper  chamber 
under  the  uniform  pressure  of  the  weighted 
board.  It  is  obvious  that  a  spring  can  be  used 
instead  of  a  weight  to  press  out  the  air  from  the 
upper  chamber,  and  this  arrangement  is  the  one 
usually  employed  in  the  case  of  the  bellows 
ordinarily  used  in  blacksmith's  shops. 

Piston  Blowers. — The  simplest  form  of  a 
piston  blower  consists  of  a  square  wooden 
chamber  with  a  close  fitting  piston  working 
within  it.  When  the  piston  is  drawn  backward, 
air  is  sucked  into  the  chamber  through  a  flap 


BLOWING  MACHINES 


valve,  and  when  the  piston  is  pushed  forward 
this  air  is  compressed  and  forced  out  through 
the  nozzle. 

Blounng-Engincs. — The  air  pump  or  air  com- 
pressor used  for  producing  low  pressures  rep- 
resents the  modern  form  of  piston  blowers. 
Various  types  of  these  machines  are  extensively 
used  for  supplying  the  air  blast  to  the  cupolas 
of  blast  furnaces,  Bessemer  converters,  etc. 
They  are  driven  by  either  steam,  gas,  or  water 
power,  and  are  then  commonly  known  as  blow- 
ing-engines. A  machine  of  this  type  usually 
consists  of  a  power  cylinder  operating  a  piston 
either  by  steam  or  gas,  and  an  air  compressor 
cylinder  which  delivers  the  compressed  air  into 
the  blast  pipes.  In  the  horizontal  engines,  the 
two  cylinders  are  placed  tandem  to  each  other 
with  the  compressor  cylinder  in  front.  In  the 
vertical    engines,    the    compressor    cylinder    is 


developing  as  high  as  7,000  horsepower  are  being 
buih  both  in  the  United  States  and  in  Europe 
for  this  purpose.     See  Gas  Engines. 

Rotary  Blowers.— This  type  of  machines  in- 
cludes various  forms  of  disk  blowers  and  fans 
which  are  generally  used  for  ventilating  pur- 
poses.    See  Coal  AIining  Machinery. 

The  disk  blowers  are  built  in  sizes  ranging 
from  one  to  ten  feet  in  diameter,  and  are  capable 
of  delivering  from  1,000  to  250,000  cubic  feet  of 
air  per  minute,  according  to  their  size  and  the 
number  of  revolutions  per  minute  at  which  they 
are  operated.  The  accompanying  table  of 
capacities  of  open  air  delivery,  gives  some 
normal  values  relative  to  the  size  of  the  disks, 
the  speed  at  which  they  are  run,  the  cubic  feet 
of  air  propelled  per  minute,  and  the  horsepower 
required  to  operate  them. 

Disk  blowers  are  often  called  fans,  but  it  is 


TABLE 

OF   open-air  delivery  capacities. 

Veloci- 
ty of 
air  in 

Cu.  ft. 

R.P.M. 

B.H.P. 

Diameter  of  fan  in  inches 

ft.   per 
min. 

18 

24 

30            36 

42 

48 

54 

60 

72 

84 

96 

108 

120 

750 

Cu.  ft.     1    1,473    2,620 
R.P.M.           415        300 
B.H.P.           .03         .06 

4,li5 
250 
.10 

5.G30 
200 
.15 

8,081 
175 
.20 

10,550 
150 

.24 

13,874 
150 
.40 

16,489|23.474 
125         100 
.39         .60 

30,323 
100 
.90 

56,218 

100 

1.17 

53,564 

70 

1.50 

66,444 

65 

1.70 

1,100 

Cu.  ft. 
R.P.M. 
B.H.P. 

1,912    3,956 
620        450 
.00         .14 

6,615 
400 

.  22 

8,895 
300 
.38 

12,121 
250 
.45 

15,826 
225 
.60 

20,034  24,734 

200         175 

1.00         .95 

35,620    51.284 

150           150 

1.40         2.00 

64,927 

125 

2.30 

80,159 

100 

4.00 

98.910 

100 

5.00 

l.SOO 

Cu.  ft. 
R.P.M. 
B.H.P. 

2.640    5,275 
850        600 
.10         .26 

8,232 
500 
.40 

11,861 
400 
.66 

16,162 

350 

1.00 

21,100 

300 
.90 

26,712 

275 

1.90 

34,378 

250 

2.10 

47,494 

200 

2.50 

64,646 

175 

4.00 

84,437 

150 

4.75 

112,420 

150 

7.50 

131,936 

125 

7.00 

1.875 

Cu.  ft. 
R.P.M. 
B.H.P. 

3,300 

1,050 

.20 

6,594 
700 
.50 

10.290 
600 
.73 

15.885 

500 

1.10 

20,202 

450 

1.67 

28,376 

400 

2.25 

34,790 

350 

3.20 

41,223 

300 

3.50 

59,367 

250 

3.95 

81,144 

225 

7.50 

109,746 

200 

10.50 

134,960 

175 

11.25 

164,990 

150 

12.00 

2.500 

Cu.  ft. 
R.P.M. 
B.H.P. 

4,400 

1,400 

.75 

8,792 

1.000 

1.00 

13,720 

800 

1.40 

20,230 
700 

2.25 

26,036 

550 

3.30 

34,168 

500 

4.00 

44,520 

450 

4.50 

54,964 

400 

6.00 

79.156 

350 

7.00 

107,744 

300 

10.00 

140,728 

300 

13.50 

178,080 

225 

20.00 

219.940 

200 

28.00 

Cu.  ft.     Cubic  feet  of  air  delivered  per  minute. 

R.P.M.     Revolutions  per  minute. 

B.H.P.     Brake  horsepower  required  to  operate  fan. 


usually  placed  on  top  of  the  power  cylinder. 
The  pistons  of  both  cylinders  are  carried  on  a 
common  piston  rod,  and  the  engines  are  usually 
provided  with  heavy  flywheels  to  insure  steady 
operation. 

In  many  forms  of  steam  blowing-engines, 
the  power  cylinders  are  compounded,  while  those 
of  gas  engine  installations  are  often  made 
double-acting,  and  sometimes  two  power  cylin- 
ders placed  tandem  to  each  other  and  to  the 
compressor   cylinder  are   successfully  employed. 

The  ■'^cent  discovery  of  the  suitability  of 
blast  furnace  gas,  ?'.  e.  the  gas  which  passes  out 
of  the  top  of  blast  furnaces  employed  for  the 
smelting  of  iron  ores,  has  greatly  tended  to- 
wards the  development  of  large  gas  engines 
specially  adapted  for  blowing  purposes.  Up  to 
the  year  igoo,  the  largest  engine  of  this  type 
was  a  Cockerill  engine  of  about  600  horsepower, 
but  since  then,  the  capacities  of  these  machines 
have  been  greatly   increased,   and   engine  units 


well  to  understand,  that  in  the  former  the  blades 
are  set  at  an  angle  to  the  axle  while  in  a  fan 
blower  proper,  the  blades  are  set  parallel  to  the 
axle  on  radial  spokes  in  a  manner  similar  to  the 
setting  of  the  paddles  on  a  paddle  wheel.  These 
blades  may  be  either  flat  or  curved  in  both 
cases,  and  are  arranged  to  revolve  in  a  steel 
or  cast  iron  casing  or  shell  so  designed  that  the 
air  is  sucked  in  through  a  larger  or  smaller 
orifice  at  the  side  and  forced  out  through  an 
outlet  leading  from  the  periphery. 

The  ordinary  pressure  blowers  are  merely 
another  form  of  fan  blowers.  They  were  orig- 
inally designed  for  use  with  cupola  furnaces, 
and  forges,  but  are  also  extensively  used  for 
producing  mechanical  draught  for  the  furnaces 
of  boilers,  for  use  with  mechanical  stokers,  sand 
blast  machines,  pneumatic  tube  delivery  systems, 
etc.,  or  for  any  work  requiring  pressures  as  high 
as  16  ounces  per  square  inch. 

The   fan   wheels   are   usually   made   of  thin 


BLOWING  MACHINES 


galvanized  steel,  and  are  enclosed  in  a  shell  of 
cast  iron.  The  larger  sizes  are  usually  provided 
with  two  driving  pulleys,  and  are  usually  made 
to  discharge  horizontally  at  the  bottom,  but  they 
can  be  built  in  any  other  of  the  four  right 
angles.     See  Fig.  i. 

Positive  Blozi'crs. — These  machines  are  a 
more  recent  form  of  the  rotary  blowers,  and 
are  very  extensively  used  for  operating  high 
pressure  forges,  blow-torches,  gas  furnaces,  low 
pressure  sand  blasts,  small  pneumatic  tube 
systems,  and  similar  purposes  requiring  a 
capacity  ranging  from  25  to  150  cubic  feet  of 
air  per  minute  at  a  pressure  ranging  from  four 
to  eight  ounces.  They  can  be  driven  by  direct 
connection  engines  and  electric  motors,  or  by 
power  driven  belting,  and  the  principle  of  rotary 
motion  applied  to  air  under  high  pressure  ap- 
pears to  eliminate  a  great  deal  of  the  incidental 
friction,  so  that  when  high  efficiencies  can  be 
obtained  they  are  preferable  to  fans  and  blow- 
ing engines. 

These  machines  consist  of  an  outside  casing 
or  cylinder  of  cast  iron  provided  with  massive 
head  plates  which  carry  the  journal  boxes  as 
shown  by  Fig.  2,  which  illustrates  a  horizontal 


water  is  forced  into  the  impellers  at  one  end 
through  a  hole  drilled  into  the  center  of  the 
shaft,  and  out  at  the  other  through  a  similar 
passage. 

These  machines  will  maintain  a  pressure 
ranging  from  seven  to  ten  pounds  per  square 
inch.  In  some  designs  a  spray  of  water  is  used 
to  pack  the  machines  so  as  to  prevent  the  air 
from  escaping  backwards,  and  also  for  the  pur- 
pose of  absorbing  the  heat  due  to  compression. 


Fig.  1.— Pressure  Blower. 

blower  geared  to  an  electric  motor  on  the  same 
bed  plate. 

Within  this  casing,  two  impellers  A  and  B, 
Fig.  3,  revolve  on  horizontal  shafts  which  are 
connected  by  gear  wheels  outside  the  casing, 
thus  giving  them  an  invariable  relative  motion. 
The  contact  surfaces  of  the  impellers  are  formed 
on  mathematically  correct  lines,  and  they  revolve 
together  with  uniform  clearance  and  without 
metallic  contact  either  with  each  other  or  with 
the  enclosing  casing,  thus  preventing  internal 
friction.  There  are  no  waste  spaces  between  the 
impellers  to  cause  the  formation  of  air  pockets, 
and  no  sharp  corners  or  edges  to  produce  sound 
vibrations,  and  as  the  impellers  are  symmetrical 
relatively  to  their  shaft  centers,  they  remain 
perfectly  balanced  at  all  speeds. 

High  Pressure  Positive  Blozvers. — In  this 
type,  where  the  heat  of  compression  constitutes 
an  element  of  danger,  the  entire  casing  and 
journal  boxes  are  water  jacketed,  and  complete 
water  circulation  is  maintained  through  the  im- 
pellers and  the  casing  during  operation  in  order 
to  prevent  expansion  under  the  temperatures  due 
to    the    high    pressures    of    compression.     The 


Fig.  2.— Positive  Blower. 

This  water  is  carried  over  into  a  separating 
tank  and  drained  off  automaticall3^  This  method 
enables  the  attainment  of  an  efficiency  under 
high  pressures  fully  as  high  as  that  attained 
under  pressures  ranging  from  three  to  four 
pounds. 

In  operating  positive  pressure  blowers,  it  is 
generally  estimated  that  30,000  cubic  feet  of  air 
are  required  to  melt  a  ton  of  iron,  and  that 
under  a  pressure  of  one  pound  per  square  inch, 
an  energy  of  five  horsepower  is  required  to 
deliver  1,000  cubic  feet.  These  values  form  a 
fair  basis  for  the  calculation  of  the  speed  or 
capacity  of  a  blower  of  this  type  for  any  desired 
purpose. 

Jet  Blozvers. — These  arrangements  do  not 
strictly  belong  to  any  class  of  blowing  machines. 


Fig.  3.— Cross  Section  Through  Positive  Blower. 

They  simply  represent  the  utilization  of  a  jet 
of  steam  or  water  to  produce  an  artificial 
current  of  air.  This  is  usually  accomplished  by 
forcing  the  jet  of  steam  or  water  through  a  pipe 
of  small  diameter  inserted  in  a  pipe  of  larger 
diameter  open  at  both  ends,  thus  creating  a 
current  of  air  through  the   larger  pipe   in  the 


BLOWITZ  — BLOWPIPE  ANALYSIS 


direction  of  motion  of  the  jet.  The  steam-jet 
devices  are  represented  by  the  exhaust  nozzles 
used  in  the  smokestacks  of  fire  engines  and  loco- 
motives.    See  Heating  and  Ventilating. 

William   Morey,  Jr.,  C.  E., 
Consulting    Civil   and  Mechanical   Engineer, 
New  York. 

Blowitz,  Henri  Georges  Stephane  Adolphe 
Opper  de,  6h-re  zhorzh  sta-fiin  ad-6If  6p-per 
de  blo-vitz,  French  journalist:  b.  Pilsen, 
Austria,  28  Sept.  1832;  d.  Paris,  18  Jan.  1903. 
He  settled  in  France ;  was  successively  appointed 
professor  of  German  in  the  Lycee  of  Tours  and 
at  Limoges,  Poitiers,  and  Marseilles ;  was  nat- 
uralized a  French  citizen  in  1870;  and  became 
the  Paris  correspondent  of  the  London  Times  in 
1871.  Laurence  Oliphant  was  then  the  corre- 
spondent at  Paris,  and  de  Blowitz  became  his  as- 
sistant. During  the  war  of  1870-1  Mr.  Oliphant 
was  excluded  from  Paris  during  the  siege  by 
the  Germans,  but  de  Blowitz,  by  means  of  car- 
rier pigeons,  balloons,  and  numerous  ingenious 
devices,  kept  his  chief  outside  the  city  walls  in- 
formed as  to  what  was  going  on  within  the 
beleaguered  city.  He  was  noted  for  his  success 
in  obtaining  secret  and  important  information 
long  before  it  was  ready  for  official  promulga- 
tion ;  and  for  his  personal  interviews  with 
Thiers,  Bismarck,  Comte  de  Chambord,  Alfonso 
Xn.,  Gambetta,  the  Comte  de  Paris,  the  Sultan 
of  Turkey.  Marquis  Tseng,  the  King  of  Ruma- 
nia, Leo  XHL,  Jules  Ferry,  Duclerc,  Prince 
Lobanoff  and  many  other  eminent  men  of  the 
time  in  Europe.  Many  of  his  disclosures  in  his 
letters  to  the  Times,  such  as  the  text  of  the 
Treaty  of  Berlin,  which  he  forwarded  before 
it  had  been  signed,  created  much  excitement 
throughout  Europe.  He  contributed  more  than 
4,000  columns  to  the  Times;  was  made  an  officer 
of  the  Legion  of  Honor,  an  officer  of  the  Insti- 
tute of  France,  and  doctor  of  philosophy.  He 
published  <Feuilles  Volantes>  (1858);  L'  Alle- 
magne  et  la  Provence^  (1869)  ;  *Le  Mariage 
Royal  d'Espagne'  (1878);  *Une  Course  a  Con- 
stantinople* (1884).  He  retired  from  his  posi- 
tion as  Times  correspondent  only  three  weeks 
prior  to  his  death. 

Blowpipe,  an  instrument  by  means  of 
which  the  flame  of  a  candle,  a  gas-jet,  etc.,  is 
made  to  produce  an  intense  heat,  being  then  em- 
ployed for  a  variety  of  useful  purposes.  Its 
most  usual  form  is  described  in  the  article  on 
blowpipe  analysis  (q.v.).  It  is  employed  by  jew- 
elers and  goldsmiths  in  the  work  of  soldering, 
and  by  other  workers  on  small  metallic  objects; 
by  the  glassblower  in  making  thermometers, 
barometers,  and  other  glass  instruments;  by 
the  enameler ;  and  indeed  wherever  it  is  re- 
quired to  subject  a  small  body  to  a  strong  heat. 
It  has  undergone  a  variety  of  improvements  in 
the  hands  of  the  chemist,  to  whose  researches 
it  has  proved  an  excellent  auxiliary.  Wollas- 
ton's  portable  blowpipe  is  formed  of  three  pieces 
fitted  into  one  another  when  in  use,  but  which 
may  be  taken  down  and  made  to  slide  within 
each  other.  Most  laboratory  blowpipes  have  a 
hollow  bulb  or  enlarged  part  at  or  near  the  end, 
the  object  of  which  is  to  condense  the  vapor 
of  the  breath,  which  often  proves  injurious  in 
the  common  form  of  the  instrument.  To  pre- 
vent corrosion  from  the  action  of  the  moisture, 
the  bulb  is  made  either  of  silver  or  sheet-tin, 
and  it  is  capable  of  being  opened  in  order  that 


it  may  be  more  easily  cleaned.  A  little  prac- 
tice is  necessary  to  enable  the  operator  to  keep 
up  a  constant  blast  for  any  length  of  time,  the 
current  of  air  being  propelled  through  the  pipe 
by  the  muscular  exertion  of  the  cheeks,  while 
respiration  is  carried  on  through  the  nose.  But 
when  the  process  has  to  be  long  continued,  the 
current  of  air  is  supplied  by  bellows.  This  is 
the  form  commonly  used  by  glassblowers.  The 
gas  blowpipe,  commonly  called  the  oxyhydrogen 
blowpipe,  is  a  very  important  and  intensely  pow- 
erful variety,  whose  structure  is  due  to  Mr, 
Newman  of  London.  Sir  Humphry  Davy  sug- 
gested the  employment  of  other  gases  instead 
of  common  air,  and  Dr.  Clarke  of  Cambridge 
adopted  the  suggestion.  Dr.  Clarke  found  that 
a  mixture  of  two  volumes  of  hydrogen  and  one 
of  oxygen  produced  the  greatest  effect.  These 
gases  are  contained  in  a  bladder  attached  to  the 
end  of  a  pipe  which  leads  into  a  vertical  cylin- 
der, in  which  is  fitted  a  piston,  working  through 
a  collar  at  the  top.  By  the  action  of  this  piston 
the  gas  from  the  bladder  is  compressed  into 
a  copper  chamber,  and  thence  issues  to  the  flame 
through  an  ordinary  blowpipe  nozzle.  To  guard 
against  explosions,  the  gases  are  kept  in  separate 
holders,  and  by  means  of  a  special  kind  of 
burner  are  prevented  from  mixing  until  they 
are  just  going  to  be  burned.  There  are  various 
other  species  of  blowpipe,  and  many  uses  to 
which  they  may  be  applied.  For  information  on 
the  subject  see  Plattner,  ^On  the  Blowpipe' 
to  whom  the  present  form  of  the  instrument  is 
due. 

Blow'pipe  Anal'ysis,  a  branch  of  chemical 
analysis  in  which  the  composition  of  the  sub- 
stance under  examination  is  inferred  from  its 
behavior  when  subjected  to  certain  flame  tests. 
The  blowpipe  itself  commonly  consists  of  a 
tapering  brass  tube  about  eight  inches  long, 
provided  with  a  bell-shaped  mouthpiece  at  one 
end,  and  at  the  other  with  a  nozzle  that  is  turned 
at  right  angles  to  the  general  length  of  the 
instrument.  The  nozzle  should  be  tipped  with 
platinum,  and  provided  with  a  very  minute  per- 
foration through  which  the  operator  blows  a  tiny 
blast  of  air  that  drives  the  flame  of  his  lamp 
against  the  object  to  be  analyzed.  The  flame 
used  in  blowpipe  work  should  not  be  round 
and  colorless,  like  those  of  spirit  lamps  and 
Bunsen  burners,  but  should  be  flat  and  luminous, 
containing  plenty  of  free,  incandescent  carbon. 
A  large  candle-flame  serves  very  well,  although 
it  is  not  flat.  L'sually  a  gas-flame  is  employed, 
in  connection  with  a  burner  formed  by  flatten- 
ing a  piece  of  brass  tubing,  and  then  cutting 
it  off  at  the  top,  at  an  angle.  When  the  blow- 
pipe is  in  service  its  tip  is  introduced  into  the 
flame  of  the  lamp,  which  the  air-blast  deflects 
laterally  in  the  form  of  a  long,  almost  non-lumi- 
nous cone,  which  consists  of  two  visibly  differ- 
ent portions.  The  inner  part  is  somewhat 
brighter,  and  is  richer  in  unoxidized  gases.  The 
outer  layer,  being  more  plentifully  supplied  with 
oxygen,  consists  almost  entirely  of  completely 
oxidized  gases.  The  outer  portion  of  the  blow- 
pipe flame  is  called  the  "oxidizing  flame,*'  since 
this  part,  when  directed  against  the  specimen 
under  examination,  heats  it  while  it  is  iri  con- 
tact with  the  air,  and  causes  it  to  oxidize,  if  it  is 
capable  of  doing  so  at  the  temperature  that  is 
attainable  by  the  blowpipe.  The  inner  portion 
of   the    flame    is    called    the    "reducing    flame,* 


BLOWPIPE  ANALYSIS 


from  the  fact  that  when  the  specimen  is  ex- 
posed to  this  part,  it  is  heated,  not  in  contact 
with  the  air,  but  while  surrounded  v/ith  an 
atmosphere  of  partially  unoxidized  hydrocarbon 
gases.  Under  these  circumstances  many  metallic 
oxides  give  up  their  oxygen  to  the  hot  hydrocar- 
t  bon  gases  in  which  they  are  bathed,  and  are 
themselves  reduced  to  the  metallic  form.  If  a 
fiame  still  richer  in  free  carbon  and  uncon- 
sumed  hydrocarbons  is  desired,  the  tip  of  the 
blowpipe  is  held  just  outside  of  the  lamp-flame, 
and  a  jet  of  flame  with  a  luminous  tip  con- 
taining particles  of  solid  carbon  can  easily  be 
thrown  down  upon  the  specimen. 

In  blowpipe  analysis  there  is  no  recognized 
^^scheme'^  to  be  followed  out.  The  method  is 
oftenest  used  for  the  determination  of  minerals, 
and  in  such  cases  the  analyst  usually  has  some 
sort  of  idea,  in  advance,  of  the  elements  that 
may  possibly  be  present.  The  substance  to  be 
examined  is  usually  first  pulverized,  and  a  por- 
tion of  it  heated  in  a  tube  that  is  open  only 
at  the  upper  end.  If  it  carbonizes,  it  contains 
organic  matter  of  some  kind,  and  the  odor  that 
is  produced  is  often  a  good  indication  as  to 
whether  the  organic  matter  is  of  an  animal  or 
vegetable  nature.  If  the  substance,  when  heated 
in  the  closed  tubes,  gives  off  water  which  con- 
denses in  the  upper  part  of  the  tube,  the  moisture 
so  condensed  should  be  tested  with  litmus 
paper.  If  it  is  neutral,  the  substance  is  a  hy- 
drated  compound,  or  a  hydroxide.  An  acid  re- 
action indicates  acid  salts,  and  an  alkaline  one 
may  usually  be  taken  to  indicate  the  presence 
of  compounds  of  ammonia.  If  the  substance 
melts  but  does  not  change  its  color,  it  is  an 
alkaline  or  a  hydrated  salt.  If  it  melts  and 
turns  yellow,  remaining  yellow  even  after  cool- 
ing, it  contains  oxide  of  bismuth ;  while  if  it 
melts  to  a  yellow  color,  but  turns  red  upon 
cooling,  it  contains  oxide  of  lead.  If  it  does 
not  melt,  but  changes  color,  the  indications 
are  as  follows :  Yellow,  both  hot  and  cold,  indi- 
cates stannic  oxide ;  if  yellow  while  hot,  but 
white  when  cold,  zinc  oxide ;  if  black  while  hot, 
and  reddish-brown  when  cold,  ferric  oxide ;  if 
black  while  hot,  but  bright  red  when  cold,  mer- 
curic oxide.  If  gas  is  evolved,  its  nature  should 
be  determined.  Oxygen  may  be  detected  by  the 
kindling  of  a  glowing  splinter  of  wood  inserted 
into  the  tube ;  carbon  dioxide  by  its  extinguish- 
ing such  a  spark  promptly ;  carbon  monoxide  by 
the  gas  burning  with  a  bluish  flame  when  ignited 
at  the  mouth  of  the  tube ;  sulphur  dioxide, 
ammonia  and  cyanogen,  by  the  odor.  Oxygen 
indicates  chlorates,  peroxides,  etc. :  carbon  diox- 
ide indicates  carbonates  or  oxalates;  carbon 
monoxide  indicates  oxalates  or  formates ;  sul- 
phur dioxide  indicates  certain  sulphites  or  sul- 
phates ;  cyanogen  indicates  cyanides ;  and  ammo- 
nia indicates  some  compound  of  that  substance. 
If  the  gas  is  reddish-brown  in  color,  bromides, 
nitrates,  or  nitrites,  are  probably  present;  if  it 
is  violet,  an  iodide  is  indicated.  A  sublimate 
may  also  be  deposited  upon  the  tube.  If  the 
sublimate  is  black,  or  nearly  so,  selenium  or 
mercuric  sulphide  are  indicated  ;  if  yellow,  sul- 
phur or  a  sulphide ;  if  white,  a  salt  of  ammo- 
nia or  mercury,  a  volatile  organic  acid,  or  an 
oxide  of  antimony  or  arsenic.  Gray  rnetallic 
globules  indicate  mercury,  and  a  metallic  mir- 
ror may  represent  either  antimony  or  arsenic. 

When  the  substance  is  heated  in  an  inclined 
tube,  open  at  both  ends,  similar  indications  are 


to  be  observed ;  modified  somewhat,  however,  by 
the  fact  that  oxygen  can  now  pass  up  through 
the  tube  and  come  in  contact  with  the  specimen 
under  examination.  Thus  sulphides  are  com- 
monly oxidized  in  the  open  tube,  arsenic  will 
sublime  as  the  trioxide  and  not  as  the  metai, 
and  selenium  gives  a  sublimate  that  may  be 
gray  or  red,  and  also  a  strong  odor  of  horse- 
radish. 

The  color  that  the  specimen  communicates 
to  the  non-luminous  part  of  the  flame  is  like- 
wise of  great  service  in  determinations  by  the 
blowpipe.  A  piece  of  platinum  wire,  bent  at  the 
end  into  a  small  loop,  is  dipped  in  hydrochloric 
acid  and  held  in  the  flame,  this  process  being  re- 
peated several  times  until  "the  analyst  is  con- 
fident that  the  wire  itself  is  free  from  any  sub- 
stance that  can  color  the  flame.  The  little  loop 
at  the  end  is  then  brought  into  contact  with 
some  of  the  finely  pulverized  specimen,  and 
introduced  into  the  flame  again.  Sodium  gives  a 
strong  lasting  yellow ;  calcium  an  orange  red ; 
lithium  and  strontium  a  crimson ;  potassium  a 
lavender ;  barium  an  apple  green ;  thallium,  cop- 
per, and  boracic  acid  a  brighter  green ;  lead  and 
antimony  a  pale  blue;  selenium  a  deep  blue. 
The  yellow  due  to  sodium  is  so  powerful, 
even  when  that  metal  is  present  only  in  slight 
amounts,  that  the  colors  due  to  the  other  metals 
present  are  sometimes  difficult  to  observe  by 
the  unaided  eye.  Hence  colored  glasses  are 
often  used,  through  which  to  take  note  of  the 
flame  color ;  the  tint  of  the  glass  being  selected 
so  as  to  cut  off  the  yellow  light  of  the  sodium, 
while  allowing  the  particular  color  that  is  sought 
to  pass  through  unobstructed.  Cobalt  blue  glass, 
for  example,  is  used  in  this  way  in  testing,  by 
flame  coloration,  for  potassium. 

When  a  sample  of  the  specimen  to  be  ana- 
lyzed is  heated  upon  charcoal,  it  is  often  possible 
to  obtain  some  of  the  elements  that  are  present, 
in  the  form  of  a  metallic  bead,  by  the  reduction 
of  their  oxides  or  of  the  other  compounds  in 
which  they  were  originally  contained.  Lead,  tin, 
and  silver  give  beads  that  are  white  and  mal- 
leable; copper  gives  a  malleable  red  bead;  anti- 
mony and  bismuth  give  brittle  beads  ;  and  iron, 
cobalt,  and  nickel  may  often  be  obtained  in  the 
form    of    gray,     magnetic    powders. 

While  the  substance  is  being  heated  upon 
charcoal,  an  incrustation  commonly  forms  on 
the  charcoal,  from  the  character  of  which  useful 
inferences  can  be  drawn.  Thus  antimony  gives 
a  white  incrustation ;  bismuth,  an  incrustation 
that  is  deep  yellow  when  hot  and  lighter  yellow 
when  cold  ;  lead,  one  that  is  light  yellow  when 
hot  and  deep  yellow  when  cold,  and  is  sur- 
rounded by  a  white  border ;  arsenic  gives  a 
white  incrustation  that  is  very  volatile ;  and  with 
zinc  the  color  is  yellow  when  hot  and  white 
when  cold. 

Many  metallic  oxides  are  soluble  in  melted 
borax,  and  valuable  color  indications  are  ob- 
tained by  heating  small  quantities  of  the  sub- 
stance in  little  beads  of  melted  borax,  that  are 
held  in  the  flame  upon  tiny  loops  of  platinum 
wire.  The  phenomena  that  are  observed  in  this 
way  are  quite  complicated,  however,  and  for 
an  account  of  them  the  manuals  on  blowpipe 
analysis  should  be  consulted.  See  Cornwall, 
*  Manual  of  Blowpipe  Analysis^  ;  Moses  and 
Parsons,  < Elements  of  Mineralogy,  Crystallogra- 
phy, and  Blowpipe  Analysis'  ;  Dana,  ^Minerals 
and    How    to    Study    Them.^ 


BLUCHER 


Blucher,  Gebhard  Leberecht  von,  geb'hart 
la'be-reHt  fon  blii-ker  (  Prince  of  Wahlstadt, 
val'stat),  Prussian  soldier:  b.  Rostock,  i6  Dec. 
1742;  d.  Krieblowitz,  Silesia,  12  Sept.  1819.  When 
14  years  of  age  he  visited  the  island  of  Riigen, 
-where  the  sight  of  some  Swedish  hussars  aroused 
a    desire   to    become  a   soldier,   and   in    spite   of 
the  opposition   of  his  parents  and   relatives  he 
took   service   in   a   Swedish   regiment  as  cornet. 
His  first  campaign  was  against  the   Prussians, 
and  he  was  taken  prisoner  by  the  same  regiment 
of  hussars  which  he  afterward  commanded.    The 
commander  of  this  regiment,   Col.   von   Belling, 
induced  him  to  enter  the  Prussian  service.     An 
exchange  was  agreed  upon  with  the  Swedes,  and 
Blucher  was  made   lieutenant  in   Belling's   regi- 
ment.     Discontented  at  the  promotion  of  other 
officers  over  his  head,  he  left  the  army,  devoted 
himself  to  agriculture,  and  by  industry  and  pru- 
dence  acquired   an   estate.     After   the   death   of 
Frederick  11.  he  became  a  major  in  his  forrner 
regiment,  which  he  commanded  with  distinction 
on     the    Rhine     1793-4.      Orchies,    Luxemburg, 
Frankenstein,  Oppenheim    (16  Jan.  1794),  Kirr- 
weiler  and  Edisheim  in  the  Palatinate,  bear  wit- 
ness  to    his   achievements.     After   the   battle   of 
Kirrweiler,  in  1794,  which  added  greatly  to  his 
reputation,   he   was   appointed  major-general   of 
the  army  of  observation  stationed  on  the  lower 
Rhine.    In  1802,  in  the  name  of  the  king  of  Prus- 
sia,   he   took   possession    of    Erfurt    and    Miihl- 
hausen.     On  14  Oct.  1806,  he  fought  at  the  bat- 
tle   of    Auerstadt.     He    then,    with    the    greater 
part  of  the  cavalry,  followed  the  retreat  of  the 
Prince  of  Hohenlohe  to  Pomerania.    His  squad- 
ron, moving  on  the  left  of  the  main  army,  be- 
came   separated    from    it,    and    the    Prince    of 
Hohenlohe  was  forced  to  surrender  at  Prenzlau. 
Blucher,  cut  off   from   Stettin   by  this   accident, 
threw     himself     into     Mecklenburg     where     he 
joined    at    Dambeck    the    corps    of    the    Duke 
of     Weimar,    commanded    by    Prince     William 
of     Brunswick-Oels.      All     the     troops,     how- 
-ever,     were     too     much     fatigued     to     under- 
take     any      enterprise.        Having     the      Grand 
Duke  of'  Berg    on    his    left    flank,  the  Prince 
of  Ponte  Corvo  in  his  front,  and  Marshal  Soult 
on   his  right,   Blucher  was  obliged  to  take  post 
behind  the  Trave  in  order  to  draw  off  the  three 
great   divisions   of   the   French   forces   from  the 
Oder   as  long   as   possible.     With   this  view   he 
entered    the   territory   of    the   free   city   of    Lii- 
beck,  which   was   soon  stormed  by  the  French. 
Although  BKicher  escaped  with  some  troops  he 
was  obliged  to  surrender  at  Ratkau  on  6  Novem- 
ber, but  with   a  clause   in  the  capitulation   that 
he  "accepted  it  only  from  want  of  ammunition, 
provisions,    and     forage."      He    was    soon    ex- 
changed for  the  French  general  Victor,  and  on 
his    arrival    at    Konigsberg    was    placed    at    the 
head  of  a  corps  and   sent  to   Swedish   Pomera- 
nia to  share  in  the  defense  of  Stralsund  and  to 
assist  the  efforts  of  the  Swedes.    After  the  Peace 
of  Tilsit  he  labored  in  the  department  of  war  at 
Konigsberg  and   Berlin.     He  then   received  the 
chief   military   command   in    Pomerania,   but   at 
the  instigation  of  Napoleon   was  afterward  dis- 
missed  from   the    service.     In  the  campaign   of 
1812,   when   the   Prussians   assisted   the   French, 
he  took  no  part ;  but  no  sooner  did  Prussia  rise 
against  her  oppressors  than  Blucher,  already  70 
years    old,    engaged    in    the   cause    with    all    his 
former  activity.     He  was  appointed  commander- 
m-chief  of  the  Prussian  army  and  the  Russian 


corps  under  Gen.  Winzingerode,  which  at  a  later 
period  was  separated  from  him.  In  1813  he  was 
created  field-marshal.  His  heroism  in  the  battle 
of  Liitzen  (2  May  1813)  was  rewarded  by  the 
Enjperor  Alexander  with  the  order  of  St.  George. 
The  battles  of  Bautzen  and  Hanau,  those  on  the 
Katzbach  (26  Aug.  1819)  and  Leipsic  added  to  , 
his  glory.  On  the  Katzbach  Blucher  defeated 
the  army  of  Marshal  Macdonald  and  delivered 
all  Silesia.  On  3  October  Blucher  crossed  the 
Elbe  at  Wartenburg,  and  encouraged  the  Bohe- 
mian army  under  Schwartzenberg,  and  the  north- 
ern army  under  the  crown-prince  of  Sweden,  to 
act  with  more  spirit.  On  16  October  he  gained 
a  signal  advantage  over  Marshal  Marmont  at 
Mockern,  forcing  his  way  as  far  as  the  suburbs 
of  Leipsic.  On  the  i8th,  in  connection  with  the 
crown-prince  of  Sweden,  he  contributed  greatly 
to  the  defeat  of  the  enemy,  and  on  the  19th 
his  troops  made  the  first  assault  upon  Leipsic. 
His  promptitude  and  peculiar  manner  of  attack- 
ing had  already  procured  him  from  the  Russians 
the  name  of  "Marshal  Forward.^^  On  i  Jan.  1814, 
with  the  Silesian  army,  which  now  consisted  of 
two  Prussian,  two  Russian,  one  Hessian,  and 
one  mixed  corps,  he  crossed  the  Rhine  at  Kaub, 
took  possession  of  Nancy  on  the  17th,  gained 
(i  February),  the  battle  of  La  Rothiere,  and 
pushed  forward  toward  Paris.  His  detached 
corps  were,  however,  checked  by  Napoleon ;  yet 
Bliicher,  though  with  a  great  loss,  effected  his 
retreat  toward  Chalons.  He  then  crossed  the 
Aisne  at  Soissons,  joined  the  northern  army, 
obtained  (9  March)  a  victory  over  Napoleon 
at  Laon,  and,  in  connection  with  Schwartzen- 
berg, at  the  close  of  the  month,  pressed  forward 
to  Paris.  The  day  of  Montmartre  crowned 
this  campaign,  and  on  31  March  Blucher  entered 
the  capital  of  France.  For  this  triumph  he  was 
created  Prince  of  Wahlstadt,  with  a  suitable 
income.  In  England,  whither  he  followed  the 
allied  monarchs  in  June  of  the  same  j^ear,  he 
was  received  with  enthusiasm.  The  University 
of  Oxford  conferred  on  him  the  degree  of  Doctor 
of  Laws.  He  then  lived  on  his  estates  in  Silesia 
till  1815,  when  the  chief  command  was  again 
committed  to  him,  and  he  led  his  army  into  the 
Netherlands.  On  15  June  Napoleon  threw  him- 
self upon  him,  and  Blucher,  on  the  i6th,  was 
defeated  at  Ligny.  In  this  engagement  his  horse 
was  killed,  and  he  was  thrown  under  his  body. 
In  the  battle  of  the  i8th  Blucher  arrived  at  the 
most  decisive  moment  upon  the  ground,  and, 
taking  Napoleon  in  the  rear  and  flank,  assisted 
materially  in  completing  the  great  victory  of 
Belle  Alliance,  or  Waterloo  (q.v.).  He  refused 
the  proffered  armistice,  and  forced  Paris  to 
surrender ;  opposing  with  energy,  on  this  second 
conquest  of  the  capital,  the  system  of  forbear- 
ance practised  on  the  former  occasion.  As  he 
was  already  a  knight  of  all  the  military  orders 
of  Europe,  the  king  of  Prussia,  to  reward  his 
new  services,  created  the  new  order  of  the 
Iron  Cross  expressly  for  him.  After  the  Peace 
of  Paris  he  retired  to  his  estate,  where  he  died. 
On  the  anniversary  of  the  battle  on  the  Katz- 
bach, a  monument  commemorating  his  glory, 
executed  by  Schadow  in  Berlin,  was  erected  at 
Rostock.  On  that  of  Waterloo  (18  June  1826) 
a  bronze  statue  12  feet  in  height,  modeled  by 
Ranch,  was  erected  to  his  memory  in  Berlin. 
Blucher  was  not  so  eminent  for  military  science 
as  for  ability  in  action.  His  simplicity,  good 
nature,   and   bravery   endeared   him   to   his   sol- 


BLUE  — BLUE  BOY 


•diers,  who  loved  him  as  a  father.  His  ad- 
dresses and  proclamations  are  distinguished  for 
their  brevity,  precision,  and  simplicity.  Consult 
*Blucher's  Life,^  by  Varnhagen  von  Ense  (Ber- 
lin 1827)  ;  and  Scherr's  *Blucher's  Life  and 
Times  ^    (Leipsic  1862). 

Blue,  Victor,  American  naval  officer:  b. 
North  Carolina,  6  Dec.  1865.  He  graduated  at 
the  naval  academy  June  1887,  and  serving 
through  the  grades  of  ensign  and  junior  lieuten- 
ant, was  promoted  lieutenant  3  March  1899. 
At  the  outbreak  of  the  war  with  Spain  he  was 
ordered  to  the  gunboat  Suwanee,  and  while  on 
duty  off  the  Cuban  coast  captured  two  Spanish 
patrol  sloops  having  on  board  a  heliographic 
.signal  outfit.  On  11  June  1898  he  landed  at 
Aserraderos,  passed  through  the  Spanish  lines, 
proceeded  to  the  hills  overlooking  Santiago  city 
and  harbor,  where  he  located  the  Spanish  fleet 
commanded  by  Admiral  Cervera.  On  25  June 
he  made  a  further  reconnoissance  and  mapped 
the  position  of  the  Spanish  ships.  To  accom- 
plish these  things  he  traveled  a  distance  of  nearly 
140  miles,  mostly  through  territory  occupied 
by  the  intrenchments  of  the  Spanish  army.  Ad- 
miral Sampson  highly  commended  the  manner 
in  which  these  tasks  had  been  performed  and 
recommended  that  Lieut.  Blue  be  advanced  ten 
numbers  as  a  promotion.  He  was  placed  in 
command  of  the  captured  gunboat  Alvarado, 
and  on  12  Aug.  i8q8  bombarded  the  fortifica- 
tions of  Manzanillo.  Subsequently  he  served 
in  China  and  the  Philippines. 

Blue,  one  of  the  seven  primary  colors. 
The  blue  pigments  commonly  employed  by  art- 
ists are  few  in  number,  including  native  and 
artificial  ultramarine,  cobalt,  indigo,  and  Prus- 
sian blue.  Genuine  ultramarine,  prepared  from 
the  inineral  lapis  lazuli,  and  ordinary  cobalt 
blue,  sold  for  artists'  work,  are  permanent  colors. 
They  are  used  either  alone,  or  mixed  with  other 
pigments,  chiefly  for  skies  and  distances  in 
landscape,  and  by  themselves,  or  to  make  up 
grays  and  other  mixed  tints  in  figure  painting. 
Owing  to  the  exceptionally  high  price  of  real 
ultramarine,  the  artifi.cial  color,  which  is  of 
■doubtful  permanency,  is  usually  substituted  for 
it.  Prussian  blue  and  indigo  are  highly  useful 
■colors,  since  it  is  only  these  that  yield  dark 
blues,  and  only  from  them,  mixed  with  yellows 
■or  browns,  that  strong  greens  can  be  obtained. 
It  is  unfortunate  accordingly  that  both  are  more 
or  less  fugitive.  All  the  blues  above  named 
are  used  both  in  oil  or  water  color  painting, 
but  indigo  less  than  the  others  in  oil,  since  it 
is  most  apt  to  fade  in  that  medium. 

A  number  of  different  names  are  used  in 
commerce  for  what  is  essentially  the  same  pig- 
ment, or  for  pigments  closely  resembling  one 
another.  The  following  statement  gives  some 
explanation  of  these:  Cobalt  blues  are  mixtures 
of  cobalt  with  earthy  or  metallic  bases,  which 
have  been  subjected  to  the  action  of  heat,  and 
have  received  the  following  names :  Cobalt  blue, 
cerulean  blue,  royal  blue.  Dumont's  blue,  Saxon 
blue,  Thenard's  blue,  Leithner's  blue,  Hun- 
gary blue,  Zaft're  or  enamel  blue,  Vienna  blue, 
azure  blue,  and  Paris  blue.  The  last  name  is 
also  applied  to  a  Prussian  blue,  and  azure  is  also 
given  to  a  variety  of  ultramarine  blue.  Smalt  is 
a  powdered  cobalt  glass  used  in  illumination  and 
flower  painting.  Artificial  ultramarine  is  also 
called    French    ultramarine,    French    blue,    new 


blue,  and  permanent  blue.  Coarse  qualities  ot 
this  color  are  largely  used  by  house  painters. 
Intense  blue  is  a  refined  indigo.  Prussian  blue 
(sesqui-ferrocyanide  of  iron)  is  otherwise 
named  Berlin  blue,  Paris  blue,  and  ferrocyanide 
of  iron.  The  name  Paris  blue  is  also  given  to  a 
cobalt  color.  Antwerp  blue  is  a  variety  of  Prus- 
sian blue  made  lighter  by  the  addition  of  an 
aluminous  base,  and  not  so  permanent.  Blue 
ochre  (hydrated  phosphate  of  iron)  is  a  sub- 
dued permanent  blue,  but  not  much  employed. 
Blue  verditcr  is  a  hydrated  oxide  of  copper 
which  changes  and  ultimately  blackens  by  time. 
It  is  used  in  distemper  work  and  paper  staining. 
Blue  was  adopted  as  their  distinctive  color  by 
the  Scottish  Covenanters  in  the  17th  century  and 
is  the  usual  color  of  the  uniforms  of  the  sol- 
diers of  the  United  States  army.  A  dark  shade 
of  this  color  is  generally  worn  by  the  sailors  of 
most  countries,  whence  the  term  navy  blue  is 
derived. 

Blue  Beech.     See  Hornbe.\m. 

Blue  Bird,  or  the  North  American  thrush, 
is  widely  distributed  throughout  the  United 
States,  where  it  holds  a  similar  place,  in  the 
hearts  of  the  people,  as  the  redbreast  in  Eng- 
land. In  fact,  locally,  it  is  sometimes  termed 
*^blue-robin.'^  It  is  a  smaller  bird  than  the  rest 
of  the  thrushes.  Its  whole  upper  parts  are  sky 
blue,  shot  with  purple,  with  its  throat,  neck, 
breast,  and  sides  reddish  chestnut,  and  part 
of  its  wings  and  its  tail  feathers  black.  The 
*'soft  and  agreeable  warble"  of  the  bluebird  is 
one  of  the  first  and  most  welcome  sounds  of 
bird-music,  that  we  hear  in  the  early  spring. 
The  male  is  remarkably  attentive  to  his  more 
protectively  colored  mate,  and  takes  exuberent 
pride  in  their  five  or  six  pale-blue  eggs,  laid 
in  holes  in  the  trees  of  gardens,  and  often  also 
in  bird-boxes,  and  in  the  crevices  in  the  walls  of 
outbuildings.  There  are  often  two  broods  in  a 
season.  The  bluebird  fights  hard  to  protect  his 
small,  neatly  constructed  nest  from  the  house- 
sparrow,  swallows,  wrens,  and  other  birds,  which 
make  his  life  miserable  by  their  intrusion  on  his 
domestic  privacy.  Several  other  sorts  of  birds, 
of  other  countries,  prevailingly  blue  in  color, 
receive  the  name  "bluebird.**  such  as  the  "Orien- 
tal fairy-bluebirds'*  of  the  genus  Irena,  more 
particularly  Irena  puella,  one  of  the  East  Indian 
bulbuls. 

Blue  Books,  the  official  reports,  papers, 
and  documents  printed  for  the  British  govern- 
ment to  be  laid  before  the  Houses  of  Parliament. 
They  are  so  called  simply  from  being  stitched 
up  in  blue  paper  wrappers,  and  include  bills 
presented  to,  and  acts  passed  by,  the  houses ; 
reports  and  papers  moved  for  by  members  or 
granted  by  government ;  reports  of  committees : 
statistics  of  trade,  etc.  The  term  is  used  also 
in  a  broad  way  as  descriptive  of  special  reports 
put  forth  by  the  government  of  any  country  or 
its  various  executive  departments.  In  the 
United  States  the  publi.shed  lists  of  government 
employees  and  the  navy  regulation  manual  are 
known  as  Blue  Books  and  the  foreign  diplomatic 
correspondence  is  commonly  issued  in  Red  Books. 
French  official  reports,  etc..  are  called  Yellow 
Books :  those  of  Italy  are  styled  Green  Books, 
and  those  of  Spain  Red  Books. 

Blue  Boy,  The,  a  celebrated  picture  by 
Gainsborough,  dated  1679;  its  subject,  a  boy 
dressed  in  a  blue  satin  i6th  century  costume. 


BLUE-COAT  SCHOOL  — BLUE  LAWS 


Blue-coat  School.  See   Christ's   Hospital. 

Blue  Flag.     See  Iris. 

Blue  Grass,  Kentucky  Blue  Grass,  June 
Grass,  Meadow  Grass,  Spear  Grass,  a  species 
{Poa  pratensis)  of  the  natural  order  Craminw, 
native  of  the  cooler  parts  of  the  northern  hemi- 
sphere. The  plant  is  a  perennial  with  very 
numerous  rootstocks  and  long,  soft  radical 
leaves.  The  more  or  less  leafy  stems  w^hich 
rise  from  one  to  two  feet  are  terminated  by 
a  loose,  pyramidal  panicle  three  to  four  inches 
long,  which  readily  distinguishes  it  from  its 
somewhat  larger  close  relative,  Texas  bhie 
grass  {P.  arachnifera) ,  in  which  the  panicle  is 
contracted  and  which  is  further  distinguished 
by  its  woolly  seeds.  Blue  grass  forms  a  dense 
sod,  which  is  very  resistant  to  the  trampling  of 
stock,  upon  soils  favorable  to  its  growth,  and  is 
ranked  as  the  best  pasture  and  lawn  grass 
throughout  its  range  in  districts  and  upon  soils 
adapted  to  it.  It  attains  its  highest  develop- 
ment upon  limestone  soils,  and  where  found 
growing  naturally,  is  considered  to  indicate  a 
superior  agricultural  soil  especially  useftil  for 
stock  raising.  The  Blue  Grass  region  of  Ken- 
tuck}',  which  also  extends  into  Tennessee,  and 
from  which  the  former  State  derives  one  of  its 
popular  names,  is  of  limestone  formation,  and 
is  noted  for  its  superior,  strong-boned,  well- 
formed  stock,  especially  horses.  Upon  soils 
other  than  limestone  this  grass  does  not  produce 
so  well  and  upon  sandy  soils  it  usually  fails. 
Blue  grass  hay  is  of  high  quality,  but  is  pro- 
duced in  too  small  amount  to  pay  as  well  as 
other  hay  grasses.  The  hay  cut  when  the  seed 
is  in  the  milky  stage,  has  the  following  com- 
position :  Nitrogen-free  extract,  34.3 ;  crude 
fibre,  24.5 ;  water,  24.3  ;  ash,  7.0 ;  proteid  matter, 
6.3  ;  fat.  3.6.  If  the  grass  be  allowed  to  mature 
its  seed  before  being  cut  it  is  somewhat  less 
nutritive  because  of  the  change  in  the  relative 
proportion  of  nutrient  material  to  non-digestible 
matter.  The  composition  of  the  fresh  grass  is 
as  follows :  Water,  65.1  ;  nitrogen-free  extract, 
17.6;  crude  fibre,  9.1;  proteid  matter,  4.1;  ash, 
2.8;  fat,  1.3.  Texas  blue  grass  (P.  arachnifera) 
is  a  valuable  species  for  the  Southern  States, 
where  Kentucky  blue  grass  is  less  resistant  to 
the  effects  of  drouth.  Both  species  may  be 
propagated  by  sowing  seed  or  by  setting  out 
pieces  of  sod,  a  method  most  commonly  prac- 
tised with  the  southern  species,  because  of  the 
difficulty  of  spreading  its  woolly  seeds  evenly. 
The  method  is  very  popular  in  lawn-making 
with  the  northern  species.  Since  the  seed  of 
Kentucky  blue  grass  is  often  of  low  vitality,  and 
is  frequently  mixed  with  chaff,  it  should  be 
sown  rather  thickly.  A  permanent  blue  grass 
pasture  requires  about  three  years  to  become 
established,  after  which,  without  much  atten- 
tion, beyond  ordinary  fertilizing,  it  may  remain 
profitable  for  half  a  centurj'-  or  more.  In  long 
settled  districts  there  are  occasional  pastures  of 
more  than  75  years  standing. 

Blue  Grass  State,  a  nickname  for  Ken- 
tucky. 

Blue-green  Algae.     See  Cyanophyce;e. 

Blue  Hen  State,  a  nickname  for  Delaware. 
During  the  War  for  Independence,  a  certain 
popular  officer  of  Delaware,  named  Capt.  Cald- 
well, asserted  that  a  game  cock  to  be  unconquer- 
able must  be  *a  blue  hen's  chicken.''     This  name 


was  at  once  applied  to  his  regiment  and  later 
to  the  State  and  its  people. 

Blue  Island,  III,  a  city  of  Cook  County- 
situated  on  the  Calumet  River  and  on  the  Illi- 
nois C,  the  Chicago,  R.  I.  &  P.,  the  Chicago  ik 
G.  T.,  and  the  Chicago  &  C.  T.  R.R.'s.  It  forms 
a  southern  suburb  of  Chicago,  about  two  miles 
south  of  the  city  limits,  and  is  an  important 
manufacturing,  commercial,  and  railroad  centre. 
Among  its  industries  are  brick-making,  stone- 
quarrying,  etc.  There  are  also  smelting-works, 
oil-works,  and  breweries.  It  was  settled  in  1833 
and  incorporated  in  1872.  The  municipal  organ- 
ization provides  for  a  mayor  with  a  term  of  two 
years,  and  a  city  council.  The  city  operates  its 
own  waterworks  and  electric  light  system.  Pop. 
(1900)  6,114. 

Blue  Jay.     See  Jay. 

Blue  John,  a  name  for  fluorspar  (q.v.). 

Blue  Laws,  a  term  sometimes  applied  to 
the  early  enactments  of  several  of  the  New  Eng- 
land colonies,  but  more  frequently  limited  to 
the  laws  of  New  Haven  Colony.  The  origin  of 
the  term  is  not  exactly  known.  Various  con- 
jectures have  been  made,  but  the  most  probable 
derivation  is  that  given  by  Prof.  Kingsle}',  who 
thinks  the  epithet  "blue"  was  applied  to  any  one 
who  immediately  after  the  Restoration  of  the 
Stuart,s  looked  with  disapprobation  on  the  licen- 
tiousness of  the  times.    Thus,  in  Hudibras, 

For  his   religion,   it   was  fit 

To    match    his    learning    and    his    wit; 

'Twas    Presbyterian    true    hhie. 

That  this  epithet  should  find  its  way  to  the 
colonies  was  a  matter  of  course.  It  was  here 
applied  not  only  to  persons,  but  to  the  customs, 
institutions,  and  laws  of  the  Puritans,  by  those 
who  wished  to  render  the  prevailing  system 
ridiculous.  Hence,  probably,  a  belief  with  some 
that  a  distinct  system  of  laws,  known  as  the 
blue  laws,  must  somewhere  have  had  a  local 
habitation.  The  existence  of  such  a  code  of 
blue  laws  is  fully  disproved.  The  only  author- 
ity in  its  favor  is  Rev.  Samuel  Peters,  whose 
'General  History  of  Connecticut'  (1781)  is  a 
spiteful,  satirical  work,  full  of  exaggerations. 
The  traditions  upon  this  subject,  from  which 
Peters  framed  his  stories,  undoubtedly  arose 
from  the  fact  that  the  early  settlers  of  New 
Haven  were  uncommonly  strict  in  their  applica- 
tion of  the  ^'general  rules  of  righteousness.* 
Judge  Smith,  in  his  continuation  of  the  history 
of  New  I'ork,  published  in  'New  Yo/k  Histori- 
cal Collections,'  Vol.  IV.,  gives  evidence  against 
the  existence  of  the  blue  laws,  which  is  particu- 
larly valuable,  as  it  was  put  on  record  some 
15  years  before  Peters'  history  was  published. 
He  writes:  "Few  there  are  who  speak  of  the 
blue  laws  (a  title  of  the  origin  of  which  the 
author  is  ignorant),  who  do  not  imagine  they 
form  a  code  of  rules  drawn  tip  for  future  con- 
duct, by  an  enthusiastic  precise  set  of  religion- 
ists ;  and  if  the  inventions  of  wits,  humorists, 
and  buffoons  were  to  be  credited,  they  must  con- 
sist of  many  large  volumes.  The  author  had 
the  curiosity  to  resort  to  them  when  the  com- 
missioners met  at  New  Haven  for  adjusting 
a  partition  line  between  New  York  and  Massa- 
chusetts in  1767;  and  a  parchment  covered  book 
of  demi-royal  paper  was  handed  him  for  the 
laws  asked  for,  as  the  only  volume  in  the  office 
passing   under   this   odd    title.      It    contains   the 


BLUE  LIGHT  — BLUE-STOCKING 


memorials  of  the  first  establishment  of  the 
colony,  which  consisted  of  persons  who  had 
wandered  be}^ond  the  limits  of  the  old  charter  of 
Massachusetts  Bay,  and  who,  as  yet  unauthor- 
ized by  the  Crown  to  set  up  any  civil  govern- 
ment in  due  form  of  law,  resolved  to  conduct 
themselves  by  the  Bible.  As  a  necessary  con- 
sequence, the  judges  they  chose  took  up  an  au- 
thority which  ever}-  religious  man  exercises  over 
his  own  children  and  domestics.  Hence  their 
attention  to  the  morals  of  the  people  in  instances 
with  which  the  civil  magistrate  can  never  inter- 
meddle in  a  regular  well-policied  constitution, 
because  to  preserve  liberty  they  are  recogniz- 
able only  by  parental  authority."  See  Trumbull, 
<True  Blue  Laws  of  Connecticut  and  New 
Haven,  and  the  False  Blue  Laws  Invented  by 
Rev.  Samuel  Peters*  (1876)  ;  Prince,  'An  Ex- 
amination of  Peters'  Blue  Laws,*  in  Annual 
Report  of  the  American  Historical  Association 
for  i8q8. 

Blue  Light.      See  Bexg.\l  Light. 

Blue-light  Federalists,  a  term  applied  to 
the  party  in  American  politics  which  opposed 
the  War  of  1812.  In  1813  Decatur  made  several 
attempts  on  dark  nights  to  escape  from  the 
blockaded  port  of  Xew  London,  Conn.  He  de- 
clared that  his  failure  was  due  to  signals  of 
blue  lights  flashed  from  the  shore  to  warn  the 
British.  This  led  to  the  opponents  of  the  war, 
who  were  accused  of  having  shown  the  lights, 
bein^  stigmatized  as  '*Blue-light  Federalists." 

Blue  Lodges,  a  secret  association  of  advo- 
cates of  slavery,  organized  about  1854,  •"  Mis- 
souri, for  the  purpose  of  aiding  the  work  of 
establishing  slavery  in  Kansas.  The  members 
of  the  order,  although  citizens  of  Missouri, 
crossed  into  Kansas  in  1855  and  forcibly  de- 
posited their  ballots  for  the  pro-slavery  candi- 
date?. 

Blue-Mantle,  one  of  the  English  pursui- 
vants at  arms,  connecced  with  the  Heralds'  Col- 
lege, so  styled  from  tne  color  of  his  robe. 

Blue-mass.     See  Mercury. 

Blue  Monday,  a  name  formerly  given  in 
Europe  to  the  Monday  before  Lent,  when  the 
churches  were  decorated  with  blue.  It  was 
kept  as  a  holiday  by  classes  whose  ordinary 
avocation  required  them  to  labor  on  Sundays. 
As  this  led  to  violent  disturbances  the  custom 
was  legally  abolished.  The  term  now  signifies 
a  Monday  of  depression,  or  blue  spirits,  par- 
ticularly among  clergymen,  but  is  very  loosely 
used,  and  b\'  hard-working  persons  is  applied  to 
Monday  in  general. 

Blue  Mountains,  (i)  a  beautiful  wooded 
range  of  mountains  in  Oregon,  from  8.000  to 
9.000  feet  high,  which,  with  the  Powder  River 
Mountains,  separate  the  Columbia  River  valley 
from  the  Great  Basin ;  (2)  a  mountain  chain  of 
New  South  Wales,  part  of  the  great  Dividing 
Range.  The  highest  peak  is  Mount  Beemarang. 
which  attains  an  elevation  of  4.100  feet  above 
sea-level.  The  range  is  now  traversed  by  a 
railway,  which  attains  a  maximum  height  of 
3.404  feet:  (3)  the  Central  mountain  range  of 
Jamaica,  the  main  ridges  of  which  rise  to  8.000 
feet :  (4)  the  second  main  ridee  of  the  Appa- 
lachian?, known  also  as  the  Kittatinny  Moun- 
tains in  Pennsvlvania,  as  the  Shawangunks  in 
New  York.  This  range  should  not  be  con- 
founded  with  the  Blue  Ridge    (q.v.). 


Blue  Nile.     See  Nile. 

Blue  Nose,  a  popular  nickname  for  a 
native  of  Nova  Scotia. 

Blue  Peter,  a  blue  flag  having  a  white 
square  in  the  centre,  used  to  signify  that  the 
ship  on  which  it  is  hoisted  is  about  to  sail,  and 
for  recalling  boats.  The  term  is  a  corruption 
of  Blue  repeater,  one  of  the  signal  flags  in  the 
British  code.  A  flag  known  as  the  comet  is 
used  as  a  sailing  signal  in  the  United  Stetes  in- 
stead of  the  blue  peter. 

Blue-pill.     See  Mercury. 

Blue  Point,  N.  Y.,  the  southern  extrem- 
ity of  Patchogue  Bay,  Long  Island,  which 
lends  its  name  to  the  well-known  oysters.  Blue 
Points. 

Blue  Print,  a  positive  photographic  print 
from  a  transparent  negative  on  paper  sensitized 
by  potassium  ferricyanide  and  citric  acid,  giv- 
ing white  lines  on  blue  ground. 

Blue,  Prussian.     See  Dves. 

Blue-ribbon  Army,  the  name  of  an  Eng- 
lish total  abstinence  society,  so  called  from  the 
color  of  the  membership  badge.  The  organiza- 
tion grew  out  of  the  Murphy  Movement  in 
America  and  dates  from  1878.  About  five  years 
later  the  society  become  known  as  the  Gospel 
Temperance  Union.  See   Temperance  Societies. 

Blue  Ridge,  the  most  easterly  ridge  of  the 
Alleghany  or  Appalachian  Mountains,  which  ex- 
tends from  the  Hudson  River  southwest  to 
Georgia.  It  first  receives  the  name  of  Blue 
Ridge  when  it  enters  Virginia,  the  western  por- 
tion of  which  it  traverses.  In  south  Virginia, 
the  range  becomes  a  broad  plateau,  which  is  at 
its  widest  in  North  Carolina,  and  is  here  crossed 
by  the  Black,  Cowee,  Nantahala,  and  South 
mountains,  extending  transversely  to  the  axis 
of  the  Blue  Ridge.  The  highest  peaks  of  the 
range  occur  in  the  Black  Mountain  group, 
where  are  found  Mount  Mitchell  or  Black 
Dome.  6.710  feet ;  Guyot"s  Peak,  Sandoz  Knob, 
Gibbe's  Peak,  and  a  few  others  over  6.000  feet. 
In  Virginia  the  Blue  Ridge  nowhere  rises  much 
above  4.000  feet,  and  in  Penns\-lvania  and  New 
Jersej-  its  height  is  much  less.  Several  large 
rivers  pierce  the  ridge,  such  as  the  Hudson  in 
the  Highlands,  the  Delaware  at  the  Water  Gap, 
and  the  Potomac  at  Harper's  Ferry.  See  also 
App.\l.\chiax?. 

Blue-stone,  or  Blue-vitriol.     See  Copper. 

Blue-stocking,  a  pedantic  woman;  a  lady 
regarded  as  too  fond  of  learning.  The  origin  of 
this  name  is  thus  given  by  Bcswell  in  his  'Life 
of  Johnson*:  "About  this  time  (1780)  it  was 
much  the  fashion  for  several  ladies  to  have 
evening  assemblies,  where  the  fair  sex  might 
participate  in  con'i-ersation  with  literary  and  in- 
genious men.  animated  with  a  desire  to  please. 
These  societies  were  denominated  blue-stocking 
clubs,  the  origin  of  which  name  was  as  fol- 
lows :  One  of  the  most  eminent  members  of 
these  societies  was  Mr.  Stillingfleet,  who 
always  wore  blue  stockings.  Such  was  the  ex- 
cellence of  his  conversation.  _  that  his  absence 
was  felt  as  a  great  loss,  and  it  used  to  be  said, 
<We  can  do  nothing  without  the  blue  stock- 
ings* :  and  thus  by  degrees  the  title  was  estab- 
lished.** One  of  the  most  famous  of  these  clubs 
was  that  which  met  at  Mrs.  Montagu's.  This 
was  sometimes  honored  by  the  presence  of  Dr. 


BLUE  THISTLE  — BLUEFIELDS 


Johnson,  and  its  principal  members  have  been 
sketched  and  eulogized  by  Hannah  More,  in  her 
poem  entitled  the  ^Bas  Bleu.^ 

Blue  Thistle.     See  Bugloss. 

Blue-vitriol,  called  also  Blue-stone,  the 
salt,  sulphate  of  copper,  composed  of  sulphuric 
acid,  oxide  of  copper,  and  water.  It  is  a  natural 
product  of  some  mines  of  copper  ores,  and  is 
also  largely  prepared  for  economical  purposes. 
See  Copper. 

Blueback,  the  salmon  of  the  Fraser  River, 
B.  C,  one  of  the  most  valuable  of  the  Pacific 
salmon  (q.v.).  The  name  is  given  to  various 
other  fishes  having  bluish  backs. 

Bluebeard,  a  famous  hero  of  legend  and 
folklore,  familiarized  to  English  readers  in  the 
i8th  century  through  a  translation  from  the 
French  of  Charles  Perrault,  1697.  This  tale  of 
Bluebeard  has  been  regarded  by  some  as  partly 
historic,  of  which  the  original  was  Gilles  de 
Laval,  Baron  de  Retz,  who  was  burned  at 
Nantes  in  1440  for  his  cruelty  to  children,  whom 
he  is  supposed  to  have  enticed  into  his  castle, 
where  he  sacrificed  them  to  the  devil.  It  is, 
however,  really  a  marchen,  and  the  leading  idea 
of  curiositj'  punished  is  world-wide.  The  for- 
bidden chamber  is  a  counterpart  of  the  treasure- 
house  of  Ixion,  on  entering  which  the  intruder 
was  destroyed,  or  betrayed  by  the  gold  or  blood 
that  clung  to  him ;  also  of  Pandora's  box,  as 
well  as  of  Proserpine's  pyx  that  Psyche  opened 
in  spite  of  the  prohibition.  There  are  several 
parallels  among  the  German  fairy-tales  col- 
lected by  Grimm ;  and  one  feature  at  least  is 
found  in  the  Kaffir  tale  of  the  Ox  (Callaway's 
•Nursery  Tales  of  the  Zulus^).  Variants  are 
found  in  Russia,  and  among  Gaelic  popular 
tales;  and  in  the  Sanskrit  collection  *Katha 
Sarit  Sagara,-*  the  hero  Saktideva  breaks  the 
taboo,  and  like  Bluebeard's  wife,  is  confronted 
with  the  horrible  sight  of  dead  women.  Possi- 
bly in  the  punishment  following  the  breaking  of 
the  taboo  may  be  a  survival  of  some  ancient 
religious  prohibition ;  among  the  Australians, 
Greeks,  and  Labrador  Indians,  such  an  error 
n'as  regarded  as  the  means  by  which  death 
came  into  the  world.  Frescoes  of  the  13th  cen- 
tury have  been  found  in  Morbihan,  Brittany, 
representing  scenes  from  the  similar  legend  of 
St.  Trophime.  Tales  similar  to  that  related  by 
Perrault  are  found  in  Straparola's  ^Piacevoli 
Notti^  (1569),  and  in  Abbatutis'  ^11  Pentame- 
rone,'  while  a  not  very  dissimilar  tale  is  that  of 
the  Third  Calendar  in  the  ^Arabian  Nights  En- 
tertainment.^ Operas  founded  upon  it  are 
Gretry's  <Raoul  Barbe-Bleu>  (1789)  ;  Offen- 
bach's <Barbe-Bleu^    (1866). 

Bluebell,  Bellflower,  Hairbell,  or  Harebell, 
Caiiipaiiula  rotiindifolia,  a  plant  of  the  natural 
order  Campaiudacccc,  native  of  the  colder  parts 
of  the  northern  hemisphere.  Its  common  name 
is  suggested  by  the  shape  and  color  of  its 
flowers,  and  its  specific  name  from  the  shape  of 
its  root-leaves.  The  stem  leaves  are  lanceolate 
or  otherwise  than  round.  This  is  the  bluebell 
of  Scotland  and  of  literature.  It  may  be  found 
peeping  through  the  snow  and  ice  which  are 
supposed  to  be  melted  by  the  self-generated  heat 
of  these  little  plants.  They  have  long  been 
favorites  in  the  hardy  flower  border  and  are 
of  simplest  culture.  CSee  also  Campanula.) 
The  name  is  also  applied  to  a  species  of  Scilla 
(q.v.). 


Blueberry.    See  Huckleberry  ;  Vaccinium.. 

Bluebill,  one  of  the  most  common  ot 
American  fresh-water  ducks,  which  breeds 
throughout  Alaska  and  the  northern  part  of 
Canada  generally,  spending  the  cold  months  in 
the  United  States,  but  going  only  as  far  south 
as  is  necessary  to  avoid  the  freezing  of  the  lakes 
and  ponds.  The  head,  neck,  and  fore  part  of  the 
body  of  the  drake  are  black,  the  head  with  a 
green  gloss.  The  back  and  sides  are  whitish 
wuth  finely  waved  blackish  markings.  The  ab- 
domen and  speculum  of  the  wing  are  white. 
In  the  female  the  head  and  anterior  parts  are 
brown,  and  the  face  pure  white.  The  most  dis- 
tinguishing part  of  the  bird  is  the  very  broad, 
spatulate  bill,  which  is  light  blue,  with  a  black 
nail.  Hence  the  other  names  *broadbill,''  and 
"scaup  duck.'^  There  are  two  species,  the  larger 
(Ayfliya  mai'ila  ncarctica)  the  one  just  de- 
scribed, which  is  regarded  as  a  variety  of  the 
European  scaup  duck;  and  the  lesser  (A.  af- 
finis},  which  is  very  similar  to  the  preceding,, 
but  smaller,  and  rather  more  southerly  in  its 
distribution.  These  ducks  are  close  relatives  of 
the  canvasback  and  redhead  (qq.v.),  and  re- 
semble them  in  habits.  Other  local  names  for 
them  are  "blackhead"  and  "shuffler." 

Bluebottle,  or  Corn-flower      See   Centau- 

REA. 

Bluebottle  Fly,  a  greenish-blue  fly,  some- 
times called  by  English  authors  "green-bottle* 
fly  (Lucilia  cccsar).  It  closely  resembles  the 
blow-fly  (q.v.),  but  is  smaller  and  entirely  blue 
or  green.  These  flies  hibernate  through  the 
winter,  appearing  early  in  spring.  Its  eggs  are 
deposited  upon  meat  and  decaying  animal  mat- 
ter. The  larvse  are  said  to  be  indistinguishable 
from  those  of  the  blow-fly.  They  are  white, 
footless  maggots,  of  an  elongated  conical  shape, 
which  transform  in  the  ground.  It  is  said  that 
bluebottle  flies  do  not  commonly  enter  houses. 

Bluebreast.      See  Bluethroat. 

Bluebuck,  the  name  given  by  English 
workmen  in  South  Africa  to  one  of  the  duikers, 
the  pigmy  antelope  {Cephalolophns  nwnticola) 
of  Natal.  These  tiny  creatures,  which  stand 
only  13  inches  high,  are  the  smallest  of  the 
antelopes,  and  grayish-blue  in  color,  with  short, 
spike-like  horns,  which  hardly  show  above  the 
tuft  of  stiff  hairs  on  the  top  of  their  heads. 
They  swarm  in  the  thickets  of  southeast  Africa, 
feeding  on  herbage  berries  and  buds,  scram- 
bling about  the  rocks,  and  climbing  leaning  tree 
trunks,   with   amazing  agility. 

Blue-eye,  a  small  and  favorite  species  of 
honey-eater  (Entomysa  cyanotis)  with  a  con- 
spicuous patch  of  blue  about  the  eyes.  It 
frequents  the  eucalyptus  trees,  and  has  the 
curious  habit  of  depositing  its  eggs  in  a  neat 
depression  on  the  top  of  the  big.  oven-shaped 
nest  of  a  certain  starling,  whenever  it  can  find 
a  deserted  one.  Otherwise  it  constructs  a  nest 
for  itself.    See  Honey-eater. 

Bluefields  (formerly  written  Blewfields), 
a  town  oi  Nicaragua,  on  the  Caribbean  coast 
and  at  the  mouth  of  the  Escondido  or  Bluefields 
River.  Lat.  12°  N.,  Ion.  83°  44'  W.  It  wa? 
the  capital  of  Mosquitia  (see  Centr.\l  Amer- 
ica) .  In  the  latter  part  of  1847  the  population 
was  about  600,  one  sixth  white,  five  sixths_  black. 
Slavery  was  abolished  in  1841.  The  king  of 
Mosquitia,  who  resided  here  in  one  of  the  few 


BLUEFIN  —  BLUING 


houses  built  of  boards,  claimed  sovereignty  over 
a  territory  235  miles  wide  and  340  miles  long; 
also  the  districts  of  Talamanca  and  Chiriqui  in 
Costa  Rica.  A  British  agent  and  consul-general 
also  was  stationed  at  Bluefields,  the  English 
government  maintaining  a  protectorate  over  the 
Mosquito  Indians  until  i860.  A  German  colony 
at  Carlsruhe,  adjoining  Bluefields,  was  founded 
in  1844,  but  abandoned  in  1849.  The  climate 
is  moist  and  hotter  than  in  the  interior.  In 
1901  the  company  to  which  the  Nicaraguan  gov- 
ernment granted  a  concession  and  monthly  sub- 
vention for  the  establishment  of  a  line  of  steam- 
ers agreed  to  make  six  trips  a  month  between 
Bluefields  and  New  Orleans,  and  to  carry  the 
mails  between  those  points  eight  times  monthly. 

Bluefin,  or  Blackfin,  a  large  cisco-like 
whitefish  (Argyrosoi)ius  nigripinnis)  of  the 
deep  waters  of  Lake  Michigan  and  some  other 
of  the  lakes  of  Wisconsin  and  Minnesota, 
readily  known  from  other  species  by  its  black 
fins. 

Bluefish  The  bluefish  or  ^^skipjack^*  (Poma- 
to))ius  saltatrix)  is  one  of  the  most  widely  dis- 
tributed and  abundant  of  sea-fishes,  being  found 
in  the  Atlantic  from  the  Mediterranean  and 
Novia  Scotia  to  Brazil,  and  in  the  Pacific  and 
Indian  oceans.  It  is  taken  casually  at  all  sea- 
sons on  the  eastern  coast  of  the  United  States, 
but  becomes  numerous  irregularly  in  summer, 
when  its  presence  or  absence  seems  to  be  gov- 
erned largely  by  the  movements  of  its  principal 
food,  the  menhaden  (q.v.),  when  seeking  their 
inshore  spawning-grovmds.  The  only  wonder 
is  that  both  have  not  been  exterminated  many 
centuries  ago,  for  of  all  the  butchers  of  the 
sea  the  bluefish  is  the  most  wolfish  and  diabol- 
ical, snapping  its  prey  in  half  for  a  mouthful 
and  passing  on  in  ruthless  industry.  It  is 
beautifully  shaped  for  swimming,  built  with  the 
fine  lines  of  the  mackerel  and  the  strength  of 
the  salmon.  It  is  a  near  relative  of  the  pom- 
panos  and  horse-mackerels  (family  Carangidce), 
but  is  set  apart  in  a  family  (Poinatoniidcr)  by 
itself,  which  Jordan  considers  an  offshoot 
toward  the  percoids.  In  color  it  is  steel-blue, 
and  its  flesh  is  very  sweet  and  savory.  The 
weight  varies,  five  pounds  being  the  common 
run,  although  20  pounds  are  recorded. 

The  favorite  method  of  fishing  for  it  is 
"squidding,"  or  casting  from  a  platform  built 
out  into  the  surf,  with  a  rod  and  line  armed 
with  a  spoon,  or  a  bone-baited  hook.  Its  vo- 
racity makes  ft  a  free  biter,  and  its  tempera- 
ment makes  it  a  fierce  one,  so  that  the  angler 
may  expect  a  fight  from  the  strike  to  the  death, 
and  only  by  sheer  strength  can  the  prey  be 
landed.  The  bluefish  is  also  trolled  for  from 
boats,  especially  in  Florida,  and  off  the  south 
coast  of   New   England. 

On  our  Pacific  coast  the  ^'California  bluefish* 
(Cyiwscion  parvipinnis)  is  found  from  Santa 
Barbara  to  Guaymas  and  Mazatlan.  and  is  a 
near  relative  of  the  eastern  weakfish  (q.v.), 
locally  called  *totuava*^  (Cynoscion  macdonal- 
di).  In  the  Gulf  of  California  it  congregates  at 
the  mouth  of  the  Colorado  River  and  attains 
enormous  size,  having  been  taken  in  hand-lines 
as  high  as  170  pounds.  Like  other  species  of 
this  genus,  it  is  erroneously  yet  frequently  called 
*<5ea-bass."  The  bluefish  thrives  on  sardines  and 
other  small  fish.  Assuming  that  one  bluefish 
eats  ID  small  fish  a  day,  it  has  been  figured  that 
^t  requires  ten  thousand  million  sardines  to  feed 


the  one  thousand  billion  bluefish  on  our  coasts 
every  summer. 

Consult  Jordan  and  Evermann,  'Food  and 
Game  Fishes  of  America^  (1902)  ;  Goode,  "^ Fish- 
ery Industries,  Section  i^  (loth  census,  Wash- 
ington, 1884)  ;  Mayer  (editor),  'Sport  with 
Rod  and  Gun'    (1892). 

Bluegowns,  an  order  of  paupers  in  Scot- 
land, called  also  the  "King's  Bedesmen,"  to 
whom  the  kings  annually  distributed  certain 
alms  on  condition  of  their  praying  for  the  royal 
welfare.  Their  number  was  equal  to  the  num- 
ber of  years  the  king  had  lived.  The  alms  con- 
sisted of  a  blue  gown  or  cloak,  a  purse  contain- 
ing as  many  shillings  Scots  (pennies  sterling) 
as  the  years  of  the  king's  age,  and  a  badge 
bearing  the  words  "Pass  and  repass,"  which 
protected  them  from  all  laws  against  mendicity. 
Edie  Ochiltree,  who  figures  prominently  in 
Scott's  novel  'The  Antiquary,'  is  a  type  of  the 
class,  but  probably  a  favorable  specimen  as  com- 
pared to  those  who  were  to  be  met  with  in  real 
life.  The  practice  of  appointing  bedesmen  was 
discontinued  in  1833,  and  the  last  of  them  drew 
his  last  allowance  from  the  exchequer  in  Edin- 
burgh in   1863. 

Bluethroat,  an  Old  World  bird  (Cyanccula 
siiccica)  related  to  the  European  robin,  and 
deriving  its  name  from  its  bright  blue  throat, 
which  is  separated  from  the  white  below  it  by 
crescent-shaped  bands  of  rust-red  and  white. 
It  is  one  of  the  most  highly  migratory  birds 
known,  spending  its  winters  in  tropical  Africa 
and  India,  and  during  the  summer  breeding  in 
Scandinavia,  northern  Russia,  Siberia,  and  west- 
ern Alaska.  It  makes  its  nest  in  bushes  and 
weeds  along  streams,  as  far  north  as  71  degrees. 
It  is  extraordinary  in  never  beeing  seen  in  the 
intermediate  countries,  between  its  summer  and 
winter  homes,  so  that  it  stands  to  reason  that 
the  journey  is  made  at  a  single  flight,  either 
at  night,  or  at  an  invisible  altitude.  The  blue- 
throat  is  celebrated  for  its  fine  singing,  and 
powers  of  mimicry  when  in  its  summer  home, 
on  account  of  which  the  Laplanders  call  it  "the 
bird  of  the  hundred  voices."  Consult  Gatke, 
'Birds  of  Heligoland'  (English  translation 
1895)  ;  and  works  on  European,  Siberian,  and 
Alaskan  ornithology. 

Bluewing,  a  duck.      See  Te.vl. 

Bluffs,  a  term  of  American  origin,  synony- 
mous with  cliffs.  It  has  long  been  used  to 
designate  the  high  cliffs  met  with  along  the 
Mississippi  River ;  particularly  those  abrupt 
banks  of  loam  on  its  eastern  side  below  the 
mouth  of  the  Ohio.  These  are  continually 
washed  and  undermined  by  the  action  of  the 
river,  while  the  opposite  side,  rising  more  gently 
back  from  the  river,  is  but  slightly  washed 
by  its  waters.  On  the  south  shore  of  Lake 
Superior,  near  the  Pictured  Rocks,  is  a  most 
remarkable  bluff  of  loose,  blowing  sand,  which 
rises  so  steeply  from  the  edge  of  the  water 
to  the  height  of  200  feet,  that  one  would  in  vain 
endeavor  to  ascend  it.  The  waves  and  the 
winds  beat  against  it  from  the  north,  and  keep 
its  materials  continually  in  motion ;  but  more 
sand  appears  to  be  always  supplied  to  replace 
that  which  is  borne  away. 

Bluing,  a  compound  dissolved  in  water  to 
whiten  clothes  after  washing.  The  indigo  prep- 
aration once  largely  used  has  been  extensively 
superseded  by  Prussian  blue. 


BLUING  OF  METALS  — BLUMENTHAL 


Bluing  of  Metals,  the  process  of  giving  a 
blue  color  to  metallic  substances  by  heat.  Iron, 
when  heated,  becomes  first  of  a  light,  then  of 
a  darker  gold  color,  and  finally  blue.  Steel 
heated  to  redness  and  suddenly  cooled,  is  ren- 
dered hard  and  brittle.  It  is  restored  to  any 
degree  of  softness,  by  heating  it  up  to  certain 
temperatures  and  allowing  it  to  cool  slowly. 
These  temperatures  are  precisely  indicated  by  the 
color  of  the  film  of  oxide  which  forms  upon  its 
surface.  At  430°  F.  it  is  straw  yellow  of  the 
very  hard  temper  suitable  for  lancets.  At  higher 
temperatures  it  appears  successively  a  golden 
yellow,  then  brown,  purple,  blue,  and  finally 
green.  Pale  blue  at  550°  is  the  temper  for 
swords  and  watch  springs.  The  common  shade 
of  blue,  at  560°,  is  the  temper  for  fine  saws  and 
dirks.  Deep  blue,  at  600°,  is  the  soft  quality  of 
steel  for  large  saws. 

Blum,  bliih,  Ernest,  French  dramatist:  b. 
Paris,  15  Aug.  1836.  Either  alone  or  in  col- 
laboration with  other  dramatists  he  is  the  au- 
thor of  many  highly  successful  plays.  The 
drama  of  'Rose  MicheP  (1877),  of  his  own 
composition,  insured  his  place  among  the  most 
successful  French  dramatists  of  the  time. 
Among  his  later  compositions  are  "^Adam  and 
Eve^  (1886):  'The  Nervous  Woman^  (1888); 
'End  of  the  Century^  (1890);  'La  rieuse^ 
(1894);  'Le  Carillon*    (1897). 

Blum,  Hans,  hants  bloom,  German  publi- 
cist: b.  Leipsic,  1841.  He  is  a  son  of  Robert 
Blum  (q.v. ),  was  educated  in  the  universities 
of  Leipsic  and  Bern,  sat  in  the  North  German 
Reichstag  1867-70,  and  was  a  barrister  in  Leip- 
sic 1869-97.  He  has  written  extensively  on 
contemporary  politics  and  among  his  works  are 
*Die  Liigen  unserer  Socialdemokratie'  (1891)  ; 
'Fiirst  Bismarck  und  seine  Zeit'  (1894-5)  ; 
'Das  erste  Vierteljahrhundert  des  deutschen 
Reichs*  (1896 J  ;  'Personliche  Erinnerungen  an 
den  Fiirsten  Bismarck'  (1900).  He  has  also 
written  two  dramas  and  several  novels. 

Blum,  bloom,  Robert,  German  patriot:  b. 
•Cologne,  10  Nov.  1807:  d.  Vienna,  9  Nov.  1848. 
He  served  for  a  short  time  in  the  army,  and  be- 
came subsequently  connected  with  the  Leipsic 
Theatre,  of  which  he  acted  for  some  time  as 
secretary  and  treasurer.  Abotit  the  year  1840  he 
began  to  come  prominently  forward  as  the 
champion  of  the  Liberal  cause,  and  acquired 
much  renown  as  a  popular  orator.  On  the  out- 
break of  the  commotions  of  1848  he  manifested 
great  enthusiasm,  and  became  soon  the  rallying- 
point  of  democracy  in  Saxony,  and  the  leading 
member  of  opposition  in  the  National  Assembly 
at  Frankfort,  to  which  he  was  sent  that  year 
as  member  for  Leipsic.  The  events  of  October 
at  Vienna  inspired  him  with  fresh  energy,  and 
be  proceeded  thither  at  the  head  of  a  deputation 
10  express  the  sympathy  of  the  German  demo- 
crats in  the  Frankfort  Assembly  with  the  Vien- 
nese.  _  He  took  an  active  part  in  the  conflict  of 
the  citizens  with  the  imperialists;  but  on  the 
surrender  of  the  capital  to  Windischgratz,  was 
arrested  with  several  of  his  companions  on  4 
November.  Brought  before  a  military  tribunal, 
be  pleaded  in  vain  his  privileges  as  a  deputy 
-from  the  German  diet,  and  was  condemned  to  be 
hanged,  a  sentence  which  was  changed  to  death 
by  the  bullet. 

Blum,  blum,  Robert  Frederick,  American 
artist:    b.    Cincinnati,    O.,    July    1857;    d.    1903. 


He  studied  at  the  Philadelphia  Academy  of  Fine 
Arts,  and  among  his  works  are  'Venetian  Bead 
Stringers,*  which  received  a  prize  of  $2,500  at 
the  American  Art  Association  exhibition  in  New 
York  in  1889.  Although  he  worked  in  oils  he 
was  best  known  as  a  water-colorist  and  painter 
in  pastels.  He  ranked  among  the  most  bril- 
liant of  American  water-color  artists. 

Blumenbach,  Johann  Friedrich,  yo'han 
fred'riH  bloo'men-baH,  German  naturalist  of 
distinction:  b.  Gotha,  11  May  1752;  d.  Gottin- 
gen,  22  Jan.  1840.  He  studied  at  Jena  and 
Gottingen,  and  was  appointed  in  the  latter,  in 
1776,  extraordinary  professor  of  medicine  and 
inspector  of  the  museum  of  natural  history,  and 
in  1778  ordinary  professor.  In  1812  he  was  ap- 
pointed secretary  to  the  Royal  Society  of 
Sciences  at  Gottingen,  in  1816  became  physician 
to  the  king  of  Great  Britain  and  Hanover,  in 
1821  was  made  a  knight-commander  of  the  Guel- 
phic  Order,  and  in  1831  was  elected  a  member  of 
the  Academy  of  Sciences  at  Paris.  In  1825  the 
jubilee  of  his  graduation  as  doctor  was  cele- 
brated. On  this  occasion  a  medal  was  struck, 
and  an  endowment  founded  under  the  name  of 
the  Blumenbach  Stipendium  or  Bursary,  to  as- 
sist talented  young  physicians  and  naturalists, 
and  enable  them  to  make  scientific  travels.  In 
1835  he  retired  from  public  life.  The  first  work 
which  brought  him  into  notice  was  the  'De 
Generis  Humani  Varietate  Nativa,*  and  from 
its  publication  in  1775  he  continued  almost  for 
60  years  to  exert  a  powerful  influence  on  the 
progress  of  science,  both  by  the  number  of 
distinguished  pupils  who  were  indebted  for  their 
first  training  to  his  admirable  lectures,  and  by 
his  valuable  writings,  partly  inserted  in  the 
'Transactions^  of  scientific  societies,  and  partly 
published  as  separate  works.  Among  the  latter, 
in  addition  to  the  thesis,  which  received  im- 
portant additions  in  subsequent  editions,  and 
may  be  said  to  have  given  a  direction  to  the 
most  important  studies  of  his  after  life,  are  the 
'Institutiones  Physiologicae-*  (1787),  long  a  text- 
book in  many  of  the  most  celebrated  schools  of 
Europe;  the  'Handbuch  der  vergleichenden 
Anatomic-*  (Handbook  of  Comparative  Anat- 
omy), and  'Collectio  Craniorum  Diversarum 
Gentium.*  The  last  work  gives  descriptions  and 
figures  of  his  collection  of  skulls,  one  of  the 
most  extensive  in  existence,  and  still  preserved 
at  Gottingen.  In  regard  to  the  important  sub- 
ject of  which  it  treats.  Blumenbach  held  de- 
cidedly that  the  human  race  formed  only  one 
species,  and  had  originally  descended  from  a 
single  pair ;  but  he  divided  it  into  the  five 
varieties  of  Caucasian,  Mongolian,  Negro. 
American,   and  Malay. 

Blumenreich,  Franziska,  frantsTs-ka  bloo'- 
men-rlH,  German  novelist:  b.  Bohemia,  2 
April  1849.  Among  her  very  numerous  novels 
the  more  notable  are  ^At  the  Abyss  of  Mar- 
riage>  (1888);  'Freighted  with  Bliss>  (1890); 
< Storms  in  Port*  (1802).  She  is  a  zealous  ad- 
vocate of  woman's  rights. 

Blumenthal,  Jacob  von,  ya'kob  fon  bloo'- 
men-tal,  German  pianist  and  composer:  b. 
Hamburg,  4  Oct.  1829.  Going  to  London  jn 
1849,  he  became  pianist  to  Queen  Victoria, 
taught  music,  and  was  soon  well  known  as  a 
composer  of  popular  pianoforte  numbers  and 
equally  popular  songs  such  as  'My  Queen'  ; 
<The     Venetian     Boat     Song*  ;     <The     Broken 


BLUMENTHAL  —  BLUNT 


Flower^  ;  <The  Bend  in  the  River.^  The  famil- 
iar hymn  tune,  <Blumenthal,>  is  an  adaptation 
of  his  composition,  <The  Two  Angels.^ 

Blumenthal,  Oskar,  os'kar  bloo'men-tal, 
German  dramatist  and  critic:  b.  Berlin,  13 
March  1852.  Sprightliness  of  dialogue  is  the 
most  distinguishing  character  of  his  plays  ;  the 
most  successful  of  them  are  *The  Big  BelP  ; 
<A  Drop  of  Poison'  ;  <The  Black  Veil.>  He 
has  published  several  volumes  of  critical  an"d 
miscellaneous  essays. 

Blundell,  (Mrs.)  Francis  (M.  E.  Francis), 
English  novelist :  b.  Dublin.  She  is  the  widow 
of  Francis  N.  Blundell  and  has  lived  for  many 
years  in  Lancashire,  but  more  recently  in  Dor- 
setshire. Her  writings,  which  have  steadily  in- 
creased in  popularity,  both  in  England  and  the 
United  States,  are:  ^Whither?'  (1892);  *In  a 
Nort^  Country  Village*  (1893)  ;  ^The  Song  of 
Dan*  (1894)  ;  ^Town  Mice  in  the  Country,  a 
Story  for  Children*  (1894)  ;  ^A  Daughter  of 
the  Soil*  (1895)  ;  "^Frieze  and  Fustian*  (1896)  ; 
*  Among  the  Untrodden  Ways  (1896)  ;  ^Maime 
o'  the  Corner*  (1897)  ;  <Miss  Erin*  (1898)  ; 
^The  Duenna  of  a  Genius*  (1898)  ;  *  Yeoman 
Fleetwood*  (1899);  <  Pastorals  of  Dorset*; 
^Fiander's  Widow*  (1901)  ;  ^  North.  South,  and 
Over  the  Sea*  ;   ^The  Manor  Farm*    (1902). 

Blundell's  School,  a  famous  English  free 
grammar  school  in  Tiverton,  Devonshire, 
founded  in  1604  by  Peter  Blundell,  who  left  his 
fortune  to  charities,  the  school  being  the  most 
important  of  his  benevolences.  In  connection 
with  it  five  Balliol  College  scholarships  were 
founded  and  many  persons  who  afterward  be- 
came eminent  went  to  Balliol  College,  Oxford, 
from  Tiverton  School.  The  school  is  men- 
tioned in  the  novel  ^Lorna  Doone*  as  the 
scene  of  John  Ridd's  early  education.  In  1880 
new  buildings  in  the  Tudor  style  were  built  for 
vhe  school  in  the  outskirts  of  the  town.  The 
late  archbishop  of  Canterbury,  Frederick  Tem- 
ple, was  a  student  at  Blundell's  School. 

Blunderbuss,  a  short,  heavy,  large-bored 
firearm,  often  brass-barrelled,  and  bell-  or  trum- 
pet-mouthed. It  was  used  to  discharge  a  hea\'y 
load  of  slugs  or  small  bullets  at  a  short  range, 
and  was  once  generally  employed  as  a  weapon 
for  the  defense  of  houses  against  burglars.  As 
a  military  weapon,  it  was  used  occasionally  on 
shipboard  for  repelling  boarders,  or  pouring 
heavy  volleys  into  boats,  when  attempting  to  cut 
vessels  out  from  anchorage.  It  is  now  wholly 
disused.      See   Small  Arms. 

Blunt,  Edmund  March,  American  author: 
b.  Portsmouth,  N.  H.,  20  June  1770;  d.  Sing 
Sing,  N.  Y.,  2  Jan.  1862.  He  is  remembered 
for  his  publication  of  the  ^American  Coast 
Pilot*  (1796),  describing  all  the  coasts  of  the 
United  States,  and  containing  a  vast  amount 
of  invaluable  information  for  seamen.  More 
than  30  editions  of  this  work  have  been  pub- 
lished, and  it  is  still  in  use  in  the  United  States 
and  the  principal  European  countries,  having 
been  translated  into  nearly  every  foreign  lan- 
guage. He  also  compiled  a  number  of  nautical 
books  and  charts. 

Blunt,  George  William,  American  hydrog- 
rapher:  b.  Newburyport.  Mass.,  n  March 
1802;  d.  New  York,  19  April  1878;  a  son  of 
Edmund  March  Blunt  (q.v.).  He  went  to  sea 
when  14  years  old  and  served  as  a  sailor  till 

Vol.   2—48. 


nearly  21  ;  and  in  1822-66  was  a  publisher  of 
charts  and  nautical  books  in  New  York.  He 
made  original  surveys  of  many  American  har- 
bors ;  was  one  of  the  committee  that  organized 
the  present  system  of  pilotage  for  New  York ; 
made  several  revisions  of  the  ^American  Coast 
Pilot*  ;  and  was  influential  in  causing  the  Fed- 
eral government  to  adopt  the  French  system  of 
lighthouses  and  to  organize  the  Lighthouse 
Board. 

Blunt,  James  G.,  American  soldier:  b. 
Trenton,  Maine,  1826;  d.  Washington,  D.  C, 
1881.  He  settled  as  a  physician  in  Anderson 
County,  Kansas,  in  1856;  became  prominent  in 
the  contest  over  the  introduction  of  slavery  into 
that  State,  and  was  a  member  of  the  convention 
that  framed  its  constitution.  Entering  the  army 
as  lieutenant-colonel  of  the  3d  Kansas  Volun- 
teers, he  became  brigadier-general,  8  April  1862, 
and  was  assigned  to  the  command  of  the  mili- 
tary department  of  Kansas.  As  such  he  was 
engaged  in  the  battle  of  old  Fort  Wayne,  de- 
feated Marmaduke  at  Cane  Hill,  Ark.,  and, 
with  the  aid  of  Gen.  Herron,  defeated  Hind- 
man  at  Prairie  Grove,  and  thus  checked  the 
Confederate  advance  into  Missouri.  He  was 
promoted  major-general,  29  Nov.  1862,  and  in 
October  1864  gave  the  final  blow  to  Price's  in- 
vasion of   Missouri. 

Blunt,  John  Elijah,  English  consular 
agent :  b.  14  Oct.  1832.  He  entered  the  English 
consular  service  in  1850,  and  held  various  con- 
sular posts  in  Turkey,  receiving  in  1862  and 
again  in  1868  the  thanks  of  the  President  of  the 
United  States  for  his  services  to  American  citi- 
zens in  the  province  of  Adrianople.  Since  1899 
he  has  been  consul  at  Boston,  Mass.,  with  the 
rank  of  consul-general. 

Blunt,  John  Henry,  English  High  Church 
theologian:  b.  London,  25  Aug.  1823;  d.  there, 
II  April  1884.  He  held  various  curacies,  and  in 
1873  was  appointed  to  the  living  of  Beverston, 
Gloucestershire.  He  wrote  much,  among  his 
chief  works  being:  'Dictionary  of  Doctrinal  and 
Historical  Theology*  (1870);  'Dictionary  of 
Sects,  Heresies,  etc.*  (1874);  'History  of  the 
English  Reformation*  (1868-82)  ;  'Household 
Theology*  (1865)  ;  'Annotated  Book  of  Com- 
mon Prayer*  (1866;  revised  and  enlarged, 
1884). 

Blunt,  John  James,  English  divine:  b. 
Newcastle-under-Lyme.  1794:  d.  Cambridge,  18 
June  1855.  From  1839  he  was  Lady  Margaret 
professor  of  divinity  at  Cambridge.  His  works 
include:  'Sketch  of  the  Reformation  in  Eng- 
land* (1832)  ;  'Undesigned  Coincidences  in  the 
Old  and  New  Testament,  an  Argument  for  their 
Veracity*  (1847):  'On  the  Right  Use  of  the 
Early  Fathers*  (1857)  ;  'History  of  the  Church 
During  the  First  Three  Centuries*  (1856)  ;  sev- 
eral volumes  of  sermons ;  etc. 

Blunt,  Stanhope  English,  American  mili- 
tary officer :  b.  Boston,  Mass.,  29  Sept.  1850.  He 
was  graduated  at  the  United  States  Military 
Academy  and  commissioned  2d  lieutenant  in 
1872;  rose  through  the  ranks  to  major  in  the 
ordnance  department ;  served  at  various  posts 
and  arsenals  in  the  West;  was  a  member  of 
several  boards,  including  that  which  selected 
the  Krag-Jorgensen  rifle  for  use  in  the  army; 
and  had  command  of  the  Rock  Island  Arsenal, 


BLUNT  —  BOA 


fW.  He  has  written  < Firing  Regulations  for 
Small  Arms/  and  numerous  papers  on  the  use 
of  small  arms. 

Blunt,  Wilfrid  Scawen,  English  poet  and 
traveler:  b.  Crabbet  Park,  Sussex,  17  Aug. 
1840.  He  was  attache  of  legation  at  The  Hague, 
Athens,  Madrid,  Buenos  Ayres,  and  elsewhere; 
supported  Arabi  Pasha  in  the  revolt  in  Egypt 
in  1881 ;  and  was  imprisoned  in  1888  for  his 
insurrectionary  actions  in  Ireland.  He  is  author 
of:  "^Sonnets  and  Songs  by  Proteus'  (London 
1875)  ;  *The  Love  Sonnets  of  Proteus'  (1881)  ; 
<The  Future  of  Islam'  (1882)  ;  <The  Wind  and 
the  Whirlwind,'  political  poems  (1884)  ;  ^ Ideas 
About  India'  (1885);  <In  Vinculis'  (1889);  ^A 
New  Pilgrimage'  (1889)  ;  ^Esther:  a  Young 
Man's  Tragedy'  (1892)  ;  ^Stealing  of  the  Marc' 
(1892)  ;  ^Griselda'  (1893)  ;  ^Satan  Absolved' 
(1899). 

Blunthead,  a  columbrine  snake  of  Java  and 
the  East  Indies  {Amblycephalus  monticola).  It 
is  about  three  feet  in  length,  and  purple  in 
ground  color,  but  this  is  almost  entirely  con- 
cealed by  the  brown  markings  and  mottlings, 
and  the  cheeks  and  lip-plates  are  carnation-red. 
It  is  perfectly  harmless,  and  is  welcomed  by 
the  natives  to  their  houses  as  a  vermin-destroyer. 
It  owes  its  name  to  the  squarish  form  of  the 
head,  which,  as  in  many  other  species  of  the 
family,  looks  so  much  like  that  of  a  poisonous 
snake  as  to  deceive  most  observers. 

Bluntschli,  Johann  Kasper,  yd'han  kas'par 

blimt'shle,  Swiss  jurist  and  statesman :  b.  Zurich, 
7  March'1808;  d.  Carlsruhe,  21  Oct.  1881.  Hebe- 
came  professor  in  the  newly  founded  university 
in  that  city  in  1833 ;  took  an  active  part  in  the 
political  struggles  that  divided  his  country,  and 
at  first  inclined  to  the  party  of  reform,  until  the 
events  of  1839  induced  him  to  join  the  Con- 
servatives, of  whom  he  was,  for  a  time,  a  leader. 
He  was  a  councilor  of  state,  and  became  a 
member  of  the  government  and  of  the  Federal 
Directory,  and  afterward  worked  for  the  forma- 
tion of  a  moderate  Liberal  Conservative  Party 
in  Switzerland.  In  1848  he  went  to  Munich  as 
professor  of  civil  and  international  law.  There 
he  published  his  ^Allgemeines  Staatsrecht' 
(5th  ed.  1876),  on  which  his  reputation  as  a 
jurisconsult  chiefly  rests;  'Deutsches  Privat- 
recht'  (3d  ed.  1864)  ;  and,  in  conjunction  with 
Arndts  and  Pozl,  ^Kritische  Ueberschau  der 
Deutschen  Gesetzgebung  und  Rechtswissen- 
schaft  (6  vols.  1853-8).  In  1861  he  removed  to 
Heidelberg  University,  and  became  a  privy  coun- 
cilor of  Baden,  actively  forwarding  all  Liberal 
measures  in  the  state.  Liberty  in  ecclesiastical 
matters  he  had  equally  at  heart ;  he  acted  several 
times  as  president  of  the  Protestantenverein, 
and  it  was  after  delivering  a  closing  speech  at 
the  general  synod  of  Baden  that  he  died  sud- 
denly at  Carlsruhe.  He  was  the  author  of  valu- 
able histories  of  Zurich  and  of  the  Swiss  Con- 
federation, and  of  a  number  of  works  on  law, 
being  especially  an  authority  in  international  law. 
His  library  is  now  possessed  by  the  Johns  Hop- 
kins University  at  Baltimore. 

Blushing,  a  sudden  reddening  of  the  face, 
caused  by  a  rush  of  blood  into  the  capillary  ves- 
sels of  the  skin.  A  blush  is  excited  by  con- 
fusion of  mind,  arising  from  surprise  or  diffi- 
dence, modesty  or  shame,  or  conscious  guilt 
and  apprehension,  showing  the  influence  of  the 


passions  and  emotions  on  the  nervous  system 
and  the  circulation  of  the  blood.  Sudden  fear 
and  apprehension  cause  the  blood  to  rush  from 
the  external  surface  to  the  internal  organs,  leav- 
ing the  bloodless  lips  quite  pale,  and  the  whole 
face  suifused  with  deathly  pallor.  It  is  a  kind 
of  inverse  blushing;  the  one  being  a  sudden 
flash  of  color  in  the  face,  the  other  a  sudden 
flash  of  paleness. 

Bliithgen,  August  Eduard  Viktor,  ow'- 
goost  ed'oo-ard  vik'tor  bliit'-gen,  Gennan 
novelist :  b.  Zorbig,  near  Halle,  4  Jan.  1844.  He 
has  won  high  distinction  as  a  writer  for  the 
young.  Among  his  stories  for  boys  and  girls 
are:  ^The  Rogues'  Looking  Glass'  (1876)  ; 
<The  Battle  of  Frogs  and  Mice'  (1878)  ;  and 
with  these  is  to  be  classed  the  letter-press 
(verses)  of  O.  Pletsch's  *^ Picture  Books.'  Of 
novels  and  romances  he  is  author  of  a  great 
many;  for  example,  'The  Peace  Breaker' 
(1883);  'The  Step-Sister'  (1887);  'Madame 
the  (Countess'   (1892)  ;  etc. 

Blyden,  Edward  Wilmot,  a  negro  author: 
b.  St.  Thomas,  W.  I.,  3  Aug.  1832.  After  vainly 
seeking,  in  1845,  admission  to  some  college  in 
the  United  States,  he  went  to  Liberia,  and  grad- 
uated at  the  Alexander  High  School,  of  which 
he  afterward  was  principal.  In  1880  he  became 
president  of  Liberia  College,  has  held  impor- 
tant government  positions,  and  was  commis- 
sioner to  the  Presbyterian  General  Assembly 
of  the  United  States  in  1861  and  1880.  He  is 
proficient  in  many  languages,  including  Latin,. 
Greek,  Spanish,  Hebrew,  and  Arabic.  He  has 
published:  'Liberia's  Offering'  (1873);  'From 
West  Africa  to  Palestine'  (1873)  >  'The  Negro 
in   Ancient   History'  ;   etc. 

Blythe,  Herbert.  See  Barrymore,  Maurice. 

B'nai  B'rith,  b'ni  b'reth,  Independent 
Order  of  the,  an  association  of  German  Jews 
formed  in  the  United  States  in  1843.  Its  pur- 
pose is  the  moral  improvement  of  the  mem- 
bers. Its  organization  resembles  that  of  the 
Free  Masons,  but  it  is  not  a  secret  society,  and 
has  no  elaborate  ceremonial.  The  organization 
has  since  been  established  in  Germany,  and  in 
the  East.  In  1901  it  had  over  400  lodges  and 
28,000  members. 

Bo-tree,    the    sacred    fig    of    India.    See 

Peepul. 

Boa,  a  serpent  of  that  section  of  the  fam- 
ily BoidcE  called  Boince.  The  boas  are  mostly 
of  great  size,  and  inhabitants  of  the  forests  of 
tropical  America ;  and,  with  the  pythons,  consti- 
tute a  family  of  the  largest  of  modern  snakes, 
which  are  noted  for  their  power  to  enfold  and 
fatally  crush  their  prey  in  muscular  coils.  These 
serpents  are  notable  not  only  for  great  size,  but 
for  certain  structural  peculiarities,  of  which  the 
most  noteworthy  and  characteristic  is  the  fact 
that  vestiges  remain  of  the  pelvis  and  hinder 
limbs,  which  appear  externally  as  claw-like 
spurs  on  each  side  of  the  vent,  which  are  of 
service  in  hanging  from  trees.  The  muscular 
power  is  very  great,  the  tail  is  partly  prehen- 
sile ;  and  the  bones  of  the  head,  and  especially 
of  the  jaws,  are  more  than  ordinarily  loosely 
joined  together  (see  Serpent),  so  that  bodies 
surprisingly  large  may  be  swallowed.  This  fam- 
ily is  distributed  throughout  all  tropical  re- 
gions, and  is  divided  into  two  sub-families,  by 
diversities  of  structure.     One  (Pythonince)  con- 


BOAS. 


I.   Boa  Constrictor. 


2.   Dog-Headed  Boa  (Xiphosoma  Caninum). 


BOABDIL  —  BOADICEA 


tains  the  Old  World  pythons  (q.v.),  which  have 
a  pair  of  supraorbital  bones,  some  teeth  on  the 
premaxilla,  and  the  sub-caudal  scales  in  two 
rows ;  while  the  boas  lack  supraorbital  bones, 
never  have  premaxillary  teeth  and  but  a  single 
row  of  scales  on  the  under  side  of  the  tail. 
Most  of  'the  40  or  50  species  of  Boince  are 
American,  but  several  small  species  inhabit  the 
warmer  parts  of  the  Old  World.  Several  of  the 
American  boas  are  very  large  snakes,  perhaps 
occasionally  reaching  30  feet  in  length,  though 
few  carefully  measured  have  exceeded  20  feet ; 
but  such  a  one  would  weigh  several  hundred 
pounds,  and  be  a  very  formidable  foe  to  the 
largest  animals  exposed  to  their  attacks.  They 
inhabit  the  forests,  and  climb  to  the  lower 
.branches  of  the  trees,  where  they  seek  or  await 
their  prey,  usually  above  a  path.  There  the  ser- 
pent swings  about  in  the  air  till  some  luckless 
animal  approaches ;  then,  suddenly  relinquish- 
ing its  position,  he  seizes  the  victim,  and  coils 
his  body  spirally  round  its  throat  and  chest, 
till,  after  a  few  ineffectual  cries  and  struggles, 
the  animal  is  suffocated,  and  expires.  In  pro- 
ducing this  effect,  the  serpent  does  not  merely 
wind  itself  around  its  prey,  but  places  fold 
over  fold,  as  if  desirous  of  adding  as  much 
weight  as  possible  to  the  muscular  effort ;  these 
folds  are  then  gradually  tightened  with  enor- 
mous force,  and  speedily  induce  death.  The 
animals  thus  destroyed  by  the  larger  boas  are 
sometimes  as  large  as  tapirs,  deer,  and  even  bul- 
locks, but  ordinarily  the  much  smaller  mam- 
mals and  birds  of  the  forest,  while  one  species 
feeds  mainly  upon  aquatic  prey.  Having  crushed 
and  rolled  its  prey  until  its  bones  are  broken  into 
pieces,  and  it  is  compacted  into  the  form  of  a 
sausage,  it  takes  it  into  its  mouth,  and  at  first 
by  the  help  of  the  strong  recurved  teeth  on  its 
jaw  bones,  and  later  by  reflex  movements  of 
its  throat  and  ribs  slowly  engulfs  it,  the  action 
being  facilitated  by  a  copious  flow  of  saliya; 
but  there  is  no  truth  in  the  reputed  preparation 
of  the  prey  by  a  covering  of  slime,  etc.,  related 
in  so  many  books.  The  process  of  digestion  is 
slow,  and  while  it  is  proceeding,  the  snake  is 
inert,  and  easily  caught  and  killed. 

Several  of  the  larger  species  are  well  known 
and  often  seen  in  menageries,  where  they  are 
easily  distinguished  by  the  shape  of  the  head  and 
by  the  well-defined  pattern  of  the  markings. 
These  are  exceedingly  handsome  in  most  cases, 
the  colors  being  yellow,  buff,  chestnut,  and  vary- 
ing browns,  set  off  by  black  and  white ;  and  the 
skins,  whicn  may  be  tanned  into  good  leather 
with  the  scales  on,  are  of  high  commercial  value 
for  making  purses,  belts,  and  other  ornamental 
articles.  Among  the  best  known  species  are  the 
common  boa  —  the  Boa  constrictor  proper  (for 
that  term  is  ignorantly  given  to  all),  which  is 
one  of  the  lesser  forms,  rarely  exceeding  10  feet 
in  length.  Its  home  is  the  region  of  the  Ama- 
zon and  Orinoco  rivers,  and  it  is  pale  brown, 
with  a  chain-like  series  of  dark-brown  mark- 
ings on  each  side  of  the  spine,  enclosing  large 
oblong-oval  spots,  and  a  series  of  large  dark 
spots  along  the  sides,  each  with  a  light  centre; 
on  the  tail  the  markings  become  brick-red.  Sev- 
eral other  species  of  this  genus,  some  much 
larger,  inhabit  South  and  Central  America.  One, 
the  imperial  boa,  has  a  Mexican  variety,  often 
called  the  abonia,  which  is  believed  to  be  the 
serpent  venerated  by  the  ancient  Mexicans,  and 
worshipped  with  bloody  sacrifices.  Two  species  of 


true  boas  also  inhabit  Madagascar.  Of  a  clostly 
related  genus  is  the  great  water-boa,  or  ana- 
conda (Eunectes  nuerinus) ,  which  adds  to  the 
arboreal  habits  of  the  others  the  custom  of 
crawling  into  the  rivers  and  swamps  of  the 
half-flooded  forests,  where  it  lives,  and  there 
lying  in  wait  for  animals  that  come  down  to 
drink,  or  seizing  those  of  semi-aquatic  life.  This 
is  the  largest,  most  formidable,  and  one  of  the 
handsomest  of  the  tribe.  Many  species  are  of 
smaller  size,  down  to  only  three  feet  in  length, 
but  all  have  similar  habits.  One  genus  (Licli- 
anura)  has  a  few  species  that  dwell  in  the 
West  Indies  and  Mexico,  and  are  occasionally 
taken  in  Arizona  and  southern  California ;  and 
small  boas  of  this  or  an  allied  sort  are  fre- 
quently brought  into  the  United  States  from 
Cuba,  tightly  coiled  about  bunches  of  bananas. 
They  are  harmless,  of  course,  unless  of  a  great 
size,  having  no  poison  sacs  or  fangs,  and  all  the 
larger  ones  are  susceptible  of  taming,  and  seem 
to  acquire  a  positive  regard  for  their  human 
friends. 

Boabdil,     bo-ab-del',     or     Abu-Abdullah, 

a'boo-abd-ool'ah,  last  Moorish  king  of  Gra- 
nada. He  gained  the  throne  in  1481  by  expelling 
his  father,  Mulei  Hassan ;  but  being  attacked 
by  Ferdinand  of  Aragon,  was  defeated  and 
taken  prisoner.  His  father  having  resumed  his 
crown,  Ferdinand  set  Boabdil  at  liberty,  and 
promised  to  assist  him  against  his  father,  on  con- 
dition of  his  agreement  to  become  the  vassal  of 
Spain.  He  accepted  the  ignominious  condition, 
and  his  father  died  of  a  broken  heart.  Boabdil 
was  not  permitted  to  reign  in  peace.  By  his 
tyranny  he  provoked  the  hostility  of  his  own 
subjects,  and  Ferdinand,  taking  advantage  of 
the  dissensions  which  prevailed,  laid  siege  to 
Granada.  The  Moors  made  a  valiant  defense, 
and  were  prepared  to  bury  themselves  under 
the  ruins  of  the  city,  but  Boabdil  capitulated, 
and  retired  to  a  domain  of  the  Alpuj  arras 
asigned  him  by  the  victor  (1491).  When  on 
his  way  he  turned  round  to  take  a  last  look  of 
the  city,  and  burst  into  tears.  "Right,  my  son." 
exclaimed  his  mother,  Aixa,  who  was  standing 
by  him,  *^weep  like  a  woman  for  the  throne 
which  you  had  not  the  spirit  to  defend  as  a 
man  and  a  king.'*  The  spot  is  still  called  "El 
Ultimo  Sospiro  del  Moro"  (the  last  sigh  of  the 
Moor).  (See  Granad.\.)  Boabdil  soon  after- 
ward passed  into  Africa,  and  fell  in  battle 
while  assisting  the  king  of  Fez  in  an  attempt  to 
dethrone  the  king  of  Morocco. 

Boadice'a,  queen  of  the  Iceni,  a  British 
tribe,  inhabiting  what  are  now  the  counties  of 
Cambridgeshire.  Suffolk.  Norfolk,  and  Hert- 
fordshire. She  died  about  62  .\.d.  The  cele- 
brated earthworks  still  extant,  known  as  the 
Devil's  ditch,  at  Newmarket  heath,  and  at  Six- 
I\Iile  bottom,  are  supposed  to  be  the  fortifica- 
tions of  this  tribe,  and  perhaps  of  this  queen, 
against  the  Romans.  She  was  a  contemporary 
of  Nero,  and  was  a  woman  of  remarkable 
character,  both  for  firmness  and  ability.  Her 
husband,  the  king  of  the  Iceni.  Prasutagus, 
dying,  left  Nero  and  his  own  two  daughters 
joint  heirs  to  his  great  wealth,  hoping  thereby 
to  preserve  his  family  and  kingdom  from  the 
rapacity  of  the  conquerors.  But  immediately 
on  his  death  his  kingdom  was  taken  possession 
of  by  the  Roman  centurions.  For  some  real  or 
imaginary  offen.se,  the   British  queen   was  pvb- 


BOANERGES  —  BOAS 


licly  scourged  by  the  executioner,  and  her 
daughters  were  abandoned  to  the  lust  of  the 
slaves.  Stung  to  frenzy  by  this  outrage,  taking 
advantage  of  the  absence  of  Suetonius  Paulinus, 
the  Roman  governor,  from  that  part  of  Eng- 
land, Boadicea  raised  the  whole  military  force 
of  her  barbarians,  and  bursting  upon  the 
Roman  colony  of  London,  reduced  the  city  to 
ashes,  and  put  to  the  sword  in  that  and  neigh- 
boring places, —  of  Roman  citizens,  traders, 
Italians,  and  other  subjects  of  the  empire, —  at 
least  70,000  individuals.  Suetonius  lost  not  a 
moment  in  hurrying  to  the  scene  of  action, 
although  it  was  well  known  that  the  queen  of 
the  Iceni  was  in  command  of  120,000  men, 
which  gradually  increased  to  230,000,  according 
to  Dion  Cassius,  while  he  could  bring  into  the 
field  in  all  less  than  10,000  soldiers.  It  is  true 
that  absolute  credit  cannot  be  given  to  state- 
ments of  prodigious  numbers,  such  as  the 
above,  but  at  all  events  the  disparity  of  force 
was  extraordinary.  The  legion,  posted  on 
heights,  where  its  flanks  and  rear  were  covered 
by  woods,  seems  to  have  received  the  attack 
passively,  sheltered  from  the  missiles  of  the 
Britons  by  their  large,  oblong  bucklers,  until, 
when  the  darts  and  arrows  of  the  barbarians 
began  to  fail,  by  one  compact  charge  they  car- 
ried all  before  them.  They  spared  nothing; 
women,  children,  the  beasts  of  burden,  the  dogs, 
were  all  cut  to  pieces.  It  is  said  that  80,000 
Britons  were  butchered  that  day,  while  of  the 
legionaries  only  400  fell,  and  about  as  many 
more  were  wounded.  It  is  believed  that  the 
action  took  place  not  far  from  St.  Albans,  Veru- 
lamium,  a  Roman  colony,  which  at  the  first 
irruption  had  shared  the  fate  of  London.  The 
queen,  seeing  that  her  cause  was  lost,  committed 
suicide,  rather  than  submit  to  the  conqueror. 
Beaumont  and  Fletcher's  play,  <^ Boadicea,^  is 
founded  upon  the  resistance  made  by  Boadicea 
against  Suetonius. 

Boanerges,  bo-a-ner'jez,  an  appellation 
given  by  Christ  to  two  of  his  disciples,  the 
brothers  James  and  John,  apparently,  on  account 
of  their  fiery  zeal.     See  Mark  iii.  17. 

Boar,  Wild,  a  ferocious,  swift-footed 
species  {Sus  scrofa)  of  wild  swine,  made 
dangerous  by  its  extreme  courage  and  superior 
strength.  It  is  found  in  marshy  forest-grounds 
of  Europe,  Asia  Minor,  and  North  Africa. 
The  boar  is  much  larger  than  the  domesticated 
swine ;  and  covered  with  short,  grayish-black, 
woolly  hair,  thickly  interspersed  with  stifl: 
bristles,  assuming  the  form  of  a  crest  along  the 
spine.  The  great  tusks  of  the  lower  jaw  are 
formidable  weapons  in  youth,  but  later  becom- 
ing useless  by  curving  over  the  snout,  when  the 
teeth  of  the  upper  jaw  which  protrude  and  curve 
out  take  their  place  as  weapons.  The  boar  seeks 
its  food  at  night  and  feeds  on  roots,  grain,  and 
small  animals,  birds'  eggs,  etc.  Besides  this 
species,  several  others  exist,  notable  among  which 
are  Sus  vittatiis  of  Asia  and  Africa,  Sus  ver- 
rucosus of  Java,  and  the  Celebes  and  Sus  bar- 
batus  of  Borneo.  Boars  were  common  in  Eng- 
land until  the  time  of  Henry  II.,  when  they 
seemed  to  disappear  for  the  time  being,  re- 
appearing again  in  the  reign  of  Charles  I. 
Formerly  the  sport  of  hunting  this  animal  with 
the  aid  of  great  dogs  (boarhounds),  was  the 
favorite  amusement  of  the  nobles  of  France 
and  Germany,  but  is  now  rarely  followed  except 


in  a  few  estates  in  eastern  Europe,  where  the 
animal  is  preserved  for  the  purpose.  In  India, 
however,  the  chase  of  the  wild  boars  of  that 
country,  usually  called  "pig-sticking,^^  is  still 
foremost  among  the  field-sports  of  the  Anglo- 
Indians. 

Board,  the  collective  name  applied  to  a 
number  of  persons  having  the  management, 
direction,  or  superintendence  of  some  public 
or  private  office  or  trust ;  often  an  office  under 
the  control  of  an  executive  government,  the 
business  of  which  is  conducted  by  officers 
specially  appointed,  as  board  of  admiralty,  board 
of  trade,  etc. 

Boardman,  George  Dana,  American  mis- 
sionary: b.  Livermore,  Me.,  8  Feb.  1801 ;  d.  11 
Feb.  183 1.  He  studied  at  Andover  and  was 
ordained  in  the  Baptist  Church.  In  1825  he 
went  to  India,  and  in  1827  to  Burma,  where  he 
labored  assiduously  in  spreading  Christianity. 
The  mission  planted  by  him  became  the  central 
point  of  all  Baptist  missions  in  Burma. 

Boardman,  George  Dana,  American  cler- 
gyman and  author :  b.  Tavoy,  British  Burma, 
18  Aug.  1828;  d.  Atlantic  City,  N.  J.,  28 
April  1903 ;  son  of  the  American  Baptist 
missionary  of  the  same  name.  He  was  educated 
in  the  United  States,  graduating  at  Brown  Uni- 
versity in  1852,  and  at  Newton  Theological  In- 
stitution in  1855.  He  was  pastor  at  Barnwell, 
S.  C. ;  afterward  at  Rochester,  N.  Y.,  till  1864, 
when  he  became  pastor  of  the  First  Baptist 
Church  in  Philadelphia.  In  1899  he  established 
a  lectureship  at  the  University  of  Pennsylvania, 
known  as  the  ^^Boardman  Foundation  in  Chris- 
tian Ethics.''  Besides  sermons  and  essays,  his 
chief  works  are :  '■  Studies  in  the  Creative  Week' 
(1878)  ;  < Studies  in  the  Model  Prayer'  (1879)  : 
^Epiphanies  of  the  Risen  Lord^  (1879)  ;  ^Stud- 
ies in  the  Mountain  Instruction'  (1880)  ;  ^The 
Kingdom'  (1899)  ;  <The  Church^  (1901)  ;  'The 
Golden  Rule'    (1901). 

Boardman,  Richard,  English  missionary: 
b.  1738;  d.  Cork,  Ireland,  4  Oct.  1782.  He  be- 
came a  member  of  Wesley's  conference  in  1763, 
and  volunteered  for  service  in  America  in  1769. 
He  preached  in  New  York  and  through  the 
Middle  States  till  1774,  a.- J  "^len,  returning  to 
England,  continued  his  itinerant  ministry.  He 
is  known  as  one  of  the  founders  of  Methodism 
in    the    United    States. 

Boarfish,  a  fish  of  the  family  Caproidce. 
found  off  the  southern  coast  of  Europe.  The 
body  is  small,  oval,  compressed,  and  carmine  in 
color,  with  seven  transverse  orange  bands  on 
the  back,  and  has  a  long,  hog-like  snout. 

Boarhound.      See  Hound. 

Boar's  Head,  The,  a  tavern  in  Eastcheap, 
London,  destroyed  in  the  great  fire  of  1666 ;  its 
site  is  now  occupied  by  a  statue  of  William  IV. 
The  inn  figures  in  Shakespeare's  'Henry  IV.* 
and  'Henry  V.*  as  the  resort  of  Falstaff  and 
his  boon  companions. 

Boas,  Franz,  frants  bd'as,  German-Ameri- 
can ethnologist:  b.  Minden.  Westphalia,  9  July 
1858.  He  studied  at  Heidelberg,  Bonn,  and  Kiel 
universities,  1877-82;  traveled  in  the  Arctic  re- 
gions, 1883-4;  was  assistant  in  the  Royal 
Ethnographical  Museum  in  Berlin,  and  privat 
docent  in  geography  at  the  University  in  1885-6 ; 
and  teacher  of  anthropclcvgy  in  Clark  Universitj', 


BOAT  —  BOBADILLA 


Worcester,  Mass.,  in  1888-92.  In  1901  he  be- 
came curator  of  the  American  Museum  of 
Natural  History.  He  has  spent  much  time 
among  various  American  Indian  tribes,  and, 
among  other  works,  has  published  *  Baffin 
Land>  (1885)  ;  "The  Central  Eskimo,"  in  the 
^Annual  Report^  of  the  United  States  Bureau 
of  Ethnology  (1888);  'Indians  of  British  Co- 
lumbia^   (1888-92)  ;  etc. 

Boat,  properly  a  small  vessel  propelled  by 
oars  or  poles.  Boats  are  made  of  iron,  copper. 
India-rubber,  gutta-percha,  skins,  and  of  all 
kinds  of  wood.  Wooden  boats  are  usually  built 
either  smooth  or  lap-streak,  that  is,  where  the 
upper  plank  laps  over  the  next  lower.  Boats 
differ  much  in  shape  and  size,  depending  on  the 
use  to  which  they  are  to  be  put.  Launch  is  the 
largest  boat  carried  by  a  man-of-war.  Long 
boat,  used  by  merchant  vessels  for  conveying 
heavy  burdens ;  this  name  is  given  to  the  largest 
boat,  without  regard  to  size.  Cutter,  shorter 
and  lighter  than  the  launch,  and  much  faster. 
Jolly  boat,  smaller  than  the  cutter,  and  not  so 
fast,  used  for  going  on  shore,  usually  rowed 
with  four  oars.  Gig,  a  fast-rowing  boat  nearly 
the  size  of  the  cutter,  employed  both  in  the  mer- 
chant service  and  navy.  Barge,  in  the  English 
navy,  about  the  'size  of  the  cutter.  This  name 
is  given  to  the  large  boats  used  on  occasions  of 
state.  On  the  Mississippi  it  means  a  scow,  flat- 
bottomed,  and  of  very  light  draught.  Some- 
times also  applied  to  the  large  8-  and  lo-oared 
race  boats.  Pinnace,  smaller  than  the  barge, 
used  for  conveying  light  articles.  In  the  Eng- 
lish navy  the  pinnace  launch  is  next  in  size  to 
the  launch.  Paddle-box  boat,  so  called  from 
the  place  where  they  are  stowed,  commonly 
built  like  a  whale  boat,  and  smaller  than  the 
cutter.  Whale  boat,  a  sharp,  light  boat,  very 
wide  amidships,  bow  and  stern  alike,  rowed 
W'ith  six  oars.  All  surf  boats  are  whale-boat 
model,  or  modifications  of  it.  Dory,  light,  flat- 
bottomed,  very  sharp,  with  sloping  sides,  froni 
15  to  20  feet  long,  used  very  extensively  in 
the  fisheries.  Wherrj^  in  the  United  States,  a 
dory ;  in  England,  a  race  boat  for  one  rower, 
and  from  15  to  30  feet  long.  Skiff,  a  little 
boat  for  crossing  rivers,  or  going  on  shore  from 
a  vessel.  Cobble,  a  small  fishing  boat,  flat- 
bottomed.  Punt,  a  flat-bottomed,  decked  boat, 
of  very  light  draught,  used  chiefly  by  gunners. 
Shallop,  small  ship's  boat ;  term  not  now  used. 
Scow,  a  broad  flat-bottomed  boat,  with  square 
bow  and  stern,  for  conveying  heavy  weights, 
propelled  by  poles  or  sweeps,  from  30  to  50  feet 
long,  and  12  to  18  feet  wide.  Canal  boat, 
a  broad  shallow  boat,  like  the  scow,  except 
in  having  a  keel  and  a  rather  sharper  bow,  used 
only  on  canals.  Flats,  flat  boats,  arks,  etc.,  boats 
resembling  scows,  save  in  being  decked.  They 
are  still  to  be  found  on  the  Mississippi  and  its 
tributaries,  and  are  used  for  bringing  all  kinds 
of  produce  down  the  river.  Bateaux,  boats 
smaller  than  the  scow,  and  used  in  the  same 
way.  Gondola,  in  the  United  States,  a  scow; 
properly,  a  very  sharp,  fast  boat,  sculled  with 
one  oar.  Moses,  large  flats,  used  in  the  West 
Indies  for  taking  molasses  hogsheads  from 
shore  to  ship.  Felucca,  a  large  boat  with  lateen 
sails,  decked,  and  rowing  from  10  to  16  banks 
of  oars.  Life-boats,  boats  used  in  storms  for 
saving  life.  (See  Life-eoat.)  Dingy,  a 
wooden  life-boat,  carried  by  a  man-of-war,  has 


wooden  air-chambers  at  each  end,  and  is  about 
18  feet  in  length.  Waist  boats  and  quarter 
boats  take  their  name  from  the  part  of  the  ves- 
sel where  they  are  kept,  and  are  somewhat 
smaller  than  the  cutter.  Race  boats  differ  very 
much  in  shape  from  any  of  those  before  named. 
Having  only  speed  in  view,  they  are  built  as 
light,  narrow,  and  sharp  as  possible.  They  are 
rowed  with  from  2  to  12  oars,  and  are  from  15 
to  70  feet  in  length,  and  generally  not  more 
than  eight  inches  above  water.  The  two-oared 
boats  are  called  shells,  sculls,  or  wherries;  the 
larger  ones  sometimes  barges. 

Boatbill,  a  South  American  heron  (Cjh- 
croma  cochlearia),  having  a  remarkable  bill, 
suggesting  in  its  broad,  inflated  shape  an  up- 
turned boat,  the  keel  of  which  is  represented  by 
the  ridge  of  the  culmen.  The  bird  is  about  the 
size  of  a  night-heron,  but  with  shorter  legs.  Its 
general  color  is  reddish-gray,  with  black  and 
white  markings.  The  back  of  the  head  and  neck 
are  covered  with  elongated,  erectile  feathers. 
A  naked  gular  pouch  hangs  beneath  the  lower 
jaw.  It  feeds  upon  worms,  crabs,  and  other 
small  aquatic  animals  caught  in  muddy  shal- 
lows. Another  species  {Cancroma  zelendom) 
inhabits  Central  America. 

Boat-fly  {Notonecta  glatica),  an  aquatic 
hemipterous  insect  which  swims  on  its  back ; 
the  hind-legs  aptly  enough  resembling  oars,  the 
body  representing  a  boat ;  hence  the  name.  It 
frequents  stagnant  waters,  swimming  rapidly  on 
the  surface,  but  diving  below  whenever  the 
water  is  disturbed.  In  color  it  is  gray  and 
black,  with  greenish  elytra  and  white  wings. 
The  small  insects  which  constitute  its  food  are 
devoured  in  very  large  numbers.  The  female 
visually  deposits  the  eggs  on  the  stems  and 
leaves  of  aquatic  plants. 

Boatswain  Bird,  or  Marlin-spike,  either  of 
two  species  of  a  sea-wandering  bird,  so  called 
because  of  the  long,  pointed  feathers  in  its  tail, 
which  resemble  a  marlin-spike.  the  boatswain's 
badge  of  office.  One  is  the  skua-gull  (Stereo- 
rariiis  parasiticus),  and  the  other  a  tropic  bird 
(q.v.). 

Bo'az,  a  wealthy  Bethlehemite,  who  took 
upon  himself  the  duty  of  providing  for  Ruth, 
as  the  near  relation  of  her  dead  husband, 
Elimelech.  From  him  Jesus  Christ  was  directly 
descended. 

Bob-white.      See  Quail. 

Bo'bac,  a  European  and  Central  Asian 
gregarious  marmot  (Aretomys  bobac),  re- 
sembling the  American  woodchuck  in  habits  and 
appearance,  but   smaller. 

Bobadilla,  Francisco  de,  fran  thes'ko  de 
bo-ba-del'ya.  Spanish  soldier:  d.  29  June 
1502.  In  the  year  1500  he  was  selected  as  a 
commissioner  to  enquire  into  the  condition  of 
the  new  Spanish  colony  of  Hispaniola,  and 
especially  into  the  complaints  which  had  been 
made  against  the  administration  of  Columbus 
(q.v.).  He  was  entrusted  with  unlimited  pow- 
ers, which  he  immediately  exercised  by  arresting 
Columbus,  putting  him  in  chains,  and  sending 
him  to  Spain.  He  next  abolished  the  regula- 
tions which  had  been  enacted  by  Columbus,  and 
indulged  the  colonists  in  all  the  excesses  of 
power,  and,  above  all,  in  boundless  oppression 
of  the  natives.  The  unexpected  outrage  upon 
the  most  noted  man  of  the  time  excited  general 


BOBBIN  —  BOCAUE 


indignation  in  Spain,  and  was  regarded  as  a 
national  dishonor.  Orders  were  accordingly  sent 
fcr  the  recall  of  Bobadilla,  and  when  Columbus, 
now  reinstated  in  his  honors  and  emoluments, 
made  his  fourth  landing  in  Hispaniola,  the  fleet 
bearing  Bobadilla  and  other  enemies  of  Colum- 
bus started  for  Spain.  A  fearful  tropical  hurri- 
cane wrecked  the  ships,  and  Bobadilla  perished. 

Bobbin,  a  reel  or  other  similar  contrivance 
for  holding  thread.  It  is  often  a  cylindrical 
piece  of  wood  with  a  head,  on  which  thread  is 
wound  for  making  lace ;  or  a  spool  with  a  head 
at  one  or  both  ends,  intended  to  have  thread 
or  yarn  wound  on  it,  and  used  in  spinning 
machinery  (when  it  is  slipped  on  a  spindle  and 
revolves  therewith)  and  in  sewing-machines 
(applied  within  the  shuttle). 

Bobbinet,  a  lace,  with  a  hexagonal  eyelet, 
manufactured  by  machinery,  in  imitation  of  the 
lace  made  on  a  pillow. 

Bob'bio,  Italy,  a  small  town  in  the  prov- 
ince of  Pavia,  the  seat  of  a  bishop,  with  an  old 
cathedral,  and  formerly  a  celebrated  abbey 
founded  by  St.  Columbanus,  in  the  library  of 
which  was  a  famous  collection  of  manuscripts 
now  divided  between  the  Vatican  and  the  Am- 
brosian  Library  at  Milan.  The  population  of 
the  commune  is  about  5,000. 

Boboli  (b5'b6-le)  Gardens,  the  grounds  of 
the  Pitti  Palace  at  Florence,  planned  in  1550  by 
Eleanora  of  Toledo.  They  contain  many  fine 
statues  and  the  Isoletto  fountain,  designed  by 
Jean  de  Bologne. 

Bobolina,  bo-bo-le'na,  a  heroic  Greek 
woman ;  d.  1825.  Her  husband  was  put  to 
death  at  Constantinople  in  1812  by  order  of  the 
Sultan,  and  Bobolina  vowed  revenge.  At  the 
beginning  of  1821  she  fanned  the  flames  of 
insurrection  among  the  Greek  population  in 
Turkey,  equipped  at  her  own  expense  three 
ships,  herself  taking  command  of  one  bearing 
her  flag,  as  admiral,  and  giving  the  others  to 
competent  captains,  while  her  two  sons  fought 
against  the  Turks  on  land.  In  September  1821 
she  attended  the  siege  of  Tripolitza,  to  meet  the 
Peloponnesian  leaders  there  assembled.  She 
put  her  ships  at  the  disposal  of  the  government 
and  maintained  the  blockade  of  Nauplia  for  14 
months,  until  the  Turks  were  forced  to  capitu- 
late. She  then  proceeded,  with  a  small  Greek 
fleet,  which  was  entrusted  to  her  charge,  to 
the  coasts  of  Morea,  and  during  the  siege  of 
Monemvasia,  when  one  of  her  nephews  lost  his 
life,  she  did  not  even  waste  one  hour  upon  him, 
but  quietly  drawing  a  cloak  over  his  body, 
avenged  his  death  by  continuing  to  bombard  the 
city.  After  the  war  she  lived  with  her  brothers 
at  Spezzia.  In  1825  her  house  was  attacked  by 
the  friends  of  a  young  lady  who  was  supposed 
to  have  been  dishonored  by  some  member  of 
her  family,  and  she  was  killed  by  a  rifle  shot 
fired  by  one  of  the  assailants. 

Bob'olink,  an  oriole  of  the  family  Icteridce, 
found  in  plains,  prairie-lands,  meadows,  and 
cultivated  fields  throughout  the  entire  United 
States,  except  on  the  Pacific  coast.  The  male 
is  7.7  inches  long,  its  tail  taking  up  fully  half 
of  its  length.  It  is  distinguished  from  the  black- 
birds and  other  orioles  by  its  pointed  tail-feath- 
ers, long  middle  toe,  and  variegated  plumage. 
The  male  has  two  distinct  sets  of  plumage,  a 
summer  or   breeding  dress,   and  a   winter  one. 


The  former  dress  is  lustrous  black,  with  the 
neck,  scapulars,  rump,  and  upper  tail  coverts 
buff,  inclining  to  ochraceous  on  the  neck,  and 
ashy  on  the  tail ;  the  latter  is  similar  to  that  of 
the  female,  who  is  protectively  clothed  in  much- 
streaked  yellowish-brown  neutral  tints;  the 
young  of  both  sexes  also  resemble  her,  until 
the  young  males  reach  maturity.  The  gay  sum- 
mer dress  of  the  male,  especially  the  black  part, 
is  due  to  the  black  margins  upon  the  feathers 
that  come  in  with  the  spring  renewal  of  plum- 
age. These  edges  wear  away,  and  thus,  as  the 
season  advances,  the  brownish  centres  of  the 
feathers  are  gradually  revealed.  The  song  of 
the  male  is  a  varying  melody,  an  incessant  out- 
pour of  ecstatic  music,  in  which  one  detects 
distinctly  enunciated  the  word  "bob-o-link.*^  Its 
excited  manners  are  as  peculiar  as  its  song, 
which  often  bubbles  out  of  its  beak  as  it  flutters 
and  dances  in  mid-air.  As  the  summer  advances 
and  the  plumage  changes,  the  song  diminishes, 
and  finally  ceases  altogether. 

Their  nests  consist  of  grasses  neatly  and 
skilfully  entwined,  and  ingeniously  hidden 
among  the  stems  and  leaves  of  plants,  and  are 
guarded  carefully  and  most  jealously  by  the 
male,  whose  exuberant  pride  in  the  four  or  five 
dull-white,  flecked,  and  marbled  eggs  is  remark- 
able. The  bobolink  goes  in  summer  as  far  north 
as  the  banks  of  the  Saskatchewan,  but  is  most 
plentiful  in  the  northeastern  States,  where  it  ren- 
ders good  service  by  the  destruction  of  insects 
and  their  larvae.  It  begins  to  migrate  southward 
in  August,  and  assembles  in  huge  flocks  in  early 
autumn  in  the  great  wild-rice  marshes  that  bor- 
der Delaware  and  Chesapeake  bays  and  their 
rivets,  where  they  fatten  on  the  wild  rice,  and 
are  shot  in  vast  numbers  for  market,  under  the 
name  of  ^'reedbird."  Later  in  the  season  these 
birds  advance  southward  and  assail  the  culti- 
vated rice  plantations,  where  they  are  known 
as  rice-birds  and  would  ruin  the  crops,  partly 
by  eating,  but  mainly  by  breaking  the  stalks  and 
shaking  out  the  grain,  were  they  not  constantly 
killed  or  scared  away  by  thousands,  by  men  and 
boys  who  are  employed  to  shoot  them.  On  their 
return  from  the  tropics  in  the  spring  they  also 
attack  the  young  plants.  In  consequence  of  this 
necessary  persecution  in  the  rice  fields  the  species 
has  been  seriously  diminished  of  late  years,  and 
bobolinks  are  becoming  rare  in  many  parts  of 
the  United  States  and  Ontario.  On  account  also 
of  their  beauty  and  powers  of  song,  many  are 
caught,  caged,  and  sold  in  the  bird-stores. 

Bobruisk,  bo-broo'esk,  Russia,  a  fortified 
town  in  the  government  of  Minsk,  on  the  right 
bank  of  the  navigable  Beresina,  at  its  junction 
with  the  Bobruisk,  108  miles  southeast  of  Minsk, 
with  which  it  is  connected  by  rail.  By  steam 
navigation  it  is  connected  with  stations  on  the 
Dnieper  and  the  Beresina.  The  chief  exports 
consist  of  timber  and  grain.  The  place  was 
fortified  by  Alexander  I.,  and  the  defenses  were 
extended  by  Nicholas  I.,  who  raised  it  to  the 
position  of  a  fortress  of  the  first  rank.  In  1902 
an  extensive  conflagration  nearly  destroyed  the 
town.     Pop.   (1902)  26,000. 

Bobs,  a  nickname  given  by  English  sol- 
diers to  Gen.  Lord  Roberts   (q.v.). 

Bocaue,  bo-kow-a,  Philippines,  a  town  in 
the  province  of  Bulacan,  Luzon,  situated  a  few 
miles  east  of  Manila  Bay,  near  the  city  of  Bula- 
can, and  near  the  railroad  line. 


BOCCACCINO  —  BOCCACCIO 


Boccaccino,  Boccaccio,  bok-kacho  bok-kii- 
che'no,  Italian  painter:  b.  Cremona,  1460;  d. 
1518.  Few  details  of  his  life  are  known.  He 
came  under  the  influence  of  Mantegna,  and  in 
his  school  in  Cremona  numbered  Benvenuto 
Garofalo  among  his  pupils.  In  1497  he  painted 
a  series  of  frescoes  in  St.  Agostino  in  his  native 
city,  but  he  is  better  known  by  his  frieze  in  the 
cathedral.  This  represents  the  birth  of  the 
Virgin  and  various  incidents  in  her  life.  Among 
his  paintings  are:  'Marriage  of  St.  Catharine,^ 
in  the  Venice  Academy;  'Virgin  and  Two 
Saints,'  in  San  Quirilo,  Cremona,  and  a  'Holy 
Farnily,'  in  the  Louvre,  Paris.  He  committed 
suicide. 

Boccaccio,  Giovanni,  j6-van'ne  bok-kach'o, 
Italian  novelist:  b.  1313,  in  Paris  or  Florence; 
d.  Certaldo,  21  Dec.  1375.  His  family  was 
originally  of  Certaldo,  but  his  father  being  en- 
gaged in  commerce,  removed  to  Florence,  where 
he  amassed  wealth,  and  filled  several  important 
public  offices.  Very  early  in  life  Giovanni  dis- 
played a  remarkable  aptitude  for  learning,  and 
before  he  was  seven  years  old,  composed  verses 
with  perfect  facility.  He  was  placed  under 
the  care  of  an  eminent  master,  Giovanni  da 
Strada,  but  his  father  having  determined  on 
a  commercial  career  for  his  son,  removed  him 
from  his  tutor  before  his  Latin  course  was 
completed,  and  as  soon  as  he  had  acquired  a 
sufficient  knowledge  of  arithmetic  appren- 
ticed him  to  a  merchant,  with  whom  he  re- 
mained six  years.  His  master  finding  that 
he  profited  nothing,  although  he  made  in  his 
company  several  commercial  journeys,  finally 
in  despair  sent  him  back  to  his  father,  and 
was  accustomed  to  regard  him  as  a  very  nar- 
row-minded youth.  His  father  discovering 
that  his  son  would  never  make  a  merchant, 
thought  that  his  studious  habits  might  serve 
him  in  the  legal  profession.  But  the  law 
proved  as  distasteful  as  commerce,  and  the 
father,  finding  that  the  law  had  little  attrac- 
tion for  Giovanni,  forced  him  to  return  to 
commerce,  and  fix  his  residence  in  Naples. 
The  king,  Robert  of  Anjou,  a  friend  and 
patron  of  Petrarch,  was  greatly  devoted  to 
literature,  and  thus  drew  to  his  court  the 
most  eminent  scholars  of  Italy.  Boccaccio 
was  well  acquainted  with  Giovanni  Barrili, 
a  man  of  erudition,  and  Paolo  of  Perugia,  the 
king's  librarian,  and  excited  by  their  example 
and  encouragement,  he  entirely  abandoned 
commerce  and  gave  himself  up  to  the  pursuit 
of  learning.  His  father  gave  his  consent  only 
on  the  condition  that  he  should  study  the 
canon  law,  and  although  against  his  disposi- 
tion, he  applied  himself  to  it  for  some  time, 
took  his  doctor's  degree,  and  after  that  found 
himself  more  at  liberty  to  indulge  his  pas- 
sion for  poetry,  while  at  the  same  time  he 
devoted  himself  to  the  higher  branches  of 
philosophy,  astrology,  then  a  favorite  study, 
and  to  the  fathers  of  the  Church.  He  re- 
mained eight  years  in  Naples,  and  during  his 
stay  there  was  filled  with  desire  of  distinction 
by  the  visit  of  Petrarch  on  his  way  to  Rome, 
where  he  had  been  decreed  the  honor  of  the 
laurel  crown.  Boccaccio  marked  with  de- 
light the  splendid  reception  given  to  Petrarch, 
his  examination  of  three  days,  his  noble  ora- 
tion, and  the  applause  which  followed,  but 
was  far  more  pleased  in  after  years  to  make 
the  acquaintance  of  the  illustrious  poet,  with 


whom  he  formed  a  life  friendship.  Boccaccio 
was  naturally  fond  of  gay  company,  and 
fell  in  love  with  the  princess  Alary,  illegiti- 
mate daughter  of  King  Robert,  and  half- 
sister  of  the  celebrated  Joanna  of  Naples. 
She  was  married  to  a  Neapolitan  gentleman, 
but  at  once  ardently  returned  Boccaccio's 
love  and  became  his  avowed  mistress.  At 
her  instance,  he  composed  his  romance  of 
'II  Filocopo,'  and  'L'Amorosa  Fiammetta,' 
in  the  latter  of  which  his  lady,  under  the 
name  of  Fiammetta,  bewails  the  loss  of  Pam- 
philo,  supposed  to  represent  himself.  The 
^Filocopo*  is  not  skilfully  constructed,  and 
is  filled  with  spectres  and  visions  of  every 
kind,  and  the  powers  of  darkness  are  sum- 
moned before  the  reader  to  account  for  its 
scenes  and  incidents.  Yet  it  contains  pas- 
sages of  that  wondrous  grace  and  vivacity 
afterward  so  signally  displayed  in  the  'Deca- 
merone,'  and  touches  of  human  nature  in 
which  the  whole  character  is  pictured  in  a 
single  sentence.  While  thus  employed  at 
Naples  he  was  suddenly  summoned  to  Flor- 
ence by  the  illness  of  his  father.  His  separa- 
tion from  the  princess  Mary  appears  to  have 
afifected  both  lovers  with  violent  sorrow,  and 
it  was  only  by  the  composition  of  the  ro- 
iTiance  of  'Ameto'  that  he  could  console 
himself  during  his  absence.  His  father's  re- 
covery and  marriage  set  him  again  at  liberty 
to  return  to  the  favors  of  his  adored  princess. 
He  was  not  only  happy  from  his  connection 
with  the  princess  Alary,  but  possessed  the 
favor  of  Acciajuoli,  who  had  great  power 
in  Naples,  and  even  the  regard  of  Queen 
Joanna  herself.  It  is  asserted  on  respectable 
authority  that  many  of  the  most  licentious 
passages  in  the  'Decamerone'  were  written 
in  conformity  with  the  taste  and  by  the  com- 
mand of  the  queen.  His  father  died  in  1350, 
leaving  a  son  by  his  wife  Bice  dei  Bosticchi, 
who  was  also  dead,  to  the  care  of  Boccaccio. 
The  poet  faithfully  attended  to  his  trust,  and 
becoming  acquainted  with  Petrarch,  the  lat- 
ter's  example  and  influence  began  very 
shortly  to  act  upon  the  mind  of  his  younger 
friend,  who  from  the  date  of  their  friendship 
commenced  to  turn  his  thoughts  more  from 
licentious  pleasures  to  purer  fame.  Being 
now  permanently  settled  in  Florence,  Boc- 
caccio, by  Petrarch's  advice,  began  to  take 
some  interest  in  the  affairs  of  state.  His  mo- 
tives were  appreciated,  however,  and  he  was 
sent  on  an  embassy  to  Padua,  to  invite 
Petrarch  to  accept  the  presidency  of  the  uni- 
versity. Several  other  missions  followed, 
and  in  April  1353,  he  took  part  in  one  to 
Pope  Innocent  VI.,  the  papal  court  then 
residing  at  Avignon.  In  the  same  year  was 
published  his  'Decameron'  or  '10  Days' 
Entertainment,'  one  of  the  most  extraor- 
dinary works  of  genius  ever  written,  and 
which  after  the  lapse  of  five  centuries  is  still 
regarded  as  one  of  the  purest  specimens  of 
Italian  prose,  as  an  inexhaustible  repository 
of  wit,  beauty,  and  eloquence,  although  un- 
happily deformed  with  licentious  descrip- 
tions. While  occupied  with  these  popular 
compositions,  Boccaccio  did  not  lose  sight  of 
higher  pursuits  in  literature.  Like  Petrarch 
he  was  a  devoted  collector  of  ancient  manu- 
scripts, and  a  diligent  student  of  the  classics. 
On    one    occasion    Boccaccio    visited    Monte 


BOCCAGE 


Cassino,  within  whose  monastery  he  knew 
many  works  had  been  collected,  which  had 
escaped  the  ravages  of  the  barbarians,  but 
fonnd,  to  his  amazement,  that  they  were  suf- 
fered to  rot  in  a  damp  loft  exposed  to  the 
weather,  and  that  frequently  when  the  monks 
were  in  want  of  money,  they  took  some  of 
the  manuscripts,  obliterated  the  writing,  re- 
placed it  by  copying  on  the  parchment  some 
part  of  the  ritual,  and  then  sold  the  new  pro- 
ductions among  the  people  of  the  neighbor- 
hood. To  such  collectors  as  Petrarch  and 
Boccaccio,  and  to  the  latter  pre-eminently,  the 
world  owes  a  debt  of  gratitude  for  the  rescue 
of  many  of  the  great  classic  works  which 
otherwise  would  have  been  irretrievably  lost. 
In  1359  the  author  of  the  Decameron  visited 
Petrarch  at  Milan,  conversed  with  him,  as  he 
informs  us,  at  great  length  on  the  subjects  of 
morality  and  religion,  and  determined  to  de- 
vote himself  more  seriously  to  holy  studies. 
This  resolve  received  additional  stimulus  in 
1362  from  a  singular  circumstance.  A  monk 
from  the  Carthusian  monastery  at  Sienna 
came  to  visit  him,  saying  that  he  was  charged 
with  a  message  to  him  from  Father  Petroni, 
who  on  his  death-bed,  although  he  had  never 
seen  Boccaccio,  declared  that  he  knew  him  in 
spirit,  and  commissioned  the  inonk  to  exhort 
him  to  repentance.  In  order  to  prove  the 
truth  of  his  words,  the  monk  told  Boccaccio 
of  a  circumstance  in  his  life  which  the  poet 
thought  known  only  to  himself.  So  great 
was  the  effect  of  this  warning,  that  he  deter- 
mined to  abandon  poetry,  sell  his  library, 
and  lead  a  life  of  penance  and  meditation. 
With  this  view  he  wrote  to  Petrarch,  sup- 
posing that  his  sudden  purpose  would  meet 
with  kindred  enthusiasm,  but  his  friend  an- 
swered in  a  strong,  common-sense  letter, 
instructing  him  to  receive  the  warning  to  re- 
pentance, but  informing  him  that  there  was 
no  necessity  for  selling  his  books  or  aban- 
doning his  studies.  Boccaccio  accordingly 
wrote  in  a  strain  altogether  free  from  his 
former  one,  while  he  assumed  the  ecclesiasti- 
cal habit,  and  applied  himself  to  theology. 
With  disinterested  generosity  a  large  part 
of  his  means  was  dissipated  in  the  collection 
of  Greek  manuscripts,  his  emissaries  visiting 
many  parts  of  Europe  to  procure  them.  His 
fortune  was  thus  gradually  impaired,  and 
toward  the  decline  of  life  he  found  himself 
poor  and  deserted  by  all  his  friends,  except 
the  noble-minded  and  constant  Petrarch. 
That  great  poet  wished  his  friend  to  take 
up  his  abode  with  him,  but  Boccaccio  prefer- 
red independence,  and  declined  the  offer,  al- 
though he  visited  Petrarch  whenever  he 
found  an  opportunity.  In  1363  he  was  in- 
vited to  Naples  by  the  grand  seneschal  Ac- 
ciajuoli,  but  was  so  hurt  by  his  cold  recep- 
tion, that  he  soon  left  and  went  to  Venice 
to  meet  Petrarch.  On  returning  to  Florence 
he  found  its  turbulent  state  of  society  in  lit- 
tle accordance  with  his  wish  of  retirement, 
and  took  up  his  abode  in  a  little  cottage  in 
Certaldo,  in  the  vale  of  Elsa,  dear  to  him  as 
the  birthplace  of  his  family.  From  this  re- 
treat he  was  soon  summoned  by  the  chief 
citizens  of  Florence,  to  undertake  an  em- 
bassy to  Urban  V.  at  Avignon,  and  repair- 
ing to  the  papal  court  he  experienced  the 
most   flattering   reception.     He   was   again    sent 


to  Urban  in  1367,  after  the  pontiff  had  re- 
moved to  Rome,  when  the  character  of  Boc- 
caccio had  so  completely  changed  from  his 
former  looseness,  that  he  was  characterized 
by  the  bishop  of  Florence  as  one  in  whose 
purity  of  faith  he  had  the  utmost  confidence. 
He  was  now  honored  by  the  Florentine 
magistrates  with  a  professorship  founded  in 
memory  of  Dante,  for  the  better  explication 
of  the  'Divina  Commedia.'  His  lectures 
commenced  in  October  1373,  and  continued 
until  his  death,  which  was  doubtless  hastened 
by  the  demise  of  Petrarch  10  months  before 
his  own.  In  eloquent  language  he  bewailed 
his  loss.  Boccaccio  wrote  numerous  works 
in  Italian  and  Latin,  and  both  in  prose  and 
poetry,  few  of  which  are  referred  to  at  the 
present  day;  his  great  fame  rests  upon  the 
Decameron.  In  these  hundred  tales  of  love, 
displaying  the  most  wondrous  fertility  of 
invention,  the  reader  is  perpetually  delighted 
with  the  beauty  of  the  narrative  and  the 
variety  of  the  scenes,  whether  of  intrigue, 
wit,  or  pathos  —  no  two  stories,  nor  even 
their  introductions,  resembling  each  other. 
The  author's  fondness  for  involving  friars  in 
every  imaginable  scene  of  mischief  and 
ludicrous  mishap,  created  great  scandal  to 
the  Church,  and  his  famous  romance,  the 
tenth  novel  of  the  sixth  day,  in  which  "Friar 
Onion  promises  some  country  people  to 
show  them  a  feather  from  the  wing  of  the 
angel  Gabriel,  instead  of  which  he  finds  only 
some  coals,  which  he  tells  them  are  the  same 
that  roasted  St.  Lawrence,'^  drew^  down  the 
solemn  anatheina  of  the  council  of  Trent. 
The  editions  of  the  Decameron  are  almost 
innumerable,  and  translations  exist  in  all  the 
languages  of  Europe.  The  earliest  editions 
are  extremely  rare,  and  of  that  of  Valdarfer 
in  1471,  only  one  copy  is  known.  Boccaccio's 
poem,  41  Teseide*  is  written  in  the  ottava 
rinia,  of  which  he  is  usually  considered  as 
the  inventor,  and  is  the  first  Italian  poem 
which  presents  a  specimen  of  the  epopee. 
Chaucer  borrowed  from  this  poem  his 
^Knight's  Tale,^^  and  Shakespeare  a  part  of 
his  <  Midsummer  Night's  Dream.  ^  The  great 
English  dramatist  has  also,  in  some  measure, 
availed  himself  of  Boccaccio's  Decameron, 
as  in  ^Cymbeline-*  and  ^ All's  Well  that  Ends 
Well.^  With  all  his  faults,  we  may  consider 
Boccaccio  one  of  the  great  revivers  of  learn- 
ing and  a  benefactor  to  mankind,  as  well  as 
worthy  of  the  third  place  in  that  great 
triumvirate  with  Dante  and  Petrarch,  ^^which 
renders  the  14th  century  so  splendid  an 
epoch  in  the  history  of  literature.*  See 
Cochin,  ^Boccaccio,  etudes  italiennes'  (1890), 
Symonds,  ^Giovanni  Boccaccio  as  Man  and 
Author>    (1895). 

Boccage,  Marie  Anne  Piquet  du,  ma-re  an 
fe-ka  dii  bok-kazh  (Le  Page)  French  poetess: 
b.  Rouen,  22  Nov.  1710;  d.  there,  8  Aug.  1802. 
She  was  educated  in  Paris,  in  a  nunnery,  where 
she  discovered  a  love  of  poetry.  Her  first  pub- 
lished work,  a  poem  on  the  mutual  influence  of 
the  fine  arts  and  sciences,  appeared  in  1746,  and 
gained  the  prize  from  the  Academy  of  Rouen. 
She  next  attempted  an  imitation  of  *  Paradise 
Lost,^  in  six  cantos;  then  of  the  ^Death  of 
AbeP  ;  next,  a  tragedy,  ^The  Amazons^  ;  and  a 
poem    in    10    cantos,    called    *The    Columbiad.* 


BOCCANERA  —  BOCHART 


Madame  du  Boccage  was  praised  by  her  con- 
temporaries with  an  extravagance  for  which 
only  her  sex  and  the  charms  of  her  person  can 
account.  Forma  Venus,  arte  Minerva,  was  the 
motto  of  her  admirers,  among  whom  wer€  Vol- 
taire, Fontenelle,  and  Clairaut.  There  is  a  great 
deal  of  entertaining  matter  in  the  letters  which 
she  wrote  on  her  travels  in  England  and  Hol- 
land. She  was  a  member  of  the  academies  of 
Rome,  Bologna,  Padua,  Lyons,  and  Rouen. 
Many  of  her  works  have  been  translated  into 
English,  Spanish,  German,  and  Italian. 

Boccanera,  Simone,  se-mo'na  bok-ka-na'- 
ra,  first  doge  of  Genoa:  d.  1363.  He  was 
born  of  an  illustrious  noble  family,  but  early 
took  part  with  the  democratic  party  and  gained 
great  popularity  by  undertaking  the  defense  of 
the  people  against  the  nobles.  During  a  com- 
motion caused  by  the  severity  with  which  Philip 
of  Valois  had  punished  a  mutiny  on  board  some 
Genoese  galleys  in  the  service  of  France,  the 
people  wished  to  appoint  Boccanera  their  abbe, 
an  office  which  appears  to  have  been  similar  to 
that  of  the  tribunes  at  Rome.  Boccanera  de- 
clined to  accept,  on  the  ground  that  his  noble 
birth  would  not  allow  him  to  become  a  plebeian 
magistrate.  The  excuse  only  made  the  people 
more  determined  to  place  him  at  their  head  and 
as  he  would  not  be  abbe  they  by  acclamation 
hailed  him  doge.  The  office,  thus  introduced 
into  Genoa  for  the  first  time  in  1339,  was  exer- 
cised by  Boccanera  till  1344,  when  the  ascen- 
dency of  a  faction  opposed  to  him  obliged  him 
to  aiadicate  and  retire  to  Pisa.  He  afterward 
regained  the  office  in  1356,  and  had  held  it  for 
seven  years,  when  his  enemies  succeeded  in  de- 
stroying him  by  poison. 

Boccherini,  Luigi,  loo-e'je  bok-ka-re'ne, 
Italian  composer  of  instrumental  music :  b.  Luc- 
ca, 14  Jan.  1740;  d.  Madrid,  28  May  1805.  He 
received  his  first  instruction  in  music  and  on  the 
violoncello  from  his  father  and  the  Abbe  Va- 
nned, music-master  of  the  archbishop.  He  fur- 
ther improved  himself  in  the  art  at  Rome,  and 
afterward  went,  with  Filippo  Manfredi,  his 
friend  and  countryman,  to  Spain,  where  he  met 
with  but  indifferent  patronage,  and  latterly  suf- 
fered greatly  from  indigence.  Previous  to  1797 
the  king  of  Prussia,  Frederick  William  II.,  who 
was  a  great  lover  of  the  violoncello  and  admired 
Boccherini's  compositions,  had  paid  him  a  pen- 
sion on  condition  of  his  sending  him  yearly  some 
of  his  quartets  and  quintets.  The  compositions 
which  Boccherini  published  himself  consist  of 
symphonies,  sestets,  quintets,  quartets,  trios, 
duets,  and  sonatas  for  the  violin,  violoncello, 
and  pianoforte.  He  never  composed  anything 
for  the  theatre;  and  of  church  compositions  we 
find  but  one,  his  <Stabat  Mater. ^  The  adagios 
of  Boccherini  excited  the  admiration  of  the  con- 
noisseurs and  the  despair  of  the  composers  of 
his  time.  He  may  be  regarded  as  a  sort  of 
minor  Haydn,  and  he  was  the  first  who  wrote 
instrumental  quartets,  of  which  all  the  parts 
are  obbligafo,  and  determined  the  true  character 
of  this  species  of  music.  His  melodies  are  more 
highly  esteemed  in  England,  France,  and  Spain 
than  in  Germany. 

Bocchetta,  bok-ket'ta,  Italy,  a  pass  of  the 
Apennines,  leading  from  Lombardy  to  Genoa, 
and  traversed  by  the  road  from  Novi.  In  the 
Austrian  war  of  succession  (1746-7),  and  in  the 


French  wars  toward  the  end  of  the  i8th  century, 
it  was  the  scene  of  several  important  events. 

Bocconia,  or  Plume  Poppy,  a  genus  of 
four  or  five  species  of  plants  of  the  natural 
order  Papaveracece.  F.  cordata,  a  native  of 
Japan  and  China,  is  the  only  species  of  special 
merit.  It  is  a  hardy  perennial  herb  with  large 
leaves  similar  to  those  of  bloodroot,  and  small 
usually  pinkish  apetalous  flowers  borne  in  large 
terminal  panicles  rising  like  spires  from  four  to 
eight  feet  above  the  dense  foliage.  Where  known, 
it  is  a  favorite  in  borders  and  shrubberies  and  is 
also  largely  used  upon  lawns  for  its  remarkable 
appearance.  It  is  very  much  sought  by  bees, 
and  should  prove  a  valuable  bee-forage,  since 
it  will  thrive  almost  anywhere.  It  is  readily 
propagated  by  seeds,  divisions  of  the  root,  and 
by  suckers.  If  set  in  rich  soil  the  plants  will 
attain  the  greatest  size  and  attractiveness. 

Bochart,  bo-shar,  Samuel,  French  divine: 
b.  Rouen,  1599;  d.  Caen,  lO  May  1667.  He  was 
son  of  a  Protestant  minister  descended  from  an 
illustrious  family,  and  gave  proof  of  precocious 
talents  by  composing,  at  the  age  of  14,  a  Greek 
poem  in  praise  of  his  master,  Thomas  Dempster, 
who  was  so  much  pleased  with  it  that  he  pub- 
lished it  at  the  head  of  his  work  on  Roman 
antiquities.  He  afterward  studied  philosophy 
and  theology  at  Sedan,  visited  England  and 
Leyden,  and,  returning  to  France  about  1628, 
became  Protestant  minister  of  Caen,  a  post 
which  he  held  till  his  death.  Shortly  after,  a 
Jesuit  of  the  name  of  Veron,  who  had  been 
specially  trained  to  controversy,  and  had  re- 
ceived a  diploma  entitling  him  to  travel  the 
country  and  debate  the  points  of  difference  be- 
tween the  Protestant  and  Roman  Catholic 
churches,  challenged  Bochart  to  a  discussion. 
It  took  place  in  1629,  in  the  castle  of  Caen,  in 
presence  of  the  Due  de  Longueville,  governor 
of  Normandy,  and  a  large  assemblage  of  nobility 
and  gentry,  and  had  continued  for  11  days, 
when  Veron,  without  waiting  to  bring  it  to  a 
close,  judged  it  prudent  to  take  his  departure. 
The  debate  was  published  by  Bochart  under  the 
title  of  *Actes  de  la  Conference  Tenue  a  Caen.^ 
His  next  work,  entitled  'Geographia  Sacra  seu 
Phaleg  et  Chanaan.^  added  so  much  to  his  repu- 
tation that  Christina,  queen  of  Sweden,  sent 
him  a  letter  in  her  own  hand,  inviting  him  to 
Sweden.  He  accepted  the  invitation,  and  had 
for  his  traveling  companion  the  celebrated 
Huetius,  afterward  Bishop  of  Avranches,  and 
author  of  an  excellent  work  on  the  Christian 
evidences,  entitled  <Demonstratio  Evangelica.' 
On  his  return  to  Caen  in  1653  he  learned  that 
an  academy  had  been  founded  there  in  his  ab- 
sence. He  immediately  joined  it,  and  was  after- 
ward one  of  its  most  distinguished  members. 
Bochart's  next  great  work  is  entitled  'Hiero- 
zoicon,  or  an  Account  of  the  Animals  men- 
tioned in  Scripture.'  It  was  scarcely  completed 
when  its  distinguished  author,  while  addressing 
the  academicians  of  Caen,  was  struck  with  apo- 
plexy and  died  almost  instantaneously.  His 
health  had  previously  given  way  under  grief 
for  the  loss  of  a  daughter,  his  only  child.  Be- 
sides the  works  above  mentioned,  he  wrote  sev- 
eral others,  among  which  is  a  ^Letter  to  Dr. 
Morley.'  written,  it  is  said,  at  the  request  of 
King  Charles  II..  and  discussing  three  impor- 
tant questions  —  De  Presbyteratu  et  Episcopatu; 
De   Provooatione   a  Judiciis    Ecclesiasticis ;    Dfe 


BOCHNIA  —  BODENSTEDT 


Jure  et  Potestate  Regum.  Bochart's  principal 
works  are  still  standards  on  the  subjects  of 
which  they  treat. 

Bochnia,  boH'ne-a,  Austria,  a  town  in  the 
government  of  Lemberg,  Galicia,  near  the  Raba, 
25  miles  east-southeast  of  Cracow.  It  is  toler- 
ably well  built,  with  several  churches,  a  gym- 
nasium, a  grammar  and  other  schools,  and  a 
board  for  the  regulation  of  mines  and  saltworks. 
The  salt  mines  here  employ  500  persons,  and 
yield  15,000  tons  per  annum.     Pop.  about  9,000. 

Bochum,  boH'oom,  Prussia,  a  town  in  the 
government  of  Arnsberg,  province  of  West- 
phalia, five  miles  east-northeast  of  Essen  and 
between  20  and  30  miles  northeast  of  Diissel- 
dorf.  It  is  on  the  railway  from  Dortmund  to 
Duisburg,  and  has  manufactories  of  iron,  steel, 
hardware,  carpets,  tobacco,  etc.  Pop.  (1895) 
65,980. 

Bock,  Jerome,  German  botanist,  better 
known  under  his  Latin  name  of  Cragus  :  b. 
Heidesbach,  1498;  d.  Harnbach,  1554.  He  was 
a  schoolmaster,  and  then  a  physician.  Bock 
may  be  considered  as  one  of  the  founders  of 
modern  botany ;  he  was  the  first  who  endeav- 
ored to  form  a  natural  botanical  arrangement. 
He  is  the  author  of  a  Herbal  of  German 
Plants. 

Bock,  Karl  Ernst,  German  anatomist :  b. 
Leipsic,  1809;  d.  1874.  He  studied  at  the  Uni- 
versity of  Leipsic  and  at  the  outbreak  of  the 
Polish  revolution  he  went  to  Warsaw,  where  he 
acted  as  hospital  physician,  first  in  the  Polish 
service  and  later  in  the  Russian.  On  his  return 
home  he  was  elected  extraordinary  professor  in 
the  University  of  Leipsic.  His  works  attained 
popularity  and  have  been  translated.  His  title 
to  fame  rests  chiefly  on  his  ^Handbook  of 
Human  Anatomy.^ 

Bock  Beer,  a  strong  beer,  the  first  drawn 
from  the  vats  in  the  spring,  when  the  winter's 
brew  of  lager  beer  is  broached.  See  Beer; 
Brewing. 

Bocklin,  berk-lin,  Arnold,  German  painter: 
b.  Basel,  16  Oct.  1827;  d.  1901.  He  studied  at 
the  Diisseldorf  Academy  and  also  at  Brussels, 
Paris,  and  in  Italy,  devoting  himself  mostly  to 
landscape  painting.  A  contract  to  decorate  the 
dining-hall  of  a  villa  summoned  him  to  Han- 
over; in  1856  he  went  to  Munich,  where  Count 
Schack  became  his  patron.  In  1858  he  became 
teacher  in  the  art  school  at  Weimar;  in  1866-71 
he  was  in  Basel ;  in  1871  he  returned  to  Munich 
and  lived  also  in  Zurich  and  Florence.  He  is 
in  the  first  rank  of  landscape  painters,  showing 
a  real  poetic  power  and  wealth  of  coloring,  yet 
his  most  poetical  conceptions  in  landscape 
painting  are  often  marred  by  the  figures  intro- 
duced. Among  his  most  notable  paintings  are 
^  Venus  Reposing^  ;  ^Pan  in  the  Rushes^  ;  *  Cas- 
tle by  the  Sea  Surprised  by  Corsairs'  ;  ^Villa  by 
the  Sea'  ;  and  ^The  Isle  of  the  Blessed.' 

Bocland,  Bockland,  or  Book-land,  one  of 

the  original  English  modes  of  tenure  of  manor- 
land  which  was  held  by  a  short  and  simple  deed 
imder  certain  rents  and  free  services.  This 
species  of  tenure  has  given  rise  to  the  modern 
freeholds. 

Bocskay,  boch'ko-e,  Stephen,  Hungarian 
national  leader:  b.  1556;  d.  1606.  In  1604,  when 
the  Emperor  Rudolf  II.  attempted  to  suppress 


Protestantism  in  Hungary,  a  rebellion  broke  out, 
and  Bocskay  joined  the  malcontents  and  became 
their  leader.  He  was  well  supported  by  the 
people,  drove  back  the  emperor's  troops,  and 
was  made  Prince  of  Transylvania.  In  1606  he 
concluded  the  Peace  of  Vienna  with  the  em- 
peror, and  this  secured  religious  freedom  to 
Hungary  for  a  long  time. 

Bode,  Johann  Ehlert,  yo'han  a'lert  bd'da, 
German  astronomer:  b.  Hamburg,  19  Jan.  1747; 
d.  23  Nov.  1826.  He  gave  the  first  public  proof 
of  his  knowledge  by  a  short  work  on  the  solar 
eclipse  of  5  Aug.  1766.  The  approbation  which 
this  received  encouraged  him  to  greater  labors, 
and  in  1768  appeared  his  ^Introduction  to  the 
Knowledge  of  the  Starry  Heavens'  (9tli  ed. 
1822).  In  1772  the  Berlin  Academy  chose  him 
their  astronomer,  and  10  years  afterward  he  was 
made  a  member  of  that  institution.  His  best 
works  are  his  ^Astronomical  Almanac'  (com- 
mencing 1774), —  a  work  indispensable  to  every 
astronomer, —  and  his  large  ^Celestial  Atlas' 
in  20  sheets,  in  which  the  industrious  editor  has 
given  a  catalogue  of  17,240  stars  (12,000  more 
than  in  any  former  charts).  In  1825  he  was  re- 
leased, at  his  own  wish,  from  his  duties  in  the 
Academy  of  Science  and  the  observatory  in 
Berlin.  His  place  was  filled  by  Professor  Encke. 
His  empirical  law  as  to  the  distance  of  the 
planets  is  well  known.     See  Bode's  Law. 

Bode's  Law,  an  empirical  law  formu- 
lated by  the  German  astronomer  Bode  (q.v.) 
to  give  the  arithmetical  relation  subsisting  be- 
tween the  distances  of  the  planets  from  the 
sun.  It  may  be  thus  stated :  Write,  in  the  first 
instance,  a  row  of  fours,  and  vmder  these  place 
a  geometrical  series  beginning  with  3,  and  in- 
creasing by  the  ratio  of  2,  putting  the  3  under 
the  second  4 ;  and  by  addition  we  have  the  series 
4,  7,  10,  etc.,  which  gives  nearly  the  relative 
distances  of  the  planets  from  the  sun. 


4 
24 


4 
96 


4 
192 


4 

384 


4  7  10  16  28  $2        100        196       388 

Thus,  if  10  be  taken  as  the  distance  of  the 
earth  from  the  sun,  4  will  give  that  of  Mercury, 
7  that  of  Venus,  and  so  forth.  The  actual 
relative  distances  are  as  follows,  making  10  the 
distance  of  the  earth : 


T3 

D 

D 

jS 

tn 

0 

0 

c 

3 

c 

3 

<U 

> 

n! 
W 

< 

a 
3 

^ 

a 

2; 

3-9 

7.2 

10 

15.2 

27.4 

52.9 

95-4 

192 

300 

Close  as  is  the  correspondence  between  the  law 
and  the  actual  distances,  no  physical  reason  has 
been  given  to  account  for  it,  although  there  is 
little  room  for  doubt  that  such  exists.  Kepler 
was  the  first  to  perceive  the  law,  and  Bode 
argued  from  it  that  a  planet  might  be  found 
between  Mars  and  Jupiter,  to  fill  up  the  gap 
that  existed  at  the  time  in  the  series.  The  dis- 
covery of  the  planetoids  has  proved  the  correct- 
ness of  this  prediction. 

Bodenstedt,  Friedrich  Martin  von,  fre'driH 
mar-ten  fon  bo'dcn-stet,  German  poet  and 
miscellaneous  writer:  b.  1819;  d.  1892.  He  stud- 
ied at  Gottingen,  Munich,  and  Berlin,  and  be- 
came tutor  to  the  young  Prince  Gallitzin  at 
Moscow.  Having  obtained  an  educational  ap- 
pointment at  Tiflis  he  published  a  work  on  the 
peoples  of  the  Caucasus  (1848),  and  *^A  Thou- 


BODIE  — BODLEY 


sand  and  One  Days  in  the  East*  (1849-50), 
■which  were  very  successful.  In  1854  he  was 
appointed  professor  of  Slavic  at  Munich,  and 
in  1858  was  tranferred  to  the  chair  of  Old  Eng- 
lish. He  subsequently  was  theatrical  director 
at  Meiningen,  and  traveled  and  delivered  lec- 
tures in  the  United  States.  Among  the  best  of 
his  poetical  works  are  the  *  Songs  of  Mirza- 
Schaffy,^  purporting  to  be  translations  from 
the  Persian,  but  really  original,  which  have 
passed  through  more  than  150  editions.  He  pub- 
lished translations  from  Marlowe,  Ford,  Web- 
ster, and  other  contemporaries  of  Shakespeare, 
translated  Shakespeare's  ^Sonnets,*  and  with 
■other  writers  joined  in  a  new  translation  of 
Shakespeare's  dramatic  works  (1866-72,  9  vols.). 

Bodie,  or  Body's  Island,  an  island  of  sand 
between  the  Atlantic  Ocean  and  Albemarle  and 
Roanoke  sounds.  The  sand  shifts  often,  and 
inlets  from  the  ocean  appear  and  disappear. 
There  is  a  lighthouse  with  a  first-class  light  on 
the  island. 

Bodieron,  bo-di-e'ron,  a  fish  {Hexagram- 
mus  lagoccphalus)  of  Puget  Sound,  similar  to 
the  rock-trout  (q.v.),  but  having  greenish- 
colored  flesh. 

Bodin,  Jean,  zhon  bo-dan,  French  political 
writer:  b.  Angers,  1529  or  1530;  d.  Laon,  1596. 
He  studied  law  at  Toulouse ;  delivered  lectures 
■on  jurisprudence  there,  and  afterward  went  to 
Paris  and  practised.  Being  unsuccessful  in  his 
profession,  he  turned  his  talents  to  literary 
labors;  was  invited  by  Henry  HI.  to  his  court; 
and  afterward  traveled  with  the  king's  brother, 
Francis,  Duke  of  AlenQon  and  Anjou,  to  Flan- 
•ders  and  England,  where  he  had  the  gratification 
•of  hearing  lectures  in  Cambridge  on  his  work, 
*De  la  Republique,^  originally  written  in  French, 
but  afterward  translated  by  Bodin  himself  into 
Latin.     He  died  of  the  plague. 

Bodkin,  Matthias  M'Donnell,  Irish  novel- 
ist and  journalist.  He  has  written  ^Poteen 
Punch';  <  Pat  o'  Nine  Tales' ;  <The  Rebels'; 
•<  White  Magic'  ;  etc. 

Bod'kin,  (i)  an  instrument  used  by  women 
of  ancient  times  to  fasten  the  hair,  worn  at  the 
back  of  the  head ;  (2)  a  sharp  instrument  for 
piercing  holes  in  cloth;  (3)  a  blunt  instrument 
with  an  eye,  for  drawing  tape,  etc.,  through 
hems;   (4)  a  small  tool  used  by  printers. 

Bodle,  a  copper  coin  formerly  current  in 
Scotland,  of  the  value  of  two  pennies  Scotch,  or 
the  sixth  part  of  an  English  penny.  It  is  said 
to  have  been  so  called  after  a  mint  master  named 
Bothwell. 

Bodleian  (bod-le'an)  Library,  the  public 
library  of  the  University  of  Oxford,  so  called 
from  Sir  Thomas  Bodley  (q.v.)  who  restored  it 
toward  the  close  of  the  i6th  century,  many  of 
the  previous  collections  of  books  and  manu- 
scripts having  been  destroyed  during  the  reign 
of  Edward  VI.  Beside  restoring  the  building 
and  providing  a  fund  of  $10,000  for  the  purchase 
of  books,  he  also  presented  a  collection  which 
was  valued  at  $50,000,  and  left  an  estate  for  the 
maintenance  of  officers  and  for  keeping  the  li- 
brary in  repair.  For  the  government  of  the 
library  he  drew  up  some  statutes,  which  were 
afterward  incorporated  with  those  of  the  Univer- 
sity. The  library  was  first  opened  to  the  public 
8  Nov.  1602.  The  liberal  example  of  Bodley 
was  soon  followed  by  the  Earl  of  Essex,  who 


presented  part  of  the  Portuguese  bishop  Osorius' 
library,  which  had  been  .captured  by  Esse.x  in 
1596,  shortly  after  the  expedition  against  Cadiz. 
After  the  death  of  Bodley,  the  Earl  of  Pembroke 
added  a  valuable  collection  of  Greek  manu- 
scripts procured  by  Baroccio,  a  Venetian.  At 
later  dates  Sir  Thomas  Roe,  Sir  Kenelm  Digby, 
the  "learned  Selden,"  Cough  the  antiquary,  and 
Archbishop  Laud,  made  donations  of  valu- 
able Greek,  Oriental,  and  German  manuscripts 
to  this  magnificent  library.  The  library  of  the 
Hebrew  scholar  Oppenheim,  rich  in  rabbinical 
lore,  a  great  collection  of  Eastern  manuscripts, 
of  early  editions  of  the  Bible,  original  editions  of 
ancient  and  classic  authors,  together  with 
50,000  dissertations  by  members  of  foreign  uni- 
versities, and  an  extensive  collection  of  medals, 
coins,  prints,  etc.,  were  also  subsequently  de- 
posited in  this  library.  In  1809,  Clarke,  the 
traveler,  gave  to  it  some  rare  Greek  and  Latin 
manuscripts,  including  a  ^ Plato'  from  the  Isle 
of  Patmos.  In  1818  an  exceedingly  valuable  col- 
lection of  Hebrew,  Greek,  and  Arabic  manu- 
scripts procured  from  Venice,  was  added,  to- 
gether with  a  portion  of  the  famed  library  of 
Richard  Heber  (1834),  and  lastly,  the  rare 
books,  manuscripts,  and  coins  of  the  scholar, 
antiquary,  and  Shakespearean  commentator, 
Francis  Douce.  This  renowned  library,  in  fine, 
is  rich  in  many  departments  in  which  other  li- 
braries are  deficient,  and  forms  altogether  the 
noblest  collection  of  which  any  university  can 
boast.  It  is  constantly  increasing  by  dona- 
tions, by  copies  of  every  work  printed  in  the 
United  Kingdom,  as  well  as  by  books  purchased 
from  the  fund  left  by  Bodley,  by  fees  received 
at  matriculation,  and  by  an  annual  payment  of 
all  persons  (servitors  excepted)  who  have  the 
right  of  admission  to  the  library.  It  is  now 
estimated  to  contain  upward  of  500,000  bound 
volumes,  and  between  30,000  and  40,000  manu- 
scripts. The  first  catalogue  of  the  printed 
books  was  issued  by  Dr.  James  in  1605. 

Bodley,  Sir  Thomas,  English  scholar,  and 
founder  of  the  Bodleian  Library  (q.v.)  at 
Oxford:  b.  Exeter,  1544;  d.  London,  1612. 
He  was  educated  partly  at  Geneva,  whither 
his  parents,  who  were  Protestants,  had  re- 
tired in  the  reign  of  Queen  Alary.  On  the 
accession  of  Elizabeth  thej^  returned  home, 
and  he  completed  his  studies  at  Magdalen 
College,  Oxford.  He  afterward  became  a  Fel- 
low of  Merton  College,  and  read  lectures  on 
the  Greek  language  and  philosophy.  He  went 
to  the  Continent  in  1576,  and  spent  four  years 
in  traveling.  He  was  afterward  employed  in 
various  embassies  to  Denmark,  Germany, 
France,  and  Holland.  In  1597  he  returned 
home  and  dedicated  the  remainder  of  his 
life  to  the  re-establishment  and  augmenta- 
tion of  the  public  library  at  Oxford.  This  he 
accomplished,  procuring  books  and  manu- 
scripts himself,  both  at  home  and  abroad,  at 
a  great  expense,  and  by  his  influence  and 
persuasion  inducing  his  friends  and  ac- 
quaintances to  assist  in  his  undertaking.  Sir 
Robert  Cotton,  Sir  Henry  Savile,  and  Thomas 
Allen  the  mathematician,  were  among  the 
principal  contributors  on  this  occasion.  The 
library  was  so  much  augmented  that  Sir 
Thomas  Bodley,  who  was  knighted  at  the 
accession  of  James  I.,  was  induced  to  erect 
an  additional   structure  for  the  reception  of 


BODMER  — BODY  AND  MIND 


the  increasing  quantity  of  valuable  books  and 
manuscripts.  He  was  interred  in  the  chapel 
of  Merton  College,  in  the  university.  He 
bequeathed  nearly  the  whole  of  his  property 
to  the  support  and  augmentation  of  the  library. 
See    ^Reliquiae   Bodleiana:^    (London,    1703)- 

Bodmer,  Georg,  ga-orn  bod'mar,  Swiss 
mechanic:  b.  Ziirich,  6  Dec.  1786;  d.  Ziirich, 
29  May  1864.  He  invented  the  screw  and 
cross  wheels;  and  made  valuable  irnprove- 
ments  in  firearms  and  in  various  kinds  of 
machinery,  particularly  in  that  of  wool- 
spinning. 

Bodmer,  Johann  Jakob,  yo'han  ya'kdb, 
German  poet  and  scholar:  b.  Greifensee,  near 
Ziirich,  19  July  1698;  d.  Ziirich,  2  Jan.  1783. 
Although  he  produced  nothing  remarkable 
of  his  own  in  poetry,  he  helped  to  open  the 
way  for  the  new  German  literature  in  this 
department,  which  was  then  in  a  low  and 
barbarous  state.  He  was  the  _  antagonist  of 
Gottsched  in  Leipsic,  who  aspired  to  be  the 
literary  dictator  of  the  day,  and  had  embraced 
the  French  theory  of  taste,  while  Bodmer  in- 
clined to  the  English.  He  has  the  honor  of 
having  had  Klopstock  and  Wieland  among 
his  scholars.  Bodmer  was  for  a  long  time 
professor  of  history  in  Switzerland.  He  was 
a  copious  and  indefatigable  writer,  though 
he  entertained  many  incorrect  views. 

Bodoni,  Giambattista,  jam-bat-tes'ta  bo- 
do'ne,  Italian  printer:  b.  Saluzzo,  Piedmont, 
1740;  d.  Padua,  29  Nov.  1813.  His  father 
owned  a  printing  establishment  at  Saluzzo, 
and  he  began,  while  yet  a  boy,  to  employ 
himself  in  engraving  on  wood.  His  labors 
meeting  with  success,  he  went  in  1758  to 
Rome,  and  was  made  compositor  for  the 
press  of  the  Propaganda.  By  the  advice  of 
the  superintendent  he  made  himself  ac- 
quainted with  the  Oriental  languages,  in  order 
to  qualify  himself  for  the  kind  of  printing 
required  in  them.  He  made  himself  of  great 
service  to  this  press  by  restoring  and  putting 
in  place  the  types  of  several  Oriental  alpha- 
bets which  had  fallen  into  disorder.  The 
Infante,  Don  Ferdinand,  about  1766,  had,  with 
a  view  of  diffusing  knowledge,  established  a 
printing-house  in  Parma,  after  the  model  of 
those  in  Paris,  Aladrid,  and  Turin.  Bodoni 
was  placed  at  the  head  of  this  establishment, 
which  he  made  the  first  of  the  kind  in  Eu- 
rope, and  gained  the  reputation  of  having 
far  surpassed  all  the  splendid  and  beautiful 
productions  of  his  predecessors  in  the  art. 
The  beauty  of  his  tj^pe,  ink,  and  paper,  as 
well  as  the  whole  management  of  the  techni- 
cal part  of  the  work,  leaves  nothing  for  us 
to  wish;  but  the  intrinsic  value  of  his  edi- 
tions is  seldom  equal  to  their  outward  splen- 
dor. His  Homer  is  a  truly  admirable  and 
magnificent  work;  indeed,  his  Greek  letters 
are  the  most  perfect  imitations  of  Greek 
manuscript  that  have  been  attempted  in 
modern  times.  His  splendid  editions  of 
Greek,  Latin,  Italian,  and  French  classics  are 
highly  prized.  He  was  a  member  of  several 
academies  of  Italy  and  knight  of  several 
orders. 

Body  and  Mind,  in  philosophy,  the  prob- 
lems of  the  reality  of  mind  and  body,  and  of 


the  relations  conceived  to  exist  between  them 
Mind  and  body,  positing  temporarily  theii 
reality,  may  first  be  regarded  from  the  poin*; 
of  view  of  correlated  action.  Generally  expe- 
rience reveals  indisputablj'^  the  intimate  relation 
which  exists  between  the  constitution  and  modi- 
fications of  bodily  functions  and  the  character 
and  alterations  of  consciousness.  Consider 
the  following :  the  dependence  of  certain  forms 
of  consciousness  upon  the  functioning  of  the 
senses;  modifications  due  to  injury  by  a  blow, 
on  lesion  in  the  cerebral  cortex ;  effect  of  loss 
of  sleep  upon  attention ;  effect  of  the  use  of 
certain  drugs ;  pleasures  and  pains  resulting  from 
functioning  of  sense ;  feeling  of  effort  which 
accompanies  bodily  work;  the  phenomena  of 
sleep ;  diseases  of  memory  and  will,  double  per- 
sonality ;  phenomena  of  hypnotism,  hallucina- 
tion, etc. ;  the  evidence  from  heredity,  sexual 
dift'erences,  and  other  allied  phenomena.  All 
these,  as  facts,  afford  an  indisputable  conclusion 
concerning  the  correlated  action  of  mind  and 
body. 

But  difficulties  arise  as  soon  as  we  under- 
take to  state  the  nature  of  the  relations  which 
exist  between  them.  The  general  truth  which 
the  phenomena  referred  to  appear  to  establish, 
that  every  psychosis  has  its  concomitant  neu- 
rosis and  every  neurosis  a  concomitant  psy- 
chosis, is  not  entirely  borne  out  in  fact.  The 
former  part  of  the  statement  is  indubitable; 
the  latter  by  no  means  so.  Mental  activity 
always  involves  nervous  activity,  but  the  ner- 
vous system  does  work  other  than  that  con- 
nected with  mind.  jMoreover  the  precise 
interconnections  of  mental  fact  with  cerebral 
fact,  and  vice  versa,  is  not  only  not  known,  but 
the  specific  character  of  the  neurosis  concomi- 
tant with  the  psychosis  is  perhaps  impossible  of 
final  analysis.  But  until  these  phenomena  are 
understood,  the  nature  of  the  relations  of  body 
and  mind  cannot  be  finally  determined.  How- 
ever, physiological  psychology  has  successfully 
established  certain  general  conclusions  concern- 
ing the  existence  of  uniform  relations  between 
concomitant  psychical  and  neural  processes.  The 
most  obvious  of  these  is  the  time-order  or  syn- 
chronous occurrence  of  the  two  series  of  events. 
The  remainder  are  concerned,  in  the  main,  with 
variations  of  intensity,  quality,  combination,  and 
complexity.  Qualitative  psychical  differences, 
however,  are  not  accompanied  by  corresponding 
differences  of  molecular  movement.  These  are 
quite  different  from  the  corresponding  sensa- 
tional differences. 

Philosophical  systems,  from  the  days  of 
Greek  thought  (see  Anaxagoras;  Aristotle) 
down  to  the  present,  have  taken  up  the  prob- 
lem where  psychology  leaves  off.  These  sys- 
tems may  be  divided  into  dualism  and  monism. 
According  to  dualism,  the  first  and  crudest 
theory  of  which  was  promulgated  by  Descartes, 
both  mind  and  body  are  real  existences,  and 
their  relations  must  accordingly  be  determined. 
The  problem  assumes  two  forms,  the  epistemo- 
logical  and  the  genetic.  According  to  the 
former  of  these  a  knowledge  of  both  body  and 
mind  is  posited.  Various  theories  concerning 
their  interaction  then  arise,  such  as  the  causal 
relation,  parallelism,  pre-established  harmony, 
and  occasionalism.  The  first  of  these  is  not 
only  the  most  important,  but  the  philosophical 
conceptions  concerning  it  may  be  said  to  strike 


BODY  COLOR  — BOECE 


at  the  inmost  heart  of  the  problem,  and  their 
assumption  determine  the  acceptance  or  rejec- 
tion of  general  theories.  Physiological  psychol- 
ogy has  demonstrated  the  temporal  concomi- 
tance of  the  psychosis  with  the  intermediate 
central  portion  of  the  neurosis.  But  we  have 
certain  neuroses  revealing  physiological  pro- 
cesses devoid  of  conscious  concomitant.  Now, 
the  question  arises :  How  may  this  partial 
parallelism  be  accounted  for?  Is  there  a  causal 
relation  such  as  our  initial  phenomena  seemed 
to  indicate,  or  have  we  only  the  appearance  of 
it  in  a  general  parallelism?  Science  has  failed 
to  afford  precise  answers  to  these  qviestions. 
According  to  it  the  series  of  nervous  events  is 
complete  in  itself  and  self-sufficient.  Hence, 
since  antecedent  events  fully  account  for  con- 
sequent ones,  consciousness  can  have  no  causal 
action  upon  the  neural  series.  Consciousness, 
then,  is  a  mere  accident  and  without  determin- 
ing power  in  any  series.  This  gives  us  the  doc- 
trine of  human  automatism,  according  to  which 
all  our  nervous  actions  are  determined,  and  con- 
sciousness is  an  unnecessary  attachment.  On 
the  other  hand,  others  regard  psychical  phe- 
nomena as  having  a  reality  equal  to  that  of 
physiological  phenomena.  They  acknowledge, 
generally,  the  conditioning  effect  of  nervous 
processes  upon  mental  ones,  but  they  divide 
again  on  the  question  of  the  reality  of  causal 
connection.  Finally  the  genetic  view  traces  its 
distinction  of  mind  and  body  upon  the  dualism 
which  a  developmental  theory  in  general 
appears  to  demand ;  or  it  accepts  it  as  an  hypoth- 
esis, uncritically  examined,  but  convenient  for 
practical  purposes. 

It  is  the  attempted  unification  of  mind  and 
"body  which  brings  us  to  the  doctrine  of  monism. 
Under  this  general  theory  we  find  spiritual 
monism,  materialism,  panpsychism,  epiphenom- 
enon,  mind-dust,  etc.  The  most  obvious  means 
of  reconciliation  is  that  of  resolving  either  one 
of  the  ultimate  factors  into  the  other.  The 
metaphysical  conception  of  materialism  is  the 
doctrine  by  which  all  substance  whatsoever  is 
conceived  of  as  being  reduced  to  matter,  of  which 
conscious  mind  is  but  a  product.  The  chief 
objections  urged  against  it  are:  (i)  that  it 
makes  our  mental  states,  which  of  all  know- 
ledge we  know  most  immediately  and  directly, 
subordinate  to  our  indirect  and  inferential 
knowledge  of  things ;  (2)  that  consciousness  is 
a  reality  distinct  from  material  phenomena,  and 
therefore  incapable  of  being  analyzed  into  it ; 
and  (3)  that  no  external  world  is  possible  apart 
from  a  perceiving  subject.  Spiritualism,  on  the 
other  hand,  escapes  these  objections  by  positing 
mind  as  the  primordial  substance,  and  further 
regarding  material  things  as  in  themselves 
essentially  expressive  of  spirit.  It  encounters, 
however,  certain  difficulties  in  the  concomi- 
tance and  juxtaposition  of  its  elements  for 
which,  as  yet,  it  has  afforded  no  adequate  solu- 
tion. 

According  to  Spinoza's  doctrine  of  monism, 
both  spirit  and  matter,  or  the  mental  and  the 
material,  are  posited  as  real,  self-existent  reali- 
ties, but  not  standing  independent  of  each  other. 
There  is  a  common  ''substance,'^  and  in  this, 
consciousness  and  extension,  the  fundamental 
attribute  of  external  reality,  find  themselves 
connected.  Hence  the  doctrine  is  neither  purely 
materialistic    nor    purely    spiritualistic,    but    in- 


cludes both  these  theories.  The  parallelism 
which  physiological  psychology  demonstrates, 
then,  in  the  two  classes  of  phenomena,  indi- 
cates not  only  their  ultimate  inseparability,  but 
the  fact  that  they  are  but  different  modes  of 
manifestation  of  a  common  substance.  Mani- 
festly, then,  this  doctrine  calls  for  no  interac- 
tion theory  and  disposes  of  the  troublesome 
question  of  causal  connection  above  referred  to. 
There  is  no  interaction,  merely  a  parallelism. 
This  parallelism,  indeed,  extends  throughout  all 
material  objects,  all  of  which  thus  assume  a 
certain  mental  aspect  also.  It  is  at  this  point 
especially  that  monism  parts  company,  in  its 
speculation,  from  the  teachings  of  non- 
speculative  psychology',  according  to  which  mind 
and  consciousness  are  invariably  co-extensive. 

Bibliography. —  Bain,  <Mind  and  Body^  ; 
Hottding,  'Psychology,^  II.;  Ladd,  < Elements  of 
Physiological  Psychology,^  Pt.  III. ;  Wundl, 
<  Physiological  Psychology,^  c.  XXIV.;  Went- 
scher,  <Pliysische  und  Psychische  Kausalitat' 
(1896)  ;  Rehmke,  'Aussenwelt  und  Innenwelt^ 
(1898);  <  Psychological  Review,^    III.   (1896). 

Body  Color,  a  term  applied  to  such  pig- 
ments as  have  body  enough  to  be  opaque, 
as  distinguished  from  those  which  are  trans- 
parent. As  a  rule,  pigments  have  more  body 
the  nearer  they  approach  to  white ;  conse- 
quently the  light  parts  of  pictures  in  oil  are 
in  body  color  to  give  them  brightness  and 
strength,  while  the  dark  parts  are  transpa- 
rent to  give  them  depth.  Water  color  paint- 
ing, when  executed  by  mixing  the  pigments 
with  water  after  the  manner  of  an  oil  paint- 
ing, is  said  to  be  painted  in  body  color. 

Body  of  Liberties.     See  Law. 

Body-snatching.     See  Corpse. 

Boece,    bois,    Boeis,    or    Boyce,    Hector, 

Scottish  historian :  b.  Dundee,  about  1465 ; 
d.  1536.  Boece  studied  at  Dundee,  and 
then  at  the  University  of  Paris,  and  be- 
came professor  of  philosophy  in  the  Col- 
lege of  Montaigu.  Here  he  became  ac- 
quainted with  Erasmus,  who  professed  a  high 
esteem  for  him.  About  1500  Boece  quitted 
Paris  to  assume  the  principalship  of  the 
newly  founded  University  of  King's  College, 
Aberdeen.  He  was  also  made  a  canon  of 
Aberdeen.  The  death  of  his  patron  in  1514 
occasioned  his  first  work  —  a  history  of  the 
prelates  of  JMortlach  (the  original  see)  and 
Aberdeen,  including  the  life  of  Bishop  El- 
phinstone,  which  occupies  about  a  third  of 
the  volume.  It  has  been  reprinted  by  the 
Bannatyne  and  New  Spalding  clubs.  Five 
years  afterward  appeared  the  work  on  which 
his  fame  chiefly  rests,  the  'History  of  Scot- 
land.••  The  first  edition  is  without  date,  but 
a  commendatory  epistle  bears  the  date  of 
1527.  It  was  written  in  Latin.  He  is  distin- 
guished by  a  patriotic  zeal  to  magnify  the 
achievements  of  his  countrymen,  and  by  an 
enlightened  love  of  politicalliberty  in  advance 
of  the  age  in  which  he  lived.  In  1527  Boece 
received  an  annual  pension  of  50  pounds 
(Scots),  which  was  to  be  continued  "until 
the  king  should  promote  him  to  a  benefice 
of  100  marks  Scots  of  yearly  value.»  The 
pension  was  paid  till  1534,  when  it  is  supposed 
he    received   the   promotion  —  a   very   unsafe 


BOECKH  —  BCEOTIA 


inference.  The  rectorship  of  Tyrie,  which 
he  held  at  his  death,  is,  however,  supposed  to 
have  been  the  promotion  in  question. 

Boeckh,  August,  ow'goost  bek,  German 
classical  scholar:  b.  Carlsruhe,  24  Nov.  1785; 
d.  Berlin,  3  Aug.  1867.  In  1803  he  entered 
the  University  of  Halle,  where  he  was  in- 
duced by  the  influence  of  Wolf  to  devote  him- 
self to  the  study  of  philology.  After  spend- 
ing three  years  here,  and  more  than  a  year 
in  Berlin,  he  returned  in  1807  to  his  native 
state,  and  in  the  same  year  becaine  extraordi- 
nary, and  two  years  later  ordinary  professor 
in  the  University  of  Halle.  He  had  already 
acquired  such  renown  as  a  scholar,  that  in 
1810  he  was  offered  the  chair  of  rhetoric  and 
ancient  literature  in  the  newly  founded  Uni- 
versity of  Berlin;  and  here  he  remained  en- 
joying this  and  other  important  oftices  and 
dignities  for  the  rest  of  his  life.  The  works 
of  Boeckh  have  made  an  epoch  in  the  history 
of  philology  and  archaeology.  In  his  studies  of 
classical  antiquities  he  set  forth  the  princi- 
ple that  philology  ought  to  be  an  historical 
method  intended  to  reproduce  the  whole  so- 
cial and  political  life  of  any  given  people  dur- 
ing a  given  period;  and  in  accordance  with 
this  he  divided  the  science  into  two  parts: 
(i)  Hermeneutics  and  Criticism;  (2)  the 
Practical  and  Theoretical  Life  of  the  An- 
cients. His  views  were  vigorously  attacked 
in  various  quarters,  but  the  majority  of  Ger- 
man scholars  gathered  around  him,  and  he 
himself  carried  his  views  into  effect  in  a  num- 
ber of  important  works.  The  most  remark- 
able of  these  are  the  following :  an  edition 
of  Pindar;  ^The  Public  Economy  of  the 
Athenians,^  which  has  been  translated  into 
English;  ^Metrological  Investigations  of  the 
Weights,  Coins,  and  Measures  of  Antiquity^ 
and  ^Documents  Concerning  the  Maritime 
Affairs  of  Attica.^  Besides  these  he  was  un- 
interruptedly engaged  from  1815  to  the  end 
of  his  life  in  making  a  collection  of  Greek 
inscriptions,  which  he  published  with  the 
title  'Corpus  Inscriptionum  Grgecarum,'  and 
the  first  four  volumes  of  which  appeared  at 
Berlin  between  1824  and  1862.  The  first  three 
volumes  of  a  collection  of  his  minor  works, 
edited  by  Ascherson,  appeared  during  the 
lifetime  of  the  author. 

Boehler,  be-ler,  Peter,  Moravian  bishop: 
b.  Frankfort-on-the-Main,  1712;  d.  London, 
1775.  He  was  educated  at  Jena,  joined  the 
Moravians  and  was  ordained  to  the  ministry. 
He  was  sent  as  a  missionary  to  America, 
working  among  the  negroes  in  Georgia,  the 
Germans  in  North  Carolina  (who  later  set- 
tled Bethlehem,  Pa.),  and  the  Indians  of 
Pennsylvania.  He  went  to  Europe  and  re- 
turned to  Bethlehem  with  a  large  number 
of  colonists.  In  1742,  he  was  made  bishop  of 
the  Moravian  churches  in  America,  England, 
Ireland,  and  Wales. 

Boehm,  bem,  Henry,  clergyman:  b.  Cones- 
toga,  Pa.,  8  June  1775;  d.  near  Richmond, 
Staten  Island,  28  Dec.  1875.  Under  the  in- 
fluence of  Bishop  Asbury,  Boehm,  whose 
father  was  a  Mennonite  clergyman,  became 
an  itinerant  minister  of  the  Methodist  Church. 
In  this  capacity  he  traveled  over  100,000  miles 
on  horseback  between  the  years  1800  and 
1842,  when  he  was  stationed  at  Staten  Island 


as  a  supernumerary.  He  served  74  years 
in  the  ministry,  and  at  the  time  of  his 
death  was  the  oldest  Methodist  minister  in 
America.  A  special  service  in  honor  of  his 
looth  birthday  was  held  8  June  1875.  He 
wrote  'Reminiscences,  Historical  and  Bio- 
graphical, of  Sixty-four  Years  in  the  Minis- 
try^ (N.  Y.  1865;  new  ed.  1875,  ed.  by  J.  B. 
Wakeley  and  others). 

Boehm,  Sir  Joseph  Edgar,  Hungarian- 
English  sculptor:  b.  Vienna,  1834;  d.  12  Dec. 
1890.  He  went  to  London  in  1862,  and  lived 
there  from  that  date,  becoming  a  member  of 
the  Royal  Academy  in  1881.  Among  his  im- 
portant works  are  the  great  statue  of  Queen 
Victoria  at  Windsor ;  statues  of  Bunyan  at 
Bedford ;  Wellington  at  Hyde  Park  Corner ; 
Dean  Stanley  at  Westminster  Abbey;  Drake 
at  Plymouth;  Carlyle  on  Thames  Embank- 
ment, and  busts  of  Ruskin,  Gladstone,  and 
Huxley.  In  1889  he  was  knighted.  He  was 
the  fashionable  sculptor  of  his  time,  but 
much  of  his  work  fails  to  reach  a  high  stan- 
dard and  his  designs  for  the  jubilee  coin- 
age of  1S87  were  very  adversely  criticised. 

Boehme'ria,  a  large  genus  of  plants  of  the 
natural  order  Urticacece,  natives  of  tropical 
Asia,  where  various  species  furnish  fibres  used 
in  rope-  twine-  thread-  and  cloth-making. 
B.  nivea  (China  grass)  is  a  nettle-like,  but 
non-stinging  perennial  herb  which  is  propa- 
gated by  seeds  or  root  division.  When  once 
established  three  crops  are  obtained  annually 
and  the  fibre  removed  by  hand  stripping, 
machinery,  or  boiling  in  water  or  chemical 
solutions.  None  of  these  methods  are  wholly 
satisfactory;  for  which  reason  China  and 
India,  those  lands  of  cheap  hand  labor,  still 
supply  the  world.  The  fibre  is  used  to  make 
China-grass  cloth.  B.  ienacissima  {ramie) 
(q.v.)  or  rhea,  is  considered  by  some  botan- 
ists as  a  variety  of  B.  nivea.  Attempts  to 
establish  the  China-grass  and  ramie  industries 
in  the  United  States  have  not  been  very  suc- 
cessful; not  because  the  plants  cannot  be 
raised  economically,  but  because  of  the  high 
price  of  labor  in  manufacture,  and  the  ineffi- 
ciency of  iTiachines  and  degumming  methods. 
Both  species  and  several  others  of  the  genus 
are  effective  ornamental  plants  in  borders  and 
are  hardy  as  far  north  as  Washington,  prob- 
ably farther.  Consult:  Dodge.  'Descriptive 
Catalogue  of  Useful  Fibre  Plants  of  the 
World';  Royle,  'Fibrous  Plants  of  India.' 

BcBo'tia,  be-o'shi-a,  a  country  of  ancient 
Greece,  bounded  north  by  Phocis  and  the 
country  of  the  Opuntian  Locrians;  east  by  the 
Euripus,  or  Strait  of  Euboea ;  south  by  Attica. 
Megaris,  and  the  Alcyonian  Gulf,  and  west 
bv  Phocis.  Its  surface  is  estimated  at  1,119 
square  miles;  but  the  boundaries  were  not 
always  the  same.  In  the  north  it  is  moun- 
tainous and  cold,  and  the  air  is  pure  and 
healthy,  but  the  soil  is  less  fertile  than  that 
of  the  other  portion,  which,  however,  is  said 
to  suffer  from  malaria.  The  mountainous 
part  in  the  north  was  called  in  earlier  times 
Aonia.  Among  the  mountains  of  Boeotia  are 
several  remarkable  in  history  and  mythol- 
ogy—  Helicon  (now  Zagora),  the  mountain 
of  the  Sphinx,  the  Teumessus,  Libethrium, 
and  Petrachus.  Hypatus  (modern  name 
Samata),    bounded    the    Theban    plain    on    the 


BOERHAAVE 


east.  A  feature  of  the  country  was  Lake 
Copais,  the  district  around  which  is  a  valley 
completely  surrounded  by  hills,  and  con- 
nected with  the  Euboean  Sea  by  subterranean 
passages.  The  lake  was  fed  by  the  Cephisus, 
the  largest  river  in  the  country,  and  the 
water  was  liable  to  accumulate  more  rapidly 
than  the  natural  drainage  of  the  country 
could  carry  it  off.  Hence  the  early  inhabi- 
tants suffered  much  from  inundations,  and  at 
a  period  previous  to  historical  annals  subter- 
raneous channels  were  built  to  carry  off  the 
water,  which  indicate  a  very  early  civili- 
zation, and  recognized  from  the  ruins  which 
still  remain  as  among  the  greatest  works 
of  antiquity.  These  works  made  Boeotia 
one  of  the  most  fertile  districts  of  Greece. 
Recently  the  lake  has  been  drained  at  great 
expense  and  a  large  tract  of  land  reclaimed. 
The  chief  occupation  of  the  inhabitants 
was  agriculture  and  the  raising  of  cattle. 
Boeotia  was  first  occupied  by  the  Pelasgian 
tribes.  In  the  time  of  Boeotus  (son  of  Itonus, 
and  grandson  of  Amphictyon,  from  whom  it 
is  said  to  have  derived  its  name)  these  were 
subject  to  the  Hellenes.  It  was  divided  into 
small  states,  until  Cadmus  the  Phoenician 
founded  the  government  of  Thebes.  In  later 
times  all  Greece  worshipped  the  Hercules  of 
Thebes.  After  the  death  of  Xanthus,  king  of 
Thebes,  most  of  the  cities  of  Boeotia  formed 
a  kind  of  republic,  of  which  Thebes  was  the 
chief  city.  Epaminondas  and  Pelopidas  raised 
Thebes  for  a  time  to  the  highest  rank  among 
Grecian  states.  In  Boeotia  are  several  cele- 
brated ancient  battlefields,  namely,  Platsea 
(now  the  village  Kokla),  where  Pausanias 
and  Aristides  established  the  liberty  of  Greece 
by  their  victory  over  the  300,000  Persians 
under  Mardonius;  Leuctra  (now  the  village 
Parapogia),  where  Epaminondas  checked  the 
ambitious  Spartans;  Coronea,  where  the  Spar- 
tan Agesilaus  defeated  the  Thebans;  and 
Chseronea  (now  Capranu),  where  Philip 
founded  the  Macedonian  greatness  on  the 
ruins  of  Grecian  liberty.  Near  Tanagra,  the 
birthplace  of  Corinna,  the  best  wine  was 
produced;  here,  also,  cocks  were  bred  of  re- 
markable size,  beauty,  and  courage,  with 
which  the  Grecian  cities,  passionately  fond 
of  cock-fighting  were  supplied.  Refinement 
and  cultivation  of  mind  never  made  such 
progress  in  Boeotia  as  in  Attica.  The  Boeo- 
tians were  vigorous,  but  slow  and  heavy.  Sev- 
eral Thebans,  however,  were  worthy  disciples 
of  Socrates,  and  Epaminondas  distinguished 
himself  as  much  in  philosophy  as  by  his  mili- 
tary talents.  The  people  were  particularly 
fond  of  music,  and  excelled  in  it.  They  had 
also  some  great  poets  and  artists.  Hesoid, 
Pindar,  the  poetess  Corinna,  and  Plutarch, 
were  Boeotians. 

Boerhaave,  Hermann,  her'man  boor-ha've, 
Dutch  phj^sician:  b.  Woorhout,  near  Leyden, 
13  Dec.  1668;  d.  23  Sept.  1738.  Boerhaavere- 
ceived  from  his  father  a  liberal  education. 
In  1682  he  was  sent  to  Leyden  to  study  theol- 
ogy. Here  he  gave,  at  the  age  of  20,  the 
first  public  proof  of  his  learning  and  eloquence. 
In  1678  he  received  a  gold  medal  from  the 
city  for  an  academic  oration,  in  which  he  at- 
tacked the  doctrines  of  Spinoza.  In  1689  he 
received  the  degree  of  Doctor  of  Philosophy, 
and  maintained  an  inaugural  dissertation,  ^De 


Distmctione  Mentis  a  Corpore,'  in  which  he 
attacked  Epicurus,  Hobbes,  and  Spinoza.  He 
now  commenced,  at  the  age  of  22,  the  study 
of  medicine.  Drelincourt  was  his  first  and 
only  teacher.  From  him  he  received  little  in- 
struction;  and  by  his  own  solitary  study  he 
learned  a  science  on  which  he  was  after- 
ward to  exert  so  important  an  influence.  His 
first  study  was  anatomy,  which  he  pursued 
from  books,  rather  than  from  observation. 
He  attended  dissections,  indeed,  but  his  writ- 
ings show  a  deficiency  of  practical  knowledge. 
Still  he  exercised  a  salutary  influence  on  the 
study  of  anatomy,  as  the  use  he  made  of  me- 
chanical illustrations  induced  anatomists  to 
apply  themselves  to  a  more  accurate  study  of 
the  forms  of  the  organs.  After  this  prelimi- 
nary study,  Boerhaave  read  all  the  works, 
ancient  and  modern,  on  medicine,  in  the  order 
of  time,  proceeding  from  his  contemporaries 
to  Hippocrates,  with  whose  superior  excel- 
lence and  correct  method  he  was  forcibly 
struck.  He  also  studied  botany  and  chem- 
istry, and  although  still  preparing  himself  for 
the  clerical  profession,  was  made  in  1693 
Doctor  of  Medicine  at  Harderwyck.  After 
his  return  to  Leyden,  some  doubts  being 
raised  as  to  his  orthodoxy,  he  finally  deter- 
mined to  follow  the  profession  of  medicine. 
In  1701  the  University  of  Leyden  chose  him, 
on  the  death  of  Drelincourt,  to  deliver  lectures 
on  the  theory  of  medicine.  Boerhaave  now 
began  to  develop  those  great  and  peculiar 
excellences  which  make  him  a  pattern  to  all 
who  undertake  the  office  of  instruction.  Pu- 
pils crowded  from  all  quarters  to  hear  him. 
His  method  was  eclectic,  combining  the 
speculations  of  opposing  schools,  and  led  him 
to  attach  too  much  importance  to  mechani- 
cal and  chemical  theories  of  vital  actions.  In 
1709  the  University  of  Leyden  appointed  him 
successor  to  Hotton,  in  the  chair  of  medicine 
and  botany.  The  course  of  instruction  to 
which  Boerhaave  was  now  devoted,  induced 
him  to  publish  two  works,  on  which  his  fame 
still  rests,  namely,  <Institutiones  Medicse  in 
Usus  AnnuEe  Exercitationis  Domesticos,* 
and  "^Aphorismi  de  Cognoscendis  et  Curandis 
Morbis  in  Usum  Doctrinse  Medicina:.^  In 
the  former,  which  is  a  model  of  comprehen- 
sive erudition  and  clear  method,  he  unfolds 
his  system  in  its  fullest  extent;  in  the  latter 
he  undertakes  the  classification  of  diseases, 
and  discourses  separately  on  their  causes, 
nature,  and  treatment.  The  professorship  of 
botany,  which  he  also  filled,  contributed  no 
less  to  his  reputation.  He  rendered  essential 
services  to  botany  by  his  two  catalogues  of 
plants  in  the  garden  of  Leyden,  the  number 
of  which  he  had  very  much  increased.  We 
are  indebted  to  him  for  the  description  and 
delineation  of  several  new  plants,  and  the 
introduction  of  some  new  species.  In  1714  he 
was  made  rector  of  the  university.  At  the 
end  of  this  year  he  succeeded  Bidloo  in  the 
chair  of  practical  medicine,  which  he  occu- 
pied for  more  than  10  years.  In  this  office 
he  had  the  merit  of  introducing  clinical  in- 
struction, that  is,  of  lecturing  to  his  students 
at  the  bedside  of  patients  in  hospital,  for  the 
first  time  in  Europe.  Busily  occupied  as  he 
already  was,  the  university  conferred  on 
him,  at  the  death  of  Lemort,  the  professor- 
ship   of    chemistry,    which    science    he    had 


BOERS 


taught  since  1703.  *His  Elements  of  Chem- 
istry^ is  one  of  his  finest  productions,  and 
notwithstanding  the  entire  revolution  which 
has  taken  place  in  this  branch  of  science,  is 
still  highly  valuable.  His  experiments  are 
remarkable  for  their  accuracy.  So  extensive 
a  sphere  of  action  gained  for  Boerhaave  a 
fame  that  few  learned  men  have  enjoyed. 
People  came  from  all  parts  of  Europe  to  ask 
his  advice.  His  property  amounted  at  his 
death  to  2,000,000  florins.  Peter  the  Great 
visited  him  on  his  travels,  and  a  Chinese  man- 
darin wrote  to  him  with  the  address,  «To 
Boerhaave,  the  celebrated  physician  in  Eu- 
rope.'* In  1722  illness  obliged  him  to  remit 
his  active  pursuits.  In  this  he  returned  in 
some  measure  to  the  principles  of  Hippo- 
crates, from  which,  indeed,  he  had  never  de- 
parted far  in  practice.  Boerhaave  was  a  man 
of  piety  as  well  as  learning.  He  arose  early 
and  devoted  an  hour  every  morning  to  prayer 
and  the  study  of  Scripture.  He  used  to  say 
that  the  life  of  a  patient,  if  trifled  with  or 
neglected,  would  one  day  be  required  at  the 
hands  of  the  physician. 

Boers  (Dutch  boer,  a  peasant  or  husband- 
man), the  name  commonly  applied  to  the 
South  African  colonists  of  Dutch  descent. 
The  Cape  Colony  was  founded  by  the  Dutch 
in  1650.  The  Dutch  were  at  this  period  the 
leading  maritime  power  of  Europe,  and  their 
African  colonies  assumed  great  importance. 
When  Holland  was  reduced  to  the  last  ex- 
tremity by  the  invasion  of  Louis  XIV.,  serious 
thoughts  were  entertained  of  making  the 
Cape  Colony  the  final  refuge  of  Dutch  inde- 
pendence, but  this  crisis  passed  away  with' 
the  advancing  power  of  William.  The  colony 
subsequently  fell  into  comparative  neglect, 
and  the  colonists,  left  to  their  own  resources, 
began  to  develop  a  character  of  their  own. 
The  troubles  in  which  the  parent  state  was 
involved  by  European  wars  now  began  also 
to  affect  them.  The  colony  was  taken  posses- 
sion of  by  the  English  in  1795,  restored  at 
the  peace  of  Amiens  in  1802,  taken  again  in 
1806,  and  finally  ceded  to  England  in  1815. 
The  last  change  was  highly  distasteful  to  the 
colonists.  Naturally  distrustful  of  a  foreign 
government,  they  had  formed  from  their  ex- 
perience of  the  country  and  its  inhabitants 
a  policy  and  habits  of  their  own,  into  which 
the  newcomers  could  not  be  expected  at  once 
to  enter.  The  Boers,  moreover,  were  strongly 
conservative,  believing  that  they  understood 
the  situation  better  than  anyone  else,  and 
they  had  acquired  in  their  struggles  with  the 
natives  a  reckless  daring,  which,  added  to  the 
coolness  and  caution  of  the  Dutch  character, 
was  likely  to  make  them  formidable  opponents 
to  any  government  which  provoked  their 
hostility. 

The  policy  of  the  British  governers  was 
not  always  adapted  to  the  circumstances,  and 
the  attempts  of  the  British  missionaries,  en- 
couraged by  the  colonial  government,  to 
convert  and  civilize  the  natives,  excited  the 
jealousy  of  the  Boers,  who  thought  their  own 
interests  compromised  by  the  encouragement 
given  to  the  converts.  The  government  on 
various  occasions  sided  with  the  Kaffirs 
against  the  Boers,  which,  whatever  the  merits 
of  the   particular   disputes,    was   not    calculated 


to  conciliate  the  latter.  The  emancipation  of 
their  slaves  in  1833,  and  the  cession  to  the 
Kaffirs  in  1835  of  a  frontier  district  of  neutral 
territory  in  the  east,  filled  up  the  measure  of 
provocation,  and  the  Boers  resolved  to  place 
themselves  by  emigration  beyond  the  British 
rule.  A  first  band  set  out  by  land  in  1835  for 
Port  Natal,  but  being  ignorant  of  the  passes 
of  the  country,  went  out  of  their  way.  Part 
of  them  settled  in  the  district  near  the  Zout- 
pansberg  or  Salt-pan  Mountain,  part  pro- 
ceeded to  Algoa  Bay,  but  did  not  succeed  in 
forming  a  perfect  settlement.  Another  band 
also  proceeding  to  Natal  was  attacked  by  the 
Matebele  Kaffirs,  and  obliged  to  fall  back  on 
the  Modder  River.  After  receiving  reinforce- 
ments they  again  advanced  and  settling  in  the 
Orange  River  district,  formed  a  common- 
wealth under  Peter  Retief.  This  colony  was 
in  1837  invited  to  join  the  British  settlers  who 
had  in  the  meantime  taken  possession  of  Port 
Natal.  Crossing  the  Quathlamba  Mountains 
for  this  purpose,  Retief  and  some  of  his  prin- 
cipal followers  were  treacherously  murdered 
in  an  interview  with  the  chief  of  the  Zulu 
Kaffirs.  The  remainder  turned  south,  and 
formed  the  settlement  of  Pietermaritzburg. 
Under  the  leadership  of  Pretorius  they  de- 
feated the  Zulus,  but  the  colonial  government 
denied  their  right  to  form  an  independent 
community  in  this  district. 

In  1842,  a  British  force  was  landed,  and 
the  Boers  were  compelled  to  retire  from  the 
coast  and  acknowledge  the  British  sovereignty. 
Many  of  them  recrossed  the  mountains, 
and  settled  in  the  Vaal  district.  Further 
disagreements  with  the  colonial  government, 
which  had  now  possession  of  Natal,  led 
to  another  emigration  to  the  north  of  the 
Klipp  River.  Here  they  struggled  success- 
fully with  the  Kaffirs  till  1845,  when  the  co- 
lonial government  proclaimed  the  Buffalo 
River  the  north  boundary  of  Natal.  The 
Boers  openly  resisted,  but  finding  their 
strength  unequal  to  the  conflict,  again  emi- 
grated to  the  Vaal  country.  In  1848  the  co- 
lonial government  likewise  annexed  by  proc- 
lamation the  Orange  River  settlement.  The 
Boers,  headed  by  Pretorius,  took  up  arms, 
but  being  defeated  retired  beyond  the  Vaal, 
and  with  the  previous  settlers  formed  the 
Transvaal  republic.  Those  who  remained 
continued  their  resistance  to  the  British  au- 
thority until,  in  1851,  on  the  outbreak  of  the 
Kaffir  war,  the  British  relinquished  the 
Orange  River  territory,  and  recognized  the 
independence  of  the  Orange  Free  State.  In 
1877  the  Transvaal  was  annexed  by  Britain, 
according  to  the  wish  of  many  of  the  peo- 
ple, but  war  broke  out  in  1880,  British 
forces  suffered  more  than  one  defeat,  and 
in  1881  the  country  was  accorded  a  modi- 
fied independence.  Henceforth  it  was  a 
common  feeling  among  the  Boers  that 
they  and  not  the  British  must  be  pre- 
dominant in  South  Africa,  and  in  October 
1899,  after  a  defiant  ultimatum,  the  united 
forces  of  the  Transvaal  and  Orange  Free 
State  invaded  Natal.  After  nearly  three 
years  of  warfare  the  two  republics  were  an- 
nexed by  proclamation.  See  Jameson  ;  Kru- 
GER ;  Majuba  Hill  ;  Natal  ;  Orange  River 
Colony;  South  African  War;  Transvaal, 
etc. 


BOETHUS  — BOG 


Boe'thus,  Greek  sculptor:  b.  Chalcedon  in 
the  2d  century  b.c.  He  is  celebrated  for  his 
statues  of  children.  <The  Boy  With  the 
Swan^  was  his  most  famous  work.  A  girl 
playing  with  dice  and  a  boy  extracting  a 
thorn  were  subjects  of  other  masterpieces  by 
him. 

Boethius,  bo-e'thi-us,  Anicius  Manlius 
Severinus,  Roman  statesman  and  philosopher: 
b.  about  470  A.D.,  in  Rome  or  Milan ;  d.  524 
or  526.  He  was  educated  in  Rome,  in  a  man- 
ner well  calculated  to  develop  his  extraordi- 
nary abilities.  Theodoric,  king  of  the  Ostro- 
goths, then  master  of  Italy,  loaded  him  with 
marks  of  favor  and  esteem,  and  raised  him  to 
the  first  offices  in  the  empire.  He  exerted  the 
best  influence  on  the  administration  of  this 
monarch,  so  that  the  dominion  of  the  Goths 
promoted  the  welfare  and  happiness  of  the 
people  who  were  subject  to  them.  He  was 
long  the  oracle  of  his  sovereign  and  the  idol 
of  the  people.  The  highest  honors  were 
thought  inadequate  to  reward  his  virtues  and 
services.  But  Theodoric,  as  he  grew  old,  be- 
came irritable,  jealous,  and  distrustful  of 
those  about  him.  The  Goths  now  indulged  in 
all  sorts  of  oppression  and  extortion,  while 
Boethius  exerted  himself  in  vain  to  restrain 
them.  He  had  already  made  many  enemies 
by  his  strict  integrity  and  vigilant  justice. 
These  at  last  succeeded  in  prejudicing  the 
king  against  him,  and  rendering  him  suspi- 
cious of  Boethius.  His  opposition  to  their 
unjust  measures  was  construed  into  a  rebel- 
lious temper,  and  he  was  accused  of  a  treason- 
able correspondence  with  the  court  of  Con- 
stantinople. He  was  arrested,  imprisoned, 
and  executed.  He  made  many  laborious  trans-, 
lations  of  the  Greek  philosophers,  particularly 
of  Aristotle.  These  translations,  and  especially 
his  commentaries  on  Aristotle,  caused  him  to 
be  regarded  up  till  the  14th  century  as  the  high- 
est authority  in  philosophy.  His  treatise, 
*De  Musica,^  also  supplied  for  many  centuries 
the  place  of  Greek  originals.  His  fame  now 
chiefly  rests  on  his  *  Consolations  of  Philosophy,^ 
written  in  prison,  a  work  of  elevated  thought 
and  diction.  It  is  written  partly  in  prose  and 
partly  in  verse.  The  oldest  edition  of  this  work 
was  published  at  Nuremberg  in  1473.  It  was 
translated  by  King  Alfred  and  Chaucer,  and 
was  highly  prized  during  the  Middle  Ages. 
Boethius  also  translated  into  Latin  Euclid  and 
other  Greek  mathematical  works,  and  wrote 
short  treatises  on  algebra  and  geometry,  which 
were  used  as  school  text-books  during  the  Mid- 
dle Ages.  The  appearance  in  these  works  of 
characters  similar  to  Hindu  numerals  has  raised 
the  question  as  to  whether  he  was  familiar  with 
the  works  of  the  Hindu  mathematicians. 

BcEttcher,  be'tlk-er,  Jean  Frederick  (his 
name  is  also  spelled  Boettiger),  German 
alchemist:  b.  Schleiz,  1681  ;  d.  1719.  A  man  of 
dissolute  manners  and  dishonorable  conduct, 
he  is  celebrated  for  his  extraordinary  ad- 
ventures, and  his  fortunate  discovery  of  the 
famous  Dresden  porcelain.  Apprenticed  to 
an  apothecary  in  Berlin,  he  spent  his  time  in 
the  pursuit  of  alchemy,  and  fraudulently  pre- 
tended to  have  made  gold.  This  discovery. 
as  it  was  believed  to  be,  exposed  him  to  the 
danger  of  a  prosecution  for  sorcery,  to  avoid 

Vol.   2 — 49. 


which  he  fled.  Such  was  the  credulity  of  the 
time,  that  the  Prussian  government  was  anx- 
ious for  his  return,  and  the  Elector  of  Sax- 
ony, then  king  of  Poland,  supplied  him  with 
the  means  of  prosecuting  his  inquiries,  and 
was  entertained  by  his  promises  for  three 
years.  By  the  advice  of  Count  Tschirn- 
hausen,  the  elector  was  induced  to  turn  the 
real  chemical  knowledge  and  abilities  of 
Boettcher  to  account  in  developing  the  re- 
sources of  the  country.  This  sensible  advice 
was  rewarded  with  the  discovery  of  a  red  clay 
at  Meissen,  from  which  a  beautiful  porcelain 
could  be  made.  Boettcher  was  intrusted  with 
the  direction  of  the  manufacture,  but  was 
so  little  trustworthy  that  he  had  almost  to  be 
detained  a  prisoner  to  prevent  his  divulging 
the  secrets  of  the  process.  He  had  actually 
entered  into  a  negotiation  with  some  Prus- 
sians to  do  so,  and  his  death  alone  saved  him 
from  the  punishment  of  his  treachery. 

Boeuf  Bayou,  bef  bi'oo,  a  stream  in  Louis- 
iana, formed  in  times  of  high  water  by  over- 
flow from  the  Mississippi,  when  it  affords 
nearly  100  miles  of  steamboat  navigation. 
It  is  an  affluent  of  the  Washita  River. 

Boffin's  Bower,  in  Dickens'  'Our  Mutual 
Friend,^  home  of  the  Bofiins.  The  name  was 
given  by  Mrs.  Bofiin,  who  did  not  approve  of 
its  former  name,  "Harmon's  Jail." 

Bog,  an  Irish  word,  literally  meaning  soft, 
applied  in  Great  Britain  to  extensive  dis- 
tricts of  marshy  land,  such  as  we  commonly 
call  in  this  country  swamps.  They  consist, 
in  Europe,  so  universally  of  peat,  that  this 
substance  is  there  generally  regarded  essen- 
tial to  a  bog.  As  we  use  the  word,  it  is  in 
the  sense  of  a  quagmire;  any  soft  and  wet 
spot  into  which  a  man  would  sink  in  attempt- 
ing to  cross  it,  being  called  a  bog.  The  true 
bog  is  most  com^monly  found  in  northern 
latitudes,  and  in  districts  where  great  hu- 
midity prevails.  Their  situation  is  not  neces- 
sarily low,  nor  their  surface  level.  Some  of 
the  great  Irish  bogs  present  even  a  hilly  ap- 
pearance, which,  perhaps,  is  the  result  of  the 
spread  of  the  mosses  in  their  lateral  growth 
from  lower  situations  over  intervening  higher 
grounds.  Bogs  were  formerly  supposed  to 
owe  their  origin  to  the  destruction  of  forests, 
and  in  particular  to  the  obstruction  of  drain- 
age from  fallen  trees,  causing  lodgments  of 
water,  and  favoring  the  growth  of  marsh 
plants.  This  theory  can  only  be  partially 
true.  Fallen  trees  and  also  standing  roots 
are  frequently  found  in  a  state  of  great  pres- 
ervation in  bogs,  but  the  agency  of  felled 
trees  in  the  production  of  bog  has  been  com- 
pletely disproved,  six  or  seven  feet  of  bog 
being  found  under  the  roots  of  remaining 
trees,  showing  the  previous  formation  of  the 
bog.  The  process  of  bog  formation  is  thus 
described:  When  a  shallow  pool  induces 
the  formation  of  aquatic  plants,  they  grad- 
ually creep  in  from  the  borders  to  the  deeper 
centre.  Mud  accumulates  round  their  roots 
and  stalks,  and  a  spongy  semi-fluid  mass  is 
formed,  well  suited  for  the  growth  of  moss, 
particularly  Sphagnum,  which  now  begins  to 
luxuriate,  continually  absorbing  water,  and 
shooting  out  new  plants  above  as  the  old 
decay  beneath;  these  are  consequently  rotted, 
and  compressed  into  a  solid  substance,  grad- 


BOG-BUMPER  — BOG  IRON  ORE 


ually  replacing  the  water  by  a  mass  of  vege- 
table matter.  A  layer  of  clay,  frequently 
found  over  gravel,  assists  the  formation  of 
bog  by  its  power  of  retaining  moisture. 
When  the  subsoil  is  very  retentive,  and  the 
quantity  of  water  has  become  excessive,  the 
superincumbent  peat  has  sometim.es  burst 
forth  and  floated  over  adjacent  lands.  This 
happened  near  Killarnej^  in  1896,  and  caused 
the  loss  of  nine  lives.  Quagmires  are  caused 
by  the  decay  of  the  roots  of  plants  under- 
neath. The  plants  thus  detached  from  the 
bottom,  rise  to  the  surface,  and  are  kept 
floating  in  moisture.  Elastic  under  light 
pressure,  they  yield  suddenly  to  the  weight 
of  heavy  bodies,  their  only  strength  consist- 
ing in  the  interlacing  of  their  decayed  fibres. 

Throughout  the  country,  along  the  sea- 
board to  the  gulf  of  ^Mexico,  bog-like  swamps 
are  of  frequent  occurrence.  Their  outer 
portions  are  sometimes  wooded  swamps, 
while  within  they  present  moss-covered 
heaths,  stretching,  like  the  western  prairies, 
farther  than  the  eye  can  see,  and  dotted  oc- 
casionally with  clumps  or  little  islands  of 
trees.  In  New  England,  the  northwestern 
States,  and  Canada,  the  bogs  furnish  genuine 
peat,  and  some  of  those  bordering  on  the 
Great  Lakes  are  of  great  extent.  On  Long 
Island,  near  New  York,  the  bogs  present  a 
marked  feature  along  the  sandy  coast. 

British  bogs  are  generally  divided  into 
two  classes  —  red  bogs,  or  peat  mosses,  and 
black  bogs,  or  mountain  mosses.  The 
former  class  are  found  in  extensive  plains 
frequentlj'-  running  through  several  counties. 
The  Chatmoss  in  Lancashire,  and  the  Allen 
in  Ireland,  are  examples  of  this  class.  Their 
texture  is  light  and  full  of  filaments,  and  is 
formed  by  the  decay  of  mosses  and  plants 
of  different  kinds.  The  color  becomes  darker, 
and  the  density  increases  with  the  depth  of 
the  bog.  The  lower  parts,  being  more  en- 
tirely decayed,  approach  nearer  to  the  nature 
of  humus  than  the  upper  portion.  They  are 
also  more  carbonaceous,  and  consequently 
more  valuable  for  fuel.  The  depth  of  the 
red  mosses  varies  from  12  to  42  feet.  The 
chief  reasons  of  the  unproductiveness  of  this 
class  of  bogs  are  the  acids  in  which  the  plants 
composing  them  abound,  and  which  are  nox> 
ious  to  the  higher  orders  of  vegetation,  and 
the  circumstance  that  the  decomposition  of 
the  plants  takes  place  under  water,  where 
they  are  excluded  from  the  action  of  the  oxy- 
gen and  nitrogen  of  the  air,  and  consequently 
deprived  of  the  power  of  evolving  carbon 
and  ammonia.  Black  bog  is  formed  by  a 
more  rapid  decomposition  of  plants.  It  is 
heavier  and  more  homogeneous  in  quality. 
It  is  common  in  Ireland  and  Scotland,  but 
is  usually  found  in  limited  and  detached  por- 
tions. In  Ireland  these  frequently  rest  on 
calcareous  subsoil,  which  is  of  great  value  for 
reclaiming  them.  The  black  bog  is  so  fre- 
quently found  at  high  elevations  that  its  re- 
clamation presents  considerable  difficulties, 
but  when  it  is  found  in  plains  or  gentle  in- 
clinations it  may  be  reclaimed  with  compara- 
tive ease.  The  soil  in  mountainous  districts, 
being  shallow,  is  not  suited  for  cereals,  but  if 
the  mistake  of  sowing  these  is  avoided,  they 
may  be  made  into  good  pasture  land.  The 
reclamation  of  the  extensive  red  bogs  found 


in  various  parts  of  the  country,  especially  in 
Ireland,  which  has  more  than  1,500,000  acres 
of  them,  has  long  occupied  attention;  but  the 
progress  of  improvement  has  been  hindered 
by  questions  of  land  tenure,  disposal  of  capi- 
tal, and  other  difficulties  external  to  the  prac- 
ticabilitj'  of  the  desired  reformation.  IVIany 
extensive  experiments  have,  however,  been 
made  with  encouraging  success,  and  while  it 
is  perhaps  doubtful  how  far  reclamation  will 
repay  the  immediate  improver,  it  appears 
from  a  national  point  of  view  to  offer  un- 
doubted advantages. 

In  the  reclamation  of  bog  land  three 
things  require  to  be  accomplished.  The  land 
must  be  thoroughly  drained,  and  a  permanent 
system  of  drainage  established.  The  loose 
and  spongy  soil  must  be  mixed  with  a  suf- 
ficient quantitjr  of  mineral  matter  to  give  the 
requisite  firminess  to  its  texture,  and  to  fer- 
tilize its  superabundant  huinus.  Proper  ma- 
nures must  be  provided  to  facilitate  the  ex- 
traction of  nutriment  from  the  new  soil,  and 
a  rotation  of  crops  suitable  for  bringing  it 
into  permanent  condition  adopted.  The  diffi- 
culties of  reclamation  lie  chiefly  in  the  first 
and  second  of  these  requirements. 

The  materials  best  adapted  for  reclaim- 
ing peat  are  calcareous  earths,  limestone 
gravel,  shell  marl,  and  shell  sand.  Caustic 
lime,  although  it  neutralizes  the  acids  of  the 
soil,  causes  too  rapid  a  decomposition  of  the 
vegetable  matter.  These  materials  are  fre- 
quently found  in  the  subsoil  or  in  the  neigh- 
borhood, but  the  labor  of  raising  them  from 
the  subsoil  is  often  greater  than  that  of 
bringing  them  from  other,  especially  from  adja- 
cent quarters. 

Paring  and  burning,  or  removing  a  por- 
tion of  the  peat  for  fuel,  when  the  subsoil  is 
good,  are  other  modes  of  facilitating  im- 
provement. The  limited  demand  for  peat 
fuel  prevents  the  latter  system  being  carried 
on  extensivel}^  Thoroughly  reclaimed  bogs  are 
not  liable  to  revert  to  their  former  condition. 
For  further  particulars  see  Chatmoss. 

Bog-bumper,  Bog-jumper,  or  Bog-pumper. 
See    Bittern. 

Bog-butter,  a  fatty  spermaceti-like  sub- 
stance found  in  masses  in  peat-bogs,  com- 
posed of  carbon,  oxygen,  and  hydrogen,  and 
for  years  supposed  to  have  been  formed  by 
the  decomposition  of  peat.  In  1885  Macadam 
proved  that  it  is  of  animal  origin,  being,  in 
fact,  a  variety  of  adipocere,  and  is  formed  by 
the  decomposition  of  animal  substances,  out 
of  contact  with  the  air. 

Bog  Iron  Ore,  a  variety  of  limonite 
formed  in  bogs  and  swamps  by  the  reducing 
action  of  decaying  vegetable  matter  on  soluble 
iron  salts.  It  is  generally  loose  textured,  and 
brown  or  brownish  yellow  in  color.  The  ore 
usvially  contains  such  a  high  percentage  of  im- 
purities, especially  sulphur  and  phosphorus,  that 
it  cannot  be  utilized  for  iron  manufacture ;  it 
finds  limited  application,  however,  in  the  puri- 
fication of  illuminating  gas.  Deposits  of  bog 
iron  ore  are  widespread.  In  the  United  States 
extensive  beds  occur  along  the  Atlantic  coast 
from  New  York  southward,  and  the  first  blast 
furnaces  erected  in  this  country  were  supplied 
from  them.  Similar  deposits  occur  in  Great 
Britain  and  most  of  the  countries  of  Europe, 


BOG-MOSS  —  BOGDANOWITCH 


Bog-moss.     See  Sphagnum. 

Bog-oak,  trunks  and  large  branches  of 
oak  found  imbedded  in  bogs  and  preserved  by 
tiie  antiseptic  properties  of  peat,  so  that  the 
grain  of  the  wood  is  Httle  affected  by  the  many 
ages  during  which  it  has  lain  interred.  It  is 
of  a  shining  black  or  ebony  color,  derived  from 
its  impregnation  with  iron,  and  is  frequently 
converted  into  ornamental  pieces  of  furniture 
and  ornaments,  as  brooches,  earrings,  etc. 

Bog-trotter,  a  name  contemptuously  ap- 
plied to  the  Irish  peasantry  on  account  of  their 
ability  to  make  their  way  across  the  bogs  where 
no  one  else  can  find  footing,  wdiich  frequently 
gives  them  a  means  of  escape  from  officers  of 
police,  and  other  pursuers. 

Bogaers,  Adriaan,  a'dri-an  bo'gars,  Dutch 
poet :  b.  The  Hague,  1795 ;  d.  1870.  He  holds 
an  eminent  place  among  the  many  disciples  of 
Tollens,  and  surpasses  his  master  in  correctness 
of  taste.  He  long  withheld  his  compositions 
from  publication,  and  not  till  1832  did  he  be- 
come known  to  his  countrymen ;  he  then  pub- 
lished his  first  lyric  poem,  < Volharding,* — an 
appeal  to  his  countrymen  to  stand  fast  in  the 
struggle  with  Belgium, —  together  with  other 
patriotic  pieces.  His  first  poem  of  any  consid- 
erable compass,  the  epic  '^Jochebed,'  and  his 
masterpiece,  'The  Voyage  of  Heemskerk  to  Gi- 
braltar,' were  first  formally  published  in  1860-1, 
though  they  had  had  for  many  years  a  private 
circulation  among  friends.  He  afterward  pub- 
lished three  volumes,  'Ballads  and  Romances,^ 
'Flowers  of  Poesy  from  Abroad,'  and  'Poem.' 

Bo'gan,  or  New  Year  River,  a  river  of 
East  Australia,  rises  in  the  Harvey  range,  flows 
northwest,  and  empties  into  the  Darling  River ; 
length  over  300  miles. 

Bogar'dus  Everardus,  second  pastor  of  the 
church  in  New  Amsterdam  (New  York)  :  d.  27 
Dec.  1647.  He  is  noted  as  the  husband  of  An- 
neke  Jans,  whose  ownership  of  60  acres  of 
land  in  the  business  portion  of  New  York 
has  given  her  descendants  occasion  for  almost 
continuous  law  suits,  during  200  years,  to  re- 
cover possession  of  the  property  which  is  held 
by  the  corporation  of  Trinity  Church. 

Bogardus,  James,  American  inventor:  b. 
Catskill,  N.  Y.,  14  March  1800;  d.  13  April 
1874.  He  was  apprenticed  to  a  watchmaker,  and 
early  showed  the  bent  of  his  mind  by  improve- 
ments in  the  construction  of  eight-day  clocks, 
and  by  the  invention  of  a  delicate  engraving 
machine.  The  dry  gas  meter  is  his  invention,  as 
is  also  the  transfer  machine  to  produce  bank- 
note plates  from  separate  dies ;  and  in  1839  his 
plan  for  manufacturing  postage  stamps  was  ac- 
cepted by  the  British  government.  Later  he  in- 
troduced improvements  in  the  manufacture  of 
ind'a-rubber  goods,  tools,  and  machinery ;  and 
invented  a  pyrometer,  a  deep-sea  sounding  ma- 
chine, and  a  dynamometer.  In  1847  he  built  the 
first  iron  building  ever  erected  in  the  city  of 
New  York. 

Bogatzky,  Karl  Heinrich  von,  karl  hin'- 
riH  fon  bo-gats'ke,  Protestant  theological 
writer:  b.  Tankowa,  Silesia,  1690;  d.  Halle, 
1774.  His  principal  works  are:  'Tagliches 
Schatz-Kastlein  der  Kinder  Gottes,^  published 
in  1718;  'Geistliche  Gedichte.'  in  1749-  The 
former  has  been  translated  into  English  under 
the  title  of  Bogatzky's   'Golden  Treasury.^ 


Bogdo-ola,  bog-do-oo'la,  or  Holy  Mount, 

a  hill  in  Russia,  in  the  government  of  Astrakhan, 
near  the  Aktuba,  and  14  miles  east  of  Tcher- 
noiarsk.  It  forms  an  isolated  cone,  nearly  500 
feet  high,  in  the  middle  of  a  vast  steppe.  It  ap- 
pears to  rest  on  limestone,  overlain  by  sand- 
stone, which  on  the  northeast  side  rises  per- 
pendicularly like  a  wall,  and  is  cut  into  deep 
clefts,  frequented  by  innumerable  birds.  The 
sandstone  is  succeeded  by  alternate  red  and 
white  layers  of  clay  and  sand,  which  have  a 
very  singular  appearance.  The  summit  is  chiefly 
composed  of  masses  of  rock-salt.  At  the  foot 
of  the  hill  there  is  a  salt  lake  called  Bogdoin 
Dabassu. 

Bogdan,  Negrul,  governor  of  Moldavia, 
son  of  Stephen  the  Great,  who,  at  his  death  in 
1522,  counseled  his  son  to  anticipate  by  volun- 
tary submission  to  the  Turks,  an  inevitable 
conquest.  Bogdan  did  not  at  first  follow  this 
counsel ;  but  having  lost  within  a  year  the  battle 
of  Mohacs,  and  Hungary  having  been  invaded 
by  a  large  Turkish  force,  he  sent  to  Solyman 
off'ers  of  submission.  He  was  received  with 
favor  by  the  Sultan,  and  in  return  for  an  an- 
nual tribute  of  4,000  crowns  of  gold,  beside 
numerous  horses  and  falcons,  Moldavia  was  al- 
lowed to  preserve  its  own  religion,  an  inde- 
pendent administration,  and  the  right  to  choose 
its  own  princes.  Bogdan  did  not  long  survive 
this  treaty,  and  his  successor  refusing  to  pay 
the  tribute,  drew  again  the  arms  of  the  Turk's 
upon  the  Moldavian  principality. 

Bogdanovich,  Modest  Ivanovich,  mo-dast 
e-van'o-vich  bog-da-no'vech,  Russian  mili- 
tary historian  and  commander :  b.  1805 ;  d.  6 
Aug.  1882.  He  was  a  very  able  soldier,  and 
even  abler  with  the  pen;  his  'Bonaparte's  Cam- 
paign in  Italy,  1796,'  and  'History  of  the  Art 
of  War,'  and  particularly  his  'History  of  the 
Campaign  of  1812,'  having  attracted  wide 
notice. 

Bogdanowitch,  Hippolyt  Federowitch,  hip'- 
po-lit  fed-er-6'vech  bog-da-no'vech,  Russian 
Anacreon :  b.  Perewolotschna,  in  White  Russia, 
1743;  d.  1803.  His  father  was  a  physician.  He 
was  designed  for  an  engineer,  but  the  sight  ot 
a  splendid  play,  and  the  reading  of  Lomonos- 
sow's  poems,  turned  his  inclination  to  poetry. 
He  wished  to  become  an  actor,  but  the  managei- 
of  the  theatre.  Cheraskow,  dissuaded  him  from 
his  purpose.  By  his  advice  he  applied  himself 
to  the  study  of  the  fine  arts,  and  to  learning 
foreign  languages.  He  gained  patrons  and 
friends,  and  in  1761  was  made  inspector  in  the 
Universit\f  of  Moscow,  and  afterward  translator 
in  the  department  of  foreign  affairs.  In  1762 
he  traveled  with  Count  Beloselsky  as  secretary 
of  legation  to  Dresden,  where  he  devoted  his 
whole  attention  to  the  study  of  the  fine  arts 
and  of  poetry  till  1768.  The  beautiful  pictures 
in  the  gallery  of  that  place  inspired  him  to  write 
his  'Psj'che,'  which  appeared  in  1775,  and  fixed 
his  fame  on  a  lasting  foundation.  After  this  he 
devoted  himself  to  music  and  poetry,  in  solitary 
study  at  St.  Petersburg,  till  Catharine  called 
him  from  his  retirement.  He  then  wrote  on  dif- 
ferent occasions  several  dramatic  and  historical 
pieces.  In  1788  he  was  made  president  of  the 
imperial  archives.  In  1795  he  took  leave  of  the 
court,  and  lived  as  a  private  man  in  Little 
Russia.  Alexander  recalled  him  to  St.  Peters- 
burg, W'here  he  lived  till  his  death.     He  was  as 


BOGERMAN  —  BOGOS 


remarkable  for  modesty  as   for   genius,   and  a 
man  of  childlike  goodness  and  vivacity. 

Bogerman,  Jan,  yan  bo'ger-man,  Dutch 
theologian:  b.  Oplewert,  1576;  d.  1637.  He  was 
professor  of  divinity  at  the  University  of  Frane- 
ker;  participated  in  the  Armenian  controversy, 
and  was  president  of  the  Synod  of  Dort,  1618. 
With  four  others  he  translated  the  Bible  into 
Dutch;  this  translation  is  at  present  the  common 
Dutch  version.  He  also  wrote  <^Annotationes 
contra  H.  Grotium,^  and  translated  Beza's  'De- 
la  punition  des  heretiques.-* 

Bogert,  George  H.,  artist:  b.  New  York, 
1864.  His  first  studies  were  made  under  Thomas 
Eakins ;  later  he  studied  in  Paris  under  Raphael 
Collins,  Aime  Morot,  and  Puvis  de  Chavannes. 
He  won  the  Webb  prize,  1898;  the  first  Hall- 
garten  prize  of  the  National  Academy  of  De- 
sign, 1899;  and  was  awarded  a  bronze  medal  at 
the  Paris  Exposition,  1900.  His  studio  is  in 
New  York. 

Boggs,  Charles  Stuart,  American  naval 
officer:  b.  New  Brunswick,  N.  J.,  28  Jan.  181 1  ; 
d.  22  April  1888.  He  entered  the  navy  in  1826 ; 
served  on  the  Princeton  in  the  Mexican  war; 
was  assigned  to  the  gunboat  Varuna  in  Farra- 
gut's  Gulf  squadron  in  1861.  In  the  attack  on 
forts  St.  Philip  and  Jackson,  in  April  1862,  he 
destroyed  six  Confederate  gunboats  and  two 
rams,  and  in  the  last  moments  of  the  fight  his 
own  vessel  was  sunk.  In  1869-70  he  served  with 
the  European  squadron ;  in  the  latter  year  was 
promoted  to  rear-admiral;  and  in  1873  was  re- 
tired. 

Boggs,  Frank  M.,  artist:  b.  Springfield, 
Ohio,  6  Dec.  1855.  He  received  his  art  educa- 
tion at  the  ficole  des  Beaux  Arts  and  under 
Gerome  in  Paris.  In  1882  the  French  govern- 
ment bought  his  picture,  'Place  de  la  Bastille,^ 
for  the  Luxembourg  Museum,  and  in  1883  his 
<Isigny^  for  the  Niort  Museum.  His  pictures 
are  to  be  found  in  many  of  the  best  French 
private  collections,  and  in  the  museums  at 
Havre,  Nantes,  and  Dieppe.  In  the  first  prize 
fund  exposition  of  the  American  Art  Gallery 
(N.  Y.),  he  received  a  prize  of  $2,500  for  his 
picture  'A  Rough  Day,  Honfleur,*  now  in  the 
Boston  Museum. 

Bogh,  Erik,  e'rik  beg,  Danish  poet  and 
dramatist:  b.  Copenhagen,  17  Jan.  1822.  _He  is 
best  known  for  his  witty  stanzas  and  epigrams 
in  periodicals,  for  'This  and  That,'  a  collec- 
tion of  humorous  essays,  and  for  a  hundred  or 
so  of  plays  and  farces.  A  novel,  *Jonas  Tvar- 
mose's  Vexations,'  has  merit. 

Boghaz-Keui,  bo'gaz-kye'e,  Asia  Minor, 
a  village  in  the  vilayet  of  Angora,  commonly 
identified  with  the  ancient  Pterium,  though  this 
is  now  doubtful.  The  village  is  insignificant, 
but  important  Hittite  ruins,  including  a  palace 
and  a  number  of  unusual  sculptures,  have  been 
discovered  near  by. 

Boghead  Coal,  a  brown  cannel-coal,  found 
at  Boghead,  near  Bathgate,  Scotland,  and  very 
valuable  for  gas  and  oil  making. 

Bognor,  bog'ner,  an  English  watering- 
place  on  the  coast  of  Sussex,  nine  and  a  half 
miles  southeast  of  Chichester  by  railway. 
There  is  a  pier  1,000  feet  long,  constructed 
chiefly    of    iron,    and    also    an    esplanade.     The 


place  was  brought  into  vogue  toward  the  end 
of  last  century  by  Sir  R.  Hotham,  who  spent 
$300,000  on  it.     Pop.    (1901)  6,180. 

Bo'go,  Philippines,  a  town  with  about 
17,000  population,  situated  on  the  east  coast  near 
the  northern  end  of  the  island  of  Cebu.  It  has 
a  good  harbor. 

Bog'omiles,  a  religious  sect,  said  to  have 
been  pretty  widely  spread  in  Thrace  and  Bul- 
garia as  early  as  the  loth  century.  They  were 
persecuted  by  the  Byzantine  emperor,  Alexander 
Comnenos,  and  their  leader,  named  Basil,  was 
burned  alive  at  Constantinople  in  11 18.  The 
name  of  the  sect  is  said  to  be  composed  of  two 
Slavonic  words,  meaning  friends  of  God.  The 
Bogomiles  believed  that  God  had  two  sons,  Sa- 
tanael  and  Jesus,  or  Logos.  The  former  re- 
belled, and  created  the  material  world,  and  also 
man.  God  gave  a  soul  to  man,  but  he  was  left 
under  the  control  of  Satanael  until  the  coming 
of  the  Logos.  The  law  was  given  to  Moses  by 
Satanael,  and  is  not  recognized  by  the  Bogo- 
miles, who  accept  of  the  Old  Testament  only 
the  Psalms  and  the  Prophets.  The  Logos,  or 
Christ,  came  down  from  heaven  to  deliver  man 
from  the  power  of  Satanael.  This  sect,  which 
held  many  extravagancies  of  doctrine,  continued 
to  exist  for  several  centuries.  They  practised 
severe  asceticism,  rejected  the  sacraments,  or 
put  new  interpretations  on  them,  and  made  fre- 
quent prayers  both  by  day  and  night. 

Bogos,  bo'goz,  a  people  of  Abyssinia, 
occupying  a  district  to  the  south  of  the  Anseba, 
to  the  east  of  Habab  and  Mensa,  and  to  the 
north  and  west  of  Barca.  The  land  is  inter- 
sected by  the  broad  and  beautiful  valley  of  the 
A.nseba,  and  comprises  on  the  west  the  elevated 
and  hilly  region  as  far  as  the  sources  of  the 
Barca,  and  on  the  east  the  slopes  of  the  plateau 
of  Mensa.  The  climate  and  vegetation  are  simi- 
lar to  those  of  Abyssinia.  The  rainy  season 
lasts  from  March  to  September,  when  the  An- 
seba overflows  its  banks  and  fertilizes  the  val- 
ley through  which  it  flows.  There  is  a  great 
variety  both  in  the  flora  and  the  fauna  of  the 
country.  Large  baobab  trees,  sycamores,  and 
tamarinds  overshadow  the  banks  of  the  Anseba, 
which  are  rendered  almost  impassable  by  the 
number  of  Euphorbise  and  creeping  plants.  At 
the  same  time  there  are  to  be  found  rhi- 
noceroses, elephants,  wild  boars,  buffalos,  ante- 
lopes, lions,  leopards,  wildcats,  jackals,  wolves, 
etc.,  in  great  numbers.  The  population  is  only 
about  10,000,  which  is  engaged  in  agriculture 
and  the  raising  of  cattle,  and  carry  on  a  jrade 
with  the  neighboring  places  in  corn,  butter, 
ivory,  skins,  buffalo-horns,  and  ostrich-feathers. 
Their  language,  which  is  akin  to  the  Agow,  is 
called  by  themselves  Bilin.  Their  countenance 
is  Greek  in  its  contour,  their  body  light,  power- 
ful, and  well  formed;  the  color  of  their  skin 
dark  olive-brown ;  their  lips  are  thin,  the  cheek- 
bones not  prominent,  and  they  have  generally 
bushy  whiskers.  The  patriarchal  institutions 
of  the  Bogos  are  peculiar.  The  members  of 
each  union  of  families  are  pledged  to  appre- 
hend any  one  of  their  number  who  is  charged 
with  the  commission  of  a  crime.  The  laws  re- 
lating to  dowries,  inheritance,  and  m.'.M-der  are 
regularly  codified.  The  religion  is  the  Christian, 
but  Mohammedanism,  which  is  increasing,  has  a 
considerable  number  of  adherents. 


BOGOSLOV  —  BOHA-EDDIN 


Bogoslov,  bo-go-slof,  a  small  volcanic 
island  of  the  Aleutian  archipelago,  Ij-ing  north- 
west of  Unalaska.  It  was  formed  in  I795~6  by 
a  series  of  volcanic  upheavals ;  on  the  site  pre- 
viously there  had  been  low  rocks  and  reefs. 

Bogota,  bo-go-ta',  or  Santa  Fe  de  Bogota', 

the  capital  of  the  Republic  of  Colombia,  has  a 
population  of  about  120,000;  and  despite  the 
fact  that  it  is  but  4°  41'  north  of  the  equator, 
the  elevation  of  the  plateau  on  which  it  stands 
is  so  grent  that  the  breeze  is  cool  and  invigorat- 
ing. A  fertile  plain  or  table-land  of  exquisite 
beauty  extends  for  a  distance  of  about  30  miles 
on  three  sides,  while  directly  above  rise  two 
mountains  of  moderate  height,  and  surrounding 
the  whole  scene  are  snow-capped  peaks  of  the 
Andes  —  among  them  the  extinct  volcano  of 
Tolima.  Water  is  supplied  by  two  mountain 
streams  flowing  through  the  town  itself.  Un- 
fortunately the  overcrowding  of  buildings  occu- 
pied by  the  poorer  classes,  and  the  absence  of 
a  good  sj'stem  of  drainage,  offset  the  conditions 
otherwise  favorable  to  health.  Bogota  is  lighted 
by  gas  and  electricity ;  its  streets  are  well  laid 
out ;  and  the  houses,  though  low,  are  substan- 
tially built.  There  is  a  valuable  library  of  over 
50,000  volumes ;  and  the  university,  founded  in 
1867,  is  considered  the  best  in  the  Andean  re- 
gion north  of  Peru.  On  12  Sept.  1902,  the  gov- 
ernment decreed  the  establishment  of  a  museum 
and  academy,  to  increase  the  popularity  and  ef- 
ficiency of  the  National  School  of  the  Fine  Arts. 
Founded  in  1538  by  Gonzalo  Ximenes  de  Ques- 
adk,  a  native  of  Santa  Fe,  a  small  town  near 
the  city  of  Granada,  and  in  the  Spanish  prov- 
ince of  that  name,  Bogota  became  the  capital 
of  New  Granada,  as  the  country  was  first  called 
by  the  Spaniards.  For  history,  industries,  etc., 
see  Colombia.  Marrion  Wilcox. 

Bogue,  David,  the  originator  of  the  Lon- 
don Missionary  Society :  b.  Hallydown,  Berwick- 
shire, 18  Feb.  1750;  d.  Brighton,  25  Oct.  1825. 
In  1771  he  removed  to  London,  and  became  min- 
ister of  an  Independent  chapel  at  Gosport.  In 
1780  he  became  tutor  to  an  establishment  for 
directing  the  studies  of  young  men  destined 
fc  the  ministry  in  the  Independent  communion. 
He  now  began  the  formation  of  a  missionary 
scheme,  which  afterward  resulted  in  the  Lon- 
don Missionary  Society.  The  influence  which 
the  establishment  of  this  institution  had  on  the 
public  mind  was  great,  and  the  springing  up  of 
the  British  and  Foreign  Bible  Society  and  the 
Religious  Tract  Society,  at  short  intervals, 
proves  how  much  good  was  efifected  by  the  im- 
petus it  imparted.  In  the  establishment  of  both 
of  these  he  took  an  active  part,  contributing 
to  the  latter  body  the  first  of  a  series  of  pub- 
lications which  have  been  of  great  use.  In  1815 
Mr.  Bogue  received  the  degree  of  Doctor  of 
Divinity  from  Yale  College.  The  only  works  of 
any  extent  for  which  we  are  indebted  to  the 
pen  of  Dr.  Bogue  are:  'An  Essay  on  the  Di- 
vine Authority  of  the  New  Testament.'  <  Dis- 
courses on  the  Millennium,'  and  a  'History  of 
Dissenters,'  which  he  undertook  in  conjunction 
with  his  pupil  and  friend.  Dr.  Bennet.  The  first 
o"  these  has  been  translated  into  the  French, 
Italian,  German,  and  Spanish  languages,  and 
bas  been  widely  circulated  on  the  continent  of 
Europe. 

Boguslawski,  bo-goo-slav'ske.  Palm  Henry 
Louis  von,  astronomer:  b.  Magdeburg,  17S9; 


d.  Breslau,  185 1.  He  was  educated  in  the 
Cathedral  School  of  Magdeburg,  and  early  dis- 
played a  particular  turn  for  astronomical  pur- 
suits. The  comet  of  1807  gave  him  the  first 
opportunity  of  making  special  observations.  In 
1809,  having  been  appointed  bombardier  in  the 
Silesian  Artillery  Brigade,  he  passed  his  exami- 
nation in  Berlin  with  so  much  distinction  that 
he  was  named  lieutenant,  and  remained  in  at- 
tendance on  the  general  military  school  in  Berlin, 
where  he  took  part  in  Bode's  observations  on  the 
great  comet.  The  campaigns  of  the  war  of  in- 
dependence procured  him,  through  his  connec- 
tion with  Bode,  access  to  the  best  observatories 
and  the  acquaintance  of  the  most  distinguished 
astronomers.  His  military  career  terminated 
at  the  battle  of  Waterloo,  after  which,  in  con- 
sequence of  a  supervening  weakness  in  his  eye- 
sight, he  became  unfit  for  further  active  service. 
He  afterward  turned  his  attention  to  agriculture, 
and  in  course  of  time  his  eyesight  was  com- 
pletely restored.  His  love  for  astronomy  had 
always  remained,  though  he  had  wanted  proper 
opportunity  for  cultivating  it;  but  in  1829,  on 
resuming  his  residence  in  Breslau,  his  studies 
again  took  that  direction,  and  he  became  first 
conservator  and  then  director  of  the  observatory. 
By  his  discovery,  in  1834,  of  the  comet  named 
after  him,  and  his  observations  on  Saturn's 
rings,  and  the  comets  of  Biela,  Encke,  Halley, 
etc.,  he  rendered  important  services.  As  no 
chair  was  connected  with  his  position  at  the  ob- 
servatory, he  at  first  merely  delivered  popular 
lectures.  A  regular  professorship,  however,  was 
given  him  in  1836.  As  a  writer  he  made  himself 
known  by  the  publication  of  the  'Uranus.' 

Boha-eddin,  bo-ha-ed'din,  or  Bohaddin, 
Arabian  scholar  and  historian:  b.  Mosul.  1145; 
d.  1235.  Having  attained  proficiency  in  Moslem 
law,  he  became,  at  the  age  of  27,  a  lecturer  at 
Bagdad.  In  1186  he  made  the  pilgrimage  to 
Mecca,  and  returned  through  the  holy  land,  vis- 
iting Jerusalem,  Hebron,  and  other  sacred  cities. 
While  in  Damascus,  he  was  summoned  to  the 
Moslem  camp  by  Salad  in,  who  was  desirous  of 
availing  himself  of  the  services  and  influence 
of  so  able  a  scholar,  and  a  man  of  such  re- 
puted Moslem  piety  and  zeal.  He  accordingly 
brought  his  learning  and  talent  to  the  work  of 
glorifying  the  wars  of  that  ambitious  monarch, 
in  a  treatise  on  the  'Laws  and  Discipline  of 
Sacred  War.'  Saladin  appointed  him  cadi  of 
Jerusalem  and  of  the  army,  and  a  strong  attach- 
ment from  the  commencement  existed  between 
them,  which  the  scholar  knew  well  how  to  turn 
to  good  account.  On  the  death  of  Saladin  he 
transferred  his  attachment  to  the  son,  Malek-al- 
Dhaher,  whom  he  was  instrumental  in  estab- 
lishing in  the  succession  of  the  throne.  In 
return,  the  new  prince  of  Aleppo  appointed 
Boha-eddin  to  the  office  of  cadi  of  the  city, 
which  brought  him  constantly  to  reside  in  the 
royal  court.  Aleppo  now  became  the  resort  for 
men  of  science  and  learning.  At  this  period  of 
his  life  Boha-eddin  founded  a  college,  and  he 
continued  to  give  lectures  until  he  was  90  years 
old.  His  great  work  was,  however,  the  'Life 
of  Saladin.'  It  is  a  work  pronounced,  on  the 
whole,  free  from  the  extravagance  which  so 
generally  renders  Oriental  productions  distaste- 
ful to  the  more  practical  scholars  of  the  West. 
It  is  written  from  the  standpoint  of  a  zealous 
Moslem,  rather  than  from  that  of  the  practised 
soldier  or  the  politic  statesman. 


BOHEA  —  BO  HEMIA 


Bohea,  an  inferior  kind  of  black  tea.  The 
name  is  sometimes  applied  to  'olack  teas  in  gen- 
eral, comprehending  Souchong,  Pekoe,  Congou, 
and  common  Bohea. 

Bohemia,  Bohmen  (anciently  Boheim),  a 
province  with  the  title  of  kingdom  in  the  Aus- 
tro-Hungarian  monarchy,  bounded  on  the 
southwest  by  Bavaria,  on  the  northwest  by  the 
kingdom  of  Saxony,  on  the  northeast  by 
the  Prussian  province  of  Silesia,  and  on  the 
southeast  by  Moravia  and  the  archduchy  of  Aus- 
tria. It  contains  20,051  square  miles,  and  has 
(1900)  6,318,697  inhabitants,  of  whom  above 
three  fifths  are  Czechs,  nearly  90,000  Jews,  and 
more  than  2,000,000  are  Germans.  Bohemia  is 
surroimded  on  all  sides  by  mountains,  possesses 
large  forests  and  many  small  lakes  or  ponds. 
Its  plains  are  remarkably  fertile.  The  largest 
rivers  are  the  Elbe  and  the  Moldau.  All  sorts 
of  grain,  flax,  hops  (the  best  in  Europe),  and 
fruits  are  exported.  Wine  is  not  abundant,  but 
in  the  neighborhood  of  Melnik  is  of  pretty  good 
quality.  The  raising  of  sheep,  horses,  swine,  and 
poultry  is  carried  on  to  a  considerable  extent. 
The  mines  yield  silver,  copper,  lead,  tin,  garnets, 
and  other  precious  stones,  iron,  cobalt,  arsenic, 
uranium,  and  tungsten,  antimony,  vitriol,  alum, 
calamine,  sulphur,  plumbago,  and  coal  in  abun- 
dance. There  are  also  numerous  mineral  springs, 
but  little  salt. 

The  industry  of  Bohemia,  favored  by  its 
central  situation,  has  long  rendered  it  one  of  the 
most  important  governments  of  the  Austrian 
empire.  Spinning  and  weaving  are  extensively 
carried  on  in  the  northern  and  southeastern  dis- 
tricts ;  manufactures  of  lace,  ribbons,  metal,  and 
wood  work,  chemical  products,  and  other 
branches  of  skilled  industry  are  also  largely  de- 
veloped. Pottery,  porcelain,  glassware,  cutting 
of  precious  stones,  give  employment  to  many 
hands.  The  glassware  of  Bohemia  alone,  which 
is  known  all  over  Europe,  employs  50,000 
workers.  Large  quantities  of  beer  (Pilsener) 
of  the  kind  known  as  lager  are  exported. 
Prague,  the  capital,  is  the  centre  of  the  manu- 
factures and  of  the  commerce  of  the  country. 
The  largest  towms  are  Prague,  Pilsen,  Reichen- 
berg,  Budweis,  Teplitz,  Aussig,  and  Eger.  For 
internal  intercourse  there  are  excellent  high- 
ways, extending  to  10,000  miles,  and  several  im- 
portant lines  of  railway  leading  both  southeast 
to  Vienna  and  northwest  toward  Dresden.  The 
Bohemians  of  all  ranks  are  distinguished  for 
public  spirit.  Among  the  public  establishments 
for  education  are  a  German  and  a  Czech  uni- 
versity at  Prague,  two  technical  high  schools, 
four  theological  academies,  many  gymnasiums, 
and  over  5,000  schools.  The  prevailing  religion 
is  the  Roman  Catholic ;  other  sects,  however,  are 
tolerated.  The  language  of  the  country  is  Bo- 
hemian, a  dialect  of  the  Slavonic ;  in  some  dis- 
tricts, and  in  most  of  the  cities,  German  is 
spoken.     See  Bohemian  Language  and  Litera- 

i'URE. 

History. —  Bohemia  received  its  name  from 
a  tribe  of  Gallic  origin,  the  Boii,  who  were  ex- 
pelled by  the  Marcomans  at  the  commencement 
of  the  Christian  era ;  the  latter  were  in  turn 
obliged  to  give  place  to  the  Germans,  and  these 
to  the  Czechs,  a  Slavonic  people  who  had  estab- 
lished themselves  in  Bohemia  by  the  middle  of 
the  5th  century.  The  country  was  at  first  di- 
vided into  numerous  principalities,  which  were 


teniporarily  united  into  a  monarchy  in  627  under 
Samo,  but  the  v/ork  of  this  prince  did  not  sur- 
vive himself.  Charlemagre  attempted  the  con- 
quest of  Bohemia  without  permanent  result,  al- 
though he  succeeded  in  rendering  it  tributary; 
and  the  Emperor  Louis  had  his  army  nearly 
destroyed  by  the  Bohemians  in  849.  Christianity 
was  introduced  into  Bohemia  in  the  reign  of 
Borzwog  L  (894-902),  a  descendant  of  Pfzemysl, 
whose  family  held  sway  in  Bohemia  for  about 
six  centuries  (722-1306).  In  1092  Bohemia  was 
finally  recognized  as  a  kingdom  under  Wratislas 
II.  Up  to  1230  the  monarchy  was  elective  and 
then  became  hereditary ;  the  right  of  election, 
however,  was  suspended,  not  abrogated.  The 
monarchs  received  investiture  from  the  German 
emperor,  held  one  of  the  great  offices  in  the  im- 
perial court,  and  were  recognized  as  among  the 
seven  electors  of  the  empire.  Separated  from 
Germany,  however,  by  a  rampart  of  mountains, 
by  origin,  language,  and  national  customs,  the 
Bohemians  kept  aloof  from  the  general  politics 
of  the  empire,  and  their  kings  frequently  re- 
ceived dispensations  from  attending  the  diet. 
The  peasantry  were  in  a  state  of  villenage,  but 
there  was  a  nvmierous  and  powerful  nobility,  the 
diet  assembled  frequently,  and  the  nobles  came 
armed  to  defend  their  rights.  The  royal  au- 
thority was  limited  by  the  coronation  oath.  Bo- 
hemia was  frequently  at  war  with  Poland,  the 
emperor,  or  some  of  the  surrounding  states ;  it 
was  successively  united  and  disunited  with  Hun- 
gary, Silesia,  Moravia,  '"tc,  according  to  the 
course  of  wars  and  alliances.  Ottokar  II. 
(1253-78)  had  extended  his  conquests  almost 
from  the  Adriatic  to  the  Baltic,  when  he  lost 
them  and  his  life  in  contest  with  Rudolph,  the 
founder  of  the  too  successful  house  of  Haps- 
burg.  His  grandson  Wenceslas  III.  was  assas- 
sinated at  Olmiitz,  and  with  him  closed  the 
dynasty  of  Pfzemysl.  The  house  of  Luxemburg 
succeeded  in  1310,  and  governed  Bohemia  till 
1437.  Under  Charles  IV.  (1346-78),  who  also 
held  the  sceptre  of  the  German  empire,  Bo- 
hemia prospered,  and  advanced  in  civilization 
and  science.  Toward  the  close  of  this  second 
dynasty  civil  wars  were  excited  by  the  promul- 
gation of  the  doctrines  of  Huss  and  the  perse- 
cution of  his  followers.  These  wars  were  pro- 
tracted by  the  genius  of  John  Ziska,  the  leader 
of  the  Hussites,  a  man  who,  although  latterly 
quite  blind,  has  for  military  genius  been  com- 
pared to  Hannibal.'  Ziska  was  rarely  defeated, 
and  his  success  inspired  the  utmost  enthusiasm 
in  his  followers.  He  has  been  called  the  in- 
ventor of  the  modern  art  of  fortification,  and 
by  his  skill  in  this  art  he  made  Mount  Tabor 
an  impregnable  fortress.  After  the  death  of 
Ziska  the  moderate  party  of  the  Hussites,  who 
were  called  Calixtines,  from  their  insisting  on 
the  retention  of  the  sacramental  cup  for  the  laity, 
united  with  the  Roman  Catholics,  and  Sigismund 
was  acknowledged  king  in  1433.  The  conditions 
of  this  compact  being  ill  observed,  G'^orge 
Podiebrad,  a  nobleman  of  the  reformed  party, 
was  by  them  elected  king  in  1458.  On  his  death 
in  1471  they  chose  Wladislas,  son  of  Cassimir, 
king  of  Poland,  who  also  obtained  the  crown  of 
Hungary.  His  son  Louis  lost  both  crowns  with 
his  life  in  the  battle  of  Mohacs  against  the 
Turks,  and  Ferdinand  of  Austria  became,  in 
1527,  sovereign  of  both  kingdoms.  Bohemia 
then  lost  its  separate  existence,  being  declared 
hereditary  in  the  house  of  Austria.     Its  subse- 


BOHEMIA  MANOR  — BOHEMIAN  LANGUAGE  AND  LITERATURE 


quent  history  pertains  to  that  of  the  Austrian 
empire.  It  was  desolated  by  the  Thirty  Years' 
war,  and  it  suffered  severely  from  religious  per- 
secutions, by  which,  indeed,  the  reformed  faith 
was  almost  entirely  suppressed  in  it.  The  Em- 
peror Joseph  II.  gave  some  protection  to  the 
Protestants.  In  1848,  when  Europe  was  con- 
vulsed with  revolutionary  movements,  a  momen- 
tary attempt  was  made  to  assert  the  ancient 
independence  of  Bohemia  against  the  Austrian 
dominion ;  a  conflict  took  place  between  the 
army  and  the  people,  Prague  was  bombarded, 
and  the  insurrection  suppressed.  Since  then  the 
most  prominent  feature  in  the  history  of  Bo- 
hemia has  been  a  constant  struggle  for  ascend- 
ency between  the  Slavonic  Czechs  and  the  Ger- 
mans.    See  Austria. 

Bohemia  Manor,  the  name  given  to  a  tract 
of  some  5,000  acres  bordering  on  the  Elk  River, 
Maryland,  granted  by  Lord  Baltimore  in  1666  to 
Augustine  Herman.  The  latter  was  a  Bohemian 
surveyor  who  pledged  himself  to  make  a  map 
of  Maryland  in  return  for  the  land.  Obtaining 
denization  papers,  he  and  his  family  were  nat- 
uralized under  the  first  legislative  act  of  that 
kind  in  the  province. 

Bohemian  Brethren,  a  Christian  sect  which 
arose  in  Bohemia  about  the  middle  of  the  15th 
century  from  the  remains  of  the  Hussites. 
Dissatisfied  with  the  advances  toward  the  Cath- 
olic Church  by  which  the  Calixtines  had  made 
themselves  the  ruling  party  in  Bohemia,  they  re- 
fused to  receive  the  compacts,  as  they  were 
called,  that  is,  the  articles  of  agreement  be- 
tween that  party  and  the  council  at  Basel  (30 
Nov.  1433),  and  began  about  1457,  under  the 
■direction  of  a  clergyman,  JMichael  Bradatz,  to 
form  themselves  into  separate  parishes,  to  hold 
meetings  of  their  own,  and  to  distinguish  them- 
selves from  the  rest  of  the  Hussites  by  the  name 
of  Brothers,  or  Brothers'  Union.  Amidst  the 
hardships  and  oppressions  which  they  suffered 
from  the  Calixtines  and  the  Roman  Catholics 
without  making  any  resistance,  their  numbers  in- 
creased so  much,  through  their  constancy  in  their 
belief  and  the  purity  of  their  morals,  that  in 
1500  their  parishes  amounted  to  200,  most  of 
which  had  chapels  belonging  to  them.  The  pe- 
culiarities of  their  religious  belief  are  seen  in 
their  confessions  of  faith,  especially  their  opin- 
ions with  regard  to  the  Lord's  Supper.  They  re- 
jected the  idea  of  transubstantiation,  and  ad- 
mitted only  a  mystical  spiritual  presence  of 
Christ  in  the  eucharist.  In  other  points  they 
took  the  Scriptures  as  the  ground  of  their  doc- 
trines throughout,  and  for  this,  but  more  espe- 
cially for  the  constitution  and  discipline  of  their 
churches,  received  the  approbation  of  the  re- 
formers of  the  i6th  century.  This  constitution 
of  theirs  was  framed  according  to  what  they 
'lelieved  to  have  been  that  ot  the  oldest  apostolic 
churches.  They  aimed  at  restoring  the  primitive 
purity  of  Christianity  by  the  exclusion  of  the 
vicious  from  their  communion,  and  by  making 
three  degrees  of  excommunication,  as  well  as  by 
the  careful  separation  of  the  sexes,  and  the  dis- 
tribution of  thf"  members  of  their  society  into 
three  classes  —  the  beginners,  the  proficients,  and 
the  perfect.  Their  strict  system  of  superintend- 
ence, extending  even  to  the  minute  details  of 
domestic  life,  did  much  toward  promoting  this 
object.  To  carry  on  their  system  they  had  a 
multitude  of  officers    of  different   degrees ;   or- 


daining bishops,  seniors,  and  conseniors,  presby- 
ters or  preachers,  deacons,  sediles,  and  acolytes, 
among  whom  the  management  of  the  ecclesiasti- 
cal, moral,  and  civil  affairs  of  the  community 
was  distributed.  Their  first  bishop  received  his 
ordination  from  a  Waldensian  bishop,  though 
their  churches  held  no  communion  with  the  Wal- 
denses  in  Bohemia.  They  were  destined,  how- 
ever, to  experience  a  like  fate  with  that  op- 
pressed sect.  When,  in  conformity  with  their 
principle  of  not  performing  military  service, 
they  refused  to  take  up  arms  in  the  Smalkaldic 
war,  Ferdinand  took  their  churches  from  them, 
and  in  1548,  1,000  of  their  society  retired  in:o 
Poland  and  Prussia,  where  they  first  settled  in 
Marienwerder.  The  agreement  which  they  con- 
cluded at  Sendomir  (14  April  1570)  with  the 
Pohsh  Lutherans  and  Calvinistic  churches,  and 
still  more  the  Dissenters'  Peace  Act  of  the  Pol- 
ish Convention  (1372),  obtained  toleration  for 
them  in  Poland,  where  thej'  united  more  closely 
with  the  Calvinists  under  the  persecutions  of 
the  Swedish  Sigismund,  and  have  continued  in 
this  connection  to  the  present  day. 

Their  brethren  who  remained  in  Moravia  and 
Bohemia  recovered  a  certain  degree  of  liberty 
under  Maximilian  II.,  and  had  their  chief  resi- 
dence at  Fulneck  in  Moravia,  whence  they  have 
been  known  as  the  Moravian  Brethren.  The  is- 
sue of  the  Thirty  Years'  war,  which  terminated 
so  tmfortunately  for  the  Protestants,  occasioned 
the  entire  destruction  of  their  churches,  and 
their  last  bishop,  Comenius,  who  had  rendered 
important  services  in  the  education  of  youth,  was 
compelled  to  flee.  From  this  time  they  made 
frequent  migrations,  the  most  important  of  which 
took  place  in  1722,  and  occasioned  the  estab- 
lishment of  the  new  churches  of  the  Brethren  by 
Count  Zinzendorf  (q.v.).  Although  the  old  Bo- 
hemian Brethren  must  be  regarded  as  now  ex- 
tinct, this  society  will  ever  deserve  remembrance, 
as  a  quiet  guardian  of  Christian  truth  and 
piety,  in  times  just  emerging  from  the  barbarity 
of  the  Middle  Ages ;  as  a  promoter  of  pure 
morals,  such  as  the  reformers  of  the  i6th  cen- 
tury were  unable  to  establish  in  their  churches; 
and  as  the  parent  of  the  esteemed  and  widely 
extended  association  of  the  United  Brethren, 
whose  constitution  has  been  modeled  after 
theirs.    See  United  Brethren. 

Bohemian  Forest  (Bohmerwald),  a  motm- 
tain  range  or  ridge  of  central  Europe,  extend- 
ing from  the  Fichtelgebirge  southward  toward 
the  confluence  of  the  Ilz  and  the  Danube,  and 
separating  Bavaria  from  Bohemia.  The  Bo- 
hemian forest  in  ancient  times  formed  a  part 
of  the  Silva  Hercynia,  the  highest  peaks  being 
the  Arber  (4.840  feet  high)  and  Rachel.  The 
great  abundance  of  wood  has  occasioned  the  es- 
tablishment of  many  glass  houses,  forges,  etc., 
in  this  region.  The  inhabitants  have  acquired 
in  their  seclusion  from  the  world,  many  cha- 
racteristic virtues  and  vices. 

Bohemian  Language  and  Literature.     The 

language  of  Bohemia,  otherwise  called  Czech,  is 
one  of  the  Slavonic  group  of  the  Aryan  of  Indo- 
European  family  of  tongues,  and  accordmgiy  al- 
lied to  Polish,  Russian,  Servian,  Bulgarian,  etc. 
(See  Slavs  or  Slavonians.)  The  Czech  (Bo- 
hemian) language  or  dialect  was  the  first  of  the 
Slavonic  idioms  which  was  cultivated  scientific- 
ally. It  is  spoken  in  Bohemia,  Moravia,  with 
slight  variations  in   Austrian   Silesia,   in  Hun- 


BOHEMIAN  LANGUAGE  AND  LITERATURE 


gary,  and  in  Slavonia.  Three  chief  dialects  of 
this  language  are  recognized,  namely  the  Bo- 
hemian or  Czech  proper,  the  Moravian  of  Mo- 
ravia and  Silesia,  and  the  Slovak  of  Hungary. 
The  Bohemian  alphabet  consists  of  42  let- 
ters, expressing  a  great  variety  of  sounds. 
The  English  sound  of  ts  the  Bohemian  expresses 
with  c,  the  English  y  vi^ith  g,  the  sli  with  ^^  or  s, 
the  Italian  ce  or  ci  with  c  modified,  the  French 
ge  and  gi  with  s,  the  Italian  u  with  y,  the  gn 
with  11,  the  English  iv  with  w,  particularly  at 
the  end  of  words.  The  sound  of  entire  words, 
not  that  of  the  single  letters  which  compose 
them,  determines  the  roughness  or  smoothness  of 
their  pronunciation.  The  terminations  of  the 
various  declensions  and  conjugations  are  mostlj' 
vowels,  or  the  smoother  consonants.  In  general, 
the  Bohemian  has  a  natural  melody  like  that  of 
the  Greek. 

The  Bohemian  language,  moreover,  has  much 
expressiveness  and  energy,  as  it  is  not  weakened 
by  a  number  of  articles,  auxiliary  words,  con- 
junctions, and  words  of  transition,  but  is  able 
to  represent  the  objects  of  imagination,  of  pas- 
sion, and  all  the  higher  emotions  of  the  poet  and 
orator,  in  a  lively  manner ;  by  its  brevity,  heap- 
ing together  the  most  significant  words,  and 
arranging  the  connection  of  the  parts  of  speech 
according  to  the  degree  of  feeling  to  be  ex- 
pressed, so  as  to  give  the  style,  spirit,  and  energy, 
or  gentleness  and  equability.  Like  various  other 
tongues,  it  designates  many  objects  by  imitation 
of  natural  sounds.  Thus  the  names  of  many 
animals  are  taken  from  their  voices,  as  kruta, 
the  turkey ;  kachna,  the  duck.  Many  plants  are 
named  from  their  effects,  as  bolehlaw,  hemlock 
(from  headache).  The  conciseness  of  the  lan- 
guage is  increased  by  the  absence  of  auxiliaries 
in  the  greater  part  of  the  verbs.  The  preterites, 
in  the  third  person  singular  and  plural,  express 
a  meaning  still  further  condensed,  as  the  varia- 
tion in  the  last  syllable  is  made  to  designate 
the  sex ;  for  example,  psal,  psala,  psalo,  he,  she, 
it,  has  written ;  psali,  psaly,  psala,  they  have 
written.  In  like  manner  the  Bohemian  saves 
many  prepositions  and  much  circumlocution  of 
other  kinds,  by  the  use  of  the  instrnuiental, 
agreeing  with  the  Latin  ablative ;  for  instance, 
secenjm  mcce  lilawii  mu  st'  al  (t  read  like  te), 
"with  a  blow  of  the  sword  he  has  cut  off  his 
head."  This  language  is,  therefore,  very  well 
fitted  for  the  translation  of  the  Latin  classics. 
By  the  use  of  the  past  participle  active  the  Bo- 
hemian can  designate,  as  well  as  the  Greek,  who 
has  really  performed  the  action  contained  in  the 
predicate  of  the  accessory  clause,  which  the 
Latin,  with  its  ablative  absolute  or  participle 
passive,  must  leave  always  undefined  and  du- 
bious. The  same  kinds  of  actions  performed 
with  different  implements  are  often  expressed  by 
peculiar  words ;  for  example,  the  verbs  sjti, 
strjhati,  krdgeti,  rezati,  denote  to  cut  with  the 
scissors,  with  the  sickle,  with  the  knife,  and  with 
the  scythe.  In  the  subtlety  of  grammatical  struc- 
ture the  Bohemian  is  like  the  Greek,  and  has 
the  advantage  over  the  Latin  and  other  lan- 
guages. In  speaking  of  two  hands,  two  eyes, 
etc.,  the  dual  number  is  used ;  for  example, 
ruce,  oci,  etc.  The  language  is  also  capable  of 
expressing  the  idea  of  duration,  referring  to  an 
indefinite  past  time,  like  the  Greek  aorist ;  for  in- 
stance, kvpozval  diim,  ale  nekaupil  ho,  he  was 
engaged  in  buying  the  house,  and  did  not  buy  it. 
The   language    affords    several    preterite   tenses, 


distinguished  with  great  subtlety,  as  kaupil,  he- 
has  bought  once ;  kupozval,  he  had  purchased 
for  a  long  time ;  kupowdwal,  he  had  purchased 
formerly  several  times  ;  ktipozudwdzval,  he  seldom 
had  purchased  in  former  times ;  moreover,  by 
adding  the  auxiliary  verb  byl,  a  time  still  longer 
passed  may  be  expressed,  though  this  is  very  sel- 
dom used ;  for  instance,  byl  kiipozudzval,  he  had 
purchased  in  times  long  past.  Another  advantage 
of  the  language  consists  in  the  various  future 
tenses  by  which  the  Bohemian  denotes  not  only 
the  time  but  also  the  duration,  and  the  more 
or  less  frequent  repetition  of  the  action  ;  for  in- 
stance, kaupjm,  I  shall  purchase  once;  budu 
kupozvati,  I  shall  be  purchasing  for  a  long  time ; 
budu  kupozvdzvati,  I  shall  purchase  several  times; 
and  budti  ktipozvdzvati,  I  shall  be  purchasing 
very  often.  Not  less  manifold  in  signification, 
and  equally  subtle  in  the  determination  of  time, 
are  the  participles  and  the  participial  construc- 
tions. The  determination  of  sex  and  number 
by  the  final  syllable  of  the  participle  gives  the 
Czech  language  no  small  advantage  over  others. 
Small  connective  particles  of  speech  the  Bohe- 
mian has  in  common  with  the  Greek.  The 
Greek  alia,  men,  gar,  de,  te,  etc.,  agree  with  the 
Bohemian  ele,  pak,  zvsak,  li,  z,  t' ;  only  the  three 
latter  are  always  af^xed  to  a  word.  Finally, 
the  free,  unrestrained  arrangement  of  the  words 
contributes  much  to  perspicuity,  as  the  Bohe- 
mian is  less  fettered  than  almost  any  other  mod- 
ern language  to  a  particular  order. 

Bohemian  Literature  has  been  divided  his- 
torically into  five  periods.  The  first  extends 
from  mythological  times  to  1409.  It  affords  no 
written  documents  of  remote  antiquity.  We 
know,  however,  that  the  language  at  an  early 
period  was  similar  to  the  present  from  the  names 
of  the  gods,  dukes,  rivers,  cities,  and  mountains 
which  have  been  preserved,  such  as  Perun, 
Przemysl,  Borzwog,  Wltawa,  Bila,  Praha,  Tetin. 
The  Salvonian  apostle  Method,  and  the  philos- 
opher Constantine,  called  Cyril,  made  the  Slavo- 
nians in  Moravia  acquainted  with  Christianity. 
Thence  it  penetrated  to  Bohemia,  and  thus  the 
people  of  this  country  received  the  Gr?eco-Sla- 
vonic  ritual  in  the  year  845.  The  same  Con- 
stantine invented  for  the  sounds  of  the  Slavonic 
language  the  Cyrillo-Slavonic  alphabet,  borrowed 
mostly  from  the  Greek.  In  later  times  the 
Glagolitic  alphabet  sprang  up,  of  which,  how- 
ever, less  use  was  made.  When  the  Latin 
Church  supplanted  the  Greek  in  Moravia  and  Bo- 
hemia, the  Latin  alphabet  came  also  into  use  in- 
stead of  the  Cyrillic.  In  Bohemia  the  Cyrillic 
character  remained  in  use  only  with  the  monks 
of  Sazawa,  who  observed  the  Slavonic  ritual. 
As  the  Latins  endeavored  to  annihilate  all  the 
writings  of  the  old  ritual,  and  the  Slavonic  lan- 
guage was,  in  many  cases,  obliged  to  give  way 
to  the  Latin,  Bohemian  literature  suffered  in- 
calculable injury;  hence  we  possess  from  the 
earlier  centuries  but  a  few  insignificant  remains 
in  the  characters  above-mentioned.  In  the  loth 
century  the  Bohemians  had  a  school  at  Kudet, 
in  which  they  learned  Latin.  Their  most  an- 
cient relic  is  the  hymn  (Hospodine  Pomiluyny) 
of  Bishop  Adalbert  (Wegtech),  a  native  Bo- 
hemian, sung  to  the  present  day  even  by  the 
Russians  and  Poles.  The  Bohemians  possess 
some  remains  of  a  collection  of  lyrico-epic  na- 
tional songs,  without  rhyme,  which  seem  to  have 
been  of  great  merit.  The  manuscript  appears  to 
have    been    written    in    1290   and    1310.     Goethe 


BOHEMIAN  LANGUAGE  AND  LITERATURE 


found  these  national  songs  worthy  of  particular 
attention.  Under  the  Emperor  Charles  IV.,  who 
promoted  the  cultivation  of  the  Bohemian  lan- 
guage, the  University  of  Prague  was  founded 
in  1348.  In  the  Golden  Bull  he  commanded 
the  sons  of  the  German  electors  to  learn  the 
Bohemian  language.  Under  his  son,  the  Em- 
peror Wenceslas,  all  decrees  were  written  in 
Bohemian,  which  formerly  were  in  Latin. 
Prague  was  then  not  only  the  most  populous 
city  in  this  part  of  Europe,  but  also,  on  account 
of  its  splendid  court  and  the  wealth  of  its  citi- 
zens, the  centre  of  the  arts  and  sciences.  Al- 
most all  the  intellectual  currents  of  the  West 
found  entrance  into  Bohemia,  and  German  lit- 
erature in  particular  had  a  powerful  influence. 
The  heroes  of  the  Alexandrian  and  Arthurian 
cycles  of  romance  became  familiar  to  the  Czechs 
in  their  own  language.  Dalimil  IMezericky  wrote 
a  history  of  Bohemia  in  verse ;  Ondreg  Z.  Dube, 
a  collection  of  Bohemian  laws,  in  three  volumes ; 
Warinec  Z.  Brezowa,  a  history  of  the  Roman 
emperors,  and  translated  Mandeville's  'Travels^  ; 
and  Pribik  Pulkawa,  a  Bohemian  histor}'.  This 
period  affords  also  many  vocabularies,  poems, 
songs,  and  translations. 

With  Huss  began  the  second  period,  from 
1409  to  1500.  The  prevalence  of  religious  dis- 
putes caused  the  Bible  to  be  generally  read  and 
understood.  Huss  of  Hussinetz  translated 
Wickliffe's  book,  ^Trialogus,^  into  the  Bohe- 
mian tongue,  and  sent  it  to  the  laymen  as  pres- 
ents. The  "^Treatise  of  the  Six  Errors^  he 
caused  to  be  inscribed  in  Bohemian  on  the  walls 
of  the  chapel  of  Bethlehem.  He  wrote  his  first 
collection  of  sermons  when  at  the  castle  of  Kozy 
(1413),  besides  an  'Appeal  to  the  Pope,^  'Com- 
mentary on  the  Ten  Commandments,^  an  'Ex- 
planation of  the  Twelve  Articles,'  two  sermons 
on  the  Antichrist;  the  'Triple  Cord,'  and  sev- 
eral excellent  hymns.  His  letters  from  the  dun- 
geon in  Constance  to  the  Bohemians  were 
translated  by  Luther  into  Latin,  accompanied 
with  a  preface,  and  printed  at  Wittenberg  in 
1536.  He  and  Jakobellus  and  Jerome  improved 
and  distributed  the  Bohemian  Bible,  of  which 
several  copies  have  been  preserved  to  our  times. 
Of  Ziska  of  Trocnow,  one  of  the  greatest  gen- 
erals in  history,  several  letters  and  his  rules  of 
war  have  been  preserved.  From  this  period  have 
come  down  to  us,  several  war  songs  of  the 
Taborites,  also  some  songs  of  Prague.  Martin 
Lupac  undertook,  with  the  assistance  of  some 
learned  men,  the  labor  of  retranslating  the  whole 
New  Testament.  The  church  service  was  now 
performed  entirely  in  the  Bohemian  language. 
Alladienowic,  an  eye-witness  of  the  execution  of 
Huss,  wrote  an  account  of  his  life.  This  used 
to  be  read  in  the  Bohemian  churches.  Procopius 
continued  the  rhyming  chronicles  of  Dalimil. 
Lodkowic  related  his  'Journey  to  the  Holy  Sep- 
ulchre,' Sasek  of  Mezyhor  wrote  'Notes  and 
Travels  Through  Germany,  England,  France, 
Spain,  Portugal,  and  Italy  of  the  Bohemian 
Baron  Loew  of  Rozmital  and  Vlatna'  (whom 
he  accompanied),  a  contribution  to  our  know- 
ledge of  the  manners  of  the  15th  century,  pub- 
lished in  a  German  translation  at  Brunn  (1824). 
M.  Gallus,  Albjk,  Chrislan,  Zidek,  J.  Cerny,  J. 
Blowic,  and  Sindel.  wrote  on  medicine,  astrology, 
and  agriculture.  As  early  as  1447  we  have  an 
anonymous  work  on  the  grafting  of  trees.  We 
have  also  the  rhjnning  legend  of  the  10,000 
knightS;  a  translation  of  the  fables  of  ^sop,  the 


council  of  the  beasts  and  birds,  in  prose  and 
verse,  in  three  volumes  (Placj  Rada).  Each 
lesson,  which  flows  in  rhyme  from  the  mouths 
of  the  animals,  is  preceded  by  the  natural  his- 
tory of  the  animals  and  the  moral.  It  was 
printed  three  times  in  the  Bohemian  language, 
and  published  at  Cracow  in  Latin  verse  (1521, 
4to).  Of  the  Bible  14  translations  have  come 
down  to  us,  besides  10  of  the  New  Testament. 
The  oldest,  of  the  year  1400,  is  in  Dresden.  The 
typographic  art  made  a  rapid  progress  in  Bo- 
hemia. The  first  printed  work  was  the  Epistle 
of  Huss  from  Constance,  in  1459;  the  second, 
'The  Trojan  War,'  in  1468;  the  third,  a  'New 
Testament,'  in  1474;  the  whole  Bible,  in  1488; 
the  first  almanac,  in  1489. 

The  third  age,  from  1500  to  1620,  may  be 
called  the  golden  age  of  the  Bohemian  language. 
The  cultivation  of  learning  —  in  other  countries, 
with  only  a  few  exceptions,  the  monopoly  of  the 
clergy  —  was  in  this  favored  land  open  to  the 
whole  nation.  All  branches  of  science  were 
elaborated,  and  brought  to  an  uncommonly  high 
degree  of  improvement  for  that  time.  Gregory 
Hruby  of  Geleni  translated  the  work  of  Petrarch 
'De  Remediis  utriusque  Fortunse.'  W.  Pisecky 
translated  from  the  Greek  the  'Exhortation  of 
Isocrates  to  Demonikos.'  John  Amos  Comenius 
wrote  54  works,  some  of  which  were  very  ex- 
cellent. He  published  his  'Janua'  and  an  'Orbis 
Pictus,'  which  were  translated  in  his  lifetime 
into  II  languages,  have  passed  through  innumer- 
able editions,  and  are  not  yet  surpassed.  In  all 
the  north  of  Europe  Comenius  attracted  atten- 
tion by  his  projects  for  improving  education, 
which  were  deliberated  upon  even  by  the  diet  of 
Sweden  and  the  Parliament  of  England.  The 
hymns  of  this  and  the  earlier  ages,  part  of  which 
have  been  translated  by  Luther,  may  serve  as 
standards  for  all  languages.  In  Prague  alone 
there  were  at  this  period  18  printing  presses,  in 
the  country  towns  of  Bohemia  7,  and  in  ^loravia 
also  7;  many  Bohemian  books,  too,  were  printed 
in  foreign  countries,  as  in  Venice,  Niiremberg, 
Holland,  Poland,  Dresden,  Wittenberg,  and 
Leipsic. 

The  fourth  period  begins  with  1620  and  ends 
with  1774.  After  the  battle  at  the  White  Moun- 
tain, the  whole  Bohemian  nation  submitted  en- 
tirely to  the  conqueror.  The  population  of  most 
of  the  cities  and  of  whole  districts  migrated  in 
order  not  to  be  false  to  their  faith.  Alore  than 
70,000  men,  and  almost  the  whole  of  the  nobility, 
all  the  Protestant  clergy,  scholars,  and  artists,  in 
general  the  most  cultivated  part  of  the  nation, 
left  their  native  country.  Of  these  emigrants  the 
greater  part  formed  the  flower  of  the  army  of 
Count  Mansfield.  Hence  the  Thirty  Years'  War 
depopulated  Bohemia  more  than  any  other  coun- 
try, since  these  fugitives  endeavored  to  regain 
their  native  country  by  repeated  invasions.  The 
fugitives  established  at  Amsterdam,  Dresden, 
Berlin,  Breslau,  and  Halle  printing  presses,  and 
sent  to  their  brethren  in  Bohemia,  Moravia,  and 
Hungary  a  number  of  books,  mostly  new  edi- 
tions. Some  Bohemians  who  observed  the  de- 
cay of  their  language  strove  to  remedy  it;  as 
Pesina  Z.  Cechorodu ;  Joh.  Beckowsky,  who 
continued  the  Bohemian  history  to  1620;  W. 
Weseley,  who  wrote  a  work  on  geometry  and 
trigonometry,  etc. ;  but  the  decay  was  too  great 
to  admit  of  being  checked  ;  the  nobility  had  be- 
come strangers,  and  the  government  encouraged 
only  German  literature.     From  this  time,  there- 


BOHEMOND  I.  — BOHME 


fare,  the  Bohemians  wrote  more  in  the  German 
language. 

In  the  fifth  period,  from  1774  to  the  present 
time,  a  new  ray  of  hope  shone  on  Bohemian 
hterature,  when,  under  the  Emperor  Joseph  II., 
a  deputation  of  secret  Bohemian  Protestants, 
trusting  to  his  Hberal  views,  made  him  ac- 
quainted with  the  great  number  of  their  brethren 
of  the  same  faith.  He  perceived  the  necessity  of 
introducing  toleration,  and  hundreds  of  thousands 
of  Protestants  in  Bohemia  and  Moravia  came  to 
Hght :  their  concealed  works  were  printed  anew, 
their  classical  language  was  again  acknowledged 
and  cultivated.  Under  this  protection  many  men 
of  merit,  mindful  of  the  fame  of  their  ancestors, 
endeavored  to  cultivate  anew  alf  branches  of  the 
sciences,  and  to  rival,  if  possible,  the  results  at- 
tained by  their  more  advanced  neighbors.  From 
about  the  year  1820  great  activity  was  mani- 
fested by  the  Bohemian  writers  in  the  various 
departments  of  literature.  A  little  before  this 
Milton's  "^Paradise  Lost^  was  translated  into 
Bohemian,  and  subsequentl}'  Shakespeare's 
dramas,  or  most  of  them,  were  likewise  trans- 
lated, the  native  drama  being  also  cultivated. 
Kollar  and  Chelakovsky  distinguished  themselves 
in  poetry,  and  perhaps  even  more  Hynek  Macha, 
whose  poem  "May^'  is  said  to  still  maintain  an 
'iifluence  over  Bohemian  poetry.  Kollar  and 
Chelakovsky  were  advocates  of  the  Panslavic 
movement.  The  chief  work  of  the  former  was 
'Slava's  Daughter,^  a  long  lyrico-epic  poem. 
Several  writers  became  well  known  as  novelists, 
some  of  them  following  the  lead  of  Sir  Walter 
Scott.  Jungmann  (the  translator  of  Milton), 
brought  out  a  valuable  ^History  of  Czech  Litera- 
ture,^ and  Schafarik  his  ^History  of  the  Sla- 
vonic Language  and  Literature^  and  his  "^Slavonic 
Antiquities.^  Among  more  recent  poets  of  note 
may  be  mentioned  the  names  of  Halek  Heyduk 
and  Neruda,  but  it  must  be  admitted  that  few 
Bohemian  writers  have  become  generally  known, 
even  by  name,  to  the  European  reading  public. 

Bo'hemond  I.,  the  son  of  the  Norman  ad- 
venturer Robert  Guiscard,  who  rose  to  be  Duke 
of  Apulia  and  Calabria:  b.  1056;  d.  mi.  He 
became  familiar  with  warfare  when  a  mere  boy, 
took  a  prominent  part  in  various  expeditions  to 
Greece  and  Illyria  against  Alexis  Comnenus, 
and  repeatedly  defeated  his  troops  with  a  very 
inferior  force.  As  eldest  son  Bohemond  natu- 
rally expected  to  succeed  his  father,  but  when  the 
succession  opened  in  1085  Bohemond  was  ab- 
sent in  Greece,  and  his  younger  brother  Roger, 
having  obtained  possession  of  the  paternal  in- 
heritance, declared  his  determination  to  maintain 
it.  A  war  between  the  brothers  was  followed 
by  an  arrangement  which  gave  Bohemond  noth- 
ing more  than  the  principality  of  Tarentum. 
While  assisting  his  brother  at  the  siege  of 
Amalfi  he  resolved  to  become  a  crusader,  and 
without  waiting  to  complete  it  he  harangued  the 
troops  so  effectually  on  the  glory  to  be  gained  in 
the  Holy  Land  that  the  great  body  of  them  at 
once  joined  his  standard.  Bohemond  was  soon 
on  his  march,  and  after  encountering  considera- 
'ile  difficulties  reached  the  scene  of  action.  The 
Crusaders  had  laid  siege  to  Antioch,  but  had 
made  little  progress  and  were  beginning  to 
despair  of  success,  when  Bohemond  found  means 
to  gain  over  an  Armenian  renegade,  who  under- 
took to  introduce  him  and  his  men  by  night,  and 
thus  give  them  possession  of  the  town.     Bohe- 


mond laid  the  matter  before  his  fellow-chiefs, 
and  in  doing  sc  stipulated  that  in  the  event  of 
success  he  himself  should  be  prince  of  Antioch. 
The  Armenian  kept  his  promise,  and  accordingly 
in  1098  Bohemond  was  installed  in  his  sover- 
eignty, which  he  retained  ever  after,  and  at  his 
death  transmitted  it  to  his  son,  who  assumed  the 
title  of  Bohemond  II. 

Bohlau,  be'lan,  Helena,  German  novelist: 
b.  Weimar,  2.2  Nov.  1859.  She  shows  now  and 
then  a  leaning  toward  the  romantic  school,  but 
on  the  whole  her  high  power  of  description  is 
realistic  and  her  writings  are  imbued  with  pas- 
sion. Among  her  novels  are  ^  Under  Death's 
Ban>  (1882)  ;  <Guilty  of  a  Pure  Heart^  (1888)  ; 
<In  Fresh  Water >    (1891). 

Bohlen,  Peter  von,  pa'ter  fon  bd'len,  Ger- 
man Orientalist :  b.  Wiippels,  Oldenburg,  9 
March  1796;  d.  Halle,  6  Feb.  1840.  He  spent  the 
first  20  years  of  his  life  in  straitened  circum- 
stances, but  his  talents  and  perseverance  at- 
tracted attention,  and  he  obtained  admission  to 
the  Hamburg  gymnasium.  He  afterward  stud- 
ied the  Eastern  languages  at  Halle  and  Bonn; 
and  he  obtained  an  appointment  at  Konigsberg, 
first  in  1825  as  extraordinary,  and  afterward  in 
1830  a*  ordinary  professor  of  Oriental  literature. 
Bohlen  has  left  many  works,  which  fully  support 
his  title  to  the  high  place  which  he  held  among 
Oriental  scholars.  One  of  the  most  important 
is  a  work  entitled  *Das  alte  Indien'  (1830-1), 
not  yet  superseded  by  any  other  work  on  the 
same  subject.  The  details  of  his  life  are  given 
with  great  minuteness  and  honesty  in  an  '^Auto- 
biography^ (1841),  which  is  full  of  interest, 
and  cannot  be  read  without  producing  a  full 
conviction  that  he  was  no  less  distinguished  by 
his  amiability  in  private  life  than  by  his  literary- 
acquirements. 

Bohlen  Lectures,  a  lecture  course  estab- 
lished in  1875  on  a  foundation  of  $10,000  be- 
queathed by  John  Bohlen,  a  lay  member  of  the 
Protestant  Episcopal  Church.  They  are  deliv- 
ered each  year  in  Philadelphia,  Pa.,  by  eminent 
representatives  of  that  Church.  Among  the 
most  notable  are  those  upon  ''The  Influence  of 
Jesus,"  by  Bishop  Brooks,  and  the  "Fitness  of 
Christianity  to  Man,"  by  Bishop  Huntington. 

Bohm,  bem,  Theobald,  Bavarian  musician: 
b.  Munich,  9  April  1798;  d.  Munich,  25  Nov. 
1881.  He  is  best  known  for  his  improvements 
in  the  construction  and  fingering  of  the  flute. 
He  wrote  'Ueber  den  Flotenbau  und  die  neuesten 
Verbesserungen  desselben^  (1847),  and  ^Die 
Flote  und  das   Flotenspiel.^ 

Bohme,  or  Bohm,  Jakob,  ya'kob  be'me, 
one  of  the  most  renowned  mystics  of  modern 
times:  b.  1575,  Altseidenberg,  a  village  in  upper 
Lusatia ;  d.  Gorlitz,  November  1624.  Boehrne 
being  the  son  of  poor  peasants,  rem.ained  to  his 
loth  year  without  instruction,  and  employed  in 
tending  cattle.  Raised  by  contemplation  above 
his  circumstances,  and  undisturbed  by  exterior 
influences,  a  strong  sense  of  the  spiritual,  par- 
ticularly of  the  mysterious,  was  awakened  in 
him,  and  he  saw  in  all  the  workings  of  nature 
upon  his  mind  a  revelation  of  God,  and  even 
imagined  himself  favored  by  divine  inspirations. 
He  became  afterward  a  shoemaker ;  and  this 
sedentary  life  seems  to  have  strengthened  his 
contemplative  habits.  In  1594  B6hme_  became 
a  master  shoemaker  in  Gorlitz,  married,  and 
continued  a  shoemaker  during  his  life,  but  with- 


BOHN  —  BOIELDIEU 


drew  himself  more  and  more  from  the  world. 
If  we  take  into  view  his  retirement,  his  piety, 
his  rich  and  lively  imagination,  his  imperfect 
education,  his  philosophical  desire  for  truth, 
together  with  his  abundance  of  ideas,  and  his 
delusion  in  considering  many  of  those  ideas  as 
immediate  communications  of  the  Deity,  we  have 
the  sources  of  his  doctrine  and  his  works.  His 
first  work,  ^Aurora,  oder  die  Morgenrote,'  was 
written  in  1616,  and  contains  his  revelations  on 
God,  man,  and  nature.  This  gave  rise  to  a 
prosecution  against  him ;  but  he  was  acquitted, 
and  called  upon  from  all  sides  to  continue  writ- 
ing. One  of  his  most  important  works  is  ^De- 
scription of  the  Three  Principles  of  the  Divine 
Being.^  His  works  contain  profound  and  lofty 
ideas,  mingled  with  many  absurd  and  confused 
notions,  but  the  basis  of  his  thought  is  the  the- 
orj'^  that  everything  exists  and  becomes  intelligi- 
ble only  through  its  opposite.  The  first  col- 
lection of  his  writings  was  made  in  Holland  in 
1675  by  Henry  Betke;  a  more  complete  one  in 
1682  by  Gichtel  (10  vols.  Amsterdam),  from 
whom  the  followers  of  Bohme,  a  religious  sect 
highly  valued  for  their  silent,  virtuous,  and  be- 
nevolent life,  have  received  the  name  Gichte- 
lians.  Another  edition  appeared  in  Amsterdam 
in  1730  under  the  title  "^Theosophia  Revelata,' 
(2  vols.)  ;  the  most  complete  in  six  volumes. 
In  England,  also,  Bohme's  writings  have  found 
many  admirers.  William  Law  published  an 
English  translation  of  them,  two  volumes.  A 
sect,  taking  their  name  from  Bohme,  was  like- 
wise formed  in  England,  and  in  1697  Jane  Lead, 
an  enthusiastic  admirer  of  his,  established  a 
particular  society  for  the  explanation  of  his 
writings,  under  the  name  of  the  Philadelphists. 
In  very  recent  years  his  views  have  taken  on 
fresh  importance,  his  fundamental  principle  hav- 
ing been  perceived  as  akin  to  that  underlying 
the  philosophical  systems  of  Spinoza,  Schelling, 
and  Hegel.  See  Hartmann,  'Life  and  Doctrines 
of  Bohme^    (1893). 

Bohn,  bon,  Henry  George,  English  pub- 
lisher, of  German  parentage :  b.  London.  4  Jan. 
1796;  d.  Twickenham,  22  Aug.  1884.  On  com- 
pleting his  education  he  worked  for  a  time  under 
his  father,  but  about  1831  started  business  on  his 
own  account  as  a  second-hand  bookseller,  and  in 
1846  he  began  the  issue  of  his  famous  libraries. 
The  first  of  these  was  the  Standard,  succeeded  in 
the  following  year  by  the  Scientific  and  the  An- 
tiquarian, in  1848  by  the  Classical,  and  from  then 
till  1853  by  the  Illustrated,  the  Shilling,  the  Ec- 
clesiastical, the  Philological,  and  the  British 
Classics  libraries.  The  whole  number  of  volumes 
contained  in  these  series  exceeded  600.  In  1864 
and  subsequent  years  he  sold  all  his  copyrights 
and  other  business  property,  thus  realizing  a 
sum  of  nearly  $500,000.  Among  his  own  works 
were:  'The  Origin  and  Progress  of  Printing' 
(1857)  ;  'Biography  and  Bibliography  of 
Shakespeare'  (1863);  'Dictionary  of  Quota- 
tions' (1867);  'Handbook  of  Proverbs';  'Hand- 
book of  Games'  ;  *  Guide  to  the  Knowledge  of 
Pottery  and  Porcelain'  ;  and  editions  of  Lown- 
de's  Bibliographer's  Manual  and  Addison's 
Works. 

Bohol,  bo-hol',  Philippines,  an  island  be- 
longing to  the  Visayas  or  Bisayas  group.  It  has 
an  area  of  about  1,300  square  miles  and  an  esti- 
mated population  (1900)  of  245,000.  Sugar- 
cane is  grown  and  the  island  is  reputed  rich  in 


gold  deposits.  The  most  important  town  is 
Tagbilaran,  a  port  on  the  southwest  coast.  In 
the  north  is  Caiape.  These  ports  were  officially 
declared  open  to  commerce  11  Dec.  1899.  The 
Visayas  dialect  prevails  throughout  Bohol. 

Bo'hor,  an  east  African  antelope  (Cervica- 
pra  bailor ),  one  of  the  reitboks. 

Bohtlingk,  bet'lmk,  Otto  von,  German 
.Sanskrit  scholar:  b.  St.  Petersburg,  11  June 
1815;  d.  16  April  1904.  He  received  his  edu- 
cation in  his  native  city,  and  in  1853  removed 
to  Germany.  In  1842  he  returned  to  St.  Peters- 
burg, but  subsequently  lived  much  in  Jena  and 
Leipsic.  His  chief  work  is  a  Sanskrit-German 
dictionary  in  seven  volumes,  prepared  in  con- 
junction with  Prof.  Roth  of  Tiibingen  (1853- 
75).  In  1S79-89  he  issued  a  smaller  edition 
giving  the  meanings  (with  considerable  addi- 
tions),  but   omitting  the  quotations. 

Boiardo,  Matteo  Maria,  ma-ta'6  ma-re'a 
bo-yar'do  (Count  of  Scandiaxo),  Italian  poet: 
b.  near  Ferrara,  1434 ;  d.  Reggio  di  Modena,  De- 
cember 1494.  From  1488  to  1494,  the  period  of  his 
death,  he  was  commander  of  the  city  and  castle 
of  Reggio,  in  the  service  of  his  protector,  Er- 
cole  d'Este,  Duke  of  Modena.  This  accom- 
plished courtier,  scholar,  and  knight  was  par- 
ticularly distinguished  as  a  poet.  His  'Orlando 
Innamorato'  (1496)  is  continued  to  the  79th 
canto,  but  not  completed.  He  immortalized  the 
names  of  his  own  peasants  and  the  charms  of  the 
scenery  at  Scandiano  in  the  persons  of  his  he- 
roes and  his  descriptions  of  the  beauties  of 
nature.  In  language  and  versification  he  has 
been  since  surpassed  by  Aricsto,  whom  he 
equaled  in  invention,  grace,  and  skilful  conduct 
of  complicated  episodes.  Domenichi,  Berni,  and 
Agostini  new  modeled  and  continued  the  work 
of  Boiardo  without  improving  it.  One  continu- 
ation only  will  never  be  forgotten  —  the  Orlando 
of  Ariosto.  In  some  of  his  works  Boiardo  was 
led  by  the  spirit  of  his  times  to  a  close  imitation 
of  the  ancients  —  for  example,  in  his  'Capitoli'  ; 
also  in  a  comedy  borrowed  from  Lucian's  'Ti- 
mon'  ;  and  in  his  Latin  eclogues  and  transla- 
tions of  Herodotus  and  Apuleius.  In  his  son- 
nets and  canzoni  (first  printed  at  Reggio,  1499) 
he  has  displayed  great  talents  as  a  lyric  poet. 

Boiars.    See  Boyars. 

Boieldieu,  Adrian  Frangois,  a-dre-en  fran- 
swa  bwal-dye,  French  composer  of  distinc- 
tion: b.  Rouen,  15  Dec.  1775;  d.  Groshois,  8 
Oct.  1834.  He  early  displayed  great  musical 
talent,  and  at  18  wrote  an  opera,  'La  fille  cou- 
pable,'  which  was  performed  with  great  ap- 
plause. In  1795  he  went  to  Paris,  and  rose  rap- 
idly in  reputation,  producing  several  operas  and 
various  other  pieces  which  have  become  classi- 
cal. Such  as  'Le  deux  lettres'  ;  'La  famille 
Luisse'  ;  'Calife  de  Bagdad'  ;  and  '!Ma  tante 
Aurore.'  When  the  Conservatoire  de  Musique 
was  established  he  was  nominated  a  professor. 
In  1803  he  went  to  Russia  as  inaitre  dc  chapelle 
to  the  Emperor  Alexander,  but  returned  to  Paris 
in  1811,  and  subsequently  composed  'Jean  de 
Paris'  (1812)  ;  'Le  chaperon  rouge'  (1818); 
'La  Dame  blanche.'  his  masterpiece  (1825); 
'Les  deux  nuits'  (1829).  The  'Calife  de  Bag- 
dad' ;  'Jean  de  Paris,'  and  *La  Dame  blanche- 
still  hold  the  stage  and  continue  popular. 


BOIES  — BOILER 


Boies,  Horace,  American  statesman :  b.  Au- 
rora, N.  Y.,  7  Dec.  1827.  He  went  to  Wiscon- 
sin in  1844;  and  after  working  on  a  farm  re- 
turned, studied  law  and  was  admitted  to  the  bar 
in  1849.  He  practised  at  and  near  Buffalo  till 
1867.  becoming  active  in  Republican  politics  dur- 
ing this  period;  and  in  the  last  year  removed  to 
Waterloo,  Iowa,  where  he  continued  law  prac- 
tice. His  opposition  to  the  tariff  and  prohibition 
pohcy  of  the  Republican  party  caused  him  to 
unite  with  the  Democrats;  and,  in  1890-4,  he 
served  two  terms  as  governor  of  Iowa,  being 
defeated  for  a  third  term  in  1893.  He  was  a 
conspicuous  candidate  for  the  presidential  nom- 
ination in  the  National  Democratic  conventions 
in  1892  and  1896;  and  in  the  campaign  of  1896 
he  supported  Bryan. 

Boii,  bo'i-T,  a  Celtic  people,  who  at  first 
inhabited  Transalpine  Gaul.  Their  original  seat 
is  supposed  to  have  been  between  the  upper 
Saone  and  the  higher  parts  of  the  Seine  and 
Marne.  They  migrated  to  Cisalpine  Gaul, 
crossed  the  Po,  and  established  themselves  be- 
tween it  and  the  Apennines,  in  the  country  pre- 
viously occupied  by  the  Umbrians.  They  are 
found,  396  B.C.,  engaged  along  with  the  Insubres 
and  the  Senones,  two  other  tribes  of  Cisalpine 
Gaul,  in  the  capture  and  destruction  of  Melpum, 
a  neighboring  city,  of  which  the  site  and  history 
are  unknown.  They  united  their  forces  with 
the  Etruscans,  283  B.C.,  after  the  defeat  of  the 
Senones,  and  were  defeated  by  the  Romans  at 
the  Vadimonian  Lake,  the  scene  of  a  previous 
defeat  of  the  Etruscans.  After  another  defeat 
they  made  a  peace  with  the  Romans,  which  was 
preserved  for  45  j^ears,  when  the  occupation  of 
the  territory  of  the  Senones  by  the  latter  led 
to  another  war,  in  which  the  Boii  were  again  de- 
feated. At  the  commencement  of  the  second 
Punic  war,  218  B.C.,  they  again  attacked  the 
Romans  and  supported  Hannibal.  From  this 
period  they  were  engaged  in  almost  constant 
war  with  the  Romans  till  they  were  completely 
subdued  by  Scipio  Nasica,  191  b.c.  Many  of 
*hem  were  put  to  the  sword;  the  remainder 
were  at  length  compelled  to  migrate,  and  cross- 
ing the  Alps  found  a  refuge  among  the  Taur- 
iscans,  a  kindred  tribe  in  the  territory  of 
modern  Bohemia,  to  which  the  Boii  have  given 
their  name.  They  were  afterward  driven  out 
or  exterminated  by  the  Dacians  (some  say  the 
Marcomans).  Part  of  them  migrated  about  58 
B.C.  to  Bavaria.  The  Boii,  like  the  other  Gauls, 
were  a  people  of  considerable  civilization,  pos- 
sessing a  strong  love  of  mdependence,  and  for- 
midable from  their  military  disposition  and  vir- 
tues. 

Boil,  a  superficial  or  deep  localized  in- 
flammatory process  of  the  skin  leading  to  the 
destruction  of  tissue  and  the  formation  of  pus. 
In  practically  all  instances  some  form  of  in- 
fection by  a  micro-organism,  usually  the 
Staphylococcus  pyogenes  aureus,  is  present  in 
boils.  In  the  superficial  varieties,  the  bacteria 
enter  the  hair  follicles  or  the  sebaceous  glands 
and  travel  down  beneath  the  skin  and  here 
either  set  up  a  process  of  destruction  or  con- 
tinue one  already  begun  by  a  wound.  There 
results  a  local  swelling;  with  exquisite  tender- 
ness, and  later  a  pointing  and  discharge  of  the 
purulent  detritus  from  the  boil.  In  the  deep- 
seated  varieties  similar  processes  are  in  action, 
but  the  heading  and  discharge  of  the  boil  is  de- 


layed. The  marked  tenderness  is  due  to  the 
involvment  of  the  nerve  fibres  in  the  tissues, 
immediately  surrounding  the  inflammatorj'  cen- 
tre. The  predisposition  to  the  formation  of 
boils  varies  widely,  some  people  being  particu- 
larly prone  to  them.  They  are  apparently  more 
liable  in  those  who  are  ^"^run  down,"  or  in  those 
whose  tissues  are  non-resistant.  Boils  are  of 
commoner  occurrence  following  the  winter  time 
of  housed  individuals,  combined  with  the  re- 
newed activities  of  the  skin  in  the  warm  spring 
atmosphere,  and  they  occur  following  the  de- 
pressed states  of  many  diseases,  and  particularly 
as  a  result  of  excessive  athletic  exercise,  "over- 
training." Faulty  diet  and  hygiene  are  respon- 
sible for  many  of  them.  In  their  treatment  at- 
tention to  the  intestines  is  imperative.  Tonics,, 
particularly  those  containing  sorne  forms  of  sul- 
phur, are  of  value.  Proper  hygiene  of  the  skin 
is  imperative.  For  the  immediate  treatment  heat 
is  helpful.  This  is  usually  applied  as  a  hot 
flax-seed  poultice,  preferably,  combined  with  a 
mild  antiseptic;  two  per  cent  carbolic  acid,  being 
excellent.  Early  and  complete  incision  is  also 
advisable. 

Boileau  Despreaux,  Nicolas,  nik-6-la  bwa- 
lo-da-pra-o,  French  poet  of  distinction:  b., 
Paris,  I  Nov.  1636;  d.  there,  13  March  1711. 
He  applied  himself  at  first  to  the  study  of  the 
law  and  afterward  of  theology,  but  devoting 
himself  eventually  to  the  pursuit  of  literature,  he 
produced,  within  the  space  of  40  years,  a  vast 
number  of  works,  the  most  important  of  which, 
is  that  on  the  art  of  poetry,  establishing  an 
aesthetic  code  for  all  forms  of  poetical  com- 
position. His  satirical  poem,  "^Le  Lutrin,^  and 
the  *  Dialogue  des  heros  de  roman,^  must  also 
be  particularly  mentioned.  His  other  writings 
comprise  translations  of  the  classics,  miscel- 
laneous effusions  on  art,  music,  and  poetry,  and 
his  famous  epistles,  of  which  those  treating  of 
'Le  respect  humain,'  ^La  connoissance  de  soi- 
meme,^  and  ^Plaisirs  de  la  campagne'  are  the 
best.  When  Boileau  began  to  write,  Mon- 
taigne, Pascal,  Malherbe,  Corneille,  Moliere,  La 
Fontaine,  and  other  eminent  authors,  had  al- 
ready made  their  appearance ;  yet  the  people 
were  slow  to  appreciate  the  genius  of  the  new 
school,  to  which  they  preferred  the  previous 
mediocre  and  imitative  writers.  Boileau's  great 
achievement  was  to  cure  this  perversion  of 
taste.  Like  his  friend  Racine,  he  was  histori- 
ographer of  Louis  XIV.,  and  the  recipient  of  an 
annual  pension  of  2.000  francs.  His  admission 
to  the  French  Academy  did  not  take  place  be- 
fore 1684,  owing  to  his  attacks  upon  some  of  the 
members.  The  latter  part  of  his  life  was  passed 
in  neglect  and  troubles,  which  accelerated  his 
death.  He  left  the  reputation  of  a  genial,  h'gh- 
minded,  and  generous  man.  The  best  edition 
of  his  works  is  by  Gidel  (1870-3).  See  Descha- 
nel,  ^Le  romantisme  des  classiques,'  4th  series 
(1888);  Faguet,  <XVII.  Siecle,  Etudes  htte- 
raires^  (1887)  ;  Hemon,  ^Cours  de  litterature^ 
(1889-95)  ;  Lanson,  ^Boileau'  (1892)  ;  Mcrillot^ 
<  Boileau'     (1892). 

Boiler,  in  steam  engineering,  a  closed 
vessel  for  the  generation  of  steam  tmder  pres- 
sure. In  days  when  steam  pressures  did  not 
exceed  a  few  pounds  to  the  square  inch,  many 
forms  of  boiler  were  used,  that  are  now_  out 
of  the  question,  on  account  of  the  intrinsic 
weakness  of  their  forms.     At  the  present  time. 


BOILER 


•when  steam  pressures  are  often  carried  as  high 
as  150  or  250  pounds  to  the  square  inch,  the 
strictest  attention  must  be  paid  to  every  trifling 
detail  of  design  and  construction,  in  order  to 
ensure  the  safety  of  the  structure.  The  fanci- 
ful shapes  that  prevailed  in  the  days  of  Watt 
and  other  early  steam  engineers  have  perforce 
disappeared,  and  given  place  to  a  limited  num- 
ber of  standard  types  that  have  been  found 
to  be  capable  of  withstanding  the  severe  condi- 
tions of  modern  practice.  The  types  at  present 
in  use  may  be  divided  into  two  general  classes, 
according  as  they  are  "internally  fired"  or  "exter- 
nally fired'* ;  that  is,  according  as  the  fire  which 
furnishes  the  energy  for  the  formation  of  steam 
is  contained  within  the  general  contour  of  the 
boiler,  or  is  situated  externally  to  it.  Inter- 
nally fired  boilers  are  the  rule  in  England,  but 
a  large  majority  of  the  boilers  in  use  in  the 
United  States  are  fired  externally. 

Internally  Fired  Boilers. —  The  Cornish  and 
Lancashire  "lx)ilers  are  the  commonest  internally 
fired  types.  Each  consists  of  a  cylindrical  shell 
with  flat  ends  or  "heads.**  In  the  Cornish  type 
the  boiler  is  traversed  from  end  to  end  by  a 
large  flue,  which  is  often  corrugated,  to  increase 


Fig.    I.     The    "  Scotch,"   or  Cylindrical,   Marine   Boiler. 

its  strength.  The  fire  is  built  within  this  flue, 
upon  a  suitable  grate  at  one  end  of  the  boiler ; 
and  the  gaseous  products  of  combustion,  after 
passing  through  the  flue,  are  returned  along  the 
outside  of  the  shell,  so  as  to  give  up  still  more 
of  their  heat  to  the  water  in  the  boiler.  The 
large  flue  in  the  Cornish  type  is  an  element  of 
weakness,  since  the  tendency  of  a  flue  to  col- 
lapse through  the  action  of  an  external  pressure 
increases  very  rapidly  with  the  diameter  of 
the  flue.  To  guard  against  collapse,  the  long 
flue  is  often  provided  with  strengthening  rings, 
which  are  riveted  to  it  externally  at  short  inter- 
vals. The  Lancashire  boiler  differs  from  the 
Cornish  type  chiefly  in  having  two  comparatively 
small  flues  in  the  place  of  a  single  large  one. 
Such  a  construction  is  intrinsically  stronger, 
and  since  there  is  a  fire  in  each  of  the  flues, 
the  fuel  can  be  replenished,  and  the  fires  cleaned, 
alternately.  This  implies  a  greater  steadiness 
of  pressure,  and  less  strain  upon  the  boiler 
from  the  chilling  action  of  the  comparatively 
cold  air  that  enters  and  strikes  against  the 
heated  flue-walls  when  the  fire  doors  are  opened. 
The  Cornish  boiler  is  cheaper  to  build,  and  the 
Lancashire  boiler  is  harder  to  fire,  owing  to  the 


smaller  size  of  its  flues.  The  Galloway  boiler 
does  not  differ  in  any  essential  particular  from 
the  Cornish  or  Lancashire  types,  except  that  its 
flues  are  crossed  by  conical-shaped  water  tubes, 
which  serve  the  double  purpose  of  increasing  the 
heating  surface,  and  of  stiffening  the  flues  that 
they  traverse.  The  conical  shape  is  adopted  for 
the  cross-tubes  chiefly  on  account  of  the  ease 
with  which  tubes  of  this  form  can  be  put  in 
position,  by  passing  the  flange  of  the  smaller 
end  through  the  opening  to  which  the  larger  end 
is  to  be  riveted. 

The  Scotch,  or  cylindrical  marine  boiler, 
shown  in  Fig.  i,  is  a  very  common  type  in 
marine  practice.  It  contains  several  furnaces 
(three  in  the  illustration),  which  are  usually 
corrugated.  These  furnace-flues  do  not  pass 
through  the  entire  length  of  the  boiler,  as  in 
the  Cornish  and  Lancashire  types,  but  each  is 
connected,  within  the  boiler,  to  a  separate  "com- 
bustion chamber.**  The  products  of  combus- 
tion pass  from  the  furnace  back  into  the  combus- 
tion chamber,  and  then  return  to  the  front 
end  of  the  boiler  through  banks  of  small  tubes 
which  occupy  the  water  space  of  the  boiler, 
above  the  furnace.  A  "breeching**  (or  hood) 
of  sheet  steel,  secured  to  the  front  of  the  boiler, 
then  receives  them,  and  conducts  them  to  the 
stack. 

Among  the  kinds  of  internally  fired  boilers 
that  are  more  familiar  to  the  engineers  of  the 
United  States,  the  vertical  tubular  boiler  and  the 
locomotive  boiler  deserve  special  mention.  The 
vertical  tubular  boiler  consists  of  a  cylindrical 
shell,  with  flat  heads  at  the  top  and  bottom, 
and  traversed  by  a  large  number  of  small  verti- 
cal tubes.  The  Manning  boiler,  shown  in  Fig. 
2,  is  a  good  example  of  this  type.  At  the  lower 
end,  the  shell  of  this  boiler  is  enlarged  to 
provide  a  greater  space  for  the  fire-box  than 
could  be  had  if  the  shell  were  of  the  same 
diameter  all  the  way.  Another  object  that  the 
designer  had  in  view,  in  increasing  the  diameter 
of  the  shell  in  this  way,  was  to  give  the  boiler 
a  certain  degree  of  elasticity.  The  tubes  are 
often  hotter,  in  service,  than  the  outer  shell ; 
and  hence  they  tend  to  expand  more,  and  thus 
throw  stresses  upon  the  heads  and  the  tube 
ends.  The  reversed  flange  by  which  the  main 
shell  is  secured  to  the  fire-box  is  supposed  to 
yield  sufficiently,  under  the  bending  stress  thus 
thrown  upon  it,  to  relieve  the  more  vulnerable 
parts  of  the  boiler  from  the  expansion  strains 
to  which  they  would  otherwise  be  subjected. 
The  fire-box  of  the  Manning  boiler  is  surrounded 
by  an  annular  space  containing  water,  the  inner 
plates  of  this  space  (or  "water  leg**)  being  se- 
cured to  the  outer  ones  by  screw  stay  bolts 
that  are  spaced  evenly,  at  short  distances,  so 
that  they  form  the  corners  of  a  system  of  small 
squares.  These  bolts  are  supposed  to  be  screwed 
into  each  of  the  shells  of  the  water  leg,  and 
afterward  riveted  over  at  both  ends.  They  are 
also  commonly  made  hollow,  or  drilled  through 
lengthwise  with  a  small  hole,  so  that  if  one  of 
them  should  break  or  corrode  away  seriously, 
the  escaping  steam  or  water  would  attract  the 
attention  of  the  fireman.  Vertical  tubular  boil- 
ers are  particularly  useful  when  the  available 
floor  space  in  the  boiler  room  is  small ;  but  they 
are  often  hard  to  clean  out,  and  hence  are  not 
to  be  recommended  when  the  water  supply  is 
known  to  form  considerable  deposits  of  scale 
matter.     Such  scale  matter,  in  whatever  part  of 


BOILER 


the  boiler  it  is  formed,  will  eventually  fall  upon 
the  lower  tube  sheet,  or  else  into  the  water  leg. 
That  which  falls  into  the  water  leg  will  do 
no  great  harm  unless  it  is  allowed  to  accumu- 
late to  an  unreasonable  extent.     Handholes  are 


Fig.  2.     The  Manning  Boiler. 

provided  along  the  bottom  of  the  water  leg, 
on  the  outer  shell,  and  these  should  be  opened 
as  often  as  experience  with  the  particular  feed 
water  that  is  used  indicates  to  be  necessary, 
and  the  water  leg  thoroughly  freed  from  scale 
and  mud.     Handholes  should  also  be  provided 


on  the  same  level  as  the  lower  tube  sheet,  for 
a  like  purpose;  but  it  is  not  so  easy  to  remove 
the  scale  from  this  sheet  as  it  is  to  remove 
it  from  the  water  leg.  That  which  lodges 
around  the  edges  of  the  tube  sheet  can  be  re- 
moved without  any  great  trouble,  but  the  deposit 
that  lies  toward  the  middle  of  the  tubes  can 
hardly  be  got  at  from  the  handholes.  Yet  it  is 
of  the  highest  importance  that  the  tube  sheet 
should  be  kept  free  from  such  deposits,  because 
otherwise  the  ends  of  the  tubes  will  become 
overheated  and  loosened,  and  serious  mischief, 
or  even  disastrous  explosion,  may  follow. 

The  locomotive  boiler  is  built  in  a  great 
variety  of  forms  and  proportions,  but  the  fun- 
damental principles  of  design  are  substantially 
the  same  in  most  of  them.  Like  the  vertical 
tubular  boiler,  it  has  a  fire-box  that  is  sur- 
rounded by  a  water  leg  on  all  sides,  though  it  is 
open  at  the  bottom  for  the  discharge  of  ashes, 
and  for  the  admission  of  air  for  combustion. 
The  inner  and  outer  walls  of  the  fire-box  are 
connected  by  stay-bolts,  and  the  upper  sheet  of 
the  furnace  (technically  known  as  the  ^^crown- 
sheet")  is  supported  in  some  efficient  manner, 
so  that  the  pressure  of  the  steam  shall  not 
force  it  down  out  of  position.  The  support  thus 
necessary  for  the  crown-sheet  is  sometimes 
afforded  by  running  **sling  stays"  from  it  to  the 
neighboring  parts  of  the  outer  shell,  and  some- 
times by  providing  parallel,  horizontal  girders 
over  the  sheet,  these  being  secured  to  the  crown- 
sheet,  at  short  intervals,  by  means  of  hangers, 
or  long,  thimbled  rivets.  Not  infrequently  these 
two  methods  of  support  are  combined  in  the 
same  boiler,  as  suggested  in  the  illustration 
(Fig.  3).  The  products  of  combustion  pass 
forward  from  the  furnace,  through  a  bank  of 
small  tubes  that  conduct  them  to  a  '^smoke-box" 
or  ^'extension"  at  the  front  end,  to  which  the 
stack  is  attached.  \\'hen  the  locomotive  type 
of  boiler  is  used  in  stationary  practice,  the  draft 
required  for  combustion  is  provided  by  a  chim- 
ney or  tall  stack,  as  in  other  types  of  stationary 
boiler ;  but  when  used  in  railway  service  it  is 
impossible  to  obtain  the  draft  in  this  manner, 
and  a  "blast-pipe"  is  therefore  provided,  through 
which  the  exhaust  steam  from  the  engine  cylin- 
ders is  discharged  up  the  stack.  The  gaseous 
products  of  combustion  are  expelled  from  the 
"front  extension"  by  the  blast  of  steam,  and 
an  equivalent  quantity  of  air  is  drawn  up  through 
the  fire.  The  draft  produced  in  this  way  is 
quite  powerful.  "Baffle  plates"  are  therefore 
provided  in  the  furnace,  in  many  cases,  to 
deflect  the  hot  gases  that  come  from  the  fire, 
and  bring  them  into  contact  with  a  considerable 
portion  of  the  surface  of  the  fire-box.  before  they 
pass  out  into  the  tubes.  The  weakest  points 
about  the  locomotive  type  of  boiler  are  the 
crown-sheet  and  the  stay-bolting.  If  sediment 
lodges  upon  the  crown-sheet,  and  thereby  keeps 
the  water  from  direct  contact  with  the  metal 
there,  overheating  is  sure  to  occur,  and  the 
sheet  may  become  so  softened  and  burned  as 
to  lose  its  strength,  tear  away  from  its  fasten- 
ings, and  permit  the  entire  contents  of  the 
boiler  to  be  discharged  into  the  furnace.  Many 
of  the  explosions  of  locomotive  boilers  are  due 
to  this  action.  The  stay-bolting  at  the  sides  of 
the  fire-box  is  likewise  a  source  of  frequent 
trouble,  because  it  is  found  that  the  stay-bolts 
sometimes  corrode  away  very  rapidly,  so  that 
they  are  in   reality  badly  wasted  and  weakened. 


BOILER 


when  the  engineer  in  charge  believes  them 
to  be  still  sound  and  strong.  As  in  the  vertical 
boiler,  the  stay-bolts  are  made  hollow  so  that 
they  may  automatically  give  notice  of  b'eakage 
by  leaking.  This  artifice  is  helpful,  but  unfor- 
tunately it  does  not  invariably  work  iS  it  is 
intended  to,  and  broken  or  badly  corroded  stay- 
bolts  exist,  not  infrequently,  without  giving  the 
alarm  that  they  are  supposed  to  give. 

Externally  Fired  Boilers. —  The  commonest 
type  of  externally  fired  boiler,  in  the  United 
States,  is  the  horizontal  tubular.    The  standard 


underneath  the  boiler  shell  to  the  ^'combustion 
chamber*^  at  the  rear,  after  which  they  rise  and 
return  to  the  front  end  through  the  tubes.  They 
then  enter  the  ''smoke  box"  at  the  front  end,  and 
finally  pass  upward  into  the  flue  that  leads 
to  the  chimney.  The  weight  of  the  boiler  is 
sustained  by  means  of  cast-iron  (or  steel) 
projections,  or  "lugs,'^  that  are  -lot  shown  in 
the  illustration,  but  which  are  riveted  to  the 
shell,  and  rest  upon  the  side  walls  of  the  brick 
setting.  Three  pairs  of  lugs  are  often  provided, 
but    two    pairs   are    sufficient    except    when   the 


STiAM   OOMt 


design  of  this  boiler,  according  to  the  Hartford 
Steam  Boiler  Inspection  and  Insurance  Com- 
pan}',  is  shown,  with  its  brickwork  (or  "set- 
ting'^)   partially  torn  away,  in   Fig.  4.     It  con- 


— ^'    I  'tiA^- 


'iG.    4.     Horizontal    Tubular    Boiler. 

sists  of  a  cylindrical  shell,  usually  composed  of 
three  courses  or  "rings"  of  plates,  riveted  to- 
gether. The  circular  joints  in  these  boilers  are 
almost  invariable'  single-riveted :  but  the  longi- 
tudinal joints  arc  double-riveted,  triple-riveted, 
or  riveted  in  some  even  more  substantial  man- 
ner, according  to  the  pressure  that  the  boiler 
is  to  carry.  The  longitudinal  joints,  which  are 
not  shown  in  the  engraving,  should  be  high 
enough  to  be  well  out  of  the  way  of  the  hot 
gases  from  the  furnace.  A  multitude  of  tubes 
extend  through  the  boiler  from  end  to  end,  and 
the  furnace  gases  pass   from  the  furnace  back 


boiler  is  very  long;  and  two  pairs  can  be 
brought  to  a  good  bearing  upon  the  side  walls 
more  readily  than  three.  The  boiler  should  be 
"anchored"  by  the  front  pair  of  lugs,  and  th»» 
rear  pair  should  be  provided  with  rollers  so  that 
the  boiler  may  expand  and  contract  freely,  with- 
out producing  strains  in  the  setting  or  in  itself. 
The  course  of  the  feed-pipe,  through  which 
water  is  introduced  into  the  boiler,  is  indicated 
quite  plainly  in  the  engraving.  If  there  are 
several  boilers  set  together  in  one  battery,  the 
main  feed-pipe  runs  along  the  fronts,  just 
under  the  projecting  ends  of  the  boilers.  From 
this  main  feed-pipe  a  branch  pipe  is  taken  off 
for  each  boiler.  The  branch  pipe  is  taken  off 
on  the  left-hand  side  of  the  boiler,  and  near 
the  main  pipe  it  is  provided  with  a  ground 
union,  or  with  a  flanged  connection.  Imme- 
diately above  the  union  there  is  a  check  valve, 
and  above  this  is  the  globe  valve  which  controls 
the  feed.  The  feed  pipe  enters  the  boiler  just 
above  the  tubes,  and  passes  down  the  boiler  on 
the  inside,  nearly  to  the  back  head.  It  then 
crosses  over  to  the  right-hand  side,  and  dis- 
charges downward  between  the  tubes  and  the 
shell.  It  is  found  by  experience  that  when 
feed  water  is  introduced  in  this  way  it  becomes 
heated  almost  to  the  temperature  of  the  water  in 
the  boiler  before  it  is  discharged,  so  that  the 
annoying  and  often  dangerous  effects  that  are 
produced  when  the  shell  is  chilled  by  cooler 
feed-water  are  entirely  avoided.  On  large  boil- 
ers the  feed-pipe  should  have  a  diameter  of  at 
least  an  inch  and  a  half.  The  blow-off  pipe 
(which  is  used  for  drawing  off  the  contents  of 
the  boiler)  should  be  located  at  the  rear  end,  and 


BOILER 


should  enter  the  boiler  at  the  bottom,  and 
not  through  the  back  head.  To  strengthen  the 
construction,  the  shell  should  be  reinforced 
where  the  blow-off  enters  it,  by  a  ring  of  boiler 
plate  securely  riveted  in  place,  about  the  point 
of  attachment  of  the  blow-off.  The  neglect  of 
this  simple  matter  of  reinforcement  has  led  to 
many  serious  accidents,  through  the  blow-off 
pipe  pulling  out  and  permitting  the  contents 
of  the  boiler  to  be  discharged  through  the  open- 
ing so  made.  As  the  blow-off  is  exposed  to 
the  action  of  the  fire,  it  is  also  important  that 
it  should  be  encased  in  some  sort  of  a  protecting 
sleeve,  as  indicated  by  the  dotted  lines.  A 
piece  of  larger  pipe,  slipped  over  the  blow-off, 
is  often  used  for  this  purpose,  but  it  has  the 
disadvantage  of  rendering  the  blow-off  itself 
inaccessible  for  examination.  A  piece  of  asbes- 
tos rope  coiled  about  the  pipe  is  equally  satis- 


straight  passage  through  them,  and  are  therefore 
likely  to  catch  and  retain  pieces  of  scale,  which 
often  prove  to  be  very  troublesome  impediments. 
It  should  be  mentioned  that  those  parts  of  the 
heads  of  a  horizontal  tubular  boiler  that  lie 
above  the  tubes  are  intrinsically  weak,  and  must 
therefore  be  sustained  in  some  manner.  The 
necessary  support  is  usually  secured  by  running 
braces  from  the  heads  to  the  side  of  the  boiler 
shell,  though  sometimes  the  braces  are  run 
through  the  entire  length  of  the  boiler,  from 
one  end  to  the  other. 

The  horizontal  tubular  boiler  has  many  excel- 
lent points,  not  the  least  of  which  is  that  it 
is  accessible  for  exam.ination  and  cleaning  in 
practically  every  part.  No  boiler  can  be  ex- 
pected to  work  ideally  when  the  feed  water 
is  bad,  but  the  horizontal  tubular  type  gives 
as  good  service,  even  under  this  trying  condi- 


FiG.    5.     The    Babcuck    &    Wilcox    Water   Tube    Boiler. 


factory,  and  permits  of  easy  inspection  of  the 
pipe.  The  blow-off  pipe  of  a  boiler  that  is 
properly  cared  for  is  not  likely  to  burn  nor  to 
become  otherwise  injured.  Most  of  the  acci- 
dents from  the  burning  of  such  pipes  have 
been  primarily  due  to  permitting  the  pipes  to 
become  choked  up  with  mud  or  scale,  so  that 
water  could  not  enter  them  freely  from  the 
boiler,  to  keep  them  properly  cool.  This  may 
be  almost  certainly  avoided  by  opening  the 
blow-off  (say)  twice  a  day  for  a  moment  or 
two,  until  any  sediment  that  may  have  fallen 
into  it  has  been  thoroughly  swept  out.  The 
blow-off  pipe  is  often  so  arranged  that  the  elbow 
comes  in  the  combustion  chamber ;  but  this  is 
not  good  practice,  and  it  is  much  better  to 
carry  the  pipe  down  until  it  passes  below  the 
floor  of  this  chamber.  The  pipe  itself  should 
be  about  two  inches  in  diameter.  It  should  be 
provided  with  a  plug  cock  or  with  a  gate  valve, 
but  a  globe  valve  should  never  be  used  upon 
it,    since    valves    of    this    type    do    not    have    a 


tion,  as  can  be  had  from  any  known  type.  Its 
weak  points  are  (i)  that  it  is  not  so  well, 
adapted  to  extremely  high  pressures  as  some  of 
the  water-tube  types,  of  which  one  will  be  pres- 
ently noticed;  and  (2)  when  it  ruptures  (as 
must  happen  occasionally  with  every  type  of 
boiler)  the  explosion  is  likely  to  be  considerably 
more  destructive  than  the  explosion  of  a  sec- 
tional boiler,  because  the  large  quantity  of 
energy  that  it  contains  is  liberated  more  sud- 
denly. 

Another  class  of  externally  fired  boilers  that 
is  becoming  more  and  more  widely  used,  both 
in  the  United  States  and  Europe,  is  the  *water- 
tube*^  type,  which  is  characterized  by  the  fact 
that  its  tubular  elements  contain  water,  instead 
of  serving  for  the  transmission  of  the  furnace 
gases,  as  in  all  the  other  forms  that  have  been 
considered  above.  One  of  the  best-known  boil- 
ers of  thi<;  class  is  the  Babcock  and  Wilcox, 
which  is  shown  in  Fig.  5.  This  boiler  is  built 
up    of    lap-welded    wrought-iron    tubes,    placed 


Copyright  by  the  Scientific  American. 

AN    ENGLISH    WATER-TUBE   LOCOMOTIVE    BOILER. 

\iew   Showing   Auxiliary    Fire-Tubes   for  stiffening    Front   End   of   Fire-box.  -  The    Fire-box  and   Water-Tube   Flue. 

■■  Side    Doors    Open,    Showing    Cross    Water-Tubes    in    Fire-box.  *  Complete    Boiler,    Showing 

Side   Door  to   Fire-box  and   Front   End  of   Flue   with   Cross   Water-Tubes. 


BOILER 


in  an  inclined  position,  and  attached,  both  at 
the  front  and  at  the  rear,  to  an  upper  drum 
that  is  made  of  extra  thick  steel  or  iron  plates, 
and  double-riveted,  or  riveted  with  a  butt- 
strapped  joint.  The  tubes  are  not  vertically  over 
one  another,  but  are  "staggered,'  so  that  each 
tube  comes  directly  over  a  space  in  the  row 
below  it.  The  boiler  is  suspended  from 
wrought-iron  girders,  which  rest  upon  iron  col- 
umns that  are  entirely  independent  of  the  brick- 
work ;  and  hence  the  brickwork  may  be  repaired, 
or  may  even  be  removed  altogether,  without 
disturbing  the  boiler  itself.  The  fire  is  situated 
under  the  front  or  higher  end  of  the  inclined 
tubes,  and  the  products  of  combustion  are  guided 
by  division  plates  and  bridges  so  that  after  ris- 
ing from  the  fire  grate  they  pass  between  the 
tubes  to  the  combustion  chamber  under  the 
drum,  then  downward  among  the  tubes  again, 
and  finally  upward  and  to  the  chimney.  This 
devious  course,  as  well  as  the  staggering  of 
the  tubes,  is  intended  to  bring  the  hot  gases 
into  intimate  contact  with  the  tubes  at  every 
point.  As  the  water  in  the  boiler  becomes  heated, 
it  rises  toward  the  higher  end  of  the  tubes, 
becoming  meanwhile  partially  converted  into 
steam.  The  column  of  mixed  water  and  steam 
ascends  into  the  drum,  where  its  constituents 
separate,  the  steam  remaining  in  the  drum,  while 
the  water  flows  to  the  rear,  where  it  passes 
down  through  the  long,  upright  tubes,  and  so 
completes  the  circulation. 

Water-tube  boilers  are  now  used  to  some 
•extent  in  marine  work,  and  especially  in  the 
naval  service.  Attention  has  been  particularly 
directed  to  this  branch  of  the  subject  by  the 
recent  elaborate  investigations  oi  the  Com- 
Tnission  appointed  by  the  British  Admiralty, 
for  the  purpose  of  recommending  a  standard 
type  of  boiler  for  use  in  the  British  navy.  (See 
< Engineering  News,^  4  Sept.  1902,  page  176.) 
The  Belleville  boiler,  which  has  heretofore  been 
somewhat  extensively  used  in  that  service,  is 
represented,  diagrammatically,  on  plate.  It  con- 
sists essentially  of  a  series  of  water-tubes, 
slightly  inclined  to  the  horizontal,  and  opening 
at  the  bottom  into  malleable  iron  collector 
boxes,  and  at  the  top  into  a  drum  to  which 
the  main  steam  pipe  is  attached.  The  feed  water 
is  introduced  at  the  middle  of  the  upper  drum, 
and  is  injected  under  a  pressure  in  excess  of 
that  which  is  carried  upon  the  boiler  itself. 
To  prevent  the  comparatively  cool  feed  water 
from  entering  any  of  the  tubes  in  which  steam 
is  generated,  these  tubes  are  caused  to  project 
at  least  eight  inches  into  the  drum.  The  feed 
passes  down  through  return  pipes  at  the  sides 
of  the  boiler,  and  enters  the  tubes  below,  after 
its  temperature  has  been  raised  by  the  heat  of 
the  furnace  sufficiently  to  prevent  injury  from 
contraction  strains.  The  proper  regulation  of 
the  feed-water  supply  is  one  of  the  difficult 
practice:!  points  about  the  Belleville  boiler;  and 
to  overcome  it  as  far  as  possible  an  ingenious 
automatic  feed  device  is  provided.  As  will  be 
understood  from  an  inspection  of  the  engrav- 
ing, there  is  little  or  no  true  circulation  in 
boilers  of  this  type.  The  tube-groups  discharge 
a  mixture  of  steam  and  water  into  the  drum, 
where  the  steam  is  supposed  to  be  freed  from 
the  water  by  the  aid  of  a  system  of  baffle  plates 
that  are  not  shown.  An  economizer  is  placed  in 
the  stack  above  the  boiler  in  the  most  approved 
modern    installations,    the    construction    of    the 

Vol.    2 — 50. 


economizer  being  similar  to  that  of  the  boiler 
itself,  except  that  the  tubes  composing  the  ele- 
ments are  smaller.  The  Commission  already  re- 
ferred to  reported  somewhat  unfavorably  upon 
the  Belleville  boiler,  but  did  not  suggest  any 
other  special  type  of  water-tube  boiler  for  gen- 
eral use  aboard  ship.  It  inclined  rather  toward 
cylindrical  boilers  for  ordinary  purposes,  with 
auxiliary  water-tube  boilers  for  emergencies. 

All  boilers  are  supposed  to  be  provided  with 
certain  appliances  intended  to  secure  safety,  and 
uniformity  of  working.  Noteworthy  among 
these  are  the  safety  valve,  and  the  gauges 
that  indicate  the  pressure  of  the  steam  and  the 
position  of  the  water  level.  These  are  described 
under  separate  headings. 

The  "horse-power"  of  a  boiler  is  often  spoken 
of;  but  the  term  is  a  loose  one,  without  any 
definite  significance,  because  the  horse-power 
that  can  be  realized  from  a  boiler  depends  to 
a  very  great  extent  upon  the  engine  that  is 
used  to  develop  the  power,  and  upon  how  hard 
the  boiler  is  forced.  The  Centennial  Commis- 
sion adopted,  as  the  definition  of  a  horse-power 
(when  that  expression  is  used  in  connection  with 
a  boiler),  the  "evaporation  of  30  pounds  of 
water  per  hour,  when  the  temperature  of  the 
feed  water  is  100°  F.,  and  the  pressure  of  the 
steam  is  70  pounds  per  square  inch,  as  read 
from  the  gauge.*' 

Steam  boilers  may  explode  from  any  one 
of  a  great  variety  of  causes.  Of  these  three 
are  specially  worthy  of  mention:  (i)  The  boiler 
may  be  poorly  made  or  poorly  designed,  so 
that  even  when  it  is  new  it  is  not  capable  of 
safely  withstanding  the  load  that  is  put  upon 
it.  All  boilers,  however  well  made,  should  have 
a  "factor  of  safety"  of  five;  that  is,  they  should 
be  able  to  sustain  a  pressure  five  times  as  great 
as  the  regular  working  pressure,  before  bursting. 
(2)  A  boiler,  originally  good,  may  be  wasted 
away,  either  locally  or  generally,  by  corrosion 
or  other  form  of  deterioration,  or  it  may  develop 
defects  in  service,  which  detract  from  its  origi- 
nal strength  sufficiently  to  lead  to  explosive 
failure.  Competent  periodical  inspection  will 
materially  lessen  the  liability  to  explosion  from 
causes  of  this  sort.  (3)  The  water  in  the  boiler 
may  become  low,  through  neglect  or  through  the 
failure  of  the  feed-apparatus,  so  that  the  metal 
laecomes  overheated  or  burned,  and  loses  its 
strength.  This  is  the  cause  almost  invariably 
assigned,  by  the  general  public  and  even  by 
minor  "experts,''  when  the  boiler  explosion  oc- 
curs, and  the  attendant  is  frequently  censured 
for  his  carelessness  when  the  explosion  was 
really  due  to  some  totally  different  cause.  When 
an  explosion  is  attended  by  great  manifestations 
of  force  and  energy,  it  is  safe  to  conclude  that 
a  plentiful  supply  of  water  was  present ;  for 
a  boiler  full  of  heated  water  contains  vastly 
more  energy  than  one  that  is  merely  filled  with 
steam  at  the  same  temperature.  (See  Thurston, 
^Steam  Boiler  Explosions.')  Pound  for  pound, 
steam  contains  more  energy  than  water,  when 
the  two  are  at  the  same  temperature;  but  cubic 
foot  for  cubic  foot  (and  this  is  the  way  that 
the  comparison  should  be  made  in  reasoning 
about  a  boiler  explosion),  the_  water  has_  an 
enormous  advantage,  owing  to  its  greater  den- 
sity. 

For  further  details  concerning  boilers,  con- 
sult F.  R.  Hutton.  <The  Mechanical  Engineer- 
ing of  Power  Plants'  ;  J.  G.  A.  Meyer,  < Modern 


BOILER  SHOP  TERMS 


Locomotive  Construction^  ;  Peabody  and  Miller, 
^Notes  on  Steam  Boilers'  ;  R.  H.  Thurston,  "^A 
Manual  of  Steam  Boilers,*  an'd  *  Steam  Boiler 
Explosions';  William  Kent,  ^  Steam  Boiler 
Economy'  ;  W.  H.  Shock,  'Steam  Boilers'  ; 
Leslie  S.  Robertson,  'Water  Tube  Boilers'  ;  and 
W.  H.  Ford,  'Boiler  Making. >  See  also  the 
1899  'Code'  for  boiler  trials,  in  Vol.  20  of  the 
'Transactions  of  the  American  Society  of  Me- 
chanical Engineers.' 

A.  p.    RiSTEEN,   Ph.D., 
Hartford  Steam  Boiler  Insp.  and  Ins.  Co. 

Boiler  Shop  Terms.  The  following  list 
of  terms  includes  the  principal  terms  and  phrases 
commonly  employed  in  connection  with  the 
work  of  the  design,  constructon,  and  use  of 
steam  boilers. 

Specific  information  relative  to  boiler  fittings 
such  as  valves  and  cocks  may  be  found  under 
the  title  Valves  and  Valve  Terms. 

Information  relative  to  the  design  and  con- 
struction of  locomotive  engine  boilers,  and  con- 
cise descriptions  of  their  various  parts,  fittings, 
and  accessory  appliances  and  devices  such  as 
pumps  and  injectors,  and  cocks,  valves,  and 
feed-water  heaters,  will  be  found  carefully 
treated  under  the  title  Locomotive,  Design  and 
Construction  of  the  Modern. 

Special  information  relative  to  the  general 
methods  and  operations  of  constructive  work 
such  as  the  boring,  drilling,  and  punching  of 
holes,  and  the  joining  of  plates  by  riveting  and 
welding,  will  be  found  under  the  title  Work- 
Shop  Terms;  while  the  definitions  of  the  various 
terms  and  their  abbreviations  such  H.P. —  Horse- 
power, and  B.  T.  U. —  British  Thermal  Units, 
etc.,  may  be  found  under  the  title  Engineering 
AND  Structural  Terms  in  this  encyclopedia. 

Acidulated  Water. —  Water  in  which  acids  have  been 
generated  by  the  introduction  of  too  much  tallow  into 
the  boiler  to  prevent  incrustation.  Its  use  tends  to 
produce  boiler  corrosion. 

Air  Casing. —  The  enclosed  space  which  envelops  the 
uptake  of  marine  boilers  and  prevents  the  loss  of  heat 
therefrom   by   radiation. 

Air  Spaces. —  The  openings  between  the  fire-bars  of 
engine   boilers. 

Anti-fouling  Compositions. —  See  Incrustation. 

Ash  Pit. — ■  That  part  of  the  furnace  of  a  stationary 
boiler  which  lies  below  the  fire-bars  and  immediately 
in  front  of  the  fire-door.  It  is  provided  for  the  re- 
ception of  the  ashes  which  fall  through  the  bars,  and 
constitutes  the   main  draught  entrance  of  the  furnace. 

Baffle  Plates  or  Bafflers. —  The  plates  provided  in 
the  fire-boxes  and  flues  of  steam  boilers  for  throwing 
the  flames  and  hot  gases  against  the  best  heating  sur- 
faces. Also  to  admit  air  above  the  fire,  and  to  pre- 
vent the  burning  and  buckling  of  the  door  of  the 
furnace. 

Ballooning. —  The  process  which  takes  place  within  a 
steam  boiler  when  a  sediment  of  fine  mud  and  scale 
is  carried  to  the  surface  of  the  water  by  the  ebulli- 
tion of  the  bubbles  of  steam.  Large  boilers  are  pro- 
vided with  "  scum-troughs  "  for  collecting  this  sedi- 
ment. 

Banding  or  Bonding. —  The  securing  of  the  lagging 
around  steam  cylinders  and  boilers  with  broad  encir- 
cling bands   of  sheet-brass   or   hoop-iron. 

Bar-stays. —  Solid  screwed  stays  as  distinguished  from 
tube-stays   or   stay-tubes. 

Bearing  Ring. —  The  ring  which  form's  the  support  of 
the   fire-bars  in   a   vertical  boiler. 

Blast. —  The  volume  of  air  forced  artificially  into  the 
furnaces  of  marine  boilers  to  quicken  the  combustion. 

Bleeding. —  The  red  streaks  of  rust  which  soak  through 
the  scale  adhering  to  the  inner  surfaces  of  boilers 
and  serve  to  indicate  the  presence  of  corrosion  in  the 
plates   underneath. 

Blisters. —  Defects  in  boiler  plates  of  poor  quality, 
caused  by  the  retention  of  cinders  or  sand  therein 
during  the   rolling   process. 

Blow-off  or  Blow-off  Cock. —  The  pipe  and  cock  situ- 


ated at  the  lower  part  of  the  boiler  by  which  the 
boiler  is  blown-off  or  emptied  of  its  contents  to  pre- 
vent incrustation.  In  horizontal  boilers  of  the  Lan- 
cashire and  Cornish  type,  a  pipe  called  the  blow-off 
bend  connects  the  cock  with  the  blow-oif  seating 
through  which  the  boiler  is  blown-off  into  the  ash  pit. 

Bear  or   Boiler   Bear. —  See   Punching   Bear. 

Bottle-tight. —  The  seams,  rivets,  fittings,  and  mount- 
ings of  a  steam  boiler  are  said  to  be  bottle-tight 
when  the  joints  are  so  close  and  perfect  that  there 
is  not  the  slightest  leakage  through  them  under  the 
application   of   the   water   or   the   steam   tests. 

BoTTLiNG-uP. —  The  temporary  confinement  of  steam  in 
the  tubes  of  a  sectional  boiler  caused  by  its  being 
generated  too   rapidly. 

Bowling  Hoop. — A  ring  of  arch-shaped  section,  and 
provided  with  flanges  for  the  reception  of  rivets,  em- 
ployed for  uniting  the  sections  of  furnace  shells  in 
horizontal   boilers. 

Breaking  Joint. — -The  manner  in  which  the  longitudi- 
nal seams  of  the  plates  of  the  boiler  are  arranged  so 
as   to  act  as   supports   for  each   other. 

Bridge. —  The  barrier  of  brickwork  built  upon  a  girder- 
like casting  which  stretches  across  the  fire-box  of  an 
engine  boiler  at  the  farther  end  of  the  grate.  It 
serves  to  throw  the  flames  upwards  to  the  heating 
surface,  and  also  prevents  a  too  rapid  escape  of  the 
heated   gases. 

Brine  Pump. —  A  pump  employed  for  periodically  draw- 
ing off  a  certain  amount  of  water  from  a  marine 
boiler  to   prevent  saturation. 

Bunker  Plate. —  A  sheet-iron  plate  which  encloses  the 
bunker  or  space  which  holds  the  coal  or  coke  used 
in   the   furnace   of   an   engine  boiler. 

Bursting. —  The  destruction  of  a  boiler  by  an  excess- 
of  internal  pressure,  as  distinguished  from  collapsing, 
or  the  failure  of  a  boiler  under  the  force  of  an  ex- 
ternal  pressure. 

Calorimeter. —  The  sectional  area  of  a  boiler  flue,  given 
in  square  inches. 

Capacity. — ■  See   Heating   Surface. 

Carbonate  of  Lime. —  The  principal  substance  which 
causes  the  incrustation  of  steam  boilers  and  water- 
pipes.  It  is  held  in  solution  in  the  water  as  a  bi- 
carbonate by  the  excess  of  carbonic  acid.  When  the 
boiler  is  heated  the  excess  of  acid  is  driven  off,  and 
the  carbonate  is  precipitated  in  the  form  of  a  muddy 
deposit  which  hardens  in  the  presence  of  heat  into- 
the  form  of  an  injurious  scale. 

Caulking. —  The  process  of  burring  or  driving  up  the 
edges  of  boiler  plates  along  the  riveted  seams  to 
make  them  steam  and  water  tight.  The  caulking  of 
the  joints  between  boiler  shells  and  the  flanges  of 
cast-iron  man-holes,  and  safety  and  stop  valve  seat- 
ings,  is  accomplished  by  means  of  caulking-strips  or 
strips  of  sheet  metal  interposed  between  the  wrought- 
iron  of  the  shells  and  the  cast-iron  of  the  pieces 
attached  thereto.  This  is  rendered  necessary  on  ac- 
count of  the  impossibility   of  caulking  the  cast-iron. 

Chimney. —  The  tube  or  funnel  through  which  the 
waste  steam  and  smoke  escapes  from  an  engine  or 
boiler  into  the  open  air.  Its  proportions  bear  a  defi- 
nite relation  to  the  grate  area,  and  vary  in  the 
different   types   of   engines. 

Circulating  Tubes. —  The  cross  tubes  of  vertical  boil- 
ers, or  the  ordinary  forms  of  tubes  used  in  multi- 
tubular   boilers    or    surface    condensers. 

Circulation. —  The  circulation  in  a  steam  boiler  is 
caused  by  the  bubbling  up  of  the  lighter  boiling  water 
from  the  heating  surfaces  through  the  heavier  cooler 
water  in  the  upper  portions  which  descends  and  thus 
comes  in  contact  with  the  heating  surfaces.  Efficient 
circulation  is  necessary  to  the  rapid  generation  of 
steam,  and  for  the  prevention  of  incrustation.  It  is 
promoted  by  the  use  of  properly  arranged  water 
tubes. 

Clinkering. —  The  removal  of  the  clinkers  or  other 
vitrified  material  from  the  fire  in  the  boiler,  period- 
ically. 

Clothing. —  The  felt  and  wood  coverings  placed  around 
boilers  to  prevent  loss  of  heat  by  radiation. 

Coating. —  Non-conducting  compositions  of  felt,  silicate 
cotton,  asbestos,  etc.,  which  are  smeared  or  placed 
around  steam  boilers  while  the  substances  are  in  a 
plastic  state,  and  which  become  subsequently  hard- 
ened by  the  heat,  and  prevent  the  loss  of  heat  from 
the  boiler  by  radiation. 
Cold  Water  Test. —  The  hydraulic  test,  for  pressures, 
only,  applied  to  steam  boilers,  as  distinguished  from 
the  hot   water   test. 

Collapse. —  The  destruction  of  the  tubes  and  fire-boxes, 
of  steam  boilers  by  external  pressures  which  cause 
them  to  fail  by  bending  or  crumpling  inwardly. 
Collector. —  A  cylindrical  vessel  enclosed  in  a  steam 
boiler  for  the  purpose  of  collecting  the  sedimentary 
matter   contained    in    the    water,    which    if    allowed    to 


BOILER  SHOP  TERMS 


remain  in  the  water  would  produce  injurious  scale 
and  incrustation.  The  material  thus  collected  is  re- 
moved  by  being  blown-out   at  intervals. 

Combined  Steam. —  Dry  and  wet  steam  allowed  to 
mingle  together  before  being  used.  Its  use,  at  a  tem- 
perature not  exceeding  310°  Fahr.,  tends  to  diminish 
the    evils    of    corrosion   and    priming. 

Combustion  Chamber. —  That  portion  of  a  boiler  flue 
in  which  the  gases  liberated  by  the  action  of  the  fire 
are  burned.  It  lies  between  the  grate  and  the  smoke- 
flue. 

Corrosion. —  The  rusting  or  oxidation  of  metals  by  con- 
tact and  chemical  union  with  oxygen  in  the  presence 
of  water.  Boiler  corrosion  is  either  internal  or  ex- 
ternal. Internal  corrosion  is  due  to  the  presence  of 
acidulated  water,  or  to  superheated  steam  in  the 
steam-chamber.  E.xternal  corrosion  results  from  leak- 
age and  from  contact  with  damp  foundations  and 
seatings. 

Corrugated  Furnace  Tubes. —  Furnace  tubes  which  are 
ribbed  in  their  longitudinal  sections.  They  are  ex- 
tensively used  both  in  land  and  marine  boilers.  The 
elastic  character  of  the  corrugations  absorbs  the  linear 
expansion  of  the  tubes  under  the  influence  of  heat, 
and  thus  prevents  the  strains  which  tend  to  bulge  the 
end-plates   of   the  boiler. 

Cross-tubes. —  The  heating  tubes  in  a  vertical  or  cross- 
tube  boiler.  They  pass  through  the  fire-box,  and 
therefore,  being  surrounded  by  the  fire,  materially 
assist  in  maintaining  a  rapid  circulation  of  the  water. 
They  are  cleaned  through  a  mud-door  placed  opposite 
the  end  of  each  tube. 

Crown. —  The  boiler  crown  proper,  is  the  uppermost 
plate  in  the  shell  of  the  boiler.  It  is  formed  either 
in  the  shape  of  a  hollow  disc  flanged  around  the 
edges,  and  by  which  it  is  riveted  to  the  outer  shell- 
plates,  or  it  is  made  flat  and  secured  in  place  by 
means  of  stays.  That  portion  of  the  crown  which 
lies  over  the  top  of  the  furnace  or  inner  shell  is 
usually  designated  as  the   fire-box  crown. 

Damper. — -The  plate,  cover,  or  valve,  employed  for 
regulating  the  amount  of  draught  in  a  boiler  or  fur- 
nace flue.  The  contrivance  is  usually  balanced  with 
a  weight  called  the  damper-weight  which  assists  in 
its   adjustment. 

Dead-plate. —  The  cast-iron  plate  which  lies  immediately 
within  the  furnace  door  of  an  engine  boiler.  It  is 
provided  for  the  reception,  and  for  the  partial  cok- 
ing of  the  coal  before  it  is  passed  forwards  onto 
the  grate. 

Dead-water. —  The  water  which  lies  below  the  heating 
surface  of  the  boiler,  and,  therefore,  is  in  compara- 
tively slow  circulation.  In  some  forms  of  boilers  the 
flues  are  brought  forwards  under  the  bottom  so  as  to 
heat  the  dead  water  and  thus  induce  a  more  rapid 
circulation   therein. 

Dolly. —  .\  riveting  tool  used  by  boilermakers  for  hold- 
ing under  the  heads  of  rivets  during  the  act  of  rivet- 
ing. 

Double-ended  Boiler. —  A  marine  boiler  provided  with 
furnaces  and  flue  doors  at  each  end,  and  is  therefore 
fired   fro.n   each   end.  . 

Dry  Steam  or  Saturated  Steam. —  Steam  which  has 
not  been  superheated,  nor  mixed  with  the  water  of 
priming.  It  is  the  most  suitable  form  of  steam  for 
use    in    engine   cylinders. 

Economizer. —  An  arrangement  of  pipes  by  means  of 
which  the  feed-water  for  steam  boilers  is  heated  up 
to,   or  higher  than,   the  boiling  point. 

Evaporative  Value. — •  The  relative  capacities  of  the 
various  types  of  steam  boilers  to  vaporize  water,  ex- 
pressed in  horse-powers,  units  of  work,  or  in  thermal 
units. 

Expanding. —  The  tightening  of  boiler  tubes  in  the 
tube  plates  by  expanding  or  opening  out  their  ends. 

Expansion  Hoop. —  The  metal  ring  which  is  used  in 
the  forming  of  an  expansion  joint  provided  in  long 
boiler  flues  for  the  purpose  of  taking  up  the  linear 
expansion  due  to  heat. 

Feeder. —  The  agency  by  which  the  feed-water  supply 
of  a  boiler  is  maintained.  Usually,  it  is  some  form 
of    force    pump,   or    an    injector. 

Fire-bars. —  The  grate-bars  of  the  furnaces  of  engine 
and    other   boilers. 

Fire-box. —  A  term  which  is  specifically  applied  to  the 
furnaces   of    locomotive    and    vertical    boilers. 

Firing. — ■  Boilers  are  fired  both  internally  and  exter- 
nally. Internally  fired  boilers  are  those  in  which  the 
fuel  is  consumed  in  a  tube  or  arrangement  of  tubes 
within  the  boiler  itself.  The  Cornish  with  one  flue, 
the  Lancashire  with  two  flues,  the  locomotive  boiler 
and  other  forms  of  boilers  with  many  internal  tubes, 
the  vertical  boilers  with  uptake  and  cross-tubes,  and 
the  marine  boilers  with  return  flues  are  of  the  inter- 
nally fired  class.  Externally  fired  boilers  are  those 
which    are    not    provided    with    internal    fire-boxes    or 


furnace  flues.  The  egg-end,  the  balloon,  the  hay- 
stack, and  the  wagon  boilers  are  of  this  class.  They 
are    practically   obsolete. 

Fire  Tube  Boiler. —  A  multitubular  boiler,  as  distin- 
guished from  a  sectional  boiler  or  a  water  tube 
boiler. 

Fittings. —  The  fittings  of  a  boiler  comprise  the  man- 
hole and  mudhole  doors,  the  fire-bars  and  their  rings 
and  bearers,  the  furnace  doors,  the  dampers  and 
frames,   etc. 

Flame  Plates. —  The  crown  plates  of  a  boiler  flue  or 
fire-box. 

Flanging. —  The  bending  over  of  the  edges  of  the 
boiler  plates  so  as  to  form  narrow  flanges  by  which 
they  are  attached  to  each  other  either  by  riveting  or 
by  welding. 

Float. —  A  buoy  employed  to  indicate  the  height  of  the 
water  in  the  boiler.  It  is  usually  made  of  stone  or 
of  iron,  and  is  rendered  buoyant  by  means  of  a 
counterpoise  the  proportion  of  which  relatively  to  the 
specific  gravity  of  the  float  renders  the  float  quite 
as  susceptible  to  the  variations  in  the  water  level  as 
a  float  of  wood.  Its  movements  are  observed  by 
means   of  the  float   gauge  attached  to  the  boiler. 

Flash  Boiler. —  .\  steam  boiler  composed  of  a  large 
number  of  small  tubes  which  are  kept  red-hot,  and 
unto  which  the  water  is  fed  in  the  form  of  a  spray 
which  is  instantly  converted  into  steam.  They  are 
principally  used  in  connection  with  steam  driven 
automobiles. 

Flues. — •  The  flues  of  a  boiler  are  the  arrangements  or 
parts  which  carry  off  the  waste  gases  and  smoke,  and 
produce  the  draught. 

Flue  Plates. —  The  ends  of  horizontal  boilers  to  which 
the  flues  are  attached,  or  the  fire-box  crowns  of  ver- 
tical   boilers. 

Flue  Surface. —  The  area  of  the  flues  as  distinguished 
from   the  grate-area. 

F"ollowing  Joints. —  The  lap  joints  of  the  rings  which 
compose  a  cylindrical  boiler.  As  all  of  the  joints  lap 
in  the  same  direction,  they  are  called  following  joints. 

Fullering. —  A  mode  of  caulking  boiler  plates.  It 
diff^ers  from  caulking  proper  in  that  the  entire  edge 
of  the  plate  is  hammered  over  instead  of  only  a  por- 
tion of  the  edge. 

Grate. — •  The  area  which  contains  the  burning  fuel  in 
the  furnace  of  an  engine  boiler.  The  grate-area  is 
the  number  of  square  feet  covered  by  the  grate-bars 
or  fire-bars  which  compose  the  grate.  It  is  equal  to 
the  area  over  which  full  combustion  can  take  place, 
and  is  usually  estimated  in  relation  to  the  weight  of 
coal   burned. 

Grooving  or  Furrowing. —  The  cutting  or  corroding 
which  takes  place  in  the  seams  of  improperly  stayed 
boiler  plates.  It  is  partly  due  to  the  leverage  to 
which  those  parts  are  subjected,  and  partly  to  the 
action  of   acids   in   the   lines  of   strain. 

Gross  Section. —  The  total  number  of  inches  contained 
in  the  circumference  of  a  steam  boiler. 

Gusset  or  Gusset  Stay. —  A  triangular  piece  of 
wrought-iron  or  steel  employed  to  support  the  flat 
ends  of  boilers.  Large  boilers  are  provided  with  five 
gusset  stays  at  each  end,  which  are  secured  to  the 
end-plates   and   the   shell   by   angle-irons. 

Holes. — •  When  the  rivet  holes  in  boiler  plates  are 
punched  or  drilled  so  inaccurately  that  they  do  not 
coincide  within  an  amount  equal  to  one-half  their 
diameters  when  the  plates  are  brought  together,  they 
are  called  half-lap  or  half-blind  holes.  When  the 
holes  do  not  correspond  within  the  extent  of  a  whole 
diameter  they  are  called  blind-holes.  In  riveting, 
such  holes  are  either  pulled  together  with  a  drift,  or 
they  are   reamed   out   and   larger   rivets   inserted. 

Hand  Holes. —  Holes  provided  in  the  shells  of  steam 
boilers  in  cases  where  a  mudhole  is  impracticable, 
through  which  the  hand  may  be  introduced  for  pur- 
poses  of   cleaning   and   repair. 

Hard  Water. —  Water  which  contains  a  large  percent- 
age of  carbonate  and  sulphate  of  lime.  Its  tendency 
to  produce  calcareous  deposits  makes  it  very  objec- 
tionable  for  use   in  steam   boilers. 

Heating  Surface. —  The  entire  surface  of  a  steam 
boiler,  comprising  the  surfaces  exposed  to  the  heat 
on  one  side  and  the  surfaces  in  contact  with  the 
water  on   the  other  side. 

Hogging. —  The  distortion  of  the  furnace  tubes  of 
boilers  caused  by  the  expansion  of  the  plates  under 
the  influence  of  heat. 
Honeycombing. —  A  form  of  boiler  corrosion  consisting 
of  numerous  blank  holes  or  pits.  It  is  due  to  the 
action  of  acids,  to  galvanic  action,  or  to  a  lack  of 
uniformity  in  the  quality  of  the  plates. 
Horizontal  Boiler. —  One  in  which  the  longitudinal 
axis  of  the  barrel  is  horizontal,  such  as  the  Cornish, 
Galloway,  and  Lancashire  boilers,  and  various  forms 
of   marine   boilers. 


BOILER  SHOP  TERMS 


Inclination. —  Some  forms  of  horizontal  boilers  are 
inclined  forwards  about  half  an  inch  per  ten  feet 
of  length  so  as  to  drain  properly  through  the  blow- 
cff  cock.  Fire-bars  are  inclined  backwards  about 
one  inch  in  ten  inches  to  permit  of  the  fuel  being 
moved    rapidly    away   from   the   dead-plate. 

Incrustation. — ■  Coatings  of  carbonate  and  sulphate  of 
lime  and  other  solids  formed  on  the  internal  portions 
of   engine   boilers   by   deposition   from  the   feed   water. 

Injection. —  The  process  of  drawing  water  into  a  steam 
boiler   by   means  of  an  injector. 

Keelsons. —  The  wrought-iron  or  steel  saddles  which 
support  marine   boilers. 

Laminated  Plates. —  Wrought-iron  or  rolled  steel  plates 
in  which  the  several  layers  are  imperfectly  united. 
They  are  very  apt  to  blister  when  used  for  boiler 
plates. 

Leakage. —  The  loss  of  feed  water  due  to  the  alternate 
expansion  and  contraction  of  the  plates  under  the 
influence  of  sudden  heatings  and  coolings,  which  tend 
to   start  the  rivets  and  open  the   seams. 

Longitudinal  Seams. —  The  plates  which  run  length- 
ways of  the  boiler.  They  are  always  arranged  to 
break-joint,  and  are  never  placed  in-line. 

Manhole. —  An  opening  provided  in  the  shell  of  the 
boiler  through  which  a  man  may  gain  access  to  the 
interior  for  purposes  of  examination,  cleaning,  and 
repair.  It  is  ova!  in  form  and  is  usually  stayed 
either   with   a  wrought-iron   ring,  or   with   a  casting. 

Marine  Boiler. —  A  horizontal  boiler  of  the  return 
tubular  type.  They  are  of  many  different  types,  and 
vary  in  their  arrangement  to  suit  different  condi- 
tions. 

MuDHoLE. —  An  opening  in  the  lower  part  of  a  boiler 
through  which  the  sediment  deposited  by  the  water  is 
removed.  When  the  boiler  is  being  used,  the  mud- 
hole  is  closed  by  a  door  called  the  mud-lid  whicli  is 
inserted  within  the  hole  and  pulled  up  against  its 
inner  face  by  means  of  a  bolt.  This  bolt  is  attached 
to  the  door  and  passes  through  a  bridge  which  spans 
the  hole  and  rests  against  its  outer  face.  The  bolt 
is  tightened  to  the  bridge  by  means  of  an  ordinary 
nut. 

Multitubular  Boiler. —  A  boiler  composed  of  numer- 
ous tubes  of  brass  or  of  iron,  through  which  the  hot 
gases  pass  from  the  fire-box  to  the  chimney,  and  thus 
heat  the  water  which  is  in  contact  with  the  outer 
surfaces  of  tlie  tubes.  The  locomotive,  horizontal, 
and    portable  boilers   are    of   this   type. 

Overheating. —  The  overheating  of  boiler  parts  are  due 
either  to  incrustation,  or  to  an  insufficient  supply  of 
water.  It  tends  to  soften  the  plates  so  that  they 
bulge  or  fracture  under  the  force  of  internal  pres- 
sures. 

Overpressure. —  The  pressure  developed  in  a  steam 
boiler   exceeding  that   which  it   is   designed   to  sustain. 

Patch. —  A  strengthening  plate  of  wrought-iron  or 
steel  riveted  or  bolted  to  the  boiler  plates  which  have 
been  injured  by  accident,  or  have  become  weakened 
by   corrosion. 

Pitting. —  The  corrosion  of  boiler  plates  in  patches. 
See    Honeycombing. 

Plate. —  In  the  manufacture  of  steam  boilers  the  use 
of  wrought-iron  plates  has  been  completely  aban- 
doned for  those  of  steel.  The  steel  plates  are  rolled 
in  larger  sizes,  thus  reducing  the  number  of  riveted 
seams,  and  as  they  possess  a  much  greater  tensile 
strength,  they  permit  of  the  development  of  the 
higher    pressures   required    by   modern    engines. 

Plate  Furnace. —  A  reverberatory  furnace  used  by 
boilermakers  for  heating  plates  preparatory  to  bend- 
ing,  flanging,   and   welding. 

Pressure. — •  The  working  pressures  in  steam  boilers 
vary  with  the  type  of  the  boiler,  the  material  of  the 
boiler  plates,  and  the  method  of  construction.  They 
range  from  45  to  60  pounds  per  square  inch  in  those 
of  the  Cornish  and  Lancashire  type;  from  100  to 
180  pounds  in  the  marine  boilers;  and  from  120  to 
235    pounds   in   the   portable   and    locomotive   boilers. 

Punching  Bear  or  Boiler  Bear.— A  portable  punch- 
ing machme.  The  punch  is  actuated  either  by  a 
screw,   or  by   hydraulic   pressure. 

Return  Flues. —  The  flues  in  horizontal  boilers,  which 
are  brought  from  the  back  of  the  furnace  to  the 
front,  and  are  then  carried  back  again  to  the  chim- 
ney. 

Return  Tubular  Boiler.—  A  marine  boiler  in  which 
the  smoke  tubes  extend  from  the  back  of  the  boiler 
forwards  to  the  smoke-box.  By  this  arrangement, 
the  products  of  combustion  are  carried  first  to  the 
back  of  the  boiler  through  the  fire-box,  and  then  to 
the    front    of   the    boiler    through    the    tubes. 

Ribbed  Tubes. — ■  Tubes  which  are  rolled  so  as  to  form 
several  deep  radial  ribs  on  their  internal  surfaces 
and    thus    increase    the    area    of    the    available    heating 


surface.  They  were  invented  by  M.  Serve.  The 
Purves  tubes  are  ribbed  or  corrugated  transversely. 
The  use  of  these  tubes  gives  from  15  to  20  per  cent. 
better  results  relative  to  the  economical  consump- 
tion of  fuel  and  the  increase  in  steam  pressure  than 
may  be  obtained  by  the  use  of  the  ordinary  tubes 
with  smooth  surfaces. 
Rings. —  Metal  rings  used  for  uniting  the  shells  and 
fire-boxes,  for  the  jointing  and  caulking  of  seams 
and  other  similar  purposes.  They  are  either  cast  01 
welded. 
Ring    Seams. —  The    circumferential   joints    of    a   boiler 

shell. 
Salinometer. —  An    instrument    employed    for    ascertain- 
ing the  amount  of  salt  in  the  feed-water  of  a   marine 
boiler.     It     is     either     a     hydrometer     graduated     for 
degrees   of   saltness,  and  by  which  the  specific  gravity 
of  the  water  is  measured,   or  a  thermometer  by  which 
the  boiling  point  of   the  water  is   determined,   and  the 
percentage    of    salt    in    solution    deduced    therefrom. 
Salting. — -The    deposits    of    salt    which    accumulate    on 
the   plates   of  a   marine  boiler.     It   is   not  injurious   to 
the   plates    unless   excessive   in    quantity.     The   density 
of    the    feed-water   should   not   exceed   ten    ounces    of 
salt   per   gallon. 
Saturated    Steam. —  Steam    which    remains    in    contact 
with    the    water    from    which    it    has    been    generated, 
and   therefore   retains   a   quantity   of   water   in    suspen- 
sion.    Also   called    Dry   Steam. 
Scaling. —  The    process    of    removing    the    scale    or    de- 
posits   of    carbonate    of    lime,    etc.,    from    the    interior 
of   boiler   plates.     It  is  effected   by  a  process   of  chip- 
ping   with    a     keen-edged    hammer    called    a    scaling- 
hammer. 
Sectional    Boiler. —  A    boiler    composed    of    a    number 
of   small    independent   heating   tubes.     The   advantages 
of   sectional   boilers    are    the    high   pressures    that   may 
be     developed     in     them,     the     strength    of    the    small 
tubes,    the    prevention    of    explosions,    the    rapid    trans- 
mission   of    heat,    and    the    facility    with    which    local 
injuries    may    be    repaired.     Their    disadvantages    con- 
sist   in    the    tendency    to    accumulate    deposits    in    the 
flues,    the   tendency   to   overheating,    and   the   difficulty 
exjierienced   in    clearing   them    out. 
Scum   Cock. —  A   cock  inserted  in   the  side  of  a   marine 
boiler    for    discharging   the    dirt    and    scum    carried    to 
the    surface    of    the    water,    and    which    if    allowed    to 
remain   in   the   water   would    deposit   and   form   an   in- 
jurious  scale.      See    Ballooning. 
SooT    Door. —  A    square   iron    door    built   into    the    front 
ends    of    the    brickwork    flues    of    horizontal    boilers, 
through  which  the  accumulations  of  soot  are  removed 
periodically. 
Stays. —  Rods    or    tubes    which    connect    and     stay    the 
flat    ends    of    the    boiler.     They    are    made    either    of 
copper,    wrought-iron,    or    steel.      Bar    stays    and    tube 
staj'S,     also     called    screwed    stays,    are    first    screwed 
into    the    ends    of    the    shells    or    fire-boxes,    and    then 
secured  either  with  nuts  or  by  riveting.     Gusset  stays 
are   riveted. 
Steam    Room. —  The   area  included   between  the  highest 
water  level   in,  the  boiler   and   the  boiler  crown.     It  is 
the  space   occupied  by   the  steam. 
Testing. —  The    strength    of    steam    boilers    or    their    ca- 
pacity    to     withstand     the     stresses     due     to     internal 
steam   pressures    are   usually   ascertained   by   the   appli- 
cation  of   a  pressure   of   water   produced   by   means   of 
a  test  pump.     The  pressure  usually  applied  under  test 
is    about   twice   the    working   pressure. 
Through   Tubes. —  The  flue  tubes  of  horizontal   boilers. 
They    pass    from    one   end   of   the   boiler   to   the   other, 
and   are   attached  to   the   end   plates. 
Tie    Bolts. —  Long   screw   bolts   employed   for   the   pur- 
pose   of    staying    large,    flat    surfaces,    which    are    in- 
herently   weak. 
Transfer    of    Heat. —  The    transmission    of    heat    from 
the    furnace    of    a    boiler    to    the    water   in    the    boiler. 
The  rate  of  transmission  or  the  number  of  heat  units 
transferred   per   hour,   varies   according  to   the   amount 
of  heating  surface,   and  is  directly  proportional  to  the 
thickness  of  the  plates.    Furnace  area  is  more  efficient 
than  tube  area. 
Tube     Plates. —  The    plates    into    which     the    tubes    of 
multitubular    boilers    or    surface     condensers     are     in- 
serted  and  secured. 
Tubular    Boiler. —  Various    forms    of    locomotive,    ma- 
rine,     portable,      horizontal,     vertical,     and     sectional 
boilers. 
Uptake. —  In    a    vertical    boiler,    it    is    the    internal    flue 
which   leads   from   the   furnace  to   the   chimney.     In   a 
marine   boiler,   it   is   the   return   flue. 
Vent. —  The    value    obtained    by    multiplying    the    calori- 
meter  of  a  boiler  by   its   length. 
Vertical     Boiler. —  A     ste.nm     boiler    of    circular    hori- 
zontal   section.     Vertical    boilers    are    chiefly    used    in 
con-i2ction     with    small     steam     engines,     and    are    not 


BOILING  POINT— BOIS  DE  BOULOGNE 


nearly  as  economical  as  those  of  the  horizontal  type, 
as  the  products  of  combustion  pass  from  the  fire-box 
directly    into    the    chimney. 

Water  Bridge. —  A  form  of  bridge  which  is  made  of 
iron  and  is  continuous  with  the  boiler  itself.  It  is 
hollow,  and  therefore  assists  the  circulation  of  the 
water  which  passes  through  the  interior  of  the  boiler. 

Water  Tube  Boiler. —  Various  forms  of  sectional 
boilers  of  the  Yarrow,  Thornycroft,  Babcock  and 
^Vilcox,    Belleville,    and   other   classes. 

William  Morey,  Jr.,  C.  E., 
Consulting  Civil  and  Mechanical  Engineer, 

Nczu  York  City. 

Boiling  Point,  the  temperature  at  which  a 
liquid  boils,  when  e.xposed  to  a  definite  pres- 
sure, which  is  understood  to  be  the  ordinary 
atmosplieric  pressure,  in  the  absence  of  any  spe- 
cific statement  to  the  contrary.  When  a  hquid 
is  freely  e.xposed  to  the  air,  evaporation  goes  on 
constantly  from  its  surface,  the  heat  required 
being  absorbed  from  surrounding  bodies.  If 
the  liquid  is  warmed,  the  evaporation  goes  on 
at  an  increased  rate;  but  as  its  temperature  is 
increased  by  the  application  of  heat,  there  comes 
a  time  when  mere  superficial  evaporation  can- 
not take  care  of  all  the  heat  supplied.  Bubbles  of 
vapor  then  form  within  the  body  of  the  liquid, 
and  the  liquid  is  said  to  have  attained  its  "boil- 
ing point."  If  the  supply  of  heat  be  now  in- 
creased, it  is  found  that  the  temperature  of  the 
liquid  remains  stationary;  bubbles  merely  form 
more  rapidly,  so  that  the  rate  of  loss  of  heat 
through  evaporation  is  still  maintained  equal  to 
the  rate  of  supply.  The  temperature  of  boiling 
depends  upon  the  pressure ;  for  at  an  increased 
pressure  the  bubbles  are  formed  in  the  interior 
of  the  liquid  with  greater  difficulty,  and  therefore 
not  until  a  higher  temperature  is  attained.  The 
variation  from  this  cause  is  considerable.  Thus 
the  boiling  point  of  water,  under  a  pressure  of 
one  atmosphere,  is  212°  F.,  while  under  a  pres- 
sure of  two  atmospheres  it  is  about  250°  F.  At 
the  reduced  pressures  prevailing  on  the  tops 
of  mountains,  the  boiling  point  of  water  is  lower 
than  2X2°  F.,  and  advantage  of  this  fact  is  taken 
for  determining  the  heights  of  mountains  by 
observations  of  the  boiling  point  at  their  sum- 
mits. (See  Hypsometry.)  When  the  liquid  is 
not  open  freely  to  the  air,  but  confined  in  a 
closed  vessel,  its  temperature  can  be  raised 
indefinitely  by  the  application  of  heat,  but  the 
vapor  in  the  space  above  it  is  denser,  and  has 
a  greater  pressure,  at  higher  temperatures.  The 
correspondence  between  pressure  and  tempera- 
ture, under  these  circumstances,  is  very  exact, 
although  no  simple  law  connecting  the  two 
is  known.  Rankine  gave  an  empirical  formula 
for  the  relation  between  them,  of  which  com- 
puters of  steam  tables  have  made  great  use 
('Miscellaneous  Scientific  Papers,^  page  i);  but 
the  physical  significance  of  this  formula  is  un- 
known. The  relation  between  the  pressure  and 
boiling  point  of  a  liquid  is  commonly  exhibited 
by  means  of  a  table  in  which  the  temperatures 
of  ebullition  are  set  down  opposite  the  corre- 
sponding pressures.  (For  a  table  of  this  sort 
for  water,  see  Ste.\m.)  The  phenomena  de- 
scribed above  in  connection  with  the  free  evapo- 
ration from  a  liquid  exposed  to  the  air  are  in 
general  true,  but  certain  qualifications  must  be 
made,  under  certain  special  conditions.  Thus, 
it  is  difficult  to  induce  water  to  boil  when  it  has 
been  freed  from  dissolved  air;  and  in  the  entire 
absence  of  such  air  De  Luc  found  that  water 
can  be  heated  as  high  as  234°  F.,  under  ordinary 


atmospheric  pressure,  before  boiling,  if  the  ex- 
periment is  performed  with  proper  care.  A 
liquid  thus  heated  to  a  temperature  in  excess 
of  the  normal  boiling  point  corresponding  to  the 
pressure  to  which  it  is  subjected  is  said  to  be 
^^superheated."  When  boiling  does  finally  oc- 
cur in  a  superheated  liquid,  it  takes  place  with 
almost  explosive  suddenness,  and  the  loss  of 
vapor  is  exceedingly  rapid  for  a  moment  or  two, 
until  the  temperature  of  the  liquid  has  been 
reduced  by  this  means  to  the  normal  tempera- 
ture corresponding  to  the  pressure  prevailing  at 
the  time.  The  temperature  at  which  ebullition 
takes  place  is  also  influenced  to  a  certain  extent 
by  the  nature  of  the  vessel  in  which  the  liquid 
is  heated.  Thus  Marcet  found  that  in  a  glass 
vessel  which  had  been  carefully  washed  out 
with  sulphuric  acid,  and  then  well  rinsed,  pure 
water  does  not  boil  until  a  temperature  of  223°  F. 
has  been  attained.  All  results  of  this  kind 
are  of  an  indefinite  character,  however,  since 
they  relate  to  the  temperature  at  which  boiling 
first  begins,  rather  than  to  the  state  in  which 
the  liquid  and  its  vapor  are  in  a  condition  of 
permanent  thermal  and  mechanical  equilibrium. 
Superheated  water  is  in  an  unstable  state,  and, 
according  to  some  authorities,  not  a  few  boiler 
explosions  have  been  due  to  the  superheating 
of  the  water  present,  from  some  cause,  and  the 
subsequent  explosive  liberation  of  steam,  as  the 
water  returned  to  its  normal  condition ;  but  this 
notion  concerning  the  cause  of  boiler  explosions 
has  never  been  substantiated  by  experiment  or 
otherwise,  and  must  be  regarded  as  a  mere 
speculation,  without  any  foundation  in  fact.  A 
liquid  has  a  higher  boiling  point,  when  it  con- 
tains some  substance  in  solution,  than  it  has 
when  pure.  The  effect  of  dissolving  salt  or  any 
other  electrolyte  is  complicated  by  the  occurrence 
of  dissociation  (q.v.)  ;  but  for  dilute  solutions 
of  non-electrolytes,  like  sugar,  the  following  law, 
first  given  by  Raoult,  holds  true:  If  a  series 
of  dilute  solutions  of  such  substances  be  pre- 
pared, each  solution  containing,  per  unit  weight 
of  the  solvent,  an  amount  of  solid  proportional 
to  the  molecular  weight  of  the  solid,  then  the 
solutions  so  prepared  will  all  boil  at  the  same 
temperature.  (See  Solution.s.)  For  marking 
the  "boiling  point"  upon  thermometers,  it  is  the 
universal  practice  to  expose  the  thermometers 
to  the  steam  rising  from  the  boiling  water,  rather 
than  to  immerse  them  in  the  water  itself;  for  the 
temperature  of  the  steam  is  independent  of  the 
presence  of  traces  of  dissolved  substances  in 
the  water,  and  also  of  the  action  of  such  acci- 
dental or  irregular  causes  as  the  superheating  of 
the  water.     See  Thermometry. 

Boilly,  Louis  Leopold,  loo-e  la-6-p61d 
bwa'ye,  French  painter:  b.  La  Bassee.  France; 
d.  1845.  To  his  prolific  brush  are  attributed 
about  5.000  paintings,  chiefly  historical.  The 
period  represented  on  his  canvases  ranges  from 
the  time  of  Louis  XVI.  to  the  end  of  the  Resto- 
ration. Among  his  w^orks  are:  'Arrival  of  the 
Diligence*    (1803)  ;  and  'Isabey's  Atelier.* 

Bois  d'Arc,  bwa-dark,  the  osage  orange 
(q.v.). 

Bois  de  Boulogne,  bw^a-de  boo-16-ny,  oncc 
a  forest  abounding  with  game  near  the  gates 
of  Paris,  now  a  beautiful  park  belonging  to  the 
city:  area,  2.250  acres.  The  greater  part  of  the 
old  trees  were  destroyed  during  the  revolution. 
When  Napoleon  chose  St  Cloud  for  a  summer 


BOIS-LE-DUC  —  BOISSEREE 


residence,  he  ordered  young  trees  to  be  planted, 
had  the  place  enclosed  with  a  wall,  and  stocked 
with  game.  In  1815  the  British  troops  under 
the  Duke  of  Wellington  were  stationed  ni  it,  and 
many  of  the  trees  were  then  cut  down,  but  new 
ones  were  planted  by  Louis  XVIII.  In  1852  it 
came  into  the  possession  of  the  municipality, 
and  is  now  one  of  the  gayest  holiday  prome- 
nades. During  the  Franco-German  war  of 
1870-1  a  large  number  of  the  trees  were  cut 
down  by  the  French  in  preparing  for  the  defense 
of  Paris.  In  the  time  of  the  disturbances  of  the 
Commune  in  1871  several  sanguinary  encounters 
took  place  here.  In  the  Bois  are  the  noted 
Auteuil  and  Longchamp  race  courses,  and  also 
the  Jardin  d'Acclimatation. 

Bois-le-Duc,  bwa-le-diik  (Dutch  Herto- 
genbosch),  the  capital  of  the  province  of  North 
Brabant,  in  Holland,  49  miles  southeast  of 
Amsterdam,  at  the  confluence  of  the  Dommel 
and  the  Aa,  which  form,  by  their  junction,  the 
Diest.  It  was  a  strong  fortress  up  to  1876,  but 
has  ceased  to  be  kept  as  such.  It  is  intersected 
by  canals,  and  among  its  buildings  the  chief  is 
the  cathedral,  in  late  Gothic,  built  in  1458-98, 
with  an  old  tower  of  the  nth  century,  and  a 
chapel  of  the  13th,  the  whole  recently  restored. 
Other  buildings  are  the  town-hall,  palace  of  jus- 
tice or  court-house,  the  episcopal  palace,  and  the 
government  buildings.  Among  educational  in- 
stitutions are  a  gymnasium,  a  Latin  school,  and  a 
normal  school  for  teachers.  Bois-le-Duc  has 
many  industrial  establishments  and  an  active 
trade.  Its  chief  manufactures  are  gold  and  sil- 
ver wares,  cigars,  mirrors,  boots,  and  shoes,  etc. 
The  city  suffered  much  in  the  religious  wars 
of  the  i6th  century,  and  fell  into  the  hands  of 
the  Dutch  in  1629.  On  14  Sept.  1794,  the  French 
defeated  the  English  here,  and  on  9  October  of 
the  same  year  it  surrendered  to  Pichegru.  In 
January  1814,  it  was  taken  by  the  Prussians, 
but  the  citadel  held  out.     Pop.  (1900)  44,034. 

Bois-Guilbert,  bw^a-gel-bar.  Sir  Brian,  a 
character  in  Scott's  "^Ivanhoe.'  He  is  a  Knight 
Templar  whose  passionate  attachment  to  the 
beautiful  Jewess  Rebecca,  severe  struggle  with 
his  pride  and  tragical  death  in  the  lists,  form 
one  of  the  most  dramatic  features  of  the  ro- 
mance. 

Bois  de  Vincennes,  bwa  de  van-sen,  the 
ancient  hunting  park  of  Louis  IX. ;  now  a 
pleasure-ground  of  2,250  acres  on  the  west  of 
Paris.  A  large  portion  of  it  is  devoted  to  the 
purposes  of  the  Champ  de  Manoeuvres,  drill- 
ground,   and  polygene  d'artillerie. 

Boise,  James  Robinson,  American  edu- 
cator: b.  Blandford,  Mass.,  27  Jan.  1815:  d.  Chi- 
cago. 9  Feb.  1895.  He  was  graduated  at  Brown 
in  1840.  and  received  an  appointment  there  as 
tutor  in  ancient  languages.  In  1850  he  went 
abroad  to  study ;  in  1852  became  professor  of 
the  Greek  language  and  literature  in  the  Um- 
vprsity  of  Michigan  ;  in  1868  took  the  same  chair 
in  the  University  of  Chicago.  Upon  the  es- 
tablishment of  the  new  University  of  Chicago,  he 
was  appointed  professor  emeritus  of  New  Testa- 
ment Greek.  The  numerous  classical  text-books 
edited  bv  him  were  widely  used.  Besides  these, 
he  published:  'Notes  on  the  Greek  Text  of 
Paul's  Epistles  to  the  Ephesians.  Colossians, 
Philemon,  and  the  Phih'ppians^  (1884)  :  < Notes 
on  the  Greek  Text  of  Galatians  and  Romans^ 
ri886). 


Boise,  Otis  Bardwell,  American  composer 
and  music  teacher :  b.  Oberlin,  Ohio,  13  Aug. 
1844.  After  studying  music  in  Leipsic  he  set- 
tled in  New  York  as  a  teacher  of  composition 
and  for  a  time  was  organist  of  the  Fifth  Avenae 
Presbyterian  Church.  During  1876-7  he  was 
again  in  Europe  studying  and  had  the  benefit 
of  Franz  Liszt's  advice  and  criticism,  after 
which  he  resumed  teaching  in  New  York.  Since 
1888  he  has  been  engaged  in  professional  work 
in  Berlin.  He  has  published:  'Harmony  Made 
Practical^  (1900);  'Music  and  Its  Masters^ 
(1901),  and  many  articles  in  journals  devoted 
to  music. 

Boise,  Idaho,  the  capital  of  the  State  and 
county-seat  of  Ada  County ;  on  the  Boise  River 
and  the  Union  P.  R.R. ;  45  miles  southwest  of 
Idaho  City.  It  occupies  the  site  of  a  former 
trading  post  of  the  Hudson  Bay  Company ;  is  in 
an  agricultural  and  a  rich  mining  region ;  and  is 
supplied  with  pure  hot  water  from  a  flowing 
boiling  well.  The  city  is  said  to  be  the  only  one 
in  the  world  having  a  natural  supply  of  hot 
water.  It  contains  the  State  capitol,  erected  in 
1885-7,  penitentiary.  United  States  assay  ofhce, 
State  library,  high  and  graded  schools,  and  two 
national  banks.  Its  mayor  is  elected  biennially. 
Pop.    (1900)   5,957. 

Boisgobey,  Fortune  Abraham  du,  for-tu- 
na  ab-ra-ham  dii  bwa-go-ba,  French  novelist: 
b.  Granville,  11  Sept.  1821  ;  d.  February  1891. 
In  1844-8  he  was  paymaster  in  the  army  at  Al- 
giers, and  began  to  write  in  1868,  somewhat  on 
the  lines  of  Emile  Gaboriau.  His  novels  were 
popular,  and  include:  'The  Scoundrels'  (Paris 
1873);  'Chevalier  Casse-Con'  (1873);  'The 
Mysteries  of  Modern  Paris'  (1876)  ;  'The 
Demi-Monde  Under  the  Terror'  (1877)  ;  'The 
Old  Age  of  M.  Lecoq>  (1878)  ;  'The  Cat's  Eye> 
(1888);   and   'The  Cold  Hand'    (1879). 

Boisseree  (bwa-sra)  Collection,  a  number 
of  pictures  exhibited  in  Munich,  which  were  col- 
lected by  the  brothers  Sulpice  (1783-1854)  and 
Melchior  Boisseree  (1786-1851),  and  John  Ber- 
tram, men  who,  animated  by  love  of  the  arts, 
began,  at  the  time  of  the  destruction  of  the 
monasteries,  during  and  after  the  French  revo- 
lution, to  purchase  old  pictures,  and  afterward 
completed  their  collection  by  the  addition  of 
many  valuable  paintings  of  the  old  German 
school.  By  this  collection  the  brothers  Bois- 
seree and  Bertram  happily  realized  the  idea  of 
a  historical  series  of  old  German  paintings.  It 
is  to  their  endeavors  that  we  owe  the  discovery 
that  Germany  possessed,  as  early  as  the  13th 
century,  a  school  of  painters  of  much  merit, 
which,  like  the  Italian,  proceeded  from  the  old 
Byzantine  school,  but  became,  in  the  sequel, 
distinguished  by  excellences  of  its  own.  We 
owe  to  these  collectors,  also,  the  restoration  to 
favor  of  the  forgotten  Low  German  masters,  and 
a  just  estimation  of  John  van  Eyck,  as  the  crea- 
tor of  the  genuine  German  style  of  painting. 
The  most  distinguished  connoisseurs  and  art- 
ists, including  Goethe,  Canova,  Dannecker,  and 
Thorwaldsen,  have  strongly  expressed  their  ad- 
miration of  this  collection.  It  was  first  brought 
together  and  exhibited  at  Heidelberg,  and  after- 
ward removed  to  Stuttgart,  where  the  king  of 
Wurtemberg  assigned  it  a  suitable  building. 
The  collection  remained  there  till  1828,  when 
King  Louis  of  Bavaria,  having  purchased  it  in 
the  previous  year  for  120,000  thalers,  removed 


BOISSIER  — BOITO 


it  to  Schleissheim,  and  in  1836  most  of  the  paint- 
ings were  sent  to  Munich.  A  lithographic  work 
on  this  collection  was  published  in  40  parts 
between  1821  and  1840.  See  ^Sulpiz  Boisseree/ 
a  biography  (1862). 

Boissier,  Marie  Louis  Gaston,  ma-re  loo-e 
gas-ton  bwa-sya,  French  archseologist  and 
historian :  b.  Nimes,  15  Aug.  1823.  After  study- 
ing at  the  Ecole  Normale  he  was  an  instructor 
in  rhetoric  in  his  native  city  1847-57  5  professor  of 
Latin  eloquence  and  literature  at  the  College 
de  France  from  1861,  was  elected  to  the  French 
Academy  in  1876  and  to  the  Academy  of  In- 
scriptions and  Belles-lettres  1886.  His  literary 
style  has  been  much  praised  for  its  clearness  and 
beauty.  His  works  comprise  ^Le  poete  Attius^ 
(1857);  ^Etude  sur  la  ire  et  les  ouvrages  de 
Terentius  Varron^  (1861)  ;  ^La  religion  ro- 
maine  d'Auguste  aux  Antonins'  (1883)  ;  *  La- 
fin  du  paganisme^  (1894)  ;  ^Ciceron  et  ses  amis^ 
(1892)  ;  and  'Promenades  archeologiques  Rome 
et  Pompei'  (1892)  ;  the  two  last  named  being 
marvelously  accurate  and  vivid  reconstructions 
of  the  antique  spirit  and  atmosphere.  Other 
works  are:  'Roman  Africa,'  and  *The  Country 
of  Horace  and  Vergil.' 

Boissieu,  Jean  Jacques  de,  zhoii  zhak  bwa- 
sye,  French  painter  and  engraver:  b.  Lyons, 
1738;  d.  there  in  1810.  He  was  intended  bj^  his 
parents  for  the  magistracy,  but  manifested  such 
a  decided  inclination  for  drawing  that  he  was 
allowed  to  follow  it.  After  remaining  for  some 
time  at  Lyons,  and  painting  some  excellent  imi- 
tations of  the  Flemish  school,  he  visited  Paris, 
where  his  intimacy  with  the  most  celebrated 
artists  of  the  time  enabled  him  greatly  to  im- 
prove his  style.  On  his  return  to  Lyons  he  de- 
voted his  attention  chiefly  to  engraving.  He 
afterward  accompanied  the  Due  de  Rochefou- 
cauld to  Italy,  and  having  studied  the  works  of 
the  great  masters  with  the  greatest  assiduity, 
resumed  painting;  but  as  the  use  of  oil  injured 
his  health,  he,  shortly  after  his  return  to  France, 
abandoned  it  finally  for  engraving,  in  which 
his  reputation  soon  became  European,  and  his 
works  were  eagerly  purchased  by  the  most 
wealthy  and  distinguished  amateurs.  His  en- 
gravings amount  to  140  plates,  among  which  that 
of  'Le  Charlatan,'  after  a  picture  by  Karel  Du- 
jardin,   is  considered  his    masterpiece. 

Boissonade,  Jean  Frangois,  zhoii  friin-swa 
bwa-s6-nad,  French  classical  scholar:  b. 
Paris,  12  Aug.  1774;  d.  Passy,  8  Sept.  1857.  He 
was  educated  at  the  College  d'Harcourt,  and  at 
the  age  of  18  was  attached  to  the  ministry  of 
foreign  affairs.  He  subsequentlj'  became  a  con- 
tributor to  periodical  literature  in  the  'Magasin 
Encyclopedique'  of  Millin  and  the  'Journal  de 
I'Empire,'  the  precursor  of  the  'Journal  des 
Debats.'  Ancient  and  modern  literature,  both 
French  and  foreign,  grammatical  criticism,  bibli- 
ography, and  natural  sciences  occupied  his  pen. 
In  1813  he  was  admitted  a  member  of  the  Acad- 
emy of  Inscriptions  and  Belles-Lettres.  He 
afterward  wrote  about  150  articles  for  the  'Bi- 
ographic Universelle.'  He  became,  in  1809, 
assistant  of  Larcher,  as  Greek  professor  of  the 
faculty  of  letters  in  Paris,  and  four  years  after- 
ward he  succeeded  him  both  in  the  faculty  and 
in  the  institute.  Finally,  in  1828,  he  was  called 
to  the  chair  of  Greek  literature  in  the  College 
of  France.  From  this  time  he  devoted  himself 
entirely  to   his   duties  as   a  professor,   and  his 


labors  as  a  classical  editor.  He  has  produced 
no  complete  work  in  French,  but  is  said  to  have 
written  Latin  with  natural  grace  and  elegance, 
and  his  editions  of  the  classics  are  highly  es- 
teemed. His  editorial  labors  were  also  extended 
to  a  few  French  works,  and  he  translated  a 
heroi-comic  poem,  the  "Genpillen,"  from  the  Por- 
tuguese. 

Boissy  d'Anglas,  Fransois  Antoine,  friin- 
swa  an-twan  bwa-se  dan-glas  (Comte  de), 
French  statesman  of  the  revolutionary  period: 
b.  Saint  Jean-la-Chambre,  near  Annonay,  1756; 
d.  Paris,  20  Oct.  1826.  He  studied  at  Annonay, 
and  was  admitted  as  an  advocate  to  the  parlia- 
ment of  Paris.  In  1789  he  was  elected  to  the 
States-General  where  he  was  a  moderate  advocate 
of  revolutionary  principles,  in  support  of  which 
he  wrote  at  this  time  various  brochures.  In 
1792  he  was  returned  as  a  deputy  to  the  con- 
vention. He  voted  against  the  death  of  Louis 
XVI.,  and  after  the  fall  of  Robespierre  he  was 
appointed  secretary  of  the  convention,  and  a 
member  of  the  Committee  of  Public  Safety.  He 
was  created  a  peer  by  Louis  XVIII.  in  1814,  but 
supported  Napoleon  during  the  Hundred  Days, 
and  was  consequently  expelled  from  the  peerage 
by  a  royal  ordinance,  but  shortly  afterward  re- 
instated. He  was  from  1803  a  member  of  the 
consistory  of  the  Reformed  Church,  a  member 
of  the  Institute  from  its  commencement,  and 
on  its  reconstruction  in  1816  he  became  a  mem- 
ber of  the  Academy  of  Inscriptions.  He  wrote 
an  essay  on  the  life  and  writings  of  Alale- 
sherbes  (1819-21)  ;  'Etudes  Litteraires  et 
Poetiques  d'un  Vieillard'   (1825). 

The  fame  of  Boissy  d'Anglas  rests  chiefly  on 
a  scene  in  the  convention  in  1795,  when  the  hall 
was  invaded  by  an  angry  mob  demanding  bread 
and  the  Constitution  of  1793.  Called  temporarily 
to  take  the  chair,  in  the  absence  of  the  president, 
Boissy  had  presented  to  him  the  head  of  a 
deputy,  Feraud,  which  had  been  cut  off  by  the 
insurgents  and  placed  on  the  end  of  a  pike.  He 
saluted  it,  and  continued  calmly  facing  the  mob, 
and  to  his  courage  and  firmness  the  safety  of  the 
convention  at  this  crisis  is  attributed.  Such  is 
the  popular  version  of  a  story  of  which  the  most 
various  and  contradictory  accounts  are  given. 
It  has  been  said  that  Boissy  d'Anglas  exhibited 
no  such  courage  as  has  been  attributed  to  him, 
and  that  he  was  merely  kept  in  his  place  by  the 
pressure  of  the  mob.  His  enemies,  who  accused 
him  of  reactionary  tendencies,  even  said  the  in- 
surrection was  started  by  the  reactionary  party  to 
discredit  the  revolution,  and  that  Boissy  was  in 
understanding  with  the  leaders  of  the  mob.  For 
this  last  accusation  there  appears  to  be  no 
foundation,  but  it  is  quite  likely  the  scene  may 
have  been  represented  in  a  more  dramatic  form 
than  as  it  actually  occurred. 

Boito,  Arrigo,  a-re'go  b5-e'to,  Italian  com- 
poser :  b.  Padua,  24  Feb.  1842.  His  great  work, 
the  opera  'Mefistofele,'  occupied  him  for  nearly 
20  years.  The  garden  scene  was  written  while 
he  was  a  student  in  the  IMilan  Conservatory  in 
1856,  and  the  score  was  finished  for  the  stage  in 
1868,  the  composer  having  done  much  literary 
work  in  the  interim  and  lived  variously  in 
France.  Germany,  and  Poland.  On  5  March 
1868,  'Mefistofele'  was  sung  at  La  Scala.  Milan, 
the  performance  lasting  six  hours,  much  inter- 
rupted by  hissing  and  applause,  and  its  failure 
was  evident.     Boito  then  remodeled  the  opera. 


BOIVIN  —  BOKHARA 


and  in  1875  it  was  produced  at  Bologna  with 
great  success.  It  was  sung  in  other  cities  with 
equal  success,  but  it  has  never  been  a  popular 
opera  in  the  full  sense  of  the  word.  In  1883 
it  was  produced  at  the  New  York  Metropolitan 
Opera  House  with  Campanini  and  Nilsson  in 
the  cast  and  was  revived  in  1896  and  again  in 
1901.  The  opera  is  considered  one  of  the  most 
important  of  modern  Italian  operas,  marking,  as 
it  does,  the  precise  point  where  the  modern 
school  of  Italian  composition,  illustrated  by  the 
later  works  of  Verdi,  Mascagni,  Puccini,  etc., 
diverges  from  the  work  of  the  Bellini  and  Doni- 
zetti school.  Boito's  other  operas,  ^Ero  e 
Leandro^  ;  ^Nerone^  ;  and  *Orestiade^  have 
never   been   sung. 

Boivin,  Marie  Anne  Victoire,  ma-re  an 
vic-twar  bwa-vah  (Gillain),  French  midwife, 
upon  whom  a  diploma  of  M.D.  was  conferred 
by  the  University  of  Marburg,  noted  for  her 
writings  on  obstetrics :  b.  Montreuil,  9  April 
^712)\  d.  16  May  1841.  She  was  educated  in  a 
nunnery,  where  by  her  talents  she  attracted  the 
attention  of  the  sister  of  Louis  XVI.,  Madame 
Elisabeth.  When  the  nunnery  where  she  was 
placed  was  destroyed  in  the  course  of  the  revo- 
lution, she  spent  three  years  in  the  study  of 
anatomy  and  midwifery.  In  1797  she  married 
an  employee  at  Versailles,  of  the  name  of  Boivin, 
but  on  being  left  after  a  short  time  a  widow 
with  a  child  and  without  fortune,  undertook 
the  office  of  midwife  at  the  Hospital  of  the 
Maternity,  and,  in  1801,  was  appointed  chief 
superintendent  of  the  institution,  to  which,  in 
accordance  with  her  suggestion,  a  special  school 
of  accouchement  was  added  by  Chaptal.  Her 
<  Memorial  de  I'art  des  accouchements,^  published 
in  1824,  passed  through  several  editions.  The 
empress  of  Russia  invited  her  to  St.  Petersburg, 
but  she  declined. 

Bojaca,  bo-zha'ka.  Battle  of,  so  called 
from  having  been  fought  near  the  bridge  of  the 
small  town  of  Bojaca,  not  far  from  the  city  of 
Tunja,  between  the  Spaniards  under  Barreyro, 
and  the  united  forces  of  Venezuela  and  New 
Granada,  commanded  by  Bolivar.  It  occurred 
7  Aug.  1819,  and  was  decisive  of  the  independ- 
ence of  New  Granada.  Among  the  Republicans, 
Gens.  Anzuategui,  Paez,  and  Santander  distin- 
guished themselves;  and  tiie  Spaniards  sustained 
a  total  defeat,  their  general,  most  of  their  offi- 
cers and  men  who  survived  the  battle,  together 
with  all  their  arms,  ammunition,  and  equipments, 
falling  into  the  hands  of  Bolivar.  So  complete 
was  the  destruction  of  the  Spanish  army,  that 
the  viceroy  instantly  fled  from  Santa  Fe,  leav- 
ing even  the  public  treasure  a  prey  to  the 
conquerors. 

Bojador,  bo-zha-dor'.  Cape,  a  promontory 
on  the  west  coast  of  Africa;  lat.  26°  7'  10"  N. ; 
Ion.  14°  29'  W.  It  is  one  of  the  projecting 
points  of  the  great  desert  of  Sahara,  and  forms 
the  west  extremity  of  a  rocky  ridge  called  the 
Jebel-khal  or  Black  Mountain.  The  coast  north' 
of  this  cape  is  extremely  dangerous,  being  shal- 
low to  a  great  distance  out,  and  constantly  en- 
veloped in  a  haze.  It  has  been,  in  consequence, 
the  scene  of  many  a  melancholy  disaster.  Cape 
Bojador  was  long  the  limit  of  navigation 
toward  the  south  and  was  first  passed  by  the 
Portuguese  in  1433. 


Bojol',  Philippines,  an  island  north  of 
Mindanao,  about  40  miles  long  by  30  miles  wide. 
It  is  woody  and  mountainous.  Rice  and  gold 
are  its  chief  productions.     Pop.  187,000. 

Bok,  Edward  William,  American  editor: 
b.  Helder,  Holland,  9  Oct.  1863.  He  came  to  the 
United  States  in  infancy,  and  was  educated  in 
the  public  schools  of  Brooklyn.  He  has  edited 
the  ^Ladies'  Home  Journal,^  and  written  ^The 
Young  Man  in  Business,^  and  ^Successward.' 

Boker,  George  Henry,  American  poet  and 
dramatist:  b.  Philadelphia,  Pa.,  6  Oct.  1823;  d. 
there,  2  Jan.  i8qo.  He  graduated  from  Prince- 
ton in  1842 ;  studied  law  ;  and  was  United  States 
minister  to  Turkey  in  1871-5,  and  to  Russia  in 
i875~9-  His  plays  include:  *Calaynos'  (1848); 
'Anne  Boleyn^  (1850)  ;  'Francesca  da  Rimini^ ; 
'The  Betrothed^  and  'All  the  World's  a 
Mask.^  He  published  also  'Poems  of  the  War^ 
(1864)  ;  'Konigsmark  and  other  Poems'  (1869)  ; 
'The  Book  of  the  Dead>  (1882)  ;  and  Sonnets' 
(1886)  ;  'Francesca'  is  his  best  play  and  has 
been  several  times  put  upon  the  stage  by  Barrett 
and  other  actors. 

Bokelmann,  Christian  Ludwig,  krist-yan 
lood-vig  bo'kel-man,  German  painter:  b. 
Saint  Jixrgen,  1844;  d.  1894.  He  was  a  pupil  of 
Wilhelm  Sohn  at  Dtisseldorf  and  became  dis- 
tinguished as  a  genre  and  portrait  painter. 
Among  his  works  are:  'House  of  Sorrow'; 
'Pawnbroker's  Shop';  'Opening  of  the  Will': 
^Portrait  of  Klaus  Groths.' 

Bokhara,  bo-ka'ra,  a  khanate  of  Central 
Asia,  practically  vassal  to  Russia,  bounded  on 
the  north  by  Russian  Turkestan,  west  by  Khiva 
and  the  Russian  Trans-Caspian  territory,  south 
by  Afghanistan,  and  east  by  Russian  Turkestan. 
It  formerly  occupied  considerably  more  territory 
than  now,  having  been  reduced  by  the  conquests 
and  encroachments  of  Russia,  which  have  been 
only  partially  compensated  by  some  additions. 
The  present  area  of  the  khanate  is  estimated  at 
about  92,000  square  miles.  The  country  is  to  a 
great  extent  occupied  by  deserts  and  low  and 
naked  ranges  of  mountains,  and  the  cultivated 
portions  of  it  are  confined  to  the  valley  of  the 
rivers,  especially  the  Oxus  or  Amoo  Daria,  which 
forms  the  southern  boundary  for  a  considerable 
distance,  and  then  flows  from  southeast  to  north- 
west parallel  to  and  not  far  from  the  frontier 
of  the  country.  Bokhara  lies  between  lat.  2)1° 
and  41°  N.,  and  in  greater  part  is  no  more  than 
1,100  or  1,200  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea, 
but  in  the  extreme  east  is  mountainous.  The 
climate  is  subject  to  great  extremes,  being  warm, 
in  summer  and  very  cold  in  winter.  There  is 
very  little  rain,  on  which  account  it  is  necessary 
to  resort  to  artificial  irrigation.  Besides  cereals, 
cotton,  tobacco,  and  vegetables  are  cultivated, 
and  there  is  abundance  of  fruit.  The  total  popu- 
lation amounts  to  about  2,250,000,  and  consists 
of  the  Uzbecks,  who  are  the  ruling  race,  and 
to  whom  the  emir  belongs:  the  Tajiks,  who 
form  the  majority  in  the  capital;  the  Kirghizes, 
less  numerous  than  the  Tajiks;  about  60,000 
Arabians,  descendants  of  the  soldiers  who  were 
brought  into  the  country  by  the  third  caliph  of 
Bagdad  on  the  occasion  of  the  conquest  of 
Turkestan ;  Persians  who  have  chiefly  been 
brought  as  slaves  to  Bokhara ;  Turcomans,  Hin- 
dus, and  about  10,000  Jews  who  live  in  the  towns 
beyond  the  protection  of  the  law.  and  accordingly 
oppressed  by  the   other  inhabitants.     Since   the 


BOKHARA 


separation  of  Samarcand  there  are  now  only  two 
towns  of  importance  in  Bokhara,  namely,  the 
chief  town  Bokhara,  with  a  population  of  about 
60,000 ;  and  Karshi,  with  about  25,000.  Besides 
these  there  are  a  few  small  towns  and  some  hun- 
dred villages  in  the  country.  The  capital,  ac- 
cording to  Vambery,  the  centre  of  Tartar  civili- 
zation, is  ill  built  and  has  a  gloomy  aspect,  and 
in  luxury  of  dress  and  mode  of  life  is  far  be- 
hind the  towns  of  western  Asia.  Among  the 
people  there  reigns  the  utmost  moral  corruption 
along  with  a  rigorous  adherence  to  outward 
forms.  The  country  is  distinguished  from  the 
other  countries  of  Central  Asia  by  its  numer- 
ous schools,  and  in  the  same  proportion  by  the 
amount  of  culture  diffused  among  the  people 
generally ;  but  the  women  are  even  more  de- 
graded than  in  other  Mohammedan  countries. 
The  rule  of  the  emir  is  absolute,  though  he 
is  to  some  extent  under  the  influence  of  the 
clergy.  The  manufactures  are  unimportant,  but 
there  is  a  very  considerable  caravan  trade,  cot- 
ton, rice,  silk,  and  indigo  being  exported,  and 
woven  goods,  sugar,  iron,  etc.,  being  imported. 
There  is  also  now  a  trade  by  railway,  since  the 
making  of  the  line  from  the  Caspian  to  Samar- 
cand. Bokhara  is  remarkable  for  its  religious 
fanaticism,  and  various  European  travelers  have 
been  exposed  to  danger.  After  Alexander 
Burnes  had  visited  Bokhara  on  a  commission 
from  the  government  of  India  in  1832,  the 
British  ambassador  in  Teheran  sent  Col.  Stod- 
dart  in  1838  to  obtain  from  the  Emir  Nasrulla 
the  deliverance  of  the  Russian  prisoners  that 
he  had  taken  on  his  predatory  incursions  into 
Russian  territory.  Nasrulla,  however,  irritated 
at  the  neglect  to  answer  his  letter  to  the  queen 
of  England,  ordered  Col.  Stoddart  to  be  thrown 
into  prison,  and  after  treating  him  with  great 
cruelty,  compelled  him  to  acknowledge  the  Mo- 
hammedan creed.  Capt.  Conolly,  who  had  been 
with  a  similar  object  in  Khiva  and  Khokand, 
came  in  1841  to  Bokhara,  and  after  having  to 
submit  to  the  same  treatment  as  Col.  Stoddart, 
was  executed  along  with  him  in  1842.  Infor- 
mation of  their  fate  was  brought  to  Europe  by 
the  missionary  Wolff,  who  had  been  sent  to 
Bokhara   in    1843    for   this  purpose. 

In  1850  the  Russians  established  themselves 
at  the  mouth  of  the  Sir  (Jaxartes),  where  it 
flows  into  the  Sea  of  Aral,  and  in  1864  they 
found  it  necessary  to  proceed  farther  up  the 
river.  They  made  themselves  masters  of  the 
two  towns  Turkestan  and  Aulie-ata,  and  after 
bringing  them  into  communication  with  one 
another,  invested  Chemkend,  Niazbek,  and 
Chinab.  The  land  thus  occupied,  which  up  to 
that  time  had  formed  the  northern  half  of  the 
khanate  of  Khokand,  was,  along  with  some 
other  districts  that  had  previously  been  an- 
nexed to  Russia,  erected  into  the  Russian  gov- 
ernment of  Turkestan,  and  incorporated  with 
the  general  government  of  Orenburg,  by  the 
ukase  of  14  Feb.  (26)  1865.  By  a  subsequent 
ukase,  dated  11  July  (23)  1867,  this  territory 
wac  constituted  a  general  government.  Soon 
after  the  khan  of  Khokand  invaded  the  Russian 
territory,  in  consequence  of  which  the  Russians 
advanced  still  farther  south  and  attacked  Tash- 
kend,  which  they  took  on  28  June  1865.  They 
did  not,  however,  incorporate  Tashkend  with 
the  Russian  territory,  but  declared  it  an  inde- 
pendent khanate  under  the  protection  of  Russia. 
This    arrangement    was    opposed    by    Muzaffer- 


Eddin,  Emir  of  Bokhara,  whereupon  the  Rus- 
sian general  Romanovski  again  assumed  the 
offensive,  and  marching  into  Bokhara  took  Kho- 
jend by  storm  on  5  June  1866.  In  this  way 
Russia  came  into  the  possession  of  the  whole 
basin  of  the  Sir.  Not  long  after  Tashkend 
was  incorporated  with  the  Russian  territory  by 
the  desire  of  the  inhabitants.  Meanwhile  the 
war  with  Bokhara  still  went  on,  and  peace  was 
not  concluded  till  the  beginning  of  1867.  This' 
peace,  however,  did  not  last  long.  The  war  was 
renewed  in  the  spring  of  the  following  year, 
and  it  was  only  in  July  1868  that  the  terms 
of  peace  between  Russia  and  Bokhara  were 
finally  agreed  upon.  Bokhara  was  to  give  up 
Samarcand  and  Katti  Kurghan,  along  with  the 
surrounding  districts  (constituting  the  tract  of 
land  watered  by  the  Zerafshan),  and  at  the 
same  time  promised  to  pay  an  indemnity  to  Rus- 
sia and  to  protect  her  trade.  Since  then  the 
peace  has  not  been  broken,  but  the  Emir  of 
Bokhara  has  sunk  more  and  more  into  a  posi- 
tion of  entire  dependency  on  Russia.  During 
the  autumn  the  Russians  intervened  against  the 
emir's  son,  who  had  risen  in  revolt  against  him, 
and  on  12  October  in  the  following  year  the 
emir  sent  an  embassy  with  presents  (tribute)  to 
the  czar  at  St.  Petersburg.  In  the  meantime 
Muzaffer-Eddin  had  fallen  into  a  dispute 
with  Afghanistan.  Shere  Ali  Khan,  of  Kabul, 
had  given  a  favorable  reception  to  the  rebellious 
son  of  the  emir,  and  Muzaffer-Eddin,  probably 
in  consequence  of  encouragement  from  Russia, 
now  thought  himself  able  to  make  good  his  for- 
mer claim  to  Badakshan,  and  the  territory  lying 
about  the  sources  of  the  Oxus,  especially  since 
the  Khan  of  Kabul  seemed  to  have  but  a  slight 
hold  of  these  parts.  He  had  accordingly  already 
sent  out  an  army  with  the  view  of  conquering 
those  parts,  when,  toward  the  end  of  1869,  pres- 
sure being  put  upon  him  by  Russia,  he  con- 
cluded a  treaty  with  Kabul  by  which  the  Oxus 
was  fixed  as  the  boundary  of  the  conterminous 
states,  and  this  boundary  was  afterward  recog- 
nized by  Russia  and  England.  After  the  Rus- 
sian expedition  to  Khiva  in  1873  an  agreement 
was  made  between  Russia  and  Bokhara  on 
28  September  of  that  year,  according  to  which 
Bokhara  received  a  portion  of  the  territory  that 
had  been  ceded  by  Khiva  to  Russia,  while  the 
Russians  received  various  privileges  in  return. 
Muzaffer-Eddin  died  in  1885.  and  was  succeeded 
by  his  son  Abd-ul-Ahad.  Bokhara  will  prob- 
ably be  ultimately  completely  placed  under  Rus- 
sian administration,  for  what  little  po\yer  it  had 
lapsed  in  1884  by  the  practical  absorption  of  the 
country,  resulting  from  the  annexation  of  Merv. 
Since  1885  the  troops,  which  were  formerly  ill 
trained  and  badly  armed,  have  been  drilled  by 
Russian  instructors  and  armed  with  rifles.  See 
Le  Messuner,  <From  London  to  Bokhara* 
(1899)  ;  O'Donovan,  <The  Merv  Oasis'  (1880)  ; 
Curzon,   < Russia  in  Central  Asia'    (if" 


Bokhara,  the  capital  of  the  khanate  of  the 
same  name,  in  lat.  39°  48'  N. ;  lon._  64°  26' 
E.  It  is  eight  or  nine  miles  in  circuit,  and  is 
surrounded  by  a  mud-wall.  It  is  poorly  built, 
consisting  of  extremely  narrow  streets  and 
paltry  houses.  The  principal  edifices  are  the 
palace  of  the  khan,  crowning  a  height  near 
the  centre  of  the  town  and  surrounded  by  a 
brick  wall  70  feet  high;  _  and  numerous 
mosques,    the    largest    of    which    is    enameled 


BOL  — BOLESLAS 


with  tiles  of  azure  blue,  and  has  a  tower  210 
feet  high.  The  trade  was  formerly  large  with 
India,  but  has  now  been  almost  completely 
absorbed  by  Russia.  There  are  several  man- 
ufacturing establishments  producing  blades, 
various  metal  articles,  silks,  and  cloth.  The 
pop.  (estimated)  60,000. 

Bol,  bol,  Ferdinand,  Dutch  painter:  b. 
Dordrecht,  1610;  d  .  Amsterdam,  1681.  He 
was  the  pupil  of  Rembrandt,  and  is  best 
known  by  his  admirable  portraits,  in  the  style 
of  that  master,  though  he  likewise  executed 
several  historical  paintings  of  merit.  Many 
of  his  works  are  still  to  be  seen  at  Amster- 
dam. He  also  practised  etching  with  success. 
His  best  known  portrait  is  that  of  Saskia,  the 
wife  of  Rembrandt,  now  in  the  Brussels 
Museum. 

Bolan  (bo-lan')  Pass,  a  celebrated  defile 
in  the  Hala  Mountains,  leading  from  Sind 
into  Beluchistan.  It  is  about  60  miles  long, 
hemmed  in  on  all  sides  by  lofty  precipices, 
and  in  parts  so  narrow  that  a  regiment  could 
defend  it  against  an  army.  It  is  traversed 
by  the  Bolan  River.  The  crest  of  the  pass 
is  5,800  feet  high.  The  English  government 
has  recently  built  a  railway  through  the  pass 
to  connect  Sind  with  Kandahar. 

Bolas  (that  is,  <<balls*),  a  form  of  missile 
used  by  the  Paraguay  Indians,  the  Patago- 
nians,  and  especially  by  the  Gauchos  of  Ar- 
gentine. It  consists  of  a  rope  or  line  hav- 
ing at  either  end  a  stone,  ball  of  metal,  or 
lump  of  hardened  clay.  When  used  it  is 
swung  round  the  head  by  one  end,  and  then 
hurled  at  an  animal  so  as  to  entangle  it. 

Bolbec,  bol-bek,  a  town  in  France,  depart- 
ment of  Seine-Inferieure,  17  miles  east-north- 
east of  Havre ;  agreeably  situated  on  the 
side  of  a  hill,  washed  by  the  Bolbec,  which 
supplies  waterpower  for  its  mills,  and  at  the 
junction  of  four  valleys.  It  is  a  thriving  and 
industrious  place,  and  well  situated  for  com- 
merce. Its  printed  cottons  and  handkerchiefs 
have  long  been  held  in  high  estimation.  Be- 
sides these  it  produces  linen  and  woolen 
stufifs,  lace,  cotton,  velvet,  and  thread,  and 
has  several  dyeworks  and  tanneries,  with  a 
considerable  trade  in  grain,  horses,  and  cattle. 
Pop.   (1896)    12,239. 

Boldini  (bol-de'ne)  Giovanni,  Italian  artist: 
b.  Ferrara,  1845.  He  studied  for  some  time  in 
London,  and  many  of  his  paintings  are  found 
in  American  collections.  His  portraits  have 
been  especially  commended.  Among  his  works 
are  'Gossips^  ;  *The  Connoisseur'  ;  ^Kitchen 
Garden'  ;  and  ^Portrait  of  Menzel.' 

Boldrewood,  Rolf.  See  Browne,  Thomas 
Alexander. 

Bole,  a  term  applied  to  various  clay-like 
substances.  They  are  chielly  hydrous  sili- 
cates of  aluminum  and  iron.  It  is  of  a 
dull  yellow,  brownish,  or  red  color,  feels 
greasy  to  the  touch,  and  yields  to  the  nail.  It 
has  a  conchoidal  fracture  ;  its  streak  is  shining, 
and  it  is  opaque  or  slightly  translucent.  Bole 
is  found  in  various  localities,  such  as  Armenia, 
Saxony,  Tuscany,  and  the  isle  of  Skye  in  Scot- 
land. In  ancient  times,  under  the  name  of 
Lemnian  bole  or  earth,  it  had  a  place  in  the  ma- 
teria medica,  but  is  no  longer  used.     At  present 


the  only  bole  of  commerce  is  a  coarse  pigment 
sold  under  the  name  of  Berlin  and  English 
red. 

Bolero,  bo-la'ro,  the  name  given  by  the 
Spaniards  to  a  number  of  their  national  dances 
of  the  ballet  class,  which  in  Spain  are  regu- 
larly performed  in  theatres  between  the  different 
pieces.  They  are  danced  both  by  men  and 
women,  the  male  dancers  who  take  part  in 
these  performances  being  also  called  boleros, 
while  the  females  are  called  boleras.  The  dances 
of  this  class  which  are  best  known  and  most  in 
vogue  are  known  by  such  names  as  the  Cachuca, 
Iota  aragonesa,  Madrilena,  Ole,  laleo  de  Jerez, 
etc.  They  are  danced  by  one  or  more  couples, 
or,  as  in  the  case  of  the  indecent  Ole,  by  a 
single  fem.ale  dancer.  The  dancers  wear  the 
Andalusian  costume,  partly  because  of  all  the 
national  dresses  of  Spain  this  is  the  richest  and 
most  elegant,  and  partly  because  the  greater 
number  of  the  boleros  are  of  Andalusian  origin. 
The  music  for  these  dances  is  always  played  by 
the  orchestra,  and  is  generally  marked  by  rapid 
changes  of  time.  The  melodies  are  often  very 
beautiful,  and  are  always  based  upon  some  of 
the  national  airs.  The  dancers  mostly  beat  time 
to  the  music  with  the  castanets  (castanuelas). 
These  dances,  when  the  performers  are  well 
trained  and  handsome,  have  a  very  powerful 
effect  on  the  spectators,  consisting  as  they  do  of 
graceful  attitudes  and  movements  of  the  body, 
and  being  strictly  speaking  not  dances,  but  pan- 
tomimes. The  dancers  endeavor  to  express  by 
their  gestures  all  the  different  phases  of  the  pas- 
sion of  love,  and  this  often  in  a  manner  which 
passes  far  beyond  the  bounds  of  modesty.  The 
dances  of  the  common  people,  on  which  the 
boleros  are  founded,  are  essentially  distinguished 
from  the  latter  by  the  fact  that  the  former  are 
accompanied  by  singing, —  partly  that  of  the 
performers,  partly  that  of  the  spectators, —  while 
the  music  is  mostly  supplied  by  the  guitar,  or 
in  some  cases  by  the  tambourine.  They  are  very 
simple,  but  at  the  same  time  very  graceful. 
The  dancers  beat  time  with  the  castanets,  as  in 
the  boleros  properly  so  called. 

Boleslas,  the  name  of  six  kings  of  Poland 
and  three  of  Bohemia.  The  most  celebrated  of 
them,  Boleslas,  surnamed  the  Great,  and  the 
first  Polish  sovereign  who  had  the  title  of  king, 
was  son  of  Duke  Mietchislaf,  and  succeeded  him 
in  999.  He  completed  the  work  of  introducing 
Christianity  which  his  father  had  begun,  con- 
tributed greatly  to  the  progress  of  civilization, 
and  brought  the  army  under  regular  discipline. 
The  Emperor  Otho  III.  resolved  to  ascertain 
his  real  character  by  visiting  him  in  person,  and 
was  so  much  pleased  with  the  deference  with 
which  he  was  received,  that  he  crowned  him 
with  his  own  hands  in  looi,  and  exempted 
him  from  all  homage  and  tribute.  Boleslas  as- 
sumed all  the  splendor  of  his  new  dignity, 
and  became  a  powerful  sovereign.  He  not  only 
repelled  an  aggression  on  his  territories  by  the 
Duke  of  Bohemia,  but  became  in  his  turn  the 
aggressor,  and  conquered  Moravia.  Success 
awakened  a  desire  for  new  conquests,  and  the 
Russians,  who  hitherto  had  always  been  the 
aggressors,  were  attacked  in  their  turn,  and  were 
obliged  to  purchase  peace  by  the  cession  of  large 
tracts  of  territory.  He  afterward  turned  his 
arms  to  the  north  of  Germany,  and  compelled 
the  greater  part  of  the  northern  sovereigns  to 


BOLETUS  —  BOLINGBROKE 


become  his  tributaries.  In  1012  a  formidable 
league  was  formed  against  him  by  the  emperor 
of  Germany  and  the  dukes  of  Bohemia  and  Aus- 
tria ;  but  the  alHes  were  glad  to  conclude  a 
peace  with  him  in  1018.  His  last  campaign  was 
against  the  Russians,  whom  he  signally  defeated 
in  a  great  battle  on  the  banks  of  the  Bug. 
After  20  years  of  continued  warfare  he  was  per- 
mitted to  enjoy  peace,  and  effected  numerous 
internal  improvements,  promulgating  excellent 
laws,  and  even  putting  a  check  upon  his  own 
power  by  the  appointment  of  a  council  of  12 
to  act  as  mediators  between  the  sovereign  and 
the  people.  This  body  was  the  germ  of  the 
Polish  senate.  Boleslas  died  in  1025,  after  a 
reign  of  26  years,  which  is  one  of  the  most 
glorious  in  the  annals  of  Poland,  and  has  handed 
down  his  name  as  one  of  the  greatest  sovereigns 
of  his  time. 

Bole'tus,  a  genus  of  fungi  of  the  order 
Hymcnomycctcs  (fungi  provided  with  a  cap  and 
a  fructiferous  membrane  or  hymenium  which 
covers  the  sporules  contained  in  the  tubes). 
The  greater  number  of  the  species  are  globulous, 
from  which  the  Italians  called  them  ovoli.  The 
characters  of  the  genus  are,  broad,  hemispherical 
cap,  the  lower  surface  formed  of  open  tubes, 
cylindrical  in  form,  and  adhering  to  one  another. 
The  tubes  can  be  separated  from  the  cap,  and 
contain  little  cylindrical  capsules,  which  are  the 
organs  of  reproduction.  They  differ  from  the 
Polyporei  by  the  absence  of  the  membrane  which 
encloses  the  tubes.  Boletus  ediilis  has  the  ped- 
icle thick,  especially  at  the  base,  and  marked 
with  red  and  pale  white.  The  cap  is  also  thick, 
smooth,  and  fawn-colored.  The  tubes  are  very 
small,  rounded,  and  pass  from  white  to  a  green- 
ish yellow.  It  grows  on  the  ground  abundantly 
in  woods  during  summer.  The  flesh  is  firm, 
and  has  an  agreeable  nutty  flavor.  It  is  a 
considerable  article  of  commerce  in  France, 
particularly  around  Bordeaux.  It  is  also  found 
in  England,  but  more  rarely.  The  other  species 
of  Boletus  are  numerous. 

Boleyn,  bul'en,  Anne,  queen  of  England, 
one  of  the  wives  of  Henry  VIII. :  b.  probably 
in  1500;  d.  26  May  1536.  The  name  is  also 
spelled  Bullen  and  Bouleyne.  Her  father,  Sir 
Thomas  Boleyn,  had  been  several  times  sent  by 
Henry  as  ambassador  to  France,  and  her  mother 
was  a  daughter  of  the  Duke  of  Norfolk.  At  the 
age  of  15  years  Anne  accompanied  to  France 
as  maid  of  honor  the  Princess  Mary  of  England, 
betrothed  to  Louis  XII. ;  but  when  that  princess 
three  years  later  returned  to  England  a  widow, 
Anne  did  not  follow  her,  but  remained  at  the 
French  court,  the  freedom  and  gaiety  of  which 
suited  her  natural  disposition,  and  where  she 
was  admired  for  her  beauty  and  wit.  She 
was  attached  to  the  household  of  Claudia,  wife 
of  Francis  I.,  after  whose  death  she  was 
for  a  time  in  the  service  of  the  Duchess  of 
Alengon,  sister  of  Francis  I.  Young,  beautiful, 
ga\^  and  witty,  she  was  an  object  of  great 
attraction  in  the  gallant  court  of  Francis  I. 
She  returned  to  England  about  1522,  and  be- 
came lady  of  honor  to  Queen  Catharine,  whom 
she  soon  supplanted.  The  king,  passionately 
enamored  of  her,  found  an  imexpected  opposi- 
tion to  his  wishes,  and  Anne  firmly  declared 
that  she  could  be  had  on  no  terms  but  those 
of  marriage.  She  knew  that  the  king  already 
meditated  a  divorce  from  his  wife,  Catharine  of 


Aragon;  but  she  also  knew  what  difficulties 
the  Catholic  religion  opposed  to  the  execution  of 
this  plan.  Cranmer  offered  his  services  to  bring 
about  the  accomplishment  of  the  king's  wishes, 
and  thus  gave  the  first  occasion  to  the  separation 
of  England  from  the  Roman  Church.  But  the 
impetuous  Henry  did  not  wait  for  the  ministers 
of  his  new  religion  to  confirm  his  divorce;  on 
the  contrary,  he  married  Anne  in  January  1533, 
having  previously  created  her  Marchioness  of 
Pembroke.  When  her  pregnancy  revealed  the 
secret,  Cranmer  declared  the  first  marriage  void, 
and  the  second  valid,  and  Anne  was  crowned 
queen  at  Westminster  with  unparalleled  splen- 
dor. In  1533  she  became  the  mother  of  th-. 
fanious  Elizabeth.  She  could  not,  however,  re- 
tain the  affections  of  the  king,  as  inconstant  as 
he  was  tyrannical ;  and  as  she  had  supplanted 
her  queen  while  lady  of  honor  to  Catharine,  she 
was  now  supplanted  herself  by  Jane  Seymour, 
her  own  lady  of  honor.  Suspicions  of  infidelity 
were  alleged,  which  appear  to  have  had  no 
foundation  in  truth,  but  were  doubtless  eagerly 
laid  hold  of  by  Henry  as  a  color  for  his  violent 
proceedings.  In  1535  she  was  accused,  and 
brought  before  a  jury  of  peers.  Smeaton,  a  mu- 
sician, who  was  arrested  with  others,  asserted 
that  he  had  enjoj'ed  the  queen's  favors,  and  17 
May  1536  she  was  condemned  to  death  by  26 
judges.  Anne  in  vain  affirmed  that  she  had 
long  before  been  contracted  to  the  Duke  of 
Northumberland,  and  therefore  had  never  been 
the  lawful  wife  of  Henry.  Cranmer  in  vain 
declared  the  marriage  void.  The  sentence  of 
death  was  executed  by  the  command  of  the 
inflexible  Henry,  who  esteemed  it  a  great  exer- 
cise of  clemency  to  substitute  the  scaft'old  for 
the  stake.  The  last  day  of  the  life  of  this 
unhappy  woman,  19  May  1536,  presents  many 
interesting  moments.  She  sent  for  the  wife  of 
the  lieutenant  of  the  Tower,  threw  herself  upon 
her  knees  before  her  and  said,  "Go  to  the  Prin- 
cess Mary  (daughter  of  Catharine)  in  my  name, 
and  in  this  position  beg  her  forgiveness  for  all 
the  sufferings  I  have  drawn  upon  her  and 
her  mother. ^^  "She  sent  her  last  message  to  the 
king,"  says  Hume,  "and  acknowledged  the  obli 
g:ations  which  she  owed  him  in  uniformly  con- 
tinuing his  endeavors  for  her  advancement." 
"From  a  private  gentlewoman  you  have  made 
me  first  a  marchioness,  then  a  queen,  and  as 
you  can  raise  me  no  higher  in  this  world,  you 
are  now  sending  me  to  be  a  saint  in  heaven." 

See  Strickland,  ^Queens  of  England'  (Vol. 
II.,  1875-80)  ;  Dixon,  <Two  Queens^  (1873-4)  '> 
Friedmann,   *Anne  Boleyn'    (1885). 

Bolgrad,  Russia,  a  town  on  the  river 
Yalpookh,  in  the  Lower  Budjak,  colonial  dis- 
trict of  Bessarabia,  162  miles  from  Odessa  and 
30  miles  from  Ismail.  It  is  celebrated  for  the 
frequent  mention  made  of  it  in  the  discussions 
relative  to  the  territorial  difficulties  of  Russia 
with  Turkey  in  the  Treaty  of  Paris  of  1856. 
Pop.  about  13,000. 

Bolingbroke,  Henry  St.  John  (Viscount), 
English  statesman,  b.  Battersea  in  Surrey,  1678 
(baptised  10  Oct.)  ;  d.  Battersea^  12  Dec.  1751. 
He  was  the  son  of  Sir  Henry  Ct.  John,  after- 
wards Viscount  St.  John,  of  Battersea,  and 
Mary,  daughter  of  Robert  Rich,  Earl  of  War- 
wick, thus  being  (in  Goldsmith's  words)  of  a 
fa.nilv  "of  the  first  rank,  equally  conspicuous 
for  its  antiquity,  dignity,  and  large  possessions." 


BOLIVAR 


As  a  child  he  was  brought  up  in  the  house 
of  his  grandmother,  a  rigid  Presbyterian,  where 
his  early  and  enforced  studies  of  Dr.  Manton's 
famous  commentaries  are  supposed  to  have 
"prepared  him  to  become  a  High  Churchman.^' 
However,  he  went  early  to  Eton,  where  he  com- 
pleted his  education,  although  it  w^as  long  as- 
serted that  he  went  to  Oxford  (Christ  Church). 
About  1698-9  he  travelled  abroad,  and  lived 
generally  for  a  time,  with  all  the  avidity  of 
youth  and  of  high  spirits,  what  is  called  a  life 
of  pleasure.  He  dabbled  a  little  in  literature; 
but  his  chief  ambition  seems  to  have  been  dis- 
tinction in  dissipation.  In  1700  he  married 
Frances  Winchescombe,  daughter  and  co- 
heiress of  Sir  Henry  Winchescombe ;  and  en- 
tered Parliament  for  the  family  borough  of 
Wootton  Bassett  in  Wiltshire.  His  brilliant  ora- 
torical abilities  speedily  attracted  attention ;  and 
he  eventually  cast  in  his  lot  with  the  then  domi- 
nant Tories,  of  whom  Harley  (the  Speaker) 
was  the  leader.  In  1702  he  received  an  hon- 
orary doctor's  degree  at  Oxford.  Two  years 
later,  when  Harley  became  Secretary  of  State, 
he  was  made  Secretary  of  War,  a  post  which 
he  retained  until  February,  1708,  when  upon  the 
accession  of  the  rival  Whig  party  under  Marl- 
borough and  Godolphin,  he  and  Harley  went  out 
together. 

For  the  next  two  years  he  led  a  retired  life. 
But  in  August,  1710,  the  political  whirligig  re- 
'•tored  the  Tories  to  power  with  Harley  again 
at  their  head;  and  Bolingbroke  sitting  in  the 
new  Parliament  as  member  for  Berkshire,  be- 
came Secretary  of  State  for  Foreign  Affairs. 
In  1712,  he  was  created  Viscount  Bolingbroke 
and  Baron  St.  John  of  Lydiard  Tregoze,  and 
he  bore  a  chief  part  in  the  «vile  Utrecht  Treaty,* 
as  Prior  calls  it,  cf  March,  1713.  By  this  time 
his  friendship  for  his  temporising,  sluggish  co- 
adjutor had  greatly  declined;  and  the  last  years 
of  their  political  alliance  were  years  of  wrang- 
ling hostility,  which  Swift  (the  friend  of  both) 
strove  vainly  10  mitigate.  Then  when,  at  last, 
Bolingbroke  had  compassed  the  downfall  of 
Harley ;  and  was  intriguing  for  a  Jacobite  suc- 
cession, Queen  Anne  died  suddenly  in  August, 
1714,  and  changed  the  aspect  of  affairs. 

With  the  accession  of  George  I.,  Bolingbroke's 
power  passed  away.  The  new  King  dismissed 
him,  and  after  a  short  time  he  found  it  expedi- 
ent to  fly  to  France.  His  impeachment  and  at- 
tainder speedily  followed.  In  France,  where  he 
remained  seven  years,  he  became  Secretary  of 
State  to  the  Pretender,  by  whom  als^  he  was 
eventually  dismissed  for  alleged  neglect  of 
duty.  In  October,  1718,  his  hrst  wife,  with, 
whom  he  had  never  got  on  ver}--  well,  died ;  and 
in  1722  he  was  married  to  Marie-ClaireDes- 
champs  de  Marcilly,  widow  of  the  Marquis  de 
Villette,  by  whose  exertions,  and  interest  with 
King  George's  mistress,  the  Duchess  of  Kendal, 
he  was  ultimately  allowed  to  return  to  England. 
In  1725  his  property  was  restored,  but  he  could 
not  recover  his  rights  as  a  peer,  and  was  thus 
excluded  from  the  House  of  Lords.  At  this 
date  he  resided  at  Dawley,  near  Uxbridge, 
w^here  he  occupied  himself  in  the  preparation  of 
philosophical  treatises,  and  of  political  articles 
in  the  'Craftsman,^  1727-34,  in  opposition  to 
Walpole.  In  1735,  finding  it  hopeless  to  re-enter 
political  life,  he  retired  again  to  France,  where 


he  lived  at  Chantelou  in  Touraine  until  his 
father's  death  in  the  spring  of  1742.  This 
brought  him  again  to  his  paternal  home  at  Bat- 
tersea.  Here  for  nine  years  longer  he  for  the 
most  part  resided  until  12  December,  1751,  when 
he  died  of  a  cancer  in  the  face, —  the  long  tor- 
ture of  which  he  bore  with  exemplary  fortitude. 
His  second  wife,  to  whom  he  was  tenderly  at- 
tached, had  died  in  the  previous  year.  Both 
were  buried  at  Battersea,  where  theie  is  a  mon- 
ument to  them  in  the  parish  church,  with 
medallions  by  Roubillac. 

Bolingbroke's  biographers  have  dwelt  effect- 
ively upon  his  personal  advantages,  his  hand- 
some presence,  his  mingled  dignity  and  sweet- 
ness, his  vivacity,  his  wit,  his  marvellous  mem- 
ory, and  his  quickness  of  apprehension.  "His- 
mind,"  said  Swift,  who  loved  him,  "was  adorned 
with  the  choicest  gifts  that  God  has  yet  thought 
fit  to  bestow  upon  the  children  of  men,**  and  he 
refers  especially  to  his  "clear  judgment,*  "his- 
most  agreeable  elocution,"  and  his  "invincible 
eloquence."  Of  his  eloquence,  whether  in  speech 
or  script,  there  is  no  doubt,  and  writer  after 
writer  has  spoken  to  its  seductive  charm.  His 
patriotism,  upon  which  he  himself  insisted,  has 
also  found  sturdy  advocates.  But  in  the  main, 
he  is  now  regarded  rather  as  a  brilliant  and 
meteoric  intriguer  than  a  really  great  states- 
man with  honest  convictions ;  while  his  boasted 
philosophy  and  his  learning  are  held  to  be 
equally  unsound  and  superficial.  Pope,  his  pupil 
in  the  ^Essay  on  Man,*  is  the  accredited  mouth- 
piece of  his  religious  opinions;  and  it  is  a  cur- 
rent criticism  of  Pope's  cleverly  executed 
thesis  that  it  is  an  exposition  of  undeveloped 
doctrine  by  a  disciple  to  whom  it  was  unintel- 
ligible. 

Apart  from  Bolingbroke's  political  tracts,  and 
contributions  to  the  <Craftsman,>  the  bulk  of  his 
writings  w^ere  published  posthumously.  The 
Letters  on  the  < Spirit  of  Patriotism,*  and  the 
<Idca  of  a  Patriot  King*  appeared  in  1752  and 
1749;  the  "^Letters  on  the  Study  of  History*  in 
1752;  and  the  < Letter  to  Sir  William  Wind- 
ham; a  vindication  of  his  conduct  up  to  1716, 
general^  regarded  as  his  best  work,  in  1753. 
In  1754  his  dependant,  David  Mallet,  published 
his  ^Philosophical  Writings*  in  5  vols.  It  was 
this  publication  which  gave  rise  to  the  celebrated 
utterance  ascribed  to  Dr.  Johnson  about  the 
"beggarly  Scotchman,**  who  was  paid  to  let  oft 
Bolingbroke's  blunderbuss  against  religion  and 
morality  after  his  death.  But  Johnson  told  Bos- 
well  that  he  had  "never  read  Bolingbroke's 
impiety.** 

Bibliography. —  Bolingbroke's  "^Life*  has 
been  written  by  Mallet  (see  above)  ;  IMacknight 
(1863);  Harrop  (1884);  Hassall  (1889);  and 
latterly  (exhaustively  and  appreciatively)  by 
Waltcr  Sichel  (1901-2).  Consult  also  <Boling- 
broke.  a  Historical  Study,*  by  Churton  Collins 
(^iSS*^)-  Austin  Dobson. 

Author  of  '■Life  of  Goldsmith^ ;   'Life  of  Rich- 
ardson,'^  etc. 

Bolivar,  Simon,  se-mon'  bo-le'var,  South 
American  liberator :  b.  Caracas,  24  July  1783 ;  d. 
San  Pedro  Alejandrino,  10  Dec.  1830.  He  was 
educated  in  Spain,  and.  when  but  18  years 
old,      married      in      Madrid.      His      wife      died 


BOLIVAR  —  BOLIVIA 


■soon  afterward.  The  sources  of  the  inspiration 
•of  his  life's  work  were:  (i)  The  spectacle  of 
the  French  Revolution ;  (2)  the  example  of 
the  United  States,  which  country  he  visited  in 
1809;  (3)  the  personality  of  Gen.  Miranda,  the 
leader  of  the  revolutionary  movement  in  Vene- 
zuela, who  had  openly  and  vigorously  attacked 
Spain's  colonial  government.  Bolivar  offered 
his  services  to  the  revolutionary  junta  a  year 
before  Venezuela  declared  its  independence, 
which  was  on  5  July  181 1. 

The  revolutionists  being  at  first  overwhelmed 
by  the  Spanish  forces,  Bolivar  fled  to  Curagao. 
In  September  1812  he  was  at  Cartagena  ;  next, 
we  see  him  scoring  against  the  Spaniards  in 
New  Granada ;  then  marching  back  into  Vene- 
zuela with  only  500  men.  but  winning  so  many 
recruits  among  the  inhabitants  that  he  could 
meet  and  defeat  Gen.  Monteverde  at  Lasto- 
jjuanes.     He  entered  Caracas  in  triumph,  4  Aug. 

1813,  but  suffered  defeat  in  July  1814,  and  Cara- 
•cas  was  again  a  Spanish  town.  He  then  went 
l)ack  to  New  Granada,  succeeding  at  Bogota; 
failing  at  Santa  Marta  ;  resigning  his  commis- 
sion, and  sailing  for  Kingston,  Jamaica,  in  May 

1814.  Next,  from  Aux  Cayes,  Haiti,  he  set  out 
with  a  little  force  that  President  Petion  equipped: 
"but  this  expedition,  landing  in  Venezuela 
in  May  1816  was  a  failure.  Again  reinforced  at 
Aux  Cayes,  he  landed  (December  1816)  in  Mar- 
garita, and  (16  Feb.  .1817)  at  Barcelona,  for  a 
three  days'  battle  with  Gen.  Morillo.  The  latter 
was  defeated.  Bolivar  was  made  commander- 
in-chief,  with  headquarters  at  Angostura.  Offer- 
ing to  resign  his  command  to  a  migratory  Con- 
gress (15  Feb.  1819),  he  was  urged  to  continue 
the  war;  reorganized  the  army;  crossed  the 
Cordilleras;   joined   forces   with   Santander,   re- 

;publican  leader  in  New  Granada ;  caught  the 
Spaniards  unawares ;  entered  Tunja  July  1819, 
and  on  7  August  won  the  battle  of  Boyaca. 
On  17  Dec.  1819  Venezuela  and  New  Granada 
"vvere  merged  in  the  new  Republic  of  Colombia, 
Avhich  included  both  and  absorbed  Ecuador 
after  the  victory  in  Bombona  —  the  union  con- 
tinuing until  the  close  of  1830.  Spain  made 
another  effort,  sending  Gen.  Torre  to  take  com- 
mand of  her  forces ;  but  Torre  was  defeated 
on  the  field  of  Carabobo,  in  the  central  part  of 
Venezuela,  25  June  1821.  The  constitution  of 
Colombia  was  adopted,  30  Aug.  1821,  and  its 
government  inaugurated  with  Bolivar  as  presi- 
dent and  Gen.  Francisco  de  Paula  Santander  as 
vice-president. 

But  in  that  great  region  lying  south  of  Col- 
ombia and  north  of  Chile  and  Argentina  Spain 
was  still  strong.  At  the  request  of  the  Con- 
gress of  Peru,  Bolivar  sent  reinforcements  un- 
der the  command  of  Gen.  Antonio  Jose  de 
Sucre,  and  went  in  person  to  the  scene  of  action. 
Quito  was  occupied  in  June  1822;  next,  the 
Liberator  assumed  the  presidency  at  Lima  ;  on 
6  Aug.  1824  he  triumphed  at  junin.  Before 
the  end  of  that  year  Sucre  gave  the  coup  de 
grace  to  Spain's  colonial  system  on  the  main- 
land (though  at  widely  separated  points  hope- 
less resistance  was  offered  a  little  longer),  by 
capturing  Viceroy  Laserna,  General-in-Chief 
Aymeric,  and  other  Spanish  commanders  and 
officers  (see  Ayacucho).  In  June  1825  Boli- 
var visited  Upper  Peru,  a  region  of  vast  extent, 
which,  in  his  honor,  received  the  name  Bolivia 
(q.v.)    when    it    was    organized    as    a    separate 


republic.  In  December  1826,  returning  to  Vene- 
zuela (where  Gen.  Jose  Antonio  Paez  and  Ad- 
miral Jose  Padilla  had  destroyed  the  remnants 
of  Spanish  power  on  the  northern  coast),  he  was 
re-elected  to  the  presidency,  though  manifesting 
great  reluctance  to  retain  an  office  the  powers 
of  which  were  wholly  inadequate  to  the  task  of 
holding  together  in  a  permanent  union  three 
states  such  as  Venezuela,  New  Granada,  and 
Ecuador.  Then  two  important  steps  were  taken  : 
(i)  Leaders  of  the  people  assured  him  tiiat 
he  alone  could  avert  disaster  and  disruption ; 
(2)  he  himself  assumed  and  attempted  to  exer- 
cise such  powers  as,  in  his  opinion,  were  neces- 
sary to  control  the  situation.  At  the  height  of 
his  fame  and  strength  (for  he  was  in  his  47th 
year),  on  the  eve,  however,  of  a  great  failure, — 
for  the  tendency  to  disunion  in  the  country 
freed  and  consolidated  by  him  had  grown  be- 
yond control, —  Bolivar  resigned  his  command 
^"d  died.  Marriox  Wilcox, 

Authority  on  Latin-America. 

Bolivar,  Colombia,  a  northern  department 
of  that  republic,  bordering  the  Caribbean  Sea  ; 
area  21,345  square  miles.  The  surface  of  the 
country  is  low  and  heavily  wooded,  agriculture 
having  made  but  little  progress.  The  most  im- 
portant rivers  are  the  Magdalena,  the  Cauca  (a 
tributary  of  the  former),  and  the  Sinu.  Capital, 
Cartagena.     Pop.  about  300,000. 

Bolivia,  bo-lev'ya,  an  inland  republic  of 
South  America,  bounded  on  the  north  and  east 
by  Brazil,  northwest  by  Peru,  southwest  by 
Chile,  south  by  Argentina  and  Paraguay.  It 
extends  from  north  to  south  between  lat.  10° 
20'  S.  (see  Acre  River)  and  22°  50'  S.  and  from 
east  to  west  between  Ion.  57°  47'  40"  W.  (Com- 
pare treaty  with  Brazil  17  Nov.  1903)  and  about 
72°  \V.  Area,  exclusive  of  Acre  and  Chaco 
claims,  estimated  at  560,000  square  miles. 

The  principal  centres  of  population  are  now, 
and  apparently  have  always  been,  located  in  the 
mountainous  region  of  the  western  half  of  the 
country,  called  the  Sierra.  The  eastern  districts, 
stretching  away  from  the  slopes  of  the  Cor- 
dillera far  into  the  torrid  interior  of  the  conti- 
nent, where  are  the  sources  of  the  Amazon's 
great  tributary,  the  Madeira  River,  as  well  as 
of  the  Paraguay,  a  part  of  the  system  of  the 
Rio  de  la  Plata,  are  covered  with  tropical 
forests,  are  but  sparsely  settled.  Running  south- 
east through  the  departments  of  La  Paz,  Cocha- 
bamba,  and  Potosi  is  the  principal  range  of  the 
Andes  Mountains,  called  the  Cordillera  Real. 
Here  are  the  rich  mineral  districts  of  Bolivia  : 
the  Cerro  Rico  de  Potosi  alone  has  produced  up 
to  the  present  time  about  $2,000,000,000  worth  of 
silver.  Here  are  some  of  the  highest  mountains 
of  America  and  one  of  the  greatest  continuous 
snow-ranges  in  the  world,  having  an  average 
altitude  of  20,000  feet,  with  the  superb  peaks  of 
Illimani,  Huaina-Potosi,  and  Illampu  lifted  5.000 
or  6,000  feet  still  higher  above  their  gigantic 
associates.  The  western  range  of  the  Andes 
continues  in  a  line  parallel  with  the  Pacific 
coast,  rejoining  the  Cordillera  Real  near  B""- 
livia's  southern  boundary.  Between  these  two 
ranges  are  the  high  plains.  12,000  to  13,000  feet, 
and  Lake  Titicaca,  12.488  feet,  above  the  sea- 
level.  This  great  sheet  of  water,  120  miles 
long,  and  from  30  to  50  miles  wide,  has  an 
average  depth  of  100  fathoms.    Lying  southeast 


BOLIVIA 


of  Lake  Titicaca  are  the  two  most  famous  cities 
of  the  republic,  La  Paz  and  Sucre.  A  railway 
from  Mollendo  on  the  Peruvian  coast  climbs 
up  to  the  plateau,  but  where  it  passes  over  the 
western  range  of  the  Andes  the  track  is  14,765 
feet  above  the  sea.  On  the  Pacific  side,  then,  the 
problem  of  transportation  is  very  difficult ;  more- 
over, as  is  shown  below,  the  republic  has  been 
deprived  of  the  little  strip  of  seacoast  that  was 
formerly  in  its  possession. 

Turning  now  toward  the  east,  we  find  some 
of  the  best  farming  lands  in  the  world,  but  here 
also  the  means  of  transportation  are  inade- 
quate, and  the  products  must  be  carried  a  great 
distance  before  reaching  the  Atlantic  Ocean. 
The  agricultural  methods  are  incredibly  primi- 
tive. Indian  communities  or  wealthy  towns- 
people own  the  farms ;  the  Indians  plow  the 
land  in  a  fashion  that  has  been  thus  described : 

Oxen  are  j'oked  by  lashing  a  light  crosspiece  of  wood 
immediately  behind  the  horns.  To  this  rude  yoke 
is  fastened  the  long  beam  of  the  wooden  plow,  which 
is  almost  exactly  like  those  used  by  the  people  of 
Egypt  thousands  of  years  ago.  It  has  but  a  single 
handle,  and  a  flat  piece  of  iron  is  fastened  with  raw- 
hide at  the  point  of  the  crooked  stick.  This  cuts  the 
soil  to  a  depth  of  about  six  inches.  Clods  are  broken 
by  hand,  and  the  ground  is  further  prepared  by  drag- 
ging a  heavy  tree  over  it  until  the  soil  becomes  smooth. 

The  roads  are  but  narrow  trails  winding 
along  the  mountain  sides,  and  are  for  the  use 
of  pack  animals  exclusively.  Mules  and  llamas, 
driven  by  Indians,  carry  loads  of  coffee,  cacao, 
cinchona  bark,  wool,  and  the  precious  metals. 

Natural  Wealth  and  Commerce. —  The  nat- 
ural wealth  of  Bolivia  may  be  shown  by  an 
enumeration  of  the  products  of  its  chief  geo- 
graphical divisions,  called  departments.  The 
department  of  Potosi  is  exceedingly  rich  in  sil- 
ver, tin,  and  bismuth.  Gold  also  is  found  in 
Chilco  de  Chichas ;  nitrate  in  San  Cristobal  de 
Lipez,  and  red  and  white  copper,  topazes, 
emeralds,  opals,  jasper,  and  marble  in  Lipez. 
The  department  of  Tarija  has  an  abundance  of 
copper,  silver,  gold,  asphalt,  marble,  etc.  Sucre 
contains  silver,  tin,  coal,  lead,  copper,  gold,  and 
mineral  asphaltum.  Cochabamba  has  gold  mines 
that  were  famous  during  the  time  of  the  Spanish 
dominion ;  also  silver  and  marble.  Santa  Cruz 
contains  rich  gold  mines  that  are  worked  by 
the  natives  only ;  also  large  deposits  of  iron  ore. 
La  Paz  contains  famous  mines,  such  as  Tipuani 
and  Yani  (gold),  and  Chuquioguillo  (silver). 
Copper,  bismuth,  tin,  marble,  antimony,  and  coal 
are  also  found.  Oruro  contains  silver,  tin,  gold, 
copper,  iron,  lead,  bismuth,  antimony,  sulphur, 
feldspar,  borax,  topaz,  and  amethysts. 

Though  ranking  high  in  the  production  of 
silver,  Bolivia  is  essentially  an  agricultural  and 
grazing  country.  The  province  of  Lipez  has 
great  herds  of  alpacas,  vicuiias,  sheep,  and  lla- 
mas. Alfalfa  and  barley  grow  in  Chichas ;  sugar- 
cane, coffee,  wool,  potatoes,  cereals,  flour,  and 
fruits  are  produced  in  Charcas  (Potosi).  In 
the  valley  of  the  Paraguay  River,  department  of 
Tarija,  cacao,  wines,  maize,  barley,  and  vege- 
tables are  the  chief  products.  Cattle  and  horses 
abound  upon  the  pasture-lands  of  the  province 
of  Azero.  Rice,  dairy  products,  and  all  varie- 
ties of  fruits,  European  as  well  as  tropical,  are 
mentioned  among  the  possibilities  or  actual 
achievements  in  the  comparatively  small  portion 
of  these  eastern  districts  as  yet  brought  under 
cultivation.     Immense   areas  are   covered   with 


rubber-trees,  and  valuable  cabinet-  and  dye- 
woods,  cedar,  mahogany,  etc.,  are  among  the 
unexploited  treasures  of  the  forests.  The  ex- 
ports of  rubber  from  the  territory  of  Acre  were 
4,471,374  pounds  in  1901.  Geographically,  a 
large  part  of  northeastern  Bolivia  belongs  to  the 
Amazon  River  system,  the  natural  outlet  for  its 
products  being  the  waterways  of  Brazil ;  and 
until  this  opening  to  the  commerce  of  the  world 
is  secured  it  will  remain  buried  alive.  See 
Acre  River  and  South  America. 

The  exports  of  the  entire  nation  in  iqor 
amounted  to  $13,621,237.56.  The  value  of  im- 
ports in  the  same  year  was  $6,120,113;  of  which 
amount  Germany  supplied  merchandise  of  the 
value  of  $1,170,755;  England,  $827,358;  France, 
$690,331;  United  States,  $602,906;  Chile, 
$600,670;  Peru,  $557,107;  Belgium,  $471,451; 
Italy,  $245,252;  Argentine  Republic.  $218,334; 
Spain,  $131,570. 

Government  Receipts  and  Expenditures. — 
The  budget  for  1903  is  even  more  surprising, 
when  we  consider  the  size  and  natural  re- 
sources of  Bolivia.  The  estimated  receipts  of 
the  government  to  1903  amount  to  only  $2,904,- 
807.17;  the  expenditures  for  the  same  period, 
$3-385,395.64;  the  deficit  in  the  budget  being 
$480,588.47. 

Population. —  The  population  is  classified 
as,  (i)  whites,  (2)  Quichuas,  (3)  Aymaras, 
(4)  Chunchos.  The  first  class  is  composed 
chiefly  of  descendants  of  the  Spaniards.  The 
second  class  is  numerically  the  strongest  in  the 
republic,  the  Quichua  Indians  being  commonly 
employed  either  as  domestic  servants  or  as 
laborers  in  the  mines.  In  the  third  class  are 
Indians  of  a  distinct  tribe,  who  are  found  in 
the  department  of  La  Paz  and  the  high  plains 
of  the  western  portion  of  Bolivia,  especially 
in  the  neighborhood  of  Lake  Titicaca,  where 
they  are  employed  in  pastoral  and  agricultural 
pursuits.  As  for  the  members  of  the  fourth 
class,  they  are  aborigines  whose  scattered 
tribes, —  now  inhabiting  the  eastern  departments 
of  Chuquisaca,  Beni,  and  Santa  Cruz,  with  a 
few  representatives  also  in  La  Paz  and  the 
central  department  of  Cochabamba, —  have  not 
even  the  bond  of  a  common  language.  There 
are  not  sufficient  data  on  which  to  base  an 
opinion  as  to  their  tribal  relationships,  nor  has 
it  ever  been  possible  to  make  a  close  estimate 
of  their  numbers.  It  is  probable,  however,  that 
they  are  fragments  of  the  original  population 
of  this  land,  displaced  by  successive  waves  of 
invasion,  the  Aymaras  having  been  the  next 
tribe  to  gain  possession  of  the  great  upland 
plateau.  The  Quichuas  came  in  at  a  much  later 
date,  when  the  empire  of  the  Incas  was  ex- 
tended from  Cuzco,  Peru,  through  this  region. 
While  Spanish  is  the  language  of  the  ruliiig 
element,  both  Quichua  and  Aymara  are  also  in 
common  use,  even  among  the  whites.  Estimate 
of  total  pop.  1,800,000. 

The  professions,  and  the  best  positions  in 
the  army,  the  public  service,  and  mercantile 
business,  are  monopolized  by  persons  of  Euro- 
pean descent.  Below  them  are  the  Mestizos 
(persons  of  blended  Indian  and  European 
blood),  more  commonly  known  as  "Cholos^' — 
the  tradesmen,  soldiers,  small  shopkeepers,  etc., 
constituting  a  middle  class.  Lowest  in  the 
social  scale  are  the  Indian  farmers,  day  labor- 
ers, miners,  and  servants.     The  lines  between 


BOLIVIA 


these  Classes  being  uncertain  and  disputable  as 
the  national  boundaries,  the  structure  of  Bo- 
livian society  forbids  the  full  acceptance  of  free 
political  institutions. 

History. —  The  country  was  formed  in  1825 
from  the  province  of  Upper  Peru,  and  named  in 
henor  of  the  South  American  Liberator,  Simon 
Bolivar.  Partly  within  Peruvian  and  partly 
within  Bolivian  territory  are  the  waters  of  Lake 
Titicaca,  on  the  shores  of  which  we  find  monu- 
ments of  a  civilization  antedating  the  Inca  con- 
quest by  about  600  years.  From  the  earliest 
times,  therefore,  Peru  and  Bolivia  must  have 
been  united.  The  Incas  of  Cuzco  overran  this 
district  in  the  14th  century,  and  200  years  after- 
ward Hernando  Pizarro  added  it  to  the  con- 
quest his  brother  had  made  at  the  heart  of  the 
Inca  empire.  Under  the  Spaniards,  then,  it  was 
known  as  the  district  or  territory  of  the  high 
court  of  Charcas,  and  remained  subject  to  the 
viceroy  of  Peru  until  1776,  when  it  became  a 
province  of  the  new  viceroyalty  of  Buenos 
Ayres.  Before  the  coming  of  Pizarro  the 
Sierra  supplied  a  large  part  of  the  gold  used 
for  the  decoration  of  the  temples  and  palaces 
of  the  Incas ;  after  the  Spanish  conquest  the 
natives  were  driven  to  work,  to  continue  or  in- 
crease the  output  of  precious  metals  for  the 
benefit  of  masters  whose  ruthless  severity  was 
conspicuous  even  in  that  age.  There  is  no 
entirely  trustworthy  record  of  the  numbers  of 
those  who  perished  in  the  mines,  but  we  know 
that  a  large  Indian  population  was  reduced  to 
its  present  proportions  in  the  course  of  two 
centuries.  Taxation  was  oppressive;  provincial 
governors  became  monopolists,  from  whom  the 
natives  were  obliged  to  purchase  their  supplies ; 
here,  as  elsewhere  in  America,  colonists  were 
forbidden  to  raise  any  crops  or  manufacture 
any  articles  which  could  interfere  with  the  in- 
dustries of  the  mother  country.  Commerce  was 
so  strictly  limited  to  Spain  that  even  neighbor- 
ing colonies  were  forbidden  to  have  commercial 
dealings  with  one  another.  Toward  the  end  of 
the  i8th  century  the  resentment  of  the  Indians 
was  expressed  in  several  insurrections 
(1780-82)  ;  early  in  the  19th  the  provinces  of 
Rio  de  la  Plata  and  Peru  aided  the  Bolivians  in 
their  struggle  for  independence  (July  1809  to 
August  1825).  Gen.  Santa  Cruz  was  in  com- 
mand of  the  expeditions  from  Lima  which 
failed  to  drive  out  the  Spanish  troops  in  1823. 
But  in  the  following  year  Gen.  Sucre,  marching 
from  the  same  country  at  the  head  of  an  army 
encouraged  by  the  victory  of  Ayacucho,  was 
favored  by  a  rising  of  patriots  in  all  the  prin- 
cipal towns.  By  February  1825  La  Paz  was  in 
the  power  of  the  revolutionists,  and  in  March 
the  Spaniards  lost  their  only  remaining  strong- 
hold, the  province  of  Potosi. 

Deputies  from  the  various  provinces  assem- 
bled _  at  the  capital  to  decide  whether  the 
relation  of  dependence  upon  Argentina  should 
continue  or  not.  In  August  they  reached  the 
conclusion  that  they  would  undertake  their  own 
government,  and  before  the  dissolution  of  this 
Assembly  (6  Oct.  1825)  independence  was  de- 
clared. The  Constitution  adopted  then  (subse- 
quently modified  in  important  respects)  was  pre- 
pared by  Gen.  Bolivar,  and  in  accordance  with  the 
views  entertained  by  the  great  Liberator  at  this 
period  in  his  career,  when  he  was  master  of 
Colombia  and  Peru  as  well,  it  vested  the 
supreme  authority  in  a  president  chosen  for  life. 


The  first  incumbent  was  Gen.  Sucre,  who  ac- 
cepted the  presidency  for  the  space  of  two  years 
only,  and  took  the  further  precaution  to  retain 
2,000  Colombian  soldiers  for  his  protection.  In 
1827  he  and  his  Colombians  were  actually  ex- 
pelled from  the  country. 

Since  1827  Bolivia  has  had  seventeen  presi- 
dents or  dictators,  the  average  duration  of  their 
terms  being  about  four  years.  In  1828  Santa 
Cruz  came  into  power  and  was  confronted  with 
a  revolution  the  following  year.  In  1835,  inter- 
posing in  a  quarrel  of  political  factions  in  Peru, 
he  defeated  Gamarra,  and  named  himself  Pro- 
tector of  that  country.  Chile  refusing  to  consent 
to  the  proposed  union  of  her  neighbors,  three 
years  of  fighting  ensued.  Santa  Cruz  was  de- 
feated and  exiled  in  1839,  but  his  party  in 
Bolivia  kept  up  the  agitation  and  finally  conferred 
the  presidency  upon  Gen.  Ballivian.  Mean- 
while Gamarra,  who  had  become  President  of 
Peru,  tried  to  annex  the  department  of  La  Paz. 
He  lost  his  life  in  this  attempt,  and  then  the 
Bolivians  in  their  turn  would  have  invaded 
Peru  if  Chile  had  not  again  intervened.  Balli- 
vian surrendered  his  thankless  task  in  1848. 
The  next  President,  Belzu,  was  borne  into  ofiice 
on  the  crest  of  a  wave  of  revolution ;  by  a  revo- 
lutionary storm  his  successor,  Cordova,  was 
driven  from  ofiice  and  from  the  land.  Linares 
made  himself  Dictator  in  1858,  and  was  deposed 
in  1861.  President  Acha,  his  successor,  fell 
from  power  when  his  forces  were  defeated  in 
battle  by  his  political  antagonist,  Melgarejo 
(February  1865).  The  latter  may  be  character- 
ized as  a  revolutionist  until  1865  ;  President  from 
that  time  until  1869;  Dictator  from  1869  to  1871. 
Morales,  elected  in  the  year  last  mentioned,  was 
succeeded  in  1873  by  Ballivian,  who  died  before 
a  twelvemonth  had  passed.  Frias,  next  to  take 
ofiice,  was  deposed  two  years  later  by  the 
troops,  who  proclaimed  Gen.  Daza  President. 

In  1878  Bolivia  and  Peru  were  at  war  with 
Chile,  and  the  defeat  of  the  allies  after  18 
months  of  hopeless  struggling  against  a  well- 
prepared  enemy  stripped  from  the  weakest  of 
the  contestants  her  only  possessions  on  the  Pa- 
cific. Bolivia  became  a  landlocked  country.  The 
national  anger  vented  itself  first  upon  the  Presi- 
dent whom  the  army  had  lifted  up,  and  who 
now  fled  to  escape  assassination.  But  Campero 
whom  Congress  chose  to  carry  on  the  war,  and 
who  personally  led  the  Bolivian  troops  in  the 
field,  was  wholly  unable  to  oppose  Chile's  de- 
mands alone,  and  Peru  was  an  ally  without 
power  to  aid.  Bolivia  saw  herself  obliged  to 
acquiesce  in  an  arrangement  which  some  of  her 
leaders  have  not  yet  ceased  to  regard  as  pro- 
visional and  temporary.  Her  bit  of  coast  line 
and  most  of  the  coveted  nitrate  of  soda  deposits 
in  the  districts  of  Cobija  and  Tarapaca, —  terri- 
tory aggregating  70,181  square  miles,  with  about 
6,000  inhabitants, —  passed  into  Chile's  keeping. 
(For  an  account  of  the  war  on  the  Pacific,  see 
Chile;  Peru.) 

Coincidentally,  the  failure  in  1879-80,  after 
j'ears  of  efi'ort,  to  secure  the  opening  of  a  com- 
mercial outlet  for  Bolivian  products  to  the  At- 
lantic through  the  Amazon  River  and  its  great 
tributary,  the  Madeira,  was  a  severe  blow.  The 
American  contractors  for  the  Madeira  and 
Mamore  Railway  of  Bolivia  and  Brazil  were  de- 
prived of  the  funds  necessary  to  the  prosecution 
of  the  enterprise  by  the  withdrawal  of  the  loan 
that  had  been  placed  in  England  in  1872  for  the 


BOLKHOV  —  BOLLAN 


purpose  of  constructing  this  much-needed  road. 
The  decision  to  abandon  the  undertaking  was 
reached  after  years  of  litigation,  the  final  appeal 
being  heard  in  the  British  House  of  Lords. 

The  Constitution  of  28  Oct.  1880  vested  the 
legislative  power  in  a  Senate  and  House  of  Rep- 
resentatives, and  the  executive  power  in  a  presi- 
dent elected  for  four  years  by  direct  universal 
suffrage.  But  little  or  no  improvement  in  the 
political  situation  was  observed.  President 
Campero  was  succeeded  by  Gregorio  Pacheco, 
and  then  came  Aniceto  Arce  (i  Aug.  1888).  It 
was  necessary  to  declare  a  state  of  siege  in  all 
parts  of  the  republic  in  the  summer  of  1890. 
Attempts  were  made  to  overthrow  the  govern- 
ment, and  a  number  of  political  leaders  were 
arrested.  The  election  of  a  successor  to  Presi- 
dent Arce  took  place  3  May  1892.  Violent  col- 
lisions between  the  rival  factions  again  com- 
pelled the  authorities  to  proclaim  a  state  of 
siege — which  was  continued  even  after  the  in- 
auguration of  the  new  president,  Baptista,  on 
6  August.  Indian  revolts  also  occurred  in  this 
year,  originating  in  both  the  north  and  the 
south,  and  spreading  rapidly  through  the  entire 
country.  The  barbarous  practices  of  the  Indians 
were,  as  is  usual  in  this  most  repulsive  species 
of  warfare,  matched  by  the  repressive  measures 
of  the  Bolivian  troops. 

Chile  furnished  arms  and  money  to  uphold 
the  Baptista  government;  and  the  dependence 
of  the  country  without  sea  coast  upon  the  coun- 
tiy  all  sea  coast  was  recognized  in  the  treaty  of 
1903.  Bolivia  had  been  placed  in  a  position  such 
that  any  one  of  her  three  powerful  neighbors, — 
Chile,  Argentina,  or  Brazil, —  could  win  her 
allegiance  by  conferring  substantial  favors,  or 
even  by  a  display  of  international  courtesy.  Fol- 
lowing Chile's  diplomatic  overtures,  Argentina 
undertook  to  open  up  a  way  to  the  sea  by  a  new 
railroad  connecting  the  Sierra  with  her  "river 
system.  Brazil's  attitude  remained  in  doubt,  un- 
til the  treaty  of  17  Nov.  1903  showed  that  Acre, 
competing  with  Brazil  in  the  production  of  rub- 
ber, was  demanded  as  the  price  of  any  conces- 
sion of  a  right  of  way.  Some  of  the  neigh- 
"boring  states  have,  in  times  not  long  past,  actu- 
ally discussed  the  disposition  to  be  made  of 
Bolivia,  as  though  this  interesting  country  were 
a  South  American  Poland. 

It  can  hardly  be  said  that  Bolivia  has  given 
evidence  of  greater  political  stability  in  recent 
years.  When  Fernandez  Alonzo  was  elected  to 
the  presidency  in  1896  his  opponents  protested 
that  the  government  had  tampered  with  the  re- 
turns in  such  a  way  as  to  change  the  expression 
of  the  people's  will  under  the  constitutional 
guaranty  of  universal  suffrage,  and  an  uprising 
was  successful  in  April  1899.  The  revolution- 
ists, under  Col.  Jose  Manuel  Pando,  defeated 
the  government  forces  in  a  pitched  battle ; 
President  Alonzo  fled  over  the  Andes  into 
Chile,  and  the  government  which  has  main- 
tained itself  until  1903  was  organized,  with 
Seiior  Pando  at  its  head. 

Bibliography. —  Aramayo,  ^Apuntes  sobre  el 
Estado',  (Sucre  1871)  ;  Aranz,  <Nueva  Via 
FluviaP  (Manaos  1868)  ;  Barra,  <E1  Problema 
de  los  Andes^  (Buenos  Ayres  1895)  ;  Benites, 
'Exposicion  de  los  Derechos  del  Paraguay  en  la 
Cuestion  de  Limites  con  Bolivia^  (Asuncion 
1895)  ;  Bibra,  ^Die  Algodon-Bai  in  Bolivien' 
(Vienna  1852)  ;  Bresson,  ^Sept  Annees  d'Ex- 
plorations^  (Paris  1886)  ;  Bureau  of  American 
Keoublics,     <  Monthly     Bulletin*      (Washington 


1902-3)  passim;  Conway,  <The  Bolivian 
Andes*  (New  York  1901)  ;  < Colonization,  Min- 
isterio  de  Ter.  del  Acre*  (La  Paz  1902)  ;  ^Cues- 
tion Chileno-Boliviano'  (Valparaiso  1879)  ; 
^Documentos  Oficiales  Relativos  a  los  Limites 
entre  Chile,  Bolivia,  etc.*  (Santiago  de  Chile 
1898)  ;  Egaiia,  ^The  Tacna  and  Arica  Question* 
(Santiago  de  Chile  1900)  ;  Flores,  'El  Gran 
Mariscal  de  Ayacucho*  [Antonio  Jose  de  Sucre] 
(New  York  ^Las  Novedades*  1883)  ;  <Fo- 
mento  e  Instruccion  Publica*  (La  Paz  1902)  ; 
Grandidier,  ^Voyage  dans  I'Amerique  du  Sud* 
(Paris  1861)  ;  Guzman,  ^Fronteras  de  Bolivia* 
(La  Paz  1902)  ;  ^Inmigracion,  Estadistica,  etc. 
Decreto*  (La  Paz  1897)  ;  Inwards,  ^Temple  of 
the  Andes*  (London  1884)  ;  Keller,  <Explora- 
tion  of  River  Madeira*  (London  1873)  ;  Ken- 
nedy, ^Settlement  of  Bolivia-Brazil  Boundary 
Lines,*  "^Consular  Representatives*  (Washing- 
ton 1902)  ;  Lacroix,  ^Perou  et  Bolivie*  (in 
^Universal  History*  Paris  1843)  ;  ^Nueva 
Cuestion  de  Chile  con  Bolivia*  (Valparaiso 
1879)  ;  ^Ordenanzas  Militares*  (Sucre  1895)  ; 
^Papers  and  Documents  Relating  to  Bolivian 
Loan,*  etc.  (London  1873)  :  San  Roman 
•^Estudios  i  Datos  Practicos  Sobre  las  Cues- 
tioiies  Internacionales  de  Limites,*  etc.  (San- 
tiago de  Chile  1895)  ;  *  Treaty  of  13  May  1858 
with  the  United  States,  America,*  (Washington 
1863)  ;  L^nited  States,  ^Message  from  President, 
Transmitting  Papers  Relating  to  War  in  South 
America,*  etc.   (Washington  1882). 

Marrion  Wilcox, 
Authority  on  Latin-America. 

Bolkhov,  bol-kof  Russia,  capital  of  a  dis- 
trict of  the  same  name  in  the  government  of 
Orel,  on  the  Nugra.  It  is  a  very  ancient  place, 
and  is  chiefly  built  of  wood.  It  has  manufac- 
tures of  leather,  glue,  soap,  etc.,  and  a  consid- 
erable trade  in  hemp,  hemp-oil,  and  tallow, 
amounting  to  more  than  $800,000  annually. 
Pop.   (1903)  26,265. 

Boll  (from  the  Saxon  bolla,  a  bowl),  an  old 
Scotch  measure  for  corn,  varying  in  different 
districts  and  for  different  articles.  A  boll  of 
wheat  or  beans  was  equal  to  four  bushels,  a 
boll  of  oats  to  six  bushels.  The  boll  is  still 
used  in  some  parts  of  Scotland,  but  is  no  longer 
legally  recognized. 

Bol'lan,  'William,  lawyer:  b.  England;  d. 
Massachusetts,  1776.  In  1740  he  settled  in  Bos- 
ton, Mass.,  married  a  daughter  of  Governor 
Shirley  in  1743,  and  became  advocate-general. 
In  1745  he  was  sent  to  London  as  the  colony's 
agent,  a  post  of  great  responsibility  and  requir- 
ing considerable  ability  in  the  holder.  After 
three  years  of  negotiating  he  secured  from  the 
English  government  the  repayment  of  ii83,6.^q 
advanced  by  Massachusetts  for  the  Cape  Breton 
expedition.  In  1769  he  secured  and  sent  over 
to  Massachusetts  33  letters  of  Gov.  Bernard 
and  Gen.  Gage,  denouncing  and  calumniating 
the  colonists.  He  wrote  a  number  of  politi- 
cal tracts  and  pamphlets  favoring  conciliation 
with  the  colonists.  Among  them  were:  *The 
Mutual  Interests  of  Great  Britain  and  the 
American  Colonies  Considered*  ;  ^Continued 
Corruption  of  Standing  Armies*  ;  ^The  Free 
Briton's  Memorial,  in  Defense  of  the  Right  of 
Election*  ;  ^Importance  of  the  Colonies  of  North 
America  and  the  Interests  of  Great  Britain  with 
Regard  to  Them  Considered*  ;  < Petition  to  the 
King   in   Council,   26   Jan.    1774,    with    Illustra- 


BOLLANDISTS  —  BOLOGNA 


lions  Intended  to  Promote  the  Harmony  of 
■Great  Britain  and  Her  Colonies*  ;  <The  Impor- 
tance of  Cape  Breton  Illustrated'  ;  etc. 

Bollandists,  a  society  of  Jesuits  which 
published,  under  the  title  <Acta  Sanctorum,*  the 
well-known  collection  of  the  lives  of  the  saints 
of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church.  They  received 
this  name  from  John  Bolland  (died  1665),  who 
edited  the  first  five  volumes  from  materials 
already  accumulated  by  Heribert  Rosweyd,  a 
Flemish  Jesuit,  whose  collections  were  entrusted 
to  Bolland  at  his  death  in  1629.  On  the  aboli- 
tion of  the  society  of  Jesuits  in  1773.  it  was 
removed  to  the  monastery  of  Candenberg,  in 
Brussels.  The  abolition  of  the  monasteries  by 
Joseph  II.  brought  about  its  dissolution.  A 
new  association  was  formed  in  1837  under  the 
patronage  of  the  Belgian  government,  and  iDy 
it  the  publication  of  the  great  work  was  con- 
tinued. 

BoUes,  Albert  Sidney,  writer  on  finance: 
"b.  Montville,  Conn..  8  March  1846.  He  prac- 
tised law  for  a  time ;  then  became  editor  of  the 
Norwich  fConn.)  Bulletin,  and  later  of  the 
Banker's  Bulletin.  For  more  than  four  years 
Tie  was  professor  of  mercantile  law  and  bank- 
ing in  the  University  of  Pennsylvania,  and  for 
■eight  years  chief  of  the  Pennsylvania  Bureau 
of  Industrial  Statistics.  Publications:  *  Chap- 
ters on  Political  Economy*;  'Conflict  Between 
Labor  and  Capital*  :  'Industrial  History  of  the 
Jnited  States*  :  'Financial  History  of  the 
United  States.  1774-1885.*  his  most  important 
work;  'Practical  Banking*:  'The  National 
Bank  Act  and  its  Judicial  Meaning*  ;  'Pennsyl- 
A'ania,   Province  and   State,   1609-1790.* 

Belles,  Frank,  author:  b.  Winchester, 
Mass.,  31  Oct.  1856 :  d.  Cambridge,  Mass.,  10 
Jan.  1894.  He  graduated  at  Harvard  Law 
School  in  1882.  and  while  there  founded  and 
became  first  president  of  what  is  now  the  Har- 
vard Co-operative  Association.  He  was  an  asso- 
ciate editor  of  the  Boston  Advertiser  until 
chosen  secretary  of  Harvard  University  in  1886. 
That  office  he  made  thoroughly  human  to  the 
great  gain  of  both  students  and  faculty.  He 
was  in  the  truest  sense  the  students'  friend,  and 
he  endeared  himself  to  hundreds,  especially  the 
diffident  ones  and  those  of  limited  means,  by 
many  acts  of  helpfulness.  In  a  series  of  judi- 
cious and  clear  pamphlets  he  set  forth  the  actual 
working  of  Harvard,  its  methods  of  instruction, 
the  scope  of  its  departments,  etc.,  and  did  much 
to  correct  the  impression  that  it  was  a  rich  man's 
college.  He  wrote  three  works  of  exceptional 
literary  merit:  'Land  of  the  Lingering  Snow,* 
sketches  written  on  an  abandoned  farm  in  the 
beart  of  the  White  Mountains;  '^At  the  North 
of  Bearcamp  Water*  ;  and  'From  Blomidon  to 
Smoky,  and  Other  Papers.*  In  his  descriptions 
of  nature  and  scenery  he  is  absolutely  imper- 
sonal, and  impartial  as  a  scientist ;  he  never 
moralizes  or  indulges  in  sentiment. 

Bellman,  Eric,  adventurer:  b.  Hoya,  Han- 
over. 1760;  d.  Jamaica.  W.  I..  9  Dec.  1821.  He 
was  a  physician  at  Paris  during  the  Revolution, 
accompanied  the  refugee.  Count  Narbonne  to 
London  in  1792,  then  established  practice  in 
Vienna  to  discover  Lafayette's  place  of  impris- 
onment. Finding  it  to  be  Olmiitz.  he  joined  an 
American  named  Francis  K.  Huger  in  rescuing 
him,  though  he  was  recaptured.  Bollman  was 
imprisoned    nearly   a   year   in   Austria,   then   re- 


leased  on  condition  of  leaving  the  country.  He 
came  to  America,  was  in  Philadelphia  for  years, 
then  joined  Burr's  conspiracy  in  1806  and  was 
his  agent  in  New  Orleans ;  was  apprehended  and 
committed  for  treason  in  1807,  but  discharged 
for  lack  of  evidence  (see  below).  In  1814  he 
returned  to  Europe,  finally  settling  in  London. 

Bellman's  Case,  in  United  States  law. 
Eric  Bollman  (above)  was  committed  on  prob- 
able suspicion  of  ireason,  27  Jan.  1807,  by  the 
circuit  court  of  the  District  of  Columbia ;  the 
supreme  court  was  moved  for  a  writ  of  habeas 
corpus  ad  subjiciendum  (the  great  writ  against 
illegal  confinement)  to  the  marshal  to  bring  him 
before  the  court.  The  questions  were  whether 
the  court  had  the  initial  power  to  grant  such 
writs,  and  if  so,  whether  it  could  grant  them 
against  committals  by  the  circuit  court.  John 
Marshall  decided  that  it  had  such  right  both 
by  common  law,  as  the  right  of  any  superior 
court  of  record  to  guard  the  liberty  of  the  citi- 
zen, and  by  express  grant  from  Congress  ;  and 
that  the  allegation  of  treason  was  immaterial, 
as  the  w-rit  would  be  useless  without  the  power 
to  go  behind  the  lower  court's  action  and  decide 
on  the  merits.  William  Johnson  dissented.  On 
the  rnarshal's  return  it  was  moved  that  Bollman 
be  discharged,  because  no  place  of  commission 
of  the  treasonable  act  was  cited,  and  because  the 
evidence  was  insufficient  and  the  crime  even  if 
proved  did  not  amount  to  treason.  It  was  de- 
cided that  there  must  be  an  actual  lev'j'ing  of 
war,  not  merely  intent  to  do  so  to  constitute 
treason,  that  the  evidence  at  best  did  not  even 
prove  that,  but  only  a  culpable  attempt  against 
a  power  with  which  the  United  States  was  at 
peace. 

Boll  Weevil.    See  Cotton  Insects. 

Bollworm,  a  southern  name  for  a  cater- 
pillar which  bores  into  cotton  balls.  In  the 
north  it  is  called  "corn  worm.*'  See  Cotton 
Insects. 

Be'le,  the  national  weapon  of  the  Filipi- 
nos. The  blade  is  about  18  inches  in  length  by 
nearly  3  inches  in  breadth  at  its  broadest  dimen- 
sion. It  tapers  from  the  middle  toward  the  haft 
as  well  as  toward  the  point,  making  it  strongly 
resemble  the  ancient  short  sword.  It  is  not 
double  edged,  however,  but  tapers  from  a  thick 
back  to  an  extremely  keen  edge.  The  scabbard 
of  the  bolo  is  made  of  a  native  wood  with  rough 
outlined  designs  carved  upon  it.  The  whole 
weapon  is  much  more  beautiful  in  outline  and 
more  formidable  than  the  Cuban  machete. 

Bologna,  Giovanni  di,  j6-van'ne  de  bo-lo'- 
n5-a,  sculptor  and  architect:  b.  Douai,  in 
Flanders,  about  1524;  d.  Florence,  1608.  At  an 
early  age  he  went  to  Rome,  where  he  passed 
two  years  in  studying  the  masterpieces  of  art. 
Going  to  Florence,  he  was  attracted  by  the  works 
of  Michael  Angelo,  and  determined  to  pass  the 
rest  of  his  life  there.  He  rapidly  rose  to  the 
foremost  rank  among  sculptors,  and  few  artists 
were  charged  with  the  execution  of  so  many 
and  such  important  works.  His  surname  of 
Bologna  seems  to  have  been  derived  from  the 
celebrated  fountain  in  that  city,  designed  by 
himself,  of  which  the  crowning  colossal  figure 
of  Neptune  is  one  of  the  wonders  of  the  mod- 
ern city.  His  fine  statue  of  Duke  Ferdinand  is 
said  to  have  inspired  Browning's  poem,  'The 
Statue  and  the  Bust.* 


BOLOGNA  —  BOLOMETER 


Bologna,  bo-lo'nya,  Italv  'anciently  Bononia). 
capital  of  the  province  of  the  same  name.  It  lies 
at  the  foot  of  the  Apennines,  between  the  rivers 
Reno  and  Savena,  190  miles  north-northwest  of 
Rome.  Bologna  is  five  or  six  miles  in  circum- 
ference, and  is  surrounded  by  an  unfortified 
wall  of  brick.  It  is  an  archbishopric,  and  has 
a  tribunal  of  appeal  in  the  first  instance,  and 
of  commerce.  It  has  extensive  manufactures 
of  silk  goods,  velvet,  artificial  flowers,  etc.  The 
town  consists  of  four  quarters,  the  older  poorly, 
and  the  modern  handsomely  built.  There  are 
colonnades  along  the  sides  of  the  streets  afford- 
ing shade  and  shelter  to  the  foot-passengers. 
Bologna  was  long  renowned  for  its  universit3% 
founded,  according  to  tradition,  by  Theodosius 
the  younger  in  425,  but  more  probably  not  till 
1088,  which,  in  the  centuries  of  barbarism,  spread 
the  light  of  knowledge  over  all  Europe.  It  once 
had  10,000  students,  but  the  number  is  now 
about  1,500  only.  Here  the  famous  Irnerius 
taught  the  civil  law  in  the  iith  century,  and 
students  were  attracted  from  every  quarter.  Sev- 
eral learned  ladies  have  at  different  times  been 
professors  here,  such  as  Laura  Bassi,  professor 
of  mathematics  and  natural  philosophy,  and 
Matilda  Tambroni,  professor  of  Greek,  and  the 
predecessor  of  the  famous  Cardinal  Mezzofanti. 
The  university  formerly  possessed  so  much  in- 
fluence, that  even  the  coins  of  the  city  bore  its 
motto — Bononia  docct  ("Bologna  teaches")- 
The  law  school  enjoyed  the  greatest  fame.  Its 
teachers  had  the  reputation  of  inculcating  prin- 
ciples favorable  to  despotism,  and  were  conse- 
quently rewarded  by  the  favor  of  the  emperors, 
and  of  the  Italian  sovereigns.  Every  new  dis- 
covery in  science  and  the  arts  found  a  welcome, 
and  here  Galvani  discovered  galvanism  (1789). 
The  medical  school  is  celebrated  for  having  in- 
troduced the  public  dissection  of  human  bodies, 
and  the  scientific  journals  prove  that  the  love 
of  investigation  is  still  awake  in  Bologna.  The 
university,  indeed,  still  enjoys  an  excellent  repu- 
tation, and  is  well  provided  with  scientific 
collections,  the  anatomical  collection  being  espe- 
cially extensive.  It  possesses  in  all  five  facul- 
ties. The  university  library  numbers  about 
170,000  volumes,  with  6,000  manuscripts.  Since 
1803  the  university  buildings  have  consisted  of 
what  was  formerly  the  Palazzo  Cellesi.  The 
original  university  building  now  accommodates 
the  public  library,  of  some  200,000  volumes.  The 
city  has  a  picture-gallery  (in  the  Accademia 
delle  Belle  Arte)  and  a  museum  of  archaeological 
and  other  objects.  In  the  i6th  century  the 
famous  painters  and  sculptors,  Carracci,  Guido 
Reni,  Domenichino,  and  Albani,  founded  a 
school,  to  which  their  works  have  given  great 
reputation.  There  were,  even  as  early  as  the 
I2th  and  13th  centuries,  great  painters  in 
Bologna.  Francesco  Francia  was  famous  in  the 
15th  and  early  part  of  the  i6th  century.  The 
city  picture-gallery  is  rich  in  the  works  of  these 
and  other  artists,  the  gem  of  the  whole  being 
Raphael's    St.    Cecilia. 

The  chief  square  of  the  city.  Piazza  Vittorio 
Emanuele,  formerly  the  Piazza  Maggiore,  with 
the  Piazza  del  Nettuno  at  right  angles,  is 
adorned  by  several  venerable  buildings ;  among 
them  are  the  Palazzo  Comunale  (or  Del 
Gnverno'),  which  contains  some  magnificent 
halls,  adorned  with  statues  and  paintings ; 
Palazzo  del  Podesta  (dating  from  1201"),  now 
\he  town  hall,  chiefly  remarkable  as  having  been 


the  prison  of  Enzius,  king  of  Sardinia,  and  son 
of  the  Emperor  Frederick  II..  who  was  cap~ 
tured  and  kept  here  by  the  Bolognese  for  more 
than  20  years,  till  his  death ;  and  the  church  or 
basilica  of  St.  Petronio,  with  its  unfinished  front 
and  the  meridian  of  Cassini  drawn  upon  a  cop- 
per plate  in  the  floor.  Among  the  hundred  other 
churches,  the  following  are  distinguished :  St. 
Pietro  (the  cathedral),  St.  Salvatore,  St. 
Domenico  (containing  the  tomb  of  the  saint), 
St.  Giovanni  in  Monte,  St.  Giacomo  Maggiore, 
all  possessed  of  rich  treasures  of  art,  and  St. 
Stephano,  consisting  of  seven  different  churches, 
and  partly  dating  from  the  loth  century.  The 
palaces  are  numerous,  and  were  formerly  en- 
riched with  numerous  and  valuable  works  of 
art.  Many  of  these  have  now  disappeared, 
though  frescoes  and  other  internal  decorations 
still  remain.  The  admired  fountain  of  the 
Piazza  del  Nettuno  is  adorned  with  a  Neptune 
in  bronze,  by  John  of  Bologna ;  in  the  Piazza 
Vittorio  Emanuele  is  an  equestrian  statue  of 
Victor  Emanuel  II.  The  leaning  towers,  Degli 
Asinelli,  and  Garisenda,  dating  from  the  12th 
century,  are  among  the  most  remarkable  objects 
in  Bologna.  The  former  is  square  and  of 
massive  brickwork,  built  in  three  portions,  and 
diminishing  in  diameter  to  the  top.  Its  height 
is  321  feet,  and  its  inclination  from  the  per- 
pendicular 4  feet.  The  Garisenda  is  163  feet 
high,  and  inclines  about  10  feet.  Bologna  is 
famous  for  macaroni,  sausage,  liqueurs,  and 
preserved  fruits.  The  pilgrimage  to  the  Ma- 
donna di  S.  Luca,  whose  church  is  situated  at 
the  foot  of  the  Apennines,  three  miles  distant 
from  Bologna,  and  to  which  an  arcade  of  640 
arches  leads,  annually  attracts  a  great  number  of 
people  from  all  parts  of  Italy.  This  and  other 
places  in  the  environs  may  be  reached  by  steam 
tramwaj'. 

Bologna  was  founded  by  the  Etruscans  under 
the  name  of  Felsina,  before  the  foundation  of 
Rome.  In  189  B.C.  it  w-as  made  a  Roman  colony, 
and  called  Bononia.  On  the  fall  of  the  Roman 
empire,  it  was  taken  by  the  Longobards,  then  it 
passed  into  the  hands  of  the  Franks,  and  was 
made  a  free  city  by  Charlemagne.  In  the  12th 
and  13th  centuries  it  was  one  of  the  most  flour- 
ishing of  the  Italian  republics ;  but  the  feuds 
between  the  different  parties  of  the  nobles  dis- 
turbed the  stable  government  of  the  city,  and 
led  to  its  submission  to  the  papal  see,  and  incor- 
poration in  the  states  of  the  Church,  in  1506. 
Several  attempts  were  made  to  throw  off  the 
papal  authority,  one  of  which,  in  1831,  was  for  a 
time  successful.  In  1849  the  Austrians  obtained 
possession  of  Bologna,  and  made  it  the  head- 
quarters of  their  2d  Italian  Corps.  In  i860 
Bologna  was  by  popular  vote  annexed  to  the 
dominions  of  King  Victor  Emanuel.  Pop. 
(1899)    158,975- 

Bologna  Phial,  a  small  flask  of  unan- 
nealed  glass,  which  flies  into  pieces  when  its 
surface  is  scratched  by  a  hard  body  or  a  sharp- 
ened body  dropped  into  it.  It  is  prepared  by  the 
glass-maker  as  a  test  of  the  condition  of  a  pot 
of  metal  before  he  fashions  it  into  bottles  or 
glasses. 

Bolo'gna  Stone,  or  Bologna  Phosphorus. 
See  Barium  and  Barite. 

Bolom'eter  (^^ray-measurer*),  an  instru- 
ment invented  by  Prof.  S.  P.  Langley.  secre- 
tary of  the  Smithsonian  Institution,  for  detect- 


BOLOR  TAGH  — BOLTON 


ing-  and  measuring  small  quantities  of  radiant 
heat.  It  consists  essentially  of  a  balanced 
Wheatstone's  bridge  (see  Resistance,  Electri- 
cal), one  of  whose  arms  is  formed  by  a  tliin 
strip  of  platinum  foil,  blackened  to  facilitate  the 
absorption  of  heat.  The  bridge  being  in  equilib- 
rium, with  no  current  passing  through  the  gal- 
vanometer, a  ray  of  radiant  heat  falling  upon  the 
platinum  strip  warms  it  slightly,  thereby  increas- 
ing its  electric  resistance,  destroi'ing  the  balance 
of  the  bridge,  and  causing  an  electric  current  to 
flow  through  the  galvanometer.  By  comparing 
the  current  so  produced  with  that  produced  by 
a  source  of  heat,  the  intensity  or  the  radiation  of 
which  is  known,  an  estimate  may  be  formed  of 
the  quantity  of  heat  received  from  the  body 
under  investigation.  The  instrument  is  so  deli- 
cate that  it  can  detect  a  change  of  temperature, 
in  the  platinum  strip,  amounting  to  the  hundred- 
thousandth  part  of  a  degree,  Fahrenheit.  Prof. 
Langley  considers  that  it  is  also  capable  of  mea- 
suring small  quantities  of  radiant  heat  with  an 
error  of  not  more  than  one  per  cent.  The  bolom- 
eter was  first  devised  for  the  purpose  of  studying 
the  distribution  of  heat  in  the  solar  spectrum, 
and  it  has  yielded  much  valuable  infor- 
mation on  this  subject,  especiall}-^  in  the  infra- 
red regions,  where  Fraunhofer  lines  exist, 
although  they  are  invisible  to  the  eye  and  can 
only  be  photographed  with  difficulty.  For  more 
extended  descriptions  of  the  instrument,  see 
*  Proceedings  of  the  American  Academy  of  Arts 
and  Sciences^  (1881,  Vol.  XVL  p.  342)  ;  also 
*Annals  of  the  Astrophysical  Observatory  of 
the  Smithsonian  Institution*    (1900,  Vol.  I.). 

Bolor  Tagh,  bo-lor'  tag,  also  Bilaur,  or 
Belut  Tagh,  a  mountain  range  formerly  imag- 
ined to  exist  in  central  Asia  between  eastern 
and  western  Turkestan,  as  the  axis  of  the  conti- 
nent. At  that  point,  however,  there  is  really  a 
lofty  tableland  called  the  Pamir. 

Bolsas,  a  river  of  Mexico,  which,  after 
flov.ing  west,  enters  the  Pacific  Ocean,  225  miles 
southwest  of  Mexico  City. 

Bolsec,  Jerome  Hermes,  zha-rom  her-maz 
bol-sec,  French  writer:  b.  early  in  the  i6th 
century;  d.  1585.  He  became  first,  it  is  said,  a 
monk,  but  subsequent!}'  embraced  the  doctrines 
of  the  Reformation  and  became  a  medical  prac- 
titioner. After  retiring  to  Italy,  and  remaining 
for  some  time  at  Ferrara,  he  repaired  to  Geneva, 
and  insinuated  himself  into  the  good  graces  of 
Calvin.  A  quarrel  afterward  took  place,  occa- 
sioned, it  is  said,  by  the  opposition  of  Bolsec  to 
the  doctrine  of  absolute  election.  It  issued  in 
his  imprisonment  and  ultimate  banishment  from 
Geneva.  He  was  driven  later  on  also  from  Lau- 
sanne through  the  influence  of  Beza.  He  lat- 
terly returned  to  France,  and  having  formally 
abjured  Protestantism,  settled  as  a  physician  in 
Lyons.  He  acquired  considerable  notoriety  by 
the  violence  of  his  philippics  against  Calvin  and 
Beza,  in  which,  under  the  name  of  their  Lives, 
he  has  raked  together  and  published  all  sorts 
of  scandal.  This  at  least  is  the  common  view 
of  Protestant  writers. 

Bolsena,  bol-sa'na,  Italy,  a  town  on  the 
lake  of  the  same  name ;  56  miles  north-northwest 
of  Rome.  In  the  immediate  vicinity  stood 
the  ancient  Volsinium,  one  of  the  most  power- 
ful of  the  Etruscan  cities.  Some  remains  of  its 
temples,  including  several  granite  columns,  are 
still  in  existence.     The  lake  of  Bolsena,  which  is 


supposed  to  fill  an  ancient  crater,  exhales  a 
deadly  m.alaria  during  the  summer  season.  It 
is  about  9  miles  long,  7  miles  broad,  and  285 
feet  deep.  The  shores  are  formed  by  finely 
wooded  hills,  presenting  much  beautiful  scenery; 
it  has  two  small  islands,  called  Martana  and 
Bisentina.  believed  once  to  have  been  floating, 
and  it  discharges  its  surplus  waters  into  the 
^Mediterranean  by  the  Marta   River. 

Bolsward,  bol'svart,  Holland,  a  town  in 
the  province  of  Friesland,  15  miles  southwest 
of  Leeuwarden,  at  the  junction  of  several  canals, 
and  intersected  by  canals  crossed  by  numierous 
bridges.  The  parish  church  is  said  to  be  the 
largest  and  finest  in  Friesland.  The  trade  of 
Bolsward  consists  chiefly  in  cattle,  cheese,  and 
butter.     Pop.    (1902)    6,500. 

Bolswert,  bol'svert,  Boetius  Adam,  called 
Bolswert  after  his  native  place  in  Friesland, 
Dutch  engraver:  b.  about  1580;  d.  1634.  He 
was  the  author  of  many  valuable  engravings 
after  designs  of  Bloemaert  and  Rubens.  His 
younger  brother,  Scheltius  Adam,  rose  to 
higher  fame  in  the  same  art.  especially  distin- 
guishing himself  by  his  prints  after  some  of  the 
best  works  of  Rubens  and  Vandyke.  Both 
brothers   practised   their   art   at   Antwerp. 

Bolt  Court,  a  residential  court  in  London, 
oft'  Fleet  Street,  near  Saint  Bride's  Church,  in 
which  Cobbett  and  Dr.  Samuel  Johnson  lived 
for   some   years. 

Bolt-ropes,  ropes  used  to  strengthen  the 
sails  of  a  ship,  the  edges  of  the  sails  being 
sewn  to  them.  Those  on  the  sides  are  called 
leech-ropes,  the  others  head  and  foot  ropes. 

Bolti,  or  Bultee,  an  edible  chichlid  fish  of 
the  Nile. 

Bolting-cloth,  a  closely  woven  fabric,  gen- 
erally of  silk,  used  for  sifting  flour.    See  Flour. 

Bolton,  Charles  Edward,  American  lec- 
turer and  writer :  b.  South  Hadley  Falls,  Mass., 
16  May  1841  :  d.  East  Cleveland.  C3hio,  1901.  He 
inaugurated  the  Cleveland  Educational  Bureau  ; 
lectured  extensively  in  the  United  States  and 
Canada  ;  and  was  mayor  of  East  Cleveland  in 
his  latest  years.  He  published:  *A  Few  Civic 
Problems^;    <A  Model   Village'    (1901). 

Bolton,  Charles  Knowles,  American  poet 
and  miscellaneous  writer,  son  of  Mrs.  Sarah 
Knowles  Bolton :  b.  Cleveland,  Ohio,  14  Nov. 
1867.  He  has  been  librarian  of  the  Boston 
Athenaeum  Library  from  1898.  He  has  written  : 
^Gossiping  Guide  to  Harvard'  ;  *Saskia.  the 
Wife  of  Rembrandt'  ;  <The  Wooing  of  Martha 
Pitkin'  ;  *Love  Story  of  Ursula  Wolcott'  ;  'The 
Private  Soldier  Under  Washington'    (1903). 

Bolton,  Henry  Carrington,  American 
scientific  writer:  b.  New  York,  1843;  d-  Wash- 
ington, D.  C.  17  Nov.  1903.  He  graduated  at 
Columbia  University  and  studied  abroad  ;  became 
professor  of  chemistry  and  natural  science  at 
Trinity  College,  Hartford,  Conn.  In  1900  he 
was  elected  president  of  the  Chemical  Society  of 
Washington,  D.  C.  He  wrote :  'The  Counting- 
Out  Rhymes  of  Children,  a  Study  in  Folk-Lore' 
(1888)  ;  'Literature  of  Manganese'  ;  'Students' 
Guide  in  Quantitative  Analysis'  ;  'The  Evolu- 
tion of  the  Thermometer,  1592-1743'    (1900). 

Bolton,  Sarah  Knowles,  American  author: 
b.  Farmington,  Conn.,  15  Sept.  1841.  She  mar- 
ried   Charles    E.    Bolton     (q.v.),    lecturer    and 


BOLTON  —  BOMBARDIER 


philanthropist,  and  resides  in  Cleveland,  Ohio. 
She  is  the  author  of  a  number  of  books,  includ- 
ing: ^Girls  Who  Became  Famous'  (1886); 
'Famous  American  Authors*  (1887)  ;  'Famous 
American  Statesmen'  (1888)  ;  'Famous  Types 
of  Womanhood'  (i8q2)  ;  'The  Inevitable  and 
Other  Poems'  (1895);  'Our  Devoted  Friend, 
the  Dog'   (1901)  ;  etc. 

Bolton,  Sarah  Tittle,  American  poet:  b. 
Newport,  Ky..  18  Dec.  1815 ;  d.  Indianapolis,  4 
Aug.  1893.  She  is  known  for  her  patriotic  and 
war  poems,  including  'Paddle  Your  Own 
Canoe'  ;  'Left  on  the  Battlefield'  ;  etc.  Her 
collected  'Poems'  appeared  in  1865  and  1886. 

Bolton,    or    Bolton-le-Moors,    a    manufac- 
turing     town      of      Lancashire,      England,      10 
miles    northwest   from   Manchester.     It  consists 
mainly  of  two  divisions.  Great  Bolton  and  Little 
Bolton,  separated  from  each  other  by  the  river 
Croal.     The  older  portion  of  the  two   contains 
many  narrow  and  irregular   streets,  but  by  far 
the    larger    portion    of    the    town    is    modern. 
About    $2,500,000    has    been    recently    expended 
in  street  improvements.     The  finest  of  the  public 
edifices   is    the  town-hall,   in  the   Grecian   style, 
with  a  tower  220  feet  high,  fronting  a  spacious 
square,    and    erected    at    an    expense    of    about 
$1,000,000.     Among  other   public   buildings   are 
one  of  the  finest  market-halls  in  England,  cost- 
ing,   with    its    approaches,    nearly    $500,000 ;    a 
church   institute ;    a   temperance-hall ;    commodi- 
ous   baths ;     savings-bank ;    two    theatres ;    two 
technical     schools ;     a     post-office,     gas     offices, 
county  court,  infirmary  and  children's  hospital ; 
orphanages  :  Chadwick  and  Mere  Hall  museums ; 
board  schools  ;  poor-law  offices,  etc.    The  religious 
edifices  are  numerous,  and  some  of  them  of  fine 
architectural  appearance.    Foremost  among  these 
is  St.  Peter's  parish  church,  a  modern  cruciform 
building   in  the   Decorated   style,   with   a   tower 
at  the  western  end  150   feet  high.     The  schools 
are    numerous    and    well    attended,    and,    under 
the   school   board,  education   is   rapidly   improv- 
ing.    There  is  a   free  grammar-school,  founded 
in  1641.     The  Bolton  Free  Public  libraries   (six 
in     number)      contain     over     93.000     volumes. 
There  are  now  four  parks  and  three  recreation 
grounds    belonging   to   the   town.     In    manufac- 
turing industry  Bolton  is  surpassed  by  few  places 
in   the   kingdom,   the   cotton   manufacture   being 
its  staple.     It  contains  some  of  the  largest  and 
finest   cotton   mills   in   the  world.     In   the  town 
itself    there    are    some   370    factories,    of    which 
nearly   140  are  cotton   mills   and  establishments 
for   the  weaving  of  cotton   fabrics.     The   yarns 
spun  in   Bolton  are  generally  fine,  and  a  great 
variety   of    fanc}^    goods    are    produced,    besides 
plain   calicoes.     Bleaching  is  also  carried   on  to 
a    great    extent,   there   being   over   20   bleaching 
grounds,   some  of  them   very  large.     There  are 
also  several  large  engineering  works,  employing 
a   great   many   hands.     Besides   these   there    are 
collieries,  paper  mills,  foundries,  chemical  works, 
and  various  other  works.     Bolton  is  of  consid- 
erable antiquity,  having  been  raised  to  the  dig- 
nity of  a  market-town  in   1256.     It  returns  two 
members  to  Parliament.     Pop.  (1901)  168,205. 

Bolton  Abbey,  a  famous  English  Abbey 
in  Yorkshire;  in  a  highly  picturesque  district  on 
the  river  Wharfe,  six  miles  east  of  Skipton,  and 
21  miles  northwest  of  Leeds.  Founded  for 
Augustinian  canons  about  11 50.  it  has  been  cele- 
brated  bv  Wordsworth  in   'The  White  Doe  of 


Rylstone'  and  'The  Force  of  Prayer.*  The 
eastern  end  is  a  ruin,  but  the  nave  is  utilized  fc 
the  purposes  of  a  parish  church. 

Bolyai,  Farkas,  Hungarian  mathemati- 
cian: b.  Bolyai  1775;  d.  1856.  He  obtained  his 
early  education  in  Enged,  Klausenburg,  and 
Jena,  and  for  three  years  (1796-9)  studied  at 
Gottingen.  He  later  became  professor  of  math- 
ematics in  the  Reformed  College  of  Maros- 
Vosarhely,  a  position  which  he  very  efficiently 
held  for  47  years.  He  made  several  attempts  to 
prove  Euclid's  postulate  of  parallelism,  but  it 
remained  to  his  son  to  finally  declare  the  science 
absolute  of  space,  assigning  the  Euclidean  geom- 
etry to  a  particular  kind  of  space.  His  chief 
work,  however,  was  known  as  'Teutamen,' 
which  later  contained  an  appendix  of  26  pages 
to  Vol.  I.,  called  'Scientiam  Spatii  Absolute 
Veram  E.xhibens,'  written  by  his  son  Janos,  and 
which  has  since  become  famous. 

Bolzano,  Bemhard,  Bohemian  Roman 
Catholic  theologian  and  philosopher:  b.  Prague, 
5  Oct.  1781;  d.  18  Dec.  1848.  From  1805  to 
1820  he  was  professor  and  chaplain  at  the  Uni- 
versity of  Prague,  but  was  accused  of  insidiously 
instilling  into  the  minds  of  the  students  the  here- 
sies of  Schelling  and  Hegel,  and  was  dismissed 
from  his  office.  He  left  many  writings,  of  which 
his  'Wissenschaftslehre'  (1842)  is  the  most  im- 
portant.    Consult    'Autobiography'     (1875). 

Bomarsund,  a  narrow  channel  betw^een 
the  islands  of  Aland  and  Vardo,  at  the  entrance 
of  the  Gulf  of  Bothnia.  The  Russian  fortifica- 
tions to  the  harbor  of  Bomarsund  were  de- 
stroyed by  the  British  and  French  fleets  during 
the  war  of  1854.  The  channels  leading  up  to 
Bomarsund  were  blockaded  at  the  end  of  July 
by  four  British  ships  and  a  few  small  steamers. 
Shortly  afterward  strong  detachments  of  the 
allied  fleets  arrived,  with  the  admirals  Napier 
and  Parseval-Deschenes,  followed,  7  August,  by 
the  line-of-battle  ships  with  Gen.  Baraguay  d'Hil- 
liers  and  12,000  troops,  mostly  French.  The 
Russian  commander.  Gen.  Bodisco,  was  com- 
pelled to  surrender  on  16  August,  the  allies  con- 
tinuing to  occupy  the  island  until  the  end  of  the 
month,  when  the  whole  of  the  fortification  was 
blown  up.  The  trophies  of  the  victors  were  112 
mounted  guns,  79  not  m.ounted,  3  mortars,  7  field 
guns,  and  2,235  prisoners.  The  principal  mili- 
tary interest  ofi^ered  by  this  siege  is  its  setting 
at  rest  the  question  of  the  employment  of  uncov- 
ered masonry  in  fortifications  with  land-fronts. 

Bomb,  a  hollow,  cast-iron  ball  or  shell, 
filled  with  gunpowder,  or  other  combustible,  and 
exploded  by  means  of  a  time-fuse,  being  com- 
monly thrown  from  a  mortar.  Instead  of 
spherical  bombs,  elongated  shells  fired  from  rifled 
guns  are  now  in  general  use.  See  also  Am- 
munition ;  Projectiles. 

Bomb  Lance,  a  harpoon  used  in  whale 
fishing  which  carries  a  charge  of  explosive  ma- 
terial in  its  head.  In  one  form  of  the  weapon 
the  arrangement  is  that  when  the  harpoon  strikes 
the  fish,  the  bar,  which  is  pivoted  obliquely  in 
the  head  of  the  instrument,  shall  serve  to  release 
a  spring  acting  on  the  hammer,  which  then  ex- 
plodes the  cap  and  bursts  the  charge  chamber. 
Bombard.  See  Bomb.'\rdment. 
Bombardier,  originally  an  artillery  soldier 
whose  special  duties  are  connected  with  the  load- 
ing   and    firing   of    shells,   grenades,    etc.,    from 


BOMBARDIER-BEETLE  —  BOMBAY 


bombards,  mortars,  or  howitzers.  Bombardier 
is  now  the  special  title  of  a  non-commissioned 
officer  in  the  British  artillery  ranking  with  a 
corporal. 

Bombardier-beetle,  or  Artillery-beetle,  an 

insect  of  the  genus  Brachinus,  and  family  Cara- 
bida:  The  head  is  narrow,  the  prothorax  heart- 
shaped.  While  certain  other  beetles  have  at  the 
end  of  the  body  two  glands  which  secrete  a  malo- 
dorous fluid  which  they  eject  as  a  means  of  de- 
fense against  their  enemies,  in  the  bombard'ier- 
beetle  this  fluid  or  spray  appears  to  be  charged 
with  a  gas,  which,  on  coming  in  contact  with 
the  air,  looks  like  smoke,  and  is  ejected  with 
an  explosion  like  that  of  a  miniature  pop-gun. 
This  gas-like  vapor  and  detonation  baffles  and 
discomfits  the  pursuer  (most  often  some  other 
predatory  beetle)  as  if  blinding  it.  When  being 
captured  they  will  fire  off  this  discharge  several 
times.  Several  of  the  species  (B.  fumans  and 
allies)  are  yellowish-red,  with  bluish  and  green- 
ish elytra. 

Bombardment,  the  act  of  throwing  bombs 
or  shells  into  a  towm  or  fortress  for  incen- 
diary purposes.  A  bombardment  is  either 
desultory,  when  ships,  field  batteries,  or  a 
proportionately  small  number  of  siege  bat- 
teries, throw  shells  into  a  place  in  order  to 
intimidate  the  inhabitants  and  garrison  into 
a  hasty  surrender,  or  for  some  other  purpose; 
or  it  is  regular,  and  then  forms  one  of  the 
methods  of  conducting  the  attack  of  a  forti- 
fied place.  The  attack  by  regular  bombard- 
ment was  first  introduced  by  the  Prussians 
in  their  sieges  in  1815,  after  Waterloo,  of  the 
fortresses  in  the  north  of  France.  The  army 
and  the  Bonapartist  party  being  then  much 
dispirited,  and  the  remainder  of  the  inhabi- 
tants anxiously  wishing  for  peace,  it  was 
thought  that  the  formalities  of  the  old  rne- 
thodical  attack  in  this  case  might  be  dis- 
pensed with,  and  a  short  and  heavy  bombard- 
ment substituted,  which  would  create  fires 
and  explosions  of  magazines,  prevent  every 
soul  in  the  place  from  getting  a  night's  rest, 
and  thus  in  a  short  time  compel  a  surrender, 
either  by  the  moral  pressure  of  the  inhabi- 
tants on  the  commander,  or  by  the  actual 
amount  of  devastation  caused,  and  by  out- 
fatiguing  the  garrison.  The  regular  attack 
by  direct  fire  against  the  defenses,  though 
proceeded  with,  became  secondary  to  vertical 
fire  and  shelling  from  heavy  howitzers.  In 
some  cases  a  desultorj^  bombardment  was 
sufficient,  in  others  a  regular  bombardment 
had  to  be  resorted  to;  but  in  every  instance 
the  plan  was  successful;  and  it  is  now  a 
maxim  in  the  theory  of  sieges,  that  to  de- 
stroy the  resources,  and  to  render  unsafe  the 
interior  of  a  fortress  by  vertical  fire,  is  as 
important  (if  not  more  so)  as  the  destruction 
of  its  outer  defenses  by  direct  and  ricochet 
firing.  A  bombardment  will  be  most  effect- 
ive against  a  fortress  of  middling  size,  with 
numerous  non-military  inhabitants,  the  moral 
effect  upon  them  being  one  of  the  means 
applied  to  force  the  commander  into  sur- 
render. Before  bombarding  a  town,  it  is 
customary  to  give  24  hours'  notice  thereof, 
to  allow  women,  children,  and  non-combat- 
ants to  leave  it.  Modern  bombardments  have 
not  usually  been  particularly  destructive. 
During  the  siege  of  Paris,   1870-71,  some  500 


shells  were  thrown  into  the  city  by  the  Ger- 
mans, but  relatively  little  mischief  was  ac- 
complished by  them.  A  similar  result  was 
shown  at  the  bombardment  of  Santiago  de 
Cuba  by  the  American  forces  in  1898,  and 
also  in  the  long  sieges  of  Ladysmith  and 
Kimberley  in  1899-1900.     See  also  Siege. 

Bombardon,  a  large  brass  musical  instru- 
ment of  the  sax-horn  kind,  and  the  lowest  of 
these  instruments.  It  is  made  in  more  than  one 
size,  and  the  largest  is  generally  of  circular 
form  and  big  enough  to  go  round  the  body  of 
the  performer.  It  is  not  capable  of  very  rapid 
execution. 

Bombastes  Furioso,  a  burlesque  opera  by- 
William  Barnes  Rhodes,  produced  in  1790  and 
intended  as  a  parody  of  'Orlando  Furioso.*  Its 
name  is  that  of  the  principal  personage,  a  brag- 
gard  who  kills  his  king,  Arta.xominous,  for  a 
pair  of  jack-boots. 

Bombax  (Silk  Cottox  Tree),  a  genus  of 
10  or  12  tropical  trees  of  the  natural  order  Mal- 
vacea  with  digitate  leaves  and  large  scarlet  or 
white  axillary  flowers.  B.  cciba,  the  five-leaved 
silk  cotton  tree,  attains  a  great  height  in  tropical 
America,  where  it  is  native  and  where  its  irn- 
mense  trunks  are  scooped  out  for  canoes.  This 
species,  B.  miinguba,  another  South  American 
species,  and  B.  malabaricum,  the  red  silk  cotton 
tree,  so  named  from  the  color  of  its  "cotton," 
bear  pods  which  furnish  a  fibre  useful  for  stuf- 
fing cushions ;  hence  the  common  name.  All  the 
species  yield  useful  bast  employed  in  rope  mak- 
ing, and  have  been  suggested  as  possibly  val- 
uable for  paper  making. 

Bombay,  a  presidency  of  British  India, 
stretching  along  the  west  side  of  the  penin- 
sula, and  bounded  on  the  land  side  by  Ba- 
luchistan, the  Punjab,  Rajputana,  native 
states  of  the  Central  India  .\gency,  the  Cen- 
tral Provinces,  Berar.  Haidarabad,  Madras, 
and  Mysore;  and  on  the  west  by  the  Arabian 
Sea.  The  divisions  are:  Sind,  the  least  popu- 
lous, Gujerat,  the  most  populous,  Deccan, 
Konkan,  and  Karnatik.  The  presidency  also 
includes  many  feudatory  states.  The  chief 
towns  are  'Bombay,  Poona,  Ahmedadad. 
Surat,  and  Karachi.  The  chief  spoken  lan- 
guages are  Marathi,  used  by  nearly  half  the 
population:  Gujrathi,  used  by  the  commercial 
classes;  Kanarese,  and  Sindhi.  About  three 
fourths  of  the  population  profess  Hindu- 
ism, fully  one  sixth  are  Mohammedans,  the 
rest  being  Jains,  Christians,  Sikhs,  Parsees, 
aboriginals,  etc. 

The  chief  openings  in  the  coast  of  Bombay 
are  the  gulfs  of  Cambay  and  Cutch,  sepa- 
rated by  the  peninsula  of  Kathiawar.  The 
chief  harbors  are  those  of  Bombay  and  Karachi. 
The  river  Nerbudda  which  enters  the  Gulf  of 
Cambay,  divides  the  province  into  two  physi- 
cally distinct  parts.  North  of  it  are  Gujerat 
and'  Sind,  with  the  peninsulas  of  Cutch  and 
Kathiawar,  mostly  a  fertile  alluvial  plain. 
Much  of  Sind,  however,  is  a  desert,  crossed 
by  low  sand-hills.  South  of  the  Nerbudda,  the 
province  presents  a  narrow  flat  strip  of  coast, 
rising  inland  toward  the  upland  country  of 
the  "Western  Ghats  and  the  Deccan.  The 
chief  mountain  ranges  are  the  Hala  "Moun- 
tains, west  of  the  Indus,  the  Western  Ghats, 
running  north  and  south,  and  the  Satpura 
range,  separating  the  basins  of  the  Nerbudda 


BOMBAY  —  BOMBON 


and  the  Taptee.  The'  most  important  rivers 
are  the  Indus,  Nerbudda,  and  Taptee,  all 
of  which  flow  into  the  Arabian  Sea;  the 
Godavari  and  Kistna  rise  on  the  eastern 
slopes  of  the  Ghats.  Many  short  torrential 
rivers  traverse  the  Konkan  coastal  strip.  The 
forests  of  Sind  consist  chiefly  of  sisu,  babul 
(a  kind  of  acacia),  bhan  (a  species  of  pop- 
lar), and  tamarisk;  while  from  the  forests 
of  the  western  slopes  of  the  Ghats  are  ob- 
tained teak,  blackwood,  ebony,  ironwood, 
babul,  sandalwood,  and  other  valuable  tim- 
bers. The  cocoanut  and  date  palms,  mango, 
jack,  betel-nut,  and  myrobalans  are  other  im- 
portant indigenous  vegetable  products.  Among 
the  wild  animals  are  the  maneless  lion  of 
Gujerat,  the  wild  ass,  leopard,  tiger,  black 
bear,  bison,  antelopes,  and  venomous  snakes. 
The  climate  varies  greatly  from  one  dis- 
trict to  another,  two  extremes  being  rep- 
resented by  Upper  Sind,  with  great  heat  and 
little  rain,  and  the  Konkan,  with  excessive 
rainfall,  especially  from  June  to  October. 
The  chief  agricultural  productions  are  cot- 
ton, rice,  millet,  wheat,  barley,  dates,  the 
cocoa-palm,  oil-seeds,  sugar,  and  indigo.  The 
area  of  the  presidency  under  British  adminis- 
tration is  124,122  square  miles.  Pop.  of 
British  portion  of  the  presidency  (1901) 
18,584,496,  and  of  the  native  states,  6,891,691. 
See  Drew,  ^Bombay  and  Its  Feudatories^ 
(1892)  ;  Douglas,  'Glimpses  of  Old  Bombay 
and  Western  India^  (1900).  The  growth  of 
cotton  in  Bombay  received  a  great  impetus 
during  the  American  Civil  War ;  and  although 
the  great  demand  did  not  prove  lasting, 
cotton  continues  to  be  a  highly  important 
crop,  part  of  the  produce  being  exported,  and 
a  considerable  portion  of  it  worked  up  in 
the  cotton-mills  of  Bombay.  The  total  num- 
ber of  pupils  receiving  education  at  primary 
and  other  schools  amounts  to  about  750,000, 
of  whom  only  about  one  eighth  consist  of 
females.  The  annual  revenue  largely  exceeds 
the  expenditure,  and  latterly  has  amounted  to 
about  $75,000,000. 

Bombay,  a  city  and  seaport  on  the  west 
coast  of  India,  capital  of  the  presidency  of  the 
same  name,  situated  at  the  southern  extrem- 
ity of  the  island  of  Bombay,  and  connected 
with  the  mainland  and  the  interior  by  exten- 
sions of  the  Bombay  and  Baroda,  and  the 
Great  Indian  and  Peninsula  Railways,  the 
terminus  of  the  latter  being  a  splendid  edi- 
fice which  cost  $15,000,000.  Extensive  water- 
works have  been  constructed  on  the  main- 
land, including  a  dam  two  miles  in  length, 
and  were  opened  in  1892.  The  town  com- 
prises two  main  portions,  one  known  as  the 
Fort,  and  formerly  surrounded  with  fortifi- 
cations, on  a  narrow  point  of  land  with  the 
harbor  on  the  east  side  and  Back  Bay  on 
the  west;  the  other  known  as  the  City,  a 
little  to  the  northwest.  The  European  popu- 
lation live  partly  in  the  Fort  quarter,  but 
mostly  in  villas  surrounded  with  extensive 
areas,  called  compounds.  In  various  parts  of 
the  island.  Bombay  has  many  handsome 
buildings,  both  public  and  private,  and  a  num- 
ber of  fine  streets,  the  latter  being  in  many 
cases  traversed  by  street  railways.  The  cas- 
tle, the  government  offices,  and  almost  all 
the  merchants'  warehouses  and  offices  are  in 
the  Fort.     On  the  esplanade  facing  southwest 


is  a  fine  range  of  public  buildings,  including 
the  secretariat,  the  new  high  court,  the  offices 
of  the  public  works  department,  the  post  and 
telegraph  offices,  etc.  There  are  a  cathedral 
and  several  other  churches  in  Bombay,  which 
is  the  see  of  an  Anglican  bishop.  There  are 
also  some  fine  hotels.  In  1859  a  university  was 
opened.  Various  industries,  such  as  dyeing, 
tanning,  and  metal  working,  are  actively  car- 
ried on,  and  there  are  now  nearly  100  cotton- 
mills.  The  commerce  of  the  port  is  very  exten- 
sive, by  far  the  greater  portion  of  the  exports 
and  imports  of  the  presidency  passing  through 
Bombay.  The  chief  article  of  export  is  raw 
cotton,  the  chief  import  cotton  piece  goods, 
the  commerce  being  chiefly  with  Great  Britain. 
The  harbor  is  one  of  the  largest  and  safest  in 
India ;  while  its  scenery  and  that  of  the  neigh- 
boring continent  presents  a  rare  combination 
of  grandeur  and  beauty.  It  is  situated  be- 
tween the  islands  of  Colabah,  Bombay,  and 
Salsette  on  the  one  hand,  and  the  mainland 
and  islands  of  Caranjah  and  Elephanta  on 
the  other.  There  are  large  and  commodious 
docks,  the  ships  and  basins  being  calculated 
for  vessels  of  any  size.  There  is  a  large 
traffic  with  steam  vessels  between  Bombay 
and  Great  Britain,  and  regular  steam  com- 
munication with  China,  Australia,  Singapore, 
Mauritius,  etc.  A  railway  between  Bombay 
and  Tannah,  on  the  island  of  Salsette,  20 
miles  distant,  opened  in  1853,  was  the  first 
Indian  railway  constructed.  Pop.  (1901) 
770,800.  The  island  of  Bombay  is  about  11 
miles  long  from  north  to  south,  and  about 
three  miles  broad,  formed  by  two  ranges  of 
rock  running  parallel  to  each  other  on  oppo- 
site sides  of  the  island.  The  interior  was  for- 
merly liable  to  be  overflowed  by  the  sea,  to 
prevent  which  substantial  walls  and  embank- 
ments were  constructed. 

Bombay  was  obtained  bj^  the  Portuguese 
in  1530  from  an  Indian  chief  at  Salsette;  by 
them  it  was  ceded  to  Great  Britain  in  1661, 
and  in  1668  it  was  transferred  to  the  East 
India  Company.  Next  to  Madras  it  is  the 
oldest  of  the  British  possessions  in  the  East, 
and  from  the  commencement  of  the  last  cen- 
tury has  gradually  increased  in  importance. 

Bombay  Duck.     See  Bummaloti. 

Bombazine,  derived  from  bombyx.  the  Greek 
term  for  silk  and  silkworm,  is  a  mixed  tissue 
of  silk  and  worsted,  and  was  long  woven  both 
plain  and  colored.  The  latter,  however,  has 
gone  into  disuse,  and  the  only  color  now  used 
is  black,  for  which  there  is  an  extensive  de- 
mand in  Spain  and  South  America,  where  some 
of  the  religious  orders  use  it,  and  it  generally 
forms  the  material  of  the  almost  universally 
worn  Spanish  mantilla.  The  manufacture  was 
originally  introduced  into  England  by  a  colony 
of  Dutch  or  Flemings,  who  settled  in  Norfolk, 
and  long  continued  to  have  its  principal  seat  at 
Norwich,  the  capital  of  that  county,  though  it 
is  now  chiefly  confined  to  Halifax  and  Kid- 
derminster. 

Bombon,  Philippines,  a  large,  fresh  water 
lake  in  the  island  of  Luzon,  about  50  miles 
south  of  Manila.  It  is  105  square  miles  in  area. 
There  is  a  small  island  in  the  centre,  from  which 
rises  the  volcano  Taal,  whose  height  is  only 
850  feet.  The  waters  of  the  lake  find  an  outlet 
to  the  sea  through  the  Pansipit  River. 


BOMBAY. 


^. 


BOMBPROOF  —  BONALD 


Bombproof,  a  structure  intended  to  resist 
or  repel  artillery  shot  and  shell.  When  designed 
for  permanency  they  are  either  of  masonry  or 
cut  from  solid  rock,  but  temporary  bombproofs 
are  constructed  of  earth  and  timber,  or  other 
available  material.     See  also  Blindage. 

Bombycidae,  a  group  of  genera  compris- 
ing some  of  the  largest  and  most  regal  of  moths. 
Their  thick,  heavy  bodies  and  small  sunken 
heads,  the  mouth  parts  often  obsolete,  the 
tongue  either  wholly  or  partly  atrophied ;  the 
broadly  pectinated  antenn?e ;  the  broad,  often 
falcate,  wings;  and  their  sluggish  habits,  afford 
good  characters  for  distinguishing  them.  The 
larvze  are  silk-worms,  or  "spinners "  They 
are  often  thick,  usually  more  hairy  or  spiny 
than  those  of  other  groups  of  moths,  or  as 
in  the  Chinese  silk-worm,  smooth ;  while  in  the 
large  Attacus  ablas,  Telea  polyphemus,  Samia 
cecropia  and  Tropaa  luiia,  the  worms  are  short, 
fat,  fleshy,  and  sluggish.  They  spin  a  more  or 
less  dense  cocoon  of  silk  to  protect  the  enclosed 
pupa  from  sudden  changes  in  the  weather.  Al- 
though the  nam,e  Bombycidcc  is  confined  to  the 
small  group  represented  by  the  silk-worm 
{Bomhyx  mori),  all  the  typical  spinners  are  re- 
ferred to  as  bombycine  moths.  The  most  typi- 
cal families  are  the  Notodontidcc,  Sphingicampi- 
dce,  Saturniida:,  and  Remileucida.  Of  these  the 
Sphingicampidce,  however,  like  the  Sphingidcr, 
to  which  they  may  have  given  origin,  spin  no 
cocoon  and  transform  in  the  earth,  the  pupa 
being  subterranean  (see  also  Silkworm). 
Consult:  Packard.  *  Monograph  of  the  Bomby- 
cine Moths'  (']\Iemoirs  of  the  National  Acad- 
emv  of  Sciences,'  \'ol.  VII.,  Washington, 
1895). 

Bomford,  George,  American  soldier:  b. 
New  York.  17S0;  d.  Boston.  Mass.,  25  March 
1848.  He  graduated  at  West  Point  in  1805  and 
was  assigned  to  the  Engineer  corps.  Between 
1805  and  1812  he  worked  on  the  fortifications 
of  New  York  harbor,  the  defenses  of  Chesa- 
peake Bay.  and  was  superintending  engineer  of 
the  works  on  Governor's  Island.  During  the 
War  of  1812  he  was  brevetted  lieutenant-colonel 
for  distinguished  service  in  the  ordnance  de- 
partment. He  introduced  bomb  cannons,  made 
on  a  pattern  of  his  own  invention,  which  were 
called  Columbiads,  a  kind  of  heavy  gun  com- 
bining the  qualities  of  gun,  howitzer,  and  mor- 
tar. On  30  May  1832  he  was  appointed  chief  of 
ordnance,  and  on  i  Feb.  1842  became  in- 
spector of  arsenals,  ordnance,  arms,  and  muni- 
tions of  war,  in  which  duty  he  continued  until 
his  death.  See  Cullum,  'Officers  and  Graduates 
of  the  United  States  ]Militarv  Academy^  (Vol.  I. 
1868). 

Bon  Marche,  bon  miir-sha,  one  of  the 
large  department  stores  of  Paris,  situated  on  the 
Rue  de  Bac  and  Rue  de  Sevres.  It  was  founded 
in  1853  by  Aristide  Boucicault  as  a  small  store 
in  the  Rue  de  Bac  and  grew  little  by  little  to  be 
the  great  establishment  it  now  is.  The  present 
building  was  begun  in  1869,  was  first  used  in 
1872.  and  has  been  enlarged  at  various  times 
since  then.  The  management  is  co-operative. 
Pensions  from  $120  to  $300  a  year  are  given  to 
men  after  the  age  of  50,  and  women  after  45, 
and  there  is  a  regular  system  of  promotion.  It 
is  thought  that  this  organization  has  contributed 
largely  to  the  success  of  the  store. 


Bona,  Giovanni,  Italian  cardinal:  b.  Mon- 
dovi.  Piedmont,  10  Oct.  1609;  d.  Rome,  27  Oct. 
1674.  He  was  renowned  for  his  piety  and  learn- 
ing, a  collaborator  in  the  'Acta  Sanctorum,' 
the  author  of  'Rerum  Liturgicarum,'  which  is 
an  authority  on  the  service  of  mass,  and  of  'De 
principiis  vitae  Christianse,' — a  book  which  has 
frequently  been  compared  to  the  'Imitation  of 
Christ,'  and  of  which  a  French  translation  has 
appeared   (1854-5;. 

Bona  Dea,  the  good  goddess,  a  mysterious 
divinit}'  of  the  Roman  mythology,  the  wife  or 
the  daughter  of  Faunus.  Her  worship  was  se- 
cret, performed  only  by  women  ;  men  were  even 
required  to  ignore  her  name.  Her  sanctuary 
was  in  a  cavern  in  the  Avcntine  Hill,  but  her 
festival,  which  occurred  i  May,  was  celebrated 
in  a  separate  room  in  the  dwelling  of  the  consul 
who  then  had  the  fasces.  No  man  was  allowed 
to  be  present,  and  all  male  stafues  in  the  house 
were  covered.  The  wine  used  at  this  festival 
v.-as  called  milk,  and  the  vessel  in  which  it  was 
kept,  mellarimn.  After  the  sacrifices,  bacchana- 
lian dances  were  performed.  According  to 
Juvenal,  licentious  abominations  marked  these 
festivals.  The  snake  was  the  symbol  of  the 
goddess,  and  this  would  point  to  her  being  con- 
sidered as  possessing  a  curative,  medical  power, 
and  in  her  sanctuary  various  herbs  were  offered 
for  sale.  By  the  Greeks  the  Bona  Dea  was  iden- 
tified with  Hecate,  Semele,  or  other  divinities. 

Bona  Fide,  a  technical  legal  expression,  to 
which  the  law  of  Great  Britain  and  this  country 
has  annexed  a  certain  idea.  It  is  a  term  used 
in  statutes  in  England  and  in  acts  of  the  legis- 
lature of  all  the  United  States,  and  signifies  a 
thing  done  really,  with  a  good  faith,  without 
fraud  or  deceit,  or  collusion  or  trust.  The 
words  bona  fide  are  restrictive,  for  a  debt  may 
be  for  a  valuable  consideration  and  yet  not 
boua  fide.  A  debt  must  be  bona  fide  at  the  time 
of  its  commencement  or  it  can  never  become  so 
afterward.  If  a  contract  be  made  with  good 
faith,  subsequent  fraudulent  acts  will  not  vitiate 
it,  although  such  acts  may  raise  a  presumption  of 
antecedent  fraud  and  thus  become  a  means  of 
proving  the  want  of  good  faith  in  making  the 
contract. 

Bonacci-Brunamonti,    Maria    Alinda,    ma- 

•e'a  a-len'da  bo-na'che-broo-na-mon'te,  Ital- 
ian poet :  b.  Perugia,  1842.  She  was  only  14 
3'ears  old  when  her  first  'Collection  of  Poems' 
appeared  and  attracted  much  attention.  Her 
'National  Songs'  (1859-78)  were  inspired  by 
Italy's  struggle  for  freedom. 

Bonald,  Louis  Gabriel  Ambroise,  loo-e 
ga-bre-el  aii-brwaz  bo-niil  (Vicomte  de,  ve- 
cohtde),  French  philosopher:  b.  1754;  d.  1840. 
During  the  Revolution  he  joined  the  Royalist 
army  under  the  Bourbon  princes.  He  returned 
to  France  under  Napoleon ;  became  co-editor 
of  the  Merciire  with  Chateaubriand  and  Fievee, 
and  in  1808  was  appointed  minister  of  public 
instruction.  After  the  Restoration, —  as  the 
deputy  for  his  department, —  he  voted  with  the 
Ultramontane  or  Theocratic  party  in  the  Cham- 
bre  Introuvable,  and  in  his  political  career,  as 
in  his  philosophical  works,  was  the  ardent  ad- 
vocate of  absolutism,  of  the  infallibility  of  the 
Pope,  and  of  the  Jesuits.  In  1830  he  refused  to 
take  the  oath  of  allegiance  to  the  new  dynasty. 


BONANNO  —  BONAPARTE 


Bonanno,  bo-nan'no,  Italian  architect  and 
sculptor.  In  1174  he  commenced,  with  Wilhelm 
of  Innsbruck,  the  famous  Leaning  Tower  of 
Pisa.  He  was  also  the  designer  of  the  celebrated 
bronze  doors  of  the  cathedral  of  that  city. 

Bonanza,  a  rich  body  of  ore.  See  Comstock 
Lode. 

Bonaparte,  or  Buonaparte,  the  name  of  a 
Corsican  family  —  a  name  now  as  well  known  as 
any  in  history.  It  was  spelt  Buonaparte  by  the 
Emperor  Napoleon  and  his  father  till  1796, 
though  the  more  usual,  modern  form  also  occurs 
in  old  Italian  documents.  Several  families  are 
mentioned  as  early  as  the  12th  century  who  bore 
the  name  of  Bonaparte,  and  who  took  a  position 
of  some  prominence  in  the  history  of  Italy.  In 
1 122.  for  instance,  a  Bonaparte  was  banished 
from  Florence  as  a  Ghibelline.  Corrado  Bona- 
parte is  mentioned  in  1170  and  Jacopo  Bonaparte 
in  1210  as  knights  of  the  Order  of  the  Golden 
Spur.  The  office  of  podesta  was  held  by  Nordio 
Bonaparte  in  Parma  in  1272.  by  Pietro  Bona- 
parte in  Padua  1285,  and  by  Giovanni  Bonaparte 
in  Florence  1333.  In  1250  a  Bonaparte  was  syn- 
dic of  Ascoli,  and  in  1440  Cesare  Bonaparte  was 
chosen  as  head  of  naval  affairs  at  Sarzana.     A 


of  Ajaccio  in  the  senate  of  Genoa,  and  in  16141 
Francesco  was  chosen  captain  of  his  native  town. 
In  1757  Joseph,  the  grandfather  of  Napoleon  I.,, 
received  a  formal  patent  of  nobility  from  the 
Grand  Duke  of  Tuscany.  About  the  middle  of 
the  i8th  century  there  remained  three  male  rep- 
resentatives of  the  family  of  Bonaparte  at 
Ajaccio,  the  archdeacon  Lucien  Bonaparte,  his 
brother  Napoleon,  and  their  nephew  Charles, 
who  became  father  of  the  Emperor  Napoleon  I. 
and  of  a  numerous  family  of  princes. 

Bonaparte,  Charles,  father  of  the  Em- 
peror Napoleon  I.  b.  Ajaccio,  Corsica,  29  March 
1746;  d.  Montpellier,  24  Feb.  1785.  He  was  care- 
fully educated,  studied  law  at  Pisa,  and  soon 
after  his  return  married  without  the  consent  of 
his  relatives  Letitia  Ramolino,  a  beautiful  patri- 
cian. He  fought  under  Paoli  for  the  independ- 
ence of  Corsica,  but  resistance  to  the  French, 
proving  useless  he  went  over  to  their  side.  In 
1771,  when  Louis  XV.  caused  400  Corsican  fami- 
lies to  be  selected  who  alone  were  to  be  con- 
sidered noble,  the  Bonaparte  family, —  and  con- 
sequently Charles, —  was  among  the  number.. 
By  the  influence  of  the  French  governor,  Mar- 
boeuf,  who  was  very  friendly  toward  the  family,. 


THE   BONAPARTE   FAMILY   (Male  Issue). 

CHARLES   BONAPARTE. 

I 


(1)  Joseph, 

King  of 

Spain, 

died  1844. 


(2)  Napoleon  I. 
1804--1814; 
died  1821. 

I 

Duke  of 

Reictistadt 

(Napoleon  II.), 

died  1832. 


_  (3)  Lucien, 

Prince  of  Canino, 

died  1840. 

\_ 

Charles,      Paul,        Louis      Pierre, 
died  1827.  died  1827.  Lucien,  died  1881. 
I died  1891.        i 


(4)  Louis, 

Kin^  of  Holland, 

died  1846. 


Napoleon 
Charles, 
died  1807 


Lucien, 
Cardinal, 
died  1895 


Charles, 
died  1899 


Roland    Jeanne 


Louis 
Napoleon 
(Napo- 
leon III.), 
18^0-1870; 
died  1873. 

Napoleon  Louis 
(Prince  Imperial), 
died  1879. 


(5)  Jerome,     King 

of  Westphalia. 

died  i860 

I 

Prince  Napoleon, 

died  1891 


Victor.    Louis    Marie 
I 
Prince 
Humbert. 


Giovanni  Bonaparte  is  said  to  have  married  a 
niece  of  Pope  Nicholas  V.  in  1404,  but  this 
seems  doubtful  for  chronological  reasons.  It  is 
however  certain  that  about  1454  Niccolo  Bona- 
parte was  ambassador  of  this  Pope  to  several 
courts,  and  vicar  of  the  Holy  See  in  Ascoli. 
Another  Niccolo  Bonaparte,  professor  at  San 
Miniato  in  the  i6th  century,  is  stated  to  have 
been  the  author  of  the  comedy  ^La  Vedova^ 
(Florence  1568)  ;  and  a  work  on  the  Sack  of 
Rome  in  1527  is  attributed  to  the  Tuscan  Gia- 
como  or  Jacopo  Bonaparte,  who  was  an  eye- 
witness of  the  event.  The  connection  between 
these  different  Bonapartes  is  by  no  means  well 
established ;  yet  in  1771  the  relationship  of  the 
Corsican  Bonapartes  with  the  Florentine  Bona- 
partes was  judicially  recognized.  In  Corsica 
itself  a  Messire  Bonaparte  appears  as  witness  to 
an  act  executed  by  Berengar  II.  of  Italy  as  early 
as  947,  and  it  is  therefore  not  improbable  that 
the  family  originally  emigrated  from  this  island 
to  the  mainland,  and  that  a  branch  of  the  Genoese 
line  returned  to  their  old  home  in  the  i6th  cen- 
tury. From  the  time  of  Gabriel  Bonaparte,  who 
settled  at  Ajaccio  in  1567,  and  took  part  in  the 
naval  expeditions  against  the  Moors,  the  Bona- 
partes ranked  as  a  patrician  family  of  that  town. 
In  1576  Girolamo  Bonaparte  was  elected  deputy 


he  was  (1773)  named  royal  councilor  and  asses- 
sor for  the  town  and  province  of  Ajaccio.  As  a- 
member  of  the  deputation  of  Corsican  nobles 
sent  to  the  court  of  France  in  1777  he  resided 
several  years  at  Paris,  and  was  fortunate  enough 
to  secure  a  free  admission  for  his  eldest  son, 
Joseph,  to  the  seminary  at  Autun,  another  for 
his  second  son.  Napoleon,  to  the  military  school 
of  Brienne,  and  a  third  for  his  daughter,  Maria 
Anna,  to  the  educational  institution  at  St.  Cyr. 
He  returned  to  Corsica  in  1779.  and  afterward 
went  to  Montpellier  for  the  benefit  of  his  health, 
but  did  not  recover.  By  his  marriage  with 
Letitia  Ramolino  he  left  eight  children  ;  Joseph 
(see  Bonaparte,  Joseph),  king  of  Spain; 
Napoleon  I.,  emperor  of  the  French  (see  Napo- 
leon I.);  Lucien  (see  Bonaparte,  Lucien), 
prince  of  Canino ;  Maria  Anna,  afterward  called 
Elise,  princess  of  Lucca  and  Piombino,  and  wife 
of  Prince  Bacciocchi  (see  Bacciocchi,  Felice 
Pasquale)  ;  Louis  (see  Bonaparte,  Louis), 
king  of  Holland ;  Carlotta,  afterward  named 
Marie  Pauline,  Princess  Borghese  (q.v.)  ; 
Annunciata,  afterward  called  Caroline,  wife  of' 
Murat  (see  Murat),  king  of  Naples;  and  Jer- 
ome (see  Bonaparte,  Jerome),  king  of  West- 
phalia. See  also  Bonaparte,  Letitia  Ramo- 
lino; Napoleon  III. 


BONAPARTE 


Bonaparte,  Jerome,  youngest  brother  of 
Napoleon:  b.  Ajaccio,  Corsica,  15  Nov.  1784;  d. 
near  Paris,  24  June  i860.  At  an  early  age  he 
entered  the  French  navy  as  a  midshipman.  In 
1801  he  was  sent  out  on  an  expedition  to  the 
West  Indies,  but  the  vessel  being  chased  by 
English  cruisers,  uas  obliged  to  put  in  to  New 
York.  During  his  sojourn  in  America,  Jerome 
Bonaparte  became  acquainted  with  Miss  Eliza- 
beth Patterson,  the  daughter  of  the  president 
of  the  Bank  of  Baltimore,  and  a  descendant,  as 
is  asserted,  of  *'01d  Mortality,*  immortalized  by 
Sir  Walter  Scott.  His  addresses  to  this  young 
lady  having  been  accepted,  they  were  married  24 
Dec.  1803,  according  to  the  Roman  Catholic 
ritual,  in  the  cathedral  of  Baltimore,  and  in  1805 
embarked  for  Europe.  This  marriage  of  his 
brother  did  not  meet  the  approval  of  the  Em- 
peror Napoleon,  whose  ambitious  views  it 
thwarted,  and  he  accordingly,  after  an  ineffec- 
tual application  to  Pope  Pius  VII.  to  have  it 
dissolved,  issued  a  decree  declaring  it  to  be 
null  and  void.  On  12  Aug.  1807,  Jerome  was 
married  to  Catherine  Sophia,  Princess  of  Wiir- 
temberg,  and  a  few  months  afterward  was 
created  king  of  Westphalia,  and  crowned  with 
great  pomp  at  Cassel,  i  Jan.  1808.  His  govern- 
ment was  not  marked  by  much  judiciousness  or 
prudence ;  little  regard  was  paid  to  national  feel- 
ings, and  the  finances  of  the  state,  both  from 
mismanagement  and  the  frequency  of  hostile  in- 
cursions, became  ere  long  involved  in  hopeless 
embarrassment.  The  battle  of  Leipsic  put  an 
end  to  Jerome's  reign,  and  he  was  obliged  to 
take  flight  to  Paris.  On  the  conclusion  of  the 
Treaty  of  Paris  he  left  France,  and  proceeded 
first  to  Switzerland,  thence  to  Gnitz,  and  in  the 
beginning  of  1815  to  Trieste.  On  his  brother's 
return  from  Elba  he  again  proceeded  to  Paris, 
and  was  nominated  a  peer  of  France.  At  the 
battles  of  Ligny  and  Waterloo  he  was  actively 
engaged,  and  displayed  considerable  bravery,  be- 
sides receiving  a  wound  in  the  arm.  On  Na- 
poleon's overthrow  he  retired  first  to  Switzer- 
land, then  to  Wiirtemberg,  and  from  this  period 
up  to  the  fall  of  Louis  Philippe,  in  1848,  resided 
in  different  parts  of  Europe  under  the  title  of 
the  Comte  de  Montfort,  and  latterly  chiefly  in 
Florence.  On  the  outbreak  of  the  revolution  of 
February  1848  he  returned  to  Paris,  and  was 
appointed  (23  December)  governor-general  of 
the  hospital  of  the  Invalids,  and  in  1850  a  mar- 
shal of  France.  In  1852  he  was  made  president 
of  the  Senate.  Reference  has  already  been 
made  to  the  two  successive  marriages  contracted 
by  Jerome  Bonaparte.  From  his  union  with 
Miss  Patterson  only  one  son  proceeded,  Jerome 
(see  BoNAPARTES  OF  Baltimore).  By  his  second 
wife  Jerome  Bonaparte  had  three  children.  The 
elder  son,  Jerome  Bonaparte,  b.  1814,  d.  1847 
Mathilde  Bonaparte,  Princess  of  Montfort  (b. 
Trieste,  27  May  1820),  married  the  Russian 
Count  Anatol  Demidoff,  and  lived  at  the  court 
of  Louis  Napoleon  during  his  presidency.  The 
younger  son,  Napoleon  Joseph  Charles  Paul 
Bonaparte,  commonly  known  as  Prince  Na- 
poleon (b.  Trieste,  9  Sept.  1822;  d.  18  March 
1891),  passed  his  youth  in  Italy;  entered  the 
military  service  of  Wiirtemberg  in  1837 ;  after- 
ward traveled  in  several  countries  of  Europe ; 
and  was  banished  from  France  (184.S)  on  _  ac- 
count of  his  intercourse  with  the  Republican 
party.  After  February  1848  he  was  elected  to 
the  National  Assembly.     He  commanded  an  in- 


fantry division  at  the  battles  of  Alma  and  Inker- 
mann.  In  1859  he  married  the  Princess  Clotilde. 
daughter  of  Victor  Emmanuel,  by  whom  he  had 
two  sons  (see  Bonaparte  Pretenders),  and  a 
daughter.  After  the  fall  of  the  empire  he  took 
up  his  residence  in  England,  but  returned  to 
France  in  1872.  On  the  death  of  the  Prince 
Imperial,  son  of  the  Emperor  Louis  Napoleon,  in 
Zululand  in  1879,  the  eldest  son  of  Prince  Napo- 
leon became  the  heir  of  the  Bonapartist 
hopes.  When,  in  1886,  the  chiefs  of  the  Bour- 
bon family  were,  by  a  vote  of  both  chambers,  ex- 
pelled from  France,  Prince  Napoleon  and  his 
eldest  son  were  exiled  also  as  pretenders  to  the 
throne. 

Bonaparte,  Joseph,  eldest  brother  of  Napo- 
leon I. :  b.  Corte,  Corsica  ;  d.  Florence,  Italy,  28 
July  1844.  He  was  educated  in  France  at  the 
college  of  Autun,  returned  to  Corsica  in  1785 
on  his  father's  death,  studied  law,  and  in  1792 
became  a  member  of  the  new  administration  of 
Corsica  under  Paoli.  In  1793,  after  Paoli  had 
called  in  English  aid.  he  emigrated  to  Marseilles, 
and  became  brother-in-law  to  Bernadotte,  after- 
ward king  of  Sweden,  by  marrying  one  of  the 
daughters  of  a  wealthy  banker  named  Clari.  In 
1796  he  accompanied  the  army  of  Italy  as  com- 
missary, in  1797  was  elected  a  Corsican  deputy 
to  the  Council  of  Five  Hundred,  and  shortly 
after  was  sent  by  the  Directory  ambassador  to 
the  Pope.  He  returned  abruptly,  and  had  not 
long  resumed  his  seat  in  the  Council  of  Five 
Hundred,  when  his  brother  having  become  First 
Consul  he  was  made  councilor  of  state,  and  em- 
ployed to  negotiate  a  treaty  with  the  United 
States.  Shortly  after,  in  1801,  he  negotiated  the 
peace  of  Luneville  with  the  emperor  of  Ger- 
many, and  in  1802  that  of  Amiens  with  Great 
Britain.  Napoleon  having  now  begun  to  deal 
out  kingdoms  among  his  family,  Joseph  was 
made  king  of  Naples  and  Sicily  in  1806,  but 
had  reigned  only  two  years  when  his  brother 
recalled  him,  and  sent  him  to  IMadrid  to  be  king 
of  Spain  and  the  Indies.  His  seat  at  Naples  had 
not  been  comfortable,  and  he  now  found  himself 
on  a  bed  of  thorns.  His  kingship  lasted  nom- 
inally for  five  years,  but  he  was  chased  once 
and  again  from  his  capital,  and  the  third  time, 
in  1813,  fled  not  to  return.  In  these  appoint- 
ments Joseph  was  merely  a  tool  in  his  brother's 
hands.  In  1814.  after  the  fatal  expedition  to 
Russia.  Napoleon  on  setting  out  for  the  army 
made  him  lieutenant-general  of  the  empire,  and 
head  of  the  council  of  regency.  This  was  his 
last  office  of  any  consequence.  After  the  battle 
of  Waterloo  he  sailed  for  the  LTnited  States  and 
lived  for  some  years  at  Bordentown.  N.  J.,  where 
he  employed  himself  in  agriculture,  and  was 
highly  esteemed  by  his  neighbors.  During  his 
exile  he  assumed  the  title  of  Count  de  Survil- 
liers.  In  1832  he  went  to  England  and  after 
residing  there  for  some  time  repaired  to  Italy, 
and  spent  his  closing  days  in  Florence.  His 
wife  appears  to  have  been  prevented  by  ill  health 
from  accompanying  him  to  the  United  States. 
She  survived  her  husband  but  a  few  months. 
There  were  two  daughters.  The  eldest  became 
the  wife  of  the  eldest  son  of  Lucien  Bonaparte, 
and  the  second  was  married  to  the  second  sun 
of  Louis  Bonaparte. 

Bonaparte,  Letitia  Ramolino,  mother  of 
Napoleon,  and  hence  known  by  the  name  of 
Madame   Mere:    b.    Ajaccio,    Corsica,   24   Aug. 


BONAPARTE 


1750:  d.  Rome,  2  Feb.  1836.  She  was  married 
in  1767  to  Charles  Bonaparte  (see  Bonaparte, 
Charles).  Left  a  widow  in  1785,  she  contin- 
ued to  reside  in  Corsica  till  1793,  when  she  re- 
-noved  to  Marseilles.  In  this  city  she  lived  in 
straitened  circumstances.  After  her  son  becarne 
First  Consul,  she  fi.xed  her  residence  at  Paris, 
had  a  separate  establishment  assigned  to  her, 
and  lived  in  considerable  state,  though  some- 
what retired.  All  things  considered,  she  con- 
ducted herself  with  great  discretion,  performing 
her  part  becomingly  in  the  station  to  which,  she 
had  been  so  unexpectedly  elevated,  and  yet  never 
allowing  herself  to  forget  that  in  the  necessary 
course  of  events  the  sudden  rise  of  her  family 
might  one  day  be  terminated  by  an  equally  sud- 
den fall.  When  the  fall  came  she  retired  to 
Rome,  and  collecting  most  of  the  surviving  mem- 
bers of  her  family  around  her,  lived  to  the  very 
advanced  age  of  86. 

Bonaparte,  Louis  (Count  of  St.  Leu), 
second  younger  brother  of  the  Emperor  Napo- 
leon L,  and  father  of  Napoleon  IIL:  b.  Ajaccio, 
Corsica,  2  Sept.  1778;  d.  Leghorn,  Italy,  25 
July  1846.  He  was  educated  in  the  artillery 
school  at  Chalons,  accompanied  Napoleon  to 
Italy,  and  afterward  to  Egypt,  but  without  dis- 
tinguishing himself  in  any  special  manner.  He 
subsequently  rose  to  the  rank  of  a  brigadier- 
general,  and  in  1802  married  Hortense  Eugenie 
Beauharnais,  Napoleon's  step-daughter  (see 
Beauharnais,  Hortense  Eugenie).  In  1806, 
on  Schimmelpenninck,  grand  pensionary  of  Hol- 
land, demitting  his  office,  Louis  Bonaparte  was 
compelled  by  his  brother,  notwithstanding  his 
protestations,  to  accept  the  Dutch  crown.  The 
difficult  situation  in  which  he  was  placed  ren- 
dered it  impossible  for  him  to  be  anything  else 
than  a  mere  viceroy  of  Napoleon ;  but  to  his 
credit  it  must  be  recorded  that  he  exerted  him- 
self to  the  utmost  in  promoting  the  welfare  of 
his  new  subjects,  and  resisted  as  far  as  in  him 
lay  the  tyrannical  interference  and  arbitrary 
procedure  of  France.  With  all  his  efforts,  how- 
ever, he  found  himself  unable  to  restore  the 
finances  of  the  country  to  a  healthy  condition :  a 
quarrel  took  place  between  him  and  his  brother 
relative  to  the  continental  system  maintained  by 
the  latter,  which  had  proved  most  injurious  to 
Dutch  commerce,  and  he  ultimately,  on  i  June 
1810.  abdicated  the  sovereignty,  and  retired  to 
Gratz  under  the  title  of  the  Count  of  St. 
Leu.  Holland  was  thereupon  annexed  to 
France.  In  1814  Louis  paid  a  visit  to  Paris,  and 
strongly  counseled  his  brother  to  make  peace 
with  the  allies.  After  the  Restoration  he  took 
up  his  abode  at  Rome,  and  separated  himself 
from  his  wife,  Hortense,  a  disunion  which  con- 
tinued throughout  his  life.  In  1826  he  removed 
from  Rome  to  Florence,  and  from  thence,  a 
short  time  after  his  son's  escape  from  the  for- 
tress of  Ham,  to  Leghorn,  where  his  literary 
abilities  were  considerable,  and  he  was  the 
author  of  a  novel  entitled  ^ Marie,  les  Peines  de 
I'Amour  ou  les  Hollandaises^  ;  and  ^Documents 
historianes  et  Reflexions  sur  le  Gouvernement 
de  la  Hollande^  ;  etc. 

Bonaparte.  Lucien  (Prince  of  Canino), 
rext  younger  brother  of  Napoleon  I.:  b.  Ajaccio, 
Corsica.  21  March  1775;  d.  Viterbo,  Italy,  2g 
June  1840.  He  emigrated  to  Marseilles  in  1703. 
?nd  made  himself  conspicuous  as  a  hot-headed 
Republican  by  addressing  clubs,  and  publishing 


bombastic  pamphlets.  Shortly  after,  having  beer, 
appointed  to  a  situation  in  the  commissariat  at 
the  small  town  of  St.  Maximin  in  Provence,  he 
married  the  innkeeper's  daughter.  He  made  a 
narrow  escape  during  the  Reign  of  Terror,  and 
in  1796  was  appointed  commissary  at  war,  and  on 
his  election  as  a  member  of  the  Council  of  Five 
Hundred,  took  up  his  residence  in  Paris.  He 
joined  the  opposition  in  the  council,  and  sec- 
onded Sieyes  and  his  party,  who  wished  to  frame 
a  new  constitution.  He  is  said  to  have  written 
to  his  brother  in  Egypt  complaining  of  the  in- 
capacity of  the  executive  Directory,  and  urging 
his  return ;  and  in  1799,  when  the  council  wished 
to  outlaw  Napoleon,  Lucien,  who  was  president, 
after  manfully  resisting  the  motion,  slipped 
quietly  out  of  the  chair  in  the  confusion,  and 
sent  in  the  soldiers,  who  cleared  the  hall.  The 
revolution  thus  mainly  accomplished  by  his  de- 
cisive procedure  led  to  the  establishment  of  the 
consular  government,  and  Lucien  was  a  member 
of  the  commission  which  framed  its  constitution. 
Afterward  appointed  minister  of  the  interior,  he 
was  active  in  the  encouragement  of  education, 
art,  and  science,  and  organized  the  prefectures. 
As  ambassador  to  Madrid  (1800)  he  contrived 
to  gain  the  confidence  of  King  Charles  IV.  and 
his  favorite,  Godoy,  and  to  undermine  the  Brit- 
ish influence,  which  had  until  then  been  exercised 
at  the  court  of  Spain.  On  his  return  to  Paris 
in  1802  he  was  member  of  the  tribunate,  and 
then  a  senator,  and  having  lost  his  first  wife, 
married  a  stockbroker's  widow.  This  marriage, 
and  other  concurring  causes,  appear  to  have 
given  deep  offense  to  Napoleon,  and  in  the  en- 
actment fixing  the  succession  to  the  crown,  while 
Joseph  and  Louis  were  named  eventual  heirs, 
Lucien  and  Jerome  were  not  mentioned.  The 
crowns  of  Italy  and  Spain  were  offered  Lucien 
on  condition  of  his  divorcing  his  wife,  but  he 
refused  them  and  chose  a  retired  life,  devoting 
himself  to  art  and  science.  He  fixed  his  resi- 
dence at  Rome,  where  he  appears  to  have  gained 
the  good  graces  of  Pius  VII.,  who  created  him, 
in  1814,  Prince  of  Canino.  During  Napoleon's 
haughty  treatment  of  the  Pope,  Lucien  had  freely 
expressed  his  displeasure,  and  apparently  de- 
spairing of  a  reconciliation  with  his  brotheir, 
or  perhaps  not  caring  to  ask  it,  he  embarked  for 
the  United  States  in  1810,  but  had  not  proceeded 
far  when  he  was  captured  by  a  British  cruiser 
and  carried  to  Malta.  Ultimately  he  was 
brought  to  England,  and  allowed  to  reside  on 
parole  at  a  place  in  the  vicinity  of  Ludlow  Cas- 
tle. Here  he  employed  much  of  his  time  in  writ- 
ing a  poem  entitled  "^Charlemagne  ou  I'figlise 
Sauvee,^  which  he  afterward  published  with  a 
dedication  to  Pius  VIL  After  the  battle  of 
Waterloo  his  brother  appointed  him  his  extraor- 
dinary commissioner  to  the  chamber  of  deputies. 
He  showed  no  lack  of  zeal  in  endeavoring  to 
arouse  a  feeling  of  sympathy,  but  found  the 
attempt  vain,  and  left  matters  to  take  their 
course.  He  afterward  returned  to  Italy.  Be- 
sides the  poem  ^Charlemagne.'  which  has  been 
translated  into  English,  and  published  in  2 
volumes  4to,  he  wrote  another,  called  ^La 
Cvrneide  ou  la  Corse  Sauvee,'  and  an  auto- 
biography, which,  under  the  title  of  ^Memoires,> 
was  published  during  his  lifetime. 

By  his  first  wife,  Lucien  had  two  daughters; 
by  his  second,  nine  children.  His  eldest  son, 
Charles  Lucien  Jules  Laurent  Bonaparte, 
Prince  of  Canino  and  Musignano :   b.   Paris,  24 


BONAPARTE  PRETENDERS —  BONAPARTES  OF  BALTIMORE 


May  1803  ;  d.  29  July  1857,  achieved  a  consider- 
able reputation  as  a  naturalist,  chiefly  in  or- 
nithology. He  published  a  continuation  of  Wil- 
son's 'Ornithology  of  America*  (1825-33);  the 
*Iconografia  della  Fauna  Italica*  (1832-41); 
his  chef  d'ocuvre;  'Catalogo  Aletodico  degli 
Uccelli  Europei*  (1842)  ;  <Catalogo  Metodico  dei 
Pesci  Europei*  (1845);  'Ornithologie  Fossile* 
(1858)  :  and  a  number  of  other  valuable  works 
on  zoology,  and  was  a  member  of  the  leading 
natural  history  societies  in  Europe  and  Amer- 
ica. During  the  later  years  of  his  life  he  took  a 
prominent  part  in  Italian  affairs  as  a  supporter 
of  the  Liberal  party.  Paul  Marie  Bonaparte, 
the  second  son.  b.  1808,  took  a  part  in  the 
Greek  war  of  liberation,  and  died  by  the  acci- 
dental discharge  of  a  pistol  in  1827.  The 
third  son,  Louis  Lucien  Boxaparte  (b.  Thorn- 
grove,  England,  1813 ;  d.  1891),  early  devoted 
himself  with  equal  ardor  to  chemistry,  min- 
eralogy, and  the  study  of  languages,  and  be- 
came an  authority  of  the  first  rank  in  Basque, 
Celtic,  and  comparative  philologj^  generally. 
His  election  for  Corsica  in  1848  was  annulled, 
but  he  was  sent  to  the  Constituent  Assembl}'  for 
the  Seine  department  next  year,  and  was  made 
senator  in  1852,  with  the  title  of  highness  in 
addition  to  that  of  prince,  which  he  already 
possessed  from  his  birth.  The  total  number  of 
separate  books  written  either  by  himself  or  at 
his  instigation  and  encouragement,  amounted  to 
no  less  than  222.  Among  these  are  a  translation 
of  St.  Matthew's  version  of  the  parable  of  the 
sower  into  ~2  languages  and  dialects  of  Europe 
(1857)  ;  a  linguistic  map  of  the  seven  Basque 
provinces,  showing  the  delimitation  of  the  "Eus- 
cara,*^  and  its  division  into  dialects,  sub-dialects, 
and  varieties  (1863)  ;  a  Basque  version  of  the 
Bible  in  the  Labourdin  dialect  (1865)  ;  a  treatise 
on  the  Basque  verb  (1869)  ;  besides  many  papers 
of  profound  learning  in  the  philological  journals. 
A  great  work  produced  under  his  patronage 
from  1858  to  i860,  was  a  version  of  the  Song  of 
Solomon  in  22  different  English  dialects,  besides 
four  in  Lowland  Scotch,  and  one  in  Saxon.  He 
lived  long  in  England,  where  a  Civil  List  pen- 
sion of  $1,250  was  granted  to  him  in  1883.  The 
fourth  son,  Pierre  Napoleon  Bonaparte 
(1815-83),  passed  through  many  changes  of  for- 
tune in  America,  Italy,  and  Belgium,  and  re- 
turned to  France  in  1848.  In  1870  he  shot  a 
journalist,  Victor  Noir,  a  deed  which  created 
great  excitement  in  Paris ;  and,  being  tried,  was 
acquitted  of  the  charge  of  murder,  but  con- 
demned to  pay  $5,000  to  Victor  Noir's  relatives. 
He  died  in  1881.  The  youngest  son.  Antoine 
Bonaparte  (b.  1816),  fled  to  the  United 
States  after  an  affair  with  the  papal  troops  in 
1836,  and  returned  to  France  in  1848,  where  he 
was  elected  to  the  National  Assembly  in  1849. 

Bonaparte  Pretenders.  Of  the  Emperor 
Napoleon  I.  and  his  brothers,  Joseph  and  Louis, 
male  issue  is  now  extinct.  The  emperor's 
brothers,  Lucien  and  Jerome,  are  represented  by 
the  following  living  descendants,  and  they  con- 
stitute the  present  imperialist  house  of  France: 

Prince  Victor  Napoleon  fof  the  house  of 
Jerome)  :  b.  18  July  1862,  is  the  son  of  the  late 
Prince  Napoleon  and  the  Princess  Clotilde,  sis- 
ter of  King  Humbert  of  Italy.  The  Prince  has 
been  recognized  by  his  partj^  as  the  undisputed 
head  of  the  Bonaparte  family.  He  lives  in 
Brussels  and  is   unmarried.     His   only  brother, 


Prince  Louis  Napoleon,  born  in  1864,  is 
an  officer  in  the  Russian  army.  His  sister, 
born  in  1866,  is  the  widow  of  Prince  Amadeus 
of  Italy,  by  whom  she  had  a  son.  Prince  Hum- 
bert, born  in  1889. 

Prince  Charles  Napoleon,  brother  of  the  late 
Cardinal  Bonaparte,  wtio  died  12  Feb.  1899,  was 
the  last  representative  of  the  eldest  son  of  Na- 
poleon's brother,  Lucien,  in  the  male  line.  He 
was  born  in  1839;  was  married  and  had  two 
daughters  ^  Marie,  wife  of  Lieut.  Giotti,  of  the 
Italian  army,  and  Eugenie,  unmarried.  He  had 
three  sisters,  married,  respectively,  to  the  Mar- 
quis of  Roccagivoine,  Count  Primoli,  and  Prince 
Gabrelli. 

Prince  Roland  Bonaparte  is  the  only  living 
male  cousin  of  Prince  Charles  Napoleon.  He  is 
a  son  of  the  late  Prince  Pierre  Napoleon  Bona- 
parte (1815-81)  ;  was  born  in  1858;  married  in 
1880,  the  daughter  of  Blanc,  the  proprietor  of 
the  Monte  Carlo  gambling  establishment.  His 
wife  died  in  1882,  leaving  him  a  daughter  and 
a  fortune.  He  has  one  sister,  Jeanne,  born  in 
1861,  and  married  to  the  Marquis  de  Villeneuve. 

Bonapartes  of  Baltimore,  the  branch  of 
the  family  residing  in  Baltimore,  Md.,  and  de- 
rived from  the  marriage  of  Jerome  Bonaparte, 
brother  of  the  Emperor  Napoleon  I.,  with  Eliza- 
beth Patterson,  daughter  of  William  Patterson, 
an  eminent  merchant  in  the  city  of  Baltimore. 
Elizabeth  was  born  6  Feb.  1785,  and  was  scarce 
18  years  of  age,  when  Jerome  Bonaparte  in  com- 
mand of  a  French  frigate  landed  in  New  York 
in  1803.  She,  at  that  time,  was  distinguished  by 
uncommon  personal  beauty,  and  is  said,  more- 
over, to  have  strikingly  resembled  the  Bonaparte 
family.  The  fame  of  Napoleon  insured  for  his 
brother  Jerome  a  distinguished  reception  in 
America,  and  wherever  he  went  he  was  most 
hospitably  entertained.  On  visiting  Baltimore  he 
saw  Miss  Patterson,  and  soon  became  much  at- 
tached to  her,  a  partialitj'  which  she  readily  re- 
turned, and  being  ambitious  in  her  views  of  life, 
she  at  once  accepted  his  offer  of  marriage,  and 
was  united  to  him  24  Dec.  1803.  The  marriage 
ceremony  was  performed  by  the  bishop  of  Bal- 
timore, John  Carroll,  brother  of  Charles  Carroll 
of  Carrollton,  the  signer  of  the  Declaration  of 
Independence,  and  in  accordance  with  the  ritual 
of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church.  The  marriage 
contract,  considered  of  importance,  was  drawn 
up  by  Alexander  J.  Dallas,  subsequently  secre- 
tary of  the  treasury,  and  witnessed  by  several 
official  personages,  including  the  mayor  of  Bal- 
timore. Jerome  Bonaparte  remained  in  America 
for  a  full  year,  visiting,  with  his  wife,  various 
parts  of  the  country.  They  embarked  for  Eu- 
rope in  the  spring  of  1805,  in  the  American  ship 
Erin,  and  arrived  safely  at  Lisbon.  The  news  of 
the  marriage  proved  very  distasteful  to  the  dicta- 
tor of  France,  partly  because  Jerome  had  dared 
to  marry  without  his  consent,  and  partly  on  ac- 
count of  his  own  wish  to  unite  all  his  brothers 
to  European  princesses.  Before  the  newly 
wedded  pair  could  reach  Europe,  an  order  went 
forth  to  every  port  under  French  authority,  for- 
bidding them  to  land.  The  hopes  of  the  fair 
American  were  now  forever  blighted,  as  Napo- 
leon sternly  refused  to  recognize  her  marriage. 
Jerome  left  her  at  Lisbon,  and  hastened  to  Paris, 
hoping  by  a  personal  interview  to  soften  the 
emperor,  directing  the  vessel  to  proceed  to  Ams- 
terdam, as  the  state  of  his  wife's  health  would 


BONAR  —  BONBRIGHT 


not  admit  of  her  undergoing  a  long  land  journey, 
even  if  a  passport  could  be  obtained  for  her, 
which  was  very  doubtful.  On  the  Erin's  arrival 
at  Texel  roads,  Madame  Bonaparte  found  that 
an  order  had  been  awaiting  her  coming,  which 
prohibited  her  from  landing.  She  was  obliged 
to  sail  at  once  for  England,  where  she  estab- 
lished her  abode,  and  at  Camberwell,  near  Lon- 
don, gave  birth  to  a  son.  She  never  saw  her 
husband  again,  except  in  a  casual  meeting  many 
years  after  their  separation.  Jerome,  who  was 
originally  much  attached  to  his  wife,  in  vain 
petitioned  the  emperor  to  recognize  her,  and 
was  finally  obliged  to  marry  the  Princess  of 
Wiirtemberg.  After  the  downfall  of  Napoleon, 
Madame  Patterson  (as  she  was  styled  for  a 
long  period)  visited  Europe,  and  is  said  to  have 
encountered  Jerome  Bonaparte  with  his  wife  in 
the  gallery  of  the  Pitti  palace  in  Florence.  On 
meeting,  Jerome  started  aside,  and  was  overheard 
to  say  to  the  princess :  "That  lady  is  my  former 
wife.''  He  instantly  left  the  gallery,  and  next 
morning  departed  from  Florence.  Napoleon  I. 
never  succeeded  in  inducing  Pope  Pius  VII. 
to  declare  Jerome's  first  marriage  null  and  void. 
Madame  Bonaparte,  after  the  birth  of  her  son, 
generally  resided  in  Baltimore,  in  the  possession 
of  abundant  wealth.  Notwithstanding  her  treat- 
ment by  Napoleon,  she  always  expressed  the 
highest  admiration  for  him,  and  prophesied  that 
her  grandson  would  eventually  succeed  him  as 
emperor  of  the  French.  Jerome  Napoleon,  son 
of  the  preceding :  b.  Camberwell.  England,  7  July 
1805;  d.  Baltimore,  17  June  1870.  His  mother 
returned  to  the  United  States  during  his  boy- 
hood, and  he  was  raised  in  Baltimore.  He  en- 
tered Harvard  College,  and  graduated  from  that 
institution  in  1826.  He  studied  for  the  bar, 
but  never  practised  law.  He  was  married  to 
Miss  Susan  Mary  Williams,  daughter  of  Ben- 
jamin Williams,  originally  of  RoxburJ^  Mass. 
Miss  Williams  was  a  lady  of  very  large  fortune, 
which,  united  with  Bonaparte's  own  prop- 
erty, made  him  one  of  the  wealthiest  citizens 
of  Baltimore.  After  his  marriage  he  devoted 
his  time  to  the  management  of  a  large  estate, 
and  partly  to  agricultural  pursuits.  For  many 
years,  Bonaparte  received  a  handsome  allow- 
ance from  his  father,  with  whom  he  was  on 
terms  of  intimacy  in  his  several  visits  to 
Europe.  During  the  reign  of  Louis  Philippe, 
Bonaparte  was  permitted  to  sojourn  in  Paris, 
but  for  a  short  period  only,  and  under  his 
mother's  name  of  Patterson.  Although  travel- 
ing incognito,  he  attracted  much  attention  from 
his  singular  likeness  to  the  great  emperor.  He 
was  thought  to  resemble  him  more  than  any  of 
the  monarch's  own  brothers  did.  He  was  on 
good  terms  with  Napoleon  III.,  and  visited  the 
French  court  with  his  son,  by  the  invitation 
of  the  emperor.  Bonaparte  tested  his  legal 
standing  in  the  French  courts  by  lodging  a  claim 
to  share  with  the  offspring  of  the  second  mar- 
riage, in  the  property  of  his  father;  but  judg- 
ment was  given  against  him.  Jerome  Napoleon, 
grandson  of  Jerome  Bonaparte :  b.  Baltimore, 
5  Nov.  1832;  d.  Pride's  Crossing,  Mass., 
4  Sept.  1893.  He  was  educated  at  Harvard  Col- 
lege and  West  Point  Military  Academy,  but  re- 
signed his  commission  in  the  United  States  army 
to  enter  ihe  French  service  in  1854.  He  served 
with  distinction  in  the  Crimean  war  and  in  the 
Italian  campaign.  Charles  Joseph,  grandson  of 
Jerome   Bonaparte:   b.    Baltimore,  9  June    1851. 


He  was  graduated  from  Harvard  University  in 
1871  and  the  Harvard  law  school  in  1874.  In 
1904  he  was  appointed  a  member  of  the  Board  of 
Indian  Commissioners.  In  1905  he  was  appointed 
Secretary  of  the  Navy  by  President  Roosevelt 
and  on  17  Dec.  1906  became  Attorney-General. 
Bonar,  Horatius,  Scotch  hymnist:  b.  Edin- 
burgh, 19  Dec.  1808;  d.  31  July  1889.  He  wrote 
< Hymns  of  Faith  and  Hope,'  many  of  which 
have  been  taken  into  the  hymnals  of  most  of  the 
Protestant  churches.  He  also  wrote  more  than 
20  volumes  on  theological  and  religious  subjects. 

Bonasone,  Giulio,  jool'e-o  bo-na-so'na, 
Italian  painter:  b.  Bologna,  1510;  d.  1574.  He 
studied  under  Marcantonio  Raimondi,  but  did 
not  equal  his  master  in  execution.  Although 
best  known  by  his  engravings,  which  reproduce 
the  works  of  Raphael,  Michael  Angelo,  and  . 
Guilio  Romano,  specimens  of  his  paintings  are  to 
be  found  in  the  churches  of  his  native  city. 

Bonasus,  a  species  of  wild  ox,  the  aurochs 
(q.v.). 

Bonaven'ture,  Saint  (properly  John  of  Fi- 
danza),  Italian  philosopher:  b.  Tuscany,  1221  ; 
d.  1274.  In  1243  (or  1248)  he  became  a  Francis- 
can monk;  in  1253  teacher  of  theolog}'  at  Paris, 
where  he  had  studied ;  in  1256,  general  of  his 
order,  which  he  ruled  with  a  prudent  mixture 
of  gentleness  and  firmness.  At  the  time  of  his 
death  he  was  a  cardinal  and  papal  legate  at  the 
Council  of  Lyons.  His  death  was  hastened  by 
his  ascetic  severities.  On  account  of  his  blame- 
less conduct  from  his  earliest  youth,  and  of  some 
miracles  ascribed  to  him.  he  enjoyed  during  his 
life  the  greatest  veneration,  and  was  canonized 
by  Pope  Sixtus  IV.  The  elevation  of  thought  in 
his  writings  procured  him  the  name  of  "The 
Seraphic  Doctor."  The  Franciscans  oppose  him 
as  their  hero  to  the  Dominican  scholastic  Thomas 
Aquinas.  He  wrote  for  the  honor  and  improve- 
ment of  his  order,  for  the  promotion  of  the  wor- 
ship of  the  Virgin,  on  celibacy,  transubstantia- 
tion,  and  other  doctrines.  He  is,  on  the  whole, 
distinguished  from  other  scholastics  by  per- 
spicuity, avoidance  of  useless  subtleties,  and 
greater  warmth  of  religious  feeling.  Among  his 
writings  are  'Itinerarium  IMentis  in  Deum'  ; 
^Reductio  Artium  in  Theologiam'  ;  ^Centilo- 
quium'  ;  and  ^Breviloquium.'  His  whole  works 
were  published  1588-96,  at  Rome,  in  7  folio  vol- 
umes, and  there  are  several  modern  editions. 
Many  pieces  attributed  to  him  are  not  genuine. 

Bonavis'ta,  Newfoundland,  the  name  of  a 
bay,  cape,  district,  and  town  on  the  east  coast  of 
the  island.  The  greatest  width  of  the  bay  is 
39  miles.  Its  navigation  is  rendered  dangerous 
by  the  rocky  islands  with  which  it  is  studded. 
There  is  a  lighthouse  at  the  entrance  of  the 
harbor.  The  town  stands  near  the  cape,  about  70 
miles  north  by  west  of  St.  John's,  and  is  a  port 
of  entry  and  fishing  station.     Pop.  3,5.Si. 

Bon'bright,  Daniel,  American  educator:  b. 
Youngstown,  Pa.,  1831.  He  graduated  at  Yale 
(1850).  and  was  tutor  there  (1854-6).  Between 
1856  and  1858  he  studied  at  the  universities  of 
Berlin,  Bonn,  and  Gottingen.  and  upon  his  re- 
turn to  America  became  professor  of  the  Latin 
language  and  literature  in  Northwestern  L^niver- 
sity,  Evanston,  111.  From  1899-92  he  was  dean 
of  the  faculty  of  liberal  arts.  During  1900-2 
he  was  acting  president  of  the  university. 


BONCHAMP  —  BOND 


Bonchamp,  Charles  Melchoir  Artus,  shiirl 
mel-ke-or  ar-tii  bon-shan  (Makquis  de,  mar- 
kede),  Vendean  leader:  b.  Anion,  lo  May  1760; 
•d.  17  Oct.  1793.  He  served  as  a  volunteer  in 
the  American  Revolutionary  War,  and  was  a 
■captain  in  the  French  army  at  the  outbreak  of 
the  French  Revolution.  A  strong  Royalist,  he 
naturally  disliked  the  Revolution,  and  conse- 
quently lived  in  retirement  until  chosen  leader  of 
the  Anjou  insurgents.  In  conjunction  with  La 
Rochejacquelein  and  Cathelineau  he  fought  with 
great  bravery  and  frequent  success,  but  his  su- 
perior knowledge  of  military  tactics  was  not  suf- 
ficiently made  use  of  by  the  insurgent  army.  In 
the  encounter  at  Ch'olet,  17  Oct.  1793,  Bonchamp 
received  a  fatal  shot  in  the  breast,  and  when 
his  followers  vowed  to  revenge  his  death  on 
5,000  Republican  prisoners,  the  dying  hero  ex- 
claimed:  "Spare  your  prisoners.  I  command 
it !"     This  last  command  was  obeyed. 

Bond,  (Sir)  Edward  Augustus,  English 
scholar:  b.  Hanwell,  1815.  In  1867  he  was 
placed  over  one  of  the  departments  of  the  Brit- 
ish Museum,  and  in  1878  became  head  librarian, 
retaining  the  post  for  10  years.  He  was  one 
■of  the  founders  and  for  many  years  the  presi- 
dent of  the  Palseological  Society,  editing  in  this 
•connection  'Facsimiles  of  Ancient  Manuscripts.' 
Among  other  works  edited  by  him  are  'Statutes 
■of  the  Colleges  of  Oxford,'  and  "^Travels  of 
Jerome  Horsey.' 

Bond,  George  Phillips,  American  astrono- 
mer (son  of  William  Cranch  Bond  (q.v.)  :  b. 
Dorchester,  Mass.,  20  May  1825  ;  d.  17  Feb.  1865. 
He  assisted  his  father  in  the  Harvard  College 
Observatory,  and  at  the  time  of  the  latter's  death 
was  appointed  director.  He  discovered  inde- 
pendently II  new  comets,  and  was  the  author  of 
an  elaborate  memoir  on  the  appearance  of  Do- 
iiati's  comet  in  1858,  and  of  important  investiga- 
tions on  the  subject  of  perturbations  of  comet- 
SlTv  orbits,  as  well  as  an  investigation  into  the 
theory  of  the  constitution  of  Saturn's  rings.  His 
■drawing  of  the  nebula  in  Orion,  of  which  a  fine 
steel-plate  engraving  was  made,  was  also  re- 
markable work,  and  astronomical  photography 
received  its  first  impulse  at  his  hands. 

Bond,  William  Cranch,  American  astrono- 
mer:  b.  Portland,  Me.,  9  Sept.  1789;  d.  29  Jan. 
1859.  He  began  life  as  a  watchmaker,  and  con- 
structed the  first  ship's  chronometer  made  in  the 
United  States.  He  established  a  private  obser- 
vatory at  Dorchester,  Mass.,  which  was  at  the 
time  "the  finest  in  the  country.  Invited  to  move 
his  observatory  to  Cambridge,  he  accepted  the 
invitation  of  the  Harvard  College  authorities, 
and  in  1840  was  appointed  astronomical  observer 
to  the  college,  and  later  to  the  directorship  of 
the  observatory  erected  there  in  1843-4.  He  was 
the  inventor  of  the  method  of  registering  the 
beats  of  a  clock  by  galvanic  circuit,  together 
with  the  observed  transits  of  stars  over  the  wires 
■of  a  transit  instrument,  upon  a  chronograph,  and 
he  invented  the  spring  governor,  in  which  part  of 
a  train  of  clockwork  is  regulated  by  a  pendu- 
lum with  a  dead-beat  escapement,  and  the  other, 
receiving  its  motion  through  an  elastic  axis,  is 
made  to  run  uniformly  by  a  balance-  or  fly- 
wheel, and  thus  time  is  visibly  measured  to  a 
small  fraction  of  a  second.  The  plan  of  record- 
ing observations  by  electro-magnetism,  known  in 
Europe    as     the    American     method     was    first 


brought    into    practical     working    by    Sears    C. 
Walker,  through  Bond's  assistance. 

Bond.   See  Building;  Masonry. 

Bond,  a  written  acknowledgment  or  bind- 
ing of  a  debt  under  seal.  The  person  who 
gives  the  bond  is  called  the  obligor,  and  he  to 
whom  it  is  given  the  obligee.  A  bond  may  be 
single,  as  where  the  obligor  obliges  himself, 
his  heirs,  executors,  and  administrators,  to  pay 
a  certain  sum  of  money  to  another  at  a  day 
named,  or  it  may  be  conditional  (which  is 
the  kind  more  generally  used)  that  if  the 
obligor  does  some  particular  act,  the  obligation 
shall  be  void,  or  else  shall  remain  in  full  force, 
as  payment  of  rent,  performance  of  covenants 
in  a  deed,  or  repayment  of  a  principal  sum 
of  money  borrowed  of  the  obligee  with  in- 
terest, which  principal  suin  is  usually  half  of 
the  penal  sum  specified  in  the  bond.  There 
must  be  proper  parties,  and  no  person  can 
take  the  benefit  of  a  bond,  except  the  parties 
named  therein,  except,  perhaps,  in  some  cases 
of  bonds  given  for  the  performance  of  their 
duties  by  certain  classes  of  public  officers.  A 
man  cannot  be  bound  to  himself  even  in  connec- 
tion with  others.  The  bond  must  be  in  writing 
and  sealed,  but  a  sealing  sufficient  where  the 
bond  is  made  is  held  sufficient  though  it  might 
be  an  insufficient  sealing  if  it  had  been  made 
where  it  is  sued  on.  It  must  be  delivered  by 
the  party  whose  bond  it  is  to  the  other.  But 
the  delivery  and  acceptance  may  be  by  attor- 
ney. The  date  is  not  considered  of  the  sub- 
stance of  a  bond,  and  therefore  a  bond  which 
has  either  no  date  or  an  impossible  date  is 
still  valid,  provided  the  real  day  of  its  being 
dated  or  given  can  be  proven.  The  condition 
is  a  vital  part  of  a  conditional  bond,  and  usu- 
ally limits  and  determines  the  amount  to  be 
paid  in  case  of  a  breach,  but  interest  and  costs 
may  be  added  (12  Johns.  350).  The  recovery 
against  a  surety  in  a  bond  for  the  payment  of 
money  is  not  limited  to  the  penalty,  but  may 
exceed  so  far  as  necessary  to  include  interest 
from  the  time  of  the  breach.  So  far  as  interest 
is  payable  by  the  terms  of  the  contract,  and 
until  'default  made,  it  is  limited  by  the  penalty, 
but  after  breach  it  is  recoverable,  not  on  the 
ground  of  contract,  but  as  damages,  which  the 
law  gives  for  its  violation.  On  the  forfeiture 
of  the  bond,  or  its  becoming  single,  the  whole 
penalty  was  formerly  recoverable  at  law,  but 
here  the  courts  of  equity  interfered,  and  would 
not  permit  a  man  to  take  more  than  in  con- 
science he  ought,  that  is.  his  principal,  interest 
and  expenses  in  case  the  forfeiture  accrued  by 
non-payment  of  money  borrowed,  the  damages 
sustained  upon  non-performance  of  _  covenants, 
etc.  And  the  similar  practice  having  gained 
some  footing  in  the  courts  of  law,  the  stat- 
ute of  4  and  5  Anne,  C.  16,  at  length  en- 
acted, in  the  same  spirit  of  equity,  that  in  case 
of  a  bond  conditioned  for  the  payment  of 
money,  the  payment  or  tender  of  the  principal 
sum  due  with  interest  and  costs,  even  though 
the  bond  were  forfeited  and  a  suit  commenced 
thereon,  should  be  a  full  satisfaction  and  dis- 
charge. (2  Bl.  Com.  340.)  If  in  a  bond  the 
obligor  binds  himself  without  adding  his  heirs, 
executors,  and  administrators,  the  executors 
and  administrators  are  bound,  but  not  the  heir 
(Sheppard's  Touchstone,  369)  for  the  law  will 
not  imply  the  obligation  upon  the  heir.     CCoke, 


BONDAGE  — BONE 


Litt.  209a.)  If  a  bond  lie  dormant  for  20 
years  it  cannot  afterward  be  recovered ;  for  the 
law  raises  a  presumption  of  its  having  been 
paid,  and  the  defendant  may  plead  solvit  ad 
diem  to  an  action  upon  it.  (l  Burr.  434;  4 
Burr.    1963.) 

Bondage.    See  Villenage. 

Bonded  Warehouse,  a  place  vi^here  taxable 
imports  of  manufactures  may  be  left  in  gov- 
ernment custody,  under  bond  for  payment  of 
the  duty,  till  the  importer  or  manufacturer  is 
prepared  to  make  full  payment  of  duty.  The 
system  was  designed  to  promote  commerce  and 
certain  manufactures  by  lessening  the  pressure 
on  the  importer  or  manufacturer  by  means  of 
instalnient  payments  of  duty. 

Bonders,  a  class  of  independent  land- 
holders in  Norway  and  Sweden.  They  are  at 
once  peasants  and  aristocrats,  being  descended 
from  the  old  leaders,  and  sometimes  from  the 
princes,  of  the  nation,  yet  being  also  cultivators 
of  the  soil,  and  more  rude  than  the  farmers  of 
America  or  the  yeomen  of  England.  They 
number  seven  ninths  of  the  whole  population, 
and  are  the  principal  electors  of  representatives 
to  the  National  Assembly,  in  which  their  power 
predominates  over  that  of  the  nobles  and 
clergy. 

Bondi,  bon'de,  Clement,  Italian  poet:  b. 
Mizzano,  Parma,  27  June  1742;  d.  Vienna,  20 
June  1821.  Joining  the  Jesuits  shortly  before 
the  suppression  of  the  order  in  Italy,  he  was  ap- 
pointed professor  of  eloquence  in  the  University 
of  Parma.  He  afterward  provoked  the  hos- 
tility of  the  order  by  publishing  an  ode  in 
praise  of  their  suppression,  and  was  obliged 
to  seek  an  asylum  in  the  Tyrol,  where  the 
Archduke  i^erdinand  took  him  under  his  pro- 
tection, appointed  him  his  librarian  at  Briinn, 
and  entrusted  him  with  the  education  of  his 
sons,  one  of  whom  afterward  succeeded  to  the 
duchy  of  Modena.  In  1816  Bondi  was  appointed 
professor  of  history  and  literature  at  Vienna, 
and  died  there.  He  was  an  easy  and  elegant 
versifier,  and  cultivated  with  success  almost 
all  the  varieties  of  poetry  —  lyric,  didactic,  satir- 
ical, and  elegiac.  Among  the  most  important 
are  ^La  Giornata  Villereccia,'  ^La  Conversa- 
zione,' and  *La  Felicita.'  He  also  executed  a 
metrical  version  of  the  ^neid,  which  some  con- 
sider his  best  work. 

Bondman,  The,  one  of  Hall  Caine's  best- 
known  romances,  abounding  in  action  and  va- 
riety. The  action  turns  upon  the  blind  attempts 
of  a  young  man  at  doing  new  wrongs  to  re- 
venge old  ones,  which  are  overruled  by  Provi- 
dence for  good ;  and  at  the  last,  no  longer 
against  his  will  but  by  the  development  of  his 
own  nature,  he  fulfills  his  destiny  of  blessing 
those  he  has  sworn  to  undo. 

Bondu,  bon-doo.  a  country  of  West  Africa, 
belonging  to  the  French  territory  of  Senegal, 
on  the  west  of  the  Faleme,  a  tributary  of  that 
river.  Its  length  is  about  115  miles,  its  breadth 
about  100.  Its  surface  is  but  little  diversified, 
and  the  land  as  a  whole  is  not  very  fertile,  nor  is 
the  climate  good.  The  ordinary  African  ani- 
mals occur,  but  the  lion  is  becoming  scarce. 
The  ass  is  the  chief  domestic  animal.  The 
population,  which  consists  of  Fulahs  and  other 
tribes,  is  rather  sparse,  having  been  reduced  by 


frequent  wars,  but  under  French  rule  is  be- 
ginning to  increase.  Agriculture,  manufactures, 
and  commerce  are  alike  unimportant. 

Bone,  or  Bona  (the  Aphrodisium  of 
Ptolemy),  a  seaport  of  Algeria,  province  of  and 
86  miles  north-northeast  of  Constantine.  Pop. 
(1896)  34,498,  among  whom  there  are  about 
12,000  French  and  10,000  Italians.  It  is  built 
at  the  foot  of  a  hill,  and  is  surrounded  by  a 
wall  nearly  two  miles  in  circumference.  It  is 
the  seat  of  French  judicial  courts.  The  streets 
are  narrow  and  crooked,  but  many  of  the 
houses  are  substantial  and  well  built,  and  the 
town  has  been  greatly  improved  since  it  came 
into  the  hands  of  the  French  in  1832.  It  pos- 
sesses a  college,  schools,  Roman  Catholic  ca- 
thedral, a  convent  of  the  Sisters  of  Mercy,  hos- 
pital, etc.  There  is  a  good  market,  and  also 
reading-rooms,  coffee-houses,  and  a  theatre. 
The  chief  manufactures  are  burnooses,  tapestry, 
and  saddles.  It  exports  corn,  iron  ore,  alfa, 
wine,  wool,  hides,  wax,  oil,  honey,  etc. ;  and 
its  trade  is  considerable.  There  is  regular 
steamboat  communication  between  Bona  and 
Marseilles.  About  one  mile  south  of  the  town 
are  the  remains  of  Hippo  Regius. 

Bone,  the  compact  hard  material  making 
up  the  skeleton  of  mammals,  most  of  the 
birds,  reptiles,  and  amphibians,  and  the  bony 
fishes.  It  is  also  found  in  some  lower  forms. 
Chemically  bone  is  complex.  It  is  essentially 
organic  substances,  30  to  35  per  cent  infiltrated 
with  inorganic  mineral  salts,  65  to  70  per  cent ; 
to  the  former  its  toughness  is  due  and  to  the 
latter  its  hardness.  The  organic  substances  of 
bone  are  ossein  (collagen,  gelatin),  small 
quantities  of  elastin,  proteids  and  nuclein  from 
the  cells  and  small  quantities  of  fat.  The  inor- 
ganic salts  are  calcium  carbonate,  calcium  phos- 
phate, calcium  fluoride,  magnesium  phosphate, 
calcium  chloride,  and  small  quantities  of  sul- 
phates and  other  chlorides.  The  percentages  of 
both  inorganic  and  organic  constituents  vary 
widely  in  the  bones  of  different  animals,  and 
also  in  the  different  bones  of  the  same  animal. 
These  differences  varj^  widely  if  the  age  varies, 
but  are  fairly  constant  for  the  same  animal  of 
the  same  age.  Thus  the  amount  of  water  may 
vary  from  13  to  45  per  cent  in  the  different 
bones  of  the  human  body,  being  greater  in 
amount  in  the  spongy  bones  and  less  in  the 
compact  bones,  and  as  the  bones  grow  older  the 
percentage  of  water  diminishes.  In  the  living 
body  many  of  the  bones,  particularly  the  ribs, 
and  the  heads  of  all  the  long  bones,  contain  a 
substance  termed  marrow.  This  is  an  impor- 
tant substance  in  the  human  economy,  being  the 
source  of  much  of  the  blood-building  material. 
In  soups  this  marrow  makes  one  of  the  most 
important  factors.  This  bone  marrow  is  per- 
vaded by  a  network  of  white  fibrous  connective 
tissue  and  in  the  meshes  are  contained  the  cells, 
myeloplaxes.  that  make  many  of  the  blood  cor- 
puscles, particularly  the  polymorph  neutrophiles, 
and  the  eosinophiles.  In  the  red  marrow  the 
red  corpuscles  are  developed.  The  bone  mar- 
row is  very  rich  in  proteids,  nucleo-proteids, 
extractives,  globulins,  fats,  and  compounds  of 
iron.  Prepared  bone  marrows  are  therefore 
highly  nutritious,  and  the  modern  <^grilled 
bone,^*  which  is  usually  rich  in  marrow,  is  a 
toothsome  and  valuable  dietary  addition.  The 
histological  structure  of  bone  is  very  intricate; 


BONE  BLACK 


in  the  young  developing  animal,  cartilage  first 
makes  its  appearance  from  modified  connective 
tissue  cells.  In  this  cartilage  certain  points  of 
ossification  appear,  which  subsequently  develop 
bone  and  the  bone  from  several  points  coalesces 
to  make  the  completed  bone  structure.  The  bone 
cells  in  the  cartilage,  the  osteoblasts,  thicken  and 
form  a  distinct  cell  wall  in  which  the  inorganic 
salts  are  deposited  and  osteoblast  by  osteoblast 
the  structure  of  bone  is  made  up.  Bone  is  also 
formed  by  the  periosteum,  which  is  a  covering, 
first  of  the  cartilage  and  then  of  the  developing 
bone.  Bony  tissue  contains  arteries,  veins, 
nerves,  and  lymphatics,  and  is  a  distinct  tissue, 
largely  modified  by  the  deposition  of  mineral 
salts.  In  a  section  across  a  long  bone,  at  its 
centre,  say  the  thigh  bone,  femur,  there  is  on 
the  outside  the  thin  tough  layer,  the  periosteum 
with  its  vessels  and  nerves  and  lymphatics ; 
within  this  is  the  compact  bone  and  in  the 
centre  the  cavity  usually  filled  with  marrow 
at  the  ends.  A  very  thin  section  of  the  compact 
bone  viewed  under  the  microscope  shows  a 
number  of  cavities,  the  Haversian  canals ;  these 
contain  blood  vessels  or  were  the  sites  of  for- 
mer blood  vessels  in  the  developmental  stage. 
Around  these  Haversian  canals,  one  sees  regu- 
lar lamellae,  not  unlike  the  rings  about  a  tree 
trunk;  these  are  the  Haversian  lamellae  and  in- 
dicate the  regular  growth  of  bone  cells  from 
the  centre.  Scattered  between  the  lamellae  are 
numerous  small  spaces,  containing  living  bone 
cells,  the  lacunae,  all  of  which  are  probably  in 
communication  with  one  another  by  minute 
canals,  or  canaliculi.  Thus  the  entire  bony  sys- 
tem is  pierced  throughout  by  an  extremely  fine 
and  exceedingly  rich  network  of  canals.  As 
these  are  filled  with  lymph  the  bone  substance  is 
constantly  bathed  in  this  living  life-giving  fluid. 
The  different  bones  of  the  body  show  minor 
variations  in  structure.  The  bones  of  the  hu- 
man body  are  grouped  according  to  their  shape, 
as  long  bones,  flat  bones,  short,  and  irregular 
bones.  They  approach  one  another  at  the 
joints,  where  they  are  protected  by  cartilages, 
smooth  synovial  membrane,  and  bathed  in  a 
synovial  fluid.  The  long  bones  consist  of  a 
shaft  and  two  expanded  ends  or  epiphyses,  and 
are  found  in  the  limbs.  They  give  support  and 
leverage  for  motion  and  are  usually  slightly 
curved  in  one  or  two  directions  to  give  greater 
elasticity.  Flat  bones  are  found  in  the  skull, 
pelvis,  scapula,  and  are  usually  so  disposed  as 
to  afford  protection  to  the  internal  viscera ; 
they  also  offer  considerable  surface  for  muscu- 
lar attachment  and  hence  give  a  good  leverage 
for  the  long  bones.  Short  bones  are  found  in 
the  wrist  and  ankle.  Strength'  and  freedom  of 
motion  are  their  attributes.  Irregular  and 
mixed  bones,  are  the  vertebrae  and  some  of  the 
bones  of  the  skull.  They  each  have  varied  and 
specially  adaptive  functions.  Many  bones,  espe- 
cially those  of  the  skull,  are  composite.  They 
develop  separately,  and  finally  unite.  Thus  the 
bones  of  the  skull  are  separated  until  late  in 
life,  and  in  some  individuals,  some  of  the  bones 
never  develop  thoroughly.  This  is  frequently 
the  case  in  the  growth  of  the  lower  jaw,  where 
failure  to  unite  produces  the  well-known  de- 
formity of  cleft  palate  or  hare  lip. 

Bone  is  slightly  heavier  than  water,  its  spe- 
cific gravity  varying  from  1.80  to  1.90.  The 
6pong>'  bones,  because  of  the  large  amount  of 


air  contained,  float  in  water.  The  bones  ot 
birds  are  remarkable  for  their  strength  and 
lightness.  The  twofold  nature  of  bones  is  read- 
ily demonstrated  by  two  simple  experiments. 
If  one  bone  is  placed  in  acid,  20  per  cent  hydro- 
chloric, the  acid  will  attack  and  dissolve  out 
the  mineral  salts,  after  which  the  bone  may  be 
bent  and  its  shape  altered  at  pleasure,  nothing 
but  the  organic  material  remains;  another  simi- 
lar bone  ma}'  be  placed  in  a  furnace  and  the 
heat  will  burn  out  the  organic  matter  entirely; 
that  which  remains  will  be  the  mineral  mat- 
ter. It  will  retain  the  shape  of  the  original 
bone,  will  be  white,  but  will  break  down  into 
powder   at  the   least  pressure. 

Uses  of  the  Bones. —  In  dietetics  bones  make 
a  substratum  for  soups.  These  are  important 
carriers  of  salts  to  the  body.  As  for  the  gela- 
tine alone,  it  is  a  tissue  sparer,  the  body  can 
not  use  it  for  purposes  of  anabolism,  but  it 
spares  katabolism  of  proteids.  It  is  a  useful 
menstruum  for  foodstuffs.  Bone  marrow  is 
highly  nutritious,  contains  iron,  and  is  a  super- 
lative food,  and  thought  to  be  particularly  val- 
uable as  a  blood  maker.  TV>e  uses  of  bone  in 
the  arts  are  numerous.  (See  Fertilizers.)  Con- 
sult Sj'minowitch,  *  Histology^ ;  Gray,  ^  Anat- 
omy.^ See  Ax.-\TOMY  ;  Kixetogexesis  ;  Osteology. 

Bone  Black,  Ivory  Black,  or  Animal  Char- 
coal, the  black  carbonaceous  substance  into 
which  bones  are  converted  by  calcination  or  de- 
structive distillation  in  close  vessels,  and  which 
is  extensively  used  in  the  process  of  sugar- 
refining.  This  application  of  it  is  due  to  the  prop- 
erty which  it  possesses  in  common  with  other 
kinds  of  charcoal,  but  in  a  superior  degree,  of 
depriving  various  kinds  of  solutions,  syrups, 
etc.,  of  their  coloring  matters,  and  thus  blanch- 
ing or  purifying  them.  Animal  charcoal  is  pre- 
pared either  by  heating  the  bones  in  a  retort 
similar  to  that  in  which  the  coal  is  decom- 
posed in  gas-works,  or,  which  is  the  better  plan, 
in  small  cast-iron  pots  piled  up  in  a  kiln.  The 
pots  are  placed  above  each  other  with  their 
mouths  in  contact,  the  mouths  being  luted  to- 
gether with  loam.  Two  of  the  pots  together 
hold  about  50  pounds  of  bones,  which  should 
previously  be  freed  of  all  fatty,  fleshy,  and  ten- 
dinous matters,  as  the  quality  of  the  charcoal 
is  in  this  case  improved.  The  bones  lose,  on 
the  average,  about  half  their  weight  in  the 
process  of  calcination.  The  charcoal  is  ground 
between  grooved  rollers  in  order  to  prevent  the 
formation  of  dust,  and  by  this  means  it  is  re- 
duced to  the  condition  of  coarse  grains  varying 
from  the  size  of  turnip-seed  to  that  of  peas. 
Liquids  are  decolorized  by  passing  them 
through  a  filter  or  bed  of  thin  granular  char- 
coal, which  absorbs  by  mechanical  action  the 
coloring  matters  held  in  solution.  The  filteriner 
beds  used  in  sugar-refininar  are  sometimes  of 
the  depth  of  50  feet.  .'Kfter  the  liquor  has 
flowed  for  a  certain  time  the  charcoal  becomes 
completely  saturated,  and  its  purifying  action 
ceases.  It  has  then  to  be  restored  so  that  it 
may  be  used  again,  and  this  is  effected  by  vari- 
ous means,  such  as  washing  with  water  or  with 
weak  hydrochloric  acid,  long  exposure  to  air 
and  moisture,  or  heating  to  redness.  The  last  is 
the  best  method,  and  is  the  one  almost  invari- 
ably adopted,  the  charcoal  being  heated  in  iron 
pipes,  fire-clay  chambers,  or  in  rotating  cylin- 
ders.   See  Charco.\l,  Animal. 


BONE-CAVES  —  BONHAM 


Bone-caves,  caverns  containing  deposits  in 

uhicli  are  embedded  large  quantities  of  tlie 
bones  of  animals  (many  of  tliem  extinct),  dating 
from  the  fleiocene  or  later  geologic  periods. 
See  Cave. 

Bone  Diseases.  See  Osteomyelitis;  Peri- 
ostitis; Osteitis. 

Bone-dog.      See  Bone-shark;  Dogfish. 

Bone-dust,  bones  ground  to  dust  to  be 
used  as  manure.     See  Fertilizers. 

Bone-fish.    See  Lady-fish. 

Bone-shark,  or  Basking-shark,  a  compara- 
tively rare  species  of  pelagic  shark,  found  in  the 
Arctic  seas,  and  soutnward  as  far  as  Portugal 
and  New  York.  It  obtains  the  name  ^^bone- 
shark"  from  the  resemblance  of  its  slender,  long 
and  close-set  gill-rakers  to  whale-bone.  It  is 
also  known  as  "basking-shark,"  because  of  its 
habit  of  remaining  quiet  for  hours  in  one  place. 
It  reaches  a  length  of  40  feet,  and  its  skin  is 
rough  and  covered  with  small  spikes.  It  is 
usually  seen  in  the  brooding  season,  sluggishly 
swimming  in  groups,  on  the  surface  of  the 
water,  and  undisturbed  by  the  approach  of 
boats. 

Bonebreaker,  the  great  fulmar-petrel  (Ossi- 
fraga  giga)itca)  of  the  islands  and  coasts  of 
the  South  Pacific  and  Atlantic  oceans.  It 
is  as  large  as  an  albatross,  and  feeds  mainly 
upon  the  carcasses  of  dead  seals  and  cetaceans, 
whose  bones  it  is  capable  of  breaking  with  its 
A'ulture-like  beak. 

Boner,  John  Henry,  American  poet  and 
literary  worker:  b.  Salem,  N.  C,  31  Jan.  1845. 
A  contributor  to  the  magazines,  he  was  on  the 
editorial  staff  of  the  "^Century  Dictionary'  and 
the  ^Standard  Dictionary,'  and  was  at  one 
period  literary  editor  of  the  New  York  World. 
He  has  written  *^ Whispering  Pines'  (1883), 
a  volume  of  verse. 

Boner,  Ulrich,  ool'riH  bo'ner,  the  most 
ancient  German  fabulist,  a  Dominican  friar  at 
Bern,  in  the  first  half  of  the  14th  century.  His 
collection  of  fables  under  the  title  *Der  Edel- 
stein'  (the  Gem),  is  distinguished  by  purity  of 
language  and  picturesque  simplicity  of  descrip- 
tion. The  first  editions  of  these  fables  were 
by  Bodmer  and  Eschenburg.  Benecke  published 
a  very  good  edition  with  explanatory  notes  and 
an  excellent  vocabulary  (1816)  ;  that  of 
Pfeiffer  appeared  in  1844.  and  a  recent  imprint 
is  found  in  Reclam's  ^Universal  Bibliothek' 
(1895). 

Boneset,  or  Thoroughwort  ( Eupatorlum 
perfoliatuin),  a  stout,  ill-smelling  perennial  herb 
of  the  natural  order  Compositce,  native  of 
America,  common  in  moist  soil.  The  plants, 
which  attain  a  height  of  sometimes  eight  feet, 
are  often  planted  as  ornamentals  in  low  ground. 
In  midsummer  when  the  profusion  of  purplish 
or  white  flowers  are  in  full  blow  they  are  strik- 
ing objects.  The  foliage  and  flowers  have  been 
used  as  a  tonic  in  domestic  medicine,  their  in- 
tensely bitter  taste  being  supoosed  to  commend 
them  for  this  purpose.     See  Eupatorium. 

Bonet,  Juan  Pablo,  hoo-an'  pab'lo  bo-net', 
Soanish  teacher  of  the  deaf  and  dumb  of  the 
17th  century,  distinguished  as  one  of  the  first 
teachers  of  this  class,  and  the  author  of  a  re- 
markable work  ^Reduccion  de  las  letras  y  artes 
para  ensenar  a  hablar  a  los  mudos,'   published 


in  IVIadrid,  1620.  It  explained  his  method  o! 
instruction,  cdntaining  the  first  alphabet  for  the 
deaf  and  dumb,  and  was  of  good  service  to 
Dalgarno,  Wallis,  and,  a  century  later,  to  the 
Abbe  de  I'Epee,  who  acknowledged  his  indebt- 
edness to  Bonet's  labors. 

Bonfiglio,  or  Buonfiglio,  Benedetto,  ba-na- 

det'to  bdn-fe'lyo,  Italian  painter:  b.  1425  (?)  ;  d. 
1490  ( ?).  His  chief  work  was  the  frescoes  of  the 
Palazzo  Connmale  at  Perugia,  where  he  lived. 
These  frescoes  placed  him  in  the  first  rank  of 
the  painters  of  the  Umbrian  school.  It  is  be- 
lieved that  he  also  assisted  Pinturicchio  in  dec- 
orating the  Vatican. 

Bong'abong,  Philippines,  a  town  in  the 
southeast  part  of  Luzon,  with  an  estimated  pop- 
ulation of  20,000.  It  lies  in  a  mountainous  dis- 
trict, and  attained  military  importance  as  the 
headquarters  of  a  regiment  of  United  States 
troops.  The  town  has  a  municipal  government 
based  upon  popular  election. 

Bongar,  bon'gar.  a  serpent  of  the  genus 
Bungarus.     See  Krait. 

Bonghi,  Ruggero,  rood-ja'ro  bon'ge,  Ital- 
ian scholar  and  publicist :  b.  Naples,  21  March 
1826;  d.  near  Naples,  22  Oct.  1895.  The  com- 
mencement of  his  brilliant  career  indicated 
scholarly  activities  only,  for  he  made  fine  stud- 
ies and  versions  of  Aristotle  and  Plato ;  but 
latterly  he  took  up  such  subjects  as  *The  Finan- 
cial History  of  Italy,  1864-8'  (1868);  *The 
Life  and  Times  of  Valentino  Pasini'  (1867), 
and  'The  Life  of  Jesus'  (1890);  ^The  Roman 
Festivals'  (1891)  ;  the  popularity  and  value  of 
these  and  other  works  giving  him  great  promi- 
nence. He  held  professorships  in  several  Italian 
universities ;  was  minister  of  public  instruc- 
tion in  1874-6;  was  a  member  of  the  Chamber 
of  Deputies  nearly  continuously  from  i860; 
founded  the  Stampa,  the  leading  Turin  journal, 
and  the  magazine  *Cutura,'  of  which  he  was 
editor  at  the  time  of  his  death ;  and  presided 
over  the  International  Peace  Congress  held  in 
Rome  in  1891. 

Bon'go,  or  Obongo,  the  name  of  a  negroid 
people  in  the  basin  of  the  Ogowe  River,  in  the 
French  Congo.  They  live  by  the  chase,  grazing, 
and  agriculture,  and  are  skilful  workers  in 
iron. 

Bongo,  a  large  west  African  bushbuck 
(q.v.). 

Bonham,  Milledge  L..  American  lawyer 
and  soldier:  b.  Edgefield,  S.  C,  25  Dec.  1813; 
d.  White  Sulphur  Springs,  N.  C,  27  Aug.  1890. 
He  graduated  at  South  Carolina  College.  1834, 
was  admitted  to  the  bar.  1837,  and  served  as  a 
representative  in  Congress  1840-4.  In  1836  he 
was  major  and  adjutant-general  of  the  South 
Carolina  Brigade  in  the  Seminole  war  in  Flor- 
ida: and  colonel  of  the  I2tli  U.  S.  Infantry 
during  the  Mexican  war.  In  1856  he  was 
elected  to  Congress  as  a  State  Rights  Demo- 
crat, and  re-elected  in  1858.  but  left  Congress 
21  Dec.  i860,  when  the  South  Carolina  delega- 
tion withdrew.  Commissioned  a  brigadier  in 
the  Confederate  army,  19  April  1861  ;  he  com- 
manded Beauregard's  centre  at  the  first  battle 
of  Manassas,  but  gave  up  his  commission  to 
enter  the  Confederate  Congress.  27  Jan.  1862. 
He  was  governor  of  South  Carolina  1862-4, 
when  he  was  again  commissioned  a  brigadier- 
general,    and   was   serving   with   Gen.   Johnston 


BONHAM  — BONHOMME  RICHARD 


at  the  time  of  the  latter's  surrender.  In  1868  he 
was  a  delegate  to  the  National  Democratic  con- 
vention in  New  York. 

Bonham,  Texas,  a  town  and  county-seat 
of  Trannin  County,  situated  on  the  Texas  &  P. 
and  the  Denison,  B.  &  N.  O.  R.R.'s.  It  is  the 
seat  of  Carlton  College,  and  the  Masonic 
Female  Institute.  As  the  centre  of  an  agricul- 
tural region  it  has  a  large  export  trade, 
especially  in  cotton.  Its  chief  manufacturing  in- 
dustries are  flour  mills,  cotton-gins,  machine- 
shops,  carriage  and  wagon  factories,  tobacco 
factories,  etc.     Pop.   (1900)   5.042. 

Bonheur,  Frangois  Augusta,  frah-swa 
a-gust  b5-ner,  French  painter,  brother  of 
Rosa  Bonheur:  b.  Bordeaux,  4  Nov.  1824;  d. 
2,3  Feb.  1884.  The  beauty  of  his  landscapes 
has  been  much  praised.  He  was  made  Cheva- 
lier of  the  Legion  of  Honor  in  1867  and  received 
numerous  medals. 

Bonheur,  Jules  Isadore,  zhiil  ez-a-dor  bo- 
ner, French  painter  and  sculptor,  brother  of 
Rosa  Bonheur  (q.v.)  :  b.  Bordeaux,  15  May  1827. 
In  the  Salon  of  1848  he  exhibited  both  paint- 
ings and  sculpture  but  in  later  years  confined 
himself  to  sculpture.  Medals  were  awarded  him 
in  1865  and  1867.  Among  noted  works  of  his 
are  <The  Zebra  and  Panther'  ;  and  'The  Tiger 
Hunter.' 

Bonheur,  Marie-Rosa,  ma-re  rd'za  bo-ner, 
French  artist  of  distinction,  widely  known  as  a 
painter  of  animals:  b.  Bordeaux,  22  March  1822; 
d.  Fontainebleau,  25  May  1899.  She  received 
her  earliest  instruction  in  art  from  her  father, 
and  when  only  18  years  old  exhibited  two  pic- 
tures, 'Goats  and  Sheep,'  and  'Two  Rabbits,' 
which  gave  clear  indications  of  talent.  In  1849 
a  fine  work,  'Labourages  Nivernais,'  by  her,  was 
purchased  by  the  French  government  for  3,000 
francs  and  placed  in  the  Luxembourg  collection. 
In  1855  'The  Haymaking  Season  in  Auvergne' 
was  hung  at  the  Universal  Exposition  in  Paris, 
and  in  the  same  year  she  sent  the  'Horse  Fair' 
to  the  French  Exhibition  in  London,  where  it 
was  the  centre  of  attraction  for  the  season.  It 
was  offered  by  her  to  Bordeaux  for  $6,000,  but 
the  offer  being  declined  it  was  sold  in  England 
for  $20,000.  It  was  subsequently  purchased  by 
Cornelius  Vanderbilt  for  the  Metropolitan 
Museum  in  New  York.  She  made  a  quarter  size 
replica  which  is  now  in  the  National  Gallery 
in  London.  After  this  work  she  stood  at  the 
very  head  of  delineators  of  animal  life,  showing 
a  wonderful  power  of  representing  spirited  ac- 
tion. Near  her  studio  she  had  an  ante-chamber 
as  a  stable  for  the  convenient  study  of  animals, 
of  which  she  collected  some  noble  specimens. 
She  also  attended  horse  markets  and  fairs ; 
generally  wearing  masculine  dress,  which  was 
not  unbecoming  to  her  strong  and  marked  fea- 
tures. After  1849  she  directed  the  Free  School 
of  Design  for  Young  Girls  in  Paris.  During 
the  siege  of  Paris  the  crown  prince  of  Prussia 
especially  ordered  that  her  studio  and  resi- 
dence at  Fontainebleau  should  be  spared  and 
respected.  She  received  a  first-class  medal  at 
the  French  Salon  in  1849,  and  another  in  1855  ; 
and  the  decoration  of  the  Legion  of  Honor  in 
1865 ;  was  made  a  member  of  the  Institute  of 
Antwerp  in  1868;  received  the  Leopold  cross 
from  the  king  of  Belgium  in  1880,  and  the  same 
year  received  from  the  king  of  Spain  the  Com- 
Vol.   2—52. 


mander's  Cross  of  the  Royal  Order  of  Isabella 
the  Catholic.  In  1892  a  celebrated  painting  by 
her,  entitled  'Horses  Threshing  Corn,'  was  sold 
for  $60,000.  It  is  the  largest  animal  picture 
ever  painted,  showing  10  horses  large  as  life.  In 
1896,  on  her  74th  birthday,  she  furnished  a 
painting  representing  the  historical  combat  be- 
tween two  stallions  to  which  Lord  Godolphin 
invited  his  friends  in  1734.  See  Larnelle,  *  Rosa 
Bonheur,  sa  vie  et  ses  oeuvres'  (1885)  ;  Peyrol, 
'Rosa  Bonheur:  Her  Life  and  Works'  ;  Strana- 
han.  'A  History  of  French  Painting'    (1899). 

Bonhomme,  Jacques,  zhak  bo-nom,  a  term 
of  contempt  used  by  the  French  nobility  to  des- 
ignate the  common  people,  especially  the  peas- 
ants. 

Bonhomme  Richard,  the  flagship  of  John 
Paul  Jones  (q.v.),  in  the  most  remarkable  naval 
victory  on  record,  23  Sept,  1779;  originally  the 
Duras,  a  worn-out  unseaworthy  merchant  India- 
man  assigned  to  him  by  the  French  government 
because  none  of  their  own  naval  officers  would 
serve  under  a  foreigner,  and  renamed  by  Jones 
from  Franklin's  'Poor  Richard,'  because  he 
obtained  her  by  following  one  of  its  maxims. 
She  had  21  guns  on  a  side,  mainly  12-pounders, 
with  three  i8-pounders  aft  near  the  water  line ; 
and  a  mongrel  crew  of  Americans,  British,  Por- 
tuguese, and  other  classes.  With  three  other 
vessels  in  the  squadron  Jones  intercepted,  off 
Flamborough  Head,  on  the  east  coast  of  Eng- 
land, a  British  fleet  of  naval  stores  from  the 
Baltic,  convoyed  by  the  Serapis  (Capt.  Richard 
Pearson)  and  the  Countess  of  Scarborough. 
The  latter  was  captured  by  one  of  Jones'  squad- 
ron ;  the  former  about  7  o'clock  on  a  moonlight 
night  joined  battle  with  the  Richard,  having 
25  guns  on  a  side,  10  i8-pounders — a  much 
greater  weight  of  metal  than  its  foe,  and  with 
far  more  penetrating  power  than  the  12-pound- 
ers of  the  American  ship.  To  neutralize  this  ad- 
vantage Jones'  policy  was  to  fight  at  close 
range ;  and  in  the  attempt  to  rake  the  Serapis 
the  two  vessels  swung  broadside  to  and  were 
lashed  together  by  Jones,  and  fought  the  rest 
of  the  battle  so  close  that  the  guns  could  not 
be  run  out  full  length,  their  muzzles  touched, 
and  the  rammers  of  each  had  to  be  thrust  into 
the  port-holes  of  the  other  to  load.  Only  those 
of  the  starboard  side  of  each  could  be  used. 
Two  of  Jones'  i8-pounders  burst  at  the  first 
fire;  his  lighter  guns  were  gradually  silenced 
by  the  Serapis ;  the  entire  sides  of  his  vessel 
were  shot  away,  so  that  the  Serapis'  shot 
passed  through  without  touching  anything;  she 
caught  fire  in  several  places ;  she  had  been 
leaking  at  the  outset,  and  now  had  several  feet 
of  water  in  the  hold ;  and  an  under-ofiicer 
in  affright  let  the  200  or  300  British  prisoners 
loose  and  ran  to  tear  down  the  colors,  but 
finding  the  flag-pole  gone  began  to  shriek  for 
quarter.  Lieut.  Dale  with  immense  presence  of 
mind  set  the  prisoners  at  the  pumps,  not  only 
saving  a  guard  but  releasing  the  pumpmen  to 
fight;  Jones  broke  the  officer's  head  with  a  pistol- 
butt,  and  in  answer  to  Pearson's  inquiry  if  he 
was  ready  to  surrender,  replied,  "I  have  not 
begun  to  fight  yet."  though  the  Serapis  was  fir- 
ing heavily  and  his  own  guns  were  nearly  still. 
Meantime,  however,  the  deadly  musket  fire  from 
the  Richard's  top  gear  had  made  the  service  of 
the  upper  guns  of  the  Serapis  almost  sure  death, 
and    they    too    were    silenced;    a    cannon-shot 


BONI  — BONIFACE 


brought  down  her  mainmast;  the  combustibles 
thrown  from  the  Richard  wrapped  her  upper 
deck  in  fire;  at  last  a  bucket  of  hand-grenades 
tiung  down  her  hatchwaj^s  set  off  a  mass  of 
cartridges  strewn  along  the  decks,  killing  or 
wounding  nearly  all  those  around,  and  wrecking 
five  guris;  and  just  then  Jones'  ship,  the  Alli- 
ance—  whose  timid,  half-insane  French  captain 
had  been  tacking  about,  occasionally  firing  grape- 
shot  at  random  into  both  vessels,  came  near, 
and  Pearson  struck  his  colors,  though  four  of 
his  guns  were  still  firing  and  his  ship  was 
sound.  Jones  put  Dale  aboard  the  Serapis, 
and  tried  to  navigate  the  Richard  to  a  friendly 
port ;  but  at  9  o'clock  of  the  25th  she  had  to 
be  abandoned,  and  she  sank  about  an  hour 
later. 

Boni,  bd'ne,  a  district  in  the  island  of 
Celebes,  and  one  of  the  principal  states  of  the 
Bugis  nation,  with  an  estimated  area  of  about 
1,000  square  miles.  This  territory  is  mountain- 
ous, but,  though  contiguous  to  the  great  volcanic 
belt  of  the  archipelago,  exhibits  no  traces  of 
volcanic  action.  Lompoo-Batang  (great  pillar), 
its  highest  peak,  and  the  loftiest  in  Celebes, 
attains  an  elevation  of  8.200  feet  above  the  level 
of  the  sea.  Lake  Laba3'a,  or,  as  called  by  the 
natives,  Taparang-Danau,  in  the  northwest  cor- 
ner of  this  territory,  is  a  beautiful  sheet  of 
water,  24  miles  long  and  13  broad,  with  an  aver- 
age depth  of  six  fathoms,  and  abounds  in  fish. 
It  is  bordered  on  all  sides  by  a  luxuriant  and 
richly  diversified  tropical  growth,  except  at  the 
mouths  of  the  numerous  little  streams  that 
empty  into  it,  where  clearings,  and  beautiful, 
picturesque  little  villages,  attest  the  industry, 
skill,  and  civilized  tastes  of  the  Bugis  people. 
Boni  was  formed}^  the  most  powerful  state  in 
Celebes,  but  since  1859  has  been  practically  a 
Dutch  dependency.  In  the  north  the  scenery  is 
fine,  and  the  soil  fertile  —  rice,  sago,  and  cassia 
being  produced.  The  inhabitants  have  an  allied 
language  to  the  Macassars,  with  a  literature  of 
their  own.  Their  towns  and  villages  dot  the 
coast,  and  as  enterprising  merchants  and  sailors 
the  Bugis  are  found  in  everj'  port  of  the  East 
Indian  Archipelago ;  they  also  engage  in  agri- 
culture and  in  the  manufacture  of  cotton  and 
articles  of  gold  and  iron,  in  which  they  have 
a  large  trade.  They  are  well  built,  active,  and 
brave,  and  are  lighter  skinned,  as  well  as  supe- 
rior in  honesty  and  morality  to  other  JNIalay 
races.  Their  institutions,  said  to  be  very  ancient, 
partake  of  the  character  of  a  constitutional 
monarchy.  The  British  have  twice  attacl  ed 
the  Bonese  for  injuring  their  cornmerce,  and 
selling  the  crews  of  British  ships  into  slavery. 
In  the  second  attack,  in  1814,  the  Bonese  king 
was  killed.  The  number  of  the  population  is 
imknown,  being  variously  estimated  from  200,000 
to  300,000.  The  capital,  called  Boni,  stands  on 
the  coast  of  the  southwest  peninsula.  The  Gulf 
of  Boni  separates  the  southeast  and  southwest 
peninsulas  of  Celebes.  It  is  200  miles  long, 
and  40  to  80  miles  broad. 

Bon'iface,  Saint,  the  apostle  of  Germany, 
who  first  preached  Christianity  and  spread  civi- 
lization among  the  Germans :  b.  Crediton,  Eng- 
land, 680 ;  d.  Dokkum,  West  Friesland,  S  June 
755.  His  original  name  was  Winfrid.  In  his 
30th  year  he  was  consecrated  a  priest.  A  great 
part  of  Europe  at  this  period  was  inhabited  by 
heathen    peoples,    and    several    missionaries    set 


out  from  England  and  Ireland  to  convert  them. 
Among  these  was  Boniface,  who  in  718  went 
to  Rome,  where  Gregory  II.  authorized  him  to 
preach  the  gospel  to  the  nations  of  Germany. 
He  commenced  his  labors  in  Thuringia  and 
Bavaria,  passed  three  years  in  Friesland,  and 
journeyed  through  Hesse  in  Saxony,  baptizing 
everywhere,  and  converting  the  pagan  temples 
to  Christian  churches.  In  '/22)  he  was  invited 
to  Rome,  made  a  bishop  by  Gregory  II.,  and 
recommended  to  Charles  Martel  and  all  princes 
and  bishops.  His  name  Winfrid  he  changed  to 
Boniface.  He  destroyed  the  oak  sacred  to  Thor, 
near  Geismar,  in  Hesse,  founded  churches  and 
monasteries,  invited  from  England  priests, 
monks,  and  nuns,  and  sent  them  to  Saxony, 
Friesland,  and  Bavaria.  In  732  Gregory  III. 
made  him  archbishop  and  primate  of  all  Ger- 
many, and  authorized  him  to  establish  bishoprics, 
the  only  existing  bishopric  being  the  one  at 
Passau.  He  founded  those  of  Freising,  Ratis- 
bon,  Erfurt,  Baraburg  (transferred  afterward 
to  Paderborn),  Wiirzburg,  and  Eichstadt!  In 
739  he  restored  the  episcopal  see  of  St.  Rupert, 
at  Salzburg.  After  the  death  of  Charles  Martel 
he  consecrated  Pepin  the  Short,  king  of  the 
Franks,  in  Soissons,  by  whom  he  was  named 
Archbishop  of  Mainz.  He  held  eight  ecclesiasti- 
cal councils  in  Germany,  founded  the  famous 
abbey  of  Fulda,  and  undertook  in  754  new  jour- 
neys for  the  conversion  of  the  infidels.  In  Fulda 
a  copy  of  the  gospels,  in  his  own  handwriting, 
is  to  be  seen,  and  there  is  a  statue  to  him  also. 
At  the  place  where  Boniface  built,  in  724,  the 
first  Christian  church  in  North  Germany,  near 
the  village  of  Altenburg,  in  the  Thuringian 
forest,  a  monument  has  been  erected  to  his 
memory.  The  most  complete  collection  of  the 
letters  of  Boniface  was  published  at  Mainz, 
1789,  folio;  and  of  his  entire  works.  2  volumes, 
Oxford,  1845.  See  Lives  by  Cox  (i8S3)  :  Wer- 
ner (1875);  Fischer  (1880)  ;  Ebrard   (1882). 

Boniface,  the  name  of  several  Popes. 
BoNiF.\CE  I.,  elected  418  by  a  party  of  the  clerg>', 
and  confirmed  by  the  Emperor  Honorius,  who 
declared  the  anti-pope  Eulalius  a  usurper.  Boni- 
face condemned  Pelagianism,  and  extended  his 
authority  by  prudent  measures.  In  a  contest 
with  the  Emperor  Theodosius,  who  endeavored 
to  take  from  the  bishops  of  Thessalonica  their 
canonical  jurisdiction  over  Illyria,  he  success- 
fully vindicated  the  primacy  of  the  Roman  See. 
Boniface  II.,  elected  530;  d.  532.  The  death 
of  his  rival,  the  anti-pope  Dioscorus,  a  few  days 
after  his  election,  left  him  in  quiet  possession 
of  the  papal  chair.  During  his  pontificate  St. 
Benedict  laid  the  foundations  of  monasticism  in 
the  West.  Boniface  III.,  chosen  607,  died 
nine  months  after  his  election.  Boniface 
IV.  reigned  608-615.  He  consecrated  the 
Pantheon  to  the  Virgin  and  all  the  saints. 
Boniface  V.,  a  Neapolitan,  was  Pope  619-625. 
He  confirmed  the  inviolability  of  the  asylums, 
and  endeavored  to  diffuse  Christianity  among 
the  English.  Boniface  VI.,  a  Roman,  elected 
896,  died  a  fortnight  after.  Boniface  VII.,  anti- 
pope,,  elected  974  during  the  lifetime  of  Benedict 
VI.,  whose  death  he  was  suspected  of  having 
caused.  Expelled  from  Rome  he  returned  on 
the  death  of  Benedict  VII.,  and  found  the  chair 
occupied  by  John  XIV.,  whom  he  deposed  and 
threw  into  prison,  where  he  died.  Boniface  died 
II    months   after   his    return.     Boniface    VIII., 


BONIFACIO  —  BONITO 


Benedict  Gaetano :  b.  Anagni  of  an  ancient  Cata- 
lonian  family;  elected  Pope  24  Dec.  1294.  He 
studied  jurisprudence,  was  a  canon  at  Paris  and 
Lyons,  advocate  of  the  consistory,  and  prothono- 
tary  of  the  Pope  at  Rome.  After  Martin  IV. 
had  elevated  him  to  the  dignity  of  a  cardinal 
(1281)  he  went  as  legate  to  Sicily  and  Portu- 
gal, and  was  intrusted  with  the  charge  of  recon- 
ciling the  king  of  Sicily  with  Alphonso  of 
Aragon,  and  Philip  the  Fair  with  Edward  I. 
of  England.  After  Coelestine  V.  had  resigned 
the  papal  dignity  at  Naples,  in  1294,  at  the  insti- 
gation of  Boniface,  the  latter  was  chosen  Pope. 
He  met  with  opposition  from  the  cardinals  of 
the  family  Colonna,  whose  antagonism  followed 
him  throughout  his  entire  pontificate.  His  in- 
duction was  magnificent.  The  kings  of  Hungary 
and  Sicily  held  his  bridle  on  his  way  to  the  Lat- 
eran,  and  served  him  at  table  with  their  crowns 
on  their  heads.  Boniface,  however,  was  not 
successful  in  his  first  efforts  for  the  increase 
of  his  power.  He  first  opposed  Albert  of  Aus- 
tria in  his  contest  for  the  imperial  title,  but 
finally  yielded  and  crowned  him  emperor.  He 
was  equally  unsuccessful  in  his  attempt  to  arbi- 
trate between  England  and  France.  The  bulls 
which  he  issued  at  this  time  against  King  Philip 
the  Fair  of  France  obtained  no  consideration. 
This  was  also  the  case  with  the  interdict  which 
he  pronounced  against  him  at  the  Council  of 
Rome  in  1302.  Intimidating  the  clergy  in 
France,  Philip  refused  to  yield  to  the  Pope's  de- 
crees. The  Pope  was  accused  of  duplicity,  of 
simony,  of  usurpation,  of  heresy,  of  unchastity ; 
and  it  was  resolved  to  condemn  and  depose  him 
at  a  general  council  at  Lyons.  Philip  went  still 
further ;  he  sent  Nogaret  to  Italy  in  order  to 
seize  his  person  and  bring  him  to  Lyons.  No- 
garet united  himself  for  this  purpose  with  Sciarra 
Colonna.  who  with  his  whole  familj'  were  bit- 
terly inimical  to  Boniface.  Boniface  fled  to 
Anagni,  where  Nogaret  and  Colonna  surprised 
him.  Boniface  acted  with  spirit.  "Since  I 
am  betrayed,*  said  he,  "as  Jesus  Christ  was 
betrayed,  I  will  die  at  least  as  a  Pope.'^  He 
assumed  the  pontifical  robes  and  the  tiara,  took 
the  keys  and  the  cross  in  his  hand,  and  seated 
himself  in  the  papal  chair.  But  the  insignia 
of  his  holy  office  did  not  save  him  from  seizure. 
Nay,  Colonna  went  so  far  as  to  use  personal 
violence.  Boniface  remained  in  imprisonment 
for  two  days,  when  the  Anagnese  took  up  arms 
and  delivered  him.  After  this  he  departed  to 
Rome,  where  he  died,  a  month  later,  in  1303. 
Boniface  IX.,  Pietro  Tomacelli  of  Naples,  suc- 
ceeded Urban  VI.  at  Rome  during  the  schism 
in  the  Church,  while  Clement  VII.  resided  in 
Avignon.  He  was  distinguished  for  the  beauty 
of  his  person  and  the  elegance  of  his  manners, 
rather  than  for  a  profound  knowledge  of  the- 
ology and  canon  law.  Even  the  counsel  of  his 
experienced  cardinals  could  not  save  him  from 
the  commission  of  gross  blunders.  He  made  the 
annates  a  regular  tax  in  1392.  Many  abuses  in 
the  sale  of  benefices  were  indulged  during  his 
pontificate.  A  notable  event  in  his  reign  was 
the  suppression  of  the  rebellion  in  Rome  in 
favor  of  a  Republic.  He  supported  the  pre- 
tensions of  Ladislaus  to  the  throne  of  Naples, 
and  during  the  greatest  part  of  his  pontificate 
was  engaged  in  negotiations  at  Avignon  with 
his  rivals,  Clement  VII.  and  Benedict  XIII.  He 
died  1404. 


Bonifacio,  Veneziano,  va-nad-ze-a'no  b(5' 
ne-fa'cho,  Italian  painter:  b.  Venice,  abqut 
1525;  d.  about  1579.  He  belonged  to  the  Vene- 
tian school  and  his  'Saint  Jerome  and  Saint 
Margaret'  ;  'Saint  Barnabas  and  Saint  Sylves- 
ter' ;  'Saint  Anthony  and  Saint  Mark'  are  still 
in  the  Venice  Academy. 

Bonifacio,  bo-ne-fa'cho.  Strait  of,  the  Fre- 
tum  Gallicuni  of  the  Romans,  lies  between  Cor- 
sica and  Sardinia,  and  at  the  narrowest  part  is 
only  seven  miles  wide.  The  navigation  is  diffi- 
cult owing  to  the  rapid  current  and  the  great 
number  of  rocks,  which,  however,  are  favorable 
to  the  production  of  coral. 

Bonifazio  Veronese,  bo-ne-fa'tse-o  va-ro- 
na'sa  (the  Elder),  Italian  painter:  b.  Verona, 
1490 ;  d.  1540.  He  was  a  notable  colorist  of  the 
Venetian  school  and  many  of  his  works  have 
been  attributed  to  Titian  and  to  Giorgione,  whose 
styles  he  imitated.  Among  known  works  of  his 
are  'The  Finding  of  Moses'  in  the  Dresden 
Gallerj',  and  'Dives  and  Lazarus'  in  the  Venice 
Academj'. 

Bonin  (bo-nen')  Islands,  several  groups 
of  islands.  North  Pacific  Ocean,  extending  from 
lat.  27°  44'  30"  to  26°  30'  N.,  south  of  and  belong- 
ing to  Japan.  The  northwest  island  of  the 
most  northern  cluster,  called  Parry  Group,  is  in 
lat.  27°  43'  30"  N. ;  Ion.  142°  8'  E.;  the  cluster 
consists  of  small  isles.  The  largest  of  the  chain 
is  Peel  Island,  on  the  west  side  of  which  is  a 
good  harbor  called  Port  Lloyd,  in  lat.  27°  5'  30" 
N. ;  Ion.  142°  11'  30"  E.,  nearly  surrounded  by 
hills  crowned  with  palm  trees.  Almost  every 
valley  has  a  stream  of  water.  Green  turtle 
abound  in  the  sandy  bays.  Sharks  are  numer- 
ous, and  fish  of  several  kinds  plentiful.  Peel 
Island  is  inhabited  by  some  English,  Americans, 
and  Hawaiians,  who  cultivate  maize,  vegetables, 
tobacco,  and  the  sugar-cane.  It  is  frequently 
visited  by  vessels  in  want  of  water  and  fresh 
provisions.  The  islands  were  discovered  by 
the  Japanese  in  1593  and  since  1876  have  been 
in  the  possession  of  Japan.     Pop.  about  1,400. 

Bon'ington,  or  Bennington,  Richard 
Parkes,  English  painter:  b.  25  Oct.  1801,  at 
Arnold,  a  village  near  N^oltingham,  where  his 
father  was  a  painter  and  lace  manufacturer;  d. 
London,  23  Sept.  1828.  When  Richard  was  in 
his  boyhood  the  family  removed  to  Calais  and 
afterward  to  Paris.  He  early  displayed  a  de- 
cided predilection  for  art,  and  entered  as  a 
student  at  the  Louvre,  and  was  also  for  a  time 
in  the  studio  of  Baron  Gros.  His  genius  dis- 
played itself  in  landscape-painting,  and  he  rap- 
idly rose  to  great  eminence  in  this  department, 
first  in  Paris  and  afterward  in  England,  to 
whose  Royal  Academy  Exhibition  he  contributed 
several  pictures  which  created  a  great  sensa- 
tion. He  worked  at  first  entirely  in  water-color, 
but  from  about  1825  he  also  used  oil.  A  bril- 
liant career  was  in  prospect  for  him,  when  he 
was  cut  off  by  pulmonary  consumption.  See 
Muther,  'History  of  Modern  Painting'  (1896). 
Bonito,  bo-ne'to,  a  fish  of  the  mackerel 
family  {Scoinbridcr)  nearly  related  to  the  gigan- 
tic tunny,  but  smaller,  longer  in  body,  and  with- 
out teeth  on  the  vomer.  There  are  two  Ameri- 
can species.  One  (Sarda  sarda)  lives  in  the 
open  seas,  except  at  spawning  time,  from  Cape 
Cod  to  Cape  Sable,  and  occasionally  in  the 
Gulf  of  Mexico,  where  it  weighs  10  to  12 
pounds.     In   color  it  is   dark  steel  blue  above, 


BONITZ  —  BONNEMERE 


with  numerous  dark  narrow  strips  obliquely 
downward  and  forward  from  the  back,  and  the 
under  parts,  silvery.  The  California  bonito  or 
skipjack  (Sarda  chiliensis),  is  heavier  and  is 
found  from  San  Francisco  northward  to 
Japan.  In  the  tropics,  the  bonito  is  known 
as  the  worst  foe  of  the  flying-fish.  On 
the  Rhode  Island  coast  the  fish  is  called 
abbicore. 

Bonitz,  Hermann,  her'man  bo-nits,  Ger- 
man classical  scholar:  b.  Langensalza,  29  July 
1814 ;  d.  Berlin,  25  July  1888.  He  was  professor 
in  the  University  of  Vienna,  1849-67,  director  of 
a  gymnasium  at  Vienna  from  1867,  and  a  mem- 
ber of  the  Academy  of  Sciences.  He  was  a 
profound  student  of  Plato  and  Aristotle  and 
was  the  author  of  ^Ueber  die  Kategorien  des 
Aristoteles^  (1853);  ^Platorische  Studien^ 
(1858-60)  ;  ^Aristotelische  Studien^    (1862-7). 

Bonn,  a  city  of  the  Prussian  province  of 
the  Rhine,  formerly  the  residence  of  the  Elect- 
ors of  Cologne,  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Rhine, 
over  which  there  is  a  magnificent  new  bridge, 
erected  at  a  cost  of  |i, 000,000,  with  a  central 
span  of  600  feet.  It  is  a  flourishing  place,  and 
has  been  greatly  extended  and  improved  in  re- 
cent years,  though  it  still  has  many  narrow  ir- 
regular streets.  The  town  hall,  completed  1782, 
is  one  of  the  handsomest  of  its  edifices.  An- 
other important  building  is  the  cathedral,  cruci- 
form in  plan,  and  forming  an  imposing  and 
picturesque  example  of  the  late  Romanesque 
style  of  architecture.  The  greater  part  of  it 
dates  from  the  13th  century.  But  all  other 
buildings  and  institutions  are  eclipsed  by  the 
celebrity  of  the  university,  the  charter  of  which 
w^as  given  18  Oct.  1818,  at  Aix-la-Chapelle,  by 
the  king  of  Prussia,  who  at  the  same  time 
endowed  it  with  an  annual  income  of  about 
$60,000.  The  former  residence  of  the  Elector 
of  Cologne  was  bestowed  on  the  university, 
and  was  fitted  up  at  great  expense,  being  sur- 
passed in  extent  and  beauty  probably  by  no 
university  building  in  Europe.  The  university 
possesses  a  library  of  more  than  275,000  volumes, 
1,235  incunabula  and  1,376  MSS. ;  a  museum  of 
antiquities,  a  collection  of  casts  of  the  principal 
ancient  statues,  a  collection  of  coins,  observa- 
tory, botanic  garden,  etc.  The  paintings  in 
the  Academical  Hall  (among  others,  the  great 
allegorical  picture,  the  *  Christian  Church^)  were 
executed  by  some  pupils  of  Cornelius.  In  the 
front  of  the  university  is  an  extensive  garden, 
with  fine  old  avenues  of  trees,  while  from 
this  quarter  runs  westward  a  broad  straight 
avenue,  half  a  mile  long,  planted  with  horse- 
chestnuts,  passing  the  observatory,  and  leading 
to  the  botanic  garden  and  natural  history  collec- 
tions of  the  university,  and  to  the  chemical 
laboratory,  the  anatomy  building,  etc.  In  this 
quarter  also  are  grounds  and  buildings  for 
the  use  of  the  agricultural  institute.  Particular 
advantages  are  afforded  for  the  education  of 
young  men  intended  for  instructors.  Many  men 
distinguished  in  various  branches  of  science 
have  been  connected  with  the  university,  includ- 
ing Arndt,  A.  W.  Schlegel,  and  the  historian 
Niebuhr.  The  exertions  of  the  government  to 
collect  in  Bonn  all  the  means  of  instruction, 
united  with  the  charms  of  the  place  and  the 
beauties  of  the  scenery,  have  made  the  place 
famous.  In  igoi  the  students  numbered  over 
2,400.    The  manufactures,   which   are   not   very 


important,  comprise  carpets,  machinery,  soap; 
chemicals,  stoneware,  etc.  The  means  of  com- 
munication are  ample,  both  by  the  steamers 
which  ply  upon  the  Rhine  and  by  the  railways. 
Prince  Albert  studied  at  Bonn  and  Beethoven 
was  born  there,  the  house  of  his  birth  being 
now  a  museum.  There  are  statues  of  Beetho- 
ven and  Arndt,  a  monument  commemorative  of 
the  war  of  1870-1,  a  monumental  fountain,  etc. 
The  antiquity  of  Bonn  is  considerable,  and,  as 
the  residence  of  the  electors  of  Cologne,  it 
is  of  historical  importance.  Pop.  (1900) 
50,737. 

Bonn,  University  of.     See  Bonn. 

Bonnassieux,  Jean,  zhoh  bo-na-sye,  French 
sculptor:  b.  Paunissieres,  1810;  d.  1892.  He 
studied  in  Paris  and  in  1836  received  the  Prix  de 
Rome.  He  gained  the  favor  of  the  French 
clergy  by  refusing  to  model  a  statue  of  Voltaire 
for  the  fagade  of  the  Louvre  and  thereafter  did 
much  work  for  churches.  He  was  commissioned 
in  1857  to  model  a  colossal  statue  of  Notre 
Dame  de  France  for  the  valley  of  Puy  from 
the  bronze  cannon  taken  at  Sebastopol.  Other 
important  works  of  his  are  ^  Amour  se  conpant 
les  ailes'  ;  ^ David  Berger,  1814'  ;  and  ^Medita- 
tion,' for  which  last  he  received  the  cross 
of  the  Legion  of  Honor. 

Bonnat,  Leon  Joseph  Florentin,  la-6n  zho- 
sef  fld-roh-tah  bo-na,  French  painter:  b.  Bay- 
onne,  20  June  1833.  When  a  young  man  he 
spent  several  years  in  Spain  and  Italy.  He 
studied  under  Madrazo  at  Madrid,  and  under 
Leon  Cogniet  at  Paris,  first  gaining  recognition 
at  the  Paris  Salon  in  1861,  when  he  received  a 
second-class  medal.  The  list  of  his  honors  is  a 
large  one,  including  the  medal  of  honor  at  the 
Salon  of  1869.  In  the  Legion  of  Honor  he  was 
made  chevalier  in  1867,  officer  in  1874,  and 
commander  in  1882.  He  paints  portraits  and 
genre  subjects;  many  of  these  are  reminiscences 
of  his  visits  to  Italy  and  Egypt.  He  became  a 
member  of  the  Institute  in  1874,  and  was  cho- 
sen chief  professor  of  painting  in  the  Ecole 
des  Beaux  Arts  in  1888.  His  work  shows  the 
influence  of  Velasquez  and  Ribera,  and  his  por- 
traits, such  as  those  of  Thiers,  Victor  Hugo, 
and  Don  Carlos,  are  remarkable  for  their  real- 
ism. He  has  painted  the  portraits  of  many 
Americans  and  his  portrait  work  is  well  known 
in  this  country. 

Bonnechose,  Frangois  Paul  Emile  Bois- 
normand  de,  fran-swa  pol  a-mel  bwa-nor- 
man  bon-shoz,  French  poet  and  historian :  b. 
Leyerdorp,  Holland,  1801  ;  d.  1875.  He  was 
librarian  of  the  palace  of  Saint  Cloud  for 
some  years  and  subsequently  held  similar  posts. 
His  one  notable  poetical  composition  is  ^The 
Death  of  Bailly'  (1833).  Besides  a  ^History 
of  France'  he  was  author  of  'Reformers  Before 
the  i6th  Century  Reformation'  (1844)  ;  *^The 
Four  Conquests  of  England'  (1851)  ;  'History 
of  England'  (1859)  ;  'Bertrand  du  Guesclen' 
(1866). 

Bonnemere,  Joseph  Eugene,  zho-sef  e-zhan 
bon-mar,  French  historian:  b.  Saumur,  21 
Feb.  1 81 3.  In  early  life  he  wrote  a  number  of 
plays ;  but  owes  his  reputation  to  a  series  of 
historical  publications,  'History  of  the  Peasants' 
(1856)  ;  'Vendee,  in  1793'  (1866)  ;  'Popular 
History  of  France'  (1874-9)  ;  'History  of  the 
Religious  Wars  in  the  Sixteenth  Century' 
(1886);  etc. 


BONNER  —  BONNET-ROUGE 


Bonner,  Edmund,  English  prelate:  b.  about 
1495  ;  d.  London,  5  Sept.  1569.  For  his  skill  in 
canon  law  he  was  patronized  by  Cardinal  Wol- 
sey,  on  whose  death  he  acquired  the  favor  of 
Henry  VIII.,  who  made  him  one  of  his  chap- 
lains, and  sent  him  to  Rome  on  business  con- 
nected with  his  divorce  from  Queen  Catharine. 
In  1535  he  was  made  archdeacon  of  Leicester. 
In  1538  he  was  nominated  bishop  of  Hereford, 
being  then  ambassador  at  Paris ;  but  before  his 
consecration  he  was  translated  to  the  see  of 
London.  In  1542-3  he  was  ambassador  to  the 
Emperor  Charles  V.  After  Edward  VI. 's 
accession  in  1547  he  was  deprived  of  his 
bishopric  for  non-obedience  in  connection  with 
the  injunctions  and  the  ^Book  of  Homilies.^ 
He  was  shortly  afterward  restored,  but  still 
continuing  to  act  with  contumacy,  he  was,  after 
a  long  trial,  once  more  deprived  of  his  see,  and 
committed  to  the  Marshal  sea  (1549)  ;  from 
which  prison,  on  the  accession  of  Mary,  he  was 
released,  and  once  more  restored  in  1553.  Dur- 
ing this  reign  a  most  sanguinary  persecution  of 
the  Protestants  took  place,  many  of  whom  Bon- 
ner was  instrumental  in  bringing  to  the  stake, 
though  it  appears  he  was  hardly  severe  enough 
to  meet  the  wishes  of  the  king  and  queen.  When 
Elizabeth  succeeded  he  went  with  the  rest  of 
the  bishops  to  meet  her  at  Highgate,  but  was 
coldly  received.  He  remained,  however,  un- 
molested, until  his  refusal  to  take  the  oath  of 
supremacy ;  on  which  he  was  committed  to  the 
Marshalsea  (1560),  where  he  remained  a  pris- 
oner for  nearly  10  years,  until  his  death.  He 
was  buried  at  midnight,  to  avoid  any  disturb- 
ance on  the  part  of  the  populace,  to  whom  he 
was  extremely  obnoxious. 

Bonner,  Robert,  American  publisher:  b. 
near  Londonderry,  Ireland.  28  April  1824 ;  d. 
New  York,  6  July  1899.  Coming  to  the  United 
States  in  1839  he  learned  the  printer's  trade  on 
the  Hartford  Cotirant,  and  gained  the  reputation 
of  being  the  most  rapid  compositor  in  Con- 
necticut. In  1844  he  removed  to  New  York, 
and  seven  years  later  had  saved  enough  money 
to  buy  the  plant  of  the  "^ Merchants'  Ledger,^  a 
small  business  periodical.  Changing  its  name 
to  the  ^New  York  Ledger,^  he  turned  it  into  a 
literary  publication,  printing  the  most  popular 
kind  of  stories.  This,  combined  with  sensa- 
tional advertising  methods,  and  the  unprece- 
dented prices  paid  to  famous  contributors,  soon 
gave  the  *  Ledger'  an  enormous  circulation. 
Henry  Ward  Beecher  was  paid  $30,000  for  his 
^^Norwood'^ ;  Tennyson  received  $5,000  for  a 
short  poem,  and  Dickens  the  same  amount  for 
a  short  story.  At  times  $25,000  a  week  was 
spent  in  advertising  the  paper.  Retiring  in 
1887,  the  rest  of  his  life  was  spent  in  indulging 
his  taste  for  fast  horses.  It  was  his  ambition 
to  own  the  fastest  trotters  in  existence,  and 
whenever  he  purchased  a  record  breaker,  the 
animal  was  immediately  withdrawn  from  public 
racing.  His  expenditures  for  fast  horses  ex- 
ceeded $600,000.  Some  of  them  and  their  cost 
were :  Dexter.  $35.000 ;  Rarus,  $36,000 ;  Maud 
S.,  $40,000;  Sunof,  $41,000.  He  was  a  generous 
giver  to  many  charitable  institutions  and  causes, 
to  Princeton  University  and  the  Fifth  Avenue 
Presbyterian  Church.  He  had  a  genuine  dis- 
like for  publicity,  and  many  of  his  benefactions 
were  never  made  public  till  after  his  death. 


Bonnet,  Charles,  Swiss  naturalist  and 
metaphysician:  b.  Geneva,  13  March  1720;  d. 
Genthod,  20  May  1793.  His  essay  *0n  Aphides,* 
in  which  he  proved  that  they  propagated  with- 
out coition,  procured  him  in  his  20th  year  the 
place  of  a  corresponding  member  of  the  Acad- 
emy of  Sciences  at  Paris.  Soon  afterward  he 
partook  in  the  discoveries  of  Trembley  respect- 
ing the  polypus,  and  made  interesting  observa- 
tions on  the  respiration  of  caterpillars  and  but- 
terflies, and  on  the  structure  of  the  tapeworm. 
Bonnet  was  a  close  and  exact  observer.  He 
carried  religious  contemplations  into  the  study 
of  nature.  In  his  views  of  the  human  soul 
many  traces  of  materialism  are  to  be  found ;  for 
instance,  the  derivation  of  all  ideas  from  the 
movements  of  the  nerve  fibres.  Of  his  works 
on  natural  history  and  metaphysics  there 
are  two  collections;  one  in  9  volumes  4tc, 
the  other  in  18  volumes  8vo  (Neufchatel, 
1779)-  The  most  celebrated  are'  ^Traite  d"In- 
sectologie*  ;  *Recherches  sur  I'Usage  des 
Feuilles  dans  les  Plantes*  ;  ^Considerations  sur 
les  Corps  organises*  ;  ^Contemplation  de  la 
Nature*  ;  ^Essai  analytique  sur  les  Facultes  de 
I'Ame*  ;  ^Palingenesie  Philosophique*  ;  and 
^Essai  de  Psychologie.* 

Bonnet,  in  fortification,  an  elevation  of 
the  parapet  at  a  salient  angle,  designed  to  pre- 
vent the  enfilading  of  the  adjoining  front  of 
the  work,  where  it  is  situated.  The  bonnet 
accomplishes,  however,  only  part  of  this  object, 
and  is  subject,  at  least  in  field-works,  to  the  dis- 
advantage, that  the  men  destined  for  its  defense 
are  too  much  exposed  to  be  taken  in  flank  by 
the  fire  of  the  enemy,  on  account  of  the  neces- 
sary elevation  of  the  banquette,  a  fault  which 
cannot  occur  in  the  works  of  a  fortress  which 
are  well  laid  out.  The  term  also  denotes  a 
covering  for  the  head,  now  especially  applied 
to  one  worn  by  females.  In  England  the  bon- 
net was  superseded  by  the  hat  as  a  head-dress 
two  or  three  centuries  ago,  but  continued  to  be 
distinctive   of   Scotland  to  a   later   period. 

Bonnet-head,  a  small  shark  of  the  genus 
Reniceps,  frequenting  warm  seas  and  related 
to  the   shovel-heads    (q.v.). 

Bonnet  Monkey.     See  Macaque. 

Bonnet-piece,  a  Scotch  coin,  so  called  from 
the  king's  head  on  it  being  decorated  with  a 
bonnet  instead  of  a  crown.  It  was  struck  by 
James  V.,  and  is  dated  1539.  Bonnet-pieces  are 
very  rare  and  in  high  estimation  among  anti- 
quaries. 

Bonnet-rouge,  bo-na-roozh,  an  emblem  of 
liberty  during  the  French  Revolution,  and  worn 
as  a  head-dress  by  all  who  wished  to  show 
themselves  sufficiently  advanced  in  democratical 
principles.  It  is  said  by  some  to  have  been 
adopted  in  imitation  of  the  Phrygian  cap  of  the 
same  color  which  was  worn  by  those  who  had 
obtained  emancipation  from  slavery,  while  others 
maintain  that  it  had  a  much  more  lowly  origin, 
and  was  borrowed  either  from  the  Marsellais 
bands  that  flocked  to  Paris,  or  from  a  few 
Swiss  soldiers  who,  having  been  sentenced  to 
the  galleys  for  insubordination  to  their  officers, 
obtained  their  liberty  on  the  acceptance  of  the 
constitution  in  1790.  Having  returned  in  a  kind 
of  triumphal  procession,  wearing  the  red  cap, 
which  had  formed  part  of  their  galley  dress, 
the   fancy   of   the   people   was    struck,    and   the 


BONNEVAL  —  BONNIERES 


bonnet-rouge  was  considered  indispensable  to 
every  true  patriot.  Even  the  unfortunate  Louis 
XVI.  wore  it  when  paraded  through  the  streets, 
after  narrowly  escaping  with  his  life  from  the 
mob  which  had  burst  into  his  palace.  After  it 
had  ceased  to  be  generally  worn,  it  became  the 
•distinctive  badge  of  the  men  of  the  Mountain. 
During  the  storms  of  more  recent  periods  at- 
tempts have  repeatedly  been  made  to  bring  it 
again  into  fashion.  These  have  not  been  suc- 
cessful, but  the  revolutionary  cap  rejected  by 
France  has  met  with  a  more  favorable  reception 
abroad,  particularly  among  the  newly  formed 
republics  of  America,  where  it  is  often  stamped 
upon  coins,  or  used  as  an  emblem  upon  seals. 
Under  the  restoration  of  the  Bourbons  the  sou- 
briquet of  bonnets-rouges  was  applied  to  indi- 
viduals who  either  had  figured  in  the  revolution 
or  were  supposed  to  hold  revolutionary  prin- 
ciples. 

Bonneval,      bon-val,      Claude      Alexander 

(Count  de  or  Achmet  Pasha),  French  ad- 
venturer :  b.  Coussac,  1675 ;  d.  Constantinople, 
1747.  In  the  war  of  the  Spanish  Succession 
lie  obtained  a  regiment  and  distinguished  him- 
self by  his  valor  as  well  as  by  his  excesses.  He 
was,  in  1706.  appointed  major-general  by  Prince 
Eugene,  and  fought  against  his  native  country. 
At  the  Peace  of  Rastadt  in  1714,  by  the  inter- 
ference of  Prince  Eugene,  the  process  against 
him  for  high  treason  was  withdrawn,  and  he 
was  allowed  to  return  to  his  estates.  In  1716 
he  was  lieutenant  field-marshal  of  the  Austrian 
infantry,  and  distinguished  himself  by  his  valor 
against  the  Turks  at  Peterwardein  (1716).  In 
1 718  Bonneval  was  made  a  member  of  the 
imperial  council  of  war,  but  his  licentiousness 
and  indiscretion  induced  Prince  Eugene  to  get 
rid  of  him  by  appointing  hmi  in  1723  master- 
general  of  the  ordnance  in  the  Netherlands. 
To  revenge  himself  on  Eugene,  he  sent  com- 
plaints to  Vienna  against  the  governor,  the 
Marquis  de  Prie ;  but  the  latter  received  an 
order  to  arrest  Bonneval,  and  to  imprison  him 
in  the  citadel  of  Antwerp.  Bonneval  being 
afterward  ordered  to  appear  at  Vienna  and  give 
an  explanation  of  his  conduct,  spent  a  month  at 
The  Hague  before  he  chose  to  comply  with  the 
summons.  He  was  therefore  confined  in  the 
castle  of  Spielberg,  near  Briinn,  and  condemned 
to  death  by  the  imperial  council  of  war ;  but  the 
sentence  was  changed  by  the  emperor  into  one 
year's  imprisonment  and  exile.  Bonneval  now 
went  to  Constantinople,  where  the  fame  of  his 
deeds  and  his  humanity  toward  the  Turkish 
prisoners  of  war  procured  him  a  kind  re- 
ception. He  consented  to  change  his  religion, 
received  instructions  in  Mohammedanism  from 
the  mufti,  and  received  the  name  of  Achmet, 
with  a  large  salary.  He  was  made  a  pasha  of 
three  tails,  commanded  a  large  army,  defeated 
the  Austrians  on  the  Danube,  and  quelled  an 
insurrection  in  Arabia  Petrsea.  His  exertions, 
as  commander  of  the  bombardiers,  to  improve 
the  Turkish  artillery,  were  opposed  by  the  jeal- 
ousy of  powerful  pashas,  the  irresolution  of 
Mohammed  V.,  and  the  dislike  of  the  Turkish 
troops  to  all  European  institutions.  He  enjoyed, 
howev.er,  the  pleasures  of  his  situation.  The 
memoirs  of  his  life  under  his  name  are  not 
genuine. 

Bonneville,  bon-vTl,  Benjamin  L.  E.,  Amer- 
ican soldier  and  explorer:  b.  France  about  1795; 


d.  Fort  Smith,  Ark.,  12  June  1878.  He  gradu- 
ated from  West  Point  1815,  became  a  captain 
of  infantry  1825 ;  and  in  1831-6  engaged  in  an 
exploring  expedition  to  the  far  West,  across  and 
beyond  the  Rocky  Mountains.  His  journal  and 
other  manuscripts  were  edited  and  enlarged  by 
Washington  Irving,  who  published  them  under 
the  title  of  'Adventures  of  Captain  Bonneville, 
U.  S.  A.^  (1837).  He  fought  with  gallantry 
in  the  Mexican  war,  taking  part  in  the  siege 
of  Vera  Cruz,  the  battle  of  Cerro  Gordo,  the 
capture  of  San  Antonio,  battle  of  Churubusco, 
where  he  was  wounded,  the  battle  of  Molino  del 
Rev,  the  storming  of  Chapultepec,  and  the  en- 
suing assault  and  capture  of  the  city  of  Mexico. 
In  1857  he  commanded  the  Gila  expedition,  and 
in  1861  was  retired  from  active  service,  "for  dis- 
ability resulting  from  long  and  faithful  service, 
and  from  sickness  and  exposure  in  the  line  of 
duty.*  In  1865  he  was  brevetted  brigadier- 
general  in  the  regular  army  '*for  long  and  faith- 
ful services.*  See  Cullum,  <^ Officers  and  Grad- 
uates of  the  U.  S.  Military  Academy,'  Vol.  I. 
(1868). 

Bonneville,  Lake,  a  lake  of  the  Pleistocene 
epoch  that  twice  filled  a  now  desert  basin  of 
Utah.  At  its  greatest  dimensions  it  had  an 
area  of  20,000  square  miles,  and  was  1,000  feet 
deep. 

Bonney,  Charles  Carroll,  American  lawyer: 
b.  Hamilton,  N.  Y.,  4  Sept.  1831 ;  d.  Chicago, 
111.,  1903.  In  1850  he  removed  to  Peoria,  111., 
took  an  active  part  in  establishing  the  present 
educational  system  of  that  State;  was  admitted 
to  the  bar  1852,  settled  in  Chicago  in  i860,  and 
acquired  a  large  and  successful  practice.  He 
was  one  of  the  originators  of  the  law  and  order 
movement  and  was  president  of  the  National 
Law  and  Order  League  1885-93.  .In  i893  he 
was  the  organizer  and  general  president  of  the 
World's  Congresses  held  at  the  Columbian  Ex- 
position ;  there  were  over  two  hundred  of  them, 
and  they  proved  a  marked  feature  of  the  World's 
Fair.  Besides  numerous  pamphlets,  addresses 
and  essays  on  public  questions  he  has  written 
^Rules  of  Law  for  the  Carriage  and  Delivery  of 
Persons  and  Property  by  Railway'  (1864)  ; 
'Summary  of  the  Law  of  Marine,  Fire,  and  Life 
Insurance'  (1865)  ;  'Our  Remedy  in  the  Laws' 
(1887)  ;  and  edited  A.  W.  Arrington's  'Poems' 
(1869). 

Bonney,  Thomas  George,  English  geolo- 
gist :  b.  Rugeley,  27  July  1833.  He  was  president 
of  the  Geological  Society  of  London  1884-6, 
and  in  1899  became  vice-president  of  the  Royal 
Society.  He  has  written  'Outline  Sketches  in 
the  High  Alps  of  Dauphine'  (1865)  ;  'The  Al- 
pine Regions'  (1868)  ;  'The  Story  of  Our 
Planet'  (1893)  ;  'Charles  Lyell  and  Modern 
Geology'  (1895);  'Ice  Work'  (1896);  'Vol- 
canoes'  (1898),  and  four  volumes  of  Sermons. 

Bonnie  Blue  Flag,  a  popular  Confederate 
ballad  first  sung  in  public  at  the  Varieties  Thea- 
tre in  New  Orleans  in  1861. 

Bonnieres,  Robert  de,  ro-bar  de  bon-ni-ar, 

French  journalist  and  novelist:  b.  Paris,  7  April 
1850.  He  began  his  literary  career  as  contribu- 
tor to  Paris  journals  of  spirited  but  waspish  bi- 
ographies of  contemporary  men ;  these  were 
collected  and  published  in  three  successive  vol- 
umes of  'Memoirs  of  To-Day.'  His  novels  are 
full  of  transparent  allusions  to   noted  persons, 


BONNIVARD  —  BONSTETTEN 


and  have  had  a  very  great  vogue.  In  one  of 
them,  *The  Monarch, >  he  portrays  high  Jewish 
society  in  Paris. 

Bonnivard,  Frangois  de,  frah-swa  de  bo- 
ne-var,  Swiss  patriot,  a  younger  son  of  a  ' 
family  which  held  large  possessions  under  the 
House  of  Savoy:  b.  Syssel  about  1496;  d.  Ge- 
neva, 1570.  In  1513  he  became  prior  of  St. 
Victor  at  Geneva,  but  falling  under  the  suspi- 
cion of  the  Duke  of  Savoy,  was  taken  prisoner 
by  him  in  1519.  After  20  months'  imprisonment 
he  was  set  free,  but^in  1530  he  was  agam  seized 
and  taken  to  the  castle  of  Chillon  at  the  east 
end  of  the  Lake  of  Geneva,  where  he  was  im- 
prisoned for  six  years,  the  last  four  in  that 
subterranean  vault  which  Byron  has  made 
famous  by  his  poem  on  the  sufferings  of  *The 
Prisoner  of  Chillon.^  He  left  the  town  his 
books,  which  were  the  nucleus  of  the  Geneva 
library.  His  chief  works  are  his  *Chroniques 
de  Geneve'  (1551;  new  ed.  2  vols.  1831),  and 
*De  I'Ancienne  et  Nouvelle  Police  de  Geneve' 
(1555)-  See  Gribble.  'Lake  Geneva  and  Its  Lit- 
erary Landmarks'    (igoi). 

Bonny,  a  river  of  west  Africa,  one  of  the 
mouths  of  the  Niger.  The  town  of  the  same 
name  is  situated  on  the  eastern  bank  of  the  river 
near  its  mouth.  It  has  a  good  harbor  and  does 
a  considerable  trade  in  palm-oil,  but  the  climate 
is  unsuitable  for  Europeans.     Pop.  about  8,000. 

Bonnycastle,  Charles,  English  mathema- 
tician: b.  Woolwich,  1792;  d.  Charlottesville, 
Va.,  October  1840.  He  was  professor  of  math- 
ematics at  Woolwich  Military  Academy,  pro- 
fessor of  natural  philosophy  in  the  University 
of  Virginia  (1825-7),  and  of  mathematics  there 
from  1827.  His  publications  included  'Ele- 
ments of  Geometry'  ;  'Elements  of  Algebra'  ; 
'Mensuration,'    etc. 

Bonnycastle,  Sir  Richard  Henry,  English 
military  engineer :  b.  1791  ;  d.  1848.  He  was  a 
brother  of  Charles  Bonnjxastle  (q.v. )  and  spent 
the  greater  part  of  his  life  in  British  North 
America.  He  was  author  of  'Spanish  America' 
(1818)  :  'The  Canadas  in  1842'  (1842)  ;  'Canada 
and  the  Canadians  in  1846'  (1846)  ;  and  'Canada 
as  It  Was.  Is,  and  May  Be'    (1846). 

Bonomi,  Giuseppe,  joo-sep'pe  bo-no'me, 
Italian  artist:  b.  Rome,  9  Oct.  1796;  d.  3  March 
1878.  He  was  a  .son  of  Giuseppe  Bonomi,  the 
architect.  He  studied  art  in  London,  and  be- 
came famous  as  a  draftsman,  especially  of  Egyp- 
tian remains.  He  repeatedly  visited  Egypt  and 
the  Holy  Land,  and  illustrated  important  works 
by  Wilkinson,  Birch,  Sharpe,  Lepsius,  and  other 
Eg3'ptologists.  He  also  published  a  work  of  his 
own  on  Nineveh,  and  at  his  death  was  curator 
of  Soane's  Museum. 

Bononcini,   or  Buononcini,   Giovanni  Bat- 

tista,  jo-van'ne  bo-non-che'ne,  Italian  com- 
poser: b.  Modena  about  1660;  d.  about  1750. 
His  proficiency  on  the  violoncello  gained  him 
admittance  into  the  band  of  the  Emperor  Leo- 
pold at  Vienna,  where,  at  the  age  of  18,  in 
emulation  of  Scarlatti,  he  wrote  an  opera  called 
'Camilla,'  which  was  favorably  received.  In 
England  for  several  years  scarcely  any  opera 
was  tolerated  which  did  not  contain  some  of 
Bononcini's  airs,  and  upon  the  almost  simul- 
taneous arrival  of  himself  and  Handel  in  Lon- 
don, notwithstanding  the  superiority  of  the  lat- 
ter, two  parties,  the  one  for  Bononcini  and  the 


other  for  Handel,  were  formed,  betv/een  whom 
an  exciting  contest  was  waged  for  several  years. 
Gradually,  however,  Bononcini's  popularity 
waned,  and  having  been  detected  in  an  act  of 
musical  plagiarism,  he  left  England  in  1733, 
found  his  way  to  Paris  and  Vienna,  and  fmally 
went  to  Venice,  where  all  traces  of  him  are 
lost. 

Bononcini,  Giovanni  Maria,  Italian  musi- 
cian: b.  Modena,  1640;  d.  19  Nov.  1678.  He 
was  educated  at  Bologna,  was  in  the  service  of 
the  Duke  of  Modena,  Francis  II.,  and  also 
maestro  di  capella  of  San  Giovanni  in  Monti. 
He  was  considered  an  authority  on  the  theory  of 
music  on  account  of  his  work  'Musico  prat- 
tico'  ;  he  also  wrote  numerous  musical  compo- 
sitions, both  vocal  and  instrumental. 

Bonone,  bo-no'na.  Carlo,  Italian  painter: 
b.  Ferrara,  1569;  d.  1632.  He  studied  the  works 
of  the  Caracci  and  Veronese,  and  shows  the  influ- 
ence of  both  styles  in  his  own  work.  He  taught 
painting  in  Ferrara,  having  many  prominent 
painters  of  the  town  under  his  instruction. 
Among  his  paintings  are  'The  Arisen  Christ' 
and   'Patriarchs  and  Prophets.' 

Bonpland,  Aime,  a-ma  boh-plaii,  Jacques 
Alexandre,  French  naturalist,  noted  as  the 
friend  of  Humboldt,  and  the  companion  of  his 
wanderings:  b.  Rochelle,  22  Aug.  1773;  d.  Cor- 
rientes,  Argentina,  May  1858.  He  studied  medi- 
cine, and  served  for  a  while  in  the  French  navy 
as  surgeon.  Having  returned  to  Paris  to  con- 
tinue his  studies,  he  there  made  the  acquaintance 
of  Humboldt,  then  a  young  man  actively  en- 
gaged in  the  pursuit  of  scientific  knowledge  at 
the  French  capital.  On  the  latter  projecting 
his  journey  to  the  New  World,  Bonpland  read- 
ily agreed  to  accompany  him,  and  shared  in  all 
the  adventures  and  toils  of  that  celebrated  ex- 
pedition. In  the  course  of  it  he  collected  up- 
ward of  6,000  plants,  previously  unknown,  and 
on  his  return  to  France  in  1804  presented  his 
herbarium  to  the  Museum  of  Natural  History, 
and  had  a  pension  granted  him  by  the  Emperor 
Napoleon.  A  great  friendship  subsisted  between 
him  and  the  Empress  Josephine,  who  frequently 
endeavored  to  cultivate  in  her  garden  at  j\j"^al- 
maison  the  flowers  whose  seeds  he  had  brought 
from  the  tropics.  On  the  Restoration  he  pro- 
ceeded to  South  America,  and  became  professor 
of  natural  history  at  Buenos  Ayres.  He  sub- 
sequently made  an  extensive  journey  across  the 
Pampas  to  the  foot  of  the  Andes,  and  ascended 
the  river  Parana  into  Paraguay,  but  was  ar- 
rested by  Dr.  Francia.  the  governor  of  Para- 
guay, as  a  spy,  and  detained  a  prisoner  for  eight 
years,  till  1829.  He  afterward  settled  at  San 
Borja,  near  Monte  Video,  and  after  1850  lived 
at  Corrientes. 

Bonsai,  Stephen,  American  journalist:  b. 
Virginia,  1863.  He  was  educated  at  Concord 
and  Heidelberg.  In  the  Bulgarian-Servian  war 
he  was  special  correspondent  of  the  New  York 
Herald,  serving  in  the  same  capacity  in  Mace- 
donia and  Cuba.  He  has  been  secretary  of 
Legation  of  the  United  States  in  Pekin.  Madrid, 
Tokio.  and  Corea.  He  has  written  'The  Real 
Condition  of  Cuba'  ;  'The  Fight  for  Santiago'  ; 
'Morocco  as  It  Is'  ;  ^Across  the  Pacific' 

Bonstetten,  bon-stet'en,  Karl  Victor  von, 
Swiss  publicist:  b.  Bern,  3  Sept.  1745;  d.  Ge- 
neva, 3  Feb.  1832.     He  studied  at  Leyden,  Cam- 


BONTEBOK  —  BOOK 


bridge,  and  Paris;  entered  the  council  of  Bern, 
and  became  district  governor,  and,  in  1795,  a 
judge  in  Lugano.  He  lived  in  Italy  and  at 
Copenhagen  from  1796  to  1801,  and  after  his 
return  settled  at  Geneva.  Among  his  larger 
works  are  *Recherches  sur  la  Nature  et  les  Lois 
de  rimagination-*  (Geneva  1807)  ;  "^Pensees  Di- 
verses'  (1815);  ^Etudes  de  L'Homme*  (1821), 
and  *L'Homme  du  Midi  et  L'Homme  du  Nord^ 
(1824),  an  examination  of  the  influence  of  cli- 
mate. Several  volumes  of  his  correspondence 
have  been  published. 

Bontebok,  bon'te-bok,  a  small  South 
American  antelope  (Bubalis  pygargtts)  closely 
allied  to  the  blessbok  (q.v.),  but  a  slightly  larger 
size,  and  having  the  continued  white  blaze  on 
the  face  to  the  root  of  the  lyrate  horns.  See 
Hartbeest. 

Bonus  Bill,  an  act  reported  to  the  United 
States  House  of  Representatives  by  John  C. 
Calhoun,  23  Dec.  1816,  appropriating  ^*as  a  fund 
for  constructing  roads  and  canals"  the  $1,500,000 
paid  by  the  United  States  bank  as  a  bonus  for 
its  charter  privileges,  and  all  future  dividends 
from  its  stock.  The  real  object  was  to  build  the 
Erie  Canal,  which  New  York  did  not  feel  able 
to  do  alone.  Its  managers, —  De  Witt  Clinton, 
Gouverneur  Morris,  etc., —  relying  i>n  the  ad- 
ministration holding  the  same  ideas  which  Jef- 
ferson and  Gallatin  had  formerl}'  voiced,  formed 
a  "log-roll"  in  Congress  with  various  local  in- 
terests, and  carried  the  bill  by  86  to  84  in  the 
House,  and  20  to  15  in  the  Senate,  the  opposi- 
tion being  scatteringly  local  rather  than  sec- 
tional, or  constitutional ;  but  Madison  vetoed 
it  on  strict-construction  grounds.  The  apparent 
injury  was  to  New  York:  the  real  injury  was 
to  the  South.  New  York  went  on  and  built 
the  canal  herself,  giving  her  an  irresistible  ad- 
vantage over  her  rivals,  while  the  South  was 
not  rich  enough  to  build  the  canals  from  the 
Chesapeake  to  the  Ohio,  enriching  Maryland 
and  Virginia,  nor  from  the  Santee  to  the  Ten- 
nessee, enriching  the  Carolinas  and  Tennessee, 
and  if  the  general  government  had  helped  the 
Erie  it  must  have  helped  the  others  also. 

Bonvalot,  Pierre  Gabriel,  pe-ar  ga-bre-el 
bon-va-lo,  French  explorer:  b.  Espagne, 
Aube,  1853.  He  traveled  in  central  Asia, 
1880-2;  Persia,  Turkestan,  and  the  Pamirs, 
1885-7 ;  and  in  Siberia  and  Tonkin,  1889-90. 
He  has  written  <En  Asie  Centrale*  ;  ^Du  Moscou 
en  Bactriane'  (1884)  ;  'Du  Kohistane  a  la  mer 
Caspienne'  (1855)  ;  'Du  Caucase  aux  Indes  a 
travers  le  Pamir*    (1888). 

Bonvin,  Frangois  Saint,  fran-swa  san  boii- 
vaii,  French  genre  painter:  b.  Vaugirard,  22 
Sept.  1817;  d.  Saint  Germain-en-Laye,  18  Dec. 
1887.  He  was  self-taught,  exhibited  often  at  the 
Paris  Salon  and  received  the  medal  of  the 
Legion  of  Honor  in  1870.  For  a  long  period  his 
work  was  not  popular,  but  his  paintings  are 
now  much  prized  by  collectors  on  account  of 
their  rich  coloring  and  sober  tone.  Among 
them  are  'Charity'  (1852)  ;  'Regimental  SchooP 
(1853)  ;   'Corner  in  a  Church'    (1880). 

Bony-fish.     See  Menhaden  ;  Ten-pounder. 

Bony,  or  Gar  Pike.     See  Gar. 

Bonzes,  bon'zes,  a  name  given  bj'-  Euro- 
peans to  the  priests  of  the  religion  of  Fo,  or 
Buddha,  in  ea.stern  Asia,  particularly  in  China, 
Burma,     Tonquin,     Cochin-China,     and    Japan. 


As  these  priests  live  together  in  monasteries, 
unmarried,  they  have  some  resemblance  to  the 
monks  of  the  Christian  Church.  They  do  pen- 
ance, and  pray  for  the  sins  of  the  laity,  who 
secure  them  from  want  by  endowments  and  alms. 
The  female  bonzes  may  be  compared  to  the 
Christian  nuns,  as  the  religion  of  Fo  suffers  no 
priestesses,  but  admits  the  social  union  of  pious 
virgins  and  widows,  under  monastic  vows,  for 
the  performance  of  religious  exercises.  The 
bonzes  are  commonly  acquainted  only  with  the 
external  forms  of  worship  and  the  idols,  without 
understanding  the  meaning  of  their  religious 
symbols. 

Booby,  a  name  given  long  ago  by  British 
sailors  to  several  of  the  smaller  tropical  species 
of  gannet  (q.v.),  because  of  their  "stupidity," 
which  consisted  simply  in  their  fearlessness  when 
visited  upon  their  island  breeding  places.  Hav- 
ing had  no  acquaintance  with  mankind  they  had 
no  reason  to  fear  him.  Most  of  the  species  are 
widespread,  and,  in  their  haunts  abundant.  One 
species  {Sula  variegata)  is,  however,  confined  to 
the  coasts  of  Peru,  where  it  contributes  largely 
to  the  valuable  guano  deposits  on  the  islands 
there. 

Book.  Used  without  qualification,  the 
term  currently  implies  a  printed  literary  com- 
position in  many  sheets ;  but  in  law  and  cus- 
tom it  has  received  three  extensions,  one  of  form 
and  two  of  matter.  The  form  includes  any- 
thing bound  like  a  book  —  volumes  of  accounts, 
or  of  blank  leaves  for  keeping  them  or  for 
indexing,  etc.,  and  even  "books"  of  gold-leaf,  25 
thin  strips  in  a  cover.  The  matter  includes  —  by 
English  statute  law,  "every  volume,  part  or 
division  of  a  volume,  pamphlet,  sheet  of  letter- 
press, sheet  of  music,  map,  chart,  or  plan  sepa- 
rately published"  ;  in  literary  usage,  the  written 
compositions  of  ancient  times  on  whatever 
material,  if  of  some  volume. 

Historically,  it  is  curious  that  primitive  at- 
tention has  invariably  seized  first  on,  and  named 
the  writing  after,  neither  form  nor  matter,  nor 
even  the  method  of  writing,  but  the  material 
on  which  the  writing  was  executed :  every  name 
in  common  use,  present  or  past,  refers  to  this. 
"Book,"  A.-S.  hoc,  is  from  an  old  Teutonic 
boks,  that  is,  "the  beeches,"  tablets  of  beech- 
bark  on  which  runes  were  cut  or  painted ; 
Latin  liber,  whence  French  Uvre  and  our  "li- 
brary," was  the  same  thing,  the  inner  bark  of 
a  tree,  and  the  name  was  later  given  to  the 
papyrus  tissue  from  its  bark-like  appearance ; 
codex  or  caudex,  our  "code,"  and  still  used  in 
its  Latin  form  for  old  texts,  meant  the  trunk 
of  a  tree,  then  wooden  tablets,  then  square  vol- 
umes like  wooden  blocks  instead  of  those  in 
scrolls ;  the  Greek  hyblos,  our  "Bible,"  was  an- 
other name  for  the  papyrus ;  and  modern  usage 
clings  to  the  same  connection  of  ideas  —  we 
speak  of  reading  "a  paper"  before  an  audience. 
On  the  other  hand,  the  words  "write,"  "in- 
scribe,* and  "scripture,''  and  the  various 
"-graphs."  all  from  words  meaning  to  cut,  com- 
memorate a  time  when  all  writing  was  by  scor- 
ing lines  on  some  hard  stibstance.  Of  course 
special  terms  refer  to  various  aspects  of  the 
book:  "volume"  (Latin  volumen,  from  volvo,  to 
roll)  was  the  wooden  roller  around  which  a 
convenient  section  of  a  long_  composition  was 
twisted;  "tome"  means  a  cutting  —  of  the  book 
into  parts,  exactly  the  same  as  "section." 


BOOK 


It  is  difficult  to  say  at  just  wlj^t  point  the 
ancient  writings  may  properly  be  called 
"books.*  It  is  evident  that  mere  scorings  or 
paintings  of  short  compositions  on  a  single  sur- 
face—  runes,  hymns,  poems,  epistles,  proclama- 
tions, business  documents,  or  what  not  —  can- 
not be  called  books,  even  if  the  surface  is  large; 
though  Lord  Macaulay  facetiously  speaks  of  a 
rising  young  Assyrian  architect  who  "published 
a  bridge  and  four  walls  in  honor  of  the  reigning 
emperor."  On  the  other  hand,  long  composi- 
tions carried  over  many  tablets,  grouped  in 
numbered  or  lettered  pages  and  divided  into 
"volumes'*  or  shelves,  and  even  sometimes  with 
the  owner's  book-plate  (q.v.)  attached,  cannot 
be  denied  the  name ;  nor  can  extensive  composi- 
tions on  papyrus  like  the  ^Book  of  the  Dead,* 
dating  back  well  toward  2  000  b.c.  if  not  earlier, 
nor  the  famous  ^Papyrus  Prisse,-*  the  oldest 
volume  known  to  exist.  The  Babylonian  and 
Assyrian  books  were  drawn  on  clay  tablets  or 
polygonal  cylinders  (afterward  hardened)  with 
an  iron  stylus,  producing  the  wedge-shaped 
or  ^'cuneiform*'  characters,  some  of  them  so 
small  and  skilfully  executed  that  they  suggest 
the  use  of  a  magnifying  glass  —  quite  likely  a 
ball  of  crystal.  These  about  the  7th  century 
B.C.  had  begun  to  be  gathered  into  royal  or 
temple  libraries,  to  the  inestimable  service  of 
modern  historical  research:  the  vast  majority 
of  our  knowledge  of  old  Babylonia  and  Assyria 
comes  from  two  great  libraries,  that  of  Ashur- 
banipal  (Sardanapalus :  668-626  B.C.)  at  Nine- 
veh, and  that  of  the  Temple  of  Bel  at  Nippur. 
Yet,  oddly,  while  our  civilization  as  a  whole 
is  a  direct  heir  of  the  Babylonian,  and  its  details 
owe  to  that,  through  the  Greek  and  Latin,  a 
score  of  items  to  one  of  the  Egyptian,  our  books 
have  no  connection  with  the  Babylonian  and  are 
the  immediate  progeny  of  the  Egyptian ;  an 
unbroken  sequence  can  be  maintained  from  the 
volume  in  the  reader's  hand  to  the  *  Papyrus 
Prisse,*  perhaps  more  than  2,000  years  before 
Christ,  and  containing  the  still  older  composi- 
tion, regarded  as  the  oldest  extant  book  in 
the  world,  the  ^IMaxims  of  Ptah-Hotep,*  dating 
probably  from  2500  b.c. 

Owing  to  the  cheap  and  easy  preparation  of 
the  papyrus  tissue,  by  pulping  the  pith  and 
spreading  it  out  to  dry,  essentially  like  our 
paper,  and  its  wonderful  adaptability  to  literary 
use  beyond  anything  discovered  for  many  ages, — 
its  thinness  and  lightness,  yet  hard,  smooth, 
glossy  surface  showing  off  inks  and  pigments 
so  beautifully  —  its  use  spread  to  Greece  before 
the  time  of  Herodotus  at  least,  and  to  Rome, 
and  maintained  its  position  as  a  book  material 
down  to  the  lOth  century  a.d.  Ali  ibn  el  Azhad 
in  920  describes  the  different  kinds  of  pens 
required  for  writing  on  paper,  parchment,  and 
papyrus  (see  Karabacek's  ^Das  Arabische  Pa- 
pier,* 1887).  Unhappily,  however,  it  had  one 
insuperable  defect  for  laws,  records,  or  what- 
ever else  needed  perpetuity :  it  was  very  sensitive 
to  dampness,  and  dissolved  and  crumbled  away 
in  a  few  generations.  Hence  it  is  not  merely 
probable  but  certain  that  the  great  mass  of 
classical  literature  is  lost  forever,  disintegrated 
and  gone  with  its  material  record.  The  only 
place  where  any  considerable  finds  are  still  pos- 
sible is  Egypt,  whose  dry  climate  can  preserve 
such  things  for  countless  ages,  and  whose  libra- 
ries had  vast  quantities  of  the  best  Greek  and 
Roman    works  •.     =ome    remarkable    discoveries 


have  already  been  made  there,  and  more  may 
be  hoped  for.  But  for  this  reason,  papyrus  was 
largely  supplanted  for  public  uses,  and  with  the 
wealthier  collectors  or  authors,  or  for  very  pop- 
ular books,  by  parchment,  fine  dressed  skin,  the 
material  used  by  the  Jews,  Persians,  and  other 
Oriental  nations.  When  the  book  had  outlived 
its  popularity  or  a  more  exigent  use  was  found 
for  the  parchment,  which  was  costly,  the  former 
writing  was  rubbed  off  or  in,  and  a  new  book 
copied  on,  and  this  process  was  repeated  some- 
times six  or  seven  times.  Thanks  to  the  fact 
that  the  erasure  always  left  the  outline  of  the  old 
characters  possible  to  revive  by  certain  chemi- 
cals, and  that  for  clearness  the  new  book  was 
written  crosswise  to  the  old,  so  that  the  imper- 
fectly erased  words  should  not  show  up  through 
and  cause  confusion,  these  palimpsests  have 
yielded  us  many  treasures  supposed  to  have  been 
extinguished. 

As  the  very  name  "book**  shows,  however, 
paper-pulp  and  skin  and  clay  were  not  the  only 
materials  used  for  books  by  the  ancients ;  in 
fact,  it  would  be  hard  to  cite  any  common 
smooth-surfaced  article  not  so  used.  Animal, 
vegetable,  and  mineral  substances  have  all. been 
drawn  on  ;  metals,  wood,  wax,  ivory,  leaves,  bark, 
etc.  Wooden  books  were  common  among  both 
Greeks  and  Romans ;  part  of  one  containing 
Solon's  laws  was  preserved  at  Athens  till  the  ist 
century.  For  the  more  important  purposes, 
laws  and  edicts,  they  employed  (before  the  gen- 
eral accession  of  parchment)  ivory,  bronze, 
etc. ;  Hannibal  engraved  an  account  of  his  cam- 
paigns on  bronze  plates,  which  if  they  could  be 
supposed  existent,  would  be  worth  excavating 
all  South  Italy  for,  especially  as  the  writing 
must  have  been  in  Carthaginian.  The  antiquary 
Montfaucon  in  1699  bought  at  Rome  a  book 
of  six  thin  leaden  leaves,  about  4x3  inches,  with 
covers  and  hinges  of  lead ;  it  contained  Egj^ptian 
hieroglyphics,  etc.  For  the  common  needs  of 
business  and  social  life,  however, —  contracts  and 
wills,  letters  either  of  love  or  friendship,  memo- 
randa, etc., —  the  Romans  used  diptyclia  and 
tabula  or  pttgillaria  —  sheets  covered  with  wax, 
to  be  written  on  with  a  stylus,  and  protected 
from  contact  by  a  raised  margin,  or  opposite 
projections  in  the  centres.  Two  of  these,  of 
date  169  A.D.,  were  discovered  early  in  the  19th 
century  in  Transylvania,  and  one  of  1301  is 
preserved  in  the  Florentine  Museum.  In  the 
University  of  Gottingen  is  a  Bible  of  palm- 
leaves,  containing  5,376  leaves.  Among  the  Kal- 
muck Tartars  was  found  a  collection  of  books 
made  of  long  narrow  leaves  of  varnished  bark, 
the  ink  black  on  a  white  ground. 

The  shape  of  wooden  and  metal  books, 
waxen  and  ivory  tablets,  and  those  of  other 
hard  substances,  was  square ;  but  the  thin  flexi- 
ble papyrus  was  too  liable  to  dog's-ear  and  tear 
from  handling  in  such  form,  and  a  method 
was  adopted  which  has  left  deep  traces  on  our 
book  terminology  —  of  rolling  the  sheets  on 
wooden  cylinders,  very  much  in  the  fashion  of 
a  modern  mounted  map.  They  were  written  on 
one  side  only,  fastened  together  at  the  edges, 
and  glued  or  otherwise  attached  to  the  roller, 
which  was  called  in  Egyptian  a  tama,  in  Greek  a 
kulitidros  (cylinder),  in  Latin  a  volumen 
(roller),  our  "volume.**  We  still  speak  of  a 
piece  of  writing  poetically  as  a  "scroll.**  Some  of 
these  were  of  huge  size :  specimens  of  Egyptian 
book-rolls  still  exist  extending  to  20  and  even  4c 


BOOK 


yards  (see  Birt's  ^Das  Antike  Buchwesen,^  p. 
439)  ;  but  the  great  inconvenience  of  consulting 
such  enormous  sheets,  and  the  injury  to  them- 
selves in  the  process,  caused  the  breaking  up 
of  lengthy  literary  productions  into  sections, 
each  on  a  separate  roll.  Certain  handy  sizes  be- 
came normal,  like  the  ordinary  novel  or  essay 
volume  of  to-day ;  and  this  conventional  length 
of  roll  exercised  great  influence  on  the  length 
of  what  are  still  called  the  "books'-' — that  is, 
chapters  —  of  the  classical  authors,  one  of  these 
"being  about  enough  to  make  a  roll  or  volume  of. 
At  each  end  of  the  roller  was  the  umbilicus 
(navel)  or  cornus  (knob),  a  boss  to  turn  it 
b3%  and  the  volume  was  read  by  unrolling  the 
scroll  to  expose  successively  the  sheets  or 
pagince  (things  "fastened'^  together).  The  title 
was  generally  written  in  red,  on  fine  vellum, 
and  pasted  on  the  outside,  which  was  dyed 
with  cedrus  or  saffron.  Much  labor  and  ex- 
pense was  often  involved  in  the  ornamentation 
of  tooks,  and  pleasant  conceits  were  sometimes 
•conveyed  by  their  color.  The  practice  of  per- 
fuming the  pages  to  which  Martial  alludes, 
*'When  the  page  smells  of  cedar  and  mantles 
-with  royal  purple,*  was  not  abandoned  till  very 
modern  times.  Lord  Burghley,  instructing  the 
vice-chancellor  of  Cambridge  concerning  the 
proper  presentation  of  some  volutnes  to  Queen 
Elizabeth,  cautions  him  to  "regard  that  the  book 
had  no  savor  of  spike"  (spikenard),  "which 
commonly  bookbinders  did  seek  to  add  to  make 
their  books  savor  well."  It  seems  an  odd  lure 
to  book-buyers ;  but  in  this  age  we  can  hardly 
realize  the  important  part  played  by  perfumes 
in  ages  when  pretty  much  everything  and  every- 
body smelt  ill,  when  filth  and  the  lack  of  wash- 
ing or  changing  of  clothes  assailed  all  noses 
with  evil  stenches,  and  an  agreeable  scent  was 
one  of  the  greatest  and  rarest  luxuries  of  life. 
In  Egypt  the  rolls  were  kept  in  jars  holding  nine 
•or  ten  each ;  in  Rome  they  were  kept  in  wooden 
boxes  or  canisters,  often  of  costly  workman- 
ship, or  in  parchment  cases.  The  change  from 
scrolls  to  codices,  or  square  books,  seems  to  have 
taken  place  generally  in  the  ancient  world  after 
the  adoption  of  parchment  or  vellum ;  they  ap- 
pear to  have  been  coming  into  general  use  in 
Martial's  time  (last  half  of  the  ist  century  a.d.), 
as  he  alludes  to  their  advantages.  The  name 
codex  is  still,  used  for  the  more  important 
•ancient  MSS.,  as  the  "Codex  Alexandrinus.'* 
Not  all  the  parchments  were  folded  or  arranged 
in  small  square  sheets  as  now,  however :  M. 
Santander  owned  a  beautiful  Hebrew  Pentateuch 
written  on  57  skins  of  Oriental  leather,  sewed 
together  with  threads  or  strips  of  the  same 
■material;  it  formed  a  roll  of  113  French  feet 
(120.45  English)  long.  And  practically  the 
same  arrangement  of  successive  surfaces  had 
been  enforced  in  the  use  of  the  clay  or  wooden 
tablets,  from  the  nature  of  the  articles.  The 
form  remained  substantially  unaltered  through- 
out the  Middle  Ages,  and  being  even  more  suit- 
able for  paper  than  for  vellum,  was  ready  on 
the  invention  of  printing  to  facilitate  its  full 
development;  though  important  differences  in 
bulk,  arising  as  well  from  the  condition  of  the 
art  and  its  materials  as  the  fashion  of  the  times, 
distinguish  books  of  the  earlier  periods  of  print- 
ing from  those  of  to-day. 

Production  and  Prices  (see  also  Ameri- 
can Publishing). —  It  is  assumed  that  until 
the     invention     of     printing,     books     were     of 


excessive  rarity  and  costliness.  This  is  mostly 
true  of  the  Middle  Ages,  when  the  only  trained 
chirographers  were  in  the  monasteries  —  work- 
ing at  free  will  and  leisure  and  caring  solely  for 
quality,  and  with  the  express  object  of  making 
the  books  costly.  It  was  not  so,  however,  in 
classic  times,  owing  to  that  society  being  based 
on  skilled  slave  labor.  From  this  cause,  the 
greatest  extremes  of  price  prevailed  side  by 
side,  extreme  cheapness  and  almost  incredible 
dearness.  When  but  few  copies  of  a  book  were 
made,  either  by  an  author  of  slender  means 
or  by  a  wealthy  amateur  to  give  to  friends, 
they  were  either  given  away,  or  if  sold 
might  command  any  price  an  unexpected  favor 
of  a  rich  man's  fancy  dictated ;  and  from  the 
same  cause  "unique  copies"  —  most  likely  such 
were  the  three  books  of  Philolaus  the  Pythago- 
rean, for  which  the  not  rich  Plato  paid  about 
$1,600,  and  the  few  books  of  the  philosopher 
Speusippus  for  which  Aristotle  paid  three  Attic 
talents  or  some  $3,500  —  were  much  commoner 
than  now.  On  the  other  hand,  Anaxagoras' 
works  could  be  had  for  a  drachma  (about  18 
cents)  even  when  dear  —  a  thing  the  more 
strange  that  two  pieces  of  papyrus  for  copy- 
ing an  account  cost  in  407  B.C.  2  drachmte  4 
oboli,  or  about  45  cents.  Perhaps  there  was  a 
difference  in  the  paper.  In  this  same  year  a 
diptychon,  or  pair  of  wooden  account  tablets 
(pass-book),  cost  a  drachma;  but  in  Demos- 
thenes' time,  three  quarters  of  a  century  later, 
one  (probably  smaller)  cost  only  two  chalci 
("coppers"),  less  than  a  cent.  All  these  con- 
tradictions are  probably  due  to  the  lack  of 
any    regular   publishing   market. 

The  long  agonies  of  dissolution  of  the 
Roman  empire  annihilated  the  book  trade;  and 
for  centuries  the  only  makers  of  books  were 
the  monk  scribes,  in  whom  the  important  con- 
ditions of  skill,  leisure,  love,  and  patience  were 
all  fulfilled.  Learning  had  become  the  exclu- 
sive privilege  of  a  class,  a  privilege  of  which 
they  were  at  once  proud  and  jealous;  and  they 
surrounded  the  means  of  its  acquisition  with 
a  pomp  and  circumstance  that  precluded  the 
multitude  from  familiarity  with  it.  In  the  ear- 
liest times  books  had  received  the  adorning 
aid  of  ornamental  art ;  but  in  the  Middle  Ages 
they  reached  the  acme,  if  not  of  beauty  and  con- 
venience, at  least  of  cost.  The  favored  works 
of  the  time,  principally  of  the  Christian  writers, 
were  laboriously  transcribed  by  patient  penmen, 
in  scriptoria  liberally  maintained  in  -the  monas- 
teries, and  specially  devoted  to  that  purpose. 
In  the  process  of  preparation  their  books  received 
the  most  careful  attention  in  regard  to  accuracy, 
elegance,  and  solidity.  In  the  monasteries  also 
the  work  was  completed ;  for  not  only  were  the 
monks  transcribers,  illuminators,  and  binders, 
but  the  same  individual  frequently  combined  the 
triple  function  in  his  own  person.  From  the 
hands  of  the  scribe,  whosf  solemn  adjuration  at 
the  conclusion  of  his  task  was  evidence  not  only 
of  his  own  care  but  of  his  desire  that  others 
should  imitate  his  example,  the  book  passed  to 
the  illuminator,  whose  gorgeous  colors  still  de- 
light the  bibliophile ;  and  from  him  to  the  binder, 
by  whom  its  ponderous  proportions  were  en- 
cased in  massive  covers  of  wood  and  leather, 
studded  with  knobs  and  bands,  often  of  gold 
and  silver,  and  closed  with  broad  clasps — to 
unfasten  which,  letting  the  covers  swing  open 
on  their  stout  hinges,  was  a  privilege  to  which 


BOOK 


not  every  one  was  permitted  to  aspire.  For,  as 
said  Richard  De  Bury,  "laymen,  to  whom  it 
matters  not  whether  they  look  at  a  book  turned 
wrong  side  upward  or  spread  before  them  in  its 
natural  order,  are  altogether  unworthy  of  any 
communion  with  books."  Precious  metals  and 
the  less  crude  but  equally  costly  productions  of 
art  contributed  to  swell  their  value,  in  respect 
of  which  they  stood  at  times  on  an  equality 
with  houses  and  lands.  When  publicly  exposed, 
they  were  frequently  secured  by  chains ;  they 
were  protected  by  special  statutes;  were  subjects 
of  grave  negotiation ;  solemnly  bequeathed  by 
will,  and  lent  only  to  the  higher  orders,  who 
were  compelled  to  deposit  ample  pledges  for 
their  return.  Even  so  late  as  1471,  Louis  XL 
was  compelled  by  the  faculty  of  medicine  at 
Paris  to  deposit  a  valuable  security,  and  give  a 
responsible  endorser,  in  order  to  obtain  the  loan 
of  the  works  of  Rhasis,  an  Arabian  physician. 
Instances  of  the  immense  prices  of  special  books 
are  familiar,  as  of  King  Alfred's  giving  eight 
hides  (perhaps  500  acres)  of  land  for  one  book, 
but  England  was  well-nigh  bookless  then ;  of 
the  countess  of  Anjou  giving  200  sheep  and 
other  articles  for  a  book  of  homilies  of  a  bishop 
—  an  enthusiastic  lady  might  do  so  if  she  liked 
the  bishop ;  and  of  other  fancy  prices  for  very 
fine  books,  not  however  more  than  modern  col- 
lectors might  for  superb  copies.  The  form  in 
these  cases  often  counted  for  more  than  the 
matter,  just  as  now.  On  the  other  hand,  in 
143 1,  shortly  before  the  invention  of  printing, 
Peter  Lombard's  works  sold  at  Caen  for  7 
francs,  or  $1.30,  probably  equal  to  about  $10 
now ;  but  he  was  the  inost  popular  and  widely 
circulated  author  in  the  Christian  world  before 
Thomas  a  Kempis,  and  it  was  to  the  interest  of 
the  Church  to  multiply  his  works.  Making 
all  allowances,  books  were  very  scarce  and 
costly. 

Arrangement  of  a  Book. —  The  first  page  or 
recto  of  the  first  leaf  or  "folio*  is  technically 
known  as  a  bastard  or' half-title  page;  the  next 
page  or  verso  of  the  first  folio  is  left  blank. 
(The  term  "folio,"  however,  as  usually  employed 
by  printers,  means  simply  page  number.) 
Then  follows  the  title-page  proper,  usually  with 
a  blank  page  at  the  back.  In  many  books  there 
intervenes  a  preface  or  introduction,  a  dedica- 
tion, and  a  table  of  contents,  before  the  main 
body  of  the  book  begins ;  the  table  of  contents 
is  sometimes  before  and  sometimes  after  the 
introduction  and  preface.  If  any  portion  of  the 
book  is  out  of  place,  there  are  two  ways  by 
which  the  true  order  may  be  discovered.  At 
the  outer  corner,  or  in  the  centre  above  the 
reading  matter,  or  in  pages  with  a  chapter  head- 
ing usually  in  the  centre  at  the  bottom  of  the 
page,  is  a  numeral  either  Arabic  or  Roman  — 
I,  2,  3,  or  i,  ii,  iii ;  the  almost  universal  custom 
now  is  to  use  the  Roman  numerals  for  prefaces 
and  introductions,  and  the  Arabic  for  the  body 
of  the  text,  and  in  catalogues  these  are  indicated 
thus:  pp.  xxxvii,  325  —  that  is  37  pages  intro- 
duction paged  with  Roman  letters,  and  325  of 
text  paged  with  Arabic.  As  a  guide  to  the  bind- 
ers in  gathering  the  sheets,  also,  each  "form" 
as  printed  on  the  press  —  the  number  of  pages 
printed  on  one  sheet,  to  be  folded  and  cut  later 
into  the  proper  order  of  reading  —  has  at  the 
bottom  of  its  first  page  a  number  or  letter  in 
sequence  through  the  book ;  that  is,  if  each 
sheet   as    printed   has    eight   pages   on    it,   then 


pages  I,  9,  17,  etc., —  the  outside  sheet  of  each 
form,  which  lies  on  top  and  visible  when  the 
sheet  is  folded, —  will  have  the  numbers  i,  2,  3, 
etc.,  or  the  letters  A,  B,  C,  etc.,  called  "signa- 
tures," to  show  the  binder  in  what  order  the 
folded  sheets  are  to  be  as.sembled.  If  the  forms 
outnumber  the  letters  of  the  alpliabet  when 
these  are  used,  the  signature  series  continues 
either  as  AA  or  2A,  etc.  When  two  sections  of 
a  book  begin  printing  simultaneously  for  expe- 
dition, and  as  it  is  uncertain  where  the  first  will 
end,  the  second  has  its  page  folios  begun  by 
guesswork  —  if  the  first  runs  over  it  is  necessary 
to  duplicate  a  certain  number  of  the  closing 
pages  of  the  first  section,  as  480A,  481A,  etc., 
or  else  to  continue  the  closing  number,  as  496A, 
496B,  etc.,  or  if  only  one  or  two,  496^/2,  40^. 

Sizes  of  Books. —  The  copyists  made  up 
their  paper  or  vellum  books  by  folding  four, 
five,  or  six  sheets  and  placing  one  within  the 
other,  making  quires  or  gatherings  of  8,  10,  or 
12  leaves,  known  respectively  as  quaternions, 
quinterns  or  quinternions,  and  sexterns,  or 
in  Greek  tetradia,  pentadia,  and  hexadia. 
The  first  printers  adopted  the  same  method, 
printing  one  page  at  a  time  and  only  on 
one  side  of  the  sheet;  the  register  or  colla- 
tion of  the  quires  for  guide  to  the  binder  was 
given  in  the  colophon  (q.v.  below),  and  only 
later  supplanted  by  a  signature  on  each  quire,  at 
first  inserted  by  hand,  and  first  printed  at  Co- 
logne in  1472.  When  more  than  one  page  was 
printed  at  once,  the  number  of  times  the  paper 
had  to  be  folded  was  a  fair  guide  to  the  dimen- 
sions of  the  page,  at  a  time  when  (and  for  ages 
later)  the  paper  was  made  by  hand,  on  frames 
whose  size  was  held  closely  alike  by  the  exi- 
gencies of  human  arms ;  and  folio,  quarto,  oc- 
tavo, duodecimo,  etc.,  expressed  not  only  the 
absolute  fact  of  folding,  but  the  constructive 
fact  of  size.  These  names  were  conveniently 
abbreviated,  except  the  first,  to  4to,  8vo,  i2mo ; 
and  when  improved  machinery  and  larger  sheets 
of  paper  enabled  still  more  sheets  to  be  printed 
at  once,  the  Latin  names  to  correspond  were  not 
used  at  all,  the  terms  i6mo,  24mo,  32mo,  being 
emploj'ed  at  once.  All  these  names  still  survive, 
though  —  with  the  advent  of  great  paper-mills 
and  machinery  which  make  any  size  desired  for 
an  edition,  so  long  as  it  is  an  "engine  run," 
the  actual  printing  on  large  editions  of  64  pages 
at  a  time,  and  minute  calculations  which  figure 
to  an  eighth  of  an  inch  margin  —  they  have 
ceased  to  express  any  fact  worth  knowing ;  and 
in  the  United  States  it  is  now  more  usual  to 
give  on  catalogues  the  height  and  breadth  of 
pages.  But  in  Europe  the  old  fashion  still  pre- 
vails. So  far  as  the  names  now  mean  any- 
thing, a  i6mo  indicates  the  usual  size  of  a  popu- 
lar volume  or  essay  volume,  and  an  octavo  the 
stately  and  dignified  memoir  or  volume  of 
travel  or  "complete  works"  or  cyclopaedia ;  but 
in  fact  even  these  are  rarely  printed  in  less  than 
i6s.  A  sheet  folded  in  the  middle  forms  two 
leaves  or  four  pages ;  and  a  book  composed  of 
such  sheets  is  styled  a  folio,  whether  it  meas- 
ure a  foot  and  a  half  or  four  feet  high.  When 
the  sheet  is  again  folded  it  makes  a  quarto.  In 
hand-made  paper  (that  used  in  nearly  all  the 
small  special  editions  and  those  of  bibliographi- 
cal interest)  the  water  line  runs  either  across 
or  down  the  page,  according  to  the  number  of 
foldings.  The  following  scheme  is  serviceable : 
Folio,  folded  once,  4  pages,  water  line  perpen- 


BOOK 


dicular;  quarto,  twice,  horizontal;  octavo,  four 
times,  perpendicular ;  duodecimo,  six  tirnes, 
horizontal ;  i6mo,  horizontal ;  i8mo,  perpendicu- 
lar ;  32nio,  perpendicular ;  36mo,  48mo,  64mo, 
horizontal ;  72mo,  96mo,  perpendicular.  .In 
Great  Britain  for  a  long  period  printing  paper 
was  chiefly  of  three  sizes  —  royal,  demy,  and 
crown ;  and  the  book  was  large  or  small  accord- 
ing to  which  was  used.  Demy  was  the  com- 
monest, and  the  demy  octavo  was  the  estab- 
lished form  of  standard  editions.  Among  books 
as  among  men  there  are  giants  and  dwarfs.  The 
British  Museum  has  the  largest  and  the  smallest 
in  the  world.  The  former  is  an  atlas  seven 
feet  high,  of  the  15th  century,  completely  con- 
cealing a  tall  man  between  the  pages,  with  a 
binding  and  clasp  which  make  it  look  as  solid 
as  the  walls  of  a  room ;  the  latter  is  a  tiny 
*bijou'^  almanac  less  than  an  inch  square,  bound 
in  red  morocco,  easily  to  be  carried  in  the 
finger  of  a  lady's  glove.  Certain  church  books 
in  the  Escurial  are  described  as  six  by  four  feet ; 
and  the  "Antiquity'^  volumes  of  the  Napoleonic 
<  Description  de  I'Egypte^  are  ziVi-  inches  high. 
The  Thumb  Bible  or  Toy  Bible,  on  the  other 
hand,  was  one  by  one  and  a  half  inches ;  it  was 
not  really  a  Bible,  but  an  abstract,  printed  in 
1693  and  dedicated  to  the  Duke  of  Gloucester, 
and  repeatedly  reprinted.  Hoepli's  ^Divina 
Commedia^  (1878)  is  less  than  2^  by  2^2 
inches ;  and  Pickering's  diamond  edition  of 
Tasso  measures  3H  inches  high  by  i^  wide. 

Colophons. —  These  originated  w"ith  the  As- 
syrian scribes  in  the  7th  century  B.C.  at  latest: 
Ashurbanipal's  in  the  Nineveh  library  put  at 
the  end  of  the  last  column  of  their  cylinders  a 
register  of  the  documents  composing  the 
"book.*  The  early  printers  followed  the  same 
style,  using  the  last  paragraph  of  the  last  page 
—  now  called  by  English  bookmen  the  colophon 
(Greek,  apex  or  terminus),  by  French  the  sou- 
scription,  by  Germans  the  schlussschrift  —  to 
give  details  about  the  book,  which  we  should 
now  assign  to  the  title  page,  or  merely  for  a 
sort  of  envoi  or  "send-off.*  The  usual  termi- 
nus of  books  was  "Explicit,*  "Hie  Finis,* 
"Finis,*  "Here  Endeth,*  or  something  of  the 
sort ;  but  some  printers  expanded  it  into  elabo- 
rate epilogues  or  postfaces.  Caxton  is  notable 
for  this;  see  examples  in  Blade's  *^ Caxton,^  and 
for  others  see  Legrand's  "^  Bibliographic  Helle- 
nique^  (1885).  With  development  of  the  title- 
page,  the  colophon  disappeared,  though  instances 
are  found  well  into  the  i6th  century. 

Title-Pages. —  It  is  curious  that  while  the 
early  development  of  printing  ran  to  enormous 
and  elaborate  title-pages,  Caxton  has  none  at 
all,  except  one  to  a  work  not  certainly  his,  <The 
Chastising  of  God's  Children^  ( ?i49i )  ;  and  even 
that  contains  only  three  lines  of  ordinary  print. 
But  in  Venice  as  early  as  1474  a  "^Calendario' 
by  John  de  Monteregio  was  issued  by  Pictor, 
Loslein,  and  Ratdolt,  with  a  quaint  rhyming 
title-page,  with  place,  date,  and  names  at  the 
foot.  A  facsimile  is  given  in  Bouchot's  ^The 
Printed  Book.^  The  treatment  of  the  title-page 
has  varied  enormously  with  different  periods. 
In  the  i6th  and  17th  centuries  it  was  at  its 
worst:  the  object  apparently  being  to  make  it  a 
digest  of  the  entire  contents  of  the  book, 
(Nares'  ^Life  of  Burleigh,^  of  which  Macaulay 
says  that  "the  title  is  as  long  as  an  ordinary 
preface,*  is  a  mild  example  in  the  19th),  and 
half  destroying  the  very  object  of  the  title  by 


making  it  difficult  to  wade  through  and  come  at 
the  real  theme.  Frequently  it  gave  a  laudatory 
description  of  the  book,  a  plan  which  if  adopted 
to-day  would  save  the  reviewers  the  trouble  of 
reading  the  preface :  "A  Book  Right  Rare  and 
Strange,*  "Very  Necessary  to  be  Known,* 
"Very  Pleasant  and  Beneficial,*  etc.,  are  familiar 
to  the  student  of  early  printing.  Modern  titles 
are  thought  to  violate  both  good  taste  and  good 
business  judgment  in  going  beyond  a  short 
plain  sentence  or  name ;  but  they  sometimes  do 
worse  by  misleading  the  cataloguer,  as  when 
Ruskin's  *^  Notes  on  the  Construction  of  Sheep- 
folds^  is  classed  among  works  on  live  stock. 
Double  titles,  as  where  a  sub-title  is  given  of  a 
seemingly  different  purport  from  the  main  one, 
are  also  perilous.  As  to  the  frequent  practice 
of  reissuing  an  old  book  under  a  new  title,  it 
is  pure  fraud,  wasting  the  money  of  libraries 
and  private  buyers  on  what  they  have  already 
or  do  not  want,  throwing  catalogues  out,  and 
making  confusion  all  around.  The  pvmishment 
of  using  a  title  already  appropriated,  even  un- 
knowingly, is  direct  and  by  law,  for  the  title  of 
a  book  is  protected  by  law  as  much  as  any  other 
part  of  the  contents.  For  the  lore  and  fac- 
similes of  title-pages,  see  Andrew  Lang's  "Old 
French  Title-Pages*  in  ^ Books  and  Bookmen^  ; 
Le  Petit's  *^Principales  Editions  originales 
d'Ecrivains  frangais^  (1888)  ;  and  Konnecke's 
<Bilderatlas^    (1887). 

Dating  of  Books. —  One  of  the  most  ex' 
asperating  traits  of  the  early  printers,  like  the 
monkish  scribes,  was  its  rarely  occurring  to 
them  to  put  dates  to  their  books.  Only  five  out 
of  21  of  the  known  works  of  Colard  Mansiori, 
Caxton's  master,  are  dated,  and  more  than  two 
thirds  of  Caxton's  own  are  dateless.  On  the 
other  hand,  in  the  colophon  to  the  ^ Moral 
Proverbs-*  and  in  the  ^Book  of  the  Knight  of 
the  Tower,^  the  dates  are  set  down  with  ex- 
cessive minuteness,  even  to  the  month  and  day. 
Modern  publishers  only  fail  to  date  a  work  when 
it  is  out  of  date  and  the  fact  is  to  be  con- 
cealed from  the  buyer ;  a  common  deception  of 
the  trade  is  to  reissue  an  old  work  with  a  new 
title-page  and  usually  a  new  copyright  date, 
sometimes  shifting  the  introductory  matter  so 
as  to  change  the  pagination  or  "folioing.*  The 
usual  and  now  universal  date  is  either  by  Ro- 
man numerals  (an  antiquated  annoyance  it 
would  be  better  to  abolish),  or  by  Arabic 
numerals,  which  for  some  inscrutable  reason 
are  held  a  trifle  underbred.  In  the  earlier 
books  some  queer  freaks  are  indulged  in.  One 
is  to  put  Roman  lower-case  numerals  before 
some  of  the  capitals  as  multipliers ;  unfortu- 
nately, others  use  exactly  the  same  as  signs  of 
subtraction,  and  others  still  use  capital  letters 
as  subtractors,  so  that  the  reader's  guess  needs 
confirming  from  outside.  For  example : 
M  CCCC  iiijXX  VIII  (1498:  ioooJ-400 +^^^  +  8). 
M  iiiiC  iiiiXX  Viij  (1488:  1000  4-4  X  100 -^  4  X  20  +  8). 
M  iiijD  (1496:  1000 -f- 500  —  4). 
M  IIip    (1497:    1500  —  3). 

Sometimes  the  early  printer  used  odd  chrono- 
grams, or  titles  in  which  a  date  is  expressed  by 
the  numeral  value  of  the  letters  contained  in  or 
marked  in  it ;  in  some  cases  repeating  in  this  a 
date  already  given  on  the  title-page.  For  in- 
stance, ^De  spIrltaLI  IMItatlone  ChrlstI 
saCrje  et  VtlLes  plls  In  LVCeM  Datse  a  R. 
P.  Antonio  Van  den  Stock  Societatis  Jesu, 
Rursemundje,     Apud     Gasparem     du     Pres^ — a 


BOOK 


book  with  two  chronograms  on  1658  in  the  title, 
but  a  superfluity  in  the  centre,  and  containing 
in  the  text  over  1,500  on  the  same  date.  Two 
modern  vohnnes  of  chronograms  are  Hilson's 
(1882  and   1885). 

The  date  is  often  determined  approximately 
by  the  water-marks  on  the  paper;  but  this  is  one 
of  the  most  persistently  forged  of  all  things, 
and  demands  the  greatest  knowledge  and  judg- 
ment. 

Place  of  Publication. —  This  is  not  always 
instantly  apparent  even  when  printed,  as  the 
various  local  forms  and  their  varied  Latiniza- 
tions  or  the  use  of  obsolete  terms  often  make 
a  bewildering  complexity  for  a  single  place ;  or 
a  punning  or  pseudo-classical  translation  may 
be  used,  not  a  true  ancient  form ;  or  the  same 
Latin  or  Greek  form  may  mean  one  of  two  or 
three  places ;  or  it  may  be  used  expressly  to 
throw  the  inquirer  off  the  track.  The  latter  is 
of  course  undiscoverable  except  by  outside  evi- 
dence, which  however  is  forthcoming  in  a  sur- 
prising number  of  cases.  The  motive  may  be 
anything  from  sincere  religious  or  patriotic  zeal 
to  the  most  bestial  criminality ;  most  "shady*^ 
modern  literature  has  either  no  assigned  place 
of  publication  or  a  false  one,  and  some  are 
^'published"  an  immense  distance  from  where 
they  are  printed  —  a  common  enough  thing  in 
legitimate  publication  in  modern  times,  though 
practically  unknown  in  early  ones,  printer  and 
publisher  being  the  same.  Hundreds  of  Euro- 
pean books  are  nominally  published  at  Pekin, 
or  Tokio,  or  Calcutta ;  the  unsavory  products 
of  Parisian  presses  are  usually  fathered  on 
some  Dutch  or  Belgian  city ;  and  Sir  Richard 
Burton's  unexpurgated  ^Arabian  Nights*  was 
accredited  to  Benares,  India. 

The    following   list   of    un-English   forms   of 
the  chief  centres  of  past  publication  will  be  use- 
ful   (for  a  full  one,  see   *Dictionnaire  de  Geo- 
graphic Ancienne*    (Paris   1870)  : 
Argentoratum :      Stras-    Gippesvicum :  Ipswich. 

burg.  Gratianopolis :       G  r  e  - 

Augusta,  Augusta  Vin-       noble. 

delicorum :      A  u  g  s  -    Hafnia  :    Copenhagen. 

burg.  Hala :  Halle. 

Basilea :  Basle.  Herbipolis    (^^plant- 

Bipontum  :     Deux-       town"):  Wiirzburg. 

Ponts,  Zweibriicken.      Enetiai   (Greek)  :  Ven- 
Bnezieh :  Venice.  ice. 

Bononia  :     Bologna    or   Holmia :  Stockholm. 

Boulogne.  Insula  or  Insulse   ("the 

Cadomum :  Caen.  Isle,'*  ITsle)  :  Lille. 

Csesaraugusta.:        Sara-    Irenopolis      ("City     of 

gossa.  Peace*):      Bercea, 

Cantabriga  :  Cam-       properly,  but  used  as 

bridge.  a  disguise  name. 

Ceulen  :  Cologne.  Ispalis  :  Seville. 

C  i  V  i  t  a  s     Tricassina  :    Keulen,     Kuelen :     Co- 

Troyes.  logne. 

Colonia,  Colonia  Agrip-    Leodicum :  Liege. 

pina,   in   civitate   Co-    Leucopetra       ("White- 

loniensi :    Cologne.  stone'*)  :  Weissenfels. 

Corona  :    Cronstadt.  Lipsise  :  Leipsic. 

Cuelen  :  Cologne.  Lugdunum :    Lyons. 

Dordrechum     or     Dor-    Lugdunum    B  a  t  a  v  o  - 

tracum :  Dort.  rum  :  Leyden. 

Eboracum  :   York.  Lutetia  :  Paris. 

Eleutheropolis     ("Free-    Massilia :   Marseilles. 

town"):        Freistadt,    Matisco:   Macon. 

Francavilla,  Franche-    Mediolanum :  Milan. 

ville,      etc.     Also      a    Mleczi,    Mljetka,    Mne- 

disguise  name.  zik:    (Slav.)    Venice. 


Moguntiacum :  Mainz. 

Mons  Regalis :  Mon- 
dovi. 

Mussipons :  Pont-a- 
Musson. 

Neapolis:   Naples. 

Neapolis  ("Newtown") 
Casimiriani:  Neu- 
stadt  on  the  Hardt. 

CEnipons :  Innsbriick. 

Olisipo :  Lisbon. 

Oxonia :  Oxford. 

Petropolis :  St.  Peters- 
burg. 

Probatopolis     ("Sheep 
town") 
ha  u  sen. 

Pontimussum :  Pont-a 
Musson. 


Regiomontium 

("Kingsmount")  : 
Konigsberg. 

Rotomagus :  Rouen. 

Sarum      (i.     e.     Saris- 
bariae)  :  Salisbury. 

Tarvisium :  Treviso. 

Tornacum :  Tournay. 

Trajectum :  Utrecht. 

Trecas :  Troyes. 

Tridentum :  Trent. 

Turoni :  Tours. 

Ulisipo,     U  ly  s  s  i  p  o, 
Ulyssopolis:    Lisbon. 

Ultrajectum:  Utrecht. 
S  c  h  a  fif  -   Venetia,  Venetiae,  Ven- 
ezia,  Venedig,  Wenez 
(local  dialect)  :  Ven- 
ice. 


Pagination. — Books  were  printed  at  first  ex- 
actly like  manuscripts,  without  numbering  the 
pages.  Soon  the  unhandiness  of  this  method, 
and  the  difficulty  of  making  references,  forced 
a  numliering  of  the  leaves ;  which  was  shortly 
succeeded  by  numbering  the  pages,  and  in  some 
cases  —  of  very  large,  closely  printed  books  —  by 
numbering  the  columns,  which  is  occasionally 
done  for  like  reasons  in  modern  times.  Books 
of  more  than  one  volume  are  usually  paged 
separately,  but  in  many  large  sets  the  paging  is 
carried  consecutively  from  beginning  to  end, 
especially  where  it  is  likely  to  be  issued  in  more 
than  one  edition  and  divided  into  differing  num- 
bers of  volumes ;  since  in  that  case  one  index 
will  answer  for  all,  instead  of  having  to  be 
made  over  for  each.  In  the  old  folios  and  quar- 
tos, letters  were  often  inserted  on  the  margin, 
to  break  the  page  or  column  into  separate  por- 
tions without  interfering  with  the  continuity  of 
the  text ;  these  marginal  references  from  the 
first  editions  of  classics  are  often  left  in  the 
modern  editions,  forming  a  convenient  method 
of  reference  from  one  to  the  other.  Essentially 
the  same  method  is  followed  in  some  modern 
books,  but  usually  by  numbers  instead  of  letters, 
dividing  off  the  text  into  tens  and  fives  of  lines, 
for  convenient  citation  and  reference ;  in  some 
editions  of  the  Bible  the  chapters  and  conven- 
tional verses  are  marked  off  in  the  same  way, 
to  keep  the  original  paragraphing  and  continu- 
ous narrative  and  yet  be  easy  of  comparison  with 
the  common  Bibles. 

Prefaces,  Dedications,  etc. —  An  introduction 
is  properly  a  part  of  the  body  of  the  text,  out- 
lining its  theme  and  the  main  divisions  of  the 
argument  or  narrative,  or  setting  forth  the  gen- 
eral conditions  from  which  the  special  theme  is 
isolated  and  enlarged  for  study;  the  preface 
(for  which  among  certain  ultra-Teutonists  the 
disagreeable  affectation  "foreword."  German 
Vonvort,  is  substituted)  is  properly  the  author's 
introduction  of  himself  or  his  work  to  the 
reader,  explaining  his  general  purpose,  the  need 
or  place  of  his  book,  personal  thanks,  or  com- 
ments, etc.,  and  all  such  matter  as  needs  to  be 
stated  yet  is  not  pertinent  to  the  exact  subject. 
In  old  times  it  was  like  the  prologue  or  epi- 
logue to  a  play,  a  method  of  ingratiating  one's 
self  with  the  reader,  bespeaking  his  indulgence 
or  removing  any  unfavorable  impressions  with 
which  he  might  begin  the  book ;  and  was  ad- 
dressed to  the  "courteous  reader"  or  the  "gentle 
reader"  (which  properly  meant  an  assumed 
feminine  reader),  etc.     The  dedication,  in  times 


BOOK    CLUB 


when  there  was  no  general  book-market  and  an 
author  must  depend  on  the  patronage  of  some 
person  of  rank  (that  is,  down  to  the  iSth  cen- 
tury, and  well  into  that),  was  an  integral  and 
indispensable  part  of  the  book:  it  meant  that 
the  author  asked  the  patron  to  give  him  money 
and  place  in  return  for  being  celebrated,  just 
as  the  old  chiefs  did  their  bards.  He  must 
have  his  Maecenas ;  without  him  he  would 
starve,  with  him  he  could  disregard  the  masses. 
Sometimes,  with  men  of  hard,  bold  natures  and 
a  keen  scent  for  the  worst  side  of  human  life, 
like  Martial  or  Aretino,  they  used  disguised 
(very  little  disguised)  threats  and  virtual  black- 
mail as  a  supplement  to  appeal,  and  fawned  and 
snarled  alternately.  In  those  times  it  was  often 
nauseous  with  fulsome  laudation ;  it  is  now  of 
the  simplest  form,  a  mere  survival  used  to  ex- 
press the  author's  liking  or  gratitude  for  some 
one,  or  acknowledgment  of  inspiration  or  en- 
couragement, or  in  humorous  books  often  a  joke 
like  the  text. 

Printers'  Emhlems. —  These  are  the  ^'book- 
plates" of  the  publishers,  used  not  to  imply 
ownership  of  the  copies,  but  the  credit  of  the 
work.  They  have  been  treated  by  Berjeu  in 
<Early  Printers^  (1866),  by  Silvestre  in 
^Marques  Typographiques^  (2  vols.  1867),  and 
there  was  an  old  work  of  Roth-Scholtz  (Nurem- 
berg 1730)  ;  it  has  also  been  touched  on  by  John 
Hill  Burton  in  his  'Book-Hunter.'  Among 
them  may  be  cited  the  three-masted  ship  of 
Mathis  van  der  Goes  of  Antwerp,  1472-94 ;  the 
windmill  of  Andrew  Myllar,  Edinburgh,  1508 
and  later  ;  the  curious  wild  men  and  fruit-laden 
tree  of  Thomas  Davidson  of  Edinburgh,  in 
1541 ;  the  Stephenses'  olive-tree,  and  the  Elze- 
virs' sphere.  Often  there  is  a  punning  allusion 
to  the  publisher's  name:  Froschover  (frosch  in 
German  is  frog)  has  frogs;  Le  Chandelier,  a 
seven-branched  candlestick ;  and  Nicholas  Eve 
has  a  picture  of  Eve  giving  Adam  the  forbidden 
fruit.  Others  use  instead  the  armorial  bearings 
of  their  cities  ;  Leeu,  the  castle  of  Antwerp  ;  R. 
Hall,'  Geneva's  half-eagle  and  key  on  a  shield ; 
Stadelberger,  the  lion  rampant  of  Heidelberg, 
and  the  diapered  shield  of  Zurich.  Ascensius, 
1462-1532,  has  a  most  vividly  accurate  represen- 
tation of  his  great  printing  press,  with  a  press- 
man pulling  a  proof.  His  device  bore  the  in- 
scription, "Prelum  Ascensianum'^ ;  and  it  was 
adopted  by  Josse  Bade  of  Paris,  1501-35,  who 
added  his  initials  at  the  foot ;  by  De  Gourmont, 
I507~I5;  Le  Preux,  1561-87;  and  in  a  modified 
form  by  De  Marnef,  1567,  and  De  Roigny,  1565. 
The  Aldi  had  an  anchor  and  a  dolphin,  which 
was  emploj^ed  by  Turrisan,  De  Chenney,  Bril- 
lard,  Tardif,  and  Coulombel  —  sometimes,  as  in 
Coulombel's  case,  with  the  divided  Aldus. 

Decoration. —  Besides  the  illustration  of  the 
text  by  pictures,  either  as  frontispiece  or  inter- 
leaved, there  are  certain  artistic  forms  which 
are  merely  decorative  accessories  to  the  book  as 
such.  The  title-page  may  have  some  of  its 
lines  or  letters  printed  with  colored  inks ;  the 
printer's  emblem  or  some  suitable  vignette  may 
be  inserted ;  or  even  the  whole  title  may  be 
engraved,  as  often  in  the  i6th  and  17th  centuries, 
when  it  was  frequently  an  exceedingly  elaborate 
and  costly  affair,  and  in  some  modern  editions 
de  luxe  these  engraved  title-pages  are  works  of 
extraordinary  beauty.  There  are  also  orna- 
mental initials,   as  with  the  illuminated  manu- 


scripts ;  head  and  tail  pieces,  in  the  blank  at  the 
head  of  a  chapter  or  the  space  left  at  the  end. 
The  first  printers  often  left  the  initial  letters 
off  altogether,  or  put  in  a  small  one  as  a  guide 
to  the  artist,  who  inserted  them  by  hand,  using 
red  ink,  from  which  he  was  called  a  riibrisher; 
he  also  used  his  taste  in  other  decorative  details, 
being  in  fact  the  illustrative  artist  of  the  time. 

Technical  Terms. —  The  sale  and  collection  of 
books  are  too  large  subjects  to  be  treated  here, 
but  a  few  of  the  names  used  in  the  second-hand 
book  trade  may  be  mentioned.  "Unique,^'  '<rare,'* 
and  "very  rare,*  are  intelligible  as  names,  but 
need  judgment  in  their  acceptance.  A  book  may 
be  unique  because  it  was  not  worth  keeping,  like 
disused  text-books ;  the  term  does  not  imply 
any  special  value.  Or  it  may  be  so  because  the 
original  edition  was  limited  to  enhance  its  value, 
a  very  common  device.  In  all  such  cases  there 
must  be  knowledge  and  sense  to  estimate  prop- 
erly the  intrinsic  or  factitious  worth  of  the 
book.  ''Edition'^  means  nothing  whatever ; 
properly  it  should  mean  all  the  issue  of  a  book 
that  the  publisher  thinks  the  market  will  bear 
at  one  time,  and  once  it  did  mean  that,  but  it 
has  long  ceased  to  have  any  definite  connota- 
tion. ■  As  above,  the  "edition'*  may  be  artificially 
limited  to  a  small  number  of  copies  with  a 
promise  to  destroy  the  plate ;  on  the  other  hand, 
a  popular  novel  m.ay  sell  many  thousands  and 
each  thousand  be  called  an  "edition,*^  so  that  it 
may  be  said  to  have  passed  through  50  "edi- 
tions.*'  "Thousand"  is  the  honester  word,  and 
is  now  more  used  by  the  large  houses.  "Curi- 
ous'^  is  a  euphemism  for  a  much  less  dainty 
word.  "Foxed"  means  damaged  by  brown  or 
yellow  spots.  "Uncut"  does  not  mean  that  the 
leaves  have  not  been  opened  with  a  paper-knife, 
but  that  the  original  size  of  the  leaves  has  not 
been  cropped  by  the  binder.  The  French  use 
nan  coupe  for  the  former,  and  non  rogne  for  the 
latter. 

Book  Club,  a  private  association  printing 
books  for  a  limited  number  of  subscribers.  The 
members  are  usually  learned  men,  and  in  this 
way  render  accessible  rare  books  and  manu- 
scripts. The  earliest  of  these  clubs  was  the 
Roxburgh  Club,  whose  work  was  not  important. 
Other  English  clubs  of  this  sort  have  done  ex- 
cellent and  valuable  work,  among  them  the 
Camden  Society,  whose  publications  relate  to 
English  history,  the  Percy  Society,  the  Hakluyt 
Society,  and  the  Early  English  Text  Societj'. 

In  America  there  were  in  Colonial  and  Rev- 
olutionary times  a  number  of  literary  societies 
which  published  the  writings  of  their  own  mem- 
bers ;  such  was  the  Junto  founded  by  Franklin. 
The  first  association  established  for  the  purpose 
of  publishing  was  the  'Sevent3^-six  Society 
formed  in  1854,  whose  publications  relate  to  the 
American  Revolution.  This  society  existed  for 
three  years  only,  and  was  followed  by  "The 
Club"  in  New  York,  and  by  the  Bradford  Club. 
In  1858  The  Prince  Society  of  Boston  was  es- 
tablished, and  it  still  continues  its  work  of  pub- 
lication. From  1858  to  1876  a  large  number  of 
clubs  were  formed  whose  work  was  neither  im- 
portant nor  valuable.  In  1876  the  Brooklyn 
Historical  Printing  Club  was  established.  It 
has  done  most  excellent  work  on  historical  lines. 
The  foremost  of  all  American  clubs  of  this  sort 
is  the  Grolier  Club  of  New  York,  formed  in 
1884  with   50  members,   now    numbering  about 


BOOK-LICE  — BOOK  OF  DAYS 


400.  Its  publications  are  of  a  literary  and  bibli- 
ographical character  and  are  noted  for  their 
elaborate  and  artistic  make-up. 

Book-lice,  wingless  members  of  the  family 
Psocidcc,  order  Platyptera.  These  minute  in- 
sects would  be  easily  mistaken  for  aphides, 
both  the  wingless  as  well  as  the  winged  indi- 
viduals. Their  bodies  are  oval,  the  head  free 
from  the  prothorax,  which  is  small  and  par- 
tially concealed  by  the  unequal  wings.  The  eggs 
are  laid  in  patches  on  leaves,  bar,  or  other  ob- 
jects, and  are  covered  with'  a  web.  Atropos 
diz'hiatoritts  is  a  small  pale,  louse-like  insect, 
seen  nmning  over  books  and  in  insect  cases, 
where  it  does  considerable  injury.  It  is  one  of 
the  worst  museum  pests,  especially  injurious  to 
the  smaller  lepidoptera.  The  same  habit  is  also 
possessed  by  the  well-known  Psocus  domesticns. 
Another  species  of  atropos,  probably  piilicarius, 
has  been  found  in  Missouri,  infesting  the  egg- 
mass  of  the  cottony  maple  scale  (Pulvinaria  in- 
numerabilis).    See  Death-tick;  Death-watch. 

Book-scorpion,  or  False-scorpion,  an 
arachnid  animal  of  the  family  Chernctidcc; 
known  by  its  large  maxillary  palpi,  like  the  scor- 
pion's claw.  The  abdomen  is  ii-jointed,  flat- 
tened, without  any  appendage,  and  the  living 
forms  are  minute ;  they  breathe  by  trachens. 
They  are  found  running  about  dusty  books  and 
in  dark  places  and  feed  on  mites  and  Psoci. 
They  are  often  found  attached  to  the  leg  of 
some  fly  or  other  insect  by  which  they  are 
transported  about.  The  female  chelifer  bears 
the  eggs,  17  in  number,  in  a  little  bunch  under 
her  abdomen.  Meuge  has  observed  a  pseudo- 
scorpion  cast  its  skin  in  a  light  web  made  for 
that  purpose,  where  it  remained  five  days  in 
the  web  after  its  metamorphosis,  and  did  not 
assume  its  dark  colors  for  four  weeks ;  three 
months  after  it  returned  to  the  same  web  for 
hibernation.  Meuge  describes  eight  species  from 
the  Prussian  amber,  belonging  to  genera  still 
living,  and  Corda  one  (Microlabris  sternbergi) 
from  the  coal  formation  in  Bohemia,  an  inch 
long.  Schiodte  has  found  a  curious  blind  spe- 
cies in  the  caves  of  Adelsburg,  and  several 
kinds  occur  in  American  caves.  In  chelifer 
there  are  no  eyes.  C.  cancroidcs  is  dark  brown, 
with  many  short  spines  on  the  thorax. 

Book-selling.  The  earliest  history  of  book- 
selling is  extremely  obscure.  The  tablets  and 
cylinders  of  Assyria  and  Babjdonia  will  be  found 
treated  under  Book,  and  the  article  Book  of  the 
De.\d  should  also  be  consulted.  About  the 
middle  of  the  6th  century  B.C.,  is  found  in  ancient 
Athens  an  approximation  to  a  systematized 
hook-trade  as  it  has  been  understood  in  modern 
times.  Pisistratus,  with  funds  from  the  munic- 
ipal treasury,  paid  scholars  for  preparing  a 
standard  text  of  Homer  and  Hesiod  for  copy- 
ists' use.  The  books  then  made  were  very  costly. 
Diogenes  Laertius  states  that  for  three  books  of 
Philolaus  (q.v.)  Plato  paid  three  Attic  talents 
($3,240),  money  being  then,  of  course,  worth  far 
more  than  it  now  is.  The  first  book-sellers  pre- 
pared by  their  personal  labor  the  scrolls  they 
sold  ;  then  capitalists  came  to  employ  and  organ- 
ise staflfs  of  copyists.  About  250  B.C.  Alexandria 
became  one  of  the  great  book-centres  of  the 
world.  In  this  it  was  favored  by  having  at  its 
disposal  the  scholars  of  the  university  and  the 
facilities  for  distribution  which  the  commerce  of 
Alexandria  afforded.     Skilled  scribes  were  also 


carefully  trained  there.  The  book-trade  of  Rome 
commenced  about  the  2d  century  B.C.  Slaves 
who  could  write  Greek  were  rated  highly.  The 
great  publisher  of  Cicero's  time,  Atticus,  is  well 
known.  His  editions  were  famed  for  their  ac- 
curacy under  the  name  'A->.X;ia.>d.  In  addi- 
tion to  his  central  publishing  house  he  had  dis- 
tributed in  various  portions  of  Rome  and  in- 
provincial  centres,  tabernarii,  or  retail  dealers. 
Horace's  publishers  were  the  Sosii  in  the  Vicus 
Tuscus.  Argiletum,  Martial  says,  was  the  street 
of  the  book-sellers,  as  it  was,  likewise,  of  the 
tailoring  shops  of  fas.iion.  By  the  close  of  the 
1st  century  a.d..  the  Roman  book-trade  was  ex- 
tensive and  well  organized.  Papyrus  was  im- 
ported in  great  quantities  from  Egypt,  and  large 
staffs  of  copyists  were  kept  busy  preparing  edi- 
tions of  various  works,  the  average  edition  for 
the  general  public  running  from  300  to  i.oco 
copies.  Very  considerable  shipments  were  made 
to  the  provinces. 

During  the  Middle  Ages  book-making  and 
sellmg  belonged  to  the  monasteries.  The  dif- 
ferent nionasteries  transcribed  the  particular 
manuscripts  treasured  in  their  libraries,  and 
their  editions  came  to  have  a  peculiar  value, 
depending  upon  the  character  of  the  original 
text  and  the  accuracy  of  the  copy.  At  the  be- 
ginning of  the  new  learning,  the  manufacture 
and  sale  of  books  passed  to  the  universities, 
within  which  the  manifolding  of  MSS.  was  done 
by  an  organized  guild.  Outside  the  universities, 
however,  there  was  a  considerable  trade  in  MSS., 
beginning  with  the  end  of  the  14th  century. 
The  invention  of  printing  naturally  revolution- 
ized the  book-trade.  The  publications  of  Guten- 
berg, Fust,  Froben  of  Basel..  Aldus  Manutius  of 
Venice,  Estiennes  (Stephani)  of  Paris,  Caxton 
of  Westminster,  Plantin  of  Antwerp,  and  the 
Elzevirs  of  Leyden  and  Amsterdam,  are  well 
known.  For  further  information,  see  the  article 
Book,  above  referred  to ;  and  American  Pub-  " 

LISHING. 

Book-worm,  the  ''book-worm"  of  librarians 
is  probably  the  larva  of  a  boring  beetle  (Ano- 
bium  paniceum)  one  of  the  family  Ptinid(P. 
These  worms  are  small  white  grubs  like  those 
of  weevils,  which  live  in  various  drugs,  dried 
meat,  etc.  It  also  burrows  in  hard  biscuits,  re- 
sulting in  the  weevily  biscuits  complained  of  on 
ship-board.  It  more  commonly  bores  in  old 
furniture,  causing  it  to  te  "worm-eaten.* 
These  grubs  become  the  beetles  known  as 
''death-ticks"  or  "death-watches"  (q.v.).  See 
the  various  works  on  entomology  and  Blade's 
'Enemies  of  Books.' 

Book  of  Days,  The,  a  noted  work  edited 
by  Robert  Chambers,  1863.  It  has  for  its  sub- 
title 'A  Miscellany  of  Popular  Antiquities  in 
Connection  with  the  Calendar.*  In  bringing  it 
out  the  editor  expressed  a  desire  to  preserve 
interest  in  what  is  "poetical,  elevated,  honest, 
and  of  good  report,  in  the  old  national  life"  — 
recognizing  the  historical,  and  even  the  ethi- 
cal, importance  of  keeping  this  active  and  pro- 
gressive age  in  touch  with  obsolescent  customs, 
manners,  and  traditions.  Beginning  with  i  Jan- 
uary each  day  of  the  year  has  its  own  curious 
or  appropriate  selection,  and  its  allowance  of 
matters  connected  with  the  Church  Calendar, 
—  including  the  popular  festivals,  saints'  days, 
and  holidays, —  with  illustrations  of  Christian 
antiquities  in  general. 


BOOK  OF  THE  DEAD 


Book  of  the  Dead,  The. — The  literal  trans- 
lation   of    the    hieroglyphic    title    is :    **Coming 


PERT 


EM       HR— U 


Forth  by  Day.'*  Modern  Egyptologists  have 
adopted  the  name  given  by  Lepsius :  Das 
Aegyptische  Todtenbiich,  "The  Egyptian  Book 
of  the  Dead.''  That  title,  however,  is  considered 
unsatisfactory,  for  the  simple  reason  that  it  is 
not  one  single  book  dealing  exclusively  with 
funereal  ritual,  but  is  a  collection  of  books  and 
chapters  treating  of  psychostasia  in  the  '^Double 
Hall"  before  Osiris ;  the  peregrinations  of  the 
Ka  in  the  "valley  of  the  shadow  of  death ;"  the 
Osirian  doctrine  of  resurrection,  etc. 

No  better  laconic  definition  of  the  Book  of 
the  Dead  can  be  given  than  that  of  the  late  Sir 
Peter  le  Page  Renouf.  He  says :  "It  is  not  a 
book  in  the  usual  sense  of  the  word ;  it  is  not  a 
literary  whole,  with  a  beginning,  middle  and 
end;  it  is  a  mere  unmethodical  collection  of 
religious  compositions  (chapters)  as  independ- 
ent of  each  other  as  the  Hebrew  Psalms." 

Part  of  the  Book  of  the  Dead  is  of  remote 
antiquity,  dating  back  to  the  pre-dynastic  period. 
There  are  numerous  late  copies  of  it  in  the 
museums  of  Europe  and  of  this  country,  but  the 
best  and  most  complete  copy  is  the  Papyrus 
Ani,  in  the  British  Museum.  It  contains  one 
hundred  and  eighty-six  chapters,  and  is  beauti- 
fully illuminated  ;  and,  although  about  3,400  years 
old  (belonging  to  the  XVIII  Dynasty),  it  is  well 
preserved.  A  fac-simile  of  that  Papyrus  was 
published  by  order  of  the  trustees  of  the  British 
Museum,  and  translated  (1895)  by  the  eminent 
Egyptologist,  Dr.  E.  A.  Wallis  Budge.  Several 
excellent  translations  have  been  made  into 
French,  German,  and  English  of  various  papyri 
of  the  Book  of  the  Dead.  There  are  several 
versions  of  the  book  extant.  That  of  Heliopolis, 
which  was  subjected  to  numerous  modifications 
and  recensions,  is  considered  the  most  ancient; 
then  the  Theban  version  of  which  the  Papyrus 
Ani  is  an  example  —  dating  from  the  middle  of 
the  XVIII  Dynasty.  These  two  versions  are 
written  in  hieroglyphics,  in  vertical  columns 
and  in  cursive  linear  style.  Two  other  ver- 
sions of  a  later  period  are  written  in  hieratic 
as  well  as  in  hieroglyphic  characters.  Com- 
plete translations  of  the  Book  of  the  Dead  were 
made  by  Birch,  Brugsch,  Pierret,  Pleyte,  Massy 
•  Davis,  from  the  French  translation  by  Pierret), 
Le  Page  Renouf,  and  Budge. 

The  style  of  writing  and  the  vignettes,  repre- 
senting embalming,  funeral  processions,  weigh- 
ing of  the  heart,  etc.,  have  undergone  great 
changes  in  the  course  of  time,  and  the  texts  of 
some  of  the  Theban  school  in  the  XVIIT 
Dynasty  differ  materially  from  later  produc- 
tions; i.  e.,  the  Papyrus  Ani  (Theban  recension), 
contains  one  hundred  and  eighty-six  chapters, 
and  the  Turin  papyrus,  of  a  later  period,  con- 
tains only  one  hundred  and  sixty-five  chapters. 
The  late  Sir  Peter  le  Page  Renouf,  for 
many  years  keeper  of  the  Egyptian  antiquities 
in  the  British  Museum,  says :  "Out  of  many 
manuscripts  which  are  extant,  no  two  contain 


exactly  the  same  chapters  or  follow  exactly  the 
same  arrangement." 

The  earliest  texts,  before  the  XVIII  Dynasty, 
are  fragmentary,  inscribed  on  the  walls  of 
tombs,  monuments,  sarcophagi,  mummy  carton- 
ages,  etc.  The  plate  is  one  of  the  numerous 
presentations  upon  the  walls  of  the  Egyptian 
tombs  of  that  period,  many  of  which  have  been 
faithfully  reproduced  in  the  magnificent  volumes 
of  the  Description  de  TEgypt,  and  in  Lepsius, 
etc.  It  represents  part  a  of  tomb  XXIV,  now 
in  the  Sepulchral  Chamber  of  the  Royal  Mu- 
seum, Berlin,  showing  Prince  Merab,  son  of 
Khufu,  the  builder  of  the  great  Pyramid  of 
Gizeh  (about  4000  years  b.c.)  enjoying  himself 
after  his  beatification  with  the  same  good 
things  he  was  accustomed  to  have  in  his  former 
life. 

The  sum  and  substance  of  the  Book  of  the 
Dead  is  chapter  CXXV,  generally  considered 
the  most  ancient.  It  is  always  connected  with 
a  vignette,  which  depicts  the  beatification  of 
"The  Osiris,"  in  the  presence  of  the  presiding 
deities  in  Amenti,  when  the  "Negative  Confes- 
sion" and  the  weighing  of  the  heart  of  the  dead 
before  the  supreme  deity  in  the  netherworld 
takes  place. 

Before  proceeding  with  the  description  of 
psyclwstasia,  it  is  necessary  to  say  a  few  words 
concerning  the  deities  taking  part  in  the  weigh- 
ing of  the  heart  in  the  supreme  tribunal  of 
Osiris,  called  "The  Double  Hall,"  represented* 
in  this  plate. 

The  name  which  every  dead  Egyptian  as- 
sumed was  that  of  the  chief  deity  of  Amenti, 
called  "Osiris."  As  Osiris  was  considered  the 
type  of  life  after  death,  it  was  only  natural  that 
in  the  development  of  their  mythology  he 
should  become  the  chief  god  of  Amenti  —  the 
Justifier  of  the  dead. 

Osiris,  according  to  Egyptian  legend,  was  a 
prehistoric  king,  the  embodiment  of  goodness. 
His  brother,  the  wicked  Set,  becoming  envious, 
treacherously  killed  him,  cut  the  corpse  in 
pieces  and  hid  them  in  different  parts  of  the 
land.  Osiris'  sister-wife,  Isis,  accompanied  b}'^  her 
sister  Nephthys,  collected  the  scattered  parts, 
which  were  then  embalmed  by  the  god  Anubis. 
By  means  of  magic,  which  Thoth,  the  god  of 
letters  and  science,  taught  Isis,  she  resuscitated 
the  body.  Finally,  Horus,  son  of  Osiris  and 
Isis,  avenged  the  death  of  his  father,  by  engag- 
ing Set,  or  Typhon,  in  combat  and  killing  him. 
In  the  course  of  time  Isis,  Horus,  etc.,  came  to 
be  considered  as  gods,  and  Osiris  became  identi- 
fied with  Turn,  the  setting  sun,  symbolizing 
death;  and  Horus  on  the  horizon  (Her-em- 
khu,  sometimes  called  Her-em-Khuti),  the  type 
of  birth  and  resurrection. 

Thus  the  Ka,  whilst  wandering  through  the 
regions  of  darkness  and  molested  by  demons,  is 
the  dead  Osiris.  After  the  weighing  of  his 
heart  and  if  found  not  wanting,  he  is  beatified 
and  obtains  new  life.  He  is  no  more  Osiris 
the  dead,  but  Osiris  Horus,  the  resurrected. 

Plate  b  represents  the  weighing  of  the  heart 
in  the  tribunal  of  the  netherworld,  Amenti; 
presided  over  by  the  supreme  deitj'  Osiris 
(Ausar).  On  the  extreme  right  and  left  of  the 
hall  are  two  massive  pillars,  carved  to  imitate 
bundles  of  lotus  stalks,  fastened  together  near 
the  top  of  the  column.  The  deceased  at  the 
entrance  to  the  hall  is  in  an  adoring  attitude; 
his  uplifted  arms  are  supported  by  Maat.  the 
goddess   of   truth   and   justice.     She  is   always 


BOOK  OF  MORMON 


present  in  the  Judgment  Hall  and  is  represented 
headless,  with  an  ostrich  feather  in  place  of  the 
head.  Her  figure,  sometimes  only  the  feather 
of  her  headgear,  is  placed  in  the  scale-pan, 
opposite  the  one  containing  the  vase  with  the 
heart.*  The  jackal-headed  Anubis  and  the 
hawk-headed  Horus  superintend  the  weighing. 
In  the  scale-pan  to  the  right  is  the  weight  in 
the  shape  of  the  goddess  Maat.  This  scale  is 
adjusted  by  another  divinity  un-named  in  the 
hieroglyphic  text.  In  the  scaie-pan  to  the  left 
is  a  jar  containing  the  heart  of  the  departed. 
Upon  the  beam  of  the  balance  sits  the  dog- 
headed  ape  deity  called  Hapi.  The  little  figure 
seated  on  the  crook  to  the  left  represents  the 
new  birth  after  the  justification  of  the  "Osiris.** 
Close  to  the  balance  stands  the  ibis-headed 
scribe  Tlwtli,  with  his  tablets,  recording  the  re- 
sult of  the  weighing.  Close  in  front  of  him, 
upon  a  shrine,  sits  the  adversary  (the  Egyptian 
Cerberus),  called  in  hieroglyphics  Amemit,  the 
devourer  of  the  dead,  in  the  shape  of  a  strange 
being  composed  of  three  beasts :  hippopotamus, 
lion  and  crocodile,  ready  to  destroy  the  Ka  in 
case  he  should,  after  weighing,  be  found  wanting. 
Immediately  facing  the  throne  is  an  altar  full 
of  sacrifices,  consisting  of  bread,  geese,  onions, 
lotus  flowers,  buds,  and  burning  incense.  Be- 
neath the  altars  are  jars  containing  wine  and 
other  liquids  for  oblations.  At  the  head  of  the 
hall  is  Osiris  himself,  sitting  upon  a  throne 
which  is  richly  decorated  wuth  ankhs,  emblems 
of  life,  and  uas,  emblems-  of  purity.  He  is 
closely  shrouded,  and  wears  the  white  crown  of 
Upper  Egypt,  called  Aief,  ornamented  with  two 
ostrich  feathers,  the  symbols  of  truth  and  jus- 
tice; his  hands  crossed  upon  his  breast,  on  his 
wrists  are  bracelets.  He  holds  in  his  right  hand 
the  Nekhekh,  scourge;  and  in  his  left,  Hek,\.\\Q 
crooked  staff,  symbolical  of  justice.  Above  are 
the  forty-two  divine  assessors,  seated  in  two 
rows  of  twenty-one  each,  with  different  type  of 
head,  such  as  the  heads  of  apes,  serpents, 
crocodiles,  etc.,  adorned  with  the  feather  repre- 
senting truth  and  justice,  and  each  holding  in 
his  hand  a  sharp-pointed  knife.  The  Ka  of  the 
deceased  stands,  in  beseeching  posture,  with 
hands  raised,  in  front  of  each  row  of  the  judges. 
The  same  chapter  (125)  contains  the  con- 
fessions of  the  deceased.  Every  one  of  the 
forty-two  judges  whom  the  deceased  called  by 
their  proper  names  had  to  pronounce  him  inno- 
cent, he  emphatically  affirming  before  each  of 
them  in  turn  that  he  did  not  commit  any  of 
the  forty-two  sins.  The  negative  confession  is 
very  interesting  but  space  forbids  the  mention- 
ing of  more  than  a  few  of  them.  The  judge 
having  to  consider  the  crime  of  theft  was  id- 
dressed  by  the  deceased  as  follows :  "O  De- 
vourer of  Shades,  coming  out  of  the  orbits  .  . 
I  have  not  stolen;'*  another  was  addressed: 
"O  Eyes  of  Flames,  coming  out  of  the  shrine 
I  have  not  played  the  hypocrite;"  "O 
Cracker  of  Bones,  coming  out  of  Suten  Khcnt 
(Bubastis)  .  .  I  have  not  told  falsehoods;*' 
"O  Swallower,  coming  out  of  Khnem  .  .  I 
have  not  blasphemed  ;**  <'0  Eater  of  Hearts, 
coming  out  of  the  thirty  .  .  I  have  not  made 
conspiracies;**  «0  Eye  in  the  Heart,  coming  out 
of  the  land  of  Salui  .  ,  I  have  not  defiled  the 
river,**  etc. 


*  Many  of  the  Pharaohs  adopted  her  name  in  their  royal 
titles.  /.  ^•..Ramesis  II  styled  himself  Se  Ra.  Usur  Ma,  "  Son 
of  the  Sun,  the  Keeper  of  Truth." 


Among  Other  sins  denied  are :  "I  am  not 
sluggish  ;  I  have  not  made  to  weep ;  I  am  not 
a  landgrabber ;  I  committed  not  adultery ;  I  ana 
not  a  slayer  of  man ;  I  tamper  not  with  the 
balance ;  I  do  not  cheat,**  etc. 

Howsoever  absurd  the  Egyptian  Pantheon 
may  appear  to  our  eyes,  we  must  acknowledge 
from  the  evidence  of  these  forty-two  confessions, 
that  they  possessed  a  superior  code  of  morality, 
a  code  which  included  not  only  our  decalogue, 
but  much  of  the  ethical  teachings  and  humanity 
of  modern  civilization. 

The  vignettes  of  this  chapter,  as  we  have 
already  remarked,  vary.  The  finer  illuminated 
papyri  made  for  royal  personages  or  high  priests 
and  priestesses  are  exquisitely  illuminated  and 
the  texts  are  unabridged.  For  instance,  the 
Papyrus  of  Kii  is  more  than  sixty-five  feet  long. 
The  Papyrus  of  Ani  is  seventy-eight  feet  long 
by  one  foot  and  three  inches  wide. 

Most  copies  of  the  Books  of  the  Dead  are 
defective,  others  betray  gross  ignorance  on  the 
part  of  the  scribe  or  copyist.  The  common 
people  who  were  unable  to  purchase  a  well- 
written  and  illuminated  text  for  their  dead  had 
to  be  satisfied  with  a  cheaply,  badly  written, 
abridged  copy.  The  scribes  must  have  possessed 
a  large  stock  of  blanks  on  hand,  containing 
spaces  to  be  filled  with  the  deceased  (Osiris') 
name.  Some  of  the  Egyptian  scribes  were  as 
dishonest  as  most  of  the  embalmers.  As  the 
papyrus  was  to  be  placed  witn  the  mummy,  the 
mercenary  scribe  or  embalmer  substituted  a 
spurious  for  a  good  one. 

Samuel  A.  Binion, 
Author  of  '■Ancient  Egypt  or  Misraim.' 

Book  of  Mormon,  a  collection  of  16  dis- 
tinct books  professing  to  be  written  at  different 
periods  by  successive  prophets.  Its  style  is  an 
exceedingly  clumsy  and  verbose  imitation  of 
that  of  the  common  English  translation  of  the 
Bible,  portions  of  which,  to  the  number  in  all 
of  300  passages,  are  incorporated  without 
acknowledgment.  It  constitutes  the  scriptures 
of  the  members  of  the  Church  of  Jesus  Christ 
of  Latter-Day  Saints.  Joseph  Smith,  an  Ameri- 
can, of  Manchester.  N.  Y..  professed  to  have 
heard  in  1823  the  Angel  Moroni  reveal  to  him 
in  visions  that  the  Bible  of  the  Western  Con- 
tinent was  buried  in  a  box  near  his  residence. 
This,  according  to  his  own  account,  he  at  length 
found  —  a  volume  six  inches  thick,  with  leaves 
of  thin  gold  plate,  eight  inches  long  by  seven 
broad,  bound  together  with  three  gold  rings ;  on 
which  leaves  was  a  mystic  writing  that  he  char- 
acterized as  reformed  Eg^'ptian.  With  the  book 
he  professed  to  have  found  a  pair  of  magic  spec- 
tacles, bv  means  of  which  he  was  able  to  read 
the  contents,  which  he  dictated  to  an  amanuen- 
sis. This  book  consists  of  an  alleged  history  of 
America  from  600  B.C.,  when  Lehi  and  his  fam- 
ily (descended  from  the  dispersion  after  the 
building  of  the  Babel  tower)  landed  in  Chile. 
Between  the  descendants  of  Nephi,  Lchi's 
youngest  son,  and  the  offspring  of  his  older 
brothers,  who  are  the  North  American  Indians, 
long  conflicts  waged  :  the  Nephites  finally  being 
almost  annihilated.  There  remained  a  fragment, 
among  whom  were  Mormon  and  his  son, 
Moroni.  They  collected  the  records  of  their 
people,  and  buried  them  in  the  hill  of  Cumorah, 
on  the  Divine  assrirance  that  they  would  be 
found  by  the  Lord's  prophet.  Besides  this  his- 
tory, the  book,  as  it  finally  was  received,  has 
various  moral  and  religious  teachings.    The  real 


Vol. 


-53- 


BOOK  OF  NONSENSE  — BOOKBINDING 


history  of  it  is  as  follows:  Solomon  Spalding, 
an  eccentric  Presbyterian  preacher,  wrote  a 
historical  romance  in  1809,  which  a  compositor, 
into  whose  hands  it  fell,  sold  to  Smith.  This 
was,  in  substance,  the  ^Book  of  Mormon,  > 
which  Smith  issued,  and  to  which  various  addi- 
tions have  since  been  made.     See  Mormon. 

Book  of  Nonsense,  A,  a  nursery  classic  by 
Edward  Lear.  It  is  made  up  from  four  minor 
collections  published  at  intervals  during  a  long 
life.  The  author  began  as  an  artist;  colored 
drawings  for  serious  purposes  were  supplemented 
by  others  for  the  amusement  of  the  groups  of 
little  ones  he  loved  to  gather  around  him  ;  and 
the  text  added  to  them  has  proved  able  to 
endure  the  test  of  time  without  the  aid  of  draw- 
ing, and  much  of  it  has  become  part  of  the  rec- 
ognized humorous  literature  of  the  language. 

Book  of  Snobs,  The,  a  series  of  sketches 
by  William  Makepiece  Thackeray.  It  appeared 
first  in  *  Punch,'  and  was  published  in  book  form 
in  1848.  The  idea  of  the  work  may  have  been 
suggested  to  Thackeray  when,  as  an  undergrad- 
uate at  Cambridge  in  1829,  he  contributed  to  a 
little  weekly  periodical  called  the  *Snob.' 

Bookbinding,  the  art  of  arranging,  fasten- 
ing together,  and  covering  sheets  of  paper  com- 
posing a  book,  including  the  ornamentation  or 
decoration  of  the  covers.  Following  the  use  of 
rolls  of  papyrus  or  wax-covered  tablets,  leaves 
of  parchment  were  introduced,  and  it  became 
necessary  to  fasten  or  bind  them  together.  This 
improvement  in  fonn  is,  on  somewhat  doubtful 
authority,  attributed  to  Attains  II.,  king  of  Per- 
gamus,  about  150  B.C. 

The  monks  were  the  early  bookbinders,  up 
to  the  time  of  the  invention  of  printing,  and 
examples  in  the  British  Museum  dating  as  far 
back  as  700  a.d.  illustrate  the  great  labor  be- 
stowed on  their  most  precious  manuscripts. 

All  the  early  specimens  were  bound  in  heavy 
boards,  strong  metal  clasps,  and  bands,  and  the 
material  used  in  covering  varied  from  the  parch- 
ment and  iron  to  ivory,  enamels,  and  jeweled 
silver  and  gold. 

The  invention  of  printing  made  a  great  change 
in  the  art  of  bookbinding,  the  delicate,  beautiful 
specimens,  the  workmanship  of  Jean  Grolier  and 
many  nameless  Italian  and  French  binders  em- 
ployed by  Grolier,  Macoli,  and  others  contrasted 
strikingly  with  the  rather  clumsy,  inartistic  work 
of  the  monks. 

It  was  not  until  1820  that  cloth  was  introduced 
as  a  covering,  invented,  it  is  said,  by  Archibald 
Leighton,  one  of  the  most  enterprising  and  suc- 
cessful of  London  binders.  In  the  < Bookseller' 
of  4  July  1881  there  is  an  interesting  account  by 
Robert  Leighton  of  the  invention  of  cloth  by 
his  father.  The  embossing  of  bookbinding  cloth 
was  suggested  to  the  late  Mr.  de  la  Rue,  and 
was  carried  out  so  admirably  by  him,  with  the 
appliances  he  possessed  for  embossing  paper, 
that  his  process  remains  comparatively  un- 
altered. The  desired  pattern  was  engraved  on 
a  gun-metal  cylinder,  and  transferred  in  reverse 
to  one  made  of  compressed  paper,  strung  upon 
an  iron  spindle,  and  turned  in  the  lathe  the  ex- 
act circumference  of  the  gun-metal  one,  and 
these  two  being  worked  together  in  a  machine, 
and  the  pattern  transferred  from  one  to  the 
other,  the  cloth  was  passed  between  them  and 
received  the  impress  of  the  pattern. 


Extra  work  and  edition  work  are  the  two 
classes  into  which  bindings  may  be  divided. 
Extra  work  bound  with  greater  care,  and 
largely  by  hand  methods,  forming  a  small  por- 
tion of  all  books  bound.  Edition  work  being  the 
binding  of  quantities,  principally  by  machinery. 

The  following  description  will  apply  to  extra 
work,  and  methods  in  vogue  do  not  differ  greatly 
from  the  process  of  hundreds  of  years  ago,  al- 
though the  use  of  the  press  and  plow,  hammer 
and  backing  boards  is  giving  way  to  the  trim- 
ming, smashing  and  backing  machines.  The 
first  process  takes  the  sheets  from  the  printing 
press,  folds  them  in  sections  of  8,  16  or  22  pagos, 
done  generally  by  a  girl  pressing  each  fold  down 
with  a  bone  folder  in  such  a  manner  that  the 
pages  come  in  consecutive  order.  If  a  book  con- 
tains 320  pages  it  will  be  seen  that  20  sections 
or  signatures  are  required  to  complete  it.  When 
all  the  sections  are  folded,  they  are  gathered  up 
in  order  and  collated,  that  is,  examined  to  see 
that  each  signature  follows  in  proper  sequence. 
Smashed  or  hammered,  the  book  is  then  ready  to 
sew. 

Throughout  the  world  in  binderies  given  up 
to  extra  work  will  be  found  a  frame  of  peculiar 
make  called  a  sewing-bench.  On  this  is 
stretched  bands  or  cords  of  soft  twine  in  a  ver- 
tical position,  and  to  these  the  signatures  are  at- 
tached by  passing  the  needle  and  thread  through 
the  middle  of  the  signature  and  around  each 
band  or  cord,  and  the  raised  bands  showing  on 
back  of  book  inform  how  many  cords  the  book 
has  been  sewn  on,  although  in  many  cases 
grooves  are  sawed  in  the  back  of  the  book  into 
which  the  cords  fit,  and  false  bands  are  pasted  on 
back  to  show  the  raised  band  effect. 

The  book  is  taken  down  from  the  sewing 
bench  and  an  inch  or  more  of  twine  is  left  on 
each  side  to  be  later  laced  through  holes 
punched  in  the  boards.  Before  this  is  done  the 
marble  or  colored  linings  are  pasted  on  the 
front  and  back  of  book  inside  the  first  fly  leaf. 
Leather  or  cloth  joints  in  some  cases  are  added. 

The  book  is  then  trimmed  in  a  cutting  or 
trimming  machine ;  formerly  the  edges  were 
trimmed  by  a  knife  called  a  plow  while  the 
book  was  clamped  firmly  in  a  press.  Before 
cutting  the  back  is  struck  forcibly  against  an 
iron  plate,  to  square  up  the  signature,  then 
placed  against  gauge,  set  to  position  desired  and 
clamped,  knife  descending  and  cutting  book 
while  under  pressure.  After  trimming  the  three 
sides  the  book  is  again  carefully  knocked  up 
and  a  thin  coating  of  glue,  sometimes  flexible  in 
character,  is  well  rubbed  in  between  signatures, 
for  unless  this  is  done  the  signatures  will  show 
a  tendency  to  split  open,  where  one  signature 
joins  another.  The  book  is  then  rounded  by 
drawing  or  shaping  the  curve,  at  same  time  beat- 
ing in  a  peculiar  manner  with  a  flat-faced  ham- 
mer, then  clamped  in  pair  of  jaws,  and  the  joints 
drawn  over  by  repeated  taps  of  hammer,  or  in 
some  shops  by  a  heavy  roller  set  in  a  machine 
called  a  backing  machine,  which  clamps  the  back 
under  treadle  movement.  Many  extra  forward- 
ers round  the  book  before  trimming,  then  knock 
the  round  out.  After  cutting,  the  book  will 
spring  back  to  its  former  round,  leaving  the 
front  concave.  In  most  particular  classes  of 
work  the  boards  are  laced  to  book  before  it  is 
cut.  The  book  is  now  laced  to  boards  forming 
the  cover  and  the  ends  of  cords  glued  down  on 


BOOK    OF   THE    DEAD. 


BOOKBINDING 


the  inside  of  the  cover.  If  the  edges  are  to  be 
marbled,  gilt  or  colored,  they  must  go  through 
that  process  before  books  are  rounded. 

Marbling. — Prepared  colors  are  thrown  in  a 
shallow  trough  containing  gum  tragacanth,  on 
which  the  colors  float  and  spread  as  desired. 
The  pattern  is  formed  by  various  combs  that 
mingle  the  colors.  The  edges  of  the  book  are 
dipped  into  the  liquid  just  deep  enough  for 
the  colors  to  adhere,  and  when  removed  from 
trough,  a  sizing  is  drained  over  the  edges,  re- 
moving the  surplus  gum  and  fastening  the  col- 
ors more  securely  to  edge.  After  edges  are 
thoroughly  dry  they  may  be  burnished  with  an 
agate  or  stone  burnisher.  Gilding  is  done  by 
laying  thin  sheets  of  gold  leaf  on  the  edges  of 
books  previously  scraped  and  smoothed  with 
steel  scraper  and  fine  sandpaper,  and  sized 
heavily  with  a  preparation  of  white  of  e^g. 
When  dry  it  is  then  burnished  with  bloodstone, 
flint  and  agate  burnishers. 

Colored  Edges. — Mix  aniline  colors  with 
alcohol,  adding  a  little  ammonia  to  drive 
color  in,  spread  over  surface  of  edges  with 
a  fine  sponge.  If  desired,  then  clamp  in 
press  and  burnish.  The  book  is  then  ready 
for  the  headbands,  linings  and  cover.  The 
headbands  are  merely  ornamental,  and  are 
woven  with  a  colored  silk,  by  machine  or  made 
over  cords  with  muslin.  The  older  process  was 
to  work  over  a  piece  of  parchment  with  col- 
ored silks  and  partially  fasten  to  back  of  book  in 
the  weaving  or  sewing.  The  back  is  then  lined 
with  strong  paper  glued  on,  the  amount  of  stiff- 
ening varying  with  the  size  of  book  and  style 
of  binding,  most  books  being  made  with  loose 
backs  on  which  false  bands  are  glued. 

Coverings. — The  leather  cover  is  dampened 
and  covered  with  paste,  then  drawn  smoothly 
over  and  turned  in,  over  boards  which  have 
previously  been  laced  to  the  book.  After  leather 
has  dried,  clean  out  joints  and  paste  against 
covers  the  lining  papers. 

Finishing. — Artistic  taste  of  the  highest  order 
finds  employment  in  this  branch  of  bookbinding, 
and  an  expert  finisher  must  be  at  once  artist  and 
craftsman  of  much  ability.  The  ornamentation 
and  lettering  of  fine  bindings  all  are  done  by 
hand,  the  finisher  bringing  into  use  many  tools 
and  ornaments,  cut  on  brass  and  fastened  into 
small  wooden  handles,  much  depending  on  the 
manner  of  cutting  and  shaping  the  tools.  The 
leather  must  first  be  prepared  with  paste  wash 
and  a  glair  or  sizing  generally  made  from  the 
white  of  an  egg,  over  which  the  gold  leaf  is 
laid,  and  the  tools  which  are  heated  over  a  gas 
burner  are  then  impressed  on  the  gold  leaf,  the 
surplus  gold  being  brushed  off  with  a  piece  of 
crude  rubber.  Upon  the  most  careful  prepara- 
tion of  leather,  the  proper  heat  of  tools,  and  the 
tooling  of  book  before  sizing  is  too  dry,  depend 
the  brilliancy  or  gloss  of  the  impression. 

Ornamentation  without  gold  is  called  <^  blind 
tooling''  and  is  produced  by  rubbing  or  stamp- 
ing the  hot  tool  on  the  dampened  leather.  Few 
books  bound  now  have  such  a  wealth  of  orna- 
mentation and  so  great  an  amount  of  time  given 
to  the  finishing  as  was  common  in  Groliers 
time,  although  there  are  still  many  novel  effects 
produced  by  the  use  of  inlaid  colored  leathers, 
incised   leather,   etc. 

After  the  period  of  Grolier,  the  taste  for 
magnificent    binding    in    France    ran    riot    and 


many  indulged  in  most  sumptuous  bindings,  and 
designs  were  prepared  under  the  superintendence 
of  the  most  celebrated  artists. 

During  the  i6th  and  17th  centuries  bindings 
were  produced  in  England  which  compared  fa- 
vorably with  the  contemporary  masterpieces  of 
French,  Italian,  and  German  bibliography,  but  in 
the  i8th  century  England  took  the  leading  place 
in  the  workmanlike  forwarding  and  artistic  fin- 
ishing of  books. 

EDITION    WORK. 

So  slow  was  the  process  of  hand  folding, 
2,500  signatures  of  three  folds  being  a  fair  day's 
work,  a  single  sixteen  folding  machine  was 
built  with  steel  points  set  about  fifteen  inches 
apart,  over  which  the  sheet  is  placed,  registered 
exactly  on  the  points,  or  holes  punched  into  the 
sheet  as  it  was  being  printed,  a  knife  descend- 
ing makes  first  fold,  carrying  through  rollers  ta 
gauges,  when  the  second  knife  drops,  forcing 
sheet  through  second  roller,  and  third  knife 
likewise,  making  three  complete  folds,  and  drop- 
ping them  in  a  trough  at  the  rate  of  ten 
thousand  a  da}%  or  in  other  words,  one  machine 
doing  the  work  of  four  hand  folders. 

It  was  soon  found  possible  to  build  double 
i6-folding  machines  doing  nearly  20,000  sheets 
daily,  and  at  present  in  some  of  the  larger 
edition  binderies,  special  machines  have  been 
built  which  will  take  a  sheet  nearly  40  x  60 
inches  in  size,  and  will  turn  out  40,000  signa- 
tures of  t6  pages  each,  equivalent  to  the  work 
of  16  girls  folding  by  hand. 

When  the  books  are  found  complete,  they  are 
put  through  a  powerful  machine  called  a  smash- 
ing machine,  which  compresses  and  makes  solid 
the  book,  then  to  the  sewing  machine,  where 
each  signature  in  turn  is  laid  over  the  arms,  is 
carried  to  a  position  under  a  row  of  curved 
needles,  punches  concealed  within  the  arms  first 
make  an  incision  through  which  the  curved 
needle  carries  a  thread  meeting  a  looper  which 
fastens  each  stitch.  The  first  and  last  sheet  is. 
pa.sted  before  they  are  placed  over  the  arms, 
and  when  finished  the  book  is  cut  apart  from  the 
following  book,  and  the  thread  is  held  by  the 
pasting  of  signature,  from  unraveling. 

Following  the  sewing,  books  are  re-smashed,, 
the  linings  and  cloth  joint  pasted  in  and  books 
are  ready  for  trimming.  If  it  is  to  be  marbled 
or  gilt,  the  back  is  tipped  with  glue  to  keep  the 
signatures  from  getting  out  of  square  or  becom- 
ing irregular. 

Trimming. — To  remove  the  rough  and  un- 
even edges  of  the  signatures,  the  book  should  be 
cut  or  trimmed.  This  may  be  accomplished  in 
the  straight  cutter,  a  machine  using  one  knife 
which,  making  a  clean,  smooth  cut,  descends 
while  book  is  clamped,  in  some  machines  with 
a  hand  clamp,  in  others,  automatically.  This 
machine,  while  very  satisfactory  in  its  results, 
has  given  way  for  the  trimming  of  editions  of 
books  to  automatic  trimmers  of  various  makes, 
which,  unlike  the  process  of  trimming  in  the 
straight  cutter,  trims  the  edges  of  the  top,  front 
and  bottom  of  book  without  removing  from  ma- 
chine. An  improvement  on  the  automatic  trim- 
mer is  a  machine  using  two  knives  with  each  cut 
of  machine,  and  while  the  output  of  this  ma- 
chine is  very  large,  there  has  just  been  installed 
in  one  of  our  large  school-book  binderies,  a 
continuous  cutter  which  permits  the  books  to  be 


BOOKKEEPING 


constantly  fed  into  the  machine,  and  the  output 
is  so  large,  the  machine  is  in  a  class  by  itself. 

After  trimming  and  gilding,  marbling  or  col- 
oring, it  is  glued  over  back  with  thin  coating  of 
glue  well  rubbed  in  between  the  signatures  to 
prevent  the  breaking  between  signatures,  which, 
while  not  taking  from  the  strength  of  binding, 
looks  as  if  poorly  bound;  just  before  glue  is 
dried  too  thoroughly,  book  is  fed  against  the 
gauges  of  the  rounding  and  backing  machine, 
the  front  rolls  of  machine  drawing  or  rolling  the 
round  under  pressure,  then  carried  to  back  part 
of  machine  where  a  backing  plate  rotates  against 
the  back  and  forms  the  joints.  This  machine 
will  do  the  work  of  six  to  eight  men. 

After  the  process  of  rounding  and  backing, 
headbands  are  prepared  by  forming  muslin  over 
a  cord  or  twine  ;  the  backs  of  books  are  thor- 
oughly glued,  headbands  affixed  at  top  and  bot- 
tom of  back,  crash  lining  cut  to  extend  about  one 
inch  or  more  over  the  joints,  is  rubbed  on  with 
a  bone  folder,  heavy  manila  paper  is  then  glued 
against  the  book  and  well  rubbed  in,  after  which 
books,  when  thoroughly  dried,  are  ready  to  case 
in,  or  in  other  words,  put  in  the  covers  which 
have  previously  been  prepared. 

Boards  called  binder's  boards  are  cut  in 
rotary  cutters  to  proper  size  for  books ;  cloth 
is  cut  sufficiently  large  to  overlap  about  one 
half  to  three  quarters  of  an  inch,  and  fed 
over  a  cylinder  which,  revolving,  carries  it 
against  glue  rollers,  which  place  a  thin 
coating  of  glue  thereon.  This  glued  piece 
of  cloth  is  carried  to  a  certain  part  of  ma- 
chine and  awaits  the  laying  thereon  of  boards 
and  strip  of  back  lining  paper  which  has  been 
forwarded  by  a  clever  device  from  the  rear  part 
of  machine.  Grippers  then  carry  it  through 
rollers  after  end  and  side  slides  have  turned  in 
the  cloth  over  the  board,  and  a  rubber  belt  de- 
livers it  on  stand  completely  finished. 

Stamping. — The  ornamentation  of  both  cloth 
and  leather  covers  for  most  bindings  other  than 
single  books  or  single  sets  is  rapidly  and  neatly 
accomplished  by  a  process  called  stamping. 
.Stamping  was  introduced  to  overcome  the  dif- 
ficulty in  hand  tooling  the  cotton  cloth  and  prin- 
cipally for  reason  of  the  need  of  a  much  cheaper 
and  quicker  method  for  lettering  and  ornament- 
ing the  increased  quantities  of  books  sold  when 
the  muslin  or  cloth  was  introduced  as  a  binding 
for  books. 

The  process  of  casing,  as  it  is  called,  con- 
sists in  pasting  the  outer  end  leaves  of  a  book, 
placing  in  proper  position  on  cover,  and  cover 
then  is  drawn  over  and  book  shifted  to  secure 
evenness  of  squares  or  margins,  then  built  up  on 
press  boards  with  brass  rims  which  press  into 
the  joints,  and  after  several  hours'  pressure,  suf- 
ficient time  being  given  to  thoroughly  dry,  the 
books  are  removed  from  press,  opened  up  and 
examined,  wrapped  and  boxed  for  delivery. 

Edwin  S.  Ives, 
Of  Edzvin  Ives  &  Sons,  Neiv  York. 

Bookkeeping  is  the  recording  of  the  trans- 
actions of  a  business  so  that  the  resources  and 
liabilities  may  be  readily  exhibited.  Transac- 
tions are  recorded  in  the  order  of  their  occur- 
rence in  such  books  of  original  entry  as  may  be 
imposed  by  the  nature  of  each  business  or  which 
conform  to  the  requirements  of  the  accounting 
system  in  use.  If  but  a  single  book  is  used  for 
this    purpose,   its   form   is   usually  that   of  the 


day-book,  which  contains  a  narrative  of  all  the 
transactions  as  they  occur.  Formerly  this  was 
the  general  procedure,  but  it  is  found  that  busi- 
ness can  be  expedited  by  classifying  the  transac- 
tions in  separate  books,  consequently  the  cash- 
book,  purchase-book,  and  sales-book  are  now 
commonly  used  concurrently.  Whatever  may  be 
the  character  and  extent  of  the  original  records, 
the  transactions  are  ultimately  transferred  in 
classified  form  to  the  ledger,  which  is  the  princi- 
pal book  of  accounts.  There  are  two  systems 
of  bookkeeping  in  use,  namely,  single  and  double 
entry.  The  primary  element  in  each  of  the  two 
systems  is  the  Account.  In  bookkeeping  by  single 
entry  only  accounts  with  persons  are  kept  in  the 
ledger,  and  the  profits  and  losses  are  ascer- 
tained solely  by  comparison  of  past  with  pres- 
ent conditions ;  in  other  words,  by  taking  the 
difference  between  the  net  worth  at  the  begin- 
ning and  the  net  worth  at  the  close  of  a  stated 
period.  The  principal  books  used  in  single  entry 
are  the  day-book,  cash-book,  and  ledger.  Being 
a  simple  though  necessarily  imperfect  method, 
single  entry  is  used  chiefly  by  retail  traders. 
Bookkeeping  by  double  entry,  as  the  term  im- 
plies, is  that  mode  in  which  every  transaction 
is  entered  twice,  first  on  the  debtor  side  of  one 
or  more  accounts,  and  next  on  the  creditor 
side,  thereby  keeping  the  ledger  perpetually  in 
balance.  The  chief  objects  of  keeping  accounts, 
it  may  be  stated,  are  to  determine  (i)  the 
amount  of  profit  or  loss  during  a  definite  period, 
and  (2)  the  amount  of  net  capital  or  net  insol- 
vency at  the  end  of  such  period.  The  system  of 
double  entry  gives  the  net  capital  or  net  insol- 
vency in  two  different  ways,  from  two  different 
sources,  the  one  corroborating  the  other,  and 
constituting  what  is  called  the  balance  of  the 
books.  Upon  the  classification  resulting  from 
this  arrangement  rests  the  claim  of  double  entry 
bookkeeping  to  be  considered  as  a  science. 

Bookkeeping,-  like  most  other  sciences,  has 
adopted  a  terminology  of  its  own  to  avoid 
circumlocution.  For  example,  the  terms  debtor 
and  creditor,  usually  abbreviated  Dr.  and  Cr., 
are  used  arbitrarily  to  designate  the  right-hand 
and  left-hand  side,  respectively,  of  an  account. 
An  account  is  a  collection  of  items,  under  an 
appropriate  title,  so  arranged  as  to  give  a  result 
by  comparison. 

Journalizing  is  the  mental  process  of  decid- 
ing how  every  transaction  is  to  be  disposed  of 
in  the  ledger ;  that  is,  what  accounts  are  to  be 
debited  and  credited  in  each  case.  Posting  is 
the  transferring  of  debit  and  credit  items  to 
their  proper  accounts  in  the  ledger.  A  trial  bal- 
ance is  a  list  of  the  open  accounts  in  a  ledger 
together  with'  the  debit  and  credit  footing  of 
each  account.  A  business  statement  is  a  sum- 
marized exhibit  of  those  accounts  which  com- 
prise all  items  of  revenue,  otherwise  de- 
nominated a  profit  and  loss  account.  A  financial 
statement  is  a  compilation  of  those  accounts 
having  to  do  with  capital,  in  other  words, 
a  balance  sheet.  A  balance  sheet  is  a 
condensed  statement  of  the  resources  and 
liabilities  of  a  business.  It  is  usually  com- 
piled from  the  trial  balance  and  inventory  sched- 
ules at  the  end  of  a  fiscal  period  and  it  is 
frequently  accompanied  with  a  profit  and  loss 
statement  which  confirms  the  increase  or  diminu- 
tion of  finance  as  displayed  in  the  balance  sheet 
proper.     The    function    of    a    balance    sheet    is. 


BOOKKEEPING 


therefore,  to  present  a  scientific  statement  of 
the  financial  condition  of  a  business  at  a  speci- 
fied date. 

The  problem  presented  in  bookkeeping,  as 
may  be  inferred  from  the  foregoing,  is  that  of 
exhibiting  financial  transactions  as  they  occur 
in  the  most  minute  detail,  and  ultimately  in  the 
most  condensed  form.  The  best  solution  of  this 
problem  in  any  given  instance,  depends  largely 
upon  the  nature  of  the  individual  business  the 
operations  of  which  are  to  be  recorded. 

The  advantages  of  the  double  entry  system 
over  the  single  entry  system  may  be  summar- 
ized briefly  as  follows:  (i)  The  susceptibility 
of  infinite  modification  in  its  minor  features 
without  disturbing  the  general  results  as  shown 
in  the  balance  sheet ;  (2)  the  constant  equilibrium 
of  debits  and  credits,  the  mathematical  proof 
of  which  is  afforded  in  the  trial  balance;  (3)  the 
separate  classification  of  capital  and  revenue 
accounts,  the  resultant  statement  of  each  class 
being  confirmatory  of  the  accuracy  of  the  other ; 
(4)  the  displaying  of  the  channels  through 
which  profit  and  loss  items  have  accrued,  thus 
revealing  the  methods  by  which  the  movements 
of  the  business  have  been  financed;  (5)  the 
provision  for  the  ascertainment  of  gross  profit 
on  the  different  departments  of  a  business  by 
means  of  the  trading  accounts ;  (6)  the  working 
economy  resulting  from  the  introduction  of 
special  columns  in  the  books  of  original  entry ; 
and  (7)  the  ease  with  which  a  thorough  audit 
can  be  conducted  at  any  time,  this  circumstance 
serving  as  a  check  upon  erroneous  entries. 

A  double-entry  ledger,  as  before  stated,  is  the 
book  of  accounts.  As  such  it  is  a  concrete  ex- 
pression of  the  principle  of  classification,  and 
the  philosophic  basis  of  the  "science  of  accounts* 
is  displayed  therein  with  mathematical  preci- 
sion. Each  separate  account  contained  in  the 
ledger  is  built  up  on  the  theory  of  comparison. 
Thus,  the  items  of  one  side  denote  increase  or 
plus  of  financial  ability,  those  of  the  other  side 
denote  its  decrease  or  minus.  Hence,  to  know 
the  proper  place  in  the  ledger  in  w-hich  to  assign 
each  item  in  a  transaction,  is  to  know  the  laws, 
principles,  and  objects  of  each  account  in  the 
ledger ;  and  a  false  entry  can  only  be  proved 
false  by  showing  its  want  of  conformity  to 
some  principle  of  the  ledger.  Take  the  cash 
account  for  illustration :  The  left-hand  or  debit 
side  contains  the  items  of  cash  received ;  and  the 
right-hand  or  credit  side  the  items  of  cash  dis- 
bursed ;  the  difference  between  the  receipts  and 
payments  will,  -necessarily,  be  the  balance  or 
amount  of  cash  on  hand,  which,  in  this  case,  can 
be  confirmed  by  actual  count.  Again,  the  mer- 
chandise account  shows  on  the  debit  side  the 
value-  of  the  goods  on  hand  at  the  beginning 
and  the  cost  of  all  subsequent  purchases ;  the 
credit  side  shows  all  returns  or  sales  of  such 
goods,  to  which  is  added  the  value  of  the  goods 
on  hand  at  the  end;  the  difference  or  balance, 
being  the  excess  of  production  over  cost,  or  of 
cost  over  production,  as  the  case  may  be  —  in 
other  words,  the  gain  or  loss.  Each  separate 
account,  therefore,  is  constructed  in  accordance 
with  a  fixed  and  unalterable  plan  and  each  con- 
tributes a  definite  result  which  must  be  con- 
sidered in  the  final  showing.  Being  based  upon 
the  theory  of  the  equation,  there  follows  a  double 
lecord  of  each  item  in  every  account  with  the 
result  that  the  total  debits  always  equal  the  total 
credits    when    the    several    accounts    are    taken 


together.  It  should  be  noted  in  this  connection 
that  finance,  only,  is  the  essential  object  of  ac- 
counts, namely,  cash,  notes,  book  debts,  or  their 
equivalents ;  any  other  property  is  only  intro- 
duced into  the  books  to  show  how  far  it  con- 
tributed to  the  increase,  or  occasioned  the  dimi- 
nution of  finance,  and  so  to  corroborate  the 
actual  amount  of  financial  ability  found  to  exist. 
The  great  and  almost  the  only  source  of  con- 
fusion in  double  entry  is  that  of  confounding 
an  account  kept  to  show  financial  ability  with 
an  account  to  ascertain  how  much  the  profit  on 
some  property  dealt  in  has  contributed  to  what- 
ever augmentation  may  be  found  in  the  state 
of  the  finances  after  a  certain  period  of  busi- 
ness. 

It  will  be  apparent  that  two  distinct  ideas  are 
concurrently  promulgated  through  all  movements 
of  the  business  directed  toward  an  increase  of 
wealth.  These  two  ideas  are  concentrated  in 
the  cash  and  merchandise  accounts,  respectively, 
as  types  of  the  two  classes  of  accounts.  These 
two  classes  of  accounts  have  been  denominated, 
business  and  financial :  the  former  revealing  the 
moveinents  of  the  business,  the  latter  its  finan- 
cial results.  In  other  words,  business  accounts 
show  the  losses  and  gains,  and  financial  ac- 
counts show  the  resources  and  liabilities.  Thus 
it  will  appear  that  the  debits  of  the  financial  ac- 
counts show  an  increase  of  wealth  and  the 
credits  decrease,  and  that  the  business  accounts 
simply  show  the  same  thing  reversed.  Accord- 
ingly, the  sum  of  all  the  resources  of  a  concern 
less  the  sum  of  all  its  liabilities  is  its  net  capital. 
All  increase  or  diminution  of  net  capital  comes 
from  the  receiving  of  more  or  less  for  property 
than  its  cost  or  the  appreciation  or  depreciation 
of  property  while  in  possession,  or  from 
rent,  interest,  taxes,  and  service.  The  net  gain 
or  net  loss  of  a  concern,  therefore,  during  any 
specified  period  must  be  exactly  equal  to  the 
increase  or  decrease  of  net  capital  during  the 
same  period.  In  a  manufacturing  concern,  for 
example,  it  is  important  that  the  progress  of  the 
business  be  shown  at  frequent  intervals.  It 
should  be  possible  at  any  time  to  ascertain  the 
cost  of  production  of  each  article  manufactured 
and  to  verify  this  cost  by  a  statistical  compari- 
son with  previous  costs.  This  implies  (i)  that 
such  a  system  of  stock-keeping  be  inaugurated 
as  shall  -show  the  amount  of  material  con- 
sumed in  the  process  of  manufacture;  (2)  that 
the  expenditures  for  labor  be  shown  for  each  of 
the  successive  steps  essential  to  bringing  the 
article  to  a  completed  condition;  (3)  that  costs 
of  superintendence  and  incidental  shop  charges 
be  pro-rated;  (4)  that  the  general  expenses  be 
distributed  among  the  goods  manufactured ; 
(5)  that  adequate  provision  be  made  for 
depreciation ;  (6)  that  specific  reserves  be  set 
aside  for  bad  debts,  taxes,  contingencies,  etc.,  and 
(7)  that  final  profit  shall  be  based  on  the  total 
inclusive  cost  of  production.  The  application  of 
scientific  principles  to  the  accounting  system 
should  enable  the  management  to  have  placed 
periodically  before  it,  such  facts  relating  to  the 
cost  of  production  as  are  essential  to  the  shaping 
of  a  successful  policy  in  these  times  of  intense 
industrial  competition. 

The  manner  of  recording  transactions  before 
they  are  arranged  in  the  ledger,  varies  in  almost 
every  business,  but  this  variation  presents  no 
confusion  whatever  when  the  different  accounts 
embodied  in  the  ledger  are  thoroughly  under- 


BOOKKEEPING 


£tood.  Double-entry  accounting,  in  fact,  ad- 
mits of  a  great  variety  of  modifications,  erro- 
neously, in  many  cases,  called  systems.  The 
so-called  voucher  system,  for  instance,  now  ex- 
tensively used  in  railway  and  manufacturing  cor- 
porations, is  an  expedient  for  eliminating  from 
the  ledger  individual  accounts  with  creditors. 
At  the  same  time,  by  the  device  of  special  col- 
umns in  a  voucher  register,  it  facilitates  the 
most  minute  subdivision  of  revenue  expenditures 
and  renders  periodic  comparison  of  such  items 
possible  to  any  degree  desired.  In  most  lines 
of  business  special  columns  may  also  be  intro- 
duced in  the  cash-book,  sales-book,  and  journal 
for  the  purpose  of  minimizing  the  mechanical 
labor  of  posting,  the  aggregate  of  each  column 
being  transferred  to  the  corresponding  ledger 
accounts  instead  of  the  separate  items.  The 
principle  of  consolidated  postings  is  applied  in 
dividing  the  accounts  of  the  general  ledger 
among  a  series  of  subordinate  ledgers,  a  com- 


Loose  leaf  and  card  ledgers,  impression  sales- 
books,  duplicate  order  blanks,  and  the  many  me- 
chanical devices  for  the  curtailing  of  labor  or 
the  securing  of  expediency  or  directness  in  re- 
cording, do  not  come  within  the  limits  of  this 
discussion  which  is  intended  rather  to  give  a 
general  view  of  the  subject  and  its  underlying 
principles. 

Auditing. —  Broadly  stated,  it  is  the  province 
of  the  accountant  to  devise  the  accounting  sys- 
tem and  to  specify  the  nature  and  character  of 
the  records  that  shall  be  kept ;  it  is  the  duty 
of  the  bookkeeper  to  perform  the  routine  work  of 
recording  the  transactions  of  the  business  in 
accordance  with  the  plan  outlined  by  the  ac- 
countant ;  it  is  the  function  of  the  auditor  to 
examine  critically  the  completed  records  of  the 
bookkeeper,  to  compare  the  entries  with  the 
documents,  to  ascertain  if  the  plans  of  the  ac- 
countant have  been  strictly  followed,  and.  finally, 
to  prepare  the  profit  and  loss  account  and  certify 


FORM   OF  DAY   BOOK. 

New   York,   July    i,    1903. 


Joseph     Hardcastle    began    business    this    day    with    the 
following   resources   and   liabilities: 
Cash   on   hand. 

Bills   receivable,   note  signed  by   B.    F.   Williams, 
Elston    E.    Gaylord   owes   him   on   account, 
Stock  of    goods   on  hand   at  present   value, 

Total    resources, 
Bills    payable,    for    note    favor    Charles    W.    Haskins, 
Leonard  H.    Conant  for  amount  owed  him  on  account, 

Total  liabilities, 

Joseph     Hardcastle's     net     capital, 


Bought  of  Henry   R.  M.   Cook  on  account 
200  bush,   potatoes   @   $1.10, 

3 


Received  cash  for  B.   F.  Williams'  note  now  due, 


Sold  Edgar   M.   Barber  on  account   at  30  days, 
60  bbls.    apples    @    $3.50, 
400   bush,    corn   @   8oc., 


Received  from  Elston  E.  Gaylord,  cash  in  full  of  account, 
6  


Lent   O.   P.   Kinsey,   cash,   receiving   his  note   at   90   days 
with   interest    at    five   per   cent. 


6000 
4000 
2500 
5000 

8400 
2850 


210 
320 


17500 
11250 


6250 


530 
2500 


40 


mon  division  being:  general,  sales,  and  pur- 
chase ledgers.  Each  of  these  ledgers  can  be 
made  self-balancing,  if  desired,  by  means  of 
special  columns  in  the  books  of  original  entry,  a 
controlling  account  being  kept  in  the  general 
ledger,  representing  the  aggregate  sums  in  each 
of  the  subordinate  ledgers.  A  separate  ledger 
can  thus  be  appropriated,  if  the  magnitude  of 
the  business  demands  it,  to  the  names  beginning 
with  each  letter  of  the  alphabet,  or  any  number 
of  letters  may  be  included  in  one,  as  A  to  K, 
A  to  G,  etc.  By  this  means  separate  duties 
may  be  assigned  by  the  accountant  to  a  large 
number  of  subordinates,  the  general  ledger  con- 
sisting of  but  few  accounts,  from  which,  how- 
ever, he  is  enabled  to  show  promptly  the  con- 
dition of  the  entire  business.  A  private  ledger 
is  kept  by  some  proprietors  for  the  purpose  of 
withholding  from  subordinates  certain  informa- 
tion. The  difference  between  the  total  debits 
and  credits  of  the  private  ledger  accounts  should 
complete  and  confirm  the  general  trial  balance. 
Capital,  profit  and  loss,  investments,  and  other 
accounts  can  be  kept  in  this  manner  with  per- 
fect security. 


to  the  correctness  of  the  balance  sheet.  It  is 
incumbent  upon  the  auditor  to  exercise  every 
faculty  and  means  in  his  power  to  determine 
(i)  that  the  liabilities  are  all  stated;  (2)  that 
the  resources  are  not  overstated;  (3)  that  the 
profit  and  loss  account  contains  all  expenses 
chargeable  to  the  period  under  review;  (4)  that 
the  profits  earned  are  all  included;  (5)  that 
proper  charges  against  revenue  have  not  been 
capitalized ;  and  (6)  that  intentional  errors,  ir- 
regularities, and  fraudulent  entries  have  not 
been  permitted.  The  professional  duties  of  the 
competent  public  accountant  and  auditor,  there- 
fore, cover  a  wide  range  of  technical  knowledge 
and  commercial  experience.  A  large  number  of 
text-books  on  elementary  bookkeeping  have  been 
published,  principally  for  schoolroom  instruc- 
tion. For  a  broader  treatment  of  the  subject 
application  for  special  reference  books  may  be 
made  to  members  of  the  State  Societies  of  Certi- 
fied Public  Accountants  and  the  American  Asso- 
ciation of  Public  Accountants,  or  the  following 
works  may  be  consulted:  Lisle,  ^Accounting  in 
Theory  and  Practice^  ;  Dicksee,  *^  Auditing^  ; 
Broaker,      'American     Accountants'     ManuaP  ; 


BOOKKEEPING 


this 
to  the 


ner,       Cost    Accounts/;     Keister,     ^Corporation  is  proper  to  state  that  in  the  preparation  of 

Accounting  and   Auditmg>  ;    Metcalf,    'Cost   of  article  the  undersigned  is  also  indebted  to  tw. 

Manufactures^  ;   Lewis,    'Commercial   Organiza-  writings  of  Mr.  Thomas  Jones  and  to  sugges 

tion   of  Factories);  Matheson,   'Depreciation  of  tions  from  Prof.  Joseph  Hardcastle,  two  of  the 

Factories';  Whmney,  'Executorship  Accounts>  ;  ablest  writers  on  accounting  that  America  has 

Garcke   &    Fells,    'Factory   Accounts'  ;    Norton  produced.  -  -    - 


FORM  OF  JOURNAL. 
New    York,   July    i,    1903. 


Edgar  M.  Barber. 
CcrliUcd  Public  Accountant. 


L.F. 
2 

3 

9 

5 

IS 


Cash, 

Bills   receivable, 

Elston  E.   Gaylord, 

Merchandise, 


Bills    payable, 
Leonard    H.     Conant, 
Joseph     Hardcastle, 


Merchandise, 


Cash, 


Henry    R.    M.     Cook, 
3  


Edgar   M.    Barber, 


Bills    receivable, 
4  


Merchandise, 
5   


Cash, 


Elston     E.     Gaylord, 
6    


Bills    receivable, 


Cash, 


6000 
4000 
2500 
5000 


4000 

530 

2500 

1000 


8400 
2850 
6250 


530 


2500 


40 


FORM    OF    CASH    BOOK    (Debit    Side). 


1903 

' 

July 

I 

Balance    on    hand, 

16428 

42 

2 

Merchandise,    cash    sales. 

^ 

450 

bS 

6 

Bills    receivable,    A.    C.    Lobeck's    note, 

3 

3500 

9 

Herbert    H.    Swasey,   on    account, 

10 

4000 

15 

Bills   receivable,    M.   A.   Bigelow's  note, 

3 

692 

48 

15 

Interest    on    above 

7 

7 

20 

20 

James    G.    Cannon,    on    account. 

II 

1200 

25 

Merchandise,     cash    sales. 

5 

1570 

83 

28 

Lyman  J.   Gage,  on  account, 

Cash     Dr., 

lb 
2 

230 

09 

1 165 1 

25 

28079 

67 

' 

FORM    OF   CASH    BOOK    (Credit   Side). 


1903 

July 

4 
7 
8 
10 
16 
16 

Merchandise,   Invoice  No.  43,   Garner  &  Co., 

Bills   payable,   note   favor   W.    F.   Wakeman, 

John   L.    N.   Hunt,   on  account 

Expense,     cartage. 

Bills   payable,   acceptance    Charles   E.    Sprague, 

Interest  on  above,  30  days, 

Cash    Cr., 
Balance, 

5 

15 
12 

4 
15 

7 

2 

12000 
1740 
1235 

14 
2000 

10 

75 
50 

•    17000 
1 1079 

25 
42 

28079 

67 

FORM    OF    LEDGER    ACCOUNT. 
Merchandise. 


Dr. 

Cr 

1903 
July 

I 

12 
31 

On  hand. 
Chas.H.Parkhurst. 
Profit  and  Loss 

31 
10 

<;ooo 
8471 

974 

% 

1903 
July 

4 
16 
31 

1 

W.J.Kinsley, 
Note  at  30  days, 
Inventory. 

18 
24 

2764 
6041 

5640 

25 
90 

14446 

15 

14446 

15 

BOOK-PLATE 


FORM     OF     BALANCE     SHEET. 


COMPANY     JULY     I,     I9O3. 


Resources. 

Cash  on   hand, 

Cash    in    bank, 

Stocks   and   bonds,   as  per  Schedule  A, 

Properties  as  under: 

Land,    per    Ledger    valuations. 

Buildings,    per    Ledger    valuations, 

Plant    ana    machinery,    less    deprecia- 
tion, 

Inventory  of  stock,  valued  by  Mr.  

as    under: 

Raw    material, 

Goods    unfinished, 

Goods    manufactured. 
Sundry    trade    debtors    as    under: 

Bills   receivable  as  per   Schedule   B, 

Accounts    receivable, 

as    per    Schedule    C, 
Less    reserve    for    discounts. 
Prepaid   charges   as   under: 

Insurance    premiums. 

Rent    for    July,     1903, 


Liabilities. 

Mortgages    payable. 
Interest  due  and  accrued. 
Sundry     trade    creditors    as 

Bills   payable 

as   per    Schedule    D, 

Accounts   payable 

as    per    Schedule 
Capital  stock, 
Reserve    for  ■ 

Surplus, 


under: 


E, 


Book-plate,  a  printed  or  engraved  label, 
usually  decorative,  placed  on  the  inside  cover 
of  a  book  as  the  owner's  symbol.  In  a  certain 
sense,  any  individualized  label  is  entitled  to  the 
name;  but  as  usually  understood,  the  term  is 
restricted  to  those  with  some  special  artistic 
design,  which,  however,  may  range  from  the 
simplest  to  the  most  elaborate  and  ornate  com- 
position. The  elements  are  —  the  owner's  name; 
his  coat  of  arms  if  he  has  one,  usually, 
but  not  invariably;  allegorical  emblems  or  com- 
positions ;  landscape  designs ;  mottoes ;  quota- 
tions, etc.  In  purpose  they  are  probablj^  very 
ancient :  some  of  the  small  tablets  found  in 
Assyrian  libraries  are  intelligible  only  as  book- 
plates, and  they  are  accredited  to  Japan  in  the 
loth  century.  Indeed,  something  of  the  sort 
may  almost  be  predicated  of  any  society  where 
books  circulate  much.  But  our  modern  book- 
plates are  of  German  descent,  and  seem  to  have 
been  nearly  contemporaneous  with  printing,  one 
being  mentioned  as  of  the  mid-i5th  century; 
the  earliest  actually  known,  however,  is  a  hand- 
colored  heraldic  wood-cut  of  about  1480,  in  some 
books  and  luanuscripts  presented  to  the  monas- 
tery of  Buxheim,  Swabia.  The  earlier  ones 
were  all  mere  indices  of  ownership,  rough  wood- 
cuts with  no  artistic  design ;  they  were  perma- 
nently raised  into  the  domain  of  an  art  by  the 
great  Albrecht  Durer  (1471-1528),  the  "father 
of  the  book-plate.®  He  made  two  for  Bilibald 
Pirckheimer,  probably  before  1503  —  one  a  mix- 
ture of  armorial  and  allegorical  elements,  and 
the  other  a  large  bold  portrait  of  the  famous 
Nuremberg  senator ;  but  his  earliest  dated  one 
is  for  Hieronymus  Ebner  of  the  same  city,  in 
1516.  Several  of  the  great  German  artists  of 
that  age  —Holbein,  Cranach,  Amman,  and 
others  —  designed  book-plates ;  indeed,  since 
Diirer's  time  the  best  have  not  disdained  this 
branch  of  art,  and  wealthy  collectors  have  vied 
with  each  other  in  costly  designs. 

The  idea  was  soon  adopted  in  other  Euro- 
pean countries.  The  French  wrought  with 
great  delicacy  and  beauty,  but  Avith  too  elaborate 
and  profuse  decoration.  The  English  were  very 
late  in  adopting  the  fashion :  the  number  of 
examples  which  have  come  down  from  before 
the  Restoration  is  singularly  few,  and  the  first 
engraved  one  we  possess  is  that  of  Sir  Nicholas 
Bacon,  father  of  the  Chancellor,  dated  1574; 
though  an  old  folio  volume  from  Henry  VIII.'s 
library,   now  in  the  British  Museum,   contains 


an  elaborately  emblazoned  drawing  which  formed 
the  book-plate  of  Cardinal  Wolsey,  with  his 
arms,  supporters,  and  cardinal's  hat.  But  after 
the  Restoration  they  multiply  so  rapidly  that 
owing  to  the  great  number  of  wealthy  English 
collectors,  they  far  outnumber  all  the  rest  of 
the  world,  and  some  of  them  have  considerable 
historical  interest.  Pepys  had  several,  one  with 
initials  and  crossed  anchors  probably  as  early 
as  1668,  one  with  his  portrait  not  earlier  than 
1685.  Among  other  English  names  highly 
prized  by  book-plate  collectors  may  be  men- 
tioned Bishop  Burnet,  William  Penn,  Robert 
Harley,  Matthew  Prior,  Lawrence  Sterne,  David 
Garrick,  Horace  Walpole,  John  Wilkes,  and 
Charles  James  Fox.  Among  the  artists  who 
have  engraved  them  are  those  of  William  Mar- 
shall and  Robert  White,  Hogarth,  Bartolozzi, 
Bewick,  and  Vertue.  Bewick  at  one  time  was 
regularly  employed  in  their  production.  One 
of  the  prettiest  of  book-plates  is  that  designed 
in  1793  by  Agnes  Berry  for  the  Hon.  Mrs. 
Darner,  and  engraved  by  l^rancis  Legat. 

The  style  of  design,  naturally,  has  varied 
with  the  taste  of  the  age,  and  is  no  mean  index 
of  its  characteristics.  The  chief  English  styles 
have  been  classified  by  Lord  de  Tabley,  the 
leading  modern  authority,  as  follows :  Early 
English,  entirely  armorial,  with  profuse  man- 
tling, and  large  fuII-rounded  curves  surround- 
ing three  and  often  four  sides  of  the  shield. 
Jacobean,  from  about  the  time  of  James  II.  to 
174s,  with  a  heavy  carved  appearance,  an  even 
balance  of  proportions,  always  a  regular  out- 
line, and  often  a  carved  molding  around  it 
which  makes  a  massive  rectangular  frame  —  a 
dignified  and  reposeful  if  rather  formal  st}de. 
The  Chippendale  succeeded,  lighter  and  more 
graceful,  with  rich  curves  and  airy  scrolls,  the 
helmet  gone,  no  set  form  of  shield,  and  a  pro- 
fusion of  careless  sprays  and  garlands,  etc. 
This  degenerated  with  poor  artists  into  an  in- 
congruous mass  of  overdone  and  rococo  orna- 
mentation, a  heap  of  all  the  unrelated  objects 
of  nature  and  art  and  the  most  artificial  frivoli- 
ties of  design,  portraits,  and  castles,  and  ruined 
abbeys,  Watteau  shepherdesses  and  shepherds, 
lambs  and  dragons,  dogs  and  ships,  etc.  About 
1770  came  in  the  Ribbon  and  Wreath,  with  a 
shield  decorated  as  the  name  implies,  much  sim- 
pler  and   more  tasteful. 

The  American  settlers  for  more  than  a  cen- 
tury made  no   attempt  at  book-plates  of  their 


BOOKS 


own  manufacture:  the  richer  colonists  looked 
to  England  for  everything,  especially  luxuries 
and  articles  of  culture,  and  the  others  had  no 
time  or  taste  for  superfluities.  Naturally 
enough,  most  of  these  early  plates  belong  in  the 
southern  colonies,  where  there  was  more  of 
leisure  and  cultivation  of  the  decorative  side 
of  life;  but  for  the  same  reason,  their  more  in- 
timate connection  with  England  and  preference 
for  its  ways,  as  well  as  superior  taste,  they  con- 
tinued to  use  its  book-plates  almost  exclusively 
long  after  American  engravers  were  actively 
employed  upon  this  branch  of  work.  Very  few 
of  the  old  southern  plates  are  of  American  de- 
sign, and  consequently  they  are  much  less  valued 
by  collectors  (except  for  the  owner's  sake,  as 
with  Washington's)  than  the  northern;  though 
the  latter  are  much  cruder  in  heraldry,  design, 
and  execution.  The  earliest  dated  and  signed 
American  plate  by  a  native  engraver  is  that  of 
Thomas  Dering,  engraved  in  1740  by  Nathaniel 
Hurd  of  Boston ;  the  next  is  of  John  Burnet 
(1754),  by  Henry  Dawkins,  who  settled  in 
1730-77,  the  best  of  our  early  engravers, 
though  there  is  no  doubt  that  an  earlier 
one  of  Kurd's  was  that  of  Edward  Augus- 
tus Holyoke;  Philadelphia  and  later  in  New 
York;  then  comes  that  of  Benjamin  Greene 
(1757),  by  Hurd;  then  of  the  Albany  Society 
Library  (1759).  Paul  Revere  also  engraved 
book-plates ;  as  did  Amos  Doolittle  of  New 
Haven,  Peter  Maverick  of  New  York,  Alex- 
ander Anderson  of  New  York  (the  first  Amer- 
ican wood  engraver,  sometimes  called  the 
*^ American  Bewick"),  and  others,  in  the  north- 
ern States,  especially  around  the  great  centres 
like  Boston,  New  Haven,  Philadelphia,  and 
Baltimore.  They  worked  mainly  in  the  Chippen- 
dale style  till  it  gave  place  to  the  Ribbon  and 
Wreath,  and  originated  no  new  style. 

The  earliest  book-plates  were  of  large  size, 
as  if  made  specially  for  folios ;  but  a  smaller 
size  soon  became  general,  and  was  used  for 
books  of  all  sizes.  Some  owners,  however, 
have  used  different  plates  for  different  sizes; 
some  of  Sir  William  Stirling-Maxwell's  were 
of  gigantic  proportions. 

The  collection  of  book-plates  is  a  very  mod- 
ern amusement,  but  has  risen  to  enormous 
proportions.  The  first  collector  known  was  Dr. 
Joseph  Jackson  Howard,  and  his  collection 
numbered  over  100.000.  Sir  Augustus  Wollas- 
ton  Franks  of  London  had  one  of  some  200.000, 
which  he  left  to  the  British  Museum.  A  Ger- 
man nobleman,  Count  Karl  Emich  zu  Leinin- 
gen-Westerburg,  had  also  an  exceedingly  fine 
one.  A  number  of  large  and  valuable  ones 
exist  in  the  United  States,  including  that  of 
the  Grolier  Club,  which  gave  in  1894  the  fir.st 
American  public  exhibition  of  them.  There  is 
a  cosmopolite  association  of  collectors  and  con- 
noisseurs, the  Ex  Libris  Society  of  London 
(1890),  issuing  a  monthly  journal,  and  there 
are  also  periodicals  devoted  to  it  in  France  and 
Germany.  There  are  regular  «prices  current" 
of  book-plates  among  dealers,  and  auction  sales 
as  of  books.  The  intelligent  study  of  them  is 
based  on  the  work  of  the  English  poet  John 
Byrne  Leicester  Warren,  afterward  Lord  de 
Tabley,  who  published,  in  1880,  his  <Guide  to 
the  Study  of  Book-Plates,*  which  has  no  rival, 
and  whose  classifications  are  universally^  ac- 
cepted. Special  works  on  particular  divisions, 
besides  works  in  foreign  languages,  are,  among 


others.  Castle's  < English  Book- Plates'  (1892)  ; 
Hamilton's  'French  Book-Plates^  (1892); 
Hardy's  <Book-Plates>  (1893)  ;  C.  D.  Allen's 
•^American  Book-Plates'  (1894),  Labouchere's 
'Ladies'  Book-Plates'  (1895);  Hamilton's 
'Dated  Book-Plates'   (1896)  ;  etc. 

Books,  Censorship  of.  Unless  we  con- 
sider the  burning  of  condemned  books  under  the 
Roman  emperors  as  a  censorship,  the  establish- 
ment of  this  institution  must  be  attributed  to  the 
popes ;  but  it  cannot  be  denied  that  it  would 
have  sprung  up  in  a  thousand  other  places  even 
if  it  had  not  existed  in  their  dominions.  Soon 
after  the  invention  of  printing,  the  popes  per- 
ceived the  influence  which  this  art  exerted  over 
the  diffusion  of  knowledge.  It  was  besides 
doubly  dangerous  at  a  time  when  the  authority 
of  the  Church  had  been  assailed,  and  was  shak- 
ing under  the  load  of  its  abuses.  They  en- 
deavored therefore  to  prohibit  first  the  reading, 
and  secondly  the  printing,  of  certain  literary 
works.  They  enforced  the  ancient  decrees  of 
the  Church  against  the  reading  of  heretical 
books,  and  introduced  an  ecclesiastical  super- 
intendency  of  the  press  in  1479  and  1496,  more 
completely  established  by  a  bull  of  Leo  X.  in 
1515.  In  this  the  bishops  and  inquisitors  were 
required  to  examine  all  works  before  they  were 
printed,  and  thus  to  prevent  the  publication  of 
heretical  opinions.  They  went  still  farther: 
as  this  papal  decree  could  not  be  carried  into 
execution  in  all  countries  on  account  of  the 
Reformation,  they  prepared  an  index  of  books 
which  nobody  was  allowed  to  read  under  pen- 
alty of  the  censure  of  the  Church.  This  index 
was  commenced  by  the  Council  of  Trent,  in  the 
fourth  session  of  which  (1546)  the  decree  of 
the  censorship  was  renewed ;  but  it  was  not 
executed,  and  was  finally  left  to  the  popes  (25th 
session  of  1563),  by  whom  several  such  'Indices 
Librorum  Prohibitorum'  have  been  published. 
Works  of  an  established  character,  which  could 
not  well  be  prohibited,  it  was  determined  to 
expurgate.  The  Duke  of  Alva  caused  such  an 
'Index  Expurgatorius'  to  be  prepared  in  the 
Netherlands ;  another  was  drawn  up  at  Rome 
in  1607 ;  but  there  are  serious  difficulties  in  ex- 
purgating books.  The  papal  government  still 
continues  the  policy  of  prohibiting  to  the  faith- 
ful the  reading  of  works  deemed  dangerous, 
and  the  Congregation  of  the  Index  has  still 
its  place  and  functions  at  Rome. 

In  Germany  the  politico-theological  contro- 
versies gave  the  first  occasion  for  the  introduc- 
tion of  this  institution,  as  they  were  carried 
on  with  the  greatest  violence  on  both  sides. 
The  decree  of  the  German  diet  in  1524  prohibited 
them.  By  the  diet  of  1530  a  more  severe  super- 
intendence of  the  press  was  established ;  and 
this  was  confirmed  by  later  laws  of  the  empire 
in  1541,  1548,  1567,  and  1577,  etc.  It  was  also 
provided  at  the  Peace  of  Westphalia,  1648 
(Osnabr.  Instr.,  cap.  v.  sec.  50),  that  the  states 
should  not  suffer  attacks  on  religious  parties. 
From  that  time  the  emperors  have  premised,  in 
their  elective  capitulations,  to  watch  strictly 
over  the  fulfilment  of  this  article.  In  the  capitu- 
lations of  the  Emperor  Leopold  II.,  1790,  and  of 
the  Emperor  Francis  IL,  it  was  further  added 
(art.  vi.  sec.  8),  "that  no  work  should  he 
printed  which  could  not  be  reconciled  with 
the  symbolical  books  of  both  Catholics  and 
Protestant?,   and   with   good   morals,   or   which 


BOOLAK  —  BOOLE 


might  produce  the  ruin  of  the  existing  consti- 
tution, or  the  disturbance  of  public  peace.^*  It 
was,  however,  not  difficult  in  most  Protestant 
•countries  for  individual  authors  or  literary  jour- 
nals to  obtain  an  exemption  from  the  censor- 
ship ;  and  many  institutions,  academies,  univer- 
sities, etc.,  were  privileged  in  this  way  as  far 
as  concerned  their  regular  professors.  The  gov- 
ernments sometimes  protected  their  subjects 
with  great  energy;  as,  for  instance,  that  of 
Hanover,  in  the  case  of  Putter  and  Schloezer. 
■Censorship  Avas  first  abolished  in  England.  It 
was  formerly  exercised  by  the  well-known  Star- 
chamber,  and,  after  the  abolition  of  this  court 
in  1641,  by  the  Parliament.  In  1662  it  was  regu- 
lated by  a  particular  statute,  but  only  for  a 
certain  number  of  years.  This  statute  was  re- 
newed in  1679,  and  again  in  1692  for  two 
years  more.  In  1694  the  right  of  the  crown  to 
render  the  printing  of  writings,  journals,  etc., 
■dependent  on  its  permission, —  that  is,  the  cen- 
sorship,—  ceased  entireh'.  In  Holland,  and  even 
in  the  Austrian  Netherlands,  a  great  liberty,  if 
not  an  entire  freedom  of  the  press,  prevailed. 
All  that  was  not  permitted  to  be  printed  in 
France  appeared  in  the  Netherlands  or  in  Swit- 
zerland, at  Lausanne  and  Geneva,  to  the  great 
advantage  of  the  Dutch  and  Swiss  book-trade. 

In  Sweden,  by  an  edict  of  1766,  and  accord- 
ingly under  the  aristocratical  constitution,  the 
abolition  of  the  censorship  was  ordered ;  yet 
Gust-avus  III.,  personally  a  friend  to  the  liberty 
of  the  press,  was  obliged  to  retain  the  censor- 
ship, and  even  to  execute  it  with  severity,  during 
the  aristocratical  machinations  which  disturbed 
"his  reign,  and  which  were  but  imperfectly  coun- 
teracted in  the  Revolution  of  1771.  Gustavus 
IV.  issued  an  edict  soon  after  he  ascended  the 
throne,  by  which  the  censorship  was  retained 
■only  in  matters  of  religion,  and  was  admin- 
istered by  the  consistories.  This,  however,  was 
not  permanent ;  at  first  penalties  were  enacted, 
and  in  1802  the  censorship  was  entirely  re-estab- 
lished, committed  to  the  chancellor  of  the  court, 
and  executed  with  severity.  French  and  Ger- 
man books  were  prohibited.  King  Charles 
XIII.,  immediately  after  his  ascension  to  the 
throne,  abolished  it  entirely  by  a  provisional 
order  of  12  April  1809,  which  was  confirmed  as 
an  article  of  the  constitution  (sec.  86),  6  June 
1809.  In  Denmark,  by  a  royal  rescript  of  14 
Sept.  1770  (under  the  minister  Struensee),  the 
censorship  was  wholly  abolished;  neither  has 
it  been  restored,  though  the  laws  by  which  the 
liberty  of  the  press  has  been  regulated  have 
been  changing,  and  have  sometimes  been  very 
oppressive.  In  France  the  censorship,  which 
had  belonged  to  the  department  of  the  chan- 
cellor and  been  administered  by  royal  censors, 
was  annihilated  by  the  revolution.  All  the  con- 
stitutions, from  1791  to  the  Charte  Constitution- 
elle  in  1814,  declare  the  liberty  of  the  press 
one  of  the  fundamental  laws.  During  the  re- 
public there  was  no  censorship,  but  the  revolu- 
tionary tribunals  took  its  place.  Napoleon  re- 
stored it  in  another  form  by  the  decree  of  5  Feb. 
1810  (Direction  de  ITmprimerie).  Since  the 
Restoration  it  has  also  undergone  various 
changes.  Books  of  more  than  20  sheets  have 
always  remained  free,  but  the  censorship  has 
been  exercised  over  pamphlets  and  journals 
at  different  periods.  Under  the  government  of 
the  Em.Deror  Napoleon   III.  the  censorship  was 


re-established  with  new  penalties,  and  is  still 
maintained. 

In  the  kingdom  of  the  Netherlands  the  cen- 
sorship was  abolished  by  a  fundamental  statute 
of  24  Aug.  1815  (art.  ccxxvi.),  and  this  statute 
is  still  in  force  in  the  kingdom  of  Holland.  By 
art.  xviii.  of  the  constitution  of  Belgium,  1831, 
it  is  declared  that  the  press  is  free,  and  that 
no  censorship  can  ever  be  established.  In  the 
German  states  the  liberty  of  the  press  was 
much  restrained  till  1806,  the  state-attorney 
having  till  then  had  control  over  it.  After  1814 
several  states  abolished  the  censorship,  though 
with  very  different  provisions  as  to  the  respon- 
sibility of  authors,  printers,  and  booksellers. 
In  accordance  with  the  unhappy  decrees  of  Carls- 
bad, 1819,  and  the  resolutions  of  the  German 
diet  of  20  Sept.  1819,  the  censorship  in  all  the 
states  of  the  German  confederation  became  one 
of  the  conditions  of  union,  but  only  with  re- 
gard to  books  of  less  than  20  sheets,  and  jour- 
nals. These  laws  were  repealed  in  1S49,  but 
in  the  course  of  a  few  years  they  were  gradually 
introduced,  although  in  a  modified  form,  and  in 
this  form  they  still  exist  in  inost  of  the  separate 
German  states  as  well  as  in  the  empire.  In 
Russia  and  Austria  there  is  naturally  a  despotic 
censorship.  In  the  United  States  of  America 
a  censorship  has  never  existed. 

Besides  the  different  degrees  of  severity  with 
which  the  censorship  is  exercised  in  different 
countries,  it  inay  be  divided  into  different  kinds, 
according  to  the  field  which  it  embraces,  (i)  A 
general  censorship  of  the  book-trade  and  of 
the  press,  under  which  even  foreign  books  can- 
not be  sold  without  the  consent  of  the  censors, 
exists  in  Russia,  Austria,  Spain,  etc.  (Austria 
has,  in  the  censorshiD  of  foreign  books,  four 
formulas:  (a)  admittitur,  entirely  free;  (b) 
transeat,  free,  but  without  public  advertisements 
for  sale;  (c)  erga  schedam,  to  be  sold  only  to 
public  officers  and  literary  men  on  the  delivery 
of  a  receipt;   (d)  datnuatur,  entirely  forbidden) 

(2)  A  general  censorship  of  the  press,  extending 
only  to  books  printed  in  the  country,  exists  in 
Prussia  (edict  of  19  Sept.  1788;  order  of  the 
cabinet  of  28  Dec.   1824;  law  of  12  May  1851). 

(3)  A  limited  censorship,  only  over  works  of 
less  than  20  sheets,  and  journals,  is  at  present 
the  law  in  the  states  of  the  German  empire.  See 
Press,  Liberty  of  the. 

Boolak,  boo-lak',  Boulak,  or  Bulak,  an 
Egyptian  town  on  the  Nile,  and  the  port  of 
Cairo.  Its  site  was  once  an  island,  but  that 
part  of  the  river  which  separated  it  from  Cairo 
has  been  filled  up.  In  1799  Boolak  was  burned 
by  the  French.  Mehemet  Ali  rebuilt  it,  and  es- 
tablished extensive  cotton-spinning,  weaving, 
and  printing  works,  a  school  of  engineering, 
and  a  printing  establishment,  from  which  is 
issued  a  weekly  new^spaper  in  Arabic.  The  town 
contains  a  mosque,  a  naval  arsenal,  a  dockyard, 
and  a  custom-house,  and  is  surrounded  by  the 
country  residences  of  numerous  Egyptian  gran- 
dees. An  electric  railway  connects  it  with  Cairo. 
Pop.  about   13,000. 

Boole,  George,  English  mathematician  and 
logician;  b.  Lincoln,  2  Nov.  1815;  d.  Cork,  8 
Dec.  1864.  Educated  in  his  native  place,  he 
opened  a  school  in  his  20th  year,  and  by  private 
study  gained  such  proficiency  in  mathematics 
that  in  1849  he  was  appointed  to  the  mathemat- 
ical chair  in   Queen's  College,   Cork,   where  till 


BOOM  — BOONE 


rest  of  his  life  was  spent.  In  mathematics  he 
wrote  on  ^Differential  Equations'  ;  'General 
Method  in  Analysis'  ;  <The  Comparison  of  Tran- 
scendents,' etc.  In  logic  he  wrote  <An  Investi- 
gation of  the  Laws  of  Thought'  (1854),  an 
amplified  edition  of  his  earlier  <  Mathematical 
Analysis  of  Logic'  (1847),  a  profound  and  origi- 
nal work,  in  which  a  symbolic  language  and 
notation  were  employed  in  regard  to  logical 
processes. 

Boom,  in  fortification,  and  in  marine  de- 
fenses, a  strong  chain  or  cable  stretched  across 
the  mouth  of  a  river  or  harbor,  to  prevent  the 
enemy's  ships  from  entering,  and  having  a 
number  of  poles,  bars,  etc.,  fastened  to  it ; 
whence  the  name ;  as,  to  cut  or  burst  the  boom. 
It  often  denotes  a  long  pole  employed  to  extend 
the  sails  of  a  ship,  as  the  main  boom,  jib  boom, 
etc.  The  term  may  also  be  applied  to  a  pole 
set  up  as  a  sea  mark  to  point  out  the  channel 
to  seamen,  when  navigating  in  shallows.  The 
word  also  designates  a  hollow,  roaring  sound ; 
as,  the  boom  of  a  cannon ;  the  reverberating 
cry  of  the  bittern.  In  recent  years  it  is  often 
used  to  denote  a  sudden  rise  in  the  market  value 
of  real  estate,  stocks,  or  commodities ;  an  enthu- 
siastic popular  movement  in  favor  of  any  per- 
son, cause,  or  thing;  as,  a  real  estate  boom, 
a  political  boom,  a  boom  in  sugar. 

Boomerang,  a  missile  or  weapon  of  a 
peculiar  nature  used  by  the  natives  of  Australia. 
It  is  from  30  to  40  inches  in  length,  and  is 
made  of  hard  wood.  In  shape  it  is  curved  some- 
what like  a  scimitar  or  a  parabola,  or  it  may 
have  a  decided  bend  in  the  middle  nearly  ap- 
proaching a  right  angle,  the  bend  being  a  natural 
one.  The  breadth  is  usually  about  three  inches, 
and  while  one  surface  is  flat  the  other  is  some- 
what rounded.  Boomerangs  are  of  different 
kinds,  some  being  used  in  war,  others  in  the 
chase,  others  for  amusement.  One  variety  can 
be  hurled  so  as  to  turn  while  in  the  air  and 
come  back  almost  to  the  place  whence  it  was 
thrown.  It  is  this  peculiarity  that  has  made 
the  boomerang  so  famous,  though  the  returning 
boomerang,  if  not  used  merely  for  amusement, 
is  only  used  to  bring  down  birds.  In  throwing, 
the  weapon  is  grasped  by  one  end,  and  after 
a  short  run  hurled  straight  in  front.  It  then 
takes  a  horizontal  position  and  revolves  rapidly 
as  it  moves  obliquely  upward  into  the  air.  After 
a  time  it  curves  round,  and  if  he  so  intends, 
comes  back  close  to  the  thrower.  It  may  move 
for  a  considerable  distance  horizontally  at  only 
a  few  feet  above  the  ground,  and  then  sud- 
denly rise  vertically  upward  with  great  velocity. 
The  peculiarly  irregular  character  of  its  path 
through  the  air,  and  the  rapid  change  in  its 
direction  of  movement,  render  it  a  very  efficient 
weapon  for  killing  birds.  There  is  also  a  spe- 
cial boomerang  for  killing  birds  capable  of  being 
thrown  in  a  straight  course  of  200  yards.  The 
Australian  natives  often  throw  the  boomerang 
in  such  a  way  as  to  cause  it  to  strike  the  ground 
about  30  feet  off;  this  is  said  to  impart  in- 
creased velocity,  and  the  weapon  may  even  hit 
the  ground  a  second  time  and  rebound  into  the 
air.  The  war  boomerang  is  larger  and  heavier 
than  that  used  in  hunting.  Weapons  similar  to 
the  boomerang,  or  kiley,  as  the  Australians  also 
call  it,  but  lacking  the  property  of  returnmg, 
have  been,  and  still  are,  used  by  other  races, 
notably  the  ancient  Egyptians  and  the  modem 


Abyssinians.  Sir  Samuel  Baker  Jescribes  the 
latter  as  about  two  feet  long,  and  made  of  a 
piece  of  fiat  hard  wood,  whose  end  turns  at  an 
angle  of  30°.  Various  derivations  of  the  word 
have  been  suggested,  one  connecting  it  with  a 
root  meaning  strike  or  kill,  and  another  with 
the  native  word  for  wind. 

Boondee,  boon-de',  or  Bundi,  a  native 
state  of  Hindustan,  in  Rajputana,  under  Brit- 
ish protection  ;  area  2,300  square  miles.  A  range 
of  hills  running  from  southwest  to  northeast, 
penetrated  by  few  passes  and  rising  to  the  height 
of  1,793  feet,  divides  the  state  into  two  almost 
equal  portions,  that  on  the  south  being  the  more 
fertile.  Much  of  the  state  is  underwood.  The 
chief  river  is  the  Mej,  which  penetrates  the  cen- 
tral range,  and  joins  the  Chambal  near  the  north- 
east extremity  of  the  state.  It  was  much 
more  extensive  before  Kotah  and  its  territory 
were  separated  from  it.  The  inhabitants  are  of 
the  Hara  tribe,  which  has  given  birth  to  many 
famous  men,  and,  among  others,  to  Ram  Singh 
Hara,  one  of  Aurungzebe's  most  renowned  gen- 
erals. The  ruler  is  practically  absolute  in  his 
own  territory.  Pop.  (1901)  171,227.  Bondee, 
the  capital,  is  picturesquely  situated  on  a  steep 
slope  in  a  gorge  in  the  centre  of  the  hills  above 
mentioned,  and  its  antiquity,  numerous  temples, 
and  magnificent  fountains,  give  it  a  very  inter- 
esting appearance.  It  is  crowned  by  a  fort  and 
surrounded  by  fortified  walls.  For  picturesque 
effect  its  main  street  is  almost  unequaled.  At 
its  upper  extremity  stands  the  palace,  built  of 
stone,  with  turreted  windows  and  battlements, 
supported  partly  by  the  perpendicular  rock,  and 
partly  by  solid  piers  of  masonry  400  feet  high. 
At  its  lower  extremity  is  the  great  temple 
dedicated  to  Krishna.     Pop.  31,000. 

Boone,  Daniel,  American  pioneer:  b.  Bucks 
County,  Pa.,  11  Feb.  1735;  d.  26  Sept.  1822.  He 
was  one  of  11  children.  His  father  emigrated 
from  England,  and  when  Daniel  was  very  young 
removed  with  his  family  from  Bucks  into  Berks 
County,  not  far  from  Reading,  then  a  frontier 
settlement,  exposed  to  Indian  assaults.  It 
abounded  with  game,  and  thus,  Daniel  became 
accustomed  to  a  life  in  the  woods,  and  formed 
an  intense  love  for  uncultivated  nature.  His 
education  was  confined  to  a  knowledge  of  read- 
ing, writing,  and  arithmetic.  When  he  was 
about  18  his  father  removed  to  North  Carolina 
and  settled  on  the  Yadkin.  Here,  in  1755,' Daniel 
married  Rebecca  Bryan,  and  for  some  years 
followed  the  occupation  of  a  farmer,  but  about 
1761  his  passion  for  hunting  led  him,  with  a 
company  of  explorers,  along  the  wilderness  at 
the  head  waters  of  the  Tennessee  River.  In 
1764  he  joined  another  company  of  hunters  on 
the  Rock  Castle,  a  branch  of  the  Cumberland 
River.  He  had  become  dissatisfied  with  life  in 
North  Carolina.  The  customs  of  the  colony 
were  becoming  luxurious ;  the  rich  were  ex- 
empt from  the  necessity  of  labor,  and  the  people 
were  much  oppressed  by  taxes.  Boone  imbibed 
a  chronic  hatred  of  law  forms  which  lasted 
through  life,  and  his  neglect  of  these,  in  securing 
his  tides  to  land,  reduced  him  to  poverty  on 
more  than  one  occasion. 

In  1767  a  backwoodsman  named  John  Finley 
made  an  excursion  farther  west  than  had  before 
been  attempted,  and  returned  with  glowing 
accounts  of  the  border  region  of  Kentucky,  which 
he   represented  as  a  hunter's  paradise.     Boone 


BOONE 


headed  a  party  of  six  for  its  exploration,  leav- 
ing his  Yadkin  home  i  May  1769.  On  7  June, 
in  the  same  year,  they  reached  an  elevation  from 
which  they  beheld  the  whole  region  watered  by 
the  Kentucky  River  and  its  tributaries.  At 
this  point  on  the  waters  of  the  Red  River,  a 
branch  of  the  Kentucky,  and  supposed  to  be 
within  the  present  limits  of  Morgan  County, 
they  halted  and  hunted  until  December  without 
seeing  a  single  Indian,  although  they  were  con- 
tinually on  the  alert  for  them.  They  then  sepa- 
rated into  parties,  Boone  and  a  man  named 
Stewart  keeping  company,  and  on  22  December 
these  two  were  surprised  and  captured  by  In- 
dians, who  robbed  them  and  kept  them  prisoners 
for  seven  days,  when  they  managed  to  make 
good  their  escape.  Early  next  month  Boone 
and  Stewart  were  gratified  by  the  arrival  in 
the  wilderness  of  Daniel's  younger  brother  Squire 
and  another  hunter  from  North  Carolina,  bring- 
ing tidings  of  the  family  at  home  and  a  much- 
needed  supply  of  powder  and  lead.  Soon  after 
this  event  Stewart  and  Boone  were  again  at- 
tacked by  Indians.  Boone  escaped,  but  his  com- 
panion was  shot  and  scalped,  and  the  man  who 
came  with  Squire  having  perished  in  the  woods 
the  two  brothers  were  left  alone  together.  On 
I  May  it  was  decided  that  Squire  should  return 
for  supplies,  while  Daniel  remained  to  take 
care  of  and  increase  the  store  of  peltry.  They 
parted,  and  until  27  July,  when  Squire  returned, 
Daniel  remained  in  utter  solitude,  without  bread, 
salt,  or  sugar.  The  brothers  then  continued 
their  explorations  over  other  parts  of  Ken- 
tucky until  March  1771,  when,  taking  as  much 
peltry  as  their  horses  could  carry,  they  returned 
to  their  families  on  the  Yadkin,  Daniel  having 
been  absent  about  two  years,  during  which  time 
he  had  seen  no  human  beings  but  his  hunting 
companions  and  the  hostile  Indians.  He  was 
now  anxious  to  remove  to  Kentucky,  and  al- 
though his  wife  and  children  were  easily  per- 
suaded to  do  so,  two  years  elap.sed  before  he 
could  make  the  necessary  arrangements.  He 
sold  his  farm,  and  on  25  Sept.  1773,  the  two 
brothers,  with  their  families,  set  out  for  Ken- 
tucky. At  Powell's  Valley,  through  which  their 
route  lay,  they  were  joined  by  five  families  and 
40  men  well  armed,  but  on  approaching  Cum- 
berland Gap,  near  the  junction  of  Virginia,  Ken- 
tucky, and  Tennessee,  they  were  attacked  by 
Indians  and  were  forced  to  retreat  40  miles  to 
Clinch  River,  leaving  six  of  their  party  slain, 
among  whom  was  Boone's  eldest  son,  James. 
The  emigrants  were  much  disheartened,  and 
Boone  remained  at  Clinch  River  until  June 
i774j  when  Gov.  Dunmore  sent  him  a  message 
to  proceed  to  the  wilderness  of  Kentucky  and 
conduct  thence  a  party  of  surveyors  who  were 
believed  to  be  in  danger  from  the  Indians. 
This  undertaking  was  successful,  but  no  inci- 
dents of  it  have  been  preserved  excepting  that 
Boone  was  absent  62  days,  in  which  he  traveled 
on  foot  800  miles.  While  he  was  gone  to  Ken- 
tucky the  Shawnees  and  other  Indians  northwest 
of  the  Ohio  River  became  hostile.  Boone  was 
appointed  to  the  command  of  three  contiguous 
garrisons,  with  the  commission  of  captain,  and, 
having  fought  several  battles  and  defeated  the 
Indians,  he  returned  to  his  family  on  Clinch 
River  and  spent  the  next  winter  in  hunting. 
He  was  shortly  after  employed  by  the  Transyl- 
vania Company,  established  to  purchase  lands 
in  Kentucky,  to  explore,  mark,  and  open  a  road 


from  settlements  on  the  Holston  to  the  Kentucky 
River.  In  the  face  of  great  dangers  this  was 
accomplished,  and  on  i  April  1775,  a  site  hav- 
ing been  selected  on  the  bank  of  the  Kentucky 
River,  the  party  erected  a  stockade  fort  and 
called  it  Boonesborough.  Boone  soon  removed 
his  family  to  the  new  settlements,  his  wife  and 
daughters  being  the  first  white  women  that  ever 
stood  on  the  banks  of  the  Kentucky.  The  win- 
ter and  spring  of  1776  wore  away  without  any 
particular  incident,  as  the  Indians,  though  by 
no  means  friendly,  made  no  direct  attack.  On 
14  July  a  daughter  of  Boone  and  two  female 
companions  were  captured  by  a  party  of  Indians, 
but  next  morning  Boone  and  his  companions 
followed  the  trail  and  surprised  the  Indians  so 
suddenly  that  they  had  not  time  to  murder 
their  captives,  and  the  three  girls  were  restored 
to  their  families.  During  the  whole  of  1777 
Boone  was  employed  with  his  command  in  re- 
pelling the  attacks  of  the  Indians,  who  were 
incited  to  the  most  savage  deeds  of  cruelty  by 
the  British  during  the  Revolutionary  War.  His 
services  were  of  incalculable  advantage  to  the 
new  settlements.  On  I  Jan.  1778,  the  people 
suffering  greatly  for  want  of  salt,  he  headed 
a  party  for  the  lower  Blue  Licks  to  manufacture 
it,  and  on  7  February,  while  at  some  distance 
from  the  camp,  he  was  surprised  and  made  pris- 
oner by  a  party  of  100  Indians.  Again  in  this 
instance  his  consummate  knowledge  of  the  red 
man's  character  saved  him  and  his  friends.  He 
ingratiated  himself  in  their  regard,  and  obtained 
favorable  terms  for  his  party  at  the  Licks,  who 
became  prisoners  of  war  under  the  promise  of 
good  treatment.  He  knew  that  the  Indians 
would  march  to  attack  Boonesborough,  and  that 
if  he  and  his  party  resisted  they  would  all  be 
murdered  and  those  at  the  fort  massacred,  as  no 
warning  could  reach  them.  He  was  conducted 
to  old  Chillicothe,  and  thence  to  Detroit,  where 
he  was  kindly  received  by  the  English  com- 
mander. Gov.  Hamilton.  In  order  to  bafifle  his 
captors  he  pretended  to  be  very  much  pleased 
with  his  mode  of  life  among  the  Indians,  went 
through  the  form  of  adoption  by  them,  having 
his  hair  pulled  out  excepting  the  scalp-lock, 
^'his  white  blood  washed  out*'  in  the  river,  and 
his  face  painted.  On  16  June  he  went  out  to 
hunt,  and  when  out  of  view,  started  direct 
for  Boonesborough,  more  than  160  miles 
distant,  which  he  traveled  in  less  than  five 
days.  He  reached  Boonesborough  m  time 
to  warn  the  garrison.  All  supposed  him  dead, 
and  his  wife,  under  that  impression,  had 
returned  with  her  children  to  North  Carolina. 
The  fort  was  at  once  put  in  complete  order  for 
defense,  and  on  8  August  it  was  besieged  by 
444  Indians,  led  by  Capt.  Duquesne  and  11  other 
Canadians,  having  French  and  British  colors. 
Summoned  to  surrender,  Boone  replied  with 
defiance,  and  after  a  savage  attack  upon  the  fort 
the  assailants,  six  times  greater  in  number  than 
the  garrison,  raised  the  siege,  leaving  37  of 
their  party  killed  and  many  more  wounded. 
Boone  was  now  promoted  to  the  rank  of  major. 
In  1778  he  went  to  North  Carolina  to  see  his 
family.  The  next  year,  having  invested  nearly 
all  his  little  property  in  paper  money  to  buy 
land  warrants,  and  having,  besides  his  own, 
large  sums  of  money  to  invest  for  other  people, 
he  was  robbed  of  the  whole,  about  $20,000,  on 
his  way  from  Kentucky  to  Richmond,  where  the 
court  of  commissioners   was  held  to  decide  on 


BOONE  — BOORDE 


Kentucky  land  claims.  In  1780  he  returned 
with  his  family  to  Boonesborough,  and  in  Octo- 
ber of  that  year  his  brother,  on  a  hunting  ex- 
cursion with  him,  was  killed  and  scalped  by 
the  Indians,  and  Boone  himself  narrowly  es- 
caped. The  Indians  being  exceedingly  trouble- 
some, a  large  party  of  militia  was  formed  to 
follow  and  punish  them,  who,  against  Boone's 
counsel,  suffered  themselves  to  be  drawn  into 
an  ambuscade,  and  the  disastrous  battle  of  the 
Blue  I.icks  followed,  in  which  Boone  lost  an- 
other son  and  had  a  brother  wounded.  At  the 
close  of  the  Revolutionary  War  Col.  Boone  re- 
turned to  the  quiet  life  of  his  farm  and  to  his 
passion  for  hunting.  In  1792  Kentucky  was  ad- 
mitted into  the  Union  as  a  sovereign  State,  and 
as  courts  of  justice  were  established,  litigation 
in  regard  to  land  titles  commenced,  and  was 
finally  carried  to  great  lengths.  From  defective 
titles,  Boone,  with  hundreds  of  others,  lost  the 
lands  he  possessed,  with  their  valuable  improve- 
ments, and  thus  after  the  vigor  of  his  life  was 
spent,  he  found  himself  without  a  single  acre  of 
the  vast  domain  he  had  explored  and  fought  to 
defend  from  savage  invaders.  Disgusted  with 
his  treatment  he  resolved  to  abandon  Kentucky 
and  move  to  the  far  West,  which  he  did  in 
1795.  He  settled  first  on  the  Femme  Osage, 
about  45  miles  west  of  St.  Louis,  where  he  re- 
mained until  1804;  he  then  removed  to  the  home 
of  his  youngest  son  until  1810,  and  finally  went 
to  live  with  his  son-in-law,  Flanders  Callaway. 
As  the  country,  at  the  time  of  his  removal,  was 
under  the  dominion  of  Spain,  on  11  July  1800, 
he  was  appointed  commandant  of  the  Femme 
Osnge  district;  and  as  his  fame  had  preceded 
him,  10.000  arpents,  or  about  8,500  acres,  of 
choice  land  were  marked  out  on  the  north  side 
of  the  Missouri  River,  and  given  to  him  for  his 
official  services.  This  princely  estate  he  also 
subsequently  lost,  because  he  would  not  take 
the  trouble  to  go  to  New  Orleans  to  complete 
his  title  before  the  immediate  representative  of 
the  Spanish  crown.  Having  left  Kentucky  in 
debt,  he  was  much  troubled  for  a  while  by  ill 
success  in  hunting,  but  at  length  he  obtained 
a  valuable  store  of  peltry,  turned  it  into  cash, 
went  to  Kentucky,  without  book  account,  paid 
every  one  whatever  was  demanded,  and  on  his 
return  to  upper  Louisiana  with  but  half  a  dollar 
left,  said  that  he  was  ready  to  die  content.  In 
1812  he  petitioned  Congress  to  confirm  the  title 
to  his  claim  of  i.ooo  arpents  of  land,  which  he 
had  neglected  to  have  done  in  proper  form,  and 
was  in  danger  of  losing,  as  he  had  everything 
else.  He  sought  the  aid  of  the  legislature  of 
Kentucky,  and  his  petition  was  successfully 
urged  in  Congress,  in  requital  for  his  eminent 
services.  He  continued  to  hunt  occasionally  as 
long  as  his  strength  remained,  but  wa.". 
obliged  to  give  up  his  rifle  several  years  be- 
fore his  death.  Chester  Harding,  who  in  1820 
painted  the  only  portrait  of  him  ever  taken, 
informs  us  that  his  first  sight  of  the  old  pio- 
neer found  him  lying  in  his  bunk  in  the  cabin, 
engaged  in  cooking  a  venison  steak  on  a  ram- 
rod. His  memory  of  immediate  events  was 
very  defective,  but  of  past  years  as  keen  as 
ever.  He  was  quite  feeble,  but  able  to  walk 
out  with  Harding  every  day.  This  portrait 
now  hangs  in  the  State  House  at  Frankfort, 
Ky.  He  died  surrounded  by  his  children  and 
descendants,  some  of  the  fiftli  generation,  in  the 
88th  year  of  his  age.     On  20  Aug.  1845  the  re- 


mains were  deposited  with  appropriate  ceremo- 
nies in  the  cemetery  at  Frankfort.  In  all  the 
relations  of  private  life  Boone  was  a  model 
for  imitation.  In  spite  of  his  many  Indian  en- 
counters he  w-as  a  lover  of  peace,  modest  in 
disposition,  of  incorruptible  integrity,  moral 
and  temperate. 

Boone,  William  Jones,  American  bishop: 
b.  Walterborough,  S.  C,  I  July  181 1;  d.  Shang-' 
hai,  China,  17  July,  1864.  He  graduated  from 
South  Carolina  College  in  1829,  was  admitted 
to  the  bar,  but,  deciding  to  devote  himself  to 
a  missionary  life,  he  prepared  for  orders  at  the 
Virginia  Theological  Seminary,  and  was  or- 
dained priest  in  1837.  In  order  to  equip  himself 
thoroughly  for  his  work,  he  took  a  course  of 
medical  study  and  received  the  degree  of  M.D. 
from  the  South  Carolina  Medical  College.  He 
sailed  for  China  in  July  1837;  in  1844  he  was 
chosen  the  first  American  Protestant  Episcopal 
missionary  bishop  to  China,  and  was  conse- 
crated at  Philadelphia  25  Oct.  1844.  The  re- 
mainder of  his  life,  save  for  an  occasional 
visit  to  the  United  States  for  rest  or  health, 
was  spent  in  the  work  of  his  diocese,  l^e  came 
to  be  well  known  for  his  knowledge  of  the  Chi- 
nese language.  He  began  his  transJation  of 
the  Prayer  Book  into  that  tongue  in  1846,  and 
later  was  one  of  a  committee  appointed  to 
secure  an  accurate  translation  of  the  Bible  into 
Chinese. 

Boone,  Iowa,  a  city  and  county-seat  of 
Boone  County,  on  the  Chicago  &  N.  W.  and 
the  Chicago,  M.  &  St.  Paul  R.R.'s,  36  miles 
northeast  of  Des  Moines.  It  is  an  important 
milling,  manufacturing,  and  coal-mining  centre, 
and  in  the  vicinity  are  large  deposits  of  fire 
and  pottery  clays.  The  chief  industries  are  the 
manufacture  of  flour,  brick,  tiles,  and  pottery, 
and  the  mining  and  shipping  of  coal.  The  city 
has  five  banks,  a  Federal  building,  public  library, 
and  hospital.  It  was  settled  in  1848  and  incor 
porated  in   1866.     Pop.    (1900)   8,880. 

Boonton,  N.  J.,  a  town  of  Morris  County, 
situated  30  miles  from  New  York,  on  the  Dela- 
ware, L.  &  W.  R.R.,  the  Morris  and  Essex 
Canal,  and  the  Rockaway  River.  It  has  very 
extensive  ironworks,  to  the  early  establishment 
of  which  (1700)  the  town  owes  its  foundation. 
There  are  also  manufactories  of  agricultural 
implements,  paints,  paper,  rubber,  etc.  Pop. 
(1901)  3,901. 

Boonville,  or  Booneville,  Mo.,  a  city  and 
river  port,  capital  of  Cooper  County,  on  the 
right  bank  of  the  Missouri  River,  here  crossed 
by  a  fine  railway  bridge,  43  miles  northwest  of 
Jefferson  City.  It  is  built  on  a  healthful  site 
about  100  feet  above  the  river.  Its  manufactures 
are  of  but  little  importance,  but  some  trade  is 
carried  on.  On  16  June  i86r,  a  Confederate 
force  under  Marmaduke  was  put  to  flight  here 
by  Federal  troops  under  Lyon.  Pop.  (1900) 
4,377-  ;• 

Boorde,  or  Borde,  bord,  Andrew,  English  ' 
traveler  and  physician  :  b.  near  Cuckfield.  Sus- 
sex, about  1490;  d.  1549-  He  entered  tht  Car- 
thusian order  at  the  Charterhouse.  London,  and 
in  1521  was  appointed  suffragan  bishop  of  Chi- 
chester. The  rigor  of  the  Carthusian  discipline 
was  too  much  for  him.  and  about  1528  he  ob- 
tained   a    dispensation    relieving   him    from   hia 


BOORHANPOOR  —  BOOTH 


vow.  He  then  studied  medicine  on  the  Conti- 
nent, returning  to  England  in  1530,  but  soon 
afterward  again  visited  the  Continent,  where 
he  studied  at  the  chief  medical  schools,  includ- 
ing those  of  Orleans,  Poitiers,  Toulouse,  Mont- 
pellier,  and  Wittenberg.  His  journey  extended 
to  Rome  and  Compostella,  and  in  1534  he  was 
again  in  England.  His  next  journey  was  under- 
taken at  the  instance  of  Thomas  Cromwell,  in 
order  to  ascertain  continental  opinion  about 
Henry  VHI.  In  1536  he  was  in  Scotland,  study- 
ing and  practising  "in  a  lytle  vnyuersyte  or 
study  named  Glasco,^^  and  he  speaks  of  Scotch- 
men as  deceitful,  and  inveterate  haters  of  the 
English.  During  the  years  1538-42  he  was  again 
on  the  Continent,  and  this  time  he  went  as  far 
as  Jerusalem.  While  staying  in  Winchester  his 
open  immorality  got  him  into  trouble,  and  he 
was  afterward  lodged  in  the  Fleet  Prison,  Lon- 
don. Boorde,  who  jocularly  calls  himself 
Andreas  Perforatus,  was  the  author  of  several 
works,  among  which  are  the  following:  *Fyrst 
Boke  of  the  Introduction  of  Knowledge^  (about 
1547)  ;  a  ^Handbook  of  Europe,-*  the  first  of 
its  kind;  a  ^Dyetary^  (1542);  a  medical  trea- 
tise entitled  ^Breuyary  of  Health^  (i547)  ; 
*Boke  of  Berdes,'  a  condemnation  of  the  beard, 
known  only  through  an  extant  portion  of  a 
reply  by  another  writer;  a  book  on  *^Astrona- 
mye^  ;  an  ^Itinerary  of  England^  ;  an  ^Itinerary 
of  Europe-*  ;  ^Boke  of  Sermons^  ;  etc.  His 
^Fyrst  Boke^  contains  the  first  printed  specimen 
of  the  Gypsy  language.  Many  other  works,  such 
as  ^The  Merry  Tales  of  the  Mad  Men  of 
Gotham,^  have  been  ascribed  to  Dr.  Boorde.  Dr. 
Furnivall  edited  his  ^Introduction^  and  his 
*Dyetary'  for  the  Early  English  Text  Society 
in  1870. 

Boorhanpoor,  boo-run-poor',  India,  a  town 
of  the  Deccan,  in  the  division  of  Nerbudda  and 
the  district  of  Nimar,  formerly  capital  of  the 
province  of  Candeish,  on  the  north  side  of  the 
Taptee.  When  viewed  from  the  opposite  side 
of  the  river  it  presents  rather  an  imposing 
appearance.  Many  of  the  streets  are  wide,  regu- 
lar, and  paved  with  stone;  as  are  also  the  Raj 
Bazaar  and  the  market-place,  an  extensive 
square,  the  two  handsomest  places  in  the  town. 
The  most  remarkable  public  edifices  are  the 
Lai  Kilah,  or  Red  Fort,  a  palace  built  by  Akbar, 
and  though  much  dilapidated,  exhibiting  still 
many  remains  of  imperial  magnificence ;  and  the 
Jumma  Musjeed,  or  great  mosque,  built  by 
Aurungzebe.  A  singular  sect  of  Mohammedans, 
named  Bohrah,  have  their  headquarters  here. 
They  are  the  chief  merchants  in  this  part  of 
India,  have  Arab  features,  wear  the  Arab  cos- 
tume, and  derive  their  origin  from  a  disciple 
of  their  great  prophet.  Boorhanpoor  was 
formerly  famous  for  its  muslin  and  flowered 
silk  manufactures,  which  are  still  carried  on  to 
a  considerable  extent.     Pop.  (1891)  32,252. 

Booro,  boo'ro,  one  of  the  Molucca  Islands, 
in  the  Indian  Archipelago,  west  of  Amboyna, 
belonging  to  the  Dutch.  It  is  oval  in  shape,  92 
miles  long,  and  70  broad.  It  has  several  bays, 
of  which  Cajeli  is  the  largest,  and  contains  a 
safe  harbor  sheltered  from  the  monsoons. 
Viewed  from  this  bay  the  island  has  a  very  fine 
appearance.  In  the  foreground  the  minarets 
and  native  houses  are  seen  through  the  open- 
ings of  the  rich  tropical  vegetation ;  while  lofty 
mountains,  wooded  to  their  summits,  shut  in  the 


view.  The  island  is  watered  by  125  streams, 
large  and  small.  On  the  northwest  side  there 
are  vast  swamps  swarming  with  crocodiles.  The 
island  contains  some  high  mountains  —  Mount 
Tumahu  having  an  altitude  of  8,530  feet.  Booro 
produces  a  variety  of  valuable  woods,  balsams, 
resins,  and  odoriferous  flowers.  The  chief  arti- 
cle of  export  is  cajeput  oil,  of  which  about 
$50,000  worth  is  exported  yearly ;  most  being 
sent  to  Java.  The  tree  from  which  it  is  ob- 
tained (Melaleuca  cajeputi)  grows  also  upon 
the  islands  of  Amboyna,  Ceram,  Celebes,  and 
Sumatra;  but  the  best  oil  is  procured  in  Booro. 
The  population  (about  60,000)  consists  of 
Alfoories  in  the  interior,  and  Malays  on  the 
coast. 

Booroojird,  Burujird,  or  Boorojerd,  boo- 
roo-jerd,  Persia,  a  town  in  the  province  of 
Luristan,  capital  of  a  district  of  same  name,  190 
miles  northwest  from  Ispahan,  with  a  castle  and 
several  mosques.  It  lies  in  a  fertile  and  well- 
cultivated  valley,  yielding  saffron,  belonging  to 
the  Lack  tribe.     Pop.  20,000. 

Boot,  an  article  of  dress,  generally  of 
leather,  covering  the  foot  and  extending  to  a 
greater  or  less  distance  up  the  leg.  The  sandal 
formed  the  chief  foot-covering  among  the  Greeks 
and  Romans,  and  it  is  still  in  common  use  among 
Eastern  nations.  The  boot,  properly  so  called, 
came  into  use  as  part  of  the  warrior's  equipment 
about  the  14th  or  15th  century,  and  since  then 
it  has  assumed  many  different  forms.  The  jack- 
boot, a  kind  of  top-boot  not  yet  altogether  dis- 
carded, was  in  common  use  during  the  latter 
half  of  the  17th  century,  but  was  to  a  great  ex- 
tent displaced  by  the  Hessian,  which  in  its  turn 
has  given  way  to  more  recent  forms.  The  name 
was  given  to  an  instrument  of  torture  made 
of  iron,  or  of  iron  and  wood,  fastened  on  to 
the  leg,  between  which  and  the  boot  wedges  were 
introduced  and  driven  in  by  repeated  blows  of 
a  mallet,  with  such  violence  as  to  crush  both 
muscles  and  bones.  The  special  object  of  this 
form  of  torture  was  to  extort  a  confession  of 
guilt  from  an  accused  person. 

Bootan.     See  Bhutan. 

Bootes,  bo-o'tez  (^^ox-driver,^^  from  Gr. 
boiis,  an  ox),  a  northern  constellation;  called 
also  by  the  Greeks,  Arctophylax.  Arcturus  was 
placed  by  the  ancients  on  his  breast ;  by  the 
moderns,  on  the  skirt  of  his  coat.  Fable  relates 
that  Philomelus,  son  of  Ceres  and  Jason,  hav- 
ing been  robbed  by  his  brother,  Plutus,  invented 
the  plough,  yoked  two  bulls  to  it,  and  thus  sup- 
ported himself  by  cultivating  the  ground.  Ceres, 
to  reward  his  ingenuity,  transferred  him,  with 
his  cattle,  under  the  name  of  Bootes,  to  the 
heavens. 

Booth,  Agnes  (Mrs.  John  B.  Shoeffel), 
American  actress :  Id.  Sydney,  Australia,  1846. 
She  made  her  first  American  appearance  in  New 
York  in  1865,  becoming  later  Edwin  Forrest's 
leading  lady.  She  has  assumed  numerous 
famous  roles  with  success.  She  has  been  three 
times  married. 

Booth,  Ballington,  general  of  the  Volun- 
teers of  America :  b.  Brighouse,  England,  28 
July  1859.  He  is  a  son  of  William  Booth 
(q.v.),  founder  of  the  Salvation  Army,  with 
which  body  he  was  officially  connected  until 
1896,  when  he  seceded  and  founded  the  Volun- 


BOOTH 


teers,  a  religious  body  under  the  form  of  a 
military  organization,  organized  in  the  interest 
of  the  unchurched  masses. 

Booth,  Barton,  English  actor:  b.  1681;  d. 
May  1733.  He  was  educated  under  Dr.  Busby, 
at  Westminster  School.  An  early  attachment 
for  the  drama  was  fostered  by  the  applause  he 
met  with  while  performing  a  part  in  one  of 
lerence's  plays  at  the  annual  exhibition  in  that 
seminary.  He  ran  away  from  school  at  the  age 
of  17,  and  joined  Ashbury's  company  of  stroll- 
ing players,  with  whom  he  went  to  Dublin. 
After  performing  three  years  in  the  Irish  cap- 
ital with  great  applause,  he  returned  in  1701 
to  London,  and,  engaging  with  Betterton,  met 
with  similar  success.  On  the  death  of  that 
manager  he  joined  the  Drury  Lane  Company, 
and  on  the  production  of  ^Cato^  in  1712,  raised 
his  reputation  as  a  tragedian  to  the  highest 
pitch  by  his  performance  of  the  principal  cha- 
racter. It  was  on  this  occasion  that  Lord  Boling- 
broke  presented  him  from  the  stage  box  with 
50  guineas  —  an  example  which  was  immediately 
followed  by  that  nobleman's  political  opponents. 
Declamation,  rather  than  passion,  appears  to 
have  been  his  forte,  though  Cibber  speaks  of 
his  Othello  as  his  finest  character.  He  became 
a  patentee  and  manager  of  the  theatre  in  1713, 
in  conjunction  with  Wilks,  Cibber,  and  Doggett. 
He  was  buried  in  Westminster  Abbey,  where 
there  is  a  monument  to  his  memory.  He  was 
the  author  of  Dido  and  yEneas,  a  mask,  various 
songs,  etc.,  and  the  translator  of  several  odes 
of  Horace. 

Booth,  Edwin  Thomas,  American  actor 
(fourth  son  of  Junius  Brutus  Booth,  q.v.)  :  b. 
near  Belair,  Md.,  13  Nov.  1833 ;  d.  7  June  1893. 
When  16  years  of  age  he  made  his  first  appear- 
ance on  the  stage,  in  the  part  of  Tressel,  his 
father  acting  as  Richard  III.  Two  years  later 
he  himself  successfully  assumed  the  part  of 
Richard  in  place  of  his  father,  who  unexpectedly 
refused  to  fulfill  an  evening's  engagement.  The 
following  year  the  two  went  to  California,  where 
the  son  remained  for  several  years,  visiting  Aus- 
tralia meanwhile.  Meeting  with  little  pecuniary 
success,  in  1856  he  returned  to  the  Atlantic 
States,  and  from  that  time  forward  was  recog- 
nized as  a  leading  member  of  his  profession.  He 
visited  England  (1861-2),  and  in  1864  produced 
< Hamlet'  at  New  York  for  100  nights  consecu- 
tively. In  1869  he  opened  a  splendid  theatre 
in  New  York,  whose  building  cost  over 
$1,000,000,  but  which  involved  him  in  pecuniary 
ruin.  He  revisited  California  in  1876,  and  in 
the  spring  of  1877  was  able  to  settle  with  his 
creditors,  having  earned  during  the  season  over 
$600,000.  Booth  visited  Great  Britain  and  Ger- 
many in  1880-2,  and  was  everywhere  received 
•with  enthusiasm.  He  was  founder  and  first 
president  of  the  Players'  Club,  New  York. 

Booth,  James  Curtis,  American  chemist: 
b.  Philadelphia.  28  Julv  1810:  d.  West  Haver- 
ford,  Pa.,  21  March  1888.  He  graduated  at  the 
University  of  Pennsylvania  in  1829.  and  m 
December  1832  went  to  Germany  and  entered 
the  private  ^  laboratory  of  Prof.  Friednch 
Wcihler  in  Cassel,  being,  it  is  thought,  the  first 
American  student  of  analytical  chemistry  to 
strdy  in  Germanv.  Later  he  studied  m  Berlm 
and  made  a  practical  study  of  applied  cheniis- 
try  in  Euronean  manufacturing  centres.  Re- 
turning to    Philadelphia   in    1836   he   opened    a 


laboratory  for  instruction  in  chemical  analysis 
and  applied  chemistry.  This  soon  became  widely 
known  and  attracted  students  from  all  parts  of 
the  country.  In  1836  he  was  made  professor  of 
chemistry  applied  to  the  arts  in  the  Franklin 
Institute ;  during  1837-8  he  had  charge  of  the 
geological  survey  of  Delaware,  and  assisted  in 
that  of  Pennsylvania;  in  1849  he  was  appointed 
melter  and  refiner  at  the  United  States  mint  in 
Philadelphia,  an  office  he  held  until  his  resig- 
nation, 7  Jan.  1888.  His  studies  of  the  nickel 
ores  of  Pennsylvania  led,  in  1856,  to  the  adop- 
tion of  nickel  as  one  of  the  components  of 
the  alloys  used  in  the  coinage  of  the  1857  cent. 
Publications:  *  Annual  Report  of  the  Delaware 
Geological  Survey'  (1839)  ;  ^Memoirs  of  the 
Geological  Survey  of  Delaware'  (1841)  ;  'En- 
cyclopaedia of  Chemistry,  Practical  and  Applied' 
(1850)  ;  'Recent  Improvements  in  the  Chemical 
Arts'  (Wash.  1851)  ;  and  he  edited,  with  notes, 
a  translation  of  Regnault's  'Elements  of  Chem- 
istry'   (2  vols.  Phila.  1853). 

Booth,  John  Wilkes,  American  actor  (son 
of  Junius  Brutus  Booth,  q.v.)  :  b.  Hartford 
County,  Md.,  1839 ;  d.  1865.  He  sided  with  the 
Confederates  in  the  Civil  War,  and  to  avenge 
the  defeat  of  their  cause  he  formed  a  con- 
spiracy against  the  life  of  President  Lincoln. 
He  mortally  wounded  the  President  while  the 
latter  was  attending  a  performance  in  Ford's 
Theatre,  Washington,  14  April  1865;  in  escaping 
from  the  building  he  broke  his  leg,  and  con- 
cealed himself  in  Virginia  till  the  26th,  when, 
on  being  discovered,  and  refusing  to  surrender, 
he  was  shot. 

Booth,  Junius  Brutus,  English  tragedian: 
b.  London,  i  May  1796;  d.  Dec.  1852.  After  ful- 
filling engagements  at  Deptford,  near  London, 
and  other  places,  and  even  performing:  at  Brus- 
sels, in  1814  he  made  his  debut  at  Covent  Gar- 
den Theatre,  London,  as  Richard  HI.  His  per- 
sonal resemblance  to  the  crookbacked  tyrant  con- 
formed exactly  to  the  traditions  of  the  stage, 
and  his  personification  of  the  character  was  in 
other  respects  so  striking  that  he  competed  suc- 
cessfully with  Edmund  Kean,  then  just  rising 
into  fame.  In  1821  he  made  his  first  appearance 
in  the  United  States,  at  Petersburg,  Va.,  and 
in  New  York,  at  the  Park  Theatre,  in  the  suc- 
ceeding year,  on  both  of  which  occasions  he 
assumed  his  favorite  character  of  Richard  III. 
From  that  time  until  the  close  of  his  life  he 
acted  repeatedly  in  every  theatre  in  the  United 
States,  and  in  spite  of  certain  irregular  habits, 
which  sometimes  interfered  with  the  perform- 
ance of  his  engagements,  enjoyed  a  popularity 
which  a  less  gifted  actor  would  have  forfeited. 
During  the  latter  part  of  his  life  he  resided 
with  his  family  at  Baltimore,  making  occa- 
sional professional  excursions  to  other  cities. 
He  had  just  returned  from  a  lucrative  tour  to 
California  when  he  died.  The  range  of  charac- 
ters which  Booth  assumed  was  limited,  and  was 
confined  almost  exclusively  to  those  which  he 
had  studied  in  the  beginning  of  his  career.  He 
is  most  closely  identified  with  that  of  Richard, 
in  which,  after  the  death  of  Edmund  Kean.  he 
had  no  rival.  Among  his  other  most  familiar 
personations  were  lago.  Shylock,  Hamlet.  Sir 
Giles  Overreach,  and  Sir  Edmund  Mortimer 
In  his  peculiar  sphere, —  the  sudden  and  ner- 
vous expression  of  concentrated  passion. —  as 
also  in  the  more  quiet  and  subtle  passages  of  hia 


BOOTH  — BOOTON 


delineations,  he  exercised  a  wonderful  sway 
over  his  audience,  and  his  appearance  upon  the 
stage  has  been  known  to  awe  a  crowded  and 
tumultuous  house  into  instant  silence.  His  pres- 
ence and  action,  notwithstanding  his  short 
stature,  were  imposing,  and  his  face,  originally 
molded  after  the  antique  type,  was  capable  of 
wonderful  expression  under  the  influence  of  ex- 
citement. Several  of  his  children  inherited 
a  portion  of  his  dramatic  talent,  and  became 
prominent  actors  on  the  American  stage. 

Booth,  Mary  Louise,  American  journalist 
and  author:  b.  Yaphank,  Long  Island,  N.  Y.,  19 
Apcil  1831 ;  d.  New  York,  5  March  1889.  She 
was  widely  known  as  the  editor  of  *  Harper's 
Bazaar,^  which  place  she  held  from  1867  till  her 
death.  Her  'History  of  the  City  of  New  York' 
was  the  first  complete  work  upon  the  subject 
and  is  still  probably  the  best.  It  was  published 
in  1859,  a  second  edition  in  1867 ;  a  third, 
thoroughly  revised,  in  1880.  No  book  has  been 
a  greater  favorite  of  local  collectors.  One  copy 
was  extended  to  nine  large  volumes  and  en- 
larged by  many  thousand  illustrations ;  another, 
owned  by  the  author,  had  2,000  illustrations  in- 
serted ;  and  a  third  was  extended  to  22  volumes. 
Miss  Booth's  translations  number  over  30  vol- 
umes. They  are  chiefly  from  the  French  of 
About,  Victor  Cousin,  Mery,  Gasparin,  and 
Laboulaye.  The  most  pretentious  is  Henri 
Martin's  'History  of  France,*  six  volumes  of 
which    she   finished. 

Booth,  Maud  Ballington,  a  leader  of  the 
Volunteers  of  America :  b.  near  London,  1865. 
She  was  active  in  the  work  of  the  Salvation 
Army  in  England,  and  established  a  corps  of  the 
Salvation  Army  in  Switzerland.  In  1887  she 
married  Ballington  Booth,  and  in  1896  joined 
him  in  seceding  from  the  Salvation  Army  and 
organizing  the  Volunteers  of  America.  She 
has  been  active  in  work  for  prisoners,  both  dur- 
ing their  imprisonment  and  after  their  release. 
She  is  author  of  'Branded*  and  'Look  Up  and 
Hope.* 

Booth,  William,  founder  of  the  Salvation 
Army:  b.  Nottingham,  England,  10  April  1829. 
He  was  educated  in  his  native  town,  and  from 
1850  to  1861  acted  as  minister  of  the  Methodist 
New  Connection.  From  the  first  he  was  zealous 
in  holding  evangelistic  services,  but  the  new  de- 
parture which  led  to  the  creation  of  the  Salva- 
tion Army  on  military  lines  began  in  1865  with 
mission  work  among  the  lower  classes  in  the 
East  End  of  London.  Since  1878  Booth's  move- 
ment has  been  known  as  the  Salvation  Army, 
of  which  he  has  continued  to  be  the  mainspring 
and  controlling  power,  directing  its  movements 
at  home  and  abroad  from  his  headquarters  in 
London.  His' enthusiasm  and  wonderful  organ- 
izing power  have  given  life  to  the  religious  mili- 
tary system,  of  which  he  is  "general.**  The 
property  of  the  Salvation  Army  is  held  for  its 
exclusive  use  by  Booth.  His  wife  was  asso- 
ciated with  him  in  the  publication  of  several 
hymns  and  religious  works  dealing  with  the 
movement,  till  her  death  in  1890. 

Booth-Tucker,  Emma  Moss,  a  leader  in 
the  ociivatiun  Army:  b.  Gateshead,' Eng.,  8  Jan. 
i860;  d.  1903.  She  was  a  daughter  of  William 
Booth,  the  organizer  of  the  "Army'* ;  in  1880-8, 
.«:he  hnd  charge  of  international  training  homes; 
in  1888  she  married  Commander  Booth-Tucker, 
went  with  him  to  India,  and  in  i8g6  came  to  the 


United  States.  She  held  the  ramk  of  consul 
in  the  Salvation  Army,  and  had  joint  authority 
with  her  husband  in  the  United  States. 

Booth-Tucker,  Frederick  St.  George  de 
Latour,  American  evangelist:  b.  India,  1853. 
He  held  important  official  posts  in  India,  but  re- 
signed them  in  1881  to  join  the  Salvation  Army. 
Upon  his  marriage  with  Emma  Moss  Booth, 
daughter  of  <'Gen.  >*  William  Booth  of  the  Salva- 
tion Army,  he  prefixed  Booth  to  his  own  name 
of  Tucker.  From  1896-1904  he  was  commander 
of  the  Salvation  Army  in  the  United  States,  but 
resigned  to  become  secretary  of  all  the  branches 
of  the  Army  outside  of  Great  Britain. 

Boothby,  Guy  Newell,  English  novelist:  b. 
Adelaide,  South  Australia,  13  Oct.  1867;  d.  Lon- 
don, England,  27  Feb.  1905.  In  1891  he  crossed 
Australia  from  north  to  south,  and  also  traveled 
in  the  East.  His  novels  include  :  'On  the  Wal- 
laby';  <A  Bid  for  Fortune';  'Beautiful  White 
Devil';  <  Dr.  Nikola';  <  Fascination  of  the  King'; 
< Billy  Binks,  Hero,  and  Other  Stories';  'Across 
the  VVorld  for  a  Wife';  'Pharos,  the  Egyptian'; 
<Love  Made  Manifest';  <Dr.  Nikola's  Experi- 
ment'; 'A  Sailor's  Bride';  'A  Maker  of  Nations'; 
<My  Indian  Queen';  'Farewell  Nicola'  (1901); 
and  'The  Viceroy's  Protege.' 

Boothia  Felix,  a  peninsula  on  the  north  coast 
of  North  America,  in  which  is  the  most  northern 
part  of  the  continent,  Murchison  Point,  lat.  'jT)° 
54'  N.  It  is  joined  to  the  mainland  by  Boothia 
Isthmus,  is  bounded  on  the  north  by  Bellot  Strait, 
and  to  the  east  is  separated  from  Cockburn  Island 
by  Boothia  Gulf  (q.v.)  It  was  discovered  by  Sir 
John  Ross  (1829-33),  and  named  after  Sir  Felix 
Booth,  who  had  furnished  $85,000  for  the  expe- 
dition. Here,  near  Cape  Adelaide,  Ross  dis- 
covered the  magnetic  pole,  lat.  70°  5'  17"  N.  ; 
Ion.  96°  46'  45"  W. 

Boothia,  Gulf  of,  a  southward  continua- 
tion of  Prince  Regent  Inlet  in  the  northern  part 
of  Canada,  lying  between  Boothia  Felix  (q.v.) 
on  the  west  and  Cockburn  Island  on  the  east. 

Bootle,  England,  a  municipal  and  county 
borough  in  Lancashire,  near  the  mouth  of  the 
Mersey,  and  adjoining  Liverpool,  the  docks  of 
which  great  seaport  extend  into  the  borough, 
covering  370  acres  and  constructed  at  a  cost  of 
£2,500,000.  The  principal  buildings  are  the  town 
hall  and  municipal  buildings,  school-board 
offices,  and  hospital.  Many  churches  provide 
for  the  public  worship  of  the  inhabitants.  The 
trade  of  the  town  is  almost  exclusively  connected 
with  shipping,  timber  being  the  chief  import ; 
most  of  the  American  steamers  have  their  load- 
ing berths  here.  There  are  large  jute-mills,  corn- 
mdls,  foundries,  etc.  Bootle  has  ample  railway 
facilities  and  tramway  cars.  The  Leeds  and 
Liverpool  Canal  passes  through  it.  There  is  a 
municipal  electrical  station.  The  history  of  the 
place  is  included  in  that  of  Liverpool.  It  was 
incorporated  in  1868.     Pop.  (1901)   58,558. 

Boot'on,  or  Bou'ton,  an  island  of  the 
Malay  Archipelago,  separated  by  a  narrow  strait 
from  the  southeast  ray  of  Celebes,  and  from  the 
island  of  Muna.  Area,  1,700  miles.  It  is  high, 
but  not  mountainous,  and  thickly  wooded;  pro- 
duces fine  timber,  rice,  maize,  sago,  etc._  The 
people  are  Malays.  The  sultan,  who  resides  at 
Bolio.  is  in  allegiance  to  the  Dutch,  an  under- 
resident  being  stationed  on  the  island.  Pop. 
17,000. 


BOOTS  AND  SADDLES  — BOOTS  AND  SHOES 


Boots  and  Saddles,  or  Life  in  Dakota  with 
General  Custer,  by  Elizabeth  B.  Custer  <i885). 
The  author  says  that  her  object  in  writing  this 
book,  which  records  her  experiences  in  garrison 
.and  camp  with  her  husband,  was  to  give  civil- 
ians a  glimpse  of  the  real  existence  of  soldiers 
in  the  field.  Her  married  life  was  not  serene; 
she  was  left  in  1864  in  a  lonely  Virginia  farm- 
house to  finish  her  honeymoon  alone,  her  hus- 
band being  summoned  to  the  front:  and  at 
scarcely  any  time  during  the  next  12  years  was 
she  free  from  fear  of  immediate  or  threatened 
peril.  Gen.  Custer  was  ordered  to  Dakota  in 
the  spring  of  1873.  Mrs.  Custer's  book  gives  a 
lively  and  detailed  account  of  their  life  there 
from  1873  to  1876,  the  time  of  the  general's 
death.  There  is  an  interesting  chapter  on  Gen. 
Custer's  literary  habits,  and  an  appendix  con- 
taining extracts  from  his  letters. 

Boots  and  Shoes.  The  sandal  is  the  most 
ancient  foot  covering  of  which  there  is  any  rec- 
ord. The  shoe  frequently  referred  to  in  the 
Old  Testament,  and  which  played  an  important 
■part  in  buying  and  selling,  and  in  other  social 
usages,  was  a  sandal.  The  common  sandal  of 
the  ancient  Egyptians  consisted  of  strips  of 
■papyrus  plaited  into  a  kind  of  mat,  and  that 
•form  remains  the  type  of  sandal  of  plaited  grass 
■or  straw  worn  to  this  day  by  multitudes  in  Cen- 
tral Asia,  India,  China,  and  Japan.  The  sandal 
Avas  the  ordinary  shoe  of  the  ancient  Greeks. 
In  Greece  shoes  were  used  only  in  exceptional 
•circumstances.  Sandals  were  the  everyday  wear 
of  the  Roman  populace ;  the  patricians  wore 
shoes  of  black  leather ;  red  leather  shoes  were 
reserved  for  the  senators;  and  the  long  buskin, 
reaching,  sometimes,  to  near  the  knee,  and  fre- 
quently supplied  with  a  thick  sole  to  add  to  the 
apparent  stature  of  its  wearer,  was  appropriated 
to  tragedians  and  hunters.  Boots  are  said  to 
have  been  invented  by  the  Carians.  They  were 
at  first  made  of  leather,  afterwards  of  brass  or 
iron,  and  were  proofs  against  both  cuts  and 
thrusts.  It  was  from  this  that  Homer  called 
the  Greeks  brazen-booted.  The  boot  only  cov- 
ered half  the  leg ;  some  say  the  right  boot,  which 
was  more  advanced  than  the  left,  it  being  ad- 
vanced in  an  attack  with  the  sword ;  but 
■in  reality  it  appears  to  have  been  used  on 
either  leg.  and  sometimes  on  both.  Those  who 
fought  with  darts  or  other  missile  weapons  ad- 
vanced the  left  leg  foremost;  so  that  in  such 
cases  this  only  was  booted.  Boots  were  much^ 
used  by  the  ancients,  either  for  riding  on  horse- 
hack,  or  walking.  The  boot  was  called  by  the 
ancient  Romans,  ocrea.  The  Chinese  had  a  kind 
of  boots  made  of  silk,  or  fine  stufif,  lined  with 
cotton,  a  full  inch  thick,  which  they  always  wore 
at  home.  These  people  are  always  booted  ;  and 
when  a  visit  is  made  to  them,  if  they  happen  to 
be  without  their  boots,  their  guest  must  wait 
till  thev  put  them  on. 

The  Middle  Ages.—  Different  kinds  of  half- 
boots  were  worn  lay  the  Anglo-Saxons  and  An- 
glo-Normans ;  and  in  the  reign  of  Edward  IV.. 
if  not  earlier,  the  boot  proper,  with  tops  and 
spurs,  was  established  as  an  article  of  knightly 
dress.  In  the  reign  of  Charles  I.,  a  species  of 
hoot,  exceedingly  wide  at  the  top.  niade  of  Span- 
ish leather,  came  into  use;  and  with  Charles  II. 
the  highly  decorated  French  boot  was  intro- 
duced as  an  article  of  gay  courtly  attire.  Mean- 
while the  jack-boot  had  become  indispen.sable 
in  the  costume  of  cavalry  soldiers  and  horsemen 


generally;  and  by  William  III.  and  his  follow 
ers  it  was  regularly  naturalized  in  England. 
This  huge  species  of  boot  remained  in  use  in 
British  cavalry  regiments  until  comparatively 
recent  times,  and,  in  a  somewhat  polished  and 
improved  form,  it  is  still  worn  by  the  Horse 
Guards.  The  jack-boot  is  almost  entitled  to  be 
called  the  parent  of  the  top  and  some  other  va- 
rieties. Boots  with  tops  of  a  yellow  color  were 
commonly  worn  by  gentlemen  in  the  i8th  cen- 
tury. Formerly  in  France,  a  great  foot  was 
much  esteemed,  and  the  length  of  the  shoe,  in 
the  14th  century,  was  a  mark  of  distinction. 
The  shoes  of  a  prince  were  two  feet  and  a  half 
long;  those  of  a  baron  two  feet;  those  of  a 
knight  18  inches  long. 

In  America. —  The  introduction  of  the  boot 
and  shoe  industry  in  America  is  almost  coinci- 
dent with  the  first  settlement  of  New  England, 
for  it  is  a  matter  of  history  that  in  the  year 
1629  a  shoemaker  named  Thomas  Beard,  with 
a  supply  of  hides,  arrived  on  board  the  May- 
Aower.  The  pioneer  of  the  American  boot  and 
shoe  trade  was  accredited  to  the  governor  of  the 
colony,  by  the  company  in  London,  at  a  salary 
of  $50  per  annum  and  a  grant  of  50  acres  of 
land,  upon  which  he  should  settle.  Seven  years 
after  the  arrival  of  Beard,  the  city  of  Lynn 
saw  the  inception  of  the  industry  which  has 
given  it  a  world-wide  fame,  for  there,  in  1636, 
Philip  Kertland,  a  native  of  Buckinghamshire, 
began  the  manufacture  of  shoes,  and  15  years 
later  the  shoemakers  of  Lynn  were  supplying 
the  trade  of  Boston.  As  early  as  1648.  tanning 
and  shoemaking  was  an  industry  in  the  colony 
of  Virginia,  and  history  records  that  a  planter 
named  Matthews  employed  eight  shoemakers 
upon  his  own  premises.  Legal  restraint  was 
placed  upon  the  business  of  the  cordwainer  in 
Connecticut  in  1656,  and  in  Rhode  Island  in 
1706,  while  in  New  York  the  business  of  tan- 
ning and  shoemaking  is  known  to  have  been 
firmly  established  previous  to  the  capitulation  of 
the  province  to  the  English,  in  1664.  In  1698 
the  industry  was  carried  on  profitably  in  Phila- 
delphia, and  in  1721  the  colonial  legislature  of 
Pennsylvania  passed  an  act  regulating  the  mate- 
rials and  the  prices  of  the  boot  and  shoe  indus- 
try. During  the  Revolution  most  of  the  shoes 
worn  by  the  Continental  Army,  as  well  as  nearly 
all  ready-made  shoes,  sold  throughout  the  col- 
onies, were  produced  in  Massachusetts,  and  we 
find  it  recorded  that  "for  quality  and  service 
,they  were  quite  as  good  as  those  imported  from 
'England."  Immediately  after  the  Revolution,  in 
consequence  of  large  importations,  the  business 
languished  somewhat.  It  soon  recovered,  how- 
ever, and  was  pursued  with  such  vigor  that  in 
1795  there  were  in  Lynn  2C0  master  workmen 
and  600  journeymen,  who  produced  in  the  ag- 
gregate 300,000  pairs  of  ladies'  shoes.  One 
manufacturer  in  seven  months  of  the  year  1795 
made  20,000  pairs.  In  1778  men's  shoes  were 
made  in  Reading,  Braintree.  and  other  towns 
in  the  Old  Colony  for  the  wholesale  trade ;  they 
were  sold  to  dealers  in  Boston,  Philadelpliia, 
Savannah,  and  Charleston,  a  considerable  por- 
tion being  exported  to  Cuba  and  other  ^^'est 
India  islands.  About  the  year  1795  the  business 
was  established  in  Milford  and  other  Worcester 
county  towns,  where  brogans  were  made,  and 
sold  to  the  planters  in  the  Southern  States  for 
negro  wear.  The  custom  at  this  time  was  for 
the  manufacturer  to  make  weekly  trips  to  Bos- 
ton with  his  horse  and  wagon,  taking  his  goods 


BOOTS  AND  SHOES 


in  baskets  and  barrels,  and  selling  them  to  the 
wholesale  trade. 

Early  Methods. —  Prior  to  1815  most  of  the 
shoes  were  hand-sewed,  a  few  having  been  cop- 
per nailed;  the  heavier  shoes  were  welted  and 
the  lighter  ones  turned.  This  method  of  manu- 
facture was  changed,  about  the  year  181 5,  by 
the  adoption  of  the  wooden  shoe  peg,  which 
was  invented  in  181 1  and  soon  came  into  general 
use.  Up  to  this  time  little  or  no  progress  had 
been  made  in  the  methods  of  manufacture. 
The  shoemaker  sat  on  his  bench,  and  with 
scarcely  any  tools  other  than  a  hammer,  knife, 
and  wooden  shoulder  stick,  cut,  stitched,  ham- 
mered, and  sewed,  until  the  shoe  was  com- 
pleted. Previous  to  the  year  1845,  which  marked 
the  first  successful  application  of  machinery  to 
American  shoeniaking,  this  industry  was  in  the 
strictest  sense  a  hand  process,  and  the  young 
man  who  chose  it  for  his  vocation  was  appren- 
ticed for  seven  years,  and  in  that  time  \vas 
taught  every  detail  of  the  art.  He  was  in- 
structed in  the  preparation  of  the  insole  and 
outsole,  depending  almost  entirely  upon  his  eye 
for  the  proper  proportions ;  taught  to  prepare 
pegs  and  drive  them,  for  the  pegged  shoe  was 
the  most  common  type  of  foot-wear  in  the  first 
half  of  the  iQth  century;  and  familiarizing  him- 
self with  the  making  of  turned  and  welt  shoes, 
which  have  always  been  considered  the  highest 
type  of  shoemaking,  requiring  exceptional  skill 
of  the  artisan  in  channeling  the  insole  and  out- 
sole  by  hand,  rounding  the  sole,  sewing  the 
welt,  and  stitching  the  outsole.  The  change 
from  which  has  been  evolved  our  present  fac- 
tory system  began  in  the  latter  part  of  1700. 
when  a  system  of  sizes  had  been  drafted,  and 
shoemakers  more  enterprising  than  their  fellows 
gathered  about  them  groups  of  workmen,  and 
took  upon  themselves  the  dignity  of  manufac- 
turers. The  entire  shoe  was  then  made  under 
one  roof,  and  generally  from  leather  that  was 
tanned  on  the  premises ;  one  workman  cut  the 
leather,  others  sewed  the  uppers,  and  still  others 
fastened  uppers  to  soles,  each  workman  handling 
only  one  part  in  the  process  of  manufacture. 
This  division  of  labor  was  successful  from  the 
very  start,  and  soon  the  method  was  adopted  of 
sending  out  the  uppers  to  be  sewed  by  the  wo- 
men and  children  at  their  homes.  Small  shops 
were  numerous  throughout  certain  parts  of 
Massachusetts,  where  the  shoemaker,  with 
members  of  his  family  or  sometimes  a  neigh- 
bor, received  the  uppers  and  under-stock  from 
the  factories  near  by,  bottomed  the  boots  and 
shoes,  and  returned  them  to  the  factories,  where 
they  were  finished  and  sent  to  the  market 
packed  in  wooden  boxes.  Thus  the  industry 
developed  and  prospered  and  was  carried  on 
without  any  further  improvement  in  methods 
until   the  introduction  of  machinery. 

Machinery. —  The  first  machine  which  proved 
itself  of  any  practical  value  was  the  leather 
rolling  machine,  which  came  into  use  about 
1845,  and  with  which  it  was  said  "a  man  could 
do  in  a  minute  what  would  require  half  an 
hour's  hard  work  with  a  lapstone  and  ham- 
mer.'^ This  was  closely  followed  by  the  wax- 
thread  sewing  machine,  which  greatly  reduced 
the  time  required  for  sewing  together  the  differ- 
ent parts  that  formed  the  upper,  and  the  buffing 
machine,  for  removing  the  grain  from  sole 
leather.  Then  came  a  machine  which  made 
pegs  very  cheaply  and  with  great  rapidity,  and 
this  in  turn  was  followed  by  a  hand-power  ma- 


chine for  driving  pegs.  In  1855  there  was  intro- 
duced the  splitting  machine,  for  reducing  sole 
leather  to  a  uniform  thickness.  Peg-making 
and  power-pegging  machines  were  soon  per- 
fected, and  there  had  appeared  a  dieing-out  ma- 
chine, which  was  used  for  cutting  soles,  taps, 
and  heels  by  the  use  of  different  size  dies.  The 
year  i860  saw  the  introduction  of  the  McKay 
sewing  machine,  which  has  done  more  to  revo- 
lutionize the  manufacture  of  shoes,  perhaps, 
than  any  other  single  machine.  The  shoe  to  be 
sewed  was  placed  over  a  horn  and  the  sewing 
was  done  from  the  channel  in  the  outsole 
through  the  sole  and  insole.  The  machine  made 
a  loop  stitch  and  left  a  ridge  of  thread  on  the 
inside  of  the  shoe,  but  it  filled  the  great  demand 
that  existed  for  sewed  shoes,  and  many  hun- 
dreds of  millions  of  pairs  have  been  made  by 
its  use.  At  the  time  of  the  introduction  of  the 
McKay  machine  inventors  were  busy  in  other 
directions,  and,  as  a  result,  came  the  introduc- 
tion of  the  cable  nailing  machine,  which  was 
provided  with  a  cable  of  nails,  the  head  of  one 
being  joined  to  the  point  of  another;  these  the 
machine  cut  into  separate  nails  and  drove  auto 
matically.  At  about  this  time  was  introduced 
the  screw  machine  which  formed  a  screw  from 
brass  wire,  forcing  it  into  the  leather  and  cut- 
ting it  off  automatically.  This  was  the  proto- 
type of  the  "rapid  standard  screw  machine,'* 
which  is  a  comparative  recent  invention  and  is 
very  widely  used  as  a  sole  fastener  at  the  pres- 
ent time  on  the  heavier  class  of  boots  and  shoes. 
Verj'  soon  thereafter  the  attention  of  the  trade 
was  attracted  to  the  invention  of  a  New  York 
mechanic  for  the  sewing  of  soles.  This  device 
was  particularly  intended  for  the  making  of 
turn  shoes,  and  afterwards  became  famous  as 
the  Goodyear  '^turn  shoe  machine."  It  was 
many  years  before  this  machine  became  a  com- 
mercial success,  and  mention  of  its  progress  is 
made  later.  Closely  following  the  Goodyear 
invention  came  the  introduction  of  the  first  ma- 
chine used  in  connection  with  heeling  —  a  ma- 
chine which  compressed  the  heel  and  pricked 
holes  for  the  nails  —  and  this  was  soon  fol- 
lowed by  a  machine  which  automatically  drove 
the  nails,  the  heel  having  previously  been  put 
into  place  and  held  by  guides  on  the  machine. 
Other  improvements  in  heeling  machines  fol- 
lowed with  considerable  rapidity,  and  a  machine 
came  into  use  shortly  afterwards  which  not  only 
nailed  the  heel  but  was  also  provided  with  a 
hand  trimmer,  which  the  operator  swung  round 
the  heel  immediately  after  nailing.  From  these 
have  been  evolved  the  heeling  machines  in  use 
at  the  present  time.  Notable  improvements  had 
during  this  time  been  made  in  the  Goodyear 
system,  and  a  machine  was  made  for  the  sewing 
of  welts  which  was  the  foundation  of  the  Good- 
year machine  now  so  universally  used.  This 
machine  sewed  from  the  channel  of  the  insole 
through  upper  and  welt,  uniting  all  three,  and 
was  a  machine  of  the  chain-stitch  type,  which 
left  the  loop  on  the  outside  of  the  welt.  This 
machine  was  closely  followed  by  the  introduc- 
tion of  one  which  stitched  the  outsole.  uniting 
it  to  the  welt  by  a  stitch  made  from  the  chan- 
nel in  the  outsole,  through  outsole  and  welt. 
This  machine  afterwards  became  famous  as  the 
Goodyear  ''rapid  outsole  lock-stitch  machine.'* 
The  great  demand  that  existed  for  shoes  of  this 
type  made  it  necessary  that  accessory  machines 
should  be  invented,  and  those  which  prepared 
the  insole,  skived  the  welt,  trimmed  the  insole, 


BOOTS  AND  SHOES 


rounded  and  channeled  the  outsole,  as  well  as 
a  machine  which  automatically  rolled  or  leveled 
the  shoe,  and  the  stitch  separating  machine  were 
soon  produced.  These  formed  the  Goodyear 
welt  system  which  has  heen  the  subject  of  con- 
stant improvement  up  to  the  present  time.  Fac- 
tory-made boots  and  shoes  are  now  entirely  cut 
out  by  machinery,  the  upper  are  sewn  by  strong 
sewing  machines,  and  soles  and  uppers  are  fas- 
tened together  either  by  (i)  sewing,  (2)  peg- 
ging with  wooden  pegs,  (3)  riveting  with  metal 
pins,  or  (4)  screwing  by  means  of  the  Stand- 
ard screw  machine.  The  latter  most  ingenious 
apparatus  uncoils  a  reel  of  screwed  brass  wire, 
inserts  it  into  the  sole,  and  cuts  off  the  wire 
flush  with  the  outsole  with  remarkable  rapid- 
ity; and  for  solidity  and  durability  the  work 
leaves  nothing  to  be  desired. 

Manufacturing  Methods.  —  The  following 
gives  a  fair  idea  of  how  a  pair  of  shoes  is 
turned  out  under  modern  methods  in  the  fac- 
tory of  to-day :  First,  the  cutters  are  given 
tickets  describing  the  style  of  shoe  required ; 
the  thickness  of  sole,  and  whatever  other  de- 
tails are  necessary.  From  this  ticket  the  vamp 
cutter  blocks  out  the  vamps  and  gives  them 
with  the  ticket  to  the  upper  cutter,  who  shapes 
the  vamps  to  the  pattern  and  cuts  the  tops  or 
quarters  which  accompany  them.  The  trim- 
ming cutter  then  gets  out  the  side  linings,  stays, 
facings,  or  whatever  trimmings  are  needed.  The 
whole  is  then  made  into  a  bundle  and  sent  to 
the  fitting  department.  Here  they  are  arranged 
in  classes  by  themselves.  Pieces  which  are  too 
lieavy  are  run  through  a  splitting  machine,  and 
the  edges  are  beveled  by  means  of  a  skiving  ma- 
chine. Next  they  are  pasted  together,  care  be- 
ing taken  to  join  them  at  the  marks  made  for 
that  purpose.  After  being  dried  thev  go  into 
the  hands  of  the  machine  operators.  The  differ- 
ent parts  go  to  different  machines,  each  of  which 
is  adjusted  for  its  particular  work.  The  com- 
pleted upper  next  goes  to  the  sole-leather  room, 
in  which  department  machinery  also  performs 
the  major  part  of  the  work.  By  the  use  of  the 
cutting  machine  the  sides  of  leather  are  re- 
duced into  strips  corresponding  to  the  length  of 
the  sole  required.  These  strips  are  passed 
through  a  powerful  rolling  machine,  which 
hardens  tlie  leather  and  removes  from  its  sur- 
face all  irregularities.  They  are  then  shaved 
down  to  a  uniform  thickness,  also  by  machinery, 
and  placed  under  dies  which  cut  them  out  in 
proper  form.  The  smaller  pieces  are  died  out  in 
the  form  of  lifts  or  heel  pieces,  which  are  joined 
together  to  the  proper  thickness  and  cemented, 
after  which  they  are  put  into  presses  which 
give  them  the  greatest  amount  of  solidity.  The 
top  lift  is  not  added  to  the  heel  until  after  it 
has  been  nailed  to  the  shoe.  The  remaining 
sole  leather  is  used  for  shank  pieces,  rands, 
and  bottom  leveling.  For  the  insole,  a  lighter 
grade  of  leather  is  used,  which,  being  cut 
into  strips  and  rolled,  is  cut  by  dies  to  the 
correct  shape,  shaved  uniformly,  and  channeled 
around  the  under  edge  for  receiving  the  upper. 
The  counters  are  died  out  and  skived,  by  ma- 
chine, and  the  welts  cut  in  strips.  The  uppers 
and  soles  are  then  sent  to  the  bottoming  depart- 
ment, where  the  first  operation  is  that  of  last- 
ing, the  uppers  being  tacked  to  the  insoles. 
From  the  laster  they  go  to  the  machine  operator, 
where  the  upper,  sole,  and  welt  are  firmly  sewed 
together  by  the  machine.  The  bottom  is  filled 
and   leveled   off   and   the   steel   shank   inserted. 


Next,  the  bottom  is  coated  with  cement,  and 
the  outsole  pressed  on  it  by  a  machine.  Thence 
it  is  sent  through  the  rounding  machine,  which 
trims  it  and  channels  the  sole  for  stitching. 
From  there  it  goes  again  to  the  sewing  ma- 
chine, which  stitches  through  the  welt  outside 
of  the  upper.  The  next  step  is  that  of  leveling, 
then  heeling,  both  of  which  processes  are  ac- 
complished by  machinery.  The  heels  are  nailed 
on  in  the  rough  and  afterwards  trimmed  into 
shape  by  a  machine  operating  revolving  knives; 
a  breasting  machine  shaping  the  front  of  the 
heel.  Still  another  machine  drives  in  the  brass 
nails  and  cuts  them  off  flush  with  the  top  pieces. 
The  edging  machine  is  next  used,  which  trims 
the  edges  of  both  sole  and  heel.  The  sole  bot- 
tom is  then  sandpapered,  blacked,  and  burnished 
by  machinery,  after  which  the  shoe  is  cleaned, 
treed,  and  packed. 

Factory  Centres. —  Prior  to  1800  little  at- 
tempt to  establish  the  shoe  industry  outside 
eastern  Massachusetts  was  made.  Yet  it  was 
not  to  be  expected  that  other  enterprising  sec- 
tions would  be  content  always  to  depend  entirely 
on  is°vv  England  for  so  important  an  article  of 
merchandise  as  shoes.  In  New  York  City  and 
other  cities  of  New  York  State,  especially  in 
Rochester,  the  industry  has  attained  large  pro- 
portions, and  has  reached  a  perfection  not  ex- 
celled anywhere.  In  Newark.  N.  J.,  where  the 
business  was  early  established,  are  made  many 
of  the  finest  shoes  for  men's  wear.  Philadel- 
phia has  made  the  shoe  industry  a  leader  among 
the  many  manufacturing  industries  for  which 
she  is  celebrated.  At  Cincinnati  and  St.  Louis 
ladies'  shoes  are  produced  in  great  quantities, 
and  of  a  style  and  finish  that  have  won  a  repu- 
tation. Chicago  has  taken  up  the  business  with 
an  energy  that  has  already  placed  her  in  the 
front  rank.  Throughout  the  West,  including 
the  Pacific  Coast,  there  are  many  thoroughly 
equipped,  financially  successful  shoe  factories. 
Notwithstanding  the  enterprise  of  other  parts 
of  the  country,  New  England  still  maintains  the 
lead  as  the  home  of  this  industry.  Boston  is 
the  center  from  which  are  sold  nearly  all  the 
goods  made  in  New  England,  amounting  to 
about  two-thirds  of  the  entire  production  of  the 
country.  The  flourishing  New  England  cities 
and  tov.ns  of  Lvnn,  Brockton,  Haverhill.  Marl- 
boro, Milford.  Whitman,  and  Weymouths,  and 
many  others,  are  built  up  and  maintained  solely 
by  the  boot  and  shoe  and  allied  interests.  The 
force  which  this  industry  has  exerted  on  the 
community  at  large  becomes  apparent. 

Convict  Labor. — No  account  of  the  manufac- 
ture of  boots  and  shoes  would  be  complete  with- 
out reference  to  the  employment  of  convict 
labor.  The  business  offers  many  advantages  to 
the  authorities  of  prisons  who  are  seeking  re- 
munerative work  for  the  men  and  women  in 
their  charge.  The  great  number  of  operations 
in  producing  a  shoe  makes  it  possible  to  use 
all  classes  of  convicts,  from  the  strong  to  the 
weak;  and  as  far  back  as  1850.  even  before  ma- 
chinery was  introduced,  it  was  not  an  uncom- 
mon tiling  for  houses  of  correction  and  prisons 
to  produce  footwear  not  only  for  their  own  con- 
victs, but  to  be  sold  in  the  market.  After  the 
introduction  of  machinery,  and  during  the  de- 
mand for  cheap  shoes,  which  followed  the  close 
of  the  Civil  War,  many  of  the  states  leased  the 
labor  of  their  convicts  to  shoe  manufacturers. 
In  the  year  1870  there  were  employed  in  this  in- 
dustry   in    26    different    States,    6,581    convicts, 


BORA 


ii\-hile  tliere  were  only  129,989  employed  in  the 
industry  in  the  same  States  outside  the  prisons. 
In  the  year  1900  there  were  made  by  7,609  con- 
victs, 6^634,960  pairs  of  shoes,  valued  at  $10,990,- 
173,  and  it  is  probable  that  the  number  em- 
ployed and  the  annual  production  are  steadily 
increasing.  In  States  where  the  system  was  be- 
lieved to  have  a  harmful  influence  on  the  wages 
of  the  workman  outside  the  prisons,  the  busi- 
ness has  been  conducted  on  the  States'  account, 
and  in  some  instances,  at  least,  the  result  has 
been  disastrous. 

Export  Trade. — Early  manufacturers  shipped 
goods  to  the  West  Indies,  more  especially  to 
Cuba,  and  up  to  the  time  of  the  Civil  War 
the  export  business  was  prosecuted  with  con- 
siderable vigor  and  profit.  In  1810,  10  per  cent 
of  all  the  boots  and  shoes  sold  in  Boston  were 
for  export.  In  the  year  1865  shoes  to  the  value 
of  more  than  $2,000,000  were  exported.  From 
that  time  the  trade  fell  off  sharply.  This  may 
be  accounted  for  by  the  great  advance  in  1866, 
when  values  rose  at  least  50  per  cent.  Since 
1895  interest  has  been  renewed  in  the  export 
trade.  Manufacturers  have  become  convinced 
that  there  is  nothing  in  the  conditions  which 
will  prevent  competition  with  foreign  countries. 
The  raw  materials  are  available,  and,  while  many 
hides  and  skins  are  imported,  the  supply  of  the 
domestic  product  is  constantly  increasing  and 
leather  manufacturers  have  been  able  to  pro- 
duce materials  for  making  boots  and  shoes  as 
advantageously,  both  in  regard  to  quality  and 
price,  as  any  other  country.  Styles  have  been 
adapted  to  the  wants  of  such  countries  as  im- 
port their  footwear.  Many  of  the  leading  man- 
ufacturers are  alive  to  the  situation  and  are 
endeavoring  to  secure  a  greater  share  of  the 
world's  trade.  The  following  tabular  statement 
shows  the  value  of  the  exports  of  leather  boots 
and  shoes  from  1870  to  1901  : 

TiEARS.  V.\LUES. 

I901 $3,526,290 

1900 4,276.''56 

1899 2,711,385 

1898 1,816,538 

1897 1,708,224 

1896 1,436,686 

1895 : 1,010,228 

1894 777,354 

1893 590,754 

1892 914,974 

189J 651,343 

1890 662,974 

1885 598-151 

1880 441-069 

1875 42Q,3'53 

1870 419,612 

The  exports,  with  the  exception  of  the  year 
1865.  appear  to  have  been  unimportant  until 
1895,  when  the  first  decided  gain  was  made,  the 
txports  for  that  year  being  valued  at  $1,010,228. 
Since  that  date  there  has  been  a  steady  increase 
until,  in  1901,  these  exports  amounted  to  $5,526.- 
290.  The  maximum  yearly  capacity  of  the 
combined  factories  of  the  United  States,  on 
a  basis  of  306  working  days,  is  slightly  under 
400,000.000  pairs,  showing  that  all  the  factories 
running  at  full  capacity  would  require  not  ex- 
ceeding seven  months  to  produce  all  shoes  con- 
sumed in  the  United  States,  and  those  exported 
for  the  year  ending  30  June,  1900. 

Statistics  of  Manufacture. —  In  1901  a  capital 
of  $101,795,233  was  invested  in  the  manufacture 
of  boots  and  shoes.  This  sum  represents  the 
value  of  the  land,  buildings,  machinery,  tools, 
and  implements,  but  does  not  include  the  capi- 


tal stock  of  any  of  the  manufacturing  corpora- 
tions of  the  State.  The  value  of  the  products 
was  $261,028,580,  to  produce  which  involved  an 
outlay  of  $7,757,749  for  salaries  of  officials, 
clerks,  etc.,  $59,175,883  for  wages,  $10,766,402 
for  miscellaneous  expenses,  including  rent, 
taxes,  etc.,  and  $169,604,054  for  materials  used, 
mill  supplies,   freight,  and  fuel. 

The  following  table  gives  the  leading  sta- 
tistics of  the  boot  and  shoe  industry  in  the 
United  States  from  1880  to  1900: 


Kumber    of    estab- 
lishments   

Capital 

Wage-earners 

Total  wages 

Miscellaneous     e.x- 

penses  

Cost     of      material 

used   

Value  of  products. 


iiioi,795,233 

142,922 

59,175,883 

10,766,402 

169,604,034 
261,028,580 


S>95,282,3ii 

133,690 

60,667,145 


118,785,831 
210,649,353 


$42,994,028 

111,152 

43,001,438 


102,442,442 
166,050,354 


The    output    of    12    leading    manufacturing 
cities  for  1890  and  1900  was  as  follows  : 


Cities. 

1900 

1890 

Value  of 
Product. 

0i 

Value  of 
Product. 

Brockton,  Mass 

I 
2 
3 
4 

5 

6 

7 
8 

9 
10 
II 
12 

$19,844,397 
16,830,733 
15,231,440 
8,788,424 
8,286,156 
6,933-111 
5-931,045 
5-733-432 
5,723,126 
4,176,826 
4,052,204 
3-882,655 

2 

I 

3 
7 
9 
6 

5 
12 
4 

23 

$16,171,624 
80,190,695 
s6,i37,35^ 
6,024,454 
'85250,960 
6,489,382 
6,851,834 
2,489,885 
7,257,034 

39,024 
1,508,697 

Haverhill,    Mass 

Cincinnati,  Ohio 

Rochester,  N.  Y 

Philadelphia,  Pa 

Brooklyn,  N.  Y 

Auburn,  Me 

Manchester,  N.  H 

The  total  quantity  of  boots  and  shoes  m.^n«- 
factured  in  1900  was  219,235,419  pairs,  an  in- 
crease over  1890  of  45,372,479  pairs.  This  is 
about  the  same  as  the  percentage  of  increase  in 
population  for  the  United  States.  In  1900 
89,123,31;"  pairs  of  men's,  youth's,  and  boys' 
boots  and  shoes  were  manufactured,  valued  at 
$129,505,235.  Women's,  misses',  and  children's 
shoes  were  made  to  the  number  of  107,415,855 
pairs,  valued  at  $112,823,914.  Slippers  were 
produced  for  men,  youths,  and  boys  to  the  num- 
ber of  4,456,965  pairs,  valued  at  $2,812,213.  An- 
other item  "slippers,  oxfords,  and  low  cuts  for 
women,  misses,  and  children,"  is  represented 
by  12,655,876  pairs,  valued  at  $10,146,393.  In 
1900  capital  to  the  amount  of  $33-667,533  was 
invested  in  the  manufacture  of  rubber  boots 
and  shoes,  with  a  total  product  valued  at 
$41,089,819.  Frederick  D.  Hull, 

Vice-President   '-The  Shoe  Retailer,^   New 
York  and  Boston. 

Bora,  Katharina  von,  wife  of  Luther:  b. 
29  Jan.  1499;  d.  20  Dec.  1552.  She  took  the 
veil  very  early  in  the  nunnery  of  Nimptschen, 
near  Grimma;  but  feeling  very  unhappy  in  her 
situation,  applied,  with  eight  other  nuns,  to 
Luther,  whose  fame  had  reached  them.  Luther 
gained  over  a  citizen  of  Torgau,  by  the  name  of 


BORACIC    ACID  — BORASSUS    PALM 


Leonard  Koppe.  who,  in  union  with  some  other 
citizens,  undertook  to  dehver  the  nine  nuns  from 
their  convent.  This  was  done  the  night  after  Good 
Friday,  4  April  1523.  Luther  brought  them 
to  Torgau,  and  from  thence  to  Wittenberg.  At 
the  same  time,  to  anticipate  the  charges  of  his 
enemies,  he  published  a  letter  to  Koppe,  in  which 
he  frankly  confessed  that  he  was  the  author  of 
this  enterprise,  and  had  persuaded  Koppe  to  its 
execution  ;  and  he  also  exhorted  the  parents  and 
relations  of  the  virgins  to  admit  them  again  into 
their  houses.  Some  of  them  were  received  by 
citizens  of  Wittenberg ;  others  who  were  not  yet 
too  old  Luther  advised  to  marry.  Among  the 
latter  was  Katharina,  whom  Philip  Reichenbach, 
at  that  time  mayor  of  the  city,  had  taken  into 
his  house.  Luther  proposed  to  her  several 
of  his  friends.  She  declined  these  proposals, 
but  declared  her  willingness  to  bestow  her  hand 
on  Nicholas  von  Amsdorf,  or  on  Luther  him- 
self. Luther,  who  in  1524  had  laid  aside  the 
cowl,  was  not  averse  to  matrimony,  yet  appears 
to  have  been  led  to  the  resolution  of  marrying 
by  reason  rather  than  by  passion.  This  step 
gave  rise  to  many  disadvantageous  rumors,  some 
of  them  as  shameful  as  they  were  unfounded. 
After  Luther's  death  Katharina  removed  from 
Wittenberg  to  Leipsic,  where  she  was  compelled 
to  take  boarders  for  her  support.  She  after- 
ward returned  to  Wittenberg  and  finally  re- 
moved to  Torgau,  where  she  died.  In  the 
Church  of  Torgau  her  tombstone  is  still  to  be 
seen,  on  which  is  a  life-size  image  of  her. 

Borac'ic  (-ras'-)  Acid,  or  Bo'ric  Acid  (from 
"borax"),  a  compound  of  boron  with  oxy- 
gen and  hydrogen,  having  the  formula  H3BO3, 
and  possessing  feebly  acid  properties.  It  occurs 
:n  an  impure  state  in  the  crater  of  Vulcano,  one 
of  the  Lipari  islands.  It  is  also  found  plenti- 
fully in  Tuscany,  where  it  issues  from  fissures  in 
the  soil,  together  with  sulphurous  exhalations, 
ammonia,  and  other  substances.  On  account  of 
its  having  been  obtained  at  Sasso,  the  acid  is 
called  by  mineralogists  Sassolite.  The  principal 
supply  of  boracic  acid  is  obtained  from  Tuscany, 
the  exhalations  above  referred  to  being  passed 
through  water  which  absorbs  the  acid.  The 
preparation  of  boracic  acid  from  these  aqueous 
solutions  is  an  interesting  process  on  account 
of  the  natural  obstacles  which  have  to  be  sur- 
mounted. The  apparentlj'  simple  operation  of 
concentrating  the  solution,  so  as  to  obtain  the 
acid  by  crystallization,  in  reality  involves  great 
practical  difficulties,  because  in  Tuscany  the  fuel 
supply  is  limited.  This  drawback  has  been 
overcome  by  utilizing  the  volcanic  heat  of  the 
district  to  concentrate  the  solution.  Around  the 
cracks  in  the  soil  (called  "fumaroles*^  or 
"soffioni"),  from  which  the  steam  containing 
the  acid  issues,  and  enclosing  the  small  lakes 
or  lagoons  in  which  it  condenses,  brick  tanks 
are  built  on  different  levels,  but  communicating 
with  each  other.  These  are  supplied  with  cold 
water,  in  which  the  steam  is  further  condensed. 
When  the  water  in  the  tanks  is  sufficiently  salu- 
lated,  it  is  run  off  into  a  deep  vessel,  where  it 
is  allowed  to  stand  until  the  black  mud  mechan- 
ically suspended  in  it  falls  to  the  bottom,  and 
then  the  cl(;ar  fluid  is  run  into  a  series  of  shallow 
evaporating  pans  of  lead.  These  pans  are  heated 
by  steam  from  the  soffioni,  the  steam  bemg 
made  to  pass  under  them  by  a  system  of  flues. 
As  the  evaporation  proceeds  the  fluid  becomes 
richer  in  boracic  acid,  and  when  it  attains  a  cer- 


tain specific  gravity,  it  is  passed  into  a  deep 
vat,  where  it  is  allowed  to  cool.  Boracic  acid 
then  crystallizes  out.  The  first  crop  of  crystals 
is  quite  impure,  but  it  is  improved  by  re-crystal- 
lization, and  the  second  crop  as  thus  obtained  is 
packed  in  casks  and  exported.  Commercial 
boracic  acid  sometimes  contains  as  much  as  25 
per  cent  of  foreign  matter,  consisting  largely 
of  clay,  salts  of  calcium  and  magnesium,  and 
sulphates  and  other  salts  of  the  alkalis.  About 
2,000  tons  of  crude  boracic  acid  are  exported 
from  Tuscany  per  annum.  Boracic  acid  is  also 
prepared  artificially  by  decomposing  a  hot  solu- 
tion of  borax  with  sulphuric  acid.  The  boracic 
acid  separates  out  upon  cooling.  Boracic  acid 
is  a  white,  glassy  substance,  slightly  soluble  in 
cold  water,  and  considerably  more  soluble  in 
hot  water.  It  possesses  strong  antiseptic  prop- 
erties, and  is  used  as  a  preservative  for  meat. 
It  is  also  used  for  glazing  porcelain,  and  in  the 
manufacture  of  certain  kinds  of  glass.  Boracic 
acid  forms  salts  called  "borates"  with  various 
metallic  bases,  of  which  borax  (q.v.)  is  the 
most  important.     See   Borox. 

In  medicine,  boracic  acid  is  used  very  widely. 
It  is  a  mild  antiseptic,  and  its  solutions  are  use- 
ful for  cleansing  the  ej'es,  nose,  mouth,  bladder, 
etc.  It  forms  with  aromatic  oils  the  basis  of  most 
mouth  washes  and  nasal  sprays.  Boracic  acid  is 
also  very  useful  in  the  nursery  for  keeping  nip- 
ples free  from  bacteria,  and  it  is  of  great  ser- 
vice in  washing  out  nursing-bottles,  babies' 
mouths  and  eyes,  and  the  mother's  nipples  while 
nursing.     Large  doses  may  prove  poisonous. 

Bo'racite  (from  "borax*'),  a  mineral, 
tetrahedral  and  isometric  in  external  form,  but 
orthorhombic  in  molecular  structure,  and  be- 
coming isotropic  only  when  heated  to  510°  F. 
It  has  the  composition  6MgO.MgCl2.8B:03,  and 
a  little  iron  is  also  occasionally  present,  probably 
as  an  impurity.  It  occurs  in  beds  of  anhydrite, 
gypsum,  and  salt,  notably  at  Stassfurt,  Prussia. 
also  in  crystals  at  Liineberg,  Hanover  and 
Westeregeln,  Saxony.  The  mineral  has  been  pre- 
pared artifically  by  melting  together  10  parts  of 
boracic  acid.  100  of  sodium  chloride,  and  5  of 
magnesium  borate.  Boracite  is  strongly  pyro- 
electric.  Its  molecular  structure  has  been  the  sub- 
ject of  much  study,  on  account  of  its  exhibiting 
double  refraction,  although  the  mineral  is  ap- 
parently isometric  in  crystalline  form. 

Borage,  the  small  genus,  typical  of  the 
natural  order  Boragiiiacccc,  the  species  of  which 
are  most  numerous  in  the  Mediterranean  region. 
Common  borage  (Borago  oiHcinalis),  a  coarse 
growing  annual  herb  frequent  in  waste  places, 
is  about  two  feet  tall  with  erect  stem,  rough, 
hairy  leaves,  and  blue  flowers  arranged  in 
racemes.  Like  many  other  innocuous  plants, 
borage  was  highly  valued  medicinally,  but  is 
now  not  so  emploj-ed.  It  is  occasionally  raised 
as  a  pot  herb  or  salad  plant,  its  young  leaves 
being  palatable.  The  flowers  are  still  used  to 
make  the  beverage  known  as  cool  tankard,  a 
mixture  of  wine,  lemon,  sugar,  and  water.  The 
plant's  chief  use,  however,  is  as  bee  pasturage, 
its  flowers  being  rich  in  nectar. 

Boras,  Sweden,  a  tow^n  in  the  province  of 
Elfsborg,  36  miles  east  of  Gothenburg.  It  was 
founded  by  Gustavus  Adolphus  in  1632.  I'here 
are  some  cotton  and  linen  manufactures,  and 
also  some  dyeworks.     Pop.   (1903)   15,837. 

Borassus  Palm.     See  Palmyra  Palm. 


BORAX  —  BORDEAUX 


Bo'rax,  a  compound  of  the  metal  sodium 
with  boracic  acid  (q.v.).  The  formula  of  boracic 
acid  maj^  be  written  HBO2  +  H2O ;  and  if  the 
hydrogen  of  the  HBO2  is  replaced  by  sodium,  a 
compound  known  as  sodium  borate  is  formed, 
which  crystallizes  as  NaBOs  +  4H2O.  Fused 
borax  is  this  salt  deprived  of  its  water  of  crys- 
tallization, and  combined  with  boron  trioxide  in 
the  form  2NaB02  +  B2O3,  or  NajBiOr.  Com- 
mon borax,  when  crystallizing  from  aqueous 
solution,  however,  contains  10  molecules  of 
water.  Other  forms  of  borax  are  easily  ob- 
tained, crystallizing  wuth  different  quantities  of 
water.  Borax  occurs  native,  both  as  a  saline 
efflorescence  on  the  soil,  and  as  monoclinic  crys- 
tals. Until  recent  times  the  principal  borax 
supply  of  the  world  was  obtained  from  the  salt 
lakes  of  Tibet.  It  was  brought  to  Europe  in 
the  crude  state,  under  the  name  of  Tincal. 
Enormous  quantities  of  borax  are  now  obtained 
from  California  and  Nevada.  Borax  Lake,  some 
80  miles  north  of  San  Francisco,  was  discovered 
in  1856.  It  contains  borax  in  solution,  and  crys- 
tals of  the  mineral  also  occur  in  the  surround- 
ing mud  and  marshes.  The  crystals  are  occa- 
sionally quite  large,  weighing  as  much  as  a 
pound  each.  It  is  also  found  in  large  quantities 
at  Borax  Lake  in  San  Bernardino  County,  Cal., 
and  it  occurs  abundantly  as  an  efflorescence  in 
Death  Valley,  Inyo  County,  Cal.  Borax  is  ex- 
tensively used  in  the  household,  and  it  is  used 
also  as  an  antiseptic  and  preservative.  Like 
boracic  acid,  it  is  employed  in  glazing  porcelain. 
Its  property  of  dissolving  metallic  oxides  makes 
it  of  great  value  in  blowpipe  anah^sis  (q.v.)  and 
as  a  flux  in  the  soldering  of  metals.  In  the 
United  States  commercial  borax  is  chiefly  de- 
rived from  the  colemanite  deposits  of  California. 

Borax  is  of  toxicological  interest  because  it 
is  widely  used  as  an  antiseptic,  a  preservative 
for  meats  and  other  foodstuffs,  and  also  as  an 
abortifacient.  In  large  doses  there  is  marked 
gastro-enteritis,  in  addition  to  which  there  are 
symptoms  of  collapse,  coldness  of  the  skin,  bad 
pulse,  psychical  depression,  and  diminution  in 
the  quantity  of  urine  eliminated.  Similar  symp- 
toms may  occur  from  the  use  of  borax  in  wash- 
ing out  large  abscess  cavities.  Singultus  and 
general  motor  paralysis  are  the  symptoms  in 
fatal  cases.  Borax  certainly  has  atoxic  action 
on  the  kidneys  when  taken  in  large  amounts. 
There  is  albumen  in  the  urine,  casts,  pain  in 
urination,  and  even  bloody  urine.  While  the 
kidneys  are  markedly  affected  by  large  doses  it 
is  questionable  whether  borax,  in  the  small 
amounts  used  in  food  preservation,  causes  any 
grave  symptoms  of  kidney  irritation,  even  when 
taken  for  a  considerable  length  of  time.  It  may 
well  be  that  certain  individuals  have  an  idiosyn- 
crasy to  boron  salts,  in  which  case  their  use 
would  prove  detrimental.     See  Boron. 

Borchgrevink,  Carsten  Egeberg,  Norwe- 
gian explorer  and  lecturer :  b.  Christiania,  1864, 
his  mother  being  English  and  his  father  a 
Scandinavian.  He  went  to  sea  at  an  early  age, 
but  returned  to  go  to  college.  In  1808  he  went 
to  Australia,  joined  the  survey  department,  and 
scaled  Mount  Lindsay.  In  1894-5  he  was  in 
Antarctic  waters,  a  region  more  fully  explored 
by  him  in  1897,  when  he  attempted  to  reach  the 
South  Pole  without  success.  In  1899  (17  Febru- 
ary) he  had,  however,  reached  Robertson  Bay. 
Returning  to  London  in   1900  he  reported  hav- 


ing reached  lat.  78.50  S. ;  Ion.  195.50  E.,  the 
farthest  point  south  ever  reached  by  man.  Con- 
sult his  work,  'First  on  the  Antarctic  Conti- 
nent.^ 

Borda,  Jean  Charles,  French  engineer,  and 
afterward  a  captain  in  the  French  marine, 
famous  for  his  mathematical  talents:  b.  Dax,  de- 
partment of  Landes,  4  May  1733;  d.  20  Feb. 
1799.  In  1756  he  was  chosen  a  member  of  the 
Academy  of  Sciences,  and  occupied  himself  in 
making  experiments  on  the  resistance  of  fluids, 
the  velocity  of  motion,  and  other  topics  relating 
to  dynamical  science.  In  1767  he  published  a 
dissertation  on  hydraulic  wheels,  and  afterward 
one  on  the  construction  of  hydraulic  machinery. 
In  1771,  with  Verdun  de  la  Crenne  and  Pingre, 
he  made  a  voyage  to  America,  to  determine  the 
longitude  and  latitude  of  several  coasts,  isles, 
and  shoals,  and  to  try  the  utilitj''  of  several 
astronomical  instruments.  In  1774  he  visited  the 
Azores,  the  Cape  Verde  Islands,  and  the  coast 
of  Africa  for  the  same  purpose.  In  the  Ameri- 
can war  he  was  very  useful  to  the  Count 
d'Estaing  by  his  knowledge  of  navigation. 
Borda  was  the  founder  of  the  schools  of  naval 
architecture  in  France.  He  invented  an  instru- 
ment, of  a  very  small  diameter,  which  measures 
angles  with  the  greatest  accuracy,  and  which  has 
been  used  in  measuring  the  meridian ;  the  re- 
flecting circle,  which  has  made  his  name  immor- 
tal ;  besides  an  instrument  for  measuring  the 
inclination  of  the  compass-needle,  and  many 
others.  On  the  establishment  of  the  National 
Institute,  he  became  one  of  its  members,  and 
was  occupied  with  other  men  of  science  in  fram- 
ing the  new  system  of  weights  and  measures 
adopted  in  France  under  the  republican  govern- 
ment. Among  the  latest  of  his  labors  was  a 
series  of  experiments  to  discover  the  length  of 
a  pendulum  which  should  vibrate  seconds  in  the 
latitude  of  Paris.  The  principal  of  his  writings 
are:  'His  Voyage^  and  his  'Tables  Trigonome- 
triques  Decimales.^ 

Bordeaux,  France,  capital  of  the  depart- 
ment of  Gironde,  is  situated  on  the  left  bank  of 
the  Garonne,  about  70  miles  from  the  sea,  and 
284  southwest  of  Paris.  It  is  built  in  a  crescent 
form  round  a  bend  of  the  river,  which  is  lined 
with  fine  quays  for  more  than  three  miles,  and 
is  crossed  by  a  magnificent  stone  bridge  of  17 
arches,  finished  in  1821  at  a  cost  of  $1,200,000. 
There  is  another  bridge,  a  fine  iron  structure, 
for  the  railway  from  Paris.  Bordeaux  consists 
of  an  old  and  a  new  town,  the  boundary  be- 
tween them  being  formed  by  a  wide  and  hand- 
some street  which,  commencing  at  the  quay 
near  the  centre  of  the  crescent,  stretches  across 
the  city  from  east  to  w^est.  The  objects  chiefly 
deserving  of  notice  in  the  old  town  are  the  arch 
called  the  Porte  de  Bourgogne  at  the  extrem- 
ity of  the  bridge,  forming  the  principal  entrance 
to  the  town ;  the  cathedral,  a  fine  Gothic  edifice 
built  at  different  periods  ;  St.  Michael's  Church, 
■with  a  lofty  detached  tower,  and  a  superb  front 
of  florid  Gothic ;  the  Church  of  St.  Croix,  a 
specimen  of  gorgeous  Romanesque ;  the  bourse 
or  exchange,  the  custom-house,  the  Hotel  de 
Ville,  once  the  residence  of  the  archbishops  of 
Bordeaux,  and  the  Palais  de  Justice.  The  new 
town  is  not  so  rich  in  public  buildings.  The 
most  conspicuous  are  the  library  (200,000  vol- 
umes) ,  the  museum,  and  the  theatre,  a  Grecian 
structure,    regarded    as   the    handsomest    edifice 


BORDEAUX  MIXTURE— BORDEAUX  WINES 


in  Bordeaux.  Among  the  beneficent  establish- 
ments the  first  place  is  due  to  the  grand  hospital 
or  infirmary,  which  occupies  the  highest  site  in 
the  town  and  is  admirably  arranged.  Few  cities 
are  so  well  supplied  with  extensive  and  finely 
planted  promenades.  Bordeaux  is  the  seat  of 
a  court  of  appeal,  of  courts  of  the  first  instance 
and  of  coPimerce ;  and  has  an  academy  of  sci- 
ence, literature,  and  art ;  a  preparatory  school  of 
medicine  and  pharmacy ;  a  lyceum ;  a  normal 
school  for  female  teachers ;  a  school  of  hydrog- 
raphy and  navigation ;  a  school  of  painting  and 
design ;  a  botanic  garden,  an  observatory,  vari- 
ous literary  and  scientific  associations  and  a 
branch  of  the  Bank  of  France.  There  are  con- 
suls resident  here  from  all  the  states  of  Europe 
and  America.  The  position  of  Bordeaux  gives 
it  admirable  facilities  for  trade,  and  enables  it 
to  rank  next  after  Marseilles  and  Havre  in  re- 
spect of  the  tonnage  employed.  Large  vessels 
can  sail  up  to  the  town,  which  by  railway,  river, 
and  canal  communicates  with  the  Mediterranean, 
with  Spain,  and  with  the  manufacturing  centres 
of  France.  The  chief  exports  are  wine  and 
brandy :  drugs,  dj-es,  and  fruits  are  also  largely 
exported.  Sugar  and  other  colonial  produce  and 
wood  are  the  chief  imports.  Ship-building  is 
the  chief  branch  of  industry,  and  there  are  also 
sugar-refineries,  woolen  and  cotton  mills,  pot- 
teries, soap-works,  distilleries,   etc. 

Bordeaux  is  the  Burdigala  of  the  Romans. 
In  the  5th  century  it  was  in  possession  of  the 
Goths,  and  it  was  pillaged  and  burned  by  the 
Normans.  By  the  marriage  of  Eleonor,  daugh- 
ter of  the  last  Duke  of  Aquitaine,  to  Louis  VIL, 
it  fell  into  the  hands  of  France.  But  in  1152 
the  princess  was  repudiated  by  her  husband,  and 
married  to  Henry  of  Anjou,  who  ascended  the 
throne  of  England  in  11 54,  as  Henry  II.,  and 
transferred  Bordeaux  to  that  crown.  After  the 
battle  of  Poitiers,  Edward  the  Black  Prince 
carried  John,  king  of  France,  prisoner  to  Bor- 
deaux, where  he  resided  11  years.  L'nder 
Charles  VIL,  in  1451,  it  was  restored  again  to 
France.  In  1548  the  citizens  rebelled  on  account 
of  a  tax  on  salt,  and  the  governor,  De  ]\Iorems, 
was  put  to  death,  for  which  the  constable  of 
Montmorency  inflicted  a  severe  punishment  on 
the  city.  During  the  revolution  it  was  devas- 
tated as  the  rendezvous  of  the  Girondists,  by  the 
Terrorists,  almost  as  completely  as  Lyons  and 
Marseilles.  The  oppressiveness  of  the  conti- 
nental system  to  the  trade  of  Bordeaux  made  the 
inhabitants  disaffected  to  the  government  of 
Napoleon,  so  that  they  were  the  first  to  declare 
for  the  house  of  Bourbon,  12  March  181 4.  The 
Roman  poet,  Ausonius,  was  a  native  of  Bor- 
deaux. Montaigne  and  Montesquieu  were  born 
in  the  neighboring  country,  and  t!ie  latter  lies 
buried  there  in  the  Church  of  Saint  Bernard. 
Pop.  U903;  268,330. 

Bordeaux  Mixture.     See  Fungicides. 

Bordeaux  Wines.  The  finer  red  wines  of 
the  country  around  Bordeaux  are  the  best  which 
France  produces.  They  contain  but  little  alco- 
hol, keep  well,  and  even  improve  by  removal. 
As  the  original  fermentation  is  complete,  they 
are,  if  judiciously  managed,  less  subject  to  dis- 
order and  acidity  than  the  Burgundy  wines. 
None  of  the  very  best  quality,  however,  is  ex- 
ported pure:  a  bottle  of  the  best  Chateau-Mar- 
gaux,  or  Haut-Brion,  is  a  rarity  hardly  to  be 
procured  in  Bordeaux  itself,  at  the  rate  of  six 


or  seven  francs  a  bottle.  For  export,  the  sec- 
ondary growths  of  Medoc  are  mingled  with  the 
rough  Palus.  The  red  wines  of  Bordeaux  are 
known  in  America  under  the  name  of  claret. 
They  have  less  aroma  and  spirit,  but  more 
astringency  than  the  Burgundy  wines.  They 
are  the  safest  wines  for  daily  use,  as  they  are 
among  the  most  perfect  of  the  light  wines,  and 
do  not  easily  excite  intoxication.  In  this  re- 
spect they  contrast  with  the  Burgundy  wines, 
which  have  more  generous  qualities  than  those 
of  Bordeaux,  although  these  wines  have  some- 
times been  accused  of  producing  the  gout,  but 
this  disparagement  is  without  reason.  Persons 
who  habitually  drink  madeira,  port,  etc.,  and 
/ndulge  in  an  excess  of  claret,  may  indeed  be 
visited  in  that  way;  because  a  transition  from 
the  strong,  brandied  wines  to  the  lighter  is 
always  followed  by  a  derangement  of  the 
digestive  organs. 

The  principal  vineyards  are  those  of  Medoc, 
Graves,  Palus,  and  Vigncs  Blanches ;  after 
these,  those  of  Entre-deux-Mers,  Saint  Emilion, 
and  the  Bourgeais  are  the  most  important.  The 
first  growth  of  Medoc  are  the  famous  wines  of 
Chateau-Margaux,  Lafitte,  and  Latour.  The 
Lafitte  is  characterized  by  its  silky  softness  on 
the  palate,  and  a  perfume  partaking  of  violet 
and  raspberrj'.  The  Latour  is  fuller,  has  more 
aroma  but  less  softness.  The  Chateau-Margaux 
is  lighter  than  the  Latour,  and  delicate  like  the 
Lafitte,  but  has  not  so  high  a  flavor.  Of  the 
second  growth,  we  may  mention  the  Rauran  and 
the  Leoville.  The  average  produce  of  the  first 
growth  is  217,000  gallons.  The  soil  of  Medoc  is 
a  sandy  and  calcareous  loam.  The  gravelly  lands 
(Ics  Graves)  to  the  south  and  west  cf  Bordeaux 
produce  the  Graves.  The  first  growth  of  the  red 
Graves  is  the  Haut-Brion,  which  rivals  the  first 
growth  of  Medoc;  it  has  more  color  and  body, 
but  is  inferior  in  aroma  and  taste.  The  prin- 
cipal white  Graves  are  Saint  Bris  and  Carbon- 
ieux.  The  best  Medoc  ought  to  be  kept  three 
or  four  years  before  removal :  the  Graves  five  or 
six.  The  wines  of  Palus,  which  is  a  bed  of  rich 
alluvial  deposits,  are  inferior  to  the  preceding ; 
they  are  stronger  and  more  deeply  colored  than 
those  of  Medoc.  Being  hard  and  rough,  they 
are  improved  by  a  voyage,  and  are  principally 
sent  to  the  East  Indies  and  America  as  vins  de 
cargaison,  or  are  mixed  with  Medoc  which  is 
intended  for  exportation.  By  the  voyage  they 
become  more  light  and  delicate,  but  are  not  to 
be  compared  with  the  growths  of  Medoc  and 
the  Graves.  The  best  are  Queyries  and  Mont 
Ferrand.  The  former  are  deeply  colored,  and 
have  much  body.  Age  gives  them  an  agreeable 
aroma,  resembling  that  of  a  raspberry. 

Among  the  white  Bordeaux  wines,  besides 
those  already  mentioned,  the  finest  growths  are 
Sautemes,  Preignac,  Barsac,  and  Bommes.  Mar- 
tillac  and  Saint  Medard  are  of  a  good  quality, 
and  have  lightness  and  body.  Dariste,  formerly 
Dulamon,  is  equal  to  Saint  Bris  and  Carbonieux. 
Among  other  red  wines  are  the  Bourgeais, 
which  are  of  a  fine  color,  and  acquire  by  age 
lightness  and  an  agreeable  almond  aroma ;  of 
all  the  Bordelais  wines  they  most  resemble  tlie 
Burgundy  wines.  The  first  growths  are  De- 
bosquet,  Chateau-Rousset.  Tajac,  and  Falfax. 
The  Bourgeais  wines  were  formerly  preferred 
to  Medoc.  The  wines  of  Saint  Emilion  h.ive 
been  much  esteemed.  The  Fronsac  and  Caron 
are  the  best.    Those  of  Entredeux-Mers  beco.tne 


BORDEN  — BORE 


agreeable  with  age.  The  vius  dcs  Cotes  are  good 
vins  ordinaires ;  they  are  generally  fermes  and 
hard,  and  improve  by  age.  The  best  are  those 
of  Bassens  and  Cenon.  Consult  Henderson's 
^History  of  Ancient  and  Modern  Wines. ^ 

Borden,  Simeon,  American  inventor  and 
surveyor :  b.  Fall  River,  Mass.,  29  Jan.  1798 ;  d. 
28  Oct.  1856.  He  instructed  himself  in  mathe- 
matics and  devised  successful  surveying  instru- 
ments. The  first  American  geodetic  survey  was 
his  work.  In  1846  he  began  the  construction  of 
railroads. 

Bordentown,  N.  J.,  a  city  on  the  Delaware 
River,  the  Delaware  and  Raritan  Canal,  and 
the  Pennsylvania  R.R. ;  57  miles  southwest  of 
New  York.  It  is  noted  as  being  a  former  resi- 
dence of  Joseph  Bonaparte  (q.v.),  brother  of 
Napoleon  I.,  and  for  many  3'ears  the  house  and 
grounds  belonging  to  the  estate  possessed  much 
interest  for  the  tourist.  The  city  is  the  seat 
of  the  Bordentown  Military  Institute,  the  St. 
Joseph's  Academy  for  girls  (Roman  Catholic), 
and  the  Bordentown  Female  College.  Tiiere  are 
steam  forge  and  iron  works,  foundry  and  ma- 
chine shops,  worsted  mills,  shirt  factory,  canning 
factories,  a  shipyard  and  other  industries.  The 
city  was  incorporated  in  1866.    Pop.  '1900)  4,110. 

Border  Ruffians,  a  name  given,  after  the 
Kansas-Nebraska  Bill  of  1854,  to  the  pro-slavery 
Missourians  who  acted  as  the  allies  of  the  slave 
element  in  Kansas,  crossing  the  boundary  to 
vote,  by  which  means  they  organized  the  first 
government  against  the  bona-fide  free-labor  resi- 
dents by  a  vote  of  nearly  double  the  inhabitants 
of  the  Territory.  They  kept  the  State  in  an- 
archy for  three  years,  terrorizing  the  inhabitants 
by  murder,  arson,  the  sack  of  towns,  and  other 
outrages.  The  most  graphic  comment  is  the 
fact  that  they  adopted  this  term  of  their  enemies 
and  prided  themselves  on  it  as  an  excellent  joke. 
See  Kansas-Nebraska  Bill. 

Border  States,  before  the  War,  the  line  of 
slave  States  lying  next  the  free  States :  Dela- 
ware, Maryland,  Virginia,  Kentucky,  and  Mis- 
souri. The  term  was  sometimes  improperly 
made  to  include  North  Carolina  and  Tennessee, 
probably  because  their  mountain  districts  held 
so  large  a  proportion  of  loyalists ;  and  Arkansas, 
for  no  special  reason.  Their  political  position 
was  dictated  by  the  facts  that :  ( i )  After  the 
prohibition  of  the  slave  trade  one  of  their  chief 
industries  was  breeding  slaves  for  exportation  to 
the  cotton,  rice,  and  sugar  plantations  of  the 
southernmost  States.  _  In  the  Virginia  conven- 
tion of  1832  it  was  said  to  be  the  most  profitalile 
in  the  State.  (2)  From  their  position  they  were 
the  chief  sufferers  from  the  escape  of  fugitive 
slaves  ;  in  1850  this  was  estimated  at  a  loss  of 
$3,000,000  a  year,  and  these  States  were  the  most 
insistent  advocates  of  the  Fugitive  Slave  Law 
and  its  enforcement ;  and  in  i860  a  Missouri  sen- 
ator urged  the  creation  of  a  Federal  police  to 
patrol  the  border  line  for  this  purpose.  (3)  In 
case  of  war  they  would  be  the  chief  battlelield. 
They  therefore  furnished  the  backbone,  if  not 
the  genesis  of  every  political  movement  to  stop 
the  slavery  agitation  or  conciliate  the  sections. 
The  strength  of  the  Know-Nothing  party  of  1856 
and  the  Constitutional  Union  party  of  i860 
(Bell-Everett)  was  almost  exclusively  in  the 
border  States ;  the  Peace  Conference  of  1861  and 
the  proposed  Crittenden  Compromise  were  the 
work  of  these  States.     They  tried  to  prevent  the 


outbreak  of  hostilities,  and  when  the  war  be- 
gan the  governor  of  Kentucky  went  so  far  as  to. 
attempt  making  his  State  a  neutral  power  out- 
side both  governments,  and  forbade  either  of 
themoccupymg  it  without  the  consent  of  the  State 
authorities.  Finally,  however,  they  split  up  ac- 
cording to  their  natural  affinities ;  the  three  not 
border  States  at  all  —  North  Carolina,  Tennessee, 
and  Arkansas  —  seceded,  with  Virginia  ;  while  in 
Kentucky,  Maryland,  Delaware,  and  Missouri, 
the  loyal  element,  with  government  help,  pre- 
vented the  State  from  going  out.  They  never 
gave  up  hope  through  the  war,  however,  of 
reconciling  differences  by  a  convention  of  all  the 
old  States,  North  and  South. 

Border  War,  a  name  given  during  the 
struggle  for  Kansas  to  the  intermittent  civil  war 
in  that  Territory,  about  1854-8,  between  the 
free-soil  and  the  slavery  parties.  It  was  begun 
by  the  attempt  of  the  Missouri  slaveholding 
party  ("Border  Ruffians,^'  q.v.)  to  reclaim  by 
violence  what  the  actual  settlers  had  won  by 
colonization ;  many  of  the  worst  atrocities  were- 
perpetrated,  and  all  the  temporary  success  of  the 
slavery  side  won,  by  bodies  of  men  who  were 
not  residents  of  Kansas  at  all.  This  caused 
up  John  Brown  (q.v.)  to  move  there  from 
northern  Ohio  with  his  sons,  and  fight  against 
them.  Of  the  other  partisan  leaders  on  that 
side,  the  most  notable  was  James  Mont- 
gomery, who,  however,  was  a  bona  fide  settler. 
The  most  efficient  leaders  among  the  Mis- 
sourians, or  border  ruffians,  were  James 
R.  Atchison  of  Missouri  :'>nd  the  Federal 
courts. 

Bordighera,  Italy,  a  town  on  the  Mediter- 
ranean coast,  in  the  district  of  San  Remo  and 
province  of  Porto  Maurizio,  a  favorite  winter 
residence  for  invalids,  having  been  made  fash- 
ionable by  the  visits  of  the  members  of  the  Eng- 
lish royal  family.  Few  places  on  the  Riviera 
are  better  fitted  for  the  accommodation  of  in- 
valids and  tourists.  In  addition  to  the  usual 
facilities  for  the  entertainment  of  strangers,  the 
town  has  a  library,  museum,  and  a  theatre. 
Pop.   (1903)  about  6,000. 

Bordone,  Paris,  Italian  painter  of  the 
Venetian  school:  b.  Treviso,  1500;  d.  1570. 
Under  Titian  he  made  rapid  progress  in  painting. 
The  execution  of  many  works  for  his  native 
city  and  for  Venice  spread  his  fame  as  far  as 
Prance,  whither  he  was  invited  by  the  king. 
The  galleries  of  Dresden  and  Vienna  possess 
several  of  his  pieces.  His  most  famous  picture 
is  the  ^Old  Gondolier  Presenting  a  Ring  to  the 
Doge^  ;  it  is  considered  one  of  the  masterpieces 
of  the  Venetian  school.  Other  examples  of  his 
work  are:  ^Prophecy  of  the  Tiburtine  Sibyl, ^ 
in  Florence;  ^Combat  of  the  Gladiators,'  in^ 
Vienna,  and  ^The  Chess  Players,*   in  Berlin. 

Bore,  a  word  probably  of  Icelandic  origin, 
and  used  to  designate  a  very  remarkable  phe- 
nomenon which  occurs  in  some  rivers  in  spring- 
tides. At  such  times  as  the  tide  advances  the 
water  is  suddenly  thrown  in  as  if  in  a  mass,  and 
then  pursues  its  course  up  the  river,  and  in 
opposition  to  the  current,  presenting  a  volume 
of  water  moving  with  great  rapidity  and  resist- 
less force,  and  with  a  height  varying  from  two 
or  three  feet,  as  in  the  Severn,  Trent,  Solway,. 
and  Dee,  to  more  than  12  feet  in  the  Brahma- 
pootra, and  Tsien-Tangkiang.     The  last  is  said. 


BORE  —  BORGHESE 


to  have  a  rise  of  20  feet,  and  advances  with  a 
loud  roar,  at  the  rate  of  10  miles  an  hour.  The 
tide  in  the  Bay  of  Fundy  rises  with  great  rapid- 
ity, and  is  sometimes  spoken  of  as  the  bore  of 
Fundy.  The  circumstances  in  which  the  bore 
occurs  afford  an  easy  explanation  of  its  cause, 
and  show  that  it  is  produced  by  the  disproportion 
between  the  volume  of  the  tidal  wave  and  the 
receiving  power  of  the  rivers  into  which  it  is 
thrown. 

Bore,  the  cavity  of  a  steam  engine  cylin- 
der, pump  barrel,  pipe,  cannon,  barrel  of  a  fire- 
arm, etc.  In  mechanics  it  is  expressed  in  inches 
of  diameter ;  in  cannon  formerly  in  the  weight 
in  pounds  of  solid  round  shot  adapted  thereto, 
but  since  the  introduction  of  modern  rifled  ord- 
nance of  the  breech  loading  pattern,  the  bore 
of  cannon  is  always  expressed  in  inches  of 
diameter  or  in  the  equivalent  of  inches. 

Boreas,  the  north  wind,  worshipped  by  the 
Greeks  as  a  deity ;  residing  in  Thrace,  and  rep- 
resented with  wings,  which,  as  well  as  his  hair 
and  beard,  were  full  of  flakes  of  snow ;  instead 
of  feet  he  had  the  tails  of  serpents,  and  with 
the  train  of  his  garment  he  stirred  up  clouds  of 
dust.  Boreas  was  the  son  of  Astraeus  and  of 
Eos.  When  Apollo  and  his  favorite  Hyacinthus 
were  once  playing  at  quoits,  he  blew  the  quoit 
of  the  former,  of  whom  he  was  jealous,  upon 
the  head  of  the  youth,  who  was  killed  by  the 
blow.  By  Oreithyia,  daughter  of  Erechtheus  of 
Athens,  he  was  father  of  Cleopatra,  Chione, 
Calais,  and  Zetes.  The  last  two  took  part  in 
the  Argonautic  expedition. 

Borecole,   a  pot-herb.     See  Kale. 

Boregat.    See  Rock  Trout. 

Borelli,  Giovanni  Alfonso,  Italian  physi- 
cian and  scientist:  b.  Naples,  1608;  d.  Rome, 
31  Dec.  1679.  After  studying  medicine  he  both 
practised  and  professed  it  at  various  places,  but 
particularly  at  Pisa  and  Florence,  and  distin- 
guished himself  as  the  leader  of  those  who  have 
been  called  mathematical  physicians,  from 
regarding  the  human  body  as  a  kind  of  hydrau- 
lic machine,  and  then  attempting  to  explain  all 
its  motions  and  functions  in  accordance  with 
the  principles  of  mathematics.  He  appears  to 
have  possessed  very  original  and  inventive 
powers,  and  made  various  discoveries,  among 
which  may  be  mentioned  that  of  an  apparatus 
apparently  of  the  nature  of  a  diving-bell,  by 
which  persons  could  descend  into  the  water, 
remain  in  it  and  move  about  or  rise  and  sink 
at  pleasure,  and  of  a  boat  by  which  two  or  more 
persons  might  row  themselves  beneath  the  water 
in  any  direction.  His  works  discuss  many 
important  subjects  in  medicine,  mathematics,  and 
philosophy;  but  the  great  work  on  which  his 
fame  rests,  though  not  published  till  after  his 
death,  is  entitled  <De  Motu  Animalium,^  and  in 
so  far  as  it  relates  to  mere  animal  mechanics 
is  full  of  interest  and  instruction;  but  when 
he  attempts  to  apply  his  mathematical  prin- 
ciples he  falls  into  egregious  blunders,  and 
stumbles   at  every   step. 

Borelli's  Comet.    See  Comet. 

Borer,     Round-headed     and     Flat-headed, 

insect  enemies  of  several  trees.     See  Apple. 

Borghese,  the  name  of  a  patrician  family 
of  Sienna.  Italy,  which  has  been  more  or  less 
distinguished   since  the  middle  of  the  15th  cen- 


tury. A  jurisconsult,  of  the  name  of  Marco 
Antonio  Borghese,  who  was  employed  by  the 
papal  court  in  the  early  part  of  the  i6th  century, 
appears  to  have  laid  the  foundation  of  its  for- 
tunes at  Rome.  His  third  son,  Camillo,  became 
Pope  Paul  V.  (q.v.),  in  1605,  and  he  lavished 
the  honors  and  riches  which  his  place  enabled 
him  to  command  on  his  relatives.  For  a  son  of 
his  elder  brother,  named  Marco  Antonio  Bor- 
ghese, he  procured  the  princedom  of  Sulmona 
and  a  grandeeship  in  Spain.  His  brother, 
Francesco,  he  made  the  leader  of  the  troops 
sent  against  Venice  in  1607,  to  maintain  the 
papal  cause  against  the  opposition  of  that  re- 
public. Scipione  Caffarelli,  a  nephew,  he  created 
cardinal.  Paolo,  the  son  of  Marco  Antonio, 
married  Olympia  Aldobrandini,  the  only  child 
of  the  prince  of  Rossano,  and  grandniece  of 
Clement»Vni.,  and  thus  introduced  the  v^ealth 
of  the  Aldobrandini  into  the  Borghese  family. 
The  son  of  Paolo,  named  Giovanni  Battista,  was- 
the  ambassador  of  Philip  V.  to  the  court  of 
Rome,  where  he  died  in  1717.  His  son,  Marco 
Antonio,  was  viceroy  of  Naples  in  1721,  and 
another  of  the  same  name,  descended  from  him, 
became  a  noted  collector  of  works  of  art,  with 
which  he  adorned  his  sumptuous  villa  on  the 
Pincian  hill.     See  Borghese,  C.\millo  Philip. 

Borghese,  Camillo  Philip  Louis,  formerly 
Duke  of  Guastalla,  Prince  of  France,  etc. :  b. 
1775;  d.  Florence,  10  April  1832.  When  the 
French  invaded  Italy  he  entered  their  service, 
and  showed  great  attachment  to  the  cause  of 
France,  in  particular  to  Gen.  Bonaparte,  whose 
sister,  Marie  Pauline  (q.v.),  he  married.  In 
1804  he  became  a  French  prince,  and  grand  cross, 
of  the  Legion  of  Honor,  and  at  the  breaking  out 
of  the  war  against  Austria  in  1805.  commander 
of  a  squadron  of  the  imperial  guard.  After  its 
termination  his  wife  received  the  duchy  of  Guas- 
talla, and  he  was  created  Duke  of  Guastalla. 
After  having  served  in  1806  in  the  campaign 
against  the  Prussians  and  Russians,  and  after 
having  been  sent  to  Warsaw  to  prepare  the  Poles 
for  a  revolt,  the  emperor  appointed  him 
governor-general  of  the  provinces  beyond  the 
Alps.  He  fixed  his  court  at  Turin,  and  became 
very  popular  among  the  Piedmontese.  After  the 
abdication  of  Napoleon  he  broke  up  all  connec- 
tion with  the  Bonaparte  family,  and  separated 
from  his  wife.  The  prince  sold  to  the  French 
government  for  the  sum  of  8.000.000  francs  322 
works  of  art  which  ornamented  the  palace  of  his 
ancestors,  known  undci  the  name  of  the  Villa 
Borghese.  Among  them  were  several  master- 
pieces: for  example,  the  ^Borghese  Gladiator,^ 
the  'Hermaphrodite,'  the  <Silenus,>  the  'Dying 
Seneca,'  'Amor  and  Psyche.'  Bonaparte  pro- 
vided for  the  payment  out  of  the  national 
domains  in  Piedmont,  which  the  king  of  Sar- 
dinia confiscated  in  1815;  at  the  same  time,  in 
consequence  of  the  second  invasion  of  France, 
the  prince  received  back  part  of  these  treasures 
of  art.  In  1818  he  sold  Lucedio,  in  Savoy,  for 
3,000,000  livres.  In  the  kingdom  of  Naples  he 
possessed  the  principalities  Sulmone  and  Rosano. 
He  was  one  of  the  richest  Italian  princes. 

Borghese,  Marie  Pauline  (Princess),  sis- 
ter of  Napoleon:  b.  Ajaccio,  20  Oct.  1780;  d. 
9  June  1825.  When  the  English  occupied  Cor- 
sica in  1793  she  went  to  Marseilles,  where  she 
was  on  the  point  of  marrying  Freron.  a  member 
of  the  Convention,  and  son  of  that  critic  whom. 


BORGHESI  —  BORGIA 


Voltaire  made  famous,  when  another  lad}'  laid 
claim  to  his  hand.  The  beautiful  Pauline  was 
then  intended  for  Gen.  Duphot,  who  was  after- 
ward murdered  at  Rome  in  December  1797;  but 
she  bestowed  her  hand  from  choice  on  Gen. 
Leclerc.  then  at  Milan,  who  had  been  in  1795 
chief  of  the  general  staff  of  a  division  at  Mar- 
seilles, and  had  there  fallen  in  love  with  her. 
When  Leclerc  was  sent  to  St.  Domingo  with 
the  rank  of  captain-general,  Napoleon  ordered 
her  to  accompany  her  husband  with  her  son. 
She  embarked  in  December  1801,  at  Brest,  and 
was  called  bj'  the  poets  of  the  fleet,  the  Galatea 
of  the  Greeks,  the  Venus  Marina.  Her  statue, 
in  marble,  as  A'enus,  was  made  by  Canova  at 
Rome  —  a  successful  image  of  the  goddess  of 
beauty.  She  was  no  less  courageous  than  beau- 
tiful, for  when  the  negroes  under  Christophe 
stormed  Cape  Frangois,  where  she  resided,  and 
Leclerc,  who  could  no  longer  resist  the  assail- 
ants, ordered  his  lady  and  child  to  be  carried 
on  shipboard,  she  yielded  only  to  force.  After 
the  death  of  her  husband  she  married  at  Morfon- 
taine,  in  1803,  the  Prince  Camillo  Borghese 
(q.v.).  Her  son  died  at  Rome  soon  after. 
With  Napoleon,  who  loved  her  tenderly,  she 
had  many  disputes  and  as  many  reconciliations, 
for  she  would  not  always  follow  the  caprices  of 
his  policy.  Yet  even  the  proud  style  in  which 
she  demanded  what  her  brothers  begged  made 
her  the  more  attractive  to  her  brother.  Once, 
however,  when  she  forgot  herself  toward 
the  empress,  whom  she  never  liked,  she  was 
obliged  to  leave  the  court.  She  was  yet  in  dis- 
grace at  Nice  when  Napoleon  resigned  his 
crown  in  1814,  upon  which  occasion  she  imme- 
diately acted  as  a  tender  sister.  Instead  of 
remaining  at  her  palace  in  Rome,  she  set  out 
for  Elba  to  join  her  brother,  and  acted  the  part 
of  mediatrix  between  him  and  the  other  mem- 
bers of  his  familJ^  When  Napoleon  landed  in 
France  she  went  to  Naples  to  see  her  sister  Caro- 
line, and  afterward  returned  to  Rome.  Before 
the  battle  of  Waterloo  she  placed  all  her  dia- 
monds, which  were  of  great  value,  at  the  dis- 
posal of  her  brother.  They  were  in  his  carriage, 
which  was  taken  in  that  battle,  and  was 
shown  publicly  at  London.  He  intended  to  have 
returned  them  to  her.  She  lived  afterward  sepa- 
rated from  her  husband  at  Rome,  where  she 
occupied  part  of  the  palace  Borghese,  and  where 
she  possessed,  from  1816,  the  Villa  Sciarra.  Her 
house,  in  which  taste  and  love  of  the  fine  arts 
prevailed,  was  the  centre  of  the  most  splendid 
society  at  Rome.  She  often  saw  her  mother, 
her  brothers  Lucien  and  Louis,  and  her  uncle 
Fesch.  When  she  heard  of  the  sickness  of  her 
brother  Napoleon,  she  repeatedly  requested  per- 
mission to  go  to  him  at  St.  Helena.  She  finally 
obtained  her  request,  but  the  news  of  his  death 
arrived  imrnediately  after.  At  her  death  she  left 
many  legacies,  and  a  donation,  the  interest  of 
which  was  to  enable  two  young  men  of  Ajaccio 
to  study  medicine  and  surgery.  The  rest  of  her 
property  she  left  to  her  brothers,  the  Count  of 
St.  Leu  and  the  Prince  of  Montfort.  Her  whole 
property  amounted  to  about  $500,000. 

Borghesi,  Bartolommeo  (Count).  Italian 
numismatist:  b.  Savignano.  11  July  1781  ;  d.  16 
April  1866.  His  attention  was  devoted  to 
elucidating,  through  the  study  of  inscriptions, 
several  obscure  points  in  Roman  history;  and 
the  books  he  published  secured  for  him  a  great 


reputation  among  the  learned.  He  completed, 
after  more  than  30  years'  labor,  a  full  chrono- 
logical list  of  the  Roman  consuls,  embracing 
all  the  modern  discoveries  on  the  subject,  with 
disquisitions  on  the  most  important  questions 
connected  with  Roman  antiquities.  After  his 
death  a  complete  collection  of  his  writings  was 
ordered  by  the  Emperor  Napoleon,  but  it  was 
not  until  1S97  that  the  work  was  finished. 

Borgi,  Giovanni,  j6-van'ne  bor-je,  the  orig- 
inator of  ragged  schools:  b.  Rome,  about  1736; 
d.  about  1S02.  He  was  a  mason  by  trade,  and 
after  his  daily  toil  was  completed,  he  was  in 
the  habit  of  attending  the  sick  in  the  hospital  of 
Santo  Spirito,  spending  entire  nights  in  his  labor 
of  love,  and  frequently  falling  asleep  at  his  work 
during  the  da}^  In  his  daily  walks  he  had 
noticed  troops  of  vagrant  children  in  the  streets, 
fast  ripening  into  vice  and  crime.  He  took  them 
home  to  his  humble  lodgings,  and,  having  clad 
them  with  the  aid  of  alms  which  he  collected, 
he  apprenticed  them  to  useful  trades.  This 
noble  work  was  observed  and  admired  by  others, 
who  freely  lent  their  aid,  and  in  due  time  a 
society  was  formed,  which  was  further  devel- 
oped in  1784.  Although  Giovanni  was  himself 
entirely  uneducated,  he  perceived  the  advantages 
of  instruction,  and  caused  the  children  to  be 
taught  reading,  writing,  and  arithmetic  by  one 
Francesco  Cervetti,  who  afterward  left  him  and 
founded  another  refuge  for  orphans  called  the 
^Assumption  of  the  Virgin,^'  which  was  consoli- 
dated with  that  of  Giovanni  in  1812.  Pius  VI. 
purchased  for  the  institution  the  Palazzo  Ruggi, 
and  became  the  society's  principal  protector. 
Subsequently  the  charity  was  removed  to  dif- 
ferent convents,  and  finally  to  the  church  of  St. 
Anne  of  the  Carpenters. 

Borgia,  Cesare,  cha-za're  bor'ja,  Italian 
ecclesiastic  and  soldier:  b.  1476;  d.  12  March 
1507.  He  was  the  natural  son  of  Rodrigo  Bor- 
gia, and  a  Roman  lady  named  Vanozza.  His 
father,  who  in  1492  became  Pope,  with  the  title 
of  Alexander  VI.,  made  him  a  cardinal.  When 
Charles  VIII.  of  France  made  his  entry  into 
Rome,  Alexander  was  obliged  to  treat  with  him, 
and  delivered  Cesare  Borgia  into  his  hands  as 
a  hostage,  though  he  escaped  a  few  days  after 
from  the  camp  of  the  king.  In  1497  Alexander 
bestowed  the  duchy  of  Benevento,  together  with 
the  counties  of  Terracina  and  Pontecorvo,  on  his 
eldest  son,  Giovanni,  who  had  already  received 
from  the  king  of  Spain  the  duchy  of  Gandia. 
Giovanni  died  shortly  after  his  investiture,  and 
Cesare  has  been  accused  of  murdering  his 
brother  out  of  jealousy,  but  historical  proof  of 
this  charge  is  utterly  lacking.  His  father  per- 
mitted him  to  abandon  his  ecclesiastical  office 
and  devote  himself  to  the  profession  of  arms, 
and  sent  him  to  France  to  carry  to  Louis  XII. 
the  bull  for  divorce  and  dispensation  for  mar- 
riage which  he  had  long  desired  to  obtain. 
Louis  rewarded  Borgia  with  the  duchy  of 
Valentinois,  a  body-guard  of  100  men,  and 
20,000  livres  a  year,  and  promised  to  aid 
him  in  his  projects  of  conquest.  In  1490  Cesare 
married  a  daughter  of  King  John  of  Navarre, 
and  accompanied  Louis  XII.  to  Italy.  He  first 
undertook  the  conquest  of  Romagna,  expelled 
the  lawful  possessors  of  the  land,  caused  them 
to  be  treacherously  murdered,  and  himself,  in 
1501,  to  be  appointed  by  his  father  Duke  of 
Romagna.     In    the    same   year   he    wrested    the 


BORGIA  —  BORGOGNONE 


principality  of  Piombino  from  Jacopo  d'Apiano. 
He  also  endeavored,  though  in  vain,  to  make 
himself  Duke  of  Bologna  and  Florence.  In  1502 
he  announced  that  he  was  about  to  attack  Cam- 
•erino,  and  demanded  for  that  purpose  soldiers 
and  artillery  from  Guidobaldo  of  Montefeltro, 
Duke  of  Urbino.  Camerino  was  taken  by  storm, 
and  Giulio  di  Barona,  the  lord  of  the  city,  with 
both  his  sons,  was  strangled  at  the  command  of 
Borgia.  Meanwhile  all  the  petty  princes  had 
tmited  and  collected  soldiery  for  their  defense ; 
but  Cesare  Borgia  terrified  some  by  means  of 
3,000  Swiss  whom  he  called  to  Italy,  and  gained 
over  others  by  advantageous  offers.  Thus  he 
dissolved  their  alliance,  seized  their  lands,  and 
saw  no  further  obstacle  to  his  being  made,  by 
his  father,  king  of  Romagna,  of  the  March, 
and  of  Umbria,  when  Alexander  VI.  died, 
17  Aug.  1503.  At  the  same  time  Cesare 
Borgia  was  attacked  by  a  severe  disease 
at  a  moment  when  his  whole  activity  and 
presence  of  mind  were  needed.  He  found 
means,  indeed,  to  get  the  treasures  of  his  father 
into  his  possession,  assembled  his  troops  in 
Rome,  and  formed  a  closer  alliance  with  France ; 
but  enemies  rose  against  him  on  all  sides,  one 
of  the  most  bitter  of  whom  was  the  new  Pope, 
Julius  II.  Borgia  was  arrested  and  carried  to 
Spain,  where  he  remained  for  two  years  in 
prison.  He  at  length  made  his  escape  to  his 
brother-in-law,  the  king  of  Navarre,  went  with 
him  to  war  against  Castile,  and  was  killed  by  a 
shot  before  the  castle  of  Viana. 

Borgia,  Francisco,  fran-thes'ko,  or  St. 
Francis  (Duke  of  Gandia),  Spanish  ecclesias- 
tic: b.  Janda,  Spain,  1510;  d.  Rome,  October 
1572.  He  was  eminent  as  a  soldier  and  states- 
man, and  enjoyed  the  confidence  and  friendship 
of  Charles  V..  who  appointed  him  viceroy  of 
Catalonia.  While  very  young  he  married  a  noble 
Portuguese  lady.  Eleonora  de  Castro,  by  whom 
he  had  a  large  family.  He  was  always  very 
strict  in  his  morality,  and  exact  in  his  religious 
duties.  After  the  death  of  his  wife  he  entered 
the  Society  of  Jesus,  and  was  ordained  priest  in 
the  40th  year  of  his  age.  At  the  death  of  Laynez, 
in  1565,  he  was  elected  General  of  the  society, 
and  remained  in  office  until  his  death.  Several 
bishoprics,  and  the  dignity  of  cardinal,  were 
repeatedl}''  pressed  upon  him,  but  he  refused 
them  all.  He  was  canonized  by  Clement  X.  in 
1671. 

Borgia,  Lucrezia,  loo-krad'ze-a,  daughter 
of  Pope  Alexander  VI.,  and  sister  of  Cesare 
Borgia  (q.v.)  :  b.  1480;  d.  Ferrara.  24  June  1519- 
When  a  mere  child  she  was  betrothed  to  a  gen- 
tleman of  Aragnn.  but  her  father,  on  attaining 
the  popedom,  thought  the  match  beneath  her, 
?nd  broke  the  engagement,  marrying  her  to 
Giovanni  Sforza.  lord  of  Pesaro.  After  she 
bad  lived  with  him  for  four  years,  Alexander 
dissolved  the  marriage  on  the  ground  of  the 
busband's  impotency.  and  gave  her  to  Alphonso, 
Duke  of  Bisceglia,  natural  son  of  Alphonso  II. 
of  Aragon.  Two  years  after  her  husband  was 
assassinated  in  a  quarrel  with  Cesare  Bor- 
gia. Within  the  course  of  a  year  she  married 
Alphonso  d'Este,  son  of  Ercole.  Duke  of  Fer- 
rara. Here  she  became  a  liberal  patroness  of 
poets,  who  endeavored  to  repay  her  benefactions 
by  lauding  her  as  the  pattern  of  every  virtue. 
The  character  of  Lucrezia  Borgia  has  been  the 
subiect  of  much  controversy,  but  recent  historical 


researches  have  placed  her  in  a  much  fairer 
light  and  it  has  been  shown  beyond  dispute, 
that  after  her  marriage  to  Alphonso  d'Este  her 
life  was  a  model  of  virtue  and  beneficence. 

Borgia,  Rodrigo.  See  Ale.xander  VI. 

Borgia,  Stefano,  ste-fa'no,  Italian  ecclesias- 
tic:  b.  Vclletri.  3  Dec.  1731  ;  d.  Lyon,  23  Nov.' 
1804.  He  was  brought  up  by  his  uncle,  Alex- 
ander Borgia,  Archbishop  of  Fermo,  and  in  1750, 
on  becoming  a  member  of  the  Etruscan  Academy 
of  Cortona,  commenced  at  Velletri  to  form  a 
museum  which  has  since  become  one  of  the 
richest  private  collections  in  existence.  In  1759 
he  was  appointed  by  Benedict  XIV.  governor 
of  Benevento,  and  in  1770  he  became  secretary 
to  the  College  of  Propaganda,  which  brought 
him  into  immediate  relation  with  missionaries 
to  all  parts  of  the  world,  and  enabled  him,  at 
comparatively  little  expense,  to  enrich  his 
museum  with  manuscripts,  coins,  statues,  idols, 
and  all  the  other  rarities  v,'hich  each  country 
possessed.  In  1789  Pius  VI.  made  him  a  car- 
dinal, and  at  the  same  time  appointed  him 
inspector-general  of  the  foundling  hospital,  into 
which  he  introduced  extensive  reforms.  In  1797 
the  revolutionary  spirit  which  had  broken  out 
in  France  extended  itself  to  Rome,  and  the 
Pope,  as  the  best  means  of  counteracting  it,  gave 
all  his  confidence  to  Borgia  and  installed  him 
as  dictator.  The  situation  was  extremely  dif- 
ficult, but  he  showed  himself  worthy  of  the 
trust,  and  gained  such  ascendency  over  the  pub- 
lic mind  that  tranquillity  and  good  order 
remained  uninterrupted  till  1798.  By  this  time 
the  French  were  at  the  gates,  and  the  popular 
party,  becoming  dominant,  established  a  repub- 
lic. The  Pope  was  compelled  to  depart,  and 
Cardinal  Borgia,  at  first  arrested,  was  ordered, 
on  obtaining  his  liberty,  to  quit  the  papal  states. 
After  disembarking  at  Leghorn  he  repaired  to 
Venice  and  Padua,  and  continued  regularly  to 
discharge  his  functions  in  connection  with  the 
Propaganda  as  if  nothing  had  occurred  to  inter- 
rupt them.  He  returned  to  Rome  with  the  new 
Pope.  Pius  VII.,  who  treated  him  with  the  same 
confidence  as  his  predecessor.  Afterward,  when 
Pius  VII.  was  carried  off  to  France,  Borgia  was 
ordered  to  accompany  him.  and  he  accordingly 
set  out,  but  had  only  reached  Lyons  when  he 
was  seized  with  a  serious  illness,  and  died.  He 
was  the  author  of  several  antiquarian  and  his- 
torical works,  and  deserves  honorable  mention 
for  his  liberal  patronage  of  arts  and  artists. 

Borgne,  bor-ne.  Lake,  Louisiana,  a  body 
of  water  situated  in  the  southeastern  part  of  the 
State.  Though  termed  a  lake,  it  is  strictly  the 
termination  of  that  large  arm  of  the  Mexican 
Gulf  known  as  Pascagoula  Sound,  being  united 
to  that  by  a  pass  or  strait  crossed  by  a  line  of 
small  islands  and  faced  on  the  east  by  Grand 
Island.  Lake  Borgne  is  also  connected  with 
Lake  Pontchartrain  by  the  Rigolet  Pass.  It  is 
about  the  average  depth  of  Lake  Pontchartram, 
and  approaches  within  15  miles  of  New  Orleans. 
Its  greatest  extent  is  in  a  northeast  and  south- 
west" direction,  in  which  its  length  is  about  30 
miles.  Lake  Borgne  forms  a  part  of  the  west- 
ern boundary  of  the  Mississippi  Delta. 

Borgognone.  Jacopo  Cortesi,  ya-ko-po 
kor-ta-ze  bor-go-nyo-ne.  French  pamter:  b. 
St.    Hippolite,    Burgundy,    1621 ;    d-    1676.     He 


BORGU  — BORING 


studied  painting  under  his  father,  but  enlisted 
in  the  army  and  remained  in  it  for  three  years. 
On  his  return  he  resumed  his  art,  and  went  to 
Bologna  where  he  attracted  the  notice  of  Guido 
and  became  an  inmate  in  his  house,  where  he 
made  good  use  of  the  valuable  opportunities  of 
improvement  thus  afforded  him.  After  realiz- 
ing an  independence  he  visited  his  native  place. 
Returning  again  to  Italy,  where  he  painted  with 
much  success,  he  resolved  to  become  a  Jesuit. 
He  was  accordingly  admitted  into  the  order  at 
Rome  in  1655,  but  he  appears  to  have  painted 
as  diligently  as  ever.  He  is  remarkable  for  free- 
dom of  design,  and  the  vividness  with  which  his 
pictures  bring  the  subjects  which  they  represent 
before  the  mind. 

Borgu,  bor-goo',  Africa,  a  district  in  the 
Western  Sudan,  lying  about  lat.  10°  N.,  and 
stretching  from  the  meridian  of  Greenwich  east 
to  the  Niger.  It  is  hilly  in  parts,  but  much  of 
it  is  well  watered  and  extremely  fertile.  Among 
its  numerous  productions  are  rice,  grain,  indigo, 
cotton,  bananas,  and  citrons.  The  inhabitants 
are  Mohammedan.  Kiama  and  Wawa  are  chief 
towns. 

Bo'ric  Acid.   See  Boracic  Acid. 

Boring,  a  species  of  circular  cutting  in 
which  a  cylindrical  portion  of  a  substance  is 
gradually  removed.  When  tubes  of  metal  are 
to  be  formed,  a  cast  is,  in  some  cases,  made 
in  solid  metal,  and  the  whole  of  the  bore  is  pro- 
duced by  the  boring-machine:  in  others  the  cast 
is  made  hollow  at  first,  and  the  borer  is  only 
used  to  give  uniformity  and  finish  to  the  inside 
of  the  tube.  In  boring  cannon  sometimes  the 
tool  is  made  to  revolve  while  the  cannon  is  at 
rest,  and  sometimes  the  cannon  is  made  to 
revolve  while  the  tool  is  at  rest.  By  the  latter 
arrangement  the  bore  is  said  to  be  formed  with 
more  accuracy  than  by  the  other  method  of 
putting  the  borer  in  motion. 

In  the  jewelry  and  small  metal  industries, 
hand  drills,  which  consist  of  a  spindle  with  steel 
bits,  to  which  reciprocating  rotation  is  given, 
are  the  implements  for  piercing  small  holes. 
The  boring  of  holes  in  metal  plates  is  effected 
by  means  of  drills  driven  by  machinery.  The 
drill  is  inserted  in  the  end  of  a  vertical  spindle, 
which  revolves  in  a  fixed  frame  and  is  driven  by 
the  bevel  wheels.  The  metal  to  be  bored  is 
placed  on  a  table  or  other  support,  below  the 
drill ;  and  the  up  and  down  motion,  or  end  pres- 
sure and  off  action,  of  the  drill  is  effected  by 
the  hand  gear  turning  the  screw;  which,  being 
coupled  to  the  top  of  the  spindle,  presses  it 
down  or  raises  it,  according  to  the  way  it  is 
turned.  The  spindle  slides  vertically  in  the 
collar  forming  the  axis  of  the  bevel  wheel,  but 
is  carried  round  with  it  by  means  of  a  pin 
which  projects  into  a  groove. 

As  applied  to  the  earth  and  to  rocks,  boring 
embraces  two  classes  of  operations  — boring  of 
shot-holes  for  blasting,  and  the  sinking  of  bores 
in  prospecting  for  minerals  and  in  forming  wells 
for  water,  brine,  and  mineral  oils.  Blast-holes 
in  rocks  are  made  from  one  to  two  —  sometimes 
more  —  inches  in  diameter,  and  may  pierce  to 
the  depth  of  nine  feet.  Such  holes  are  most 
simply  made  in  hard  rock  by  a  steel-pointed 
drill,  struck  by  a  hammer,  and  turned  partly 
round  after  each  blow  to  make  the  hole  cylin- 
drical. The  addition  of  a  little  water  serves  to 
preserve    the    temper    of    the    boring   tool,    and 


makes  the  rock  more  easy  to  cut.  In  soft  rock, 
whenever  the  hole  is  to  be  vertical,  a  jumper 
is  used.  This  is  a  weighted  drill,  which  acts- 
merely  by  its  own  weight  when  let  fall  from- 
about  a  foot  in  height.  The  powdered  stone  is 
removed  at  intervals  by  a  scraper.  But  in  all 
great  engineering  undertakings  rock-boring 
machinery  now  supplants  hand  work.  The 
machines  are  principally  devised  to  imitate  the 
percussive  action  of  the  hand  drill,  the  boring 
chisel  being  worked  and  rotated  by  compressed 
air,  and  sometimes  directly  by  steam.  The  com- 
pressed-air machines  possess  the  great  advan- 
tage of  aiding  in  the  ventilation  of  the  working  — 
often  a  most  important  consideration,  seeing  the- 
operations  are  chiefly  carried  on  in  confined 
spaces  where  large  volumes  of  poisonous  gases 
are  evolved  from  explosions.  The  earliest  prac- 
tical rock-boring  machine  was  that  of  Sommeil- 
ler,  one  of  the  engineers  of  the  Mont  Cenis 
tunnel,  at  which  undertaking  the  apparatus  was 
first  used.  Now  the  forms  of  percussion 
machines  are  very  numerous,  improvements 
being  directed  toward  lightness  and  simplicity 
of  parts,  and  to  the  method  —  automatic  or 
otherwise  —  of  advancing  the  boring-tool  as  the 
work  proceeds.  Among  the  best  knowrt 
machines  are  the  Barrow,  Burleigh,  Darlington, 
Ferroux,  Ingersoll,  and  McKean  rock-borers. 
Diamond  drills  working  in  the  manner  described 
below  are  also  used.  Brandt's  rotatory  borer  is- 
an  apparatus  similar  in  action  to  the  diamond 
drill,  but  with  a  crown  of  hardened  steel  in 
place  of  cutting  diamonds.  The  tool  is  pressed 
against,  and  rotated  by  water  power.  An  appa- 
ratus similar  in  principle  to  the  brace  and  bits 
of  the  carpenter  is  used  with  advantage  in  uni- 
form rock,  such  as  slate. 

The  bores  for  deep  wells  of  all  kinds,  and  for 
discovering  the  mineral  contents  of  a  region, 
come  under  one  category.  As  a  preliminary 
operation  in  mining,  boring  is  of  the  utmost 
importance  for  discovering  the  position,  thick- 
ness, and  dip  of  mineral  strata  or  lodes,  and  for 
ascertaining  the  nature  of  the  overlying  deposits. 
Bores  are  made  by  three  classes  of  implement  — ■ 
(i)  boring-rods,  (2)  rope  borers,  and  (3)  dia- 
mond drills. 

The  rod-boring  instrument  consists  of  an 
iron  shank  having  a  cross-bar  at  the  top  and  a 
hollow  screw  at  the  bottom ;  to  this  all  the  suc- 
cessive boring  instruments  are  fastened.  A  sim- 
ple chisel  is  first  attached  to  the  screw,  and  one 
or  two  men  press  upon  the  cross-bar,  and,  at  the 
same  time,  force  it  round  like  an  auger;  while 
another  workman,  by  means  of  a  lever  erected 
overhead,  with  a  chain  descending  from  it  to  the 
cross-bar,  gives  an  up-and-down  motion  to  the 
instrument.  When  the  chisel  becomes  clogged, 
from  the  accumulation  of  material  which  it  has 
loosened,  it  is  exchanged  for  a  cylindrical  auger, 
provided  with  a  valve,  which  scoops  out  the 
separate  material ;  and  thus  by  alternate  chop- 
ping and  scooping  the  work  is  carried  on.  The- 
nature  of  the  strata  is  determined  with  consider- 
able facility  and  certainty  by  examining  the  frag- 
ments brought  up  by  the  auger.  As  the  work 
advances,  successive  lengths  of  rod  are  screwed 
on  at  the  upper  end.  A  derrick  pole  is  erected 
over  the  bore  hole  for  the  purpose  of  elevating 
the  rods,  to  permit  the  change  of  the  tools. 

The  rope  method  of  boring  has  been  long  in 
use  among  the  Chinese.  By  it  the  great  loss_  of 
time  arising  from  the  screwing  and  unscrewing 


BORISSOGLEBSK  —  BORN 


-of  the  rods  at  each  elevation  of  the  chisel  or 
-auger  is  saved.  The  chisel  and  scooping  instru- 
ment are  fastened  to  a  rope,  which  is  alternately 
elevated  and  allowed  to  descend  by  the  simple 
force  of  gravity;  the  instrument  thus  forces  its 
way  through  the  ground.  In  the  softer  rocks  of 
the  newer  formations  this  method  has  been  suc- 
cessfully employed  in  boring  for  artesian  wells. 
The  rope-boring  machinery  of  Mather  and  Piatt, 
of  Salford,  England,  in  which  a  flat  hempen  rope 
is  employed,  is  in  extensive  use. 

For  deep  well-sinking,  as  in  the  Pennsylvania 
oil  region,  where  depths  of  2,000  feet  and  more 
have  to  be  reached,  and  for  mineral  prospecting, 
the  diamond  drill  has  of  late  years  largely  super- 
seded all  other  borers.  With  this  apparatus  the 
earth  can  be  pierced  at  any  angle,  which  is  a 
great  advantage  in  investigating  mineral 
deposits ;  and,  moreover,  the  drill  produces  solid 
and  continuous  cores  of  the  strata  through  which' 
it  passes,  so  that  a  complete  section  of  any  bore 
can  be  exposed  to  view.  The  diamond  drill  con- 
sists of  a  crown,  or  cylinder  of  steel,  around  one 
edge  of  which  are  fixed  a  series  of  black  dia- 
monds. These  diamonds  are  so  set  that  they 
project  alternately  a  little  beyond  the  outside  and 
inside  edge  of  the  cylinder.  This  crown  is 
screwed  to  lengths  of  iron  ttibing  as  it  cuts  its 
v^^ay  by  rotation  into  the  rock,  and  it  makes,  as 
it  descends,  an  annular  cutting  somewhat  larger 
than  the  thickness  of  the  continuous  tube,  which 
the  crown  and  its  shaft  form.  Thus,  a  core  of 
rock  is  cut  out  and  held  within  the  tube,  and 
the  pieces  may  be  lifted  out  from  time  to  time  as 
the  work  proceeds.  The  detritus  resulting  from 
the  abrasion  of  the  ring  of  rock  is  continuously 
washed  away  by  a  current  of  water,  forced  down 
within  the  tubing.  Diamond  drills  are  made  of 
many  sizes,  from  1^4  tip  to  18  inches  in  diameter. 
The  prototype  of  the  diamond  drill  was  M.  Fau- 
velle's  hollow  boring-rod  with  steel  crown, 
described  at  the  British  Association  meeting  in 
1846. 

Borissoglebsk,  bo-re's5-glepsk,  Russia,  a 
town  in  the  government  of  Tambof,  120  miles 
south  of  the  town  of  that  name,  and  capital 
■of  the  government.  From  its  situation  and 
water  communications  it  is  the  centre  of  a  very 
large  trade.  It  is  the  seat  of  an  annual  fair, 
and  has  woolen  and  iron  manufactures.  Pop. 
about  25,000. 

Borissov,  bo-re'sof,  Russia,  a  town  in  the 
government  of  Minsk,  50  miles  northeast  of  the 
town  of  that  name,  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Bere- 
zina. Not  far  from  it  took  place  the  disastrous 
passage  of  the  Berezina  by  the  French  in  1812. 
Pop.  about  15,000. 

Borjeson,  Johan  Helenus  Laurentius,  yo- 
han  el-a'nus  l6-ren'she-us  ber'yt;-s6n,  Swedish 
sculptor :  b.  Halland,  1835.  He  studied  at  Rome 
and  Paris,  and  in  1879  became  professor  at  the 
Art  Academy  of  Stockholm.  His  work  includes 
both  portrait-statues  and  ideal  subjects,  in  which 
he  unites  fidelity  to  nature  with  love  of  beauty. 
Among  his  works  are  ^The  Bowler'  ;  'The 
Fisher  Bov  of  Capri'  ;  <Youth  with  a  Tortoise'  ; 
and  the  statues  of  the  poet  Holberg  at  Bergen, 
of  the  historian  Geiger  at  Upsala,  of  Axel 
Oxenstiern  at  Stockholm,  and  of  King  Charles 
X.  Gustavus  at  Malmo. 

Borland,  Solon,  American  senator:  b.  Vir- 
ginia; d.  Texas,  31  Jan.  1864.  He  was  educated 
in  North  Carolina,  studied  medicme  and  settled 


in  Little  Rock.  Ark.  During  the  Mexican  war 
he  served  as  major  in  Yell's  cavalry,  and  was 
taken  prisoner  m  January  1847.  After  his  dis- 
charge in  June  1847  he  served  as  a  volunteer  aid 
to  Gen.  Worth  until  the  end  of  the  campaign. 
After  serving  in  the  United  States  Senate 
(1848-53),  he  was  appointed  minister  to  Central 
America.  When  returning  to  the  United  States 
after  his  resignation  he  was  assaulted  at  San 
Juan  de  Nicaragua  for  interfering  to  prevent  the 
arrest  of  a  person  charged  with  murder  at 
Puntas  Arenas.  For  this  insult  the  sloop-of-war 
Cyane  bombarded  and  destroyed  the  town,  under 
instructions  from  the  United  States  govern- 
ment, 13  July  1854.  During  the  Civil  War  he 
was  a  brigadier  in  the  Confederate  service,  and 
before  his  State  seceded,  raised  troops  and  seized 
Fort  Smith,  by  order  of  Gov.  Rector,  24  April 
1861. 

Bor'lase,  William,  English  mineralogist 
and  antiquarian:  b.  Pendeen,  Cornwall,  1606; 
d.  1772.  He  studied  at  Oxford,  entered  orders, 
and  became  successively  rector  of  Ludgvan  and 
vicar  of  St.  Just.  The  richness  of  Cornwall 
in  mineral  products  and  antiquities  gave  a  direc- 
tion to  his  studies,  and  he  began  making  collec- 
tions with  the  view  of  afterward  giving  a  descrip- 
tion of  his  native  county.  In  1750  he  was 
elected  a  Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society,  to  which 
he  had  communicated  a  valuable  paper  on  the 
spars  and  crystals  of  the  Cornish  mines,  and  fo^ 
many  years  after  he  continued  to  write  in  its 
'Transactions.'  In  1754  he  published  his 
'Antiquities  of  Cornwall,'  and  in  1758  he  com- 
pleted the  work  by  publishing  his  'Natural  His- 
tory of  Cornwall.'  He  kept  up  a  correspond- 
ence with  the  most  eminent  men  of  his  day, 
and  was  on  intimate  terms  with  Pope,  whom 
he  furnished  with  materials  for  his  grotto  at 
Twickenham.  Dr.  Borlase's  name,  formed  out 
of  crystals,  is  still  to  be  seen  there. 

Bormann,  bor'man,  Edwin,  German  poet: 
b.  Leipsic,  14  April  1851.  He  was  educated  at 
the  Polytechnic  Institute  of  Dresden,  and  at 
Leipsic  and  Bonn.  His  first  success  w-as  won 
by  a  series  of  humorous  poems  in  the  Saxon  dia- 
lect which  appeared  in  the  'Fliegende  Blatter. ' 
His  other  works  are  in  High  German ;  they 
include  'Seid  umschlungen,  Millionen,'  a  book 
of  humorous  songs,  'Schelmenlieder'  ;  'Das 
Biichlein  von  der  Schwarzen  Kunst,'  'Lieder- 
hort  in  Sang  und  Klang,'  and  'Klinginsland, 
Minnelieder  und  Spielmannsweisen.' 

Bormio,  bor'me-o  (Ger.  Worms,  voormz), 
Italy,  a  town  in  Lombardy,  near  the  Adda ;  pop. 
about  2,000.  In  its  vicinity  are  the  salt  baths 
called  Bagni  di  Bormio.  The  temperature  is  99" 
5'.  Gen.  Dessolles  achieved  here  a  victory  over 
the  Austrians,  26  March  1799.  The  beautiful 
galleries  of  the  road  which  leads  over  the  Worm- 
ser  Joch  (an  Alpine  mountain),  from  Tyrol  to 
Italy,  were  destroyed  by  the  Italians  in  1848. 

Born,  Bertrand  de,  bar-troii  de  born, 
French  troubadour  and  warrior:  b.  in  the  Castle 
of  Born,  Perigord,  1140;  d.  about  1209.  He  dis- 
possessed his  brother  of  his  estate,  whose  part 
was  taken  by  Richard  Cceur  de  Lion  in  revenge 
for  De  Born's  .satirical  lays.  Dante  places  him 
in  the  'Inferno'  on  account  cf  his  verses  inten- 
sifying the  quarrel  between  Henry  II.  and  his 
sons. 


BORNE  — BORNEO 


Borne,  Ludwig,  lood'vlg  ber'ne,  German 
political  writer :  b.  Frankfort-on-the-Main,  of 
Jewish  parents,  6  May  1/86;  d.  Paris,  12  Feb. 
1837.  He  founded,  and  for  three  years  con- 
ducted. Die  Wage,  a  journal  devoted  to  civics, 
science,  and  art.  Of  his  numerous  satirical 
sketches,  all  full  of  humor  and  wit,  these  are 
perhaps  the  most  brilliant;  ^Monograph  on  the 
German  Postal  Snail, ••  H'he  Art  of  Becoming  an 
Original  Author  in  Three  Days,^  ^Memorial 
Address  to  Jean  Paul.^  Fierce  animosity 
toward  the  dynastic  policies  of  Germany  per- 
meated whatever  he  wrote;  even  his  literary  and 
dramatic  criticism  was  biased  by  this  passion. 
His  last  completed  work.  ^Menzel,  the  French 
Devourer^  (*Franzosenfresser^ ),  is  proof  that 
to  the  last  his  voice  was  still  for  war.  His 
'Complete  Works,^  in  12  volumes,  were  pub- 
lished in  1863. 

Bor'neene.     See  Borneol. 

Borneil,  Giraud  de,  zhe-ro  de  bor-na-e,  a 
Provengal  troubadour  of  the  12th  century :  a 
native  of  Exideuil,  Dordogne.  His  contempo- 
raries bestowed  on  him  the  sobriquet  **Master  of 
Troubadours.^^  Some  80  of  his  songs  are 
extant ;  among  them  the  charming  song  of  the 
morning,  ''Alba.* 

Bornemann,  Wilhelm,  vil'helm  bor'ne- 
man,  German  dialect  poet:  b.  Gardelegen,  1766; 
d.  1851.  He  is  one  of  the  foremost  representa- 
tives of  modern  Low  German  poetry.  His 
works  are  'Low  German  Poems'  (1810),  repub- 
lished in  a  loth  edition  in  1891 ;  'Pictures  of 
Nature  and  the  Chase^  (1829)  ;  'Humorous 
Hunting  Songs.^ 

Bor'neo  (corrupted  by  the  Portuguese 
from  Bruni  or  Brunei,  the  name  of  a  state  on 
its  northwest  coast),  one  of  the  islands  of  the 
Malay  archipelago,  and,  next  to  Australia  and 
New  Guinea  (but  not  much  smaller  than  the 
latter),  the  largest  island  in  the  world.  On  the 
south  it  has  the  Java  Sea ;  on  the  east  the  Strait 
of  Macassar  and  the  Sea  of  Celebes ;  on  the 
north  the  Sulu  Sea ;  on  the  west  and  northwest 
the  China  Sea.  Its  circumference  is  about 
3,000  miles,  its  greatest  length,  780  miles,  and  its 
greatest  breadth  690  miles ;  area,  according  to 
recent  calculation,  283,358  square  miles.  Its  out- 
line is  but  slightly  indented  by  bays  and  inlets ; 
and  yet  the  skeleton  of  its  mountain  ranges, 
now  well  ascertained  by  the  travels  of  Dalton, 
Low,  Burns,  and  Schwaner,  show  that  at  not 
a  very  remote  period  it  must  have  presented  the 
same  singular  configuration  with  Celebes  and 
Gilolo  —  that  of  a  group  of  peninsulas.  Starting 
from  the  central  mountains,  the  Anga-anga 
group,  and  proceeding  northeast,  we  trace  a 
chain,  terminating  in  Kinibaloo  (11,000  feet 
high,  the  highest  peak  in  Borneo),  which  forms 
the  backbone  of  the  peninsula.  Hardly  half 
of  the  island  is  good  terra  firma,  habitable  for 
man.  An  alluvial  marshy  band,  varying  from 
30  to  50  miles  in  width,  surrounds  the  island, 
the  only  avenues  to  the  interior  being  its  numer- 
ous rivers  and  streams.  The  mouths  of  23 
rivers,  all  navigable  on  an  average  100  miles 
for  vessels  drawing  not  more  than  12  feet  of 
water,  can  be  counted  along  the  northwest 
coast,  between  Capes  Sampanmanjo  and  Datoo. 
Berow  and  Coti  rivers  on  the  east,  Banjar, 
Murong,  Kahajan,  and  Mendawei  rivers  on  the 
south,  and  the  rivers  Pontianak  and  Sambas  on 
the  west  are  large   streams   with  tides   flowing 


far  up,  and  some  of  them  navigable  for  200 
miles.  Innumerable  smaller  streams  tlow  from 
the  great  water-sheds. 

In  connection  with  the  river  systems  there 
are  numerous  lakes  in  Borneo ;  but  of  true 
mountain  lakes  on  a  large  scale  there  are  proba- 
bly few.  The  great  lake  of  Kinabalu,  which 
figured  in  older  accounts,  with  100  miles  of  cir- 
cumference, is  a  pure  myth,  based  perhaps  on  a 
misunderstood  description  of  the  great  grass- 
covered  plain  of  Danao. 

Meteorological  Conditions,  Products,  etc. — 
The  climate  in  the  low  grounds  is  humid,  hot, 
and  unhealthful  for  Europeans ;  but  in  the 
higher  parts  toward  the  north  the  temperature 
is  generally  moderate,  the  thermometer  at  noon 
varying  from  81°  to  91°  F.  During  the  rainy 
season,  from  November  to  Maj',  heavy  storms 
of  wind  with  loud  thunder  are  experienced  on 
the  west  coast.  The  influence  of  the  land  and 
sea  breezes  passes  inland  to  quite  remarkable- 
distances  across  the  level  plains  tand  up  the 
river  valleys.  Vegetation  is  extremely  lu.xuri- 
ant.  The  forests  produce  ironwood,  bilian, 
teak,  ebony,  sandalwood,  gutta-percha,  dye- 
woods,  benzoin,  wax,  dragon's-blood,  sago, 
various  resins,  vegetable  oils,  and  gums.  The 
camphor  of  Brunei  is  the  best  in  Asia.  The 
mohor-tree,  well  adapted  for  making  native 
boats,  attains  a  height  of  80  feet,  and  the  kala- 
dang,  suited  for  large  masts,  of  200  feet.  Nut- 
megs, cloves,  cinnamon,  pepper,  betel,  ginger, 
rice,  millet,  sweet  potatoes,  yams,  cotton  in 
Amuntai,  sugar-cane  in  Sambas  and  Montrado, 
indigo,  tobacco,  coffee  in  Sambas,  pineapples, 
cocoanuts,  etc.,  are  cultivated.  The  mountains 
and  forests  contain  many  monkeys,  among  which 
is  the  orang-outang.  Tapirs,  a  small  kind  of 
tiger,  small  Malay  bears,  swine,  wild  oxen  or 
banteng,  and  various  kinds  of  deer  abound. 
The  elephant  is  found  only  in  the  north  and 
the  rhinoceros  in  the  northwest.  The  few 
domesticated  animals  are  buffaloes,  sheep,  goats, 
dogs,  and  cats.  A  few  horses  are  seen  in  Ban- 
jermassin.  Among  the  birds  are  eagles,  vul- 
tures, argus  pheasants,  peacocks,  flamingoes, 
pigeons,  parrots,  and  also  the  swifts  (Collocalia 
esculcnta)  which  construct  the  edible  nests  prized 
by  the  Chinese  for  making  soup.  The  rivers, 
lakes,  and  lagoons  swarm  with  crocodiles,  and 
many  kinds  of  snakes,  frogs,  lizards,  and 
leeches.  Fish  is  plentiful,  and  the  coasts  are 
rich  in  tortoises,  pearl  mussels,  oysters,  and 
trepang.  Brilliant  butterflies  and  moths  are  in 
great  variety.  Among  the  mineral  products  are 
coal,  gold,  and  copper,  especially  in  Montrado ; 
antimony,  iron,  tin,  platina,  nickel,  diamonds 
and  other  precious  stones,  rock  crystals,  porce- 
lain clay,  petroleum,  and  sulphur.  The  dia- 
mond mines  are  chiefly  in  Landak  and  Ponti- 
anak; Sambas  produces  the  greatest  quantity 
of  gold ;  the  kingdom  of  Brunei,  Kutel,  and 
Banjermassin,  the  largest  amount  of  coal.  The 
Pengaron  coal  field,  worked  by  the  Dutch  gov- 
ernment, is  one  of  the  most  important. 

Population. —  The  population  consists  of 
three  classes,  the  Dyaks  or  Dayaks,  who  are  the 
aboriginal  heathen  inhabitants  and  constitute  the 
great  bulk  of  the  population ;  the  Mohamme- 
dans or  Malays  —  for  this  name  is  extended  so 
as  to  include  all  professors  of  Islam,  whether 
true  Malays,  Buginese,  Javanese,  Dyaks,  or 
Arabs;  and  the  Chinese.  The  Dyaks  live 
chiefly   in   the  interior,   and  employ  themselves 


BORNEOL 


with  tillage  and  the  collecting  of  gutta-percha, 
resin,  gums,  rattans,  gold  dust,  and  wax.  They 
are  divided  into  numerous  tribes.  The  Malays 
(taking  the  name  ethnographically)  dwell  on 
the  coasts,  are  traders  and  bold  sailors.  They 
are  more  civilized  than  the  Dyaks,  cultivate  the 
grounds  around  their  houses,  lay  out  gardens, 
keep  cattle,  and  live  partly  by  fishing.  The 
Chinese,  chiefly  from  Canton,  have  penetrated 
far  into  the  interior.  Thc-y  engage  in  trade  and 
mining,  are  unwearied  in  their  eft'orts  to  make 
money,  and  then  return  to  their  native  country. 
They  have  always  endeavored  to  live  as  inde- 
pendent republics  (koiig-si)  under  chiefs  chosen 
by  themselves,  and  according  to  Chinese  laws. 
In  1857  the  Chinese  living  in  Sarawak  rebelled, 
and  were  nearly  exterminated.  The  Dutch 
were  also  compelled  to  put  them  down  by  force 
of  arms,  and  have  imposed  a  poll  tax.  The 
women  of  Borneo,  except  the  Dyak.  weave  cot- 
ton fabrics,  make  earthenware,  baskets,  and 
mats  of  beautiful  designs  and  colors.  In  the 
district  of  Banjermassin  are  factories  of  wea- 
pons. The  principal  exports  are  gold,  gold 
dust,  diamonds,  coal,  rattans,  gutta-percha,  edi- 
ble nests,  cotton,  wax,  timber,  dye-woods,  mats, 
resins,  sandalwood,  camphor,  etc. ;  the  imports, 
earthenware,  iron,  steel,  and  copper  work,  piece- 
goods,  yarns,  woolen  and  silk  fabrics,  medicines, 
provisions,  wines,  spirits,  rice,  sugar,  tea, 
tobacco,  opium,  trepang.  gambir,  gunpowder,  etc. 
Divisions. —  Borneo  has  never  formed  a 
political  unity,  and  there  is  no  native  designa- 
tion for  the  island  as  a  whole.  The  name 
Borneo  (Burnei  or  Brunei)  in  fact  properly 
applies  only  to  the  Malay  kingdom  on  the  north- 
west coast ;  and  Kalamantan  or  Kalamantin, 
sometimes  quoted  as  a  general  appellation,  is 
also  of  limited  purport.  Borneo  originally 
included  nearlj'  the  whole  of  the  northwest  of 
the  island.  The  sultan  has  absolute  authority. 
In  1847  he  undertook  not  to  surrender  any  of 
his  territory  to  any  other  power  without  the 
sanction  of  the  British  government.  The  capi- 
tal, Brunei,  20  miles  from  the  coast,  on  the  river 
of  the  same  name,  has  at  the  most  20,000  inhabi- 
tants; whereas  it  was  credited  by  Pigafetta  (i6th 
century)  with  25,000  houses.  The  total  popu- 
lation of  the  country  within  its  present  limits 
may  be  stated  at  125,000.  Its  area  was  reduced 
by  the  erection  of  Sarawak  into  a  practically 
independent  principality  by  Sir  James  Brooke 
(1841-68),  and  by  the  establishment  of  the  Brit- 
ish North  Borneo  Company  as  a  recognized 
governing  body.  The  company's  charter,  granted 
in  1881.  transferred  to  them  rights  originally 
obtained  by  an  American  in  1865.  This  terri- 
tory consists  partly  of  a  portion  of  the  old  king- 
dom of  Brunei,  partly  also  of  districts  on  the 
east  coast,  claimed  by  the  sultan  of  the  Sulu 
Islands.  Against  the  British  occupation  of  tlie 
Sulu  territory  a  protest  was  made  by  Spain, 
which  had  for  some  time  been  gradually  incorpo- 
rating the  sultan's  possessions.  As  a  matter 
of  fact  the  British  North  Borneo  Company  has 
been  successful  in  appropriating  and  developing 
its  territoi-y,  which,  with  an  area  of  30.709  square 
miles,  and  a  coast  line  of  900  miles,  is  now 
divided  into  the  East  Coast  Residency  and  the 
provinces  of  Dent,  Keppel,  and  Alcock,  and  has 
its  capital  at  Elopura  or  Sandakan.  the  largest 
settlement,  with  5.000  inhabitants.  The  popula- 
tion of  the  territory  is  estimated  at  200.000.  By 
far  the  largest  part  of  the  island  is  ruled  directly 


or  indirectly  by  the  Dutch,  who  have  divided  it 
into  the  residency  of  the  western  division  of 
Borneo,  and  that  of  the  southern  and  eastern, 
the  former  having  Pontianak  as  the  seat  of 
government,  the  latter  Banjermassin.  Besides 
a  number  of  smaller  dependencies,  the  western 
division  contains  the  kingdom  of  Landak,  Tayan, 
Mampawa,  Sukadana,  Simpang,  Matan,  Seka- 
dow,  Sintang,  Sambas.  Among  the  separate 
states  which  go  to  form  the  southern  and  eastern 
divisions  are  Kotaringin,  Banjermassin,  and 
Martapura.  In  consequence  of  a  decree  of  the 
Sultan  of  Banjermassin,  the  district  watered  by 
the  Great  Dyak  or  Kahayan  is  preserved  for 
the  native  tribes,  who  in  1879  were  estimated  at 
18,000  souls ;  Chinese,  Malays,  etc.,  are  forbid- 
den to  ascend  the  river  higher  than  the  Kanpore 
Pjlany.  The  same  is  the  case  with  the  basins 
of  the  Kapuas,  Mururg.  known  as  the  Little 
Dyak  district.  The  population  of  the  whole  of 
the  Dutch  portion  of  the  island  on  31  Dec.  1881, 
was  959.491.  of  whom  799  were  Europeans, 
31,550  Chinese,  924-73I  natives,  2,070  Arabs,  and 
341  miscellaneous  Orientals.  In  the  number  of 
natives  are  included  from  200.000  to  300.000 
Malays  settled  along  the  coast,  who  used,  for- 
nierly.  to  be  counted  among  the  strangers.  The 
island  of  Labuan,  off  the  coast  of  Brunei,  has 
belonged  to  the  British  since  1846. 

The  Chinese  had  commercial  dealings  with 
Borneo  as  early  as  the  5th  century,  but  they 
made  no  settlement  for  a  long  time  after.  The 
Malay  kingdom  of  Borneo  proper  dates  back  to 
the  13th  century.  Another  ^lalay  settlement 
of  later  origin.  Sambas,  was  at  first  dependent  on 
Johore  in  the  Malay  peninsula.  Sukadana  was 
founded  by  Hindu  Javanese  from  the  kingdom 
of  Majapahit  (see  Jav.a.)  and  spread  its  influence 
on  the  whole  southern  part  of  the  west  coast. 
Mampawa  was  a  Buginese  settlement,  and  Pon- 
tianak was  founded  as  late  as  1771  by  a  colony 
of  Arabs,  Malays,  and  Buginese.  Islam  began 
to  be  preached  by  Arabs  from  Palembang  in  the 
i6th  century. 

The  Portuguese  effected  a  settlement  in  1690 
at  Banjermassin;  from  thence  they  were,  how- 
ever, soon  expelled.  The  Dutch  succeeded  in 
concluding  a  treaty  of  commerce  with  the 
princes  of  Banjermassin.  They  erected  a  fort 
and  factory  in  1643,  and  a  second  in  1778  at 
Pontianak.  The  British  made  unsuccessful 
attempts  in  1702  and  1774  to  effect  a  settlement 
in  Borneo,  but,  during  the  19th  centur>'  they 
acquired  a  preponderating  influence  on  the  north- 
west coast. 

Bor'neol,  or  Borneo  Camphor,  a  crystal- 
line organic  compound,  often  used  as  a  substitute 
for  common  or  laurel  camphor.  Borneol  is 
obtained  from  a  tree  indigenous  to  Sumatra, 
Borneo,  and  Labuan,  being  deposited  in  crystals 
in  cracks  in  the  wood.  To  obtain  it  the  tree  is 
cut  down,  and  the  longitudinal  fissures  are 
opened,  and  the  camphor  removed.  Large  trees 
often  yield  only  from  3  to  11  pounds;  and 
owing  to  the  reckless  manner  in  which  the  trees 
have  been  destroyed  without  the  planting  of 
others,  the  Sumatran  forests  now  contain  few 
that  are  worth  working.  Borneol  has  the  chemi- 
cal formula  CioHir.OH,  and  it  may  be  prepared 
from  common  camphor  by  the  action  of  redu- 
cing agents.  It  is  not  so  volatile  as  common 
camphor,  and  is  also  harder.  It  is  but  slightly 
soluble  in  water,  although  it  dissolves  freely  in 
alcohol  and  ether.     When   distilled   with   phos- 


BORNHOLM  —  BORODIN 


phorous  pentoxide,  borneol  is  converted  into  one 
or  more  terpenes,  prominent  among  which  is 
borneo-camphene  or  borneene  (doHie).  Pure 
borneol  sinks  in  water,  while  common  camphor 
floats. 

Born'holm,  a  Danish  island  in  the  Baltic 
Sea,  nearly  surrounded  with  rocks ;  situated  in 
lat.  55°  lo'  N. ;  Ion.  15°  E. ;  about  24  miles  long, 
and  16  broad ;  pop.  35,364.  It  is  stony  but  fer- 
tile ;  yields  oats  and  butter ;  has  excellent  pas- 
tures ;  and  also  mines  of  coal,  marble  quarries, 
and  fisheries.  The  island  has  long  been  famous 
for  its  rock-crystals. 

Bornier,  Henri,  oii-re  bor-ne-a  (Vicomte 
BE,  ve-koht  de),  French  dramatist:  b.  Lunel,  25 
Dec.  1825.  His  plays  are  notable  for  splendor 
■of  diction.  Among  them  are  'Luther's  Wed- 
ding^ (1845)  ;  'Dante  and  Beatrice^  ;  'The 
Daughter  of  Roland.'  He  twice  won  fhe  prize 
■of  the  Academy,  with  the  lyrics,  'The  Isthmus 
of  Suez*  (1861)  ;  and  'France  in  the  Extreme 
East'  (1863).  He  is  the  author  of  several  suc- 
cessful novels  and  romances,  and  is  a  member 
of  the  Academy. 

Bor'nite,  a  native  sulphide  of  copper  and 
iron,  containing  these  metals  in  various  propor- 
tions. The  mineral  crystallizes  in  the  isometric 
system,  and  its  crystals  have  the  formula 
3Cu;S.Fe2S3.  It  is  reddish  brown  in  color  when 
freshly  broken,  but  speedily  takes  an  iridescent 
tarnish.  Its  hardness  is  3,  and  its  specific  grav- 
ity from  4.9  to  5.4.  The  massive  varieties  con- 
tain from  50  to  70  per  cent  of  copper,  and  the 
mineral  constitutes  a  valuable  ore  of  that  metal. 
Bornite  occurs  abundantly  in  a  copper-mine  at 
Bristol,  Conn.  Bornite  occurs  in  many  western 
■copper  mines,  as  at  Butte,  Mont.,  and  in  Colo- 
rado, being  at  times  highlv  argentiferous.  It 
abounds  in  Chile,  Peru,  Mexico,  Canada  and 
many  other  countries. 

Bornou','  a  kingdom  of  Central  Africa, 
lying  between  lat.  10°  and  15°  N.,  and  Ion.  12° 
and  16°  30'  E. ;  bounded  north  by  Kanem  and 
the  desert,  east  by  Lake  Chad,  south  by  Man- 
dara,  and  west  by  Sudan.  From  March  to 
July  the  heat  is  extreme,  the  thermometer  rising 
to  107°  and  rarely  falling  below  86°  F. ;  during 
this  time  scorching  winds  from  the  south  prevail. 
As  in  other  tropical  countries  the  seasons  are 
divided  into  the  dry  and  rainy :  the  latter  con- 
tinues from  March  to  October,  when  the  air 
becomes  milder  and  fresher.  The  country  is 
populous,  containing  13  principal  towns.  These 
are  generally  large  and  well  built,  with  walls  40 
feet  high,  and  about  20  feet  thick.  The  houses 
•consist  of  several  courtyards,  with  apartments 
for  slaves,  habitations  for  the  different  wives, 
and  several  turrets  connected  by  terraces,  form- 
ing the  apartments  of  the  owner.  The  Bornou 
people,  or  Kanuri,  have  negro  features ;  they 
are  peaceable  and  industrious,  practising  agri- 
culture and  various  mechanical  arts.  The  gov- 
ernment is  an  absolute  monarchy,  with  certain 
constitutional  forms,  and  the  sultan  or  mai  can, 
it  is  said,  muster  a  well-equipped  army  of 
25,000  or  30,000  men,  partly  cavalry,  armed  with 
musket,  rifle,  sabre,  etc.  Indian  corn,  cotton, 
and  indigo  are  the  most  valuable  productions  of 
the  soil.  Fruits  and  vegetables  are  also  raised. 
The  domestic  animals  are  asses,  camels,  horses, 
dogs,  sheep,  goats,  and  oxen.  Lions,  leopards, 
hyenas,   jackals,   elephants,   and  buffaloes   roam 


the  forests.  The  crocodile  and  hippopotamus 
are  considered  a  luxury.  The  ostrich,  pelican, 
crane,  and  guinea-fowl  abound.  Locusts  often 
appear  in  great  clouds,  and  are  eaten  by  the 
natives.  The  capital  is  Kuka,  near  the  shore 
of  Lake  Chad.  Bornou  belongs  to  the  British 
sphere  of  influence.     Estimated  pop.  5,000,000. 

Boro  Budor,  bo-ro  boo-dor  (the  "Great 
Buddha''),  the  ruin  of  a  temple  in  Java,  near 
the  junction  of  the  Ello  and  Progo,  the  most 
elaborate  monument  of  the  Buddhist  style  of 
architecture  anywhere  existing.  Javanese  chron- 
icles ascribe  the  building  of  the  temple  to  the 
beginning  of  the  7th  century ;  there  are  no 
inscriptions,  but  it  was  probably  finished  between 
1400  and  1430.  Boro  Budor  is  built  on  a  low 
hill  between  four  vast  volcanoes  which  supplied 
the  blocks  of  trachyte  of  which  the  edifice  is 
built;  its  height  to  the  cupola  is  118  feet.  It 
is  a  pyramid  of  a  square  form,  each  side  at  the 
base  measuring  520  feet,  and  consists  of  seven 
walls,  which  are  built  like  the  steps  of  a  stair, 
up  a  hill.  Between  the  walls  are  narrow  ter- 
races running  round  the  building;  in  each  is 
an  arched  doorway  leading  to  the  next  higher 
terrace.  These  walls  are  richly  ornamented 
with  statuary.  Outside  are  over  400  niches 
topped  with  fantastic  domes,  and  each  occupied 
by  a  large  statue  of  Buddha.  Between  each  of 
these  are  bas-reliefs,  including  figures  of  the 
god  seated,  and  architectural  ornaments  and 
carvings  of  all  sorts.  Below  the  niches,  on  the  -, 
lower  story,  is  an  immense  bas-relief  running  •' 
round  the  whole  building,  representing  scenes  ' 
from  the  life  of  Buddha,  and  religious  subjects. 
The  inner  faces  of  the  building  are  also  profusely 
ornamented  with  bas-reliefs,  representing  bat- 
tles, sea-fights,  processions,  and  chariot  races, 
carried  to  an  extent  unrivaled  by  any  other 
building  in  the  world.  Of  the  large  reliefs 
alone  there  are  over  2,000 ;  and  most  of  them  are 
as  vigorously  designed  as  they  are  carefully  exe- 
cuted. Within  the  upper  square  terrace  are 
three  circular  ones,  the  outer  ornamented  with 
32,  the  next  with  24,  and  the  upper  with  16 
small  bell-shaped  shrines  (dagops),  each  con- 
taining a  seated  statue  of  Buddha,  which  can 
be  seen  through  the  open  works  of  their  roofs. 
The  whole  is  surmounted  by  a  cupola,  the  prin- 
cipal and  probably  the  most  ancient  part  of  the 
structure.  It  is  now  empty,  a  sunken  chamber, 
10  feet  deep,  representing  what  was,  no  doubt, 
a  dagop  intended  to  contain  the  precious  relic 
for  which  this  splendid  temple  was  erected.  The 
niches  containing  the  cross-legged  figures  have 
been  supposed  to  be  a  copy,  in  durable  architec- 
ture, of  the  cells  of  a  Buddhist  monastery,  each  - 
occupied  by  a  shaven  priest ;  the  cupola  is  rather 
to  be  classified  with  the  topes  or  stupas  of 
Afghanistan.  The  structure  is  thus  a  compound 
of  a  tope  with  a  copy,  in  durable  architecture, 
of  the  frail  cells  of  a  vihara. 

Borodin,  bo-ro'den,  Alexander  Porfirye- 
vich,  por-fer-ya'vich,  Russian  coinposer:  b. 
St.  Petersburg.  12  Nov.  1834;  d.  there,  27  Feb. 
1887.  He  studied  medicine  and  chemistry,  and 
was  made  professor  of  chemistry  at  the  Medico- 
Surgical  Academy  of  St.  Petersburg-  He  was 
at  the  same  time  an  excellent  musician,  one  of 
the  chief  representatives  of  the  new  Russian 
school.  His  chief  works  are  two  symphonies 
and  'In  Central  Asia.'  His  opera,  'Prince 
Igor,'  which  he  had  not  completed  at  his  death 


BORODINO  —  BOROUGH 


was  finished  by  Rimsky-Korsakoff  and  Glazou- 
noff,  and  was  brought  out  in  St.  Petersburg  in 
November  1890. 

Borodino,  bo-ro-de'no,  Russia,  a  village  70 
miles  west  of  Moscow ;  on  the  Kaluga,  an  afflu- 
ent of  the  Moskwa.  It  gave  name  to  the  great 
battle  fought  between  the  French  army  under 
Napoleon  and  the  Russians  under  Kutusoff,  7 
Sept.  1812.  The  battle  of  Borodino  was  one  of 
the  most  obstinately  disputed  in  history,  and  the 
loss  on  both  sides  was  almost  equally  great. 
Out  of  257,000  men  engaged,  between  70,000 
and  80,000  were  killed  and  wounded.  The  Rus- 
sians retreated  on  the  following  day,  but  in  the 
most  perfect  order,  and  therefore  claim  this  bat- 
tle as  a  victory :  but  the  French,  who  name  the 
battle  from  the  Moskwa,  have  always  maintained 
a  similar  claim. 

Boroglyceride,  -glis'-  (from  *boron'^  and 
^'glycerine"),  an  antiseptic  substance,  soluble  in 
alcohol  and  in  40  parts  of  water,  and  containing 
about  25  per  cent  of  borate  of  glycerine 
(C3H5BO3),  the  remaining  75  per  cent  con- 
sisting of  free  boracic  acid  and  glycerine  in 
equivalent  proportions.  Boroglyceride  is  con- 
sidered harmless,  and  is  much  used  in  the  pres- 
ervation of  fruits  and  wines,  and  other  articles 
of  food. 

Bo'ron  (from  "borax^'),  one  of  the  non- 
metallic  elements.  In  nature  it  is  never  found 
in  the  uncombined  or  elementary  state,  though 
it  occurs  abundantly  in  combination  with  other 
elements,  especially  in  regions  that  are  or  have 
been  volcanic.  The  principal  compounds  of  it 
that  are  found  in  nature  are  borax  and  boracic 
acid  (qq.v.).  It  is  a  constituent  of  numerous 
other  minerals,  but  most  of  these  have  but  little 
commercial  importance.  Boron  was  first  ob- 
tained in  the  elementary  state  about  the  year 
1808,  by  Gay-Lussac  and  Thenard  in  France, 
and  by  Sir  Humphry  Davy  in  England.  Gay- 
Lussac  and  Thenard  prepared  the  element  by 
heating  boracic  acid  very  strongly  until  all  its 
water  was  expelled,  and  then  heating  the  result- 
ing substance  (now  known  as  boric  oxid)  with 
metallic  potassium.  The  potassium  removed  the 
oxygen  from  the  boric  oxid,  setting  the  element 
boron  free.  When  thus  prepared  boron  is  an 
opaque  amorphous  powder  of  a  greenish-brown 
color.  It  has  neither  taste  nor  odor,  but  it  stains 
the  fingers  strongly.  Owing  to  its  finely  divided 
condition  it  is  apt  to  take  fire  spontaneously; 
but  if  it  is  consolidated  by  pressure  it  is  not 
affected  by  the  air  at  common  temperatures, 
though  it  burns  with  a  reddish  light  when 
heated.  It  is  not  affected  by  water  save  that 
water  will  dissolve  a  slight  amount  of  it  when 
it  is  freshly  prepared.  Strong  nitric  acid  will 
dissolve  it  in  the  cold,  and  hot  sulphuric  acid 
attacks  it  also.  It  is  one  of  the  few  substances 
that  will  combine  directly  with  nitrogen,  which 
it  does  when  heated  in  that  gas.  The  atornic 
weight  of  boron  has  not  been  determined  with 
satisfactory  precision,  but  Clarke  gives  10.97  as 
the  best  result  obtainable  from  the  existing 
data.  The  amorphous  boron  described  above  is 
soluble  in  melted  aluminum,  from  which  it 
crystallizes  out  on  cooling.  The  crystals  so 
obtained  were  formerly  thought  to  consist  of 
pure  boron,  but  it  has  been  shown  that  they 
always  contain  a  definite  amount  of  aluminum. 
These  crystals  may  be  obtained  of  such  hardness 
that  they  will  scratch  both  corundum  and  the 
Vol.   2— 5v 


ruby,  the  diamond  being  the  only  substance  that 
exceeds  them  in  this  respect.  The  specific 
gravity  of  amorphous  boron  has  not  been  sat- 
isfactorily determined,  but  it  appears  to  exceed 
1.84.  The  specific  gravity  of  the  crystals 
obtained  as  described  above  is  said  by  Miller  to  be 
2.68.  The  specific  heat  of  boron  varies  con- 
siderably with  the  temperature.  At  250°  C. 
it  is  .2,7,  and  at  1,000°  C.  it  is  probably  0.5. 
Boron   is   a   non-conductor   of   electricity. 

Bororos,  bo-ro-ros',  a  tribe  of  South 
American  Indians  of  the  Tupi  or  Guarani  stock, 
variously  reported  from  a  few  hundred  to  a  few 
thousand,  living  in  southwestern  Brazil  around 
the  headwaters  of  the  Parana  and  Paraguay, 
the  small  remnants  of  a  once  powerful  race, 
thinned  by  old  Portuguese  slave  raids  and 
disease.  They  live  in  villages  and  do  some 
planting,  but  live  mainly  by  hunting  with  long 
bows  and  bone-tipped  arrows.  They  are  excep- 
tionally tall,  averaging  over  five  feet  eight 
inches,  and  athletic,  and  are  reported  to  prac- 
tice both  polygamy  and  polyandry,  but  little  is 
really  known  of  them. 

Borough,  in  England,  either  an  incorpo- 
rated municipality  with  an  organized  govern- 
ment and  a  charter  of  special  privileges  (muni- 
cipal borough),  or  a  district  represented  by  a 
member  of  Parliament  (parliamentary  bor- 
ough). The  burh  (hill)  was  originally  a  hill- 
fort  ;  then  the  settlement  around  it,  with  its  own 
court,  and  head  officer  called  a  "port-reeve." 
Under  the  Norman  dynasty  the  port-reeves  were 
replaced  by  royal  officers,  and  the  boroughs  grad- 
ually received  special  charters  and  were  gov- 
erned by  their  leading  guilds.  As  their  support 
came  to  be  needed  by  the  governing  factions  they 
were  given  representation  in  Parliament ;  and 
under  the  Tudors,  especially  Mary,  small  bor- 
oughs in  great  profusion  were  created  expressly 
to  return  members  in  the  government  interest. 
This  was  stopped  under  Elizabeth.  Besides 
these  the  older  boroughs  decayed  till  they  had 
little  or  no  population,  but  were  allowed  to 
keep  their  parliamentary  power  to  strengthen 
the  aristocratic  and  land-owning  interest,  the 
proprietors  of  the  sites  returning  whom  thej' 
chose:  these  were  called  ^'rotten  boroughs," 
and  the  chief  was  "Old  Sarum"  (that  is,  Old 
Salisbury),  with  not  a  single  inhabitant  but  two 
members  of  Parliament.  Others  had  only  one. 
Those  somewhat  larger,  but  still  so  small  as 
to  be  at  the  dictation  of  some  one  person  or 
family,  were  called  "pocket  boroughs."  The 
Reform  Bill  of  1832  swept  away  the  worst  of 
these  anomalies. 

In  the  United  States  the  term  is  now 
restricted  to  certain  incorporated  villages  below 
the  rank  of  cities  in  four  States  —  Connecticut, 
New  Jersey,  Minnesota,  and  Pennsylvania ;  and 
is  practically  synonymous  with  "town"  in  most 
other  States,  and  with  "village"  in  Ohio.  At 
the  beginning  of  colonization  the  natural  idea 
was  to  transplant  the  English  borough  system  to 
America;  but  the  conditions  of  settlement  and 
government  made  it  generally  inapplicable.  In 
Virginia  the  term  was  applied  in  the  sense 
of  "parliamentary  borough."  to  districts  made  up 
of  hundreds  and  plantations,  having  representa- 
tion in  the  House  of  Burgesses,  of  which  in  1619 
there  were  1 1  ;  but  the  municipal  borough  did  not 
take  root  there.  Lord  Baltimore  and  William 
Penn  were  empowered  to  establish  the  latter  in 


BOROUGH-ENGLISH  —  BORROW 


thei.  colonies  of  Maryland  and  Pennsylvania; 
but  ./ic  former  did  not  avail  himself  of  it  at 
all,  jnd  the  latter  very  little,  nor  his  heirs 
after  him.  After  the  Revolution,  however,  the 
Penirsylvania  legislature  granted  special  bor- 
ougn  charters  freely,  and  in  1834  passed  an  act 
empowering  courts  of  quarter  sessions  to  grant 
thciii;  in  1851  a  general  act  for  their  creation 
and  regulation  was  passed.  In  New  Jersey  they 
weie  created  by  special  charters  as  early  as 
the  beginning  of  the  18th  centurj^  and  in  1818 
a  gi^neral  act  was  passed.  In  Connecticut  they 
ha\c  always  been  created  by  the  legislature,  in 
special  acts.  In  Minnesota  and  Pennsylvania 
the  boundaries  of  the  borough  are  conterminous 
witf.  the  township,  forming  one  of  the  primary 
couiity  divisions:  in  Connecticut  and  New  Jer- 
sey the  borough  is  only  a  village  government 
witnin  a  town,  which  in  all  cases  is  a  separate 
bod/  including  the  borough ;  the  latter  being 
onl>  the  thickly  settled  portion  within  the  range 
geutei-ally  of  the  postal,  fire,  etc.,  departments, 
and  governed  by  a  warden  and  burgesses,  cor- 
responding to  the  mayor  and  single-chamber 
couiicil  of  a  city. 

A  still  further  extension  was  given  to  the 
term  by  the  New  York  legislature  in  1897.  when 
the  city  of  Greater  New  York  was  constituted 
of  five  ^oroughs^^  —  IManhattan,  Brooklyn, 
Queeirs,  The  Bronx,  and  Richmond. 

Borough-English,  in  law,  a  mode  of  de- 
scent in  some  ancient  boroughs  and  manors,  in 
which  the  owner's  youngest  son,  or  his  young- 
est brother  (if  he  has  no  issue),  is  the  heir.  It 
is  evidently  a  custom  of  Saxon  origin,  and  is  so 
named  to  distinguish  it  from  the  Norman  cus- 
toms.    It.  still  holds  in  a  few  places. 

Borromean  (bo-ro-ma'an)  Islands,  four 
small  islands  in  a  bay  of  Lago  Maggiore,  north 
Italj%  belonging  to  the  Borromeo  family,  and 
named  respectively  Isola  Bella,  Isola  Madre, 
Isola  dei  Pescatori,  and  L'Isolino.  The  Isola 
Madre  lies  farthest  from  the  shore  of  the  lake. 
It  is  laid  out  in  seven  terraces,  rising  one  above 
the  other,  v- ith  charming  walks  and  a  mansion 
on  the  top.  The  Isola  Bella  contains  a  hand- 
some and  extensive  palace,  with  private  chapel 
and  picture  gallery,  the  fine  gardens  adjoining 
being  laid  out  upon  10  terraces  rising  above  each 
other.  The  island  was  formerly  little  more  than 
a  barren  rock  and  much  soil  required  to  be 
brought  from  the  mainland.  The  Isola  dei  Pes- 
catori is  mostly  occupied  by  a  fishing  village. 
Magnificent  views  of  the  surrounding  scenery  are 
obtained  from  these  islands. 

Borromeo,  bo-ro-ma'o,  Carlo  (Count), 
saint  and  cardinal  of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church  : 
b.  Arona,  Italy,  2  Oct.  1538;  d.  3  Nov.  1584.  He 
studied  law  at  Pavia ;  was  in  1559  made  doctor, 
and  in  1560  was  successively  appointed  by  his 
uncle  Pius  IV.  apostolical  prothonotary,  refer- 
endary, cardinal,  and  archbishop  of  Milan.  As 
legate  over  Romagna,  the  March  of  Ancona,  and 
Bologna,  he  had  a  great  share  in  the  civil  gov- 
ernment :  as  protector  of  Portugal,  of  the  Neth- 
erlands, of  Switzerland,  of  the  Franciscans,  Car- 
melites, and  of  the  Knights  of  Malta,  he  admin- 
istered several  important  branches  of  the 
spiritual  government  of  the  Pope,  who  created 
him  his  grand  penitentiary,  and  did  nothing  of 
importance  without  his  advice.  The  re-opening 
and  the  results  of  the  Council  of  Trent,  so  advan- 
tageous   to    the    papal    authority,    were    chiefly 


effected  by  the  great  influence  of  Borromeo' 
He  did  much  for  the  embellishment  of  the  papal 
buildings,  employing  even  his  own  fortune  for 
that  purpose,  and  established  many  excellent 
institutions  as  archbishop  of  Milan ;  improved 
the  discipline  of  the  clergy,  founded  schools, 
seminaries,  an  order  of  secular  priests  (oblates), 
libraries,  and  hospitals,  and  was  indefatigable 
in  doing  good.  During  the  pestilence  which 
raged  in  Milan  in  1576  he  distinguished  him- 
self by  his  heroic  devotion  to  his  flock.  As  soon 
as  the  scourge  appeared  in  the  city  he  hastened 
from  a  distant  part  of  his  diocese,  where  he  was 
making  a  pastoral  visitation,  and  spent  all  his 
energies  in  giving  bodily  aid  and  spiritual  con- 
solation to  the  plague-stricken  inhabitants.  All 
his  virtues,  however,  could  not  save  him  from 
persecution  and  calumny  :  he  was  even  severely 
attacked  by  the  government,  but  no  charge  could 
be  proved  against  him.  ]\Iiracles  were  said  to 
have  been  wrought  at  his  tomb  immediately  after 
his  death,  and  his  canonization  took  place  in 
1610. 

Borromeo,  Federigo,  fa-da-re'g5  (Count), 
cardinal,  and  archbishop  of  Milan,  nephew  of  St. 
Charles:  b.  Milan,  1564;  d.  22  Sept.  1631.  He 
founded  the  Ambrosian  Library  at  Milan  in  1609, 
and  devoted  to  it  most  of  his  fortune.  He  sent 
emissaries  to  several  countries  to  collect  manu- 
scripts for  it.  He  added  to  it  a  printing  estab- 
lishment, and  founded  academies,  schools,  and 
charitable  institutions.  When  Milan  was  deso- 
lated by  a  pestilence  in  1630,  Federigo  showed 
the  same  heroism  as  his  uncle  Carlo  had  done 
during  that  of  1576. 

Borromini,  Francesco,  fran-ches-ko  bor- 
r5-me'ne,  Italian  architect:  b.  Bissone,  1599; 
d.  (by  his  own  hand)  1667.  He  studied  sculp- 
ture in  Milan  and  architecture  in  Rome  under 
Maderno,  architect  of  St.  Peters.  After  Ma- 
derno's  death  he  was  a  pupil  of  Bernini,  by 
whom  he  was  employed  on  various  parts  of  St. 
Peters.  He  built  the  church  of  San  Ivo  alia 
Sapienza,  the  Oratory  and  Cloister  of  San  Fil- 
ippo  Neri,  the  facade  of  the  church  of  Santa 
Agnese  in  the  Piazza  Navona,  and  the  interior 
of  San  Giovanni  in  Laterano.  He  was  one  of 
the  chief  representatives  of  the  baroque  style. 
Borromini  conceived  an  unreasoning  hatred  for 
his  instructor  Bernini  and  determined  to  surpass 
him  in  his  art,  but  maddened  by  the  latter's 
success  he  committed  suicide. 

Borrow,  George,  English  traveler,  linguist, 
and  writer  on  gypsy  life:  b.  East  Dereham,  Nor- 
folk, 1803 ;  d.  Ouiton  Broad,  Suffolk,  August 
1881.  On  his  father's  side  he  was  descended 
from  a  Cornish  family,  and  his  mother  was  of 
French  extraction.  His  father  was  a  recruit- 
ing officer  who  constantly  changed  his  residence, 
and  thus  Borrow's  early  years  were  passed  in 
various  parts  of  the  United  Kingdom.  He 
received  part  of  his  education  in  Edinburgh  High 
School,  and  in  1S20  was  articled  to  a  Norwich 
solicitor.  It  was  about  this  time  that  he  laid 
the  foundation  of  his  linguistic  knowledge  under 
the  guidance  of  William  Taylor,  a  friend  of 
Southey.  After  his  father's  death  he  went  to 
London,  where  he  earned  his  livelihood  by  lit- 
erary hackwork ;  but,  soon  tiring  of  this,  he  set 
out  on  a  series  of  journeys  through  England, 
France,  Germany,  Russia,  and  other  countries, 
acting  latterly  as  agent  of  the  British  and  For- 
eign Bible    Society  and  making  gypsy  life  and 


BORROWING  DAYS  — BOSANQUET 


customs  a  special  study.  During  the  seven  years 
or  so  prior  to  his  engagement  by  the  Bible  So- 
ciety he  seems  to  have  suffered  great  privations, 
but  of  his  movements  at  thnt  time  he  has  told  us 
nothing.  He  married  in  1840,  and  settled  on  a 
small  estate  of  his  wife's  at  Oulton  Broad,  in  the 
northeast  of  Suffolk,  where  he  died.  He  main- 
tained to  the  last  his  strong  sympathy  for  gypsy 
life,  and  not  only  permitted  but  encouraged  the 
gypsies  to  encamp  on  his  estate.  His  best  known 
work  is  ^The  Bible  in  Spain'  (3  vols.  1843)  ; 
and  his  other  publications  include  'Targum:  or, 
Metrical  Translations  from  Thirty  Languages 
and  Dialects'  (1835)  *The  Zincali :  or,  an 
Account  of  the  Gj'psies  in  Spain'  (1841)  ; 
^Lavengro,  the  Scholar,  the  Gypsy,  the  Priest' 
(1851),  a  sort  of  idealized  autobiography;  *The 
Romany  Rye,'  a  sequel  to  ^Lavengro'  (1857)  ; 
'Wild  Wales,  Its  People,  Language,  and  Scen- 
ery' (1862)  ;  and  'Romano  Lavo-LiP  (1874),  a 
dictionary  of  the  gyspy  language.  Borrow  was 
a  strong,  manly  character,  delighting  in  the  free, 
open-air  existence  of  the  gypsies  whose  life  he 
knew  so  well,  and  despising  heartily  all  affecta- 
tion and  false  gentility.  His  later  works,  by 
their  outspokenness,  lost  him  much  of  the  repu- 
tation earned  by  his  'Bible  in  Spain.'  See  the 
'Life  Writings,  and  Correspondence'  by  Dr. 
Knapp  (2  vols.    1899). 

Borrowing  Days,  the  last  three  days  of 
March,  Old  Style  ;  the  popular  notion  being,  in 
Scotland  and  some  parts  of  England,  that  they 
were  borrowed  by  March  from  April.  The  fic- 
tion is  of  great  antiquity,  and  probably  arose  in 
the  observation  of  a  frequent  wintry  relapse 
about  the  end  of  March. 

Borrowstounness'  (popularly  pronounced 
and  now  often  written  Bo'ness),  a  town  in  Lin- 
lithgowshire, Scotland,  distant  17  miles  west  by 
north  of  Edinburgh.  It  is  situated  on  a  low 
peninsula,  washed  by  the  Forth,  and  possesses 
three  principal  streets  running  from  west  to  east, 
one  of  them  a  continuation  of  the  other  two. 
The  chief  industrial  establishments  are  potteries, 
iron-foundries,  engineering  shops,  chemical 
manure  works,  saw-mills,  timber-yards,  coal  and 
coke  works,  distilleries,  brick-fields,  etc.,  and  in 
the  vicinity  are  very  extensive  collieries.  A  new 
dock  has  recently  been  constructed  and  the  old 
harbor  improved,  hydraulic  hoists  and  other 
appliances  being  provided.  The  wall  of  Anto- 
ninus ran  through  Borrowstounness,  and  traces 
of  it  are  still  visible.     Pop.   (1901)   9,100. 

Borsip'pa,  a  very  ancient  city  of  Babylonia, 
the  site  of  which  is  marked  by  the  ruins  Birs 
Nimrud. 

Bert,  a  rounded,  translucent  variety  of 
diamond,  harder  than  the  distinctly  crystallized 
gem  variety.     It  is  of  much  value  as  an  abrasive. 

Bortnyanski,  Dmitri  Stepanovitch,  dme'tre 
step-an'o-vich  bort-nyan-ske,  Russian  com- 
poser: b.  Glukhov,  1751;  d.  St.  Petersburg,  9 
Sept.  1825.  He  received  his  education  at  Mos- 
cow and  at  Venice  and  other  Italian  cities, 
under  Galuppi.  In  1779  he  returned  to  Russia 
and  was  appointed  director  of  the  Imperial 
Chapel,  devoting  himself  to  the  improvement  and 
traming  of  the  choir.  His  compositions  are 
almost  entirely  church  music,  including  35  sa- 
cred concertos,  a  liturgy  for  three  voices,  and  a 
collection  of  psalms.     His  music,  combining  the 


spirit  of  both  the  Slavic  and  the  Italian,  is  thor- 
oughly original  and  made  an  epoch  in  Russian 
church  music. 

Bory  de  Saint  Vincent,  Jean  Baptiste 
George  Marie,  zhon  bap-test  zhorzh  ma-re 
bo-re  de  san  van-son,  French  naturalist:  b. 
1780;  d.  1846.  About  1800-2  he  visited  the 
Canaries,  Mauritius,  and  other  African  islands. 
He  afterward  served  for  a  time  in  the  army, 
and  conducted  scientific  expeditions  to  Greece 
and  to  Algiers.  Among  his  chief  works  are 
'Annales  des  Sciences  Physiques'  (8  vols. 
1819-21);  'Voyage  dans  les  Quatre  Principales 
lies  des  Mers  d'Afrique'  (3  vols.  1804);  'Ex- 
pedition Scientifique  de  Moree'  (3  vols.  1832)  ; 
'L'Homme,  Essai  Zoologique  sur  le  Genre  Hu- 
main'    (2  vols.    1836). 

Borysthenes,  bo-ris'then-es,  the  ancient 
name  of  the  Dnieper. 

Borz'oi,  or  Russian  Wolfhound,  a  hunting- 
dog  of  northern  Europe,  substantially  the  same 
as  the  ancient  long-haired  greyhound  of  the 
Arabs  and  Persians,  whose  coat  has  been  length- 
ened in  adaptation  to  a  cold  climate.  It  is  a 
lithe,  active  dog,  standing  28  inches  high  at  the 
shoulders,  and  upward,  and  weighing  from  75  to 
100  pounds.  Its  hair  is  silky  and  loose,  espe- 
cially so  on  the  tail,  which,  contrary  to  the 
other  greyhound  characteristics,  is  "feathered" 
longer  than  is  the  setter's,  which  it  very  mucli 
resembles.  It  has  large  padded  feet.  In  color 
the  borzois  are  combinations  of  black,  white, 
and  tan.  These  dogs  are  popular,  especially 
as  stately  attendants  upon  ladies,  and  good  speci- 
mens may  be  seen  at  all  the  principal  kennel 
shows  of  the  country. 

Bos,  Lambert,  Dutch  philologist:  b.  Wor- 
kum,  Friesland,  23  Nov.  1670;  d.  6  Jan.  1717. 
He  was  instructed  by  his  father  in  Greek  and 
Latin.  Vitringa,  the  distinguished  Oriental 
scholar,  was  professor  at  Franeker,  and  thither 
young  Bos  went  to  pursue  his  philological  stud- 
ies. Not  long  after  he  was  chosen  Greek  pro- 
fessor in  that  university.  He  is  best  known  by 
his  work  entitled  'Ellipses  Graecse'  (1702), 
though  he  was  the  author  of  several  others, 
among  which  may  be  mentioned  an  edition  of 
the  Septuagint  and  'Animadversiones  ad  Scrip- 
tores  Grascos.' 

Bosa,  a  seaport  on  the  west  coast  of  Sar- 
dinia, province  of  Cagliari,  built  partly  on  the 
side  of  a  hill  crowned  by  an  old  castle,  and 
partly  in  an  unhealthy  plain.  It  has  a  cathedral 
and  other  churches,  a  theological  seminary,  and 
is  the  residence  of  a  bishop,  suffragan  to  the 
archbishop  of  Sassari.  It  is  in  a  wine  and  oil 
producing  region  and  carries  on  coral  fishing 
and  tanning.     Pop.  (1901)  6.846. 

Bosanquet,  bo-san-ka,  Bernard,  English 
philosopher :  b.  1848.  He  was  lecturer  af  Uni- 
versity College,  Oxford,  1871-81,  and  from  1881 
to  1897  was  much  engaged  in  university  exten- 
sion lecturing  and  charily  organization.  He  has 
written  '  Logic,  or  Morphology  of  Knowledge'  ; 
'History  of  .Esthetic';  'Knowledge  and  Real- 
ity';  'Essays  and  Addresses';  'Civilization  of 
Christendom';  'Essentials  of  Logic';  'Aspects 
of  the  Social  Problem';  'Psychology  of  Moral 
Self  ;  'Companion  to  Plato's  Republic,  for  Eng- 
lish Readers'  ;  'Education  of  the  Young  in 
Plato's  Republic'  ;  'Philosophical  Theory  of  the 
State.' 


BOSC  — BOSCOBEL 


Bosc,  Louis  Augustin  Guillaume,  French 
naturalist:  b.  Paris,  29  Jan.  1759;  d.  there,  10 
July  1828.  Employed  in  various  public  offices 
until  1793,  his  political  sympathies  made  him  ob- 
noxious to  the  terrorists,  and  concealing  him- 
self in  the  forest  of  Montmorency,  he  resumed 
there,  under  the  greatest  difficulties,  his  favorite 
science  of  botany,  having  already  previously 
gained  some  distinction  as  a  naturalist.  On 
returning  to  Paris  after  the  fall  of  Robespierre 
he  was  sent  in  1796  as  French  consul  to  the 
United  States ;  but,  not  recognized  in  this  posi- 
tion by  the  American  authorities,  he  explored 
the  country  for  scientific  purposes.  In  1799  he 
was  appointed  chief  of  the  administration  of 
prisons,  but  lost  this  office  on  the  i8th  Brumaire. 
Applying  himself  thenceforward  to  literary  la- 
bors, he  made  numerous  contributions  to  natural 
science.  His  ^Histoire  Naturelle  des  Coquilles^ 
(S  vols.  2d  ed.  Paris  1824)  and  'Historic  des 
Vers  et  des  Crustacees-*  (2  vols.  2d  ed.  Paris 
1829),  and  his  studies  on  the  vines  of  France, 
are  his  principal  achievements.  He  was  made  a 
member  of  the  Academy  of  Sciences,  of  the 
Central  Agricultural  Society,  and  finally,  after 
having  been  inspector  of  the  gardens  at  Ver- 
sailles, he  became  professor  at  the  Jardin  des 
Plantes  at  Paris.  Roland,  under  whose  admin- 
instration  he  had  served,  and  who  perished  with 
his  wife  on  the  guillotine,  made  him  guardian 
of  their  daughter.  Bosc  published  memoirs  of 
the  celebrated  Madame  Roland,  and  succeeded 
in  obtaining  for  Mile.  Roland  the  confiscated 
property  of  her  unfortunate  parents. 

Boscan  Almogaver,  Juan,  Spanish  poet: 
b.  Barcelona,  about  1493 ;  d.  near  Perpignan, 
April  1542.  His  parents,  who  belonged  to  the 
most  ancient  nobility,  gave  him  a  careful  educa- 
tion. He  followed  the  court  of  Charles  V.  and 
in  1526  was  attached  to  it  for  some  time 
in  Granada.  His  noble  manners  and  character 
gained  him  the  favor  of  the  emperor,  and  the 
education  of  the  Duke  of  Alva  was  committed 
to  him.  After  his  marriage  Boscan  lived  at 
Barcelona,  occupied  in  publishing  his  works, 
together  with  those  of  his  deceased  friend  Gar- 
cilaso,  in  which  task  he  was  employed  at  the 
time  of  his  death.  Boscan  first  introduced  Italian 
measures  into  Spanish,  and  thus  became  the 
creator  of  the  Spanish  sonnet.  He  published  his 
poetical  works  in  I.S43.  His  poems  are  still 
esteemed,  the  best  edition  being  that  published 
at  Madrid  in  1875.  Among  his  works  are  ^Le- 
andro  y  Hero^  and  ^La  Allegoria.^ 

Boscawen,  Edward,  British  admiral:  b. 
Cornwall,  England,  19  Aug.  171 1;  d.  near  Guild- 
ford, Surrey,  10  Jan.  1761.  He  was  a  son  of 
Viscount  Falmouth.  Having  entered  the  navy 
he  distinguished  himself  at  Porto  Bello  (1740) 
and  Cartagena  (1741),  where  he  stormed  a  bat- 
tery at  the  head  of  a  part  of  his  crew.  In 
1744  lie  was  promoted  to  the  Dreadnought,  a  60- 
gun  ship,  in  which  he  took  the  French  frigate 
Medea.  Three  years  afterward  he  signalized 
himself  under  Anson,  at  the  battle  of  Cape 
Finisterre.  Toward  the  close  of  this  year  he 
was  appointed  commander-in-chief  by  sea  and 
land  in  the  East  Indies,  and  was  despatched 
thither  with  a  squadron.  He  failed  in  attempts 
on  Mauritius  and  Pondicherry,  and  in  1750  re- 
turned to  England,  where  he  obtained  a  seat 
at  the  admiralty  board.  In  1755  he  became  vice- 
admiral  and  sailed  for  North  America,  and  in 


an  action  with  a  French  squadron  two  ships  of 
the  line  fell  into  his  hands.  It  was  he  who 
signed  the  immediate  order  for  the  execution 
of  Byng  in  1757.  In  1758  he  was  promoted 
to  the  rank  of  admiral  of  the  blue,  and  in  con- 
junction with  Lord  Amherst,  who  commanded 
the  land  forces,  he  was  present  at  the  capitula- 
tion of  Louisburg.  The  year  following,  having 
then  the  command  in  the  Mediterranean,  he 
pursued  the  Toulon  fleet,  under  De  la  Clue, 
through  the  Straits  of  Gibraltar,  and  coming 
up  with  it  in  Lagos  Bay,  completely  defeated  it, 
burning  two  ships  and  taking  three.  For  these 
services  he  received  the  thanks  of  Parliament 
and  $15,000  a  year,  with  the  rank  of  general 
of  marines,  in  1760. 

Bosch,  Balthazar  van  den,  Dutch  painter: 
b.  Antwerp,  1681 ;  d.  1715.  The  first  work  which 
brought  him  into  notice  was  an  equestrian  pic- 
ture of  the  Duke  of  Marlborough,  executed 
in  concert  with  Van  Bloemen,  who  painted  the 
horse.  He  was  afterward  employed  on  a  num- 
ber of  works,  for  which  he  is  said  to  have 
received  as  high  prices  as  Teniers  or  Ostade; 
and  a  short  time  before  his  death  was  appointed 
director  of  the  Academy  of  Antwerp. 

Bosch,  Ernst,  German  painter:  b.  Crefeld, 
1834.  He  studied  under  Schex  at  Wesel  and  at 
the  academy  in  Diisseldorf.  His  works  show  a 
pleasing  combination  of  figure,  animal,  and  land- 
scape painting ;  many  of  his  pictures  excel  in 
humor.  Among  his  best  paintings  are  *The 
Smuggler^  ;  ^Defense  of  a  Block-house  against 
Indians'  ;  'Gipsy  Gang  in  the  Village'  ;  'The 
Rogues'  School'  ;  'Hermann  and  Dorothea  at 
the  Spring.' 

Bosch,  Hieronymus,  Dutch  painter  and 
engraver :  b.  Bois  le  Due,  Netherlands,  about 
1462;  d.  there  1516.  His  fancy  partook  of  the 
grotesque,  Gothic  character  of  the  Middle  Ages, 
and  his  pictures  are  ingenious  representations 
of  devils,  spectres,  and  the  torments  of  the  lost. 
Some  of  his  works,  however,  representing  scrip- 
tural scenes,  possess  greater  dignity.  His  en- 
gravings resemble  his  paintings,  and  have  be- 
come very   scarce. 

Boschbok,  the  Dutch  form  of  the  English 
name  "bush-buck,"  given  to  several  South  Afri- 
can antelopes,  specifically  the  Tragelaplius  syl- 
vaticus.     It  is  prized  for  its  venison. 

Boschvark,  the  bush-hog  or  bush-pig  of 
South  Africa  (Chccropoiamiis  or  Potamochccrus 
africanus),  one  of  the  swine  family,  about  five 
feet  long,  and  with  very  large  and  strong  tusks. 
The  Kaffirs  esteem  its  flesh  as  a  luxury,  and 
its  tusks,  arranged  on  a  piece  of  string  and 
tied  round  the  neck,  are  considered  great  orna- 
ments. 

Boscobel,  England,  a  parish  in  Shropshire, 
unimportant  in  itself,  but  remarkable  historically 
as  the  hiding  place  of  Charles  II.  for  some 
days  after  the  battle  of  Worcester,  3  Sept.  1651. 
Boscobel  House  belonged  at  the  time  to  a 
stanch  royalist,  and  as  it  was  judged  a  con- 
venient place  of  retreat,  Charles  at  once  pro- 
ceeded in  that  direction,  and  hid  himself  during 
the  day  in  the  thickest  part  of  the  wood.  After 
making  one  attempt  to  escape  from  England 
through  Wales,  he  was  compelled  to  return  again 
to  his  former  hiding-place,  and  concealed  himself 
among  the  branches  of  a  pollard  oak  in  Boscobel 
Wood,  where  it  is  related  that  he  could  actually 


BOSCOVICH  —  BOSNIA 


see  the  men  who  were  in  pursuit  of  him,  and 
hear  their  voices.  The  "royal  oak»  which  now 
stands  at  Boscobel,  is  said  to  have  grown  from 
an  acorn  of  this  very  tree.  An  account  of 
Charles'  adventures  after  the  battle  of  Worces- 
ter was  published  in  1662,  with  the  title/ Bos- 
cobel, or  the  Compleat  History  of  his  Sacred 
Majestie's  most  Miraculous  Preservation  after 
the  Battle  of  Worcester.^  This  history  is  said 
to  have  been  the  work  of  Thomas  Blount. 

Boscovich,  Roger  Joseph,  Italian  astrono- 
mer and  physicist :  b.  Ragusa,  Dalmatia,  18  May 
1711;  d.  Milan,  12  Feb.  1787.  He  was  educated 
among  the  Jesuits,  and  entering  into  their  order, 
was  appointed  professor  of  mathematics  in  the 
Roman  College,  before  he  had  entirely  com- 
pleted the  course  of  his  studies.  He  was  em- 
ployed by  Pope  Benedict  XIV.  in  various  under- 
takings, and  in  1750  began  the  measurement  of 
a  degree  of  the  meridian  in  the  Ecclesiastical 
States,  which  operation  occupied  him  for  two 
years.  He  afterward  visited  the  Pontine 
Marshes,  to  give  advice  respecting  the  draining 
of  them.  He  was  then  intrusted  by  the  Republic 
of  Lucca  with  the  defense  of  its  interests,  in 
a  dispute  about  boundaries  with  the  government 
of  Tuscany.  This  affair  obliged  him  to  go  to 
Vienna,  and  having  terminated  it  with  success, 
he  visited  Paris  and  London.  He  was  elected 
a  Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society,  and  dedicated  to 
this  body  a  Latin  poem  on  eclipses.  Returning 
to  Italy,  he  was  appointed  mathematical  pro- 
fessor in  the  University  of  Pavia ;  whence,  in 
1770,  he  removed  to  Milan,  and  there  erected 
the  celebrated  observatory  at  the  College  of 
Brera.  On  the  suppression  of  the  order  of 
Jesuits,  he  accepted  an  invitation  to  France 
from  Louis  XV.,  who  gave  him  a  pension  of 
8,000  livres,  with  the  office  of  director  of  optics 
for  the  navy.  This  appointment  induced  him  to 
pay  particular  attention  to  that  part  of  optical 
science  which  treats  of  the  theory  of  achromatic 
telescopes,  on  which  subject  he  wrote  a  treatise 
of  considerable  extent.  He  was  obliged  to  leave 
Paris  in  1783,  on  account  of  ill  health,  when 
he  retired  to  Milan.  He  was  one  of  the  first 
among  continental  philosophers  to  adopt  the 
Newtonian  theories.  An  edition  of  the  works  of 
Father  Boscovich  was  published  by  himself  at 
Bassano,  in  5  volumes,  4to,  1785.  His  "^Theoria 
Philosophias  Naturalis  reducta  ad  Unicam  Legem 
Virium  in  Natura  Existentium,'  first  published 
in  1758,  is  a  curious  production  containing  spec- 
ulations of  which  Dr.  Priestley  availed  himself 
in  his  writings  in  favor  of  materialism.  He 
wrote  also   ^De  Maculis  Solaribus.^ 

Bosio,  Angiolina,  Italian  opera  singer: 
b.  Turin,  22  Aug.  1829;  d.  St.  Petersburg,  12 
April  1859.  At  an  early  age  she  showed  so 
decided  a  taste  for  music,  that  her  parents  were 
induced  to  place  her  under  the  instruction  of 
Cattaneo,  at  Milan.  The  best  evidence  of  her 
progress  and  talent  for  singing,  was  her  debut 
in  her  15th  year  at  Milan,  in  Verdi's  ^Due  Fos- 
cari,^  with  decided  success.  Thenceforth  a 
series  of  triumphs  awaited  her. 

Bosio,  Frangois  Joseph  (Baron),  French 
sculptor:  b.  Monaco,  19  March  1769;  d-  Paris, 
29  July  1845.  He  was  much  employed  by  Napo- 
leon I.,  for  whom  he  executed  busts  of  Josephme 
and  Hortense,  and  by  the  successive  Bourbon 
and  Orleans  dynasties.  His  works  are  well 
known  in  France  and  Italy. 


Bosna-Sera'i,  or  Serajevo  (ancient  Tiberiop- 
OLis),  formerly  capital  of  the  province  of  Bosnia, 
now  of  the  Austro-Hungarian  district  of  Sera- 
jevo, situated  on  the  Miliatzka,  which  is  here 
crossed  by  a  handsome  stone  bridge,  122  miles 
southwest  of  Belgrade,  and  570  miles  west- 
northwest  of  Constantinople.  The  town  was 
founded  about  1263.  It  is  well  built,  and  al- 
though most  of  the  houses  are  of  wood,  has  a 
gay  and  pleasant  appearance  from  the  number 
of  towers  and  minarets  with  which  it  is  embel- 
lished. Many  improvements  have  been  intro- 
duced since  the  Austrian  occupation.  It  con- 
tains a  serai  or  palace,  built  by  Mohammed  II., 
to  which  the  city  owes  its  name ;  many  mosques, 
great  and  small ;  churches,  monasteries,  two 
large  bazaars,  schools,  baths,  and  charitable  insti- 
tutions. It  v/as  formerly  surrounded  with  walls, 
but  these  are  now  completely  decayed ;  and  its 
only  remaining  defense  is  a  citadel,  built  on 
a  rocky  height  at  a  short  distance  east  from 
the  town,  mounted  with  cannon.  Serajevo  is  the 
chief  mart  in  the  province,  the  centre  of  com- 
mercial relations  between  Turkey,  Austria,  and 
South  Germany ;  and  has,  in  consequence,  a  con- 
siderable trade.  It  has  manufactures  of  arms 
and  utensils  of  copper ;  ironware,  woolen  and 
worsted  stuffs,  morocco  leather,  cottons,  etc. 
There  are  also  several  tanneries  in  the  city, 
and  at  a  short  distance  from  it  several  impor- 
tant iron  mines ;  and  on  a  plain  which  stretches 
to  the  west  the  baths  of  Serajevesko.  Pop. 
26,286. 

Bosnia  (properly  Bosna),  the  extreme 
northwestern  province  or  eyalet  of  European 
Turkey,  comprising  Bosnia  proper,  Herzegovina, 
and  parts  of  Turkish  Croatia  and  Dalmatia, 
bounded  north  by  the  river  Save,  west  by  Dalma- 
tia and  the  Adriatic,  east  by  Servia,  and  south 
by  Albania  and  Montenegro.  By  the  terms  of 
the  Treaty  of  Berlin  (1878),  it  was  occupied  by 
Austrian  troops,  to  be  administered  for  an 
undefined  future  period  by  the  Austrian  govern- 
ment. It  comprehends,  besides  the  ancient  Bos- 
nia, part  of  Croatia,  a  tract  of  Dalmatia,  and 
Herzegovina,  and  contains  from  23,000  to  24.000 
square  miles  (of  which  Bosnia  proper  occupies 
16,200).  The  inhabitants  are  mostly  of  Slavo- 
nian origin,  and  comprise  Bosniaks,  Servians, 
Morlaks,  and  Croats,  besides  Turks,  Greeks, 
Jews,  Gypsies,  etc.  The  Bosniaks  are  the  most 
numerous.  They  are  partly  Mohammedans, 
partly  Roman  and  Greek  Catholics.  The  Ser- 
vians and  Croats  are  next  in  point  of  number. 
The  country  is  level  toward  the  north ;  in  the 
south  mountainous  and  woody.  Its  chief  rivers 
are  the  Save,  the  Verbas,  the  Bosna,  Rama,  and 
Drina.  Bosnia  contains  fertile  fields,  orchards, 
and  vineyards ;  the  breed  of  cattle  is  excellent, 
and  the  mountains  furnish  good  iron,  of  which  a 
great  part  is  manufactured  in  the  country  into 
guns  and  blades.  The  other  articles  manufac- 
tured are  leather,  morocco,  and  coarse  woolen 
cloths.  In  the  12th  and  13th  centuries  Bosnia 
belonged  to  Hungary.  In  13.^9  't  fell  into  the 
hands  of  Stephen,  king  of  Servia.  After  his 
death  it  remained  independent,  and  the  Ban 
Twartko  took  the  title  of  king  in  1370.  In  1401 
it  became  tributary  to  the  Turks,  and  since  1463 
has  been  a  Turkish  province.  It  is  divided  into 
the  southern  and  northern  parts,  or  Upper  and 
Lower  Bosnia.  The  former  is  commonly  called 
Herzegovina    (q.v.).     The  capital   of  Bosnia   is 


BOSPORUS  —  BOSSE 


Bosna-Serai  (q.v.)  ;  Zvornik,  Banyaluka,  Mos- 
tar,  and  Travnik  are  also  important  places.  The 
Bosniaks  are  boorish  in  their  manners  and  un- 
courteous  toward  strangers,  but  industrious  and 
temperate.  The  women,  like  the  men,  are  well 
and  strongly  made,  and  mostly  good-looking. 
The  Bosniaks  are  fond  of  hunting  and  fishing, 
and  engage  to  some  extent  in  agriculture  and 
cattle-raising.  Servian  is  the  language  gener- 
ally spoken.  Bosnia  has  often  attempted  to 
throw  off  the  Turkish  yoke,  and  after  the  Russo- 
Turkish  war  of  1877-8,  which  was  led  up  to  by 
an  insurrection  in  Herzegovina  and  Bosnia,  the 
provinces  were  with  the  consent  of  the  great 
powers  occupied  by  Austria.  Pop.  including 
Herzegovina  (1895)  1,591,036. 

Bosporus,    or    Bosphorus    (that    is,    "^^Ox- 

ford"),  the  strait,  18  miles  long,  joining  the 
Black  Sea  with  the  Sea  of  Marmora,  called 
also  the  Strait  of  Constantinople.  It  is  defended 
by  a  series  of  strong  forts,  and  by  agreement 
of  the  European  powers  no  ship  of  war  belonging 
to  any  nation  shall  pass  the  strait  without  the 
permission  of  Turkey.  The  shores  of  the  Bos- 
porus are  elevated  and  the  scenery  picturesque. 
Over  this  channel  (about  3,033  feet  wide)  Da- 
rius constructed  a  bridge  of  boats,  on  his  expe- 
dition against  the  Scythians.  The  Cimmerian 
Bosporus  was  the  name  given  by  the  ancients 
to  the  strait  that  leads  from  the  Black  Sea 
into  the  Sea  of  Azov,  now  the  strait  of  Kaffa 
or  Yenikale,  the  other  Bosporus  being  distin- 
guished as  the  Thracian  Bosporus.  There  was 
anciently  a  Greek  kingdom  of  the  name  of  Bos- 
porus, so  called  from  the  Cimmerian  Bosporus, 
on  both  sides  of  which  it  was  situated.  The 
capital  of  this  kingdom  was  Panticapjeum  (rep- 
resented by  the  modern  Kertch),  in  the  Tauric 
Chersonese,  the  ancient  name  of  the  Crimea. 
This  kingdom  was  founded  about  480  B.C.  Spar- 
tacus  was  among  the  first  kings.  Under  a 
successor,  Satyrus,  the  kingdom  was  extended 
to  the  coast  of  Asia,  and  his  son  Leucon  far- 
ther extended  it.  He  improved  the  commerce 
of  the  country  (in  particular  by  the  exportation 
of  corn  to  Athens,  also  of  fish,  fur,  skins,  bees'- 
wax,  and  slaves).  From  him  his  descendants 
were  called  Leuconidae.  Leucanor  became  trib- 
utary to  the  Scythians  290  B.C.,  and  the  tribute 
was  finally  so  oppressive  that  Parisades,  the  last 
of  the  Leuconid,'?,  preferred  to  submit  to  Mith- 
ridates  king  of  Pontus,  who  vanquished  the  Scy- 
thians under  Scilurus  116  b.  c,  and  made  his 
son  king  of  Bosporus.  At  the  death  of  Mith- 
ridates  the  Romans  gave  the  country,  64  B.C.,  to 
his  second  son,  Pharnaces,  who  was  afterward 
murdered.  The  Romans  placed  different  princes 
successively  upon  the  throne,  who  all  pretended 
to  be  descendants  of  Mithridates.  When  this 
family  became  extinct,  259  a.d.,  the  Sarmatians 
took  possession  of  the  kingdom,  from  whom 
it  was  taken  by  the  Chersonesians  in  344.  The 
Tauric  Chersonese  then  belonged  to  the  East- 
ern Empire,  till  it  was  seized  by  the  Chazars, 
and  afterward  by  the  Tartars,  under  the  Mon- 
gol princes. 

Bosquet,  bos-ka,  Pierre  Frangois,  French 
soldier :  b.  Mont  de  Marsen,  France,  8  Nov. 
1810;  d.  Toulouse,  5  Feb.  1861.  In  1829  he 
entered  the  Polytechnic  School,  and,  in  1833, 
became  a  sub-lieutenant  in  the  artillery.  In 
1835,  he  went  with  his  regiment  to  Algeria, 
where    he    began    to    distinguish    himself.     Be- 


tween 1836  and  1848  he  had  passed  through 
the  successive  ranks  of  captain,  chef-de-bataillon, 
lieutenant-colonel,  and  colonel,  when,  in  that 
year,  he  was  appointed  by  the  Republican  gov- 
ernment general  of  brigade.  In  1854  the  Em- 
peror Napoleon  HI.  raised  him  to  the  rank  of 
general  of  division,  and  enrolled  him  in  the  staff 
of  the  army  of  Marshal  St.  Arnaud.  He  was 
with  the  French  army  in  the  Crimea,  where  he 
greatljr  distinguished  himself,  and  was  wounded 
in  the  assault  on  the  IMalakoff  Tower  at  the  siege 
of  Sebastopol.  In  1856,  he  was  made  a  marshal 
of  France,  and  a  senator.  In  1859,  he  was  ap- 
pointed to  a  command  in  the  war  against  Aus- 
tria. 

Boss,  Lewis,  American  astronomer:  b. 
Providence,  R.  I.,  26  Oct.  1846.  He  was  grad- 
uated at  Dartmouth  College,  in  1870 ;  astronomer 
of  the  Northern  Boundary  Survey  for  the  deter- 
mination of  the  line  between  the  western  part  of 
the  United  States  and  British  America ;  and, 
since  the  completion  of  that  work,  director  of 
the  Dudley  Observatory,  Albany,  N.  Y.  He 
was  chief  of  the  United  States  party  sent  to 
Chile  in  1882  to  observe  the  transit  of  Venus; 
was  elected  a  member  of  the  National  Academy 
of  Science,  in  1889,  and  an  honorary  foreign 
associate  of  the  Royal  Astronomical  Society,  in 
1890.  He  is  best  known  for  his  work  upon 
star  declinations,  undertaken  in  connection  with 
his  work  on  the  boundary  survey,  which  is  the 
most  complete  investigation  of  the  kind  ever 
executed,  and  for  his  "^Catalogue  of  8,241  Stars^  — ■ 
which  was  a  part  of  the  *^  Co-operative  Cata- 
logue^ prepared  by  leading  astronomers  of 
Europe. 

Boss,  a  master  or  overseer,  a  term  often 
applied  to  the  superintendent  of  a  gang  of  work- 
men. In  American  politics,  the  term  came  into 
use,  after  the  exposure  of  the  Tweed  Ring, 
to  designate  the  leader  of  a  political  organiza- 
tion who  retains  his  power  by  unscrupulous 
methods  and  the  use  of  public  offices  as  rewards 
for  his  supporters. 

Boss,  in  Gothic  architecture  the  protuber- 
ance in  a  vaulted  ceiling  formed  by  the  junc- 
tion of  the  ends  of  several  ribs,  and  serving 
to  bind  them  together;  usually  elaborately 
carved  and  ornamented. 

Bosse,  bos,  Abraham,  French  engraver 
and  etcher;  b.  Tours,  1605 (?);  d.  there,  1678. 
He  lived  most  of  his  life  in  Paris  and  was  pro- 
fessor in  the  Royal  Academy  of  Painting  there. 
He  prepared  about  800  plates  representing  fes- 
tivals and  various  scenes  in  the  life  of  the  peo- 
ple. He  wrote  also  ^Traite  des  Manieres  de 
Graver  en  Taille  Douce  sur  I'Airain  par  I'Eau 
Forte  et  les  Vernis  Durs  et  Mols.^ 

Bosse,  bos-se,  Robert,  German  statesman: 
b.  Quedlinburg,  1832.  He  studied  law  at  Heidel- 
berg, Halle,  and  Berlin,  held  different  offices 
in  Prussia,  and  in  1876  he  entered  the  Prus- 
sian ministry.  In  October  1889  he  became 
under-secretary  of  state  in  the  imperial  Depart- 
ment of  the  Interior,  and  in  this  capacity  had 
an  important  part  in  framing  the  laws  for  the 
insurance  of  workingmen,  and  in  defending 
them  in  the  Reichstag.  In  1891  he  became  sec- 
retary in  the  Department  of  Justice,  and  was 
president  of  the  commission  to  frame  the  new 
Civil  Code.  In  1892  he  again  entered  the  Prus- 
sian ministry  as  minister  of  education.     He  was 


BOSSI  — BOSTANJI 


editor  of  the  ^Monatsschrifte  fiir  Deutsche 
Beamte'  ;  and  he  wrote  *  Commentary  on  the 
Laws  of  1889  for  the  Insurance  of  Invahds  and 
the  Aged'  ;  ^An  Official  Journey  to  the  Orient-* 
(1900)  and  several  articles  in  sociological  and 
legal  periodicals. 

Bossi,  Enrico  Marco,  en-re'ko  mar-ko 
bos-se,  Italian  composer:  b.  Salo,  1861.  He  was 
educated  at  the  Milan  Conservatory,  was  organ- 
ist in  the  Como  cathedral  and  instructor  in  or- 
gan-playing at  the  Naples  Conservatory.  His 
musical  compositions  include  an  organ  concerto, 
*I1  Cieco,'  an  opera,  and  'Canticum  Canti- 
corum,'  a  sacred  cantata.  He  has  written  (with 
Tebaldini)  *  Method  of  Study  for  the  Modern 
Organ.' 

Bossi,  Giuseppe  Carlo  Aurelio,  Italian  pol- 
itician and  poet:  b.  Turin,  15  Nov.  1758;  d.  Paris, 
20  Jan.  1823.  When  only  18  years  old  he  made 
a  successful  debut  as  a  dramatist.  In  1792  he 
was  sent  on  a  diplomatic  mission  to  Berlin,  and 
a  few  months  later  to  St.  Petersburg.  In  1796 
King  Charles  Emanuel  IV.  appointed  him  his 
agent  near  Gen.  Bonaparte.  He  acted  a  some- 
what conspicuous  part  in  the  various  changes 
imposed  upon  the  Sardinian  states  by  the  direct- 
ory and  the  consular  government  of  France; 
and  finally  was,  with  Carlo  Giulio  and  Carlo 
Botta,  a  member  of  the  triumvirate  which  gov- 
erned Piedmont  previous  to  its  annexation  in 
1802.  Some  two  years  later  he  entered  the 
French  civil  service,  and  was  appointed  prefect 
of  Ain.  In  1810  he  was  made  a  baron  of  the 
empire,  and  promoted  to  the  prefecture  of 
Manche,  which  post  he  kept  on  the  first  resto- 
ration ;  but  having,  in  March  1815,  adhered  to 
Napoleon,  he  was  dismissed  on  the  second  re- 
turn of  the  Bourbons.  He  wrote  some  lyrical 
poems,  and  also  ^L'lndipendenza  Americana,' 
*La  Olanda  pacificata,'  in  two  cantos,  and  ^Oro- 
masia,'  in  12  cantos,  giving  a  description  of  the 
principal  events   in  the   French  revolution. 

Bossuet,  Jacques  Benigne,  Bishop  of 
Meaux:  b.  Dijon,  2^  Sept.  1627;  d.  16  April 
1704.  While  attending  the  Jesuit  College  at  Di- 
jon he  got  possession  of  a  Latin  Bible,  which 
made  an  indelible  impression  upon  him.  At 
the  age  of  15  he  was  sent  to  Paris,  where  he 
entered  the  College  of  Navarre,  the  president 
of  which,  Nicholas  Cornet,  took  pleasure  in 
forming  his  mind.  Bossuet,  under  the  direction 
of  this  worthy  teacher,  studied  Greek  and  the 
Holy  Scriptures,  read  the  ancient  classics,  and 
investigated  the  Cartesian  philosophy.  He  was 
made  Doctor  of  the  Sorbonne  and  canon  in 
Metz.  Here  he  edified  his  hearers  by  his  preach- 
ing and  example ;  was  commissioned  by  his 
bishop  to  refute  the  catechism  of  the  Protestant 
minister  Paul  Ferry,  and  did  it  in  such  a  way 
that  even  his  antagonists  were  obliged  to  re- 
spect him.  The  queen-mother  (Anne  of  Aus- 
tria) was  induced,  by  this  work,  to  employ  Bos- 
suet in  the  conversion  of  the  Protestants  in  the 
diocese  of  Metz.  This  business  often  called  him 
to  Paris,  where  his  sermons  met  with  great  ap- 
probation. The  sermon  which  he  delivered  in 
*i668,  on  the  occasion  of  Marshal  Turenne's  join- 
ing the  Roman  Church,  procured  him  the  bish- 
opric of  Condom.  In  1670  the  king  charged 
him  with  the  education  of  the  dauphin.  In  con- 
sequence of  this  appointment  he  resigned  his 
bishopric  in  1671,  because  he  thought  it  in- 
consistent  with  his  duty  to  retain  it  during  a 


continual  absence  from  his  diocese.  At  this  time 
he  delivered  his  sermon  at  the  funeral  oi 
Madame  the  Duchess  of  Orleans  —  a  princess 
who,  in  the  midst  of  a  brilliant  court,  of  which 
she  was  the  ornament,  died  suddenly  in  the 
bloom  of  youth.  His  last  sermon  of  this  kind 
(that  at  the  tomb  of  the  great  Conde)  is  con- 
sidered as  a  masterpiece.  The  manly  vigof 
which  characterized  his  orations  is  seen  alsd 
in  the  ^Discours  sur  I'Histoire  Universelle,'  de- 
signed for  the  instruction  of  his  royal  pupil. 
The  care  which  he  took  of  the  education  of 
this  prince  was  rewarded  in  1680  by  the  office 
of  the  first  almoner  of  the  dauphin;  in  1681  bji 
the  bishopric  of  Meaux;  in  1697  he  obtained 
the  dignity  of  a  councilor  of  state,  and  a  year 
afterward  that  of  the  first  almoner  of  the  Duch- 
ess of  Burgundy.  His  practice  and  his  doctrine 
were  equally  severe.  AH  his  time  was  divided 
between  his  studies  and  the  execution  of  his 
official  duties ;  he  seldom  allowed  himself  any 
recreation.  The  learned  Benedictines  of  the 
Brotherhood  of  St.  Maur  published  a  complete 
edition  of  the  works  of  Bossuet  in  43  volumes 
Svo  (Versailles  1815-19).  Bossuet  was  unrivaled 
as  a  pulpit  orator,  and  greatly  distinguished  for 
his  strength  and  acumen  as  a  controversialist. 
Among  the  most  celebrated  of  his  works  are  his 
*^Oraisons  Funebres'  ;  ^Histoire  des  Variations 
des  Eglises  Protestantes'  ;  *  Politique  tiree  des 
propres  Paroles  de  I'Ecriture  Sainte.'  The 
French  Academy  consider  him  among  their  mosi 
renowned  members.  He  has  described  his  own 
life  at  length.  For  his  dispute  with  the  arch- 
bishop of  Cambrai,  Fenelon,  see  Fenelon  and 
Quietism. 

Bossut,  Charles,  French  mathematician: 
b.  Tartaras,  in  the  department  of  the  Rhone, 
II  Aug.  1730;  d.  14  Jan.  1814.  He  was  edu- 
cated at  the  Jesuit  College,  Lyons,  and  having 
met  with  the  ^Eloges  of  Fontenelle,'  was  smitten 
with  so  eager  a  desire  to  imitate  the  distin- 
guished individuals  therein  described,  that  he 
wrote  to  Fontenelle  himself  on  the  subject.  That 
veteran,  now  90  years  of  age,  not  only  answered 
the  letter,  but  expressed  such  an  interest  in  the 
future  progress  of  his  young  correspondent,  that 
Bossut  repaired  to  Paris,  and  was  introduced  by 
Fontenelle  to  Clairaut  and  D'Alembert,  the  lat- 
ter of  whom  he  appears  to  have  particularly  ad- 
mired and  studied  to  imitate.  In  1752  he  was 
appointed  profes.sor  of  mathematics  to  the  school 
of  Mezieres,  and  held  that  office  for  16  years, 
during  which  he  gained  several  prizes  offered  by 
the  Academy  of  Sciences.  He  was  afterward  ad- 
mitted a  member  of  that  body,  and  was  at  the 
same  time  appointed  examiner  of  candidates  for 
the  artillery  and  engineers.  At  the  Revolution 
he  was  deprived  of  all  his  appointments,  and  after- 
ward lived  in  retirement  till  his  death.  His 
most  important  works  are  a  ^Course  of  Mathe- 
matics,' which  was  long  in  repute  as  a  text- 
book; a  ^Treatise  on  Hydrodynamics'  ;  the  ^In- 
troductory Discourse  to  Mathematics,'  and 
various  other  articles  in  the  Encyclopedic ;  and 
a  'History  of  Mathematics.'  He  also  edited  the 
works  of  Pascal. 

Bostanji,  a  class  of  men  in  Turkey,  num- 
bering about  600,  originally  the  Sultan's  garden- 
ers, but  now  also  employed  in  several  ways 
about  his  person,  as  mounting  guard  at  the  ser- 
aglio, rowing  his  barge,  etc.,  and  likewise  in 
attending  the  officers  of  the  royal  household. 


BOSTON 


Boston,  England,  a  municipal  and  parlia- 
mentary borough  and  port  of  Lincolnshire,  sit- 
uated on  the  river  Witham,  about  five  miles 
from  the  sea,  32  southeast  from  Lincoln.  It 
derived  its  name  (a  corruption  of  Botolph's 
town)  from  St.  Botolph,  who  founded  a  monas- 
tery here  about  the  year  650.  Its  chief  interest 
for  Americans  lies  in  the  fact  that  it  was  the 
English  home  of  the  most  influential  of  the 
settlers  of  Boston,  Mass.  The  port  had  for- 
merly a  flourishing  trade,  but  owing  to  various 
causes,  and  especially  the  fact  that  in  dry  sea- 
sons the  river  became  choked  up  with  sand 
brought  in  by  the  tides,  this  trade  greatly 
declined.  In  1881  a  new  channel  was  con- 
structed so  as  to  bring  the  town  within  three 
miles  of  the  sea  by  navigable  water ;  and  a 
new  dock  of  seven  acres  area,  capable  of  admit- 
ting vessels  of  3,500  tons  at  the  highest  tides, 
was  opened  three  years  later.  Boston  contains 
some  fine  buildings,  notably  the  parish  church 
of  St.  Botolph,  the  Cotton  chapel,  and  various 
other  places  of  worship,  a  grammar-school  dat- 
ing from  1554,  the  Athenaeum,  the  Guildhall,  and 
the  Assembly  rooms,  under  which  are  arranged 
the  butter-market,  poultry-market,  and  the  po- 
lice-station. St.  Botolph's  Church  is  a  very 
large  and  handsome  Gothic  structure,  with  a 
tower,  known  as  Boston  Stump,  282  feet  high, 
containing  a  carillon  of  36  bells  cast  at  Louvain. 
In  the  upper  part  of  the  tower,  octagonal  in 
shape,  lights  used  to  be  suspended  for  the  guid- 
ance of  mariners  at  sea  and  travelers  crossing 
the  fens  by  night.  The  town  is  now  well  sup- 
plied with  water  brought  from  a  reservoir  dis- 
tant about  14  miles.  The  leading  industries 
comprise  iron  and  brass  foundries,  the  manu- 
facture of  farm  implements,  sails,  ropes,  and 
bricks,  and  tanning,  brewing,  and  malting.  Fish- 
ing also  gives  occupation  to  many  of  the  inhab- 
itants, and  there  is  steam  communication  with 
Hamburg,  Hull,  and  London.  Pop.  (1901) 
15,711. 

Boston,  Mass.,  the  capital  of  the  State, 
and,  according  to  the  United  States  census  of 
1900,  fifth  city  in  population  in  the  United  States. 
It  is  situated  on  the  western  shore  of  Massa- 
chusetts Bay.  The  settlement  from  which  it  has 
grown  was  made  in  1630  by  members  of  the 
Massachusetts  Bay  Company,  bearing  with  them 
the  charter  granted  to  this  organization  by 
Charles  I.  The  leader  of  the  first  expedition 
of  settlers  who  landed  at  Charlestown,  17  June 
1630,  was  Gov.  John  Winthrop,  a  Puritan 
gentleman.  In  his  fleet  came  others  of  like 
condition.  Sir  Richard  Saltonstall,  Isaac  Johnson 
and  his  wife,  the  Lady  Arbella,  daughter  of  the 
Earl  of  Lincoln,  together  with  a  company  of 
sturdy  Puritans,  chiefly  from  Lincolnshire.  They 
landed  700  or  800  strong,  a  number  soon  in- 
creased to  1,000  and  then  to  2.000  by  later  ar- 
rivals—  the  most  considerable  settlement  on  the 
American  coast.  At  the  end  of  the  first  sum- 
mer, a  season  of  hardship,  they  moved  across 
the  Charles  River  to  the  promontory  of  Shaw- 
mut  —  an  Indian  word  translated  "living  foun- 
tains.^^ This  headland,  with  ample  water-supply, 
was  called  by  the  English  settlers  Trimountain, 
from  the  three-peaked  hill,  now  Beacon 
Hill,  which  formed  its  highest  eminence.  On  17 
Sept.  1630  it  was  voted  to  change  its  name  to 
Boston,  after  the  Lincolnshire  town  from  which 
some  of  the  chief  settlers  had  come.     The  origi- 


nal settler  of  the  land,  the  Rev.  William  Black- 
stone  (q.v.),  a  scholar  who  had  left  England 
to  avoid  the  *lord-bishops,*^  sold  the  newcomers 
his  land  and  moved  on  to  Rhode  Island,  in 
order  to  escape  the  ''lords-brethren.** 

From  the  first  the  power  of  the  Puritan 
clergy  was  important.  Church  and  State  were 
practically  one.  Trained  in  the  English  univer- 
sities, the  ministers  set  a  true  value  upon  edu- 
cation. A  free  public  school  was  established 
in  1633,  and  in  1636  the  General  Court  provided 
for  the  beginnings  of  Harvard  College.  The 
government  both  of  town  and  of  colony  was 
purely  democratic,  having  for  its  unit  the  town- 
meeting,  which  in  Boston  itself  maintained  its 
sway,  with  the  single  interruption  of  British 
military  rule  at  the  outbreak  of  the  Revolution, 
until  the  town  became  a  city  in  1822.  Besides 
the  training  in  self-government  thus  acquired, 
Boston  had  the  advantage  of  virtual  independ- 
ence through  its  early  years.  At  first  the  Crown 
was  fully  occupied  with  its  own  problems  in 
England ;  and  when  Cromwell  came  into  power, 
so  strongly  Puritan  a  settlement  was  naturally 
left  much  to  its  own  devices.  Thus  the  charter 
of  the  Bay  Company,  and  the  liberties  enjoj^ed 
under  it.  became  very  dear  to  the  people  of  Bos- 
ton. When  Charles  11.  came  to  the  throne  there 
were  grave  fears  that  these  liberties  would 
be  seriously  curtailed.  In  1664  four  roj'^al  com- 
missioners came  from  England  to  adjust  difficul- 
ties in  several  colonies.  Their  mission  to  Bos- 
ton was  a  failure,  and  for  some  years  to  come 
the  town  was  secure  under  its  original  system 
of  government. 

Under  James  II.  came  the  dreaded  change. 
Complaints  of  the  Boston  spirit  of  independence 
and  religious  intolerance  were  borne  more  fre- 
quently to  the  English  court,  and  before  the 
death  of  Charles  II.  the  Court  of  Chancery 
voted  the  Massachusetts  Bay  charter  vacated. 
In  the  summer  of  1686  the  original  government 
of  the  colony  came  to  an  end.  Before  the 
close  of  this  year.  Sir  Edmvmd  Andros,  the 
new  governor  appointed  by  the  king,  the  first 
chief  magistrate  in  Massachusetts  not  chosen 
by  popular  election,  arrived  in  Boston.  Prob- 
ably nobody  in  his  peculiar  place  could  have  sat- 
isfied the  people  at  this  time.  Within  less  than 
three  years  from  his  arrival  a  bloodless  revolu- 
tion in  Boston,  a  well-organized  uprising  of  the 
people,  removed  him  from  office.  Early  in  1690 
he  was  sent  back  to  England,  where  Increase 
Mather,  the  leading  minister  of  Boston,  had 
already  been  for  nearly  two  years,  trjnng  to 
have  the  old  charter  restored,  or  to  get  the 
best  possible  substitute  for  it.  This  he  suc- 
ceeded in  doing,  after  the  accession  of  William 
and  Mary,  and  had  the  further  satisfaction  of 
choosing  the  first  governor  under  the  new 
instrument  making  Massachusetts  a  royal  prov- 
ince. With  this  governor.  Sir  William  Phipps, 
Mather  returned  to  Boston  in  the  spring  of 
1692. 

By  this  time  Boston  had  grown  to  impor- 
tance as  the  leading  seaport,  and  in  many 
respects  the  foremost  town  in  America.  Before 
the  end  of  the  17th  century  its  population  was 
approximately  7,000.  In  another  half  century 
this  number  was  more  than  doubled.  A  good 
idea  of  certain  aspects  of  the  town  in  this  period 
is  given  by  an  Englishman,  Daniel  Neal,  who 
wrote  in  1719 : 


BOSTON 


"  The  bay  of  Boston  is  spacious  enough  to  contain 
in  a  manner  the  navy  of  England.  The  masts  of  ships 
here,  and  at  proper  seasons  of  the  year,  malve  a  kind 
of  wood  of  trees  like  that  we  see  ujion  the  river  of 
Thames  about  Wapping  and  Limehouse,  which  may 
easily  be  imagined  when  we  consider  that  by  com- 
putation given  into  the  collectors  of  his  Majesty's 
customs  to  the  governor  upon  the  building  of  the  light- 
house, it  appeared  that  there  was  24,000  ton  of  ship- 
ping  cleared    annually. 

"At  the  bottom  of  the  bay  is  a  noble  pier  1,800 
or  2,000  foot  long,  with  a  row  of  warehouses  on  the 
north  side  for  the  use  of  merchants.  The  pier  runs  so 
far  into  the  bay  that  ships  of  the  greatest  burthen  may 
unlade  without  the  help  of  boats  or  lighters.  From  the 
head  of  the  i)icr  you  go  up  the  chief  street  of  the 
town  [now  State  Street],  at  the  upper  end  of  which 
is  the  town  house  or  Exchange,  a  fine  piece  of  build- 
ing, containing,  besides  the  walk  for  the  merchants, 
the  Council-Chamber,  the  House  of  Commons,  and 
another  spacious  room  for  the  sessions  of  the  courts 
of  justice.  The  Exchange  is  surrounded  by  booksellers' 
shops,  which  have  a  good  trade.  There  are  five  print- 
ing presses  in  Boston,  which  are  generally  full  of 
work,  by  which  it  appears  that  humanity  and  the 
knowledge  of  letters  flourish  more  here  than  in  all 
the  other  English  Plantations  put  together;  for  in  the 
city  of  New  York  there  is  but  one  bookseller's  shop, 
and  in  the  Plantations  of  Virginia,  Maryland,  Carolina, 
Barbadoes,  and  the  Islands,  none  at  all." 

As  in  the  17th  so  in  the  i8th  century,  the 
clergy  and  ecclesiastical  affairs  loomed  large 
upon  the  local  horizon.  The  prominence  in 
Boston  records  of  what  is  known  as  the  "Mather 
dynasty*  —  of  which  Increase  and  his  son,  Cot- 
ton Mather,  were  the  chief  figures  — bears  wit- 
ness to  this  condition.  The  younger  of  these 
Puritan  priests  is  remembered  largely  for  his 
connection  with  the  witchcraft  delusion,  which 
had  its  worst  effects  in  Salem,  but  in  tem- 
poral matters  and  humanitarian  work  he  im- 
pressed himself  no  less  forcibly  on  the  life  of  his 
time.  Of  the  devout  laity,  educated  at  Harvard 
College,  giving  themselves  to  public  service, 
living  private  lives  of  dignity  and  piety,  Samuel 
Sewall,  whose  diary  preserves  the  true  flavor  of 
ancient  Boston,  stands  as  an  admirable  type. 
In  contrast  with  the  background  of  lives  like 
his,  the  society  of  which  royal  governors  were 
the  central  figures  presents  a  less  austere  pic- 
ture. About  the  governors,  established  from 
1716  onward  in  a  sort  of  vice-regal  state  in  the 
Province  House,  gathered  the  more  worldly  ele- 
ment of  the  place  —  prosperous  merchants,  offi- 
cials of  the  Crown,  members  of  the  King's 
Chapel  congregation  and  the  two  other  Anglican 
churches  established  before  the  middle  of  the 
century.  Under  the  Province  charter  religious 
liberty  was  increasing,  and  churches  of  various 
denominations  —  including  even  the  Quakers, 
whose  first  representatives  in  Boston  were  hanged 
on  the  Common  —  had  come  into  being.  Mean- 
while the  constant  friction  between  the  governors 
and  the  General  Court,  always  meeting  in  Bos- 
ton, kept  the  spirit  of  political  independence  wide 
awake.  A  fruitful  source  of  trouble  was  the 
annual  grant  voted  by  the  court  to  the  governor. 
A  salary  the  people  steadily  refused  to  pay  to 
an  oflficial  not  of  their  own  choice ;  and  the 
amount  of  the  grant  varied  according  to  the 
personal  popularity  of  the  chief  magistrate. 
Through  all  these  years,  moreover,  the  town- 
meeting  was  educating  the  people  in  self-rule, 
so  that  when  the  time  was  ripe  for  active  oppo- 
sition from  American  coloni.sts  to  the  colonial 
government  of  England,  the  men  of  Boston 
were  ready  to  take  a  leading  part  in  the 
struggle. 

In  1761  James  Otis,  advocate-general  of  the 
province,  resigned  his  position  under  the  Crown 
in    order    to    contest   the    Writs    of    Assistance, 


which  permitted  customs  officials  tc  enter  any 
hoiise,  search  for  smuggled  goods,  ;  vd  on  sus- 
picion seize  what  they  might  find.  The  argu- 
ment against  these  writs  was  the  first  of  many 
conspicuous  acts  of  resistance  to  royal  authority. 
In  1765  the  Stamp  Act,  taxing  many  articles 
of  daily  use  in  the  colonies,  was  passed  by 
Parliament.  Its  principle  was  bitterly  resented 
in  Boston,  where  riotous  outbreaks  soon  took 
place^  A  mob  completely  destroyed  the  house 
of  Thomas  Hutchinson,  chief  justice  of  the 
Province,  and  was  properly  denounced  by  re- 
spectable citizens.  In  the  next  year  the  repeal 
of  the  act  was  joyfully  celebrated  by  all  classes. 
In  1770  occurred  the  "Boston  Massacre'*  (q.v.), 
the  result  of  friction  between  the  inhabitants  and 
the  British  troops  stationed  in  the  town.  In  the 
use  of  "a  word  which  historians  apply  to  such 
events  as  Cawnpore  or  the  Sicilian  Vespers'* 
—  the  word  "massacre'*  to  describe  "the  careless 
shooting  of  half  a  dozen  townsmen"  —  John 
Fiske  finds  "all  the  mildness  of  New  England 
civilization  brought  m.ost  strikingly  before  us.'* 
The  town-meeting  was  even  more  typical  of 
this  civilization,  and  from  its  training  Samuel 
Adams,  at  about  this  time,  stepped  into  virtual 
leadership  of  the  revolutionary  cause  in  Bos- 
ton. The  Committee  of  Correspondence  was 
formed  upon  his  motion,  and  out  of  it  grew  by 
degrees  the  union  not  only  of  towns,  but  of 
colonies,  in  their  opposition  to  the  throne.  On 
16  Dec.  1773,  occurred  the  "Tea  Party,'*  a  clev- 
erly planned  and  executed  plot  for  throwing  into 
Boston  harbor,  by  men  disguised  as  Mohawk 
Indians,  the  cargoes  of  three  vessels  bearing  tea 
upon  which  the  people  of  Boston  would  not  pay 
the  hated  tax.  Parliament  retaliated  by  passing 
the  Boston  Port  Bill,  which  closed  the  harbor 
and  brought  the  chief  industry  of  the  town, 
its  maritime  trade,  to  a  standstill.  A  military 
governor.  Gen.  Gage,  took  the  place  of  Hutchin- 
son, who  had  been  acting  as  the  chief  civil  mag- 
istrate, and  open  hostilities   were  at  hand. 

The  events  of  ig  April  1775  —  the  warning 
ride  of  Paul  Revere,  the  escape  of  John  Han- 
cock and  Samuel  Adams,  the  fights  at  Concord, 
Lexington,  and  along  the  road  between  the  two 
towns  —  are  the  commonplaces  of  American  his- 
tory. They  belong  to  Boston  in  so  far  as  the 
Boston  revolutionary  leaders  were  concerned  in 
them,  and  as  the  British  troops  set  forth  from 
the  town  and  returned  to  it  defeated.  The  battle 
of  Bunker  Hill  in  Charlcstown,  17  June  1775, 
bears  much  the  same  relation  to  Boston  history. 
On  3  July  Washington  arrived  in  Cambridge 
and  took  command  of  the  American  army,  which 
from  that  time  until  the  following  March  kept 
the  British  closely  within  the  lines  of  the  siege 
of  Boston.  Many  of  the  inhabitants  were  per- 
mitted early  to  depart.  Those  who  remained 
suffered  hardships  and  privations,  besides  wit- 
nessing the  destruction  of  much  American  prop- 
erty, and  such  scenes  of  desecration  as  the  use 
of  the  Old  South  meeting-house  as  a  riding- 
school.  On  the  night  of  4  March  1776  Wash- 
ington made  his  memorable  seizure  of  Dorches- 
ter Heights  (now  South  Boston),  and  on  the 
17th  Howe  with  all  his  army  and  a  large  fol- 
lowing of  American  Tories  sailed  for  Halifax. 
Thereupon  Washington  entered  the  city,  and 
even  before  the  signing  of  the  Declaration  of 
Independence  Boston  ceased  to  be  a  scene  of 
active  warfare  in  the  long  conflict.  Yet  John 
Adams,   Hancock,  and  other   Boston  men  bore 


BOSTON 


an  important  part  in  the  counsels  of  the  young 
nation',  in  whose  army  and  navy  the  town  was 
fully  represented. 

The  recovery  from  the  effects  of  the  siege 
was  slow.  To  take  the  place  of  the  departed 
Tories,  and  to  occupy  their  spacious  houses, 
there  was  in  the  remaining  years  of  the  i8th 
century  a  gradual  immigration  from  the  neigh- 
boring country  (where  Tories  were  few)  of 
families  possessing  wealth,  energy,  and  qualities 
of  leadership.  Local  government  by  town-meet- 
ing was  resumed.  In  1780  a  State  government 
for  Massachusetts  was  formed,  and  John  Han- 
cock was  chosen  the  first  governor.  In  the  gen- 
eral readjustment  maritime  affairs  took  their 
previous  place  of  importance.  Cut  off  by  Brit- 
ish legislation  from  the  West  India  trade,  the 
Boston  merchants  looked  farther  abroad.  The 
prospects  of  the  fur  trade  on  the  northwest  coast 
of  America  became  known  through  Capt.  Cook's 
journals,  published  in  1784.  In  1787  two  small 
vessels,  the  Columbia  and  the  Washington,  sailed 
from  Boston  to  attempt  this  trade.  Before  her 
return  in  1790  the  Columbia  had  circumnavi- 
gated the  globe  —  first  of  American  vessels  to 
accomplish  this  feat.  The  furs  collected  in  the 
Northwest  had  been  sold  in  China,  and  the 
example  thus  set  led  the  way  to  an  important 
trade  with  the  East  in  which  Boston  long 
maintained  the  American  supremacy.  In  such 
a  seaport  as  Boston,  Jefferson's  Embargo  and 
the  War  of  1812  were  naturally  unpopular.  The 
Federalist  party,  moreover,  had  much  of  its  best 
strength  in  Boston.  The  powerful  mercantile 
class  saw  its  best  interests  in  a  strongly  cen- 
tralized government  and  conditions  of  general 
stability.  The  opinions  of  this  class  colored  the 
influential  feeling  of  the  community  to  an  ex- 
tent which  laid  Boston  open  to  charges  of 
something  very  near  disloyalty  to  the  national 
government.  The  crippling  of  commerce,  how- 
ever, had  the  good  effect  of  turning  capital  and 
energy  toward  manufacturing.  In  1814  Francis 
C.  Lowell,  of  Boston,  made  the  first  American 
use  of  the  power-loom  in  his  mill  at  Waltham 
at  almost  the  same  time  with  its  introduction 
into  England.  The  growth  of  the  great  cotton 
industry  at  Lowell  followed  rapidly  upon  this 
invention.  With  the  spread  of  manufactures 
Boston  itself  was  growing.  In  1820  its  popula- 
tion was  over  43,000.  The  old  form  of  town 
government  had  become  unwieldy.  For  some 
years  efforts  had  been  making  toward  the  adop- 
tion of  a  city  charter.  In  1822  this  was  finally 
achieved. 

From  the  time  of  this  change  in  local  gov- 
ernment to  the  present,  the  outward  growth  of 
the  city,  as  figures  can  speak  for  it,  has  been 
unbroken.  In  matters  not  computed  in  this  way, 
che  development  has  been  in  several  important 
respects  unique.  With  Boston,  for  example,  the 
Unitarian  movement  in  America  is  especially 
associated.  Before  the  town  became  a  city  there 
were  divisions  among  the  clergy  of  Congrega- 
tionalism —  practically  the  established  order  in 
New  England  —  on  various  doctrinal  points,  no- 
tably that  of  the  Trinity  Under  the  leadership 
of  'William  Ellery  Channing  the  ^'liberaP'  clergy 
and  most  of  the  older  and  more  influential  reli- 
gious societies  turned  from  Calvinism  to  the 
■new  theology.  Especially  between  1820  and  1830, 
an  acute  controversy  took  place.  Between  1840 
and  1850  the  Unitarian  body  itself  was  disturbed 
by   differences    between    the    more   conservative 


element  and  the  radicals,  of  whom  Theodore 
Parker  was  a  type.  The  result  of  the  succes- 
sive controversies  has  been  a  liberalizing  of 
religious  beliefs  not  only  in  what  came  to  be 
Unitarian  Boston,  but  in  the  many  Protestant 
bodies  which  now  acknowledge  an  important 
debt  to  Unitarianism.  Another  far-reaching 
movement  which  had  its  headquarters  in  Boston 
was  that  of  anti-slavery.  Here  in  183 1  William 
Lloyd  Garrison  established  his  journal,  the  Lib- 
erator. A  year  later  the  first  anti-slavery  soci- 
ety in  America  was  established  in  Boston.  The 
agitation  of  the  Abolitionists  was  for  a  long 
time  opposed  by  the  conservative  class,  which 
resorted  even  to  mob  violence  in  the  hope  of 
suppressing  the  reformers.  But  to  Garrison  and 
his  associates  it  was  due,  as  Mr.  J.  F.  Rhodes 
has  said,  "that  slavery  became  a  topic  of  dis- 
cussion at  every  northern  fireside.'^  When  the 
Civil  War  broke  out,  the  cause  of  the  union, 
perhaps  even  more  than  that  of  abolition,  en- 
listed the  enthusiastic  support  of  the  Boston 
community ;  yet,  as  if  in  fulfilment  of  the  work 
which  Garrison  began,  it  was  from  Boston  that 
Gov.  Andrew  sent  forth  the  first  regiment  of 
colored  troops  raised  in  the  North. 

With  Boston  and  its  immediate  vicinity, 
moreover,  are  associated  the  names  which  stand 
for  the  most  important  contribution  of  the  19th 
century  to  American  literature.  Prescott,  Tick- 
nor,  Bancroft,  Motley,  and  Parkman;  Emerson, 
Hawthorne,  Lowell,  Longfellow,  Holmes,  and 
Whittier, —  these  and  their  associates,  bound 
together  by  many  ties  of  sympathy  and  friend- 
ship, constituted  a  group  of  writers  which  gave 
the  place  a  unique  distinction  in  letters.  The 
^Atlantic  Monthly,^  founded  in  1857,  became  the 
vehicle  for  much  of  their  most  characteristic 
utterance.  The  influences  of  Transcendentalism 
(largely  a  local  movement,  culminating  in  the 
forties),  of  anti-slavery  feeling,  of  creative  ex- 
pression, combined  to  give  to  this  utterance  as 
a  whole  something  of  the  distinction  which  the 
individual  writers  won  each  for  himself. 

During  the  19th  century  two  important 
changes  in  the  Boston  landscape  affected  the 
future  of  the  city,  in  the  regions  both  of  resi- 
dence and  of  business.  The  first  of  these  was 
the  filling  in  of  the  Back  Bay,  an  arm  of  the 
Charles  River  which  spread  between  the  Com- 
mon and  the  hills  of  Brookline,  running  south 
and  east  as  far  as  the  Neck  or  narrow  strip  of 
land  connecting  Boston  and  Roxbury.  From 
the  early  years  of  the  century  changes  in  the 
shore  line  of  Boston  had  been  wrought  by  cut- 
ting down  the  principal  hills  and  filling  out  the 
irregularities  of  the  harbor  front.  The  first 
step  in  the  series  of  events  which  led  to  the 
conversion  of  the  Back  Bay  from  water  into 
land  was  the  granting  of  a  charter  in  1814 
to  the  Roxbury  Mill  Corporation,  permitting  the 
building  of  dams  across  the  Back  Bay  and  con- 
fining its  water  for  mill  purposes.  To  these 
rights  the  Boston  Water  Power  Company  sue- 
ceeded  in  1832.  At  about  the  same  time  the 
Boston  &  Providence  and  Boston  and  Worcester 
railroads  invaded  the  Back  Bay  with  their 
bridges.  Moreover  the  waters  became  unsani- 
tary through  drainage,  and  to  solve  the  entire 
problem,  hygienic  and  legal,  a  State  commission 
was  appointed,  and  made  a  full  report  in  1852. 
Its  recommendations  to  create  the  whole  tract 
of  land  now  known  as  the  Back  Bay  did  not  at 
once    satisfy    the    various    conflicting    interests, 


ajPLEY  S()UARE,   BOSTON. 


MUSEUM  OF  FINE  ARTS.  BOSTON. 


BOSTON 


but  in  1858  the  actual  work  of  filling  up  the 
waters  was  begun.  The  result  was  a  large  en- 
richment of  the  State  treasury,  and  the  addition 
to  the  city  of  the  whole  district  occupied  by  the 
residences,  clubs,  churches,  hotels,  and  other 
institutions  connected  with  the  most  prosperous 
life  of  the  city.  The  original  peninsula  of  Bos- 
ton contained  783  acres.  Through  its  encroach- 
ments upon  water,  largely  in  the  Back  Bay,  it 
has  grown  to  1,829  acres.  With  the  accessions 
of  outlying  districts,  the  total  area  of  the  city 
is  now  23,707  acres. 

The  second  great  change  in  the  outward  as- 
pect of  Boston  resulted  from  the  great  fire  of 
9  and  10  Nov.  1872.  From  the  beginning  of  its 
history  Boston  had  been  afflicted  by  serious  fires. 
This  greatest  of  them  all  destroyed  776  build- 
ings, all  but  67  of  which  were  of  brick  and 
stone.  It  devastated  Summer  Street  (both 
sides),  Washington  Street  from  Summer  to 
Milk,  Milk  Street  to  the  post-office,  Devonshire 
Street,  Water  (both  sides).  Congress,  Lindall 
and  Oliver  streets  to  the  harbor.  From  the 
corner  of  Washington  and  Franklin -streets  the 
shipping  at  the  wharves  was  in  clear  view. 
Nearly  2,000,000  feet  of  land  were  burned  over. 
The  total  loss  was  estimated  at  more  than 
$75,000,000.  Yet  by  private  enterprise  and  State 
aid  the  recovery  was  immediate.  The  oppor- 
tunity to  widen  and  straighten  streets  in  the 
business  district  was  seized.  Statelier  buildings 
rose  in  the  place  of  those  destroyed,  and  a  new 
business  region,  corresponding  to  the  new  dis- 
trict of  residences,  was  created. 

The  census  of  1900  gave  the  population 
of  Boston  as  560,192.  The  metropolitan  dis- 
trict, including  the  38  cities  and  towns  of 
which  Boston  is  the  centre,  has  by  the  same 
census  a  population  of  1.162,197.  The  territory 
within  50  miles  of  Boston  has  2,849,686  inhabi- 
tants—  a  population  second  in  America  only  to 
that  in  the  corresponding  area  about  New  York. 
The  assessed  valuation  of  all  taxable  property  in 
Boston  itself  is  $1,191,308,100  —  a  figure  sur- 
passed in  the  United  States  only  by  the  cor- 
responding figures  for  New  York  and  Philadel- 
phia. 

The  city  government  is  conducted  by  a 
mayor,  elected  for  two  years,  salary  $10,000; 
a  board  of  13  aldermen,  elected  annually;  and  a 
common  council  of  75  members,  three  for  each 
ward,  elected  annually.  The  fire  department  is 
controlled  by  one  commissioner,  the  police  and 
health  departments  by  three  each.  The  school 
committee  consists  of  24  members,  of  whom  8 
are  elected  anrtnally  for  a  term  of  three  years. 
In  the  807  public  schools  under  their  charge 
there  were,  according  to  the  <  Boston  Municipal 
Register  for  1902,^  i,939  teachers  and  84,778 
pupils. 

The  park  system  of  Boston  is  under  the  Joint 
control  of  the  Metropolitan  Park  Commission 
(appointed  by  the  governor  of  Massachusetts) 
and  the  Board  of  Park  Commissioners 
( appointed  by  the  mayor  of  Boston  ) .  These  com- 
missioners serve  without  pay.  In  theMetropolitan 
system  are  included  the  Blue  Hills  Reserva- 
tion (4.232  acres),  the  Middlesex  Fells  and 
Mystic  Lakes  (3,002  acres)  and  smaller  reser- 
vations, including  66  acres  at  Revere  Beach, 
where  the  State  bath-house  of  1,000  rooms 
provides  the  best  facilities  for  sea-bathing.  To 
the  Board  of  Park  Commissioners  falls  the 
n^anagement  of  the  Marine  Park  at  South  Bos- 


ton, Franklin  Park  at  West  Roxbury,  Arnold 
Arboretum  at  Forest  Hills,  boulevards,  fens, 
playgrounds,  and  open-air  gymnasia.  The 
Common  (48%  acres)  and  the  adjoining  Public 
Garden  (2454  acres),  both  in  the  heart  of  the 
city,  are  in  charge  of  the  Public  Ground  Depart- 
ment of  the  city  of  Boston.  The  State  com- 
mission acts  in  consultation  with  local  boards, 
including  that  of  Boston,  and  serves  the  people 
of  12  cities  and  25  towns  within  a  radius  of  25 
miles  from  the  State  House.  The  general  park 
system  thus  provided  is  remarkable  for  its 
beauty,  accessibility,  and  actual  benefit  to  the 
community.  The  work  of  the  city  bath  depart- 
ment is  a  characteristic  example  of  municipal 
service  to  the  people.  The  five  trustees  of  this 
department  maintain  seven  beach  baths,  one 
river  bath,  two  swimming-pools,  nine  floating 
baths,  five  gymnasia,  and  the  Dover  Street  bath- 
house, a  model  building  with  free  baths  for  men 
and  w^omen  throughout  the  year.  Metropolitan 
commissions  of  water  and  sewerage  correspond- 
ing to  the  Park  Commission,  serve  the  city  and 
surrounding  towns.  The  water-supply  is  drawn 
from  lakes  and  rivers  in  eastern  Massachusetts, 
—  the  Sudbury  River,  Mystic  Lake,  Lake 
Cochituate,  and  watersheds  of  wide  area.  A 
city  water  department  does  its  separate  work  in 
connection  with  the  Metropolitan  Commission. 

The  churches  of  Boston,  according  to  the 
'City  Directory*  of  1902,  are  309  in  number. 
Of  these  50  are  Roman  Catholic  (including  Pol- 
ish. German,  Italian,  French,  Portuguese,  and 
Syrian  parishes),  38  are  Baptist,  37  Congrega- 
tional-Trinitarian, 34  Methodist-Episcopal,  32 
Protestant  Episcopal,  25  Congregational-Uni- 
tarian, 13  Lutheran,  and  10  Universalist,  with 
others  in  smaller  numbers.  The  First  Church  of 
Christ  (Scientist)  is  the  "mother  church'*  of 
"Christian  Science**  throughout  the  country  and 
the  world.  Charitable  organizations,  both  muni- 
cipal and  private,  abound,  and  enlist  the  unpaid 
services  of  a  large  class  in  the  community.  An 
admirable  organization  of  Associated  Charities 
gives  direction  to  the  proper  sources  or  seeks 
to  obtain  therefrom  for  the  sick  and  needy 
adequate  and  suitable  relief.  The  principal 
hospitals  are  the  Boston  City  Hospital,  a  city 
institution,  the  Massachusetts  General,  supported 
by  private  endowment,  the  Carney,  in  charge  of 
Roman  Catholic  Sisters  of  Charity,  and  the 
Massachusetts  Homoeopathic.  These  are  open 
to  persons  of  all  races  and  creeds.  In  the  Mass- 
achusetts General  Hospital  in  1846  the  properties 
of  ether  as  an  anjesthetic  were  first  demon- 
strated. From  the  discovery  then  made  the  pro- 
gress of  modern  surgery  took  its  first  great  step. 
There  are.  besides  the  institutions  mentioned, 
many  smaller  hospitals  for  special  classes,  chil- 
dren, women,  etc.  The  provisions  for  industrial 
training  and  the  education  of  defectives  are 
ample.  The  Perkins  Institution  and  Massachu- 
setts School  for  the  Blind  (incorporated  1829) 
typifies  the  good  work  they  have  done  and  are 
doing.  Here  Dr.  Samuel  G.  Howe  did  his 
memorable  pioneer  work  in  the  case  of  Laura 
Bridgman. 

As  a  centre  of  higher  education  in  many 
branches  Boston  attracts  and  maintains  a  large 
population  of  students.  The  Public  Library, 
housed  in  one  of  the  most  beautiful  buildings  in 
the  country,  and  distributing  its  more  than 
800,000  volumes  through  10  branch  libraries  and 
21  delivery  stations  throughout  the  city,  puts  the 


BOSTON    CASE  — BOSTON    MASSACRE 


materials  of  scholarship  within  the  reach  of  all. 
Harvard  University  is  close  at  hand.  Its  Medi- 
cal School  is  in  Boston  itself.  Here  also  are 
the  Massachusetts  Institute  of  Technology,  Bos- 
ton University,  the  Boston  Museum  of  Fine 
Arts,  with  its  School  of  Drawing  and  Painting, 
and  the  New  England  Conservatory  of  ]\Iusic, 
supplemented  by  the  concerts  of  the  Boston 
Symphony  Orchestra.  The  courses  of  free  lec- 
tures provided  by  the  Lowell  Institute,  estab- 
lished in  1838,  with  an  original  endowment  of 
$237,000,  have  made  a  constant  contribution  to 
the  cause  of  general  education.  If  the  sugges- 
tion to  co-ordinate  these  and  the  many  other 
educational  institutions  of  Boston  into  a  general 
university  is  ever  carried  out,  the  place  may 
well  become  one  of  the  foremost  centres  of 
organized   learning   in  the  world. 

In  1894  the  Union  Station  at  the  North  End 
of  the  city  brought  together  the  terminal  facili- 
ties of  all  the  railroads  connecting  Boston  with 
northern  New  England,  with  Canada,  and, 
through  Fitchburg,  with  the  West.  On  i  Jan. 
1899  the  first  train  entered  the  South  Station, 
the  largest  railway  terminal  in  the  world.  Here 
the  railroads  connecting  Boston  with  southern 
New  England,  New  York,  the  South,  and  the 
West,  by  way  of  Albany,  meet  under  one  roof. 
The  North  and  South  Stations  are  connected 
both  by  surface  and  by  elevated  electric  cars  — 
a  part  of  the  system  of  the  Boston  Elevated 
Railway.  This  company  has  succeeded  to  the 
rights  of  the  several  street  railways  formerly 
holding  franchises,  and  by  surface  cars,  elevated 
lines,  and  subw^ays,  upon  which  the  underground 
systems  of  other  cities  have  been  modeled,  gives 
the  city,  with  the  attractive  and  accessible  sub- 
urbs for  which  Boston  has  always  been  noted, 
a  rapid-transit  service  of  unusual  comfort  and 
effectiveness.  The  subway  system  will  be  still 
further  extended,  first  of  all  by  the  completion 
of  the  tunnel  now  building  under  the  harbor 
to  connect  Boston  and  East  Boston. 

In  the  Rivers  and  Harbors  Bill  passed  by  the 
United  States  Congress  in  June  1902  an  appro- 
priation of  $3,600,000  was  made  for  the  improve- 
ment of  Boston  Harbor.  Its  expenditure  in 
making  a  broader  and  deeper  channel  from 
Charlestown  and  Chelsea  bridges  to  the  sea 
is  expected  to  forward  the  progress  made  in 
recent  years  by  Boston  as  a  seaport.  Its  ample 
harbor,  well  protected  from  the  sea  bj^  islands, 
has  always  played  an  important  part  in  the  life 
of  Boston.  In  foreign  commerce  for  the  gov- 
ernment fiscal  year  ending  30  June  1902,  Boston 
stood  second  in  the  United  States  only  to  New 
York,  with  imports  and  exports  valued  at 
$172,325,740.  For  peculiar  temporary  causes  this 
was  smaller  by  more  than  $40,000,000  than  the 
volume  of  trade  for  the  year  before.  Fourteen 
transatlantic  steamship  lines  run  from  Boston. 
The  coastwise  commerce  of  the  port  is  valued, 
in  merchandise,  in  sums  ranging  annually  be- 
tween $85,000,000  and  $131,000,000.  As  a  wool 
market  Boston  stands  second  in  the  world  only 
to  London.  In  the  single  week  of  1901,  in 
which  Boston  made  its  greatest  record  in  the 
sales  of  wool,  it  sold  more  than  the  total  clip 
of  any  State  in  the  Union,  excepting  Montana 
and  Idaho,  for  that  year.  In  the  business  of 
shoes,  leather,  and  hides,  Boston  is  the  chief 
distributing  centre  of  the  United  States.  The 
trade  in  salt  and  fresh  fish  — as  befits  the 
capital  of  the  State  with  a  cod  for  its  emblem  — 


is  larger  than  in  any  other  city  of  the  country. 
The  cotton  industry  of  Massachusetts  looks  to 
Boston  for  much  of  its  capital  and  control.  Mis- 
cellaneous trades  and  manufactures,  added  to 
the  branches  of  business  enumerated,  give  Bos- 
ton a  high  place  among  the  commercial  and  in- 
dustrial  cities  of  the  country. 

In  the  growth  from  an  ancient  to  a  modern 
city  many  historic  buildings  have  inevitably 
disappeared.  But  Boston  is  fortunate  in  a  few 
of  those  that  remain.  Chief  among  these  are 
Christ  Church  (1723),  the  Old  South  Meeting- 
house (1729),  Faneuil  Hall  (1742,  enlarged  in 
1806),  the  Old  State  House  (1748),  King's 
Chapel  (1749,  built  around  the  previous  wooden 
church  erected  in  1688),  the  front  portion  of  the 
present  State  House  (i795~8),  and  Park  Street 
Church   (1809). 

'The  Memorial  History  of  Boston^  (Boston 
1881)  in  four  volumes,  edited  by  Justin  Winsor, 
completely  covers  the  local  history  from  1630 
to  1880.  Its  chapters  are  written  by  persons 
with  special  knowledge  of  the  themes  assigned 
them.  'Boston,'  by  Henry  Cabot  Lodge  in 
the  series  of  "Historic  Towns'^  (New  York 
1892)   is  an  excellent  shorter  history. 

M.  A.   DeWolfe  Howe, 
Author  of  ^Boston:  The  Place  and  the  People.^ 

Boston  Case,  in  the  history  of  slavery,  a 
case  where  a  Georgia  slave  hid  or  was  hidden 
on  the  ship  Boston  returning  from  Georgia 
to  Maine,  and  on  arrival  escaped  to  Canada. 
The  governor  of  Georgia  issued  a  requisition 
to  the  governor  of  Maine  for  the  surrender  of 
the  captain  to  the  Georgia  authorities,  as  a 
slave-stealer  and  fugitive  from  justice;  and  on 
his  refusal,  the  Georgia  legislature  demanded 
that  Congress  pass  a  law  obligating  the  governor 
of  Maine  and  all  others  in  similar  cases  to  com- 
ply with  the  requisitions.  The  resolution  was 
warmly  advocated  by  the  Georgia  senators,  re- 
ferred to  the  judiciary  committee,  and  never 
reported  on.  In  his  next  message,  the  governor 
of  Georgia  recommended  that  "all  citizens  of 
Maine  who  should  thereafter  come  within  the 
jurisdiction  of  Georgia  on  vessels,  either  as 
owners,  officers,  or  mariners,  should  be  con- 
sidered to  have  done  so  with  intent  to  commit 
the  crime  of  seducing  negro  slaves  from  their 
owners,  and  be  dealt  with  accordingly  by  the 
officers   of  justice.'^ 

Boston  College,  an  educational  institution 
in  Boston,  Mass.;  founded  in  1864;  under  the 
auspices  of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church.  Pro- 
fessors and  instructors,  20 ;  students  in  all  de- 
partments, 477;  scholarships,  15;  volumes  in 
the  library,  34.109 ;  value  of  grounds  and  build- 
ings, $537,000;  income,  $17,000;  and  benefac- 
tions, $3,000.  The  course  is  four  years  leading 
to  the  usual  academic  degrees. 

Boston  Massacre,  a  riot  in  Boston,  5 
March  1770,  provoked  by  the  presence  of  the 
British  regiments  quartered  there  since  i  Oct, 
1768.  On  Friday  the  2d,  some  ropemakers 
started  a  war  of  insults  with  passing  soldiers, 
and  on  being  challenged  to  a  boxing  match,  used 
sticks  instead, .  to  which  the  soldiers  retorted 
with  cutlasses;  several  persons  were  hurt  when 
the  fray  was  stopped  by  outsiders,  but  it  was 
reported  that  it  would  be  resumed  Monday. 
Early  Monday  evening  the  soldiers  passing  to 
their  posts  from  the  main  guard,  at  the  head  of 
King    (State)     Street,    were    met    by   a    crowd 


BOSTON  MOUNTAINS  — BOSTON  PORT  BILL 


armed  with  canes  and  sticks,  who  refused  to 
make  way,  and  shouted  insults;  the  soldiers 
were  about  to  force  a  passage  when  an  officer 
came  up  and  ordered  them  into  the  yard ;  but 
the  alarm-bell  had  called  out  the  citizens,  the 
hot-heads  wished  to  assault  the  main  guard, 
and  apparently  they  and  the  boys  set  to  harrying 
the  sentinel  in  front  of  the  custom-house  oppo- 
site the  main  guard,  who  about  9  o'clock  hit 
a  specially  annoying  boy  with  the  butt  of  his 
musket.  The  boy  ran  off  and  brought  a  crowd 
to  the  spot,  headed  by  one  Crispus  Attucks 
(q.v.,  apparently  a  half-breed  Indian),  and 
pointed  out  the  sentinel,  at  which  they  shouted 
*'Kill  him!  Knock  him  down!'^  The  sentinel 
retreated  up  the  steps  and  loaded  his  gun  amid 
a  shower  of  snowballs  and  other  missiles ;  told 
Henry  Knox  who  was  passing,  and  counseled 
him  not  to  fire ;  that  he  would  if  they  touched 
him ;  leveled  the  gun  and  warned  off  the  crowd, 
and  called  for  help  from  the  main  guard  across 
the  street.  A  sergeant  and  seven  men  were  sent 
to  his  help,  and  he  came  down  and  took  his 
place  in  line;  soon  afterward  Col.  Thomas 
Preston  joined  them,  making  10  in  arms.  They 
loaded;  the  crowd  jeered,  hooted,  taunted  them 
as  cowards,  dared  them  to  fire,  and  closed  about 
them ;  the  soldiers  drove  them  back  with  clubs 
and  bayonets ;  Preston,  in  turn  warned  by 
Knox,  rushed  among  his  men,  and  either  with 
or  without  his  orders  they  fired,  killing  Attucks 
and  two  others  and  mortally  wounding  two 
more.  The  crowd  fell  back,  and  Preston  pre- 
vented the  men  firing  again  and  rejoined  the 
main  guard.  The  drums  beat  to  arms,  and  the 
vicinity  was  soon  thronged  with  divisions  of 
soldiers  and  masses  of  enraged  citizens.  Lieut.- 
Gov.  Hutchinson  quieted  the  tempest  by  having 
Preston  bound  over  for  trial,  placing  the  im- 
plicated soldiers  under  arrest,  and  inducing  the 
officers  to  order  the  companies  back  to  barracks ; 
but  the  next  day  a  town-meeting  forced  Hutch- 
inson to  have  the  regiments  removed  to  the 
Castle  in  the  harbor.  Preston  was  tried  in  Oc- 
tober and  the  soldiers  in  November  before  the 
Superior  Court,  and  defended  by  Robert  Auch- 
muty,  assisted  by  John  Adams  and  Josiah 
Quincy,  who  took  their  futures  in  their  hands 
from  professional  duty ;  Preston  was  acquitted, 
six  soldiers  were  brought  in  not  guilty,  and  two 
found  guilty  of  manslaughter,  branded  in  the 
hand,  and  discharged. 

Boston.  Mountains,  a  range  in  western 
Arkansas,  extending  into  the  Indian  Territory; 
highest  summits,  3,000  feet  above  the  sea. 

Boston  News  Letter,  1704-76;  the  first 
real  newspaper  issued  in  America.  A  periodical 
called  'Publick  Occurrences,^  to  be  issued 
monthly,  or  oftener  if  ^^a  glut  of  occurrences^' 
made  it  advisable,  had  been  essayed  in  Boston  by 
Richard  Pierce,  25  Sept.  1690;  but  it  was  in- 
stantly suppressed  by  the  authorities  as  contain- 
ing "reflections  of  a  very  high  nature,''  and 
the  first  number  was  the  last.  The  next  venture 
was  by  John  Campbell  (q.v.),  a  Scotch  book- 
seller and  postmaster  of  Boston,  who  had  been 
actively  writing  and  sending  "news  letters*  of 
European  occurrences  to  New  England  gover- 
nors for  a  year  or  more,  and  thought  it  would 
save  trouble  to  print  them  for  all.  With  official 
permission  he  issued  on  24  April  1704  the 
first  number  of  a  weekly  consisting  of  a  single 
leaf,   8  x  12,    printed   on   both    sides,   and   dated 


"From  Monday  April  17.  to  Monday  April  24. 
1704."  It  was  printed  by  Bartholomew  Green, 
for  many  years  one  of  the  best  printers  of 
Boston,  who  in  1722  became  its  editor.  Dying 
in  1732,  he  was  succeeded  by  his  son-in-law, 
John  Draper,  who  conducted  it  till  his  death  in 
1762,  and  made  it  a  representative  of  the  best 
interests  of  the  province;  he  was  a  journalist  of 
the  highest  character.  His  son  Richard  Draper, 
considered  the  best  news  compiler  of  his  day, 
though  in  feeble  health,  edited  the  paper  till 
his  death  in  1774,  when  his  widow  succeeded 
him  and  carried  it  to  the  end.  Draper  had 
been  an  ardent  loyalist,  and  firmly  supported 
the  mother  country  in  the  stormy  times  of  the 
previous  decade ;  his  widow  naturally  shared 
his  feeling,  and  when  the  young  man  Robert 
Boyle  whom  she  installed  as  editor  showed 
sympathy  with  the  Revolution,  she  replaced  him 
by  John  Howe,  who  conducted  it  till  the  British 
evacuated  Boston,  17  March  1776,  when  he 
and  Mrs.  Draper  left  with  them  and  the  paper 
ceased  to  exist.  The  British  government  gave 
her  a  life  pension.  There  are  only  three  copies 
of  the  first  number  extant:  in  the  Massachusetts 
Historical  Society  at  Boston,  the  American 
Antiquarian  Society  at  Worcester,  Mass.,  and 
the  New  York  Historical  Society  at  New  York. 
A  facsimile  of  the  first  page  is  given  in  the 
^Memorial  History  of  Boston,'  Vol.  II.,  page 
389.  See  Newspapers,  American. 

Boston  Port  Bill,  of  31  March  1774, 
was  Great  Britain's  retort  to  the  destruction  of 
the  tea  in  Boston  harbor,  16  Dec.  1773.  (See 
Boston  Tea  P.\rty.)  The  maintenance  of  Eng- 
lish authority  by  force,  or  abdication  in  favor 
of  a  party  which  would  maintain  it,  were  the 
only  alternatives  left  to  the  government.  The 
King's  Speech  of  7  March  1774  charged  the 
colonists  with  attempting  to  injure  British 
commerce  and  subvert  the  constitution  ;  and  on 
the  i8th  Lord  North  brought  in  the  Port  Bill, 
providing  that  there  should  be  no  further  "land 
ing  or  discharging,  lading  or  shipping  of  goods, 
wares,  and  merchandise  at  the  town  and  within 
the  harbor  of  Boston"  till  the  town  paid  for  the 
tea  and  promised  submission  to  the  laws ;  that 
the  colony's  seat  of  government  should  be  re- 
moved to  Salem,  and  Marblehead  made  a 
port  of  entry ;  the  act  to  take  effect  i 
June.  Even  some  of  the  best  friends  of 
America  in  Parliament  at  first  approved  it  as 
moderate  and  reasonable,  as  the  town  could  end 
the  punishment  at  any  moment  by  paying  for 
legitimate  merchandise  destroyed  by  riot,  and 
allowing  law  and  order  to  have  their  course; 
but  the  Whig  opposition  soon  collected  itself, 
and  the  bill  was  fought  in  its  various  stages 
by  Burke,  Barre,  Pownall,  and  others.  In 
spite  of  them  it  became  a  law  31  March,  without 
a  division  in  the  Commons,  and  by  unanimous 
vote  in  the  Lords.  The  fleet  and  army  were  of 
course  to  join  in  enforcing  the  blockade;  Boston 
was  filled  with  troops,  and  Gage  made  com- 
mander-in-chief. The  immediate  results  were: 
a  flood  of  contributions  from  the  other  New 
England  towns,  of  grain  and  provisions,  so 
great  that  the  Boston  leaders  boasted  that  it 
would  become  the  chief  grain  port  of  America  if 
the  act  were  not  repealed;  and.  in  connection 
with  the  regulating  acts  for  changing  the  gov- 
ernment of  the  province  passed  soon  after,  a 
speedy  union  of  the  colonies  for  joint  defense. 


BOSTON  SYMPHONY  ORCHESTRA —  BOSTON  TERRIER 


Boston  Symphony  Orchestra,  a  large 
orchestra  organized  in  Boston  in  1881,  having 
abc  at  80  members  in  1903.  It  gives  a  series 
of  concerts  in  Boston  annually,  and  in  1900 
ina  igurated  a  series  of  Wednesday  afternoon 
cor  certs  in  New  York.  Daily  rehearsals  are 
th(.  rule  throughout  the  season,  and  the  orches- 
tra plays  only  at  concert  performances.  The 
c(  nductors  are  now  appointed  for  five  years ; 
the  conductor  in  1903  was  William  Gericke; 
ithers  who  have  held  the  position  are,  George 
Henschel,  the  first,  Arthur  Nikisch,  and  Emil 
Paur. 

Boston  Tea  Party,  16  Dec.  1773.  Till 
shortly  before  the  Revolution,  imported  teas 
paid  a  shilling  a  pound  duty  at  English  ports ; 
but  the  inerchants  received  a  drawback  of  three 
fifths  on  exports  to  the  colonies,  who  were 
charged  the  remaining  4J4<i.  in  the  selling  price. 
As  they  obtained  it  more  cheaply  by  smuggling 
from  Holland,  there  was  no  English  tea  trade. 
In  1767,  as  part  of  a  series  of  duties  to  raise 
revenue  for  paying  the  colonial  executives  and 
judiciary,  to  make  them  independent  of  popular 
control,  this  duty  was  reduced  to  3d.,  but  to  be 
collected  at  American  ports.  This  was  done 
with  the  threefold  object  of  aiding  the  strait- 
ened East  India  Company  to  market  its  tea ; 
substituting  a  small  collectible  duty  for  a  larger 
uncollectible  one;  and  helping  to  break  up  the 
illicit  free-trade  which  was  the  life  of  the  colo- 
nies. The  political  purposes  made  Americans 
invincibly  hostije  to  it.  Associations  were 
formed  to  abstain  from  the  tea,  merchants  who 
handled  it  lost  custom,  and  the  Dutch  smuggling 
went  on.  In  1770  the  other  new  duties  were 
repealed,  but  that  on  tea  remained.  In  1773 
the  East  India  Company,  with  17,000,000  pounds 
of  unsalable  tea  stored  in  London  warehouses 
because  of  this  non-importation,  and  in  immi- 
nent danger  of  a  failure  most  disastrous  to 
English  financial  and  political  interests,  asked 
Parliament  for  a  colonial  drawback  of  the  en- 
tire shilling,  to  undersell  the  Dutch.  This  was 
granted  10  ]\Iay,  tea  ships  were  sent  to  Boston, 
New  York,  Philadelphia,  and  Charleston,  and 
consignees  or  "tea  commissioners"  appointed  in 
each  place.  But  the  colonies  were  now  resolved 
that  no  taxes,  external  or  internal,  should  be 
paid  except  under  their  own  control,  and  set 
themselves  to  prevent  the  collection  of  the  duty. 
In  the  other  cities  than  Boston  this  was  done 
by  forcing  the  consignees  to  resign,  and  in  New 
York  and  Philadelphia  the  ships  were  sent  back 
without  unloading.  In  Charleston  the  duty  was 
left  unpaid  for  20  days,  when  by  law  the  cus- 
toms officers  seized  it  and  offered  it  for  sale 
to  pay  the  charges,  but  as  no  one  dared  buy  it, 
it  spoiled  unused.  In  Boston  the  tax  was 
defeated  by  the  refusal  of  the  consignees  — 
two  sons  of  Gov.  Hutchinson  and  three  loj^alist 
friends  of  his,  to  resign.  On  Sunday,  28  No- 
vember, the  Dartmouth,  under  Capt.  Hall  and 
owned  by  the  Quaker  Francis  Rotch,  arrived 
with  114  chests  of  tea,  and  was  moored  at 
Griffin's  wharf.  The  committee  of  correspond- 
ence which  really  governed  the  province,  in- 
duced Rotch  to  defer  its  entry  until  Tuesday, 
and  on  Monday  morning  called  a  great  mass 
meeting  at  the  Old  South  Church,  which 
resolved  that  Rotch  would  enter  the  tea  at  his 
peril.  The  captain  was  cautioned  to  let  none 
be  landed,  and  a  watch  of  25  men  was  stationed 
at  the  wharf.     The   consignees,   asked  to   send 


the  tea  back,  replied  that  it  was  not  in  their 
power,  but  they  would  store  it  till  they  could 
hear  from  their  constituents.  Tuesday  after- 
noon, however,  Rotch  and  Hall  agreed  to  return 
it  without  its  touching  land  or  paying  duty ; 
and  the  owners  of  two  other  ships  which  arrived 
shortly  after,  the  Eleanor  and  Beaver,  made 
the  same  promise.  These  ships  were  moored 
at  the  same  wharf,  so  that  one  guard  might 
serve  for  all.  But  by  law  the  ships  could  not 
be  cleared  till  the  cargo  was  discharged,  and 
Hutchinson  refused  to  give  the  owners  permits 
to  pass  the  Castle;  had  the  guns  loaded,  and 
Admiral  Montagu  guarded  the  mouth  of  the 
harbor  with  two  war-ships,  though  curiously 
neither  of  them  put  a  guard  on  the  tea  ships. 
At  midnight  on  the  i6th,  the  Dartmouth's  20 
days  would  expire,  and  the  American  victory 
be  practically  won  by  the  seizure  of  the  tea  for 
unpaid  duty,  since  none  of  it  would  come  on 
the  market.  But  the  object  of  the  Boston 
leaders  was  not  merely  to  prevent  the  English 
exchequer  profiting,  but  to  commit  the  colony 
to  open  disobedience  of  English  orders,  and 
have  some  issue  to  unite  upon  with  the  other 
colonies.  On  the  14th  Rotch  was  again  ordered 
by  a  meeting  at  the  Old  South  to  apply  lor 
a  clearance,  and  several  leading  patriots  es- 
corted him  to  the  custom-house  to  see  that  he 
did  so.  The  collector  refused  to  give  an  answer 
till  the  next  day,  when,  upon  a  final  visit  from 
Rotch  and  his  volunteer  bodyguard,  he  definitely 
refused  unless  the  teas  were  discharged.  At 
10  the  next  morning  Rotch  appeared  before 
another  huge  meeting  at  the  Old  South  and 
reported  the  refusal.  He  was  directed  to  pro- 
test against  it  at  once,  and  apply  to  Gov. 
Hutchinson  for  a  permit  to  pass  the  Castle. 
Hutchinson  was  at  his  house  on  Milton  Hill, 
some  eight  miles  out;  and  it  was  6  p.m.  before 
Rotch  returned  with  the  news  that  the  governor 
also  refused.  Meantime  some  7,000  people  had 
gathered  in  and  about  the  Old  South,  probably 
half  of  them  from  neighboring  towns;  addresses 
were  made  by  Samuel  Adams,  Josiah  Quincy, 
and  several  other  leaders,  and  it  was  unan- 
imously resolved  that  the  tea  should  not  be 
permitted  to  land.  Hutchinson's  refusal  had 
been  discounted,  and  40  or  50  men  disguised  as 
Indians,  with  paint  and  gear,  had  gathered  in 
the  back  room  of  a  printing  office  near  by, 
waiting  for  an  agreed  signal,  and  the  meeting 
continued  in  session  till  long  after  dark,  wait- 
ing Rotch's  report.  On  receiving  it,  Samuel 
Adams  gave  the  appointed  signal,  ^^This  meeting 
can  do  nothing  more  to  save  the  country,''  and 
a  shout  from  the  porch  was  answered  by  a 
war-whoop  from  the  ^^Mohawks^' ;  who  at  once 
rushed  to  the  wharf  followed  by  a  thousand  or 
so  of  others,  and  with  perhaps  a  hundred  of 
them  boarded  the  ships,  and  for  three  hours 
worked  steadily  with  hatchets,  breaking  open 
the  chests  and  throwing  the  tea  into  the  harbor. 
The  entire  342  chests  on  the  three  ships,  valued 
at  about  £18,000,  were  destroyed,  without  a 
sound  from  the  mob,  which  then  dispersed. 
Meantime  a  fourth  tea  ship  was  wrecked  off 
Cape  Cod.  The  immediate  result  of  this  was 
the  Boston  Port  Bill  (q.v.)  ;  but  as  the  Boston- 
ians  had  expected,  the  whole  country  rallied  to 
their   support. 

Boston  Terrier,  a  breed  of  dogs,  resem- 
bling bull-dogs  without  their  eccentricities, 
which    originated    in    Boston    about    1870,    and 


BOSTON   UNIVERSITY  — BOSTON   AND  MAINE  RAILROAD 


soon  became  popular  for  its  admirable  qualities 
as  a  companion.  This  terrier  has  a  shapely 
bull-dog-like  head,  and  the  straight  legs  and 
active  manners  of  the  old  bull-terrier.  Those 
truly  bred  always  have  a  white  muzzle,  a  white 
bfeze  on  the  face  and  on  the  chest  and  feet,  with 
a  fine  coat,  short  and  bright,  and  a  deep  broad 
chest.  Light-class  ones  weigh  from  15  to  23 
pounds,  and  the  heavy  from  23  to  30  pounds. 
This  breed  arose  from  a  cross  between  Robert 
C.  Hooper's  "Judge"  (a  dog  three  quarters  Eng- 
lish bull  and  one  quarter  white  terrier,  which 
was  a  rich  dark  brindle  with  a  white  flare  on  his 
face),  and  Burnett's  "Gyp,"  a  pure  white  bitch 
low  on  the  legs  and  stockily  built,  not  unlike 
the  old-fashioned  bull-terrier.  The  product  was 
Wells'  "Eph."  He  was  born  in  Boston  about 
1870  and  was  bred  to  Tobin's  "Kate,"  an  old- 
fashioned  bull-terrier,  and  the  result,  Barnard's 
"Tom,"  may  be  said  to  be  the  first  of  the  real 
new  breed,  for  he  developed  the  typical  screw 
tail  of  the  present  Boston  terrier.  This  dog  has 
a  most  afifectionate  disposition,  is  well  knit  in 
build,  and  is  stylish. 

Boston  University,  a  co-educational  insti- 
tution of  Boston,  Mass.,  organii^ed  in  1869.  The 
work  is  divided  into  two  main  departments,  the 
Schools  requiring  previous  college  training,  and 
the  Colleges  requiring  no  such  qualification. 
The  schools  are  those  of  theology,  law,  medicine, 
and  all  sciences  (for  post-graduate  work  in 
language,  philosophy,  history,  and  science)  ;  the 
colleges  are  those  of  Lil)eral  Arts  and  of  Agri- 
culture, the  latter  allied  with  the  Massachusetts 
Agricultural  College  at  Amherst.  In  1905  the 
number  of  students  was  1,324,  and  the  number 
of  professors  and  instructors  148 ;  volumes  in  the 
liljrary,  30,000. 

Boston,  a  game  of  cards  played  by  four 
persons,  with  two  packs  of  cards.  The  cards 
are  never  shuffled;  one  of  the  packs  is  dealt, 
and  the  other  cut  alternately  to  determine  the 
trump,  which  governs  the  game.  The  dealer 
deals  five  cards  to  each  player  twice,  and  three 
the  last  time  around.  If  the  first  player  can 
make  five  tricks,  he  says,  "I  go  to  Boston"  ;  and 
his  competitors  may  overbid  him  by  saying, 
"I  go  6,  7,  8,  9,  ID,  II,  12,  or  13,"  as  the  hand 
of  each  may  warrant.  Should  either  of  them 
fail  to  make  the  number  of  tricks  he  "bids" 
for,  he  must  pay  to  each  competitor  a  forfeit 
regulated  by  a  card  of  prices,  which  must  be 
prepared  beforehand.  Without  such  a  card 
Boston  cannot  be  played.  It  is  one  of  the  most 
complicated  of  games.  It  is  said  to  have  been 
introduced  into  France  by  Dr.  Franklin,  who 
gave  it  the  name  of  his  native  city. 

Boston  and  Albany  Railroad. —  The  Boston 
and  Albany  Railroad  as  it  now  exists  was 
formed  28  Dec.  1870,  by  the  consolidation  of 
four  railroad  companies  whose  histories  re- 
spectively are  as  follows  : 

The  Boston  and  Worcester  Railroad  Com- 
pany, chartered  23  June  1S31,  built  a  line  be- 
tween Boston  and  Worcester,  a  distance  .of 
44.63  miles,  the  road  being  opened  to  the  public 
4  July  1835.  This  company  prospered  and  at 
the  end  of  eleven  years  the  track  between  the 
two  cities  was  paralleled.  Branch  roads  were 
built  to  Milbury  and  Saxonville.  to  Lower  Falls, 
Milford  and  Brookline,  and  to  Frarnington  Cen- 
ter, and  were  opened  respectively  in  1846,  1847 
and   1819. 


Meantime,  on  15  Feb.  1833,  the  Western  Rail- 
road Company  was  chartered  to  build  a  line 
from  the  terminus  of  the  Boston  and  Worcester 
road  to  Springfield,  Mass.,  and  thence  to  some 
point  on  the  western  border  of  the  State.  This 
road  was  opened  to  the  public  in  1841. 

The  Albany  and  West  Stockbridge  Railroad 
Company  was  chartered  5  May  1836,  to  build  a 
line  from  Albany,  N.  Y.,  to  the  terminus  of  the- 
Western  Railroad  Company  on  the  Massachu- 
setts State  line,  a  distance  of  39  miles,  the  com- 
pany being  financed  by  the  Western  Railroad 
Company.  The  construction  of  the  road  was 
begun  two  years  after  the  date  of  its  charter  and 
in  December,  1840,  a  section  of  the  road  front 
Albany  to  Chatham  Four  Corners  was  opened. 
In  November,  1841,  the  Albany  and  West  Stock- 
bridge  Railroad  Company  was  leased  to  the 
Western  Railroad  Company  for  a  term  of  50 
years  from  April,  1840.  Work  was  now  re- 
sumed on  the  remainder  of  the  road,  which  was 
completed  in  September,  1842. 

In  1854  interests  allied  to  the  Western  Rail- 
road Company  purchased  the  Hudson  and  Bos- 
ton Railroad,  whose  line  extended  from  Hudson 
to  the  Massachusetts  State  line,  a  route  parallel 
to  that  of  the  Albany  and  West  Stockbridge 
Railroad.  On  account  of  this  latter  fact  that 
part  of  the  Hudson  and  Boston's  line  lying  be- 
tween Chatham  Four  Corners  and  the  Massa- 
chusetts State  line  was  abandoned. 

In  September,  1867,  the  Boston  and  Albany 
Railroad  was  formed  by  the  consolidation  of 
the  Boston  and  Worcester  and  the  Western 
Railroad  Companies.  In  December,  1870,  the 
new  corporation  absorbed  the  leased  Albany  and 
West  Stockbridge,  and  consolidated  with  the 
Hudson  and  Boston  road,  forming  the  present 
Boston  and  Albany  Railroad. 

In  1866,  by  purchase  of  the  Grand  Junction 
Railroad  the  line  was  extended  toEast  Boston; 
in  1880  the  Springfield  and  Northern  Railroad 
was  purchased  and  DUt  into  operation  as  the 
Athol  Branch;  in  1889  the  company  bought  the 
Spencer  Railway. 

The  Boston  and  Albany  Railroad  is  now- 
leased  to  the  New  York  Central  and  Hudson 
River  Railroad  Company  (q.v.),  the  lease  hold- 
ing good  for  ninety-nine  years  from  date,  i  July 
1900.  For  this  lease  the  lessee  pays  an  annual 
rental  of  two  million  dollars,  equivalent  to  eight 
per  cent  on  the  capital  stock  of  the  leased  road. 
In  addition  to  this  the  lessee  pays  the  or- 
ganization expenses,  a  sum  which  at  present 
amounts  to  $10,000  per  annum  ;  the  taxes ;  the 
interest  on  bonds  of  the  leased  road ;  and  the 
rentals  which  the  leased  road  pays  for  its  leased 
lines.  These  lines,  leased  by  the  Boston  and 
Albany,  comprise  the  North  Brookfield  Rail- 
road, the  Pittsficld  and  North  Adams  Railroad, 
and  the  Ware  River  Railroad. 

Boston  &  Maine  Railroad.  The  Boston  & 
Maine  system,  as  it  stands  to-dav.  is  one  of  the 
most  remarkable  examples  of  railroad  evolution 
and  consolidation  to  be  found  in  the  world.  In- 
cluding the  constituent  roads  owned,  leased,  con- 
trolled, and  operated,  it  represents  fully  125  dis- 
tinct units,  ranging  from  a  four  or  five-mile  line, 
like  the  Trov  &  Bennington,  to  a  great  400-mile 
"system."  like  the  Fitchburg  division.  Some  of 
its  branches  were  incorporated  as  far  back  as 
the  earlv  thirties,  while  others  are  creations  of 
the  last  15  or  20  years. 


BOSTON  AND  MAINE  RAILROAD 


To  bring  together  all  of  these  different  and 
sometimes  conflicting  transportation  units  under 
a  single  management  represents  a  feat  of  finan- 
ciering probably  unique  on  this  continent.  Of 
the  2,290  miles  now  operated  by  the  Boston  & 
Maine  Railroad  no  less  than  1,665  miles  repre- 
sent roads  leased  by  the  parent  company.  One 
of  these,  the  Troy  &  Bennington,  is  leased  in 
perpetuity,  and  the  lease  having  the  longest 
term  to  run  is  that  of  the  Vermont  &  Massa- 
chusetts road,  which  expires  in  2873.  The  Mas- 
sawippi  Valley  road  lease  expires  in  2869,  the 
Fitchburg  road  lease  in  IQ99,  and  the  one  to 
first  expire  will  be  that  of  the  Suncook  Valley 
road,  in  igi2. 

To  give  a  clearer  idea  of  the  full  extent  of 
l»ie  Toston  &  Maine  Railroad  system  the  follow- 
inr  table,  showing  the  leased  roads,  w'ith  the 
dates  of  their  incorporation,  the  beginning  and 
expiration  of  leases,  and  mileage  has  been  pre- 
pared under  the  direction  of  Fourth  Vice-Presi- 
dent William  J.  Hobbs : 


Abraham  Marland,  Amos  Abbott,  John  Smith, 
and  Merrill  Pettingill,  all  residents  of  Andover. 
The  capital  stock  was  $100,000. 

Hobart  Clark  was  elected  president,  and  the 
road  was  surveyed  under  the  direction  of 
Col.  Loammi  Baldwin,  of  Charlestown,  Mass., 
the  well-known  civil  engineer. 

Work  was  commenced  in  the  spring  of  183S, 
and  the  first  section  of  the  road  was  opened  to 
Andover  6  Aug.  1836.  By  the  fall  of  1837  't 
had  been  opened  to  the  Merrimac  river,  at  Brad- 
ford ;  by  1840  to  Exeter ;  by  1841  to  Dover,  and 
by  1843  to  South  Berwick  Junction. 

In  1835,  a  second  charter  had  been  obtained 
allowing  the  extension  of  the  road  to  Haverhill, 
and  the  name  was  changed  to  the  Andover  & 
Haverhill  Railroad;  and  a  little  later  in  the 
same  year  a  charter  was  obtained  from  the  New 
Hampshire  Legislature  for  a  road  from  the 
Massachusetts  line  through  New  Hampshire  to 
the  Maine  State  line,  under  the  name  of  the 
Boston  &  Maine  Railroad. 


NAME  OF   ROAD. 


Danvers   

Newburyport, 

Danvers  &  Georgetown 

Newburyport 

Lowell   &    Andover 

Kennebunk  &  Kennebunkport.  .  .  . 
Worcester,   Nashua  &   Rochester.  . 

Worcester   &   Nashua 

Nashua  &  Rochester 

Manchester   &  Lawrence 

Boston  &  Lowell 

Nashua   &   Lowell 

Stony  Brook   

Wilton    

Peterboro 

Northern    

Connecticut  &  Passumpsic 

Massawippi   \'alley    

Connecticut   River, 

Northampton  &   Springfield... 

Greenfield  &  Northampton  .  . 
Concord  &   Montreal, 

Concord  railroad   

Boston,  Concord  &  Mbntreal. 

Concord   &    Portsmouth 

Suncook  Valley    

Pemigewasset  Valley 

New   Boston    

Franklin  &  Tilton   

Fitchburg     

Vermont  &  Massachusetts 

Troy   &   Bennington 


Total  mileage 


Date  of 
Incorporation. 


March  15, 

May  7, 

March  1 1 , 

Feb.  5, 

Aug.  16, 

March  5, 
July  5, 
June  30, 
June  8, 
April  16, 
March  26, 
Dec.  28, 
July  7, 
Dec.  2y, 
Nov.      10, 


March     i, 
Jan.       25, 


Tune 
Dec. 

Tulv 
July 
Feb. 
Aug. 


March     3, 

March  15, 
March  27, 


1852 

iSsil 
1846J 
1873 
1882 

1 
1845  1- 
1867  J 
1S47 
1830 
1836 
1845 
1844 
1866 
1844 
183s 


1842  ^ 
184s  J 

1835  ' 

1844  j 

1845 

1863 

1874 

1 89 1 

1887 

1842 

1844 

1851 


Date  of  Lease. 


May 
Feb. 


30,  1853 
21,  i860 


Oct.         18,  1875 
June       18,  1883 


Oct. 

June 

June 

Nov. 

Sept. 

Feb. 

April 

Dec. 

Tune 

Dec. 

Jan. 


30,  1S8S 

I,  1887 

22,  1887 

no,  1880 

30,  1884 

1,  1884 

I,  1893 

30,  1889 

I,  1887 

7,  1871 

I,  1893 


June        29,  1895 

May       26,  1862 
March     1 1,  1870 


March 

Tune 

"Oct. 

Tune 

Tan. 

Oct. 


31.  1883 
21,  1893 

8,  1895 
30,  1900 

I,  1874 
12,  1872 


Date  of 
Expiration. 


May  30,  1953 

Feb.  21,  i960 

Dec.  I,  1973 

May  IS,  1982 


Jan. 

Sept. 

April 

Oct. 

Tan. 

Oct. 

April 

Jan. 

Jan. 

July 

Jan. 


I,  1936 

I,  1937 
I,  1986 
I,  1979 
I,  1989 
I,  1982 
I, 1986 
I,  1989 
1,  1986 
I,  2869 


April         I,  1986 


Jan. 

Tan. 

Feb. 

June 

April 

July 

Jan. 


Perpetuity 


I,  1961 
I,  1912 
I,  1982 
19,  1992 
I,  1986 
I, 1999 
1,2873 


Miles  of 
Road. 


9.26 

26.98 

8.85 
4-50 

94.48 

22.39 

I II -75 

14.50 

13.16 

15-50 

10.50 

172.32 

110.30 

35-46 

79-85 

387-10 

39-87 

17.41 

22.93 

S-19 

4-95 

394-14 

58.58 

5-04 


1,665  -01 


v^'^'-.ile  it  is  impossible  to  give  anything  like 
a  complete  history  of  such  a  complicated  system 
as  that  of  the  Boston  &  Maine  Railroad  in  such 
a  b'-ief  sketch  as  this  must  be,  it  is  important  to 
no*e  some  of  the  events  in  its  history  which 
stand  out  most  conspicuously.  For  example,  it 
's  certainly  worthy  of  record  that  the  original 
railroad  —  the  acorn  from  which  the  present 
great  Boston  &  Maine  system  has  sprung  —  was 
first  conceived  in  the  brain  of  its  founjler,  Ho- 
bart Clark,  of  Andover,  Mass.,  in  the  fall  of  1832. 

Mr.  Clark,  after  traveling  over  the  Albany  & 
Schenectady  Railroad,  then  rhe  only  line  west 
of  the  Hudson  river,  saw  the  utility  of  a  branch 
railroad  to  Andover,  tapping  the  Boston  &  Lowell 
road  (then  under  construction)  at  Wilmington. 

The  road  was,  in  1833,  granted  a  charte-  un- 
der the  name  of  the  Andover  I  Wilmington 
Railroad,  the  first  directors  being  Hobart  Clark, 


In  the  following  year  the  Maine  Legislature 
granted  a  charter  extending  the  line  to  Port- 
land, and  thus  was  finally  organized  the  original 
Boston  &  Maine  Railroad,  which  to-day  serves 
a  very  large  section,  annually  transports  40,- 
000,000  passengers  and  nearly  20,000,000  tons  of 
freight,  earns  $35,000,000  a  year,  owns  17,000 
freight  cars  and  1,200  passenger  cars,  carries  a 
veritable  army  upon  its  payrolls,,  and  operates  in 
five  States  and  one  Canadian  province. 

In  addition,  the  Boston  &  Maine,  through 
ownership  of  a  majority  of  the  capital  stock, 
also  controls  the  Maine  Central  Railroad,  al- 
though that  is  separately  operated. 

The  system  had  its  beginning  in  the  day  of 
small  things,  and  to-day  it  exists  in  an  era  of 
great  ones^  as  far  as  railroad  policies  are 
concerned. 

The  slow  but  certain  process  of  amalgama- 


BOSTONIANS  —  BOSWORTH 


tion  which  has  resulted  in  the  present  vast  trans- 
portation system  under  one  management  has 
been  an  exceedingly  interesting  one,  but  its  his- 
tory would  require  too  much  space  to  be  given 
even  in  outline  here. 

It  has  been  attended  by  many  exciting  epi- 
sodes, legislative  and  financial,  particularly  with 
reference  to  the  leasing  of  the  Connecticut  River 
road  in  189,^,  the  Concord  &  Montreal  in  1895, 
and  the  Fitchburg  in  1900. 

These  leases  were  hotly  contested  by  minority 
stockholders  or  opposing  interests,  but  most  of 
the  leased  lines  were  absorbed  without  much 
show  of  opposition. 

It  has  for  some  time  been  the  policy  of  the 
company  to  purchase  outright  its  leased  lines, 
whenever  that  has  been  practicable. 

In  view  of  the  present  highly-organized  con- 
dition of  railroad  operation  it  is  noteworthy  that 
when  the  original  Boston  &  Maine  road  was  first 
built  and  operated  the  telegraph  had  not  been 
invented  and  double  tracks  were  essential  for 
the  safe  operation  of  trains. 

Moreover,  civil  engineering  was  then  in  its 
infancy  and  surveying  instruments  were  clumsy 
and  primitive,  the  transit  not  even  having  been 
produced  at  that  time. 

Few  of  those  who  were  engaged  in  building 
the  road  had  ever  had  any  experience  in  such 
work,  for  railroads  themselves  were  very  new 
then,  and  there  is  a  tradition  that  fully  75  per 
cent  of  the  surveying  for  the  line  was  done 
without  instruments  and  by  purely  visual  work. 
There  were  no  time  fuses  to  aid  in  blasting,  and 
not  even  friction  matches  had  come  into  ex- 
istence. 

Aside  from  the  relocation  of  a  part  of  the 
Central  Massachusetts  division,  made  necessary 
"by  the  construction  of  the  great  Wachusett  res- 
ervoir, the  only  considerable  piece  of  railroad 
in  the  territory  now  controlled  by  the  Boston 
&  Maine  which  has  ever  been  actually  aban- 
doned was  part  of  the  original  Portsmouth  & 
Concord  road.  This  line  once  ran  between  Sun- 
cook  and  Candia,  and  that  portion  of  it  was 
afterward  given  up  for  a  m.ore  favorable  location. 

According  to  the  latest  financial  report  issued 
by  the  company  —  that  for  the  year  ending  30 
June  1905  —  the  total  earnings  of  the  road  dur- 
ing the  previous  12  months  were  $36,213,245. 
Deducting  operating  expenses,  $26,619,740.  left 
the  net  earnings,  $9,503,505,  an  amount  that  was 
further  increased  to  $ro,iSi,093,  by  the  addition 
of  $587,588.  which  represented  the  road's  income 
from  other  sources. 

Edward  O.  Woodward, 
Conveyancer,  B.  &  M.  R.  R, 

Bostonians,  The,  a  novel  of  American  life, 
by  Henry  James,  published  in  1886.  Written 
in  a  satirical  vein,  it  presents  with  unpleas- 
ant fidelity  a  strong-minded  Boston  woman 
possessed  by  a  ^^mission,**  "who  takes  life  hard,^^ 
is  never  so  happy  as  when  struggling,  striving, 
suffering  in  a  cause  which  throughout  the  novel 
is   the   emancipation   of  women. 

Boswell,  James,  English  writer:  b.  29  Oct. 
1740;  d.  19  May  1795.  He  was  the  son  of  a 
Scotch  judge.  Lord  Auchinleck,  who  took  this 
title  from  the  name  of  his  estate.  He  was 
educated  at  Edinburgh  and  at  Glasgow,  and 
early  displayed  literary  tastes.  In  1763,  when 
on  a  visit  to  London,  he  was  introduced  to 
Johnson,  and  though  this  first  meeting  was  not 

Vol.    2--=;t. 


very  hopeful  for  the  future,  a  warm  friendship 
soon  sprung  up  between  them.  During  a  year 
spent  on  the  Continent,  he  made  the  acquaint- 
ance of  Voltaire,  Rosseau,  and  other  prominent 
men  of  the  day.  Returning  in  1766  he  was  ad- 
mitted an  advocate,  but  the  practice  of  his 
profession  was  little  to  his  taste.  In  1768  he 
published  a  history  of  Corsica,  with  a  lively 
account  of  his  own  experiences  in  the  island. 
The  same  year  he  again  met  Johnson  in  London, 
and  his  intercourse  with  him  was  kept  up  by 
many  subsequent  visits  to  the  metropolis;  while 
Johnson  himself  came  to  Scotland  in  1773, 
when  the  pair  made  their  famous  journey  to  the 
Hebrides.  This  year  also  Boswell  became  a 
member  of  the  famous  Literary  Club,  with 
various  members  of  which,  such  as  Burke  and 
Reynolds,  he  was  on  terms  of  intimacy.  In 
1769  he  had  married,  but  he  continued  mainly 
dependent  on  his  father  till  the  latter's  death 
in  1782,  when  he  succeeded  to  the  estate.  In 
1784  he  met  Johnson  for  the  last  time  at  a 
dinner  at  Sir  Joshua  Reynolds'.  Two  years 
after  (1786)  came  out  his  'Journal  of  a  Tour  to 
the  Hebrides  with  Samuel  Johnson,  LL.D.* 
(Johnson's  own  account  of  the  tour  had  ap- 
peared in  1775).  Having  latterly  been  admitted 
to  the  English  bar,  he  went  on  circuit  ana  held 
for  a  year  or  two  the  recordership  of  Carlisle; 
and  from  1788  onward  he  mostly  resided  in 
London.  In  1791  appeared  his  <Life  of  John- 
son,^ a  work  which  he  had  been  long  preparing, 
and  which  at  once  gave  readers  the  same  delight 
as  it  has  ever  since  inspired.  A  second  and 
enlarged  edition  came  out  in  1793.  By  this 
time  Boswell's  health  had  greatly  suffered  from 
his  too  convivial  habits,  and  he  died  in  London 
having  been  a  widower  since  1790.  Boswell  was 
a  singular  compound  of  sense  and  folly,  of 
genuine  ability  and  foible  bordering  on  craziness. 
His  good  nature  was  universally  admitted ;  his 
vanity  and  want  of  self-respect  and  self-control 
were  his  most  evident  faults.  His  weaknesses 
were  easily  seen,  but  the  man  who  enjoyed  the 
sincere  affection  of  Dr.  Johnson  and  the  en- 
during friendship  of  Burke  and  Reynolds  had 
better  stuff  in  him  than  appeared  to  the  super- 
ficial observer.  His  life  of  Johnson  is  such  3 
masterly  performance  as  only  a  genius  for  life- 
portraiture  could  have  produced.  Among  edi- 
tions of  the  Life  may  be  mentioned  that  0/ 
Croker  (10  vols.)  and  those  of  Rev.  A.  Napier 
(Bohn's  Standard  Library,  6  vols.),  and  Dr. 
Birkbeck  Hill  (Clarendon  Press,  6  vols.),  all 
containing  the  Tour.  See  Macaulay's  essay, 
and  the  much  more  humane  and  penetrating 
essay  by  Carl5'le.  Boswell  left  two  sons.  The 
elder,  Alexander,  born  in  1775,  succeeded  to  the 
family  estate,  sat  for  a  year  or  two  in  Parlia- 
ment, and  was  created  a  baronet  in  1821.  He 
wrote  several  well-known  Scottish  songs  and 
various  other  things  in  verse  and  prose,  and  also 
set  up  a  private  press  from  which  issued  reprints 
of  rare  old  works  in  the  Auchinleck  library. 
In  1822  he  met  his  death  in  a  duel  with  a  Mr. 
Stuart,  against  whom  he  had  made  some  severe 
attacks  in  a  political  journal.  James,  the  second 
son,  born  in  1779,  died  in  1822,  was  the  editor 
of  an  improved  edition  of  Malone's  Shakspere, 
generally  known  as  the  ^Variorum  Shakspere* 
(21  vols.   1821). 

Bosworth,  Francke  Huntington,  physician: 
b.  Marietta,  Ohio,  25  Jan.  1843.  He  was  edu- 
cated  at   Yale  and   Bellevue   Hospital   Medical 


BOSWORTH  — BOTANICAL  GARDENS 


colleges.  He  is  professor  of  diseases  of  the 
throat  in  Bellevue,  consulting  physician  to  the 
Presbyterian  and  St.  Vincent's  hospitals,  and  an 
authority  on  diseases  of  the  nose  and  throat. 
Publications:  ^Manual  of  Diseases  of  the 
Throat  and  Nose'  (1881)  ;  ^A  Study  of  Nasal 
Catarrh'  (1882);  ^Growths  in  the  Nasal  Pas- 
sages' ;  ^The  Three  Tonsils'  ;  ^Treatise  on  the 
Diseases  of  the  Nose  and  Throat'  ;  ^Malignant 
Disease  of  the  Upper  Air  Tract'  ;  ^Taking 
Cold'  ;  ^Text-Book  of  Diseases  of  the  Nose 
and  Throat.' 

Bosworth,  Joseph,  English  philologist:  b. 
Derbyshire,  1789;  d.  27  May  1876.  He  was  edu- 
cated at  Repton,  Aberdeen,  and  Trinity  College, 
and  was  ordained  deacon  in  1814,  and  after  fill- 
ing several  livings  in  England  was  British  chap- 
lain at  Amsterdam  and  Rotterdam  for  12  years. 
He  devoted  much  time  to  researches  in  Anglo- 
Saxon  and  its  cognate  dialects,  the  result  of  his 
studies  appearing  from  time  to  time.  His  chief 
works  are  his  ^Anglo-Saxon  Grammar;  Dic- 
tionary of  the  Anglo-Saxon  Language;  and 
Compendious  Anglo-Saxon  and  English  Dic- 
tionary.' In  1857  he  was  presented  to  the 
rectory  of  Water  Shelford,  Buckingham,  and 
next  year  was  appointed  Rawlinson  professor 
of  Anglo-Saxon  at  Oxford,  a  post  which  he 
held  till  his  death.  He  was  M.A.  and  LL.D.  of 
Aberdeen ;  Ph.D.  of  Leyden,  and  D.D.  of  Cam- 
bridge. In  1867  he  gave  $50,000  to  establish 
a  professorship  of  Anglo-Saxon  at  Cambridge. 
He  left  a  certain  amount  of  materials  that  he 
had  accumulated  for  a  new  edition  of  his  larger 
Anglo-Saxon  Dictionary,  and  these  have  been 
utilized  and  greatly  added  to  by  Prof.  Toller  of 
Manchester  in  the  copious  Dictionary  which  has 
been  published  under  his  editorship  by  the 
Clarendon   Press. 

Bosworth,  or  Market-Bosworth,  England, 
a  small  town  in  the  county  of  Leicester,  about 
three  miles  from  which  is  Bosworth  Field,  where 
was  fought,  in  1485,  the  memorable  battle  be- 
tween Richard  III.  and  the  Earl  of  Richmond, 
afterward  Henry  VII.  This  battle,  in  which 
Richard  lost  his  life,  put  a  period  to  the  long 
and  bloody  Wars  of  the  Roses,  between  the 
houses   of   York  and   Lancaster. 

Bot-fly.  In  these  flies,  so  interesting  in 
their  habits,  the  body  is  stout,  hairy,  like  the 
bumblebees,  and  they  are  easily  recognized  by 
having  the  opening  of  the  mouth  very  small, 
with  rudimentary  oral  organs.  The  middle  part 
of  the  face  is  exceedingly  narrow,  and  the 
minute  antennae  are  inserted  in  rounded  pits. 
The  eggs  hatch  very  soon  after  laying,  and 
Riley  thought,  from  the.  testimony  of  three  in- 
dependent witnesses,  that  the  sheep  bot-fly  is 
viviparous,  the  larvae  hatching  within  the  body 
of  the  parent,  who  deposits  in  the  nostrils  of  the 
sheep  the  perfectly  formed  and  living  grub. 

The  larvae  are,  in  general,  thick,  fleshy,  foot- 
less grubs,  consisting  of  11  segments  exclusive 
of  the  head,  which  are  spined  and  tuberculated, 
the  former  in  rows,  which  enable  them  to  move 
about  readily  when  living  under  the  skin  or  in 
the  frontal  sinus,  and  thus  greatly  irritate  the 
animals  on  which  they  live.  The  stigmata  are 
placed  in  a  scaly  plate  on  the  thickened  posterior 
end  of  the  body.  The  mouth  of  the  cutaneous 
larv^  consists  simply  of  fleshy  tubercles,  while 
in  those  species  that  live  in  the  stomach  and 
frontal  sinuses  of  their  hosts,  it  is  provided  with 


horny  hooks.  While  in  this  state  they  moult 
twice,  and  then  attain  their  full  size.  They  feed 
on  the  purulent  matter  originating  from  the 
irritation  produced  by  the  movements  of  their 
bodies.  Just  before  assuming  the  pupa  state, 
the  larva  leaves  its  peculiar  habitat,  descends 
into  the  ground,  and  there  becomes  a  coarctate 
pupa  (see  Pupa). 

Besides  the  horse  bot-fly  (q.v.),  the  ox  bot- 
fly (q.v.)  and  the  sheep  bot-fly  (q.v.),  there  is 
included  in  the  genus  Dermatobia  the  "ver 
macaque*'  of  Cayenne  and  Mexico,  which  is 
found  beneath  the  skin  of  man  in  tropical  Amer- 
ica. It  is  disputed  whether  it  be  a  true  indige- 
nous ^^CEstrns  hominis^  or  one  that  originally 
attacks  the  monkey,  dog,  or  other  mammal.  In 
Cayenne  the  species  attacking  man  is  called  the 
<S-er  macaque";  in  Eastern  Brazil  <Para)  "ura"  ; 
in  Costa  Rica,  *torceP' ;  in  Colombia,  ^'gusano 
peludo,"  or  "muche."  The  *ver  moyocuil"  (D. 
noxialis)  lives  on  the  dog,  sheep,  cattle,  and 
man ;  and  is  found  in  Mexico  and  New  Granada. 
The  larvae  are  long,  cylindrical,  S-shaped,  dif- 
fering greatly  in  form  from  others  of  this  fam- 
ily. The  flies  are  closely  allied  to  those  of  the 
preceding  genus. 

Leidy  states  that  several  specimens  of  the 
larva  of  a  bot-fly  were  obtained  in  Honduras 
(by  Le  Conte).  They  were  usually  found  be- 
neath the  skin  of  various  parts  of  the  body,  and 
the  eggs  were  suspected  to  have  been  introduced 
while  the  persons  were  bathing.  The  men  were 
not  aware  of  the  circumstance,  and  the  presence 
of  the  larva  gave  them  comparatively  little  un- 
easiness. According  to  Krefft,  a  species  of 
Batrachoniyia  is  parasitic  upon  four  species  of 
Australian  frogs.  The  larvae  are  found  between 
the  skin  and  the  flesh  behind  the  tympanum. 
When  they  quit  the  frog  the  latter  dies.  The 
change  to  the  pupa  state  is  usually  effected  on 
the  lower  surface  of  a  piece  of  rock  in  some 
damp  locality.  The  perfect  insect  emerges  in  3? 
days.  Consult:  Packard,  ^Guide  to  Study  of 
Insects'  (1889)  ;  Brauer,  ^Monographie  der 
Oestriden'  (Vienna  1863)  ;  Osborn,  ^Insects 
Affecting  Domestic  Animals'    (1896). 

Botallack,  a  mine  on  the  west  coast  of 
Cornwall,  England,  eight  miles  north  of  Land's 
End.  The  works  are  on  the  edge  of  the  cliff; 
part  of  the  underground  workings  (abandoned 
in  1875)  extended  2,448  feet  beneath  the  sea. 
The  mine  has  been  wrought  for  both  tin  and 
copper. 

Botanical  Gardens.  The  term  botanical 
garden  is  used  to  designate  a  limited  area  of 
ground  on  which  is  grown  a  collection  of  plants 
including  a  large  number  of  species  brought 
together  to  subserve  scientific,  educational, 
aesthetic,  or  economic  purposes.  In  the  broadest 
sense,  it  is  a  museum  of  plants,  and  one  of  its 
chief  ends  is  to  represent,  by  means  of  living 
specimens  so  far  as  possible,  the  principal  types 
of  vegetation  of  the  earth.  It  is  impossible  to 
cultivate  more  than  a  few  thousand  species  on 
any  given  area  under  the  natural  conditions  of 
soil  and  climate,  and  the  open-air  plantations 
are  generally  supplemented  by  collections  grown 
under  shelter,  in  glass  houses,  and  in  specially 
prepared  soils.  It  has  been  found  practicable 
to  grow  in  this  manner  as  many  as  12,000  or 
15,000  species  of  the  higher  plants  in  the  botan- 
ical gardens  at  St.  Louis  and  New  York,  at 
Kew,    England,    and    at    Berlin,    Germany.      A 


^'*^f 


BOTANY.-  STEM-STRUCTURE,   &c. 


T 


'  '^'' ""'"  "'fVicol'Td''^''''^"''''" 


il-!r'!,','!M"  '^'■''       >''i  '.■  ";''  ="-■'"■"  ■"■  ^Hni  -A  a'cmr.iis.'  "■'"■'■.  -■  Network  of  N'orwlsVom  s\pm";l"fV^  vascular  1,;.skc  in  a  1-\tii. 
lMr„ms  v,,-m.         ->  KL-.-a  .irtictiire  of  K^ogcnous  stem.  =*  Medi.Ilarv  r^y  nf  Oak.     To  ^^''?^;^*  Sow-ih.stt.         -•'  Cross  ^cct.or 

'-■  Longilurrmal  section  nf  Root  Stock  of  Iris.  ^  Vertical  i?L'"°f'n'''^",?'?  "^^  Endogtn..i,.  s 

tmcar  section  of  Beecli  leaf. 


Uo.  of  young  Aide 

Crrss  section  of  a  Monocotyledonous  vsscular  bundle. 


i  Ulack  Currant  Hark.        ^.  -"  Cross  and  longitudinal  scctiops  nf  I 


BOTANICAL  GARDENS 


proper  selection  of  this  number  may  be  made  to 
represent  somewhat  fairly  the  principal  forms  of 
plants,  which  include  about  250,000  species. 
That  is  to  say,  it  is  possible  to  grow  in  one  place 
about  one  species  out  of  every  17  in  existence. 

Living  plants  cultivated  in  the  open  air  are 
most  suitably  arranged  in  plantations  according 
to  their  general  habit,  and  in  such  manner  as  to 
show  their  general  relationships.  Then  special 
groups  are  often  made  of  certain  families,  such 
as  the  conifers,  the  willows  and  poplars,  the 
grasses,  ferns,  or  mosses.  The  most  common 
arrangement  of  plantations  includes  the  her- 
baceous grounds,  the  aquatic  plants,  alpinum, 
viticetum,  fruticetum,  arboretum,  and  economic 
plantations.  Some  institutions  bring  together 
collections  for  the  purpose  of  illustrating  the 
local  flora,  or  the  flora  of  any  given  geographical 
district. 

The  herbaceous  plantations  are  intended  to 
include  the  representatives  of  small  soft-bodied 
plants  which  die  down  to  the  soil  during  the 
winter  or  resting  season,  and  which  may  or 
may  not  have  a  perennial  underground  stem- 
formation  of  some  kind.  Many  of  the  species 
are  annuals  and  must  be  grown  from  seeds 
every  year. 

The  pools  for  aquatic  plants  are  arranged  to 
afford  suitable  means  for  the  culture  of  forms 
which  float  or  root  in  ponds  and  streams  of 
fresh  water,  and  include  a  wide  variety,  such  as 
the  water-lily,  pondweeds,  Philotria,  water- 
hyacinth,  etc. 

An  alpinum  is  a  special  plantation  generally 
arranged  to  afford  means  of  cultivation  of 
species  from  cold  climates  on  mountain-tops  or 
in  higher  latitudes.  Plantations  of  this  kind  are 
often  termed  rockeries,  and  are  in  the  form  of  a 
ridge  or  hill  covered  with  boulders.  In  such 
plantations  precautions  must  be  taken  to  give 
lime-loving  plants  a  place  among  limestone 
rocks,  and  with  the  necessary  low  temperatures. 

The  viticetum  is  a  plantation  devoted  to  the 
cultivation  of  climbing  and  trailing  vines,  and 
may  take  almost  any  form  demanded  by  the 
exigencies  of  practical  gardening.  Among  the 
necessary  features  are  trellises  or  supports  for 
twining  and  tendril  climbing  forms. 

The  fruticetum  includes  all  woody  perennial 
plants  which  do  not  form  a  central  trunk  six 
feet  in  height,  and  which  are  therefore  not  trees. 
These  are  most  effectively  grouped  when  the 
individuals  of  the  separate  species  are  placed  in 
the  ground  separately  in  a  scheme  of  general 
arrangement  by  which  every  plant  may  be  in- 
spected from  all  sides  and  is  unshaded  by  its 
neighbors. 

The  arboretum  includes  trees,  and  these  may 
be  variously  arranged,  singly  or  in  groups,  al- 
ways with  respect  to  their  mutual  relationships. 
On  account  of  their  great  size  and  comparatively 
slow  growth  and  greater  permanency,  the  plac- 
ing of  trees  in  any  given  landscape  scheme  in  a 
garden  is  attended  to  with  the  greatest  care. 

The  economic  plantations  may  include  useful 
plants  arranged  according  to  their  relationships, 
and  grouped  according  to  the  use  or  nature  of  the 
derivative.  Thus  a  division  may  be  made  in  which 
only  species  used  for  medicine,  foods,  or  cloth- 
ing are  included,  or  a  division  may  be  made  to 
include  plants  which  yield  starches,  oils,  gums, 
and  resins. 

Special  plantations  of  selected  families  must 


depend  for  their  constituency  upon  the  location 
of  the  garden.  Thus  it  would  be  possible  to 
form  a  collection  of  palms  in  a  tropical  garden, 
and  one  of  pines  or  willows  in  a  temperate 
climate.  Geographical  plantations  may  take  any 
given  district  by  variously  arranged  plantations. 
Still  another  group  of  plantations  is  being 
made  in  some  gardens  to  illustrate  types  of  habit 
and  structure.  Some  of  the  principal  groups  to 
be  illustrated  in  this  manner  are  parasites,  which 
draw  nourishment  from  the  living  bodies  of 
other  organs;  saprophytes,  which  live  on  de- 
caying organic  matter;  xerophytes,  plants 
adapted  to  living  under  the  driest  conditions; 
plants  with  structures  serving  as  a  protection 
against  animals.  Forms  of  propagation  and  re- 
production, methods  of  dissemination  of  spores 
and  seeds,  etc.,  also  serve  as  subjects  to  be  illus- 
trated by  separate  groups. 

The  collections  grown  under  shelter  and  in 
conservatories  are  generally  grouped  in  such 
manner  that  species  are  partly  assembled  with 
regard  to  their  climatic  requirements,  and  partly 
according  to  their  relationships.  Thus  a  house 
may  be  devoted  to  tropical  plants,  or  to  tem- 
perate plants,  or  may  contain  only  orchids, 
palms,  ferns,  cacti  or  succulents,  or  other  special 
groups. 

The  part  of  the  vegetable  kingdom  which  may 
not  be  cultivated  may  be  represented  in  a 
museum  by  dried  specimens,  material  in  pre- 
serving-fluids, and  dissections  of  various  kinds. 
Here  again  the  arrangement  may  be  upon  the 
basis  of  natural  relationship,  or  upon  the  basis  of 
economic  usefulness.  The  species  which  formed 
the  vegetation  of  the  previous  geological  periods 
are  represented  by  fossil  specimens,  completing 
the  history  of  the  plant-world  so  far  as  it  is 
known,  and  yielding  suggestions  as  to  the  de- 
scent of  the  present  types. 

Two  general  educational  purposes  are  served 
by  an  institution  of  this  character.  Its  collec- 
tions are  arranged  to  present  information  on  the 
form,  relationship,  mode  of  life,  habit,  and  gen- 
eral biological  character  of  the  principal  types 
of  vegetation,  in  such  manner  as  to  be  capable 
of  comprehension  by  persons  unacquainted  with 
the  technical  aspects  of  the  subject.  Further 
interpretation  of  such  facts  may  be  made  by 
means  of  books,  journals,  lectures,  etc.,  devoted 
to  this  branch  of  work  and  study. 

The  material  accumulated  for  the  exploita- 
tion of  popular  knowledge  of  plants  also  affords 
an  excellent  basis  for  the  induction  of  students 
into  the  more  strictly  scientific  aspects  of 
botanj^ ;  and  when  such  material  is  supplemented 
by  laboratories  furnished  with  apparatus,  micro- 
scopes, and  other  instruments  of  precision,  the 
activities  of  these  students  may  be  carried  be- 
yond the  frontiers  of  the  subject  into  the  in- 
vestigation and  discovery  of  new  facts  and 
phenomena.  This  extension  of  the  boundaries 
of  knowledge  concerning  the  plant-world  may  be 
carried  on  to  advantage  only  when  a  library  is 
at  hand  containing  all  of  the  more  important 
literature  bearing  upon  the  subject. 

Botanical  gardens  owe  their  origin  to  the 
needs  of  medical  science,  in  accordance  with 
which  species  showing  valuable  medical  proper- 
ties were  grown  in  convenient  places. 

The  first  authentic  record  of  the  introduction 
of  medicinal  plants  into  cultivated  plots  of 
ground  dates  no  farther  back  than  the  time  of 


BOTANICAL  GEOGRAPHY  — BOTANY 


the  elder  Pliny  (23-79  A.  D.),  who  writes  of 
the  garden  Antonius  Castor,  at  Rome,  in  which 
were  grown  a  large  number  of  medicinal  plants. 
This  step,  however,  may  have  been  taken  much 
earlier  by  the  Greeks,  Chinese,  or  Mexicans. 
Later  the  Benedictine  monks  of  northern  Italy 
paid  great  attention  to  the  growing  of  remedial 
herbs,  and  devoted  an  important  proportion  of 
the  monastery  gardens  to  this  purpose.  This 
practice  was  also  carried  beyond  the  Alps,  and 
in  1020  a  garden  was  in  existence  at  the 
monastery  of  St.  Gall,  in  Switzerland,  not  far 
from  Lake  Constance,  which  contained  16  plots 
occupied  by  medicinal  plants.  A  garden  of 
this  character  was  founded  1309  at  Salerno, 
and  another  at  Venice  1330. 

The  i6th  and  17th  centuries  witnessed  the 
foundation  of  many  gardens  in  England,  France, 
Germany,  Holland,  and  Sweden,  some  of 
which  have  had  a  continuous  existence  to  this 
day.  The  garden  of  Bologna  was  founded  1568; 
Leyden,  1577;  Leipsic,  1579;  Montpellier,  1596; 
Paris,  1597.  The  last-named  was  organized  for 
the  determination  of  "what  variations  were  pos- 
sible in  the  style  of  bouquets  worn  at  the  royal 
courts.^'  Then  followed  the  establishment  of 
the  gardens  at  Giessen,  1605;  Strasburg,  1620; 
Jena,  1629;  Oxford,  1632;  Upsala,  1667;  Chelsea, 
1680. 

The  number  of  these  institutions  at  the 
present  time  is  nearly  300,  only  a  few  of  which, 
however,  are  devoted  to  the  more  important 
purposes  named  above.  Many  botanical  gardens 
are  merely  municipal  parks  in  which  some  at- 
tempt is  made  to  exhibit  special  groups  of 
plants,  and  are  devoted  chiefly  to  floriculture. 
Others  are  almost  entirely  experiment  stations 
for  the  exhibition  and  testing  of  economic 
species,  while  still  others  find  their  chief  useful- 
ness as  an  aid  in  teaching  botany  in  schools  and 
colleges. 

D.  T.  MacDougal, 

Director  of  Laboratories, 

New  York  Botanical  Garden. 

Botanical  Geography.  See  Distribution 
OF  Plants. 

Botany  is  that  branch  of  biology,  or  the 
science  of  living  organisms,  which  deals  with 
plants,  and  is  thus  distinguished  from  zoology, 
which  deals  with  animals.  An  individual  plant, 
considered  as  a  living  or  once  living  organism, 
may  be  studied  in  two  ways  —  with  reference  to 
its  structure  or  with  reference  to  its  functions. 
These  represent  the  two  great  subdivisions  of 
pure  botanical  science  —  anatomy  and  physiology 
respectively.  All  other  phases  of  botanical  sci- 
ence are  special  developments  of  one  of  these 
two,  either  alone  or  in  combination  with  the 
other,  or  in  relation  additionally  to  some  other 
branch  of  knowledge.  Anatomy  and  physiology 
are  thus  the  primary  elements,  as  it  were,  of 
botany,  which  in  varying  combinations  with  each' 
other  and  with  the  elements  of  other  sciences 
constitute  the  branches  of  botanical  science 
actually  in  existence,  such  as  taxonomy,  ecology, 
cytology,  and  pathology.  The  term  plant  anat- 
omy is  restricted  frequently  in  actual  use  to 
gross  anatomy  and  is  often  called  structural  bot- 
any. In  this  sense  is  covered  about  as  much  of 
the  whole  of  anatomy  as  can  be  studied  by  the 
unaided  eye  or  with  a  lens.  Minute  anatomy,  or 
histology,  covers  the  minute  structure  of  plants, 


the  principal  instrument  in  its  study  being  the 
compound  microscope.  A  study  of  the  rela- 
tionships of  plants  on  the  basis  of  anatomical  re- 
semblances constitutes  comparative  anatomy,  or 
morpholog}\  The  classification  of  plants,  known 
as  taxonomy  or  systematic  botany,  is  in  the 
main  a  specialized  branch  of  morphology,  for  the 
principal  means  by  which  plants  may  be  grouped 
so  as  to  indicate  their  genetic  relationship  is  a 
comparison  of  their  structural  differences  and 
resemblances.  In  its  actual  study  plant  physi- 
ology is  closely  associated  with  plant  histology 
because  most  of  the  functions  of  the  plant  are 
intimately  connected  with  the  structure  of  plant 
cells,  and  the  physiologist  must  of  necessity 
understand  these  structures.  A  special  branch 
of  botanical  research  which  has  to  do  with  the 
complex  structure  and  activities  of  the  plant 
cell  is  known  as  plant  cytology.  The  study  of 
the  diseases  of  plants,  whether  they  are  due  to 
fungi  or  other  plant  organisms,  or  are  purely 
physiological,  is  plant  pathology,  sometimes 
called  vegetable  pathology. 

History. —  Among  the  ancients,  Aristotle 
the  Greek  philosopher  (384  to  322  B.C.),  The- 
ophrastus  his  pupil  (about  372  to  287  B.C.),  the 
Roman  naturalist  Pliny  the  Elder  (23  to  79 
A.D.),  and  the  Greek  physician  Dioscorides  (of 
the  1st  or  2d  century  a.d.)  left  botanical  records 
of  historical  interest,  but  botany  as  a  modern 
science  has  developed  in  the  last  four  centuries, 
dating  from  the  Reformation.  The  writing,  par- 
ticularly by  the  Germans,  of  herbals,  or  treat- 
ises on  economic  and  medicinal  plants,  and  the 
founding  of  botanical  gardens,  occupied  most 
of  the  i6th  century,  but  in  the  j^ear  1583  Cesal- 
pino,  an  Italian  physician,  published  the  first 
formal  and  comprehensive  classification  of 
plants.  This,  though  artificial,  formed  the  basis 
of  all  generally  recognized  classification  to  and 
including  the  time  of  Linnaeus  in  the  latter  part 
of  the  i8th  century.  The  17th  century  was 
chiefly  notable  for  advances  not  in  the  classifi- 
cation of  plants,  but  in  their  structure  and  vital 
processes.  Malpighi,  an  Italian,  and  Grew,  an 
Englishman,  almost  simultaneously  published 
their  researches  on  the  gross  anatomy  and  the 
cellular  structure  of  plants,  the  first  of  which 
were  presented  in  1671.  To  the  work  of  these 
men  in  plant  anatomy  little  of  importance  was 
added  in  more  than  a  hundred  years.  The 
other  important  discovery  of  the  century  was 
the  demonstration  by  Camerarius  in  1691, 
through  direct  experiment,  of  the  sexuality  of 
plants.  The  i8th  century  was  marked  especially 
by  advances  in  classification.  In  the  year  1700 
Tournefort  published  his  *^Institutiones,^  in 
which  for  the  first  time  genera  were  systematic- 
ally named  and  described.  During  this  century 
Linnasus,  the  great  botanical  compiler  and  sys- 
tematizer,  brought  out  his  successive  works,  cul- 
minating in  the  'Species  Plantarum,^  in  1753. 
It  was  later  in  the  same  century,  too,  that  botani- 
cal exploration  came  to  be  recognized  as  an 
important  department  of  the  voyages  of  geo- 
graphic and  scientific  discovery  in  which  the 
nations  of  Europe  became  engaged.  In  1789  A. 
L.  de  Jussieu  published  his  *  Genera  Plantarum,' 
in  which  was  first  systematically  formulated  a 
comprehensive  classification  of  plants  according 
to  their  natural  relationship,  as  opposed  to  the 
artificial  systems  followed  by  Cesalpino  and  Lin- 
naeus. In  the  last  two  decades  of  this  century 
were  laid  the  foundations  of  our  present  know- 


BOTANY. 


An  Alaskan  Valley,  Covered  with  Arctic  Vegetation  (upper). 

Spruce  Forest  of  Interior  Alaska,  Representing  the  Boreal  Zone  (lower). 


BOTANY 


ledge  of  the  important  part  played  by  the  air  in 
the  nutrition  of  plants,  a  proper  conception  of 
which  was  possible  only  in  the  light  of  the  new 
developments  which  took  place  at  that  time  in 
chemistry.  The  19th  century  witnessed  enor- 
mous strides  in  plant  anatomy  and  plant  physi- 
ology, the  latter  largely  contributed  to  by  work- 
ers in  chemistry  and  physics,  and  the  former 
rendered  possible  by  improvements  of  the  com- 
pound microscope  and  accessory  instruments,  es- 
pecially those  which  came  into  general  use  about 
1840.  From  this  movement  has  been  derived 
most  of  our  knowledge  of  the  life  history  and 
relationship  of  the  lower  groups  of  plants,  the 
fungi,  algse,  and  lichens,  and  the  assignment  of 
the  pines  and  their  relatives  to  their  true  posi- 
tion next  above  the  ferns.  The  whole  realm 
of  botanical  research  was  profoundly  affected  by 
the  work  of  Darwin,  beginning  with  the  publi- 
cation of  his  ^Descent  of  Man,^  in  1858,  which 
gave  a  new  point  of  view  for  all  subsequent 
work.  In  systematic  botany  the  principle  of  the 
development  of  species  from  a  common  ancestor 
was  substituted  for  the  old  view  of  the  con- 
stancy of  species.  The  remarkable  adaptations 
for  cross  fertilization  in  the  coloration,  odor,  and 
structure  of  flowers  was  given  its  true  and  sig- 
nificant explanation  as  a  means  for  originating 
and  perpetuating  species.  Darwin's  work  gave 
a  new  philosophical  basis  for  the  interpretation 
of  observed  phenomejia  and  facts. 

Progress  in  the  United  States. —  At  the  be- 
ginning of  the  19th  century  the  advancement  of 
botany  in  North  America  was  largely  in  the 
hands  of  physicians,  through  their  requirement 
of  a  knowledge  of  plants  as  materia  medica. 
Professors  of  botany  were  unknown.  Linnseus 
and  other  great  botanists  in  Europe  had  had 
American  correspondents,  and  geographic  expe- 
ditions accompanied  by  European  botanical  col- 
lectors had  touched  the  margins  of  the  continent. 
Some  botanical  exploration,  chiefly  by  European 
visitors,  had  been  effected  east  of  the  Alleghany 
Mountains.  The  centre  of  botanical  activity  was 
at  Philadelphia,  among  the  members  of  the 
American  Philosophical  Society.  With  Lewis 
and  Clark's  expedition  across  the  continent  to 
the  mouth  of  the  Columbia,  in  1803-6,  began  a  se- 
ries of  American  explorations  of  the  great  inte- 
rior, directed  first  to  the  Louisiana  Purchase, 
then  to  Oregon,  and  finally  to  California.  These 
were  supplemented  on  the  north  by  the  British 
expeditions  of  Sir  John  Franklin  and  others  in 
quest  of  a  Northwest  Passage.  In  the  fifties  be- 
gan the  Pacific  Railroad  surveys  and  these  were 
followed  by  the  geological  surveys.  All  these 
contributed  materials  for  the  discovery,  descrip- 
tion, and  orderly  arrangement  of  the  North 
American  flora,  the  collections  going  largely 
mto  the  hands  of  Thomas  Nuttall  at  Harvard 
Lhi'versity,  John  Torrey  at  Columbia,  Asa  Gray, 
who  was  Nuttall's  successor,  and  George  Engel- 
mann,  a  physician  of  St.  Louis.  Meanwhile  ap- 
peared a  new  factor  which  was  destined  to  play 
an  important  part  in  the  development  of  bo- 
tanical science  in  America,  the  establishment  of 
agricultural  colleges  in  the  late  sixties.  These 
institutions  created  a  demand  for  a  class  of  bot- 
anists who  did  not  exist  in  the  United  States 
or  anywhere  else,  botanists  who  had  brought 
a  critical  scientific  training  to  bear  on  the  hard 
problems  of  agriculture.  For  the  succeeding 
two  decades  the  universities  of  the  country, 
including  some  of  the  agricultural  colleges  them- 


selves, were  busily  engaged  in  educating  the  re- 
quired men,  a  movement  which  resulted  in  the 
preparation  of  many  wiio  were  competent  not 
only  to  act  as  teachers  of  botany  in  the  agricul- 
tural colleges  but,  a  still  more  important  matter, 
to  act  as  investigators  in  agricultural  experiment 
stations,  one  of  which  was  established  in  each  of 
the  States  and  Territories  in  the  late  eighties. 
The  branch  of  botany  which  received  its  great- 
est impulse  was  pathology,  the  science  of  the 
diseases  of  plants.  Plant  pathology  has  al- 
ready been  carried  to  a  point  of  high  scientific 
development  and  practical  application  attained 
in  no  other  country.  Systematic,  or,  as  it  is 
now  more  commonly  known,  taxonomic,  botany 
has  made  rapid  strides  forward  in  the  past  two 
decades,  largely  through  the  application  of 
methods  developed  and  perfected  by  American 
ornithologists.  These  methods  differ  from 
others  chiefly  in  a  full  consideration  of  the  ge- 
ographic relationships  of  plants  and  the  exam- 
ination of  very  large  series  of  specimens.  A 
new  revision  of  the  whole  North  American  flora 
along  these  lines  and  accompanied  by  syste- 
matic botanical  exploration  is  now  under  way. 
For  the  future  two  lines  of  inquiry  are  likely 
to  be  conspicuous  in  American  botany,  first,  the 
principles  of  heredity  in  plants  and  "the  applied 
phase  of  the  subject,  plant  breeding  on  a  sci- 
entific basis;  and  second,  the  correlation  of  plant 
functions  with  plant  structures,  a  work  which 
will  have  far-reaching  importance  in  broadening 
our  understanding  of  the  processes  of  nature. 
The  geographic  location  of  American  botanical 
research  has  undergone  a  profound  change  as  a 
result  of  the  Spanish-American  war.  The  area 
to  which  up  to  that  time  the  energies  of  Ameri- 
can botanists  had  been  chiefly  directed  was  the 
north  temperate  belt  of  one  hemisphere,  but 
they  now  must  deal  in  addition  with  botanical 
problems  in  the  tropics  of  both  the  New  World 
and  the  Old  World. 

Classification. —  The  plant  kingdom  is  divisi- 
ble into  five  great  groups,  the  Myxophyta,  or 
slime  molds ;  the  Thallophyta,  including  the 
bacteria,  algse,  fungi,  and  lichens;  the  Bryophyta, 
including  the  liverworts  and  mosses ;  the 
Pteridophyta,  including  the  ferns  and  their  al- 
lies; and  the  Spermatophyta,  or  flowering  plants. 
The  first  four  of  these  are  often  jointly  desig- 
nated as  the  Cryptogamce,  or  cryptogams,  in  con- 
tradistinction to  the  Phanerogamce,  an  older 
name   for   the  flowering  plants. 

The  Myxophyta,  or  slime  molds,  known  also 
as  the  Myxomycetes,  Mycctozoa,  and  Myxothal- 
lophyta,  are  organisms  which  though  usually 
treated  as  belonging  to  the  vegetable  rather  than 
the  animal  kingdom,  have  no  cellulose  walls 
covering  the  cells  of  which  they  are  composed; 
pass  a  part  of  their  life  as  plasmodia.  or  masses 
of  naked  creeping  protoplasm  similar  to  the 
animals  known  as  amoeb?e ;  and  are  reproduced 
without  even  the  simplest  method  of  sexual  re- 
generation. Most  of  them  resemble  fungi  in 
that  they  grow  upon  decayed  animal  or  vegetable 
matter.  The  Thallophyta  include  a  wide  variety 
of  plants,  associated  with  each  other  by  exclu- 
sion, on  the  one  hand,  from  the  animal-like 
Myxophyta,  and,  on  the  other,  from  the  Bry- 
ophyta and  higher  plants.  The  plant  body  is 
commonly  not  differentiated  into  stem  and  leaf, 
and  may  even  be  unicellular;  a  cell  wall  is 
usually  present;  chlorophyll  is  often  wanting; 
and  frequently  sexual  reproduction  does  not  ex- 


BOTANY 


ist.  Among  the  important  groups  belonging  to 
the  Thallophyta  are  the  Schiso)iiycctes,  or  bac- 
teria; the  ScliizophycecE,  or  bluegreen  algae;  the 
Euphycea,  or  true  algre,  including  the  diatoms, 
desmids,  green  algae,  stonevvorts,  brown  algse,  and 
red  algae ;  the  Eumycetes,  or  true  fungi ;  and  the 
Lichenes,  or  lichens.  The  Bryophyta,  or  liver- 
worts and  mosses,  are  small  plants,  having  in 
their  life  cycle  a  sexual  generation  in  which  the 
sexual  organs  are  borne  on  a  plant  body  usu- 
ally differentiated  into  stem  and  leaves,  followed 
by  a  non-sexual  generation,  which  consists  of  a 
stalked  or  sometimes  sessile  spore-bearing  cap- 
sule remaining  attached  to  the  plant  body  of 
the  preceding  generation.  The  female  organ 
of  reproduction  consists  of  an  oosphere  in  a  sac 
called  an  archegonium,  the  walls  of  which  are 
made  up  of  many  cells,  much  more  complex 
structurally  than  the  female  organ  of  the  Thal- 
lophyta. The  male  organ  consists  of  motile 
antherozoids  produced  from  an  antheridium. 
The  group  consists  of  the  Hepaticce,  or  liver- 
worts, some  of  which  have  a  flat  scale-like  body 
called  a  thallus,  and  of  the  Musci,  or  mosses. 
The  PteridopJiyta,  represented  by  the  ferns,  re- 
semble the  Bryophyta  in  their  sexual  organs, 
but  differ  in  the  possession  of  what  is  known  as 
vascular,  as  opposed  to  merel}'  cellular,  tissues, 
and  also  in  that  the  asexual  generation  becomes 
a  large  plant  and  maintains  a  separate  existence 
independent  of  the  earlier  generation.  The 
group  includes,  besides  the  true  ferns,  the  grape- 
ferns,  jointrushes,  clubmosses,  quillworts,  and 
a  few  others.  The  Spermatophyta,  or  flowering 
plants,  also  known  as  Anthophyta  or  Phanero- 
gamce,  find  their  essential  difference  from  the 
Pteridophyta,  not  in  the  production  of  flowers, 
but  in  the  relationship  of  the  sexual  and  the 
asexual  generations  and  in  the  character  of  the 
sexual  organs  and  their  embryonic  product.  In 
an  ordinary  fern  the  sexual  generation  is  a  small 
flat  green  organism,  resembling  a  thallose  liver- 
wort, growing  on  the  ground  or  other  sub- 
stratum and  deriving  its  nourishment  from  it, 
but  in  the  Spermatophyta  the  sexual  generation 
is  reduced  to  almost  microscopic  dimensions,  and 
leads  no  independent  existence  but  is  enclosed 
within  the  body  of  the  non-sexual  generation, 
the  male  portion  consisting  of  the  pollen  grain 
and  the  tube  that  grows  out  of  it  w^ien  the 
pollen  grain  germinates,  the  female  portion  con- 
sisting of  a  minute  cellular  structure  within  the 
embryo  sac  of  the  ovule.  It  is  to  be  noted 
that  no  motile  bodies  are  produced,  as  in  the 
two  preceding  groups,  and  that  the  fertilization 
of  the  ovule  results  in  the  development  of  an 
embryonic  plant  called  a  seed,  which  is  pro- 
duced by  none  of  the  lower  groups  of  plants. 
The  Spermatophyta  are  divided  into  two  groups, 
of  which  the  lower  is  the  Gyninospennce,  in- 
cluding the  cycads,  the  cone-bearing  trees,  and 
a  few  related  families.  In  these  the  ovules  are 
borne  not  in  ovaries  but  naked  among  the 
floral  bracts,  and  the  sexual  generation  of  the 
female  is  still  comparatively  complex  before  fer- 
tilization and  bears  considerable  resemblance  to 
that  of  some  Pteridophyta.  In  the  other  group, 
the  Angiospermcc.  the  ovules  are  borne  in 
ovaries,  and  only  the  simplest  remnant  of  a  sex- 
ual generation  persists.  In  this  group  are  the 
Monocotyledones,  including  the  grasses,  palms, 
lilies,  orchids  and  their  relatives,  and  the  Dicoty- 
ledoncs,  including  the  great  majority  of  flower- 


ing plants.  The  dicotyledonous  and  the  gym- 
nospermous  plants  were  at  one  time  classed  as  a 
group  Exogena:,  in  contradistinction  to  the 
group  Efidogena,  which  consisted  of  the  mono- 
cotyledonous  plants.  This  grouping  of  the  flow- 
ering plants  into  exogens  and  endogens,  how- 
ever, is  no  longer  maintained,  it  having  been 
shown  from  embryological  studies  that  the 
gymnosperms  should  stand  next  above  the  ferns. 
The  old  division  of  dicotyledonous  plants  into 
Apetalcc,  Gainopetalce,  and  Polypctala  is  also 
now  discarded,  the  families  included  under 
Apetalce  appearing  not  to  constitute  a  real  group. 
They  have  therefore  been  interpolated  among 
the  families  of  the  remaining  two  groups,  most 
of  them  going  with  the  Polypetalcc.  All  three  of 
the  old  names  have  been  abandoned,  the  name 
Archichlamydece  being  now  used  for  the  apeta- 
lous  and  polypetalous  plants  jointly,  and  the 
name  Sympctalce  for  the  gamopetalous  plants. 
The  known  species  of  plants  as  based  on  recent 
standard  and  conservative  enumerations  of  the 
various  large  groups  are  approximately  as  fol- 
lows : 

Myxophyta   400 

Thallophyta    SQ.ooo 

Bryophyta    8,000 

Pteridophyta    3,500 

Spermatophyta    120,000 


190,900 


Plants  hi  Relation  to  Geology. —  Plants  pla}, 
an  important  part  in  the  configuration  of  the 
earth's  surface  bv  the  prevention  or  retardation 
of  erosion.  This  is  accomplished  by  the  direct 
binding  action  of  roots  on  the  soil,  by  obstruct- 
ing the  run-off  of  water  as  it  filters  through  a 
layer  of  decaying  vegetable  matter,  and  by  hin- 
dering the  melting  of  snow  under  the  shade  of  a 
forest  cover.  Wind  erosion  of  sand  or  dust 
soils  both  on  beaches  and  in  arid  regions  is 
prevented  chiefly  by  vegetation.  In  the  build- 
ing up  of  peat  deposits,  such  as  the  sphagnum 
bogs  of  the  Northern  States,  or  the  Dismal 
Swamp,  Okefinokee  Swamp,  or  the  Everglades, 
plants  are  the  principal  factors.  Deposits  of 
coal  and  petroleum  are  of  vegetable  origin.  The 
disintegration  of  rocks  is  hastened  by  the  pres- 
ence of  living  mosses  and  other  plants.  The 
fertility  of  soils  is  largely  dependent  on  the  ad- 
mixture of  decayed  vegetable  matter,  or  humus ; 
and  the  so-called  nitrifying  organisms  of  the 
soil,  which  change  nitrates,  which  can  not  be 
taken  up  as  food  by  plants,  to  nitrites,  which  are 
readily  absorbed,  belong  to  a  group  of  micro- 
scopic plants  known  as  bacteria.  A  very  im- 
portant role  in  soil  fertilization  is  played  by  a 
certain  group  of  plants,  the  Legiiminosce,  in- 
cluding the  clovers,  beans,  and  peas.  One  of  the 
essentials  of  plant  food  is  nitrogen.  Ordinary 
plants  have  not  the  power  to  take  free  nitrogen 
from  the  air,  where  it  exists  in  almost  unlimited 
quantities,  but  absorb  their  nitrogen  from  cer- 
tain nitrogenous  substances  in  the  soil.  This 
element  of  soil  fertility  is  soon  exhausted. 
Leguminous  plants,  however,  produce  on  their 
roots  small  tubercles  containing  bacteria  which 
have  the  power  to  take  free  nitrogen  from  the 
air  in  the  soil  and  put  it  into  a  form  suitable  for 
plant  food.  By  the  death  and  rotting  of  the 
plant  the  nitrogen  thus  absorbed  from  the  air  is 
incorporated  in  the  soil  and  is  available  as  food 


BOTANY. 


1.  Samnela,  and  Vegetation  of  Western  Texas.   ".  Agave,  and  Vegetation  of  \\'c?tcrn  Texas. 

2.  Yellow  Pine  Forest  of  Oregon.  4-  Tree  Fern,  and  Vegetal  vjn  of  the  Tropical 

Zone. 


BOTANY 


for  all  sorts  of  vegetation.  In  this  way  the  legu- 
minous plants  are  almost  indispensable  for  the 
rehabilitation  of  soils  worn  out  by  excessive 
cropping. 

Plants  in  Relation  to  Geography. — Most 
of  the  land  surface  of  the  earth  is  covered  by  a 
green  mantle  of  vegetation,  which  varies  in  its 
makeup  at  different  points  in  accordance  with 
several  factors,  the  most  general  of  which  in  its 
variation  is  temperature.  Certain  areas  of  the 
north  polar  and  south  polar  regions,  permanently 
or  almost  permanently  covered  with  snow  or  ice, 
and  various  similarly  cold  areas  on  mountains  of 
higher  and  higher  elevation  in  lower  latitudes, 
are  devoid  of  vegetation.  Next  to  this  is  an 
area  of  sufficient  warmth  in  summer  to  produce 
a  vegetation  of  herbaceous  plants  and  shrubs 
but  devoid  of  trees  —  the  arctic,  antarctic,  and  al- 
pine vegetation.  Then  come  the  temperate  areas 
of  the  earth,  characterized  by  a  vegetative  cov- 
ering able  to  withstand  freezing  during  a  portion 
of  the  year,  yet  sufficiently  warm  to  permit  an 
abundant  growth  of  trees.  Next  follows  the 
tropical  area,  with  a  vegetation  not  subjected  to 
frost  and  characterized  especially  by  forests  made 
up  in  part  of  palms.  A  factor  of  probably  even 
greater  im.portance,  but  more  broken  and  re- 
stricted in  its  distribution,  is  moisture.  The 
four  great  temperature  categories  outlined  above 
are  cross-hatched  by  moisture  lines  parallel 
with  the  lines  of  equal  precipitation.  With  too 
little  moisture  forests  can  not  exist,  and  we  have 
plains  and  deserts  of  grass  or  brush.  Neither 
do  forests  exist  in  a  soil  too  persistently  moist 
and  poorly  drained,  and  thus  we  have  moors, 
bogs,  natural  meadows,  and  savannas.  The  ex- 
treme of  moisture  is  reached  in  the  plants  called 
aquatics,  growing  either  in  fresh  water  or  in  the 
ocean,  often  wholly  submerged. 

Each  of  the  other  factors  in  plant  growth, 
light,  air,  food,  and  the  complex  mechanical  re- 
lations of  the  plant,  varies  greatly  from  one  lo- 
cality to  another,  and  in  their  various  combina- 
tions with  different  degrees  of  heat  and  moisture 
they  furnish  an  almost  endless  variety  of  envi- 
ronments. Each  of  these  combinations  of  condi- 
tions has  its  characteristic  association  of  plants, 
which,  adapted  to  the  conditions,  and  to  each 
other,  form  a  community.  The  study  of  plants 
in  their  detailed  relation  to  these  local  surround- 
ings forms  a  branch  of  geographic  botany  known 
as  plant  ecology.  North  America  furnishes  a 
good  series  of  geographic  areas  with  sufficient 
climatic  differences  to  necessitate  different  floras. 
The  vegetation  of  the  continent  is  divided  by 
Merriam  into  the  following  zones :  Arctic, 
Boreal,  Transition,  Upper  Austral,  Lower  Aus- 
tral, Tropical.  The  Arctic  zone  extends  from 
northern  Labrador  northwestward  across  the 
northern  edge  of  the  continent  to  Bering 
Strait,  dipping  southward  along  the  shores  of 
Bering  Sea  to  Bristol  Bay,  Alaska.  The  vege- 
tation of  this  zone  consists  of  herbaceous  or  of 
depressed  woody  plants,  trees  being  absent. 
Over  large  areas,  known  as  tundra,  the  ground 
is  permanently  frozen  underneath,  a  few  inches 
of  the  surface  thawing  each  summer  and  permit- 
ting the  growth,  in  a  cold,  wet  soil,  of  an  often 
luxuriant  but  low  vegetation.  The  Arctic  zone 
is  represented  southward  as  far  as  southern  Cal- 
ifornia and  northern  Arizona  by  certain  alpine 
plants  on  the  summits  of  mountains  high  enough 
to  have  a  timber  line,  approximately  12,000  feet 
in   that   latitude.     The   Boreal   zone,    sometimes 


subdivided  into  a  northern,  or  Hudsonian,  belt 
and  a  more  southerly,  or  Canadian,  belt,  extends 
trom  the  Arctic  zone  southward  to  a  line  trav- 
ersing the  northern  part  of  New  England,  On- 
tario, Michigan,  and  Minnesota,  jumping  to  the 
higher  elevations  of  the  Adirondack  and  Ap- 
palachian Mountain  systems,  then  continuing 
westward  across  North  Dakota  and  Assiniboia 
to  British  Columbia,  dipping  south  in  the  higher 
elevations  of  the  Rocky  Mountains  nearly  to 
Mexico,  in  the  Cascades  and  Sierra  Nevada  to 
southern  California,  and  along  the  shores  of  the 
Pacific  to  northern  California.  The  most  cha- 
racteristic feature  of  this  zone  is  forests  of 
spruce  or  balsam  fir.  The  Transition  zone  cov- 
ers most  of  New  England,  New  York,  Michigan, 
Minnesota,  North  Dakota,  about  half  of  South 
Dakota,  and  the  southern  part  of  Assiniboia, 
thence  extending  southward  through  the  Plateau 
and  Great  Basin  10  Arizona,  New  Mexico,  and 
California,  in  the  southern  parts  of  those  States 
reaching  down  to  an  elevation  of  about  6.000 
feet.  The  most  characteristic  tree  of  the  eastern, 
humid  part  of  this  zone  is  the  white  pine ;  of  the 
western,  arid  part,  the  yellow  pine.  The  Upper 
Austral  zone,  as  represented  in  the  eastern 
United  States  by  the  so-called  Carolinian  flora, 
covers  the  lower  Hudson  valley,  southern  New 
Jersey,  Delaware,  eastern  ^laryland,  the  Pied- 
mont section  of  the  south  Atlantic  States,  middle 
Tennessee  and  Kentucky,  and  most  of  Ohio, 
Indiana,  Illinois,  Iowa,  and  Missouri,  north- 
western Arkansas,  southeastern  South  Dakota, 
and  eastern  Nebraska  and  Kansas.  It  is  espe- 
cially characterized  by  its  forests  of  certain  spe- 
cies of  oak  and  hickory.  The  flora  of  the  west- 
ern part  of  this  zone,  known  as  the  Upper 
Sonoran,  covers  the  principal  part  of  the  arid 
western  plains,  from  Washington  and  Montana 
southward  through  the  Mexican  plateau.  The 
flora  is  devoid  of  trees  and  is  commonly  cha- 
racterized by  sagebrush  or  bunchgrass.  The 
Lower  Austral  zone  is  divided,  like  the  last,  into 
an  eastern  humid  and  a  western  arid  part.  The 
eastern,  containing  the  Austroriparian  flora,  cov- 
ers the  coastal  plain  from  Chesapeake  Bay  to 
middle  Texas,  extending  northward  in  the  ^lis- 
sissippi  valley  to  extreme  southern  Illinois  and 
Indiana.  One  of  the  most  characteristic  wild 
plants  is  the  cane,  while  cotton  is  the  most  con- 
spicuous cultivated  plant.  In  the  arid  region  of 
western  Texas,  the  great  valleys  of  New  Mex- 
ico, and  the  deserts  of  southwestern  Arizona, 
southern  Nevada,  and  southeastern  California, 
lies  the  western  part  of  the  Lower  Austral  zone, 
containing  the  flora  known  as  the  Lower  So- 
noran, characterized  especially  by  the  creosote 
bush  and  the  mesquite.  This  flora  has  large 
extensions  into  northern  Mexico.  The  Tropical 
zone  covers  the  lower  third  of  the  Florida 
peninsula,  enters  the  extreme  southern  point  of 
Texas,  and  on  the  Pacific  coast  reaches  north  on 
the  east  side  of  the  Gulf  of  California  to  the 
lower  Colorado  and  Gila  rivers.  From  these 
northern  extremes  the  tropical  flora  extends 
southward  through  Mexico.  Central  America, 
and  the  West  Indies.  Various  genera  and  spe- 
cies of  palms  form  the  most  conspicuous  and 
characteristic   features  of  this  flora. 

Plants  in  Their  Economic  Relation  to  Man. — 
Every  savage  race  is  intimately  associated  with 
the  flora  of  its  region.  Having  no  means  by 
which  to  supply  the  ordinary  necessaries  of  life 
through    foreign    trade,    as    do    many    civilized 


BOTANY  BAY  — BOTHA 


races,  the  savage  has  learned  from  necessity  to 
know  the  precise  qualities  of  the  plants  about 
him  as  foods,  textiles,  poisons,  dyes,  tans,  fuels, 
etc.  In  connection  with  the  making  of  a  single 
aboriginal  instrument,  such  as  a  bow  or  a  fire- 
drill  and  block,  there  is  required  on  the  part 
of  the  savage  a  knowledge  of  the  strength,  elas- 
ticity, texture,  and  other  qualities  of  all  the 
kinds  of  wood  occurring  in  the  range  of  his 
travels,  such  as  is  not  possessed  by  one  person  in 
a  thousand  among  highly  civilized  races.  The 
economic  value  of  a  correct  and  discriminating 
record  of  the  uses  of  plants  among  aboriginal 
peoples  is  evident.  The  influence  of  a  familiar 
flora  in  attracting  a  savage  race  to  a  wider  ge- 
ographic range  or  that  of  a  strange  flora  in  lim- 
iting migration  in  any  direction  is  a  natural 
outcome  of  the  savage's  exact  knowledge  of  the 
plants  of  his  native  region.  The  practice  of 
some  of  the  migratory  races  of  prehistoric  man 
to  transport  their  cultivated  plants  with  them 
has  resulted  in  the  wide  extension  of  these  plants 
from  the  regions  they  naturally  occupied.  From 
this  association  it  turns  out  that  a  critical  study 
of  the  origin  and  distribution  of  the  plants  cul- 
tivated by  aboriginal  races  throws  important 
light  on  their  prehistoric  migrations.  Some  of 
these  botanical  facts  appear  to  be  of  very  great 
antiquity,  perhaps  even  antedating  those  fur- 
nished by  aboriginal  arts  or  by  language.  This 
study  of  the  relation  of  primitive  man  to  his 
plant  environment  is  called  ethnobotany,  or 
aboriginal  botany.  Some  of  the  processes  of 
plant  life  are  important  to  man  as  being  funda- 
mental to  his  existence.  The  plant  is  an  engine 
which  through  the  energy  furnished  by  sunlight 
is  capable  of  transforming  inorganic  substances 
into  organic  compounds,  without  which  animal 
life  could  not  exist.  The  ordinary  economic  re- 
lations of  plants  to  civilized  man  are  many,  and 
enter  as  important  factors  into  such  arts  and  in- 
dustries as  agriculture,  horticulture,  medicine, 
manufacture,  and  commerce.  The  production 
and  elaboration  of  plant  products  and  their  trans- 
portation from  those  parts  of  the  world  in 
which  they  can  be  and  are  produced  to  other 
parts  in  which  they  are  needed  occupies  probably 
the  largest  part  of  the  energies  of  the  human 
race. 

Bibliography. —  Bailey,  <  Cyclopedia  of  Horti- 
culture' ;  Bailey,  ^Lessons  with  Plants'  ;  Bail- 
Ion,  ^Dictionnaire  de  Botanique'  ;  Britton  and 
Brown,  <  Illustrated  Flora  of  the  Northern 
United  States  and  Canada'  ;  Engler  and  Prantl, 
*Nalunicne  Pflanzenfamilien-' ;  Figuier,  ^Veg- 
etable World'  ;  Kerner  and  Oliver,  < Natural 
History  of  Plants'  ;  Lindley  and  Moore,  'Treas- 
ury of  Botany'  ;  Sachs,  'History  of  Botany'  ; 
Sargent,  'Silva  of  North  America.^ 

Frederick  V.  Coville, 

Chief  Botanist,  U.  S.  Deft,  of  Agriculture. 

Botany  Bay,  New  South  Wales,  Australia, 
so  called  by  Capt.  Cook  on  account  of  the  many 
strange  plants  found  growing  here.  Cook  landed 
in  Botany  Bay  on  his  first  voyage  in  1770,  and 
Took  possession  of  the  country  in  the  name  of 
his  sovereign.  The  penal  settlement,  founded 
in  1788,  and  popularly  known  by  the  name  of 
Botany  Bay,  was  established  on  Port  Jackson, 
where  the  city  of  Sydney  now  stands. 

Botany  Bay  Gum,  a  gum  resin  produced 
by  the  XanihorrJiaxi  hastilis,  or  resinifera,  of 
Australia. 


Botargo,  a  relish  made  of  the  salted  roe  of 
the  mullet  or  tunny,  used  on  the  Mediterranean 
coasts. 

Botetourt,  Norborne  Berkeley,  a  conspic- 
uous actor  in  American  colonial  history  rb.  Eng- 
land, 1734  (?);  d.  Williamsburg,  Va.,  15  Oct. 
1770.  He  was  the  descendant  of  John  Berkeley, 
the  cavalier,  who  was  ennobled  by  Charles  II.  in 
1660.  He  was  sent  to  Virginia  as  royal  gov- 
ernor in  1768,  just  eight  years  before  the  Decla- 
ration of  Independence.  He  had  full  instructions 
from  the  Crown  and  directions  to  assume  more 
dignity  than  had  been  the  wont  of  colonial  gov- 
ernors, and  accordingly  he  paraded  the  streets  of 
Williamsburg  with  guards,  a  coach,  and  other 
requisites  of  vice-regal  pomp.  Conflicting  duties 
to  the  king  and  the  people  made  his  situation 
most  unpleasant.  In  1769  the  assembly  took 
into  consideration  the  incipient  troubles  with 
England,  and  on  16  May  passed  firm  but  re- 
spectful resolutions  remonstrating  against  par- 
liamentary taxation  and  the  rigTit  claimed  to 
*end  them  to  England  for  trial.  So  firm  were 
they  that  Lord  Botetourt  summoned  the  speaker 
and  burgesses  before  him  and  dissolved  them. 
The  result  was  that  a  convention  met  in  a  pri- 
vate house  and  took  the  incipient  steps  for  the 
revolution.  The  convention  did  not  attempt  to 
legislate,  but  simply  remonstrated  with  Parlia- 
ment, sending  its  resolutions  to  the  other  colo- 
nies and  to  England.  Under  the  influence  of 
these  resolutions  Lord  Hillsborough  wrote  a 
letter  to  Lord  Botetourt,  assuring  him  that  it 
was  not  the  intention  of  government  to  tax  the 
colonies,  and  that  the  obnoxious  imposts  would 
be 'withdrawn,  which  letter  Lord  Botetourt  com- 
municated to  the  assembly.  All  these  anticipa- 
tions, however,  were  destroyed  by  the  policy  of 
Lord  North,  who  succeeded  Charles  Townsend, 
and  the  promise  was  not  fulfilled  in  full,  the 
duty  on  tea  being  retained.  Botetourt  was 
deeply  mortified,  and  soon  died  of  disease  aggra- 
vated by  mental  sufi^ering.  He  was  deplored  by 
men  of  all  classes  in  the  colony,  and  the  legisla- 
ture erected  a  inarble  statue  to  his  memory, 
which  is  still  standing  in  the  college  of  William 
and  Mary. 

Both,  John  and  Andrew,  two  Flemish 
painters,  were  born  at  Utrecht  about  the  year 
1610,  Andrew  being  the  younger.  They  were 
the  sons  of  a  glass  painter,  who  instructed  them 
in  the  rudiments  of  drawing.  They  afterward 
made  further  progress  in  the  school  of  Abraham 
Bloemaart,  and  went  at  an  early  age  together  to 
France  and  Italy.  John,  attracted  by  the  works 
of  Claude  Lorraine,  chose  him  for  his  model ; 
Andrew  preferred  the  painting  of  the  human  fig- 
ure, and  imitated  the  style  of  Bamboccio.  But 
although  their  inclinations  led  them  in  different 
directions,  their  fraternal  affection  often  united 
their  talents  in  the  same  works.  Thus  Andrew 
painted  the  figures  in  the  landscapes  of  his 
brother ;  and  their  labors  harmonized  so  well, 
that  their  pictures  could  not  be  suspected  of 
coming  from  different  hands.  The  ease  and  fine 
coloring  in  the  beautiful  figures  of  John  cannot 
be  overlooked  in  spite  of  the  excess  of  yellow 
sometimes  found  in  them.  Andrew  was 
drowned  at  Venice  in  1650.  John,  inconsolable 
for  his  loss,  abandoned  Italy,  and  returned  to 
Utrecht,  where  he  died  shortly  after. 

Botha,  Christian,  Boer  commander:  b. 
the  Transvaal ;  d.  Kokstad,  Griqualand  West,  8 


BOTHA  —  BOTOCDOS 


Oct.  1902.  At  the  opening  of  the  Boer  war  in 
1899  he  led  a  commando  into  Natal  and  was 
active  in  the  siege  of  Ladysmith  and  at  the  de- 
fense of  the  Tugela  crossing.  After  the  relief 
of  Ladj'smith,  he  retreated  to  Laing's  Neck, 
where  he  was  left  by  his  brother,  Louis  Botha, 
in  command  of  the  Boer  forces.  By  opening 
negotiations  with  Gen.  Buller  he  delayed  that 
general's  advance  for  several  days,  and  after 
the  fall  of  Pretoria  he  was  placed  in  command 
of  all  the  Boer  forces  in  the  southeastern  Trans- 
vaal. His  frequent  raids  into  Zululand  effected 
the  diversion  that  allowed  Gens.  Louis  Botha 
and  De  Wet  to  continue  the  war. 

Botha,  Louis,  Boer  soldier:  b.  Greytown, 
Natal,  about  1864.  He  began  life  as  a  farmer, 
and,  as  a  young  man,  had  a  share  in  the  estab- 
lishment of  the  Transvaal  Republic.  Later  he 
fought  in  the  Kaffir  campaign.  He  was  elected 
to  the  Volksraad  at  Pretoria.  Upon  the  out- 
break of  the  Boer  war  with  England  in  1899  he 
was  given  a  subordinate  command,  and  upon 
the  death  of  Gen.  Joubert  in  March  1900  he 
became  comm-^ndcr-in-chief  of  the  Boer  iforces, 
gaining  victories  at  Spion  Kop  and  Colenso. 
In  1906  he  became  Prime  Minister  of  Pretoria. 

Bothie  (Gael,  bothag,  a  cot),  a  house,  usu- 
ally of  one  room,  for  the  accommodation  of  a 
number  of  work  people  engaged  in  the  same 
emplo3'ment ;  especially,  a  house  of  this  kind  in 
parts  of  Scotland,  in  which  a  number  of  un- 
married male  or  female  farm  servants  or  labor- 
ers are  lodged  in  connection  with  a  farm. 
Bothies  are  most  common  in  the  northeast  of 
Scotland,  and  are  chiefly  for  the  accommodation 
of  unmarried  male  farm  servants  engaged  on 
the  larger  farms,  who  as  a  rule  have  to  do  their 
cooking  and  keep  the  bothie  in  order  for  them- 
selves. The  bothie  system  has  often  been  con- 
demned. 

Bothnia,  the  name  formerly  given  to  a 
country  of  northern  Europe,  e.xtending  along 
the  east  and  west  shores  of  the  Gulf  of  Bothnia, 
the  east  portion  now  being  comprised  in  Fin- 
land, and  the  west  in  Sweden. 

Bothnia,  Gulf  of,  the  northern  part  of  the 
Baltic  Sea,  w-hich  separates  Sweden  from  Fin- 
land. It  commences  at  the  island  of  Aland,  lat. 
60°  N.,  and  extends  to  66°  ;  its  length  is  about 
450  miles,  its  breadth  from  90  to  130,  and  its 
depth  usually  from  20  to  50  fathoms.  As  its 
water  contains  little  salt,  it  freezes  over  in  the 
winter,  so  as  to  be  passed  by  sledges  and  car- 
riages. It  abounds  in  salmon  and  other  fish, 
and  also  in   seals. 

Bothriocephalus,  a  genus  of  cestoid  worms 
which  is  found  very  abundantly  in  the  intestines 
of  predaceous  fishes,  and  one  species  of  which 
is  sometimes  found  in  the  intestinal  canal  of 
man.  It  belongs  to  the  same  family  as  the  tape- 
worm (Tocnia  solium),  but  it  is  distinguished 
from  it  by  having  its  segments  broader  than 
they  are  long;  by  wanting  the  four  disks  which 
surround  the  head  of  the  tapeworm,  and  hav- 
ing in  their  place  two  lateral  longitudinal  open- 
ings; and  thirdly,  by  having  the  se.xual  organs 
on  one  of  the  flat  surfaces  of  each  segment 
instead  of  at  the  edges  of  the  segments.  The 
two  longitudinal  openings  (whence  the  worm  re- 
ceives its  name,  from  bothrion,  a  little  pit,  and 
kephalc,  the  head)  do  not  seem  to  be  organs  of 
nutrition,  but  merely  a  kind  of  suckers  by  which 


the  worm  is  enabled  to  attach  itself  to  the  intes- 
tines of  the  animal  which  it  infests,  while  it  is 
nourished  by  absorption  throughout  its  whole 
length.  Although,  as  already  stated,  this  worm 
generally  infests  the  bodies  of  predaceous 
fishes,  it  is  capable  of  being  transmitted  to  all 
vertebrate  animals,  and  especially  it  is  found  in 
those  birds  which  live  upon  fish.  The  only 
species  which  is  found  in  the  intestines  of  man 
is  the  Bothriocephalus  latus,  and  it  is  rare  to 
find  even  this  species  except  among  the  inhab- 
itants of  two  distinct  parts  of  Europe,  the  north 
and  the  centre.  It  is  found,  on  the  one  hand,  in 
Russia,  in  Norway,  and  in  Sweden,  and  on  the 
other  hand,  in  Switzerland,  the  north  of  Italy, 
some  provinces  of  Germany,  and  some  depart- 
ments of  France,  but  rarely  elsewhere.  It  has 
been  remarked  that  this  worm  is  common  where 
the  Taenia  or  true  tapeworm  is  rare,  and  vice 
versa.  It  is  rare  in  the  United  States,  but  with 
the  increase  of  emigration  from  the  regions  of 
Europe,  where  it  abounds,  its  appearance  may 
be  looked  for. 

Bothwell,    James    Hepburn,    Earl    of,    is 

known  in  Scottish  history  by  his  marriage  to 
Queen  Mary.  He  was  the  only  son  of  the  third 
earl:  b.  about  1536;  d.  1578.  He  succeeded  his 
father  in  1556,  thus  obtaining  important  offices 
and  estates,  and  by  1566  he  had  attained  to  high 
favor  with  the  queen.  The  plot  by  which  Darn- 
ley  lost  his  life  in  1567  was  of  his  contrivance, 
and  the  queen  was  suspected  of  conniving  at  it. 
Bothwell  was  charged  with  the  crime  and  under- 
went a  mock  trial,  being  of  course  acquitted. 
After  the  death  of  Darnley  he  seized  the  queen 
near  Edinburgh,  and  carrying  her  a  prisoner  to 
Dunbar  Castle,  prevailed  upon  her  to  marry  him. 
Before  this  he  had  divorced  his  own  wife,  Jean 
Gordon,  sister  of  the  Earl  of  Huntly.  Though 
seemingly  secure  in  the  possession  of  power,  and 
though  created  Duke  of  Orkney  by  the  unfortu- 
nate queen,  he  soon  found  that  his  conduct  had 
roused  the  indignation  of  the  kingdom.  A  con- 
federacy was  formed  against  him  by  the  barons, 
the  queen  was  liberated  from  his  power,  and  he 
escaped  to  the  Orkneys,  and  afterward  to  Nor- 
waJ^  The  Danish  authorities  kept  him  impris- 
oned for  some  time  at  Malmo,  latterly  at  Drang- 
holm  in  Zeeland,  where  he  died  insane.  See  the 
various  histories  of  Scotland,  and  the  ^Life  of 
BothwelP  by  Prof.  Schiern  (English  transla- 
tion  18S0). 

Bothwell,  Scotland,  a  village  of  Lanark- 
shire, on  the  north  bank  of  the  Clyde.  It  is 
situated  eight  miles  east  of  Glasgow,  and  about 
one  mile  beyond  it  stands  Bothwell  bridge,  where 
a  decisive  battle  was  fought  in  1679  between 
the  Scottish  Covenanters,  commanded  princi- 
pally by  their  clerg\',  and  the  royal  forces,  com- 
manded by  the  Duke  of  Monmouth,  in  which  the 
former  were  totally  routed.  Near  the  village 
are  the  fine  ruins  of  Bothwell  Castle,  once  a 
stronghold  of  the  Douglases. 

Botocdos,  or  Aymores,  a  Brazilian  race  of 
Indians.  They  live  70  to  90  miles  from  the  At- 
lantic, in  the  virgin  forests  of  the  coast  range 
(Serra  do  Mar  or  Serra  dos  Aymores),  on 
the  borders  of  the  forests  of  Minas-Geraes  and 
Espirito-Santo,  especially  on  the  Rio  Doce.  They 
receive  their  name  from  the  custom  which  they 
have  of  cutting  a  slit  in  their  under  lip  and  in 
the  lobes  of  their  ears,  and  inserting  in  these, 
by  way  of  ornament,  pieces  of  wood  shaped  like 


BOTRYCHIUM  —  BOTTARI 


ihe  bung  of  a  barrel  (Fortuguese  botoque). 
They  have  oblique  eyes  and  projecting  cheek- 
bones. Their  color  is  a  dirty  brown.  They  go 
quite  naked,  and  paint  their  bodies,  and  a 
Botocudo  warrior  with  his  lip  and  ear  plugs, 
his  body  painted  black  and  red,  and  his  face 
bright  red,  strongly  reminds  one  of  a  denizen  of 
the  infernal  regions.  They  are  very  skilful  vi^ith 
the  bow  and  arrow,  and  live  chiefly  by  hunting. 
They  now  number  only  a  few  thousands,  and 
are  decreasing. 

Botrychium,  a  genus  of  fern  (adder's- 
tongue),  of  the  sub-order  Osmimdca  and  tribe 
OphioglossecE,  characterized  by  its  distinct 
tliecce  in  a  compound  spike  attached  to  a  pinnate 
or  bipinnate  frond.  The  common  American 
species  are:  B.  hinaria,  common  moon  wort, 
which  grows  on  elevated  lands  and  pastures 
where  other  ferns  are  seldom  found.  It  was 
once  supposed  to  possess  great  virtues,  both 
magical  and  medicinal,  and  was  carefully  gath- 
ered by  the  light  of  the  moon.  B.  virginicum, 
the  largest  of  the  species,  is  known  by  the  name 
of  rattlesnake  fern,  from  growing  in  places  fre- 
quented  by  that  dangerous  reptile. 

Botrytis,  a  genus  of  fungi  belonging  to 
the  section  Hypomycetes,  and  familiar  by  name 
to  cultivators  from  its  connection  with  the 
potato  disease.  The  genus  contains  a  number 
of  those  minute  plants  known  as  inolds  and 
mildews,  and  of  these  some  have  the  peculiar 
habit  of  growing  in  the  tissues  of  living  vege- 
tables. The  threads  of  which  their  growth  con- 
sists creep  among  the  loose  cells  of  the  under 
side  of  leaves,  and  send  up  their  fertile  shoots 
through  the  stomata.  Many  kinds  of  Botrytis 
are  extremely  destructive  to  Various  plants. 
Whole  crops  of  onions  are  soon  destroyed  by 
one  species ;  legumes  suffer  from  another,  but 
in  a  less  degree;  and  a  third  species  is  some- 
times injurious  to  turnips.  The  decay  of  the 
leaves  and  stem  in  the  potato  disease  is  now 
charged  against  PJiytopJithtlwra  infcstens,  but 
old  writers  attributed  the  trouble  to  B.  infestcns. 
Though  extremely  injurious  to  the  farmer 
these  molds  are  sometimes  very  serviceable  by 
destroying  weeds.  Various  agricultural  pests 
may  often  be  seen  looking  yellow  and  unhealthy, 
when  an  examination  of  the  under  side  of  the 
leaves  will  show  that  this  is  owing  to  the  rav- 
ages  of   these   minute   parasites. 

Botta,  Anne  Charlotte  Lynch,  American 
author:  b.  Bennington,  Vt.,  1820;  d.  28  March 
1891.  She  was  educated  in  Albany,  N.  Y. ;  began 
her  literary  career  in  Providence,  R.  I.,  and, 
removing  to  New  York,  married  Prof.  Vincenzo 
Botta,  in  1855.  From  the  time  of  her  marriage 
to  her  death,  her  house  was  a  favorite  centre  of 
literary  and  art  circles.  Her  publications  in- 
cluded a  collection  of  poems,  many  essays,  re- 
views and  criticisms,  and  ^A  Handbook  of 
Universal  Literature.^  She  was  a  sculptor  of 
much  merit,  and  was  influential  in  promoting 
the  establishment  of  Barnard  College  for 
Women. 

Botta,  Carlo  Giuseppe  Guglielmo,  Italian 
statesman,  historian,  and  poet :  b.  San  Giorgio 
del  Canavese  in  Piedmont,  6  Nov.  1766;  d. 
Paris,  lu  Aug.  1837.  During  the  time  of  the 
French  Revolution  he  was  a  student  of  medicine 
at  Turin,  and  adopting  revolutionary  opinions 
with  enthusiasm,  he  suffered  for  his  zeal  by 
*.wo  years'  imprisonment   (1792-4).     After  pass- 


ing as  a  physician  he  entered  the  French  service, 
and  accompanied  the  expedition  which  Napoleon 
sent  to  Corfu,  and  he  was  soon  after  elected  as 
a  member  of  the  provisional  government  of 
Piedmont.  When  this  territory  was,  in  1803, 
annexed  to  the  French  empire,  Botta  was 
elected  a  member  of  the  Corps  Legislatif,  where 
his  behavior  was  characterized  by  a  bold  opposi- 
tion to  the  emperor.  During  the  ''Hundred 
Days*^  he  was  rector  of  the  academy  at  Nancy, 
and  after  the  second  return  of  the  Bourbons  he 
went  in  a  like  capacity  to  Rouen.  The  greater 
part  of  the  remainder  of  his  life  was  passed  by 
him  as  a  private  gentleman  at  Paris.  His  chief 
works  belong  to  the  department  of  history. 
Among  these  are:  'Storia  della  Guerra  dell' 
independenza  degli  Stati  Uniti  d' America^  ; 
<Storia  d'ltalia  dal  1789  al  1814'  (10  vols.).  He 
also  furnished  a  continuation  to  Guicciardini's 
Italian  History  from  1490-1534,  bringing  it  down 
to    1789. 

Botta,  Paul  Emile,  French  traveler  and 
archaeologist :  b.  about  the  beginning  of  the 
19th  century;  d.  Poissy,  April  1870.  He  was  a 
son  of  Carlo  Giuseppe  Botta  (q.v.).  While  still 
very  young  he  made  a  voyage  round  the  world, 
traversed  the  western  portion  of  America,  and 
took  part  as  physician  to  Mehemed  Ali  in  an 
expedition  which  set  out  from  Egypt  to  Sennaar, 
of  which  he  took  advantage  to  make  a  consider- 
able zoological  collection.  At  a  later  period  he 
was  appointed  French  consul  at  Alexandria, 
and  from  this  place  he  undertook  a  journey  to 
Arabia  in  1837,  the  scientific  results  of  which 
he  communicated  to  the  world  in  his  "^Relation 
d'un  Voyage  dans  I'Yemen.^  His  chief  service 
to  science  consists  in  his  having  discovered  the 
ruins  of  ancient  Nineveh,  a  discovery  made  by 
him  in  1843  in  the  course  of  excavations  in  the 
neighborhood  of  Mosul,  which  he  conducted 
with  great  energy  and  ability  while  acting  as 
consular  agent  for  the  French  government  at 
that  town.  As  the  result  of  investigations  made 
upon  the  spot  he  published  two  important  works, 
one  on  the  cuneiform  writing  of  the  Assyrians, 
*^Memoire  de  I'Ecriture  Cuneiforme  Assyrienne,' 
and  the  other  upon  the  monuments  of  Nineveh, 
< Monuments  de  Ninive^  (5  vols,  folio,  with 
drawings  by  Flandin,  Paris).  The  latter  is  a 
work  of  great  splendor,  and  marks  an  era  in 
Assyrian  antiquities.  From  1847  to  1857  Botta 
lived  as  French  consul-general  in  _  Jerusalem, 
and  from  1857  to  the  end  of  his  life  in  the  same 
capacity  at  Tripoli. 

Botta,  Vincenzo,  Italian  scholar:  b.  in 
Piedmont,  11  Nov.  1818;  d.  5  Oct.  1894.  He  was 
elected  to  the  Sardinian  parliament  in  1849. 
In  1853  he  settled  in  the  United  States  and  was 
appointed  professor  of  the  Italian  language  and 
literature  in  the  University  of  New  York.  He 
published  'Dante,-  <  Modern  Philosophy  in 
Italy,'    and    other    studies. 

Bottari,  Giovanni  Gaetano,  Rompn  Catho- 
lic prelate:  b.  Florence,  1689;  d.  _I775-  After 
completing  his  studies  he  was  admitted  a  mem- 
ber of  the  Academy  della  Crusca,  and  entrusted 
with  the  preparation  of  the  celebrated  dictionary 
of  that  body.  He  labored  for  six  years  on  this 
work,  which  was  published  in  6  volumes  folio. 
The  ability  which  he  displayed  in  it  induced  the 
Duke  of  Tuscany  to  give  him  the  management 
of  the  grand-ducal  printing  office.  He  left 
Florence   in    1730  and   settled   in   Rome,   where 


BOTTICELLI. 


Nymph  and   Centaur. 


UOTTESINI  —  BOTTIGER 


Pope  Clement  XII.  appointed  him  professor 
of  ecclesiastical  history  and  polemics  in  the  Col- 
legio  della  Sapienza ;  the  same  year  he  was  ap- 
pointed palatine  prelate.  Shortly  after  he  was 
employed  with  the  geometer  Manfredi  in  exam- 
ining the  course  of  the  Tiber  from  Perugia  to 
the  mouth  of  the  Nova,  with  the  view  of  render- 
ing it  navigable,  and  providing  a  remedy  against 
its  devastating  inundations.  The  excellent  re- 
port on  the  subject,  though  signed  by  Manfredi, 
is  said  to  have  been  drawn  up  by  Bottari.  As  a 
compensation  for  the  performance  of  this  task, 
the  Pope  appointed  him  keeper  of  the  Vatican 
library.  After  living  under  several  Popes,  all  of 
whom  treated  him  with  favor,  he  died  at  the  age 
of  86.  His  works,  in  addition  to  those  already 
mentioned,  are  partly  original  and  partly  cor- 
rected editions  of  celebrated  writings  previously 
published.  Among  the  former  are  'Lectures  on 
Boccaccio,  Livy,  and  Dante*  ;  among  the  latter 
is  a  splendid  edition  of  Virgil,  with  a  learned 
preface  and  notes,  and  a  corrected  edition  of 
Vasari's    'Lives   of  the   Painters.^ 

Bottesini,  Giovanni,  Italian  musician:  b. 
Crema,  Italy,  24  Dec.  1822;  d.  7  July  1889.  He 
was  taught  the  double-bass  in  Milan,  by  Luigi 
Rossi,  according  to  the  method  of  Andreoli  and 
Dragonetti,  and  soon  became  a  first  rate  per- 
former ;  meanwhile  stud\nng  musical  composi- 
tion under  several  distinguished  masters.  When 
scarcely  22,,  he  was  engaged  as  contrabassist  for 
the  Italian  opera  in  Havana,  where  in  a  few 
seasons  he  rose  to  the  post  of  maestro  and  musi- 
cal director  of  the  company.  Here  he  produced 
in  1846  his  first  opera,  'Cristoforo  Colombo.* 
During  the  five  years  of  his  stay  in  Havana,  he 
paid  occasional  visits  to  the  United  States, 
where  he  secured  considerable  fame  by  his  won- 
derful performances  in  the  concert  room.  His 
masterly  handling  of  the  huge  instrument  took 
everybody  by  surprise,  while  his  style,  at  once 
elegant  and  impressive,  won  the  admiration  of 
all  critics  and  amateurs.  His  success  on  his 
return  to  Europe  in  1851  was  not  less  complete; 
the  concerts  he  gave  in  London  and  Paris  es- 
tablished his  reputation  as  the  first  living  con- 
trabassist. In  1853  he  returned  to  the  United 
States  with  M.  Jullien,  and  afterward  accom- 
panied Madame  Sontag  to  Mexico.  Subse- 
quently he  became  director  of  the  orchestra  at 
the  Italian  opera  in  Paris,  where  his  opera 
*L'Assedio  di  Firenza*  was  successfully  per- 
formed during  the  spring  of  1856.  Other  works 
are:  <Ali  Baba*  (1871)  ;  'Ero  e  Leandro^ 
(1879)  ;  'Garden  of  Olivet*  (1887),  an  oratorio. 
He  also  published  numerous  overtures,  sympho- 
nies,  and   quartettes. 

Bottger,  or  Bottcher,  also  written  Bot- 
tiger,  Johann  Friedrich:  b.  Schleitz  about 
1681  ;  d.  Dresden  13  March  1719.  He  was  a 
Saxon  alchemist  whose  pretended  discovery  of 
the  philosopher's  stone  resulted  in  the  useful 
invention  of  Saxon  porcelain.  After  various 
vicissitudes  he  handed  over  to  King  Augustus 
II.  an  account  of  his  discovery,  which  is  still 
preserved  in  the  archives  of  Saxony.  The  king, 
however,  not  availing  himself  of  his  suggestions, 
they  were  put  in  application  by  Count  Tschirn- 
hausen,  who  established  a  manufactory  at  Weis- 
sen  in  1705,  employing  Bottger.  who  succeeded 
in  producing  of  the  reddish-brown  clay  which 
abounds  in  the  vicinity  of  Weissen  a  porcelain 
of  remarkable  beauty  and  solidity. 


Botticelli,  Alessandro  Filipepi,  a-les-san'- 
dro  fil-i-pa'pe  but-te-chel'le,  Italian  painter  of 
distinction  commonly  called  Sandro  Botticelli: 
b.  Florence  1447;  d.  there,  17  May  1510  or 
1515.  His  name  is  derived  from  that  of  Botti- 
cello,  his  first  master,  a  goldsmith,  from  whom 
he  acquired  his  knowledge  of  gold  afterward 
made  useful  by  his  employment  of  it  in  foliage, 
hair,  and  embroidered  tissues.  He  subsequently 
became  one  of  the  most  distinguished  pupils  of 
Filippo  Lippi,  the  Carmelite,  and  is  reckoned 
the  richest  and  most  fanciful  colorist  of  the 
Florentine  school.  He  excelled  both  in  devo- 
tional and  mythological  subjects  and  was  an 
admirable  painter  of  flowers.  He  was  employed 
by  the  most  influential  art  patrons  of  his  time, 
including  Lorenzo  de  Medici.  About  1481  he 
was  commissioned  by  Sixtus  IV.  to  paint  the 
walls  of  the  Sistine  Chapel ;  three  of  the  frescoes 
there  are  his  work:  'The  Life  of  Moses*; 
'The  Temptation  of  Christ'  ;  'The  Punishment 
of  Korah,  Dathan,  and  Abiram,*  and  several  of 
the  portraits  of  the  Popes.  He  became  an 
ardent  follower  of  Savonarola,  and  is  said  lat- 
terly to  have  neglected  his  art  and  suffered  many 
privations.  He  is  said  to  be  one  of  the  engravers 
of  a  celebrated  series  of  illustrations  executed 
by  Florentine  artists  toward  the  close  of  the 
15th  century,  notably  a  set  of  designs  fpr  the 
'Divina  Commedia'  of  Dante,  of  which  686  are 
in  the  Berlin  Museum.  His  works  are  to  be 
found  in  various  European  galleries,  his  Ma- 
donnas being  especially  characteristic  of  his 
style.  In  these  the  Virgin  appears  peculiarly 
slender  and  with  a  melancholy  expression  as 
if  oppressed  by  forebodings.  He  was  greatly 
esteemed  by  his  contemporaries,  but  subsequently 
fell  into  disfavor.  Although  opinions  as  to  his 
merits  differ  widely,  Botticelli  is  to-day  very 
popular  and  forms  the  theme  of  much  art  dis- 
cussion.     See      Ulmann,      'Sandro      Botticelli* 

(1893)  ;  Pater,  'Studies  in  the  History  of  the 
Renaissance*     (1873)  ;     Phillimore,     'Botticelli' 

(1894)  ;  Berenson,  'Florentine  Painters  of  the 
Renaissance*  (1898)  ;  Supino,  'Sandro  Botti- 
celli* (1900)  ;  Steinman,  'Botticelli*  (English 
translation  1901). 

Bottiger,  Karl  August,  German  writer, 
particularly  distinguished  as  an  archaeologist: 
b.  Reichenbach,  Saxony,  8  June  1760;  d.  Dres- 
den, 17  Nov.  1835.  After  a  philological  course 
at  Leipsic,  he  became  in  the  first  place  a  private 
tutor  at  Dresden,  and  then  successively  head- 
master of  a  school  at  Guben,  and  another  at 
Bautzen.  In  1791,  through  the  influence  of 
Herder,  he  became  director  of  the  gymnasium 
at  Weimar,  and  it  was  here  that,  while  he  en- 
joyed the  society  of  Goethe,  Schiller,  Wieland, 
and  other  distinguished  men,  he  began  his  fruit- 
ful literary  career.  In  1804  he  removed  to  Dres- 
den, where  he  devoted  himself  exclusively  to 
archaeology.  Ten  j'ears  later  he  was  appointed 
chief  inspector  of  the  Museum  of  Antiquities  in 
that  city,  where  he  continued  to  reside  to  the 
end  of  his  life.  In  1832  he  became  a  member 
of  the  French  Institute.  Among  his  most  im- 
portant works  are:  'Sabina,  or  Morning  Scenes 
of  a  Wealthy  Roman  Lady*  ;  'Griechiscl-.e  Vas- 
engemalde*  ('Paintings  on  Greek  Vases'); 
'Thoughts  on  the  Archaeology  of  Painting*  ; 
'Mythology  of  Art*  :  'Lectures  and  Essays  on 
Archaeolotn'*  ;   'Amalthea*    (3  vols.). 


BOTTLE  —  BOTTLING 


Bottle,  a  vessel  designed  to  hold  liquids, 
constructed  of  various  materials  and  in  various 
forms  according  to  the  necessities  of  local  man- 
ufacture and  the  demands  of  the  kind  of  liquid 
to  be  enclosed.  It  is  now  understood  to  mean 
a  vessel  made  of  glass,  with  a  more  or  less 
narrow  neck  and  mouth.  In  ancient  times,  how- 
ever, the  bottle  was  nothing  more  than  a  skin 
of  some  animal.  Thus  the  Biblical  aphorism 
concerning  the  putting  of  new  wine  into  old 
bottles  as  an  illustration  of  folly  means  that  it 
would  not  be  wise  to  trust  a  new  wine,  while  yet 
active  with  fermentation,  to  the  chance  of  burst- 
ing a  leathern  vessel  necessarily  weakened  by 
use  and  age.  In  Spain,  Turkey,  India,  and 
some  parts  of  South  America  to  this  day,  various 
skins,  and  especially  that  of  the  goat,  are  used 
for  containing  wine  and  water.  The  hide  is 
stripped  from  the  animal  as  entire  as  possible, 
and  the  various  natural  openings  having  been 
sewed  up,  with  the  exception  of  that  of  one  of 
the  legs,  which  is  retained  as  a  nozzle,  the 
vessel  is  ready,  after  a  certain  preliminary  cur- 
ing of  the  skin,  for  the  reception  of  the  wine. 
The  peculiar  taste  of  Amontillado  sherry  is  sup- 
posed to  be  owing  to  the  fact  of  its  being  kept 
in  leather.  The  ordinary  bottle  is,  however,  of 
glass.  The  various  bottles  used  for  different 
well-known  purposes  are  generally  distinguished 
by  peculiar  shapes  and  sizes,  as,  for  example, 
the  English  wine,  beer,  ale,  and  soda  bottles, 
the  French  champagne,  Burgundy,  and  claret, 
and  the  Rhenish  wine  bottles.  Port  wine  is  oc- 
casionally put  into  very  large  bottles,  called 
magnums,  and  acids  in  still  larger  ones  termed 
farboys. 

Bottle  Charts,  maps  of  the  terminal 
points  of  the  voyages  of  sealed  bottles  thrown 
into  the  sea,  and  either  drifting  to  land  or 
picked  up  afloat.  These  bottles  had  long  been 
used  by  the  victims  of  ship-wreck  to  convey 
messages  or  record  their  fate,  or  by  travelers  or 
seamen  for  joke  or  experiment;  but  the  first 
serious  note  taken  of  them  was  by  Lieut.  Becher 
of  the  British  navy,  who  in  1843  published  in 
the  ^Nautical  Magazine^  a  Mercator  chart  of 
the  Atlantic  coast  from  lat.  6°  S.  to  63°  N.,  or 
say  from  Cape  St.  Roque,  in  Brazil,  to  Hudson 
Strait,  with  straight  lines  from  start  to  finish 
of  a  number  of  bottle  voyages  he  had  noted, 
the  length  of  these  lines,  time  elapsed  since  set 
afloat,  etc.  Of  course  some  bottles  leak  and 
founder  and  others  are  crushed ;  but  he  was 
able  to  collect  119  bottles,  one  of  which  had 
traveled  3,900  miles  in  a  straight  line,  and  of 
course  far  more  in  fact,  and  4  over  2,000, 
while  the  time  of  voyage  varied  from  3  days 
to  16  years.  This  chart  has  been  repeatedly 
freshened  up  with  new  facts,  re-engraved,  and 
republished  in  the  ^Nautical  Magazine.^  Later, 
several  government  departments,  of  which  the 
United  States  Hydrographic  Office  is  far  the 
chief,  have  used  this  method  systematically  for 
the  study  of  ocean  currents.  The  office  fur- 
nishes shipmasters  with  papers  for  inclusion  in 
bottles,  containing  requests  in  several  different 
languages  for  their  delivery,  with  date  and  cir- 
cumstances of  finding,  to  the  nearest  United 
States  consul,  who  will  forward  them  to  Wash- 
ington. By  this  means  three  or  four  hundred 
new  bottle  voyages  have  been  registered,  with 
curious  results.  In  general,  their  track  is  re- 
markably uniform,  given  the  same  local  condi- 
tions.     Of   two    bottles    thrown    out    from    the 


Blonde  within  five  days  in  1826  (one  of  Becher  3 
list),  one  was  picked  up  14  and  the  other  16 
years  after  at  the  same  spot  on  the  French 
coast.  Yet  the  effect  of  local  winds  is  so 
great  that  of  two  set  afloat  simultaneously  at 
the  same  spot,  one  was  picked  up  on  the  Shet- 
lands,  the  other  on  the  west  coast  of  France. 
Just  north  of  the  Azores,  the  surface  conditions 
are  so  variable  that  of  five  bottles  thrown  out  in 
one  summer  within  100  square  miles,  one  drifted 
to  the  coast  of  Norway,  two  to  the  west  coast 
of  Ireland,  one  to  France,  and  one  to  Spain. 
The  longest  recorded  voj^age  was  about  8,500 
miles,  from  the  Allertons,  south  of  the  Falkland 
Islands,  to  the  shore  of  the  great  Australian 
Bight,  in  a  little  less  than  three  years.  See 
Chart;  Map. 

Bottle-gourd.     See  Calabash. 

Bottle-tree,  a  medium-sized  Australian 
tree  (Sierctilia  rupestris)  of  the  natural  order 
Stcrculiacecc.  From  the  top  of  the  globular 
stem,  as  from  the  mouth  of  a  bottle,  the 
branches  extend.  They  bear  lanceolate  leaves 
two  to  four  inches  long,  and  axillary  panicles 
of  inconspicuous  flowers  followed  by  leathery 
six-seeded  follicles.  The  soft  brittle  wood 
is  of  little  economic  value,  but  the  stems 
are  said  to  contain  much  water,  which  is  fre- 
quently obtained  by  the  natives  and  bj-  travelers. 
Some  other  allied  species,  also  called  bottle-tree, 
furnish  edible  mucilaginous  roots  which  are 
largely  used  by  the  aborigines. 

Bottlenose,  or  Bottlehead,  a  small  Arctic 
and  North  Atlantic  whale  {Hypcroodon  ros- 
tratiis)  closely  allied  to  the  sperm  whale,  and  so 
called  from  the  dolphin-like  shape  of  its  head  or 
snout,  where  the  two  pointed  teeth  are  in  the 
lower  jaw.  Placed  farther  back  than  ordinarily, 
and  in  smaller  proportion,  is  a  dorsal  fin ;  the 
skin  is  smooth,  and  glossy,  lead-colored  on  the 
back,  graduating  into  white  on  the  belly.  These 
whales  travel  in  small  bands,  generally  keeping 
just  south  of  the  Arctic  ice,  and  moving  north- 
ward during  the  breeding  season.  They  feed 
mainly  on  deep-water  squids,  for  which  they 
dive  to  great  depths.  Their  chief  value  lies  in 
the  amount  of  oil  and  spermaceti  that  they 
yield. 

Bottling,  the  process  of  enclosing  liquids  in 
bottles ;  including  the  operation  of  stopping  or 
corking.  The  use  of  bottles  for  retaining  liquids 
involves  three  requisites :  that  they  shall  be 
clean  enough  not  to  injure  the  purity,  taste,  or 
looks  of  the  contents,  or  the  looks  of  the  bot- 
tle, or  to  cause  chemical  action  which  will  do 
so ;  shall  be  strong  enough  to  resist  the  prob- 
able pressure ;  and  shall  have  stoppers  which 
will  not  be  disintegrated  or  corroded,  and  will 
be  tight  enough  not  to  let  air  in  or  volatile 
substances  out,  the  degree  of  such  precaution 
varying  with  the  liquid.  For  scientific  prepara- 
tions, which  includes  chemical  analysis  in  crim- 
inal cases,  an  indispensable  condition  is  that 
the  bottle  shall  contain  no  impurities  which  would 
cast  doubt  on  the  result ;  hence  chemists  in  such 
cases  use  only  new  bottles,  cleanse  them 
thoroughly  with  some  preparation  to  remove 
external  substances,  and  expose  them  to  a  red 
heat  before  using.  For  common  household  use, 
as  there  is  no  bottling  under  pressure,  the  kind 
or  weight  of  glass  is  of  no  importance.  For 
cleaning,  it  is  best  to  shake  up  with  warm 
water  and  caustic  soda  and  clean  with  a  bottle- 


BOTTOMRY  —  BOTTOMRY 


brush ;  to  clean  out  gummy  residues  like  paraf- 
fine  from  naphtha  and  gasoline  bottles,  shake 
up  with  sulphuric  acid. 

The  material  of  the  stopper  is  of  the  first 
importance.  For  scientific  use,  only  glass  is 
possible;  as  also  to  retain  corrosive  acids,  and 
perfumes  that  would  pass  through  the  pores  of 
a  cork,  in  which  latter  case  also  nice  taste  as 
well  as  security  is  a  desideratum.  In  general 
family  use,  for  volatile  fluids  like  gasoline  and 
naphtha,  and  ammonia  which  might  soak  up 
and  disintegrate  the  cork  and  let  its  gas  escape, 
rubber  is  the  usual  stopper.  In  commercial 
bottling  on  a  large  scale,  of  beer,  wine,  mineral 
waters,  and  carbonated  beverages  generally,  the 
only  stoppers  used  are  cork  and  rubber,  except 
in  the  case  of  siphons  with  valves.  For  wine, 
the  old-fashioned  long  cork,  driven  deep  in  and 
pulled  with  a  corkscrew,  still  holds  the  field. 
The  common  stopper  for  "soft^^  drinks,  and  in 
part  for  beer,  is  a  ^^terraced^'  rubber  one  fas- 
tened to  the  under  side  of  an  iron  cap,  and 
attached  to  the  neck  of  the  bottle  by  a  wire  loop 
whose  leverage  forces  the  rubber  tightly  into 
the  mouth  of  it,  and  can  be  easily  thrown  off 
and  the  stopper  removed.  But  in  the  United 
States,  for  beer  even  the  rubber  stopper  is  rap- 
idly being  displaced  by  a  patent  cork  made  in 
Baltimore, .  consisting  of  a  crimped  metal  cap 
lined  with  cork,  which  a  machine  tightens 
around  the  neck  of  the  bottle.  It  is  easily  lifted 
off  by  an  iron  ring,  thrown  over  the  neck  and 
pulled  up  by  a  short  handle;  is  much  cheaper 
than  the  permanent  rubber,  and  nearly  as 
handy;  and  is  cleaner,  as  good  houses  use  only 
new  ones.  Indeed  the  use  of  old  corks  re- 
cleaned  belongs  to  a  low  grade  of  goods.  For 
milk  bottles  and  others  of  which  the  corks  are 
to  last  but  a  few  hours,  and  need  no  strength, 
pasteboard  or  wood-pulp  are  much  used. 

Old  bottles,  however,  are  used  over  and  over ; 
and  here  thorough  cleanliness  is  a  prime  requi- 
site, both  for  salability  and  because  dregs  of  old 
liquor  might  ferment  and  ruin  the  new.  If  any 
corks  have  been  driven  in,  they  are  extracted 
by  machinery;  for  the  rest,  in  the  large  estab- 
lishments, the  bottles  are  placed  in  rows  of 
pockets  on  the  surface  of  a  large  drum,  which 
their  weight,  as  the  upper  rows  are  added  and 
the  emerging  ones  taken  off,  causes  to  revolve 
slowly  through  a  vat  of  hot  solution  of  caustic 
soda,  which  enters  the  open  mouths  and  eats  out 
the  sticky  remnants  of  the  last  filling.  They  are 
then  taken  out  and  placed  by  sets,  inverted,  in 
a  frame  over  revolving  brushes,  now  consisting 
almost  entirely  of  two  or  three  rubber  prongs  held 
apart  by  strings  or  centrifugal  force, —  the  old 
bristle  brushes  being  disused  because  they  wear 
out,  and  leave  bristles  in  the  bottles, —  at  a  speed  of 
from  2.500  to  3,000  times  a  minute;  then  rinsed 
in  frames  of  from  two  to  four  dozen  vertical 
sprinkling  tubes,  over  which  the  bottles  are  set, 
and  jets  of  hot  water  forced  into  them.  The 
filling  is  done  by  siphonage,  or  air  or  gas  pres- 
sure. A  simple  form  for  small  breweries  is  an 
open  trough  filled  from  a  barrel,  and  supplying 
.several  siphon  tubes  which  the  operator  starts 
by  sucking  them,  shifting  the  bottles  as  fast 
as  filled  ;  the  siphon  is  tilted  up  by  the  weight 
of  the  bottle  enough  to  give  a  flow,  and  the 
liquid  in  the  trough  is  kept  at  a  constant  level 
by  a  float.  But  in  the  larger  ones,  a  row  of 
barrels  or  hogsheads  is  drawn  upon  by  a  set  of 
rubber  pipes  with  stop-cocks,  to  which  the  bot- 


tles are  held  and  filled  by  means  of  air  or  gas 
pressure,  one  pipe  having  several  branches.  With 
carbonated  beverages  there  is  danger  of  the 
bottles  bursting,  and  they  are  filled  in  iron  cages 
open  only  at  the  top,  to  protect  the  workmen ; 
with  heavily  charged  waters  in  siphons,  the 
latter  are  of  tougher  glass  and  are  tested  before- 
hand, and  the  men  sometimes  wear  rubber  cov- 
erings for  face,  hands,  or  body.  With  flavored 
or  sweetened  drinks,  the  sirup  is  fed  into  the 
bottle  from  one  spout  while  the  carbonated 
water  comes  from  another ;  in  small  works, 
however,  the  sirup  is  put  in  first  and  the  bottle 
filled  right-side  up. 

The  recrimping  of  patent  corks  has  been  de- 
scribed ;  the  old-fashioned  long  corks  are  shaped 
by  a  compressor  and  driven  indb  the  bottles  by  a 
plunger,  operated  either  by  hand  or  foot,  or  a 
self-feeder  which  can  do  2,000  an  hour.  The 
corks  are  previously  thrown  into  a  hollow  re- 
volving drum  for  several  hours,  to  rub  against 
and  batter  each  other,  which  knocks  off  the 
loose  chips  and  shakes  out  the  dust ;  then 
soaked  and  rinsed.  There  are  wiring  machines 
for  either  the  small  wires  over  the  long  corks, 
or  the  hinged  wires  with  the  rubber  stoppers. 
The  bottles  when  filled  and  corked  are  labeled  by 
a  machine,  usually  the  bottles  being  laid  in  a  crib 
with  expansible  sides,  and  a  plunger  forcing 
them  down  against  the  label,  which  at  the  same 
time  is  picked  up  and  moved  under  the  bottle 
across  a  paste  roll ;  sometimes  the  label  is 
pressed  against  the  bottle.  The  speed  of  this 
process  is  practically  limited  only  by  the  ability 
of  the  workman  to  feed  bottles  to  the  machine. 
A  special  label  is  sometimes  fitted  over  the  cork, 
for  security  against  refilling  the  bottles  of  a 
reputed  firm  with  inferior  liquors.  Sometimes 
the  corks  have  a  stamp  or  brand  burnt  into 
them  with  a  hot  die  pressed  down  by  a  machine. 
Finally,  the  corks  are  often  covered  with  tin- 
foil or  caps  of  some  kind ;  the  former  is  done 
by  hand. 

Much  capital  is  invested  in  this  business,  and 
there  is  a  national  association  composed  of 
manufacturers.  Returns  are  made  by  nearly  all 
these  firms  and  companies  to  the  association, 
from  which  it  appears  that  this  industry  em- 
ploys nearly  30,000  persons ;  it  serves  4,489,038 
customers,  owns  22,940  horses,  employs  a  capi- 
tal of  nearly  $51,000,000,  and  owns  bottles  to 
the  value  of  $12,747,633.  Its  loss  of  bottles 
annually  is  $3,522,804.  In  this  line  are  con- 
sumed annually,  besides  bottles,  corks  in  great 
number,  wire,  patented  arrangements  for  clos- 
ing bottles,  paper  boxes  for  holding  bottles, 
sealing  wax,  and  labels.  The  cost  of  these  mate- 
rials is  given  at  $7,937,001.  The  capacity  of 
corking-machines  reaches  2,000  bottles  per  hour; 
that   of   labelling-machines    12,000   bottles   daily. 

Bot'tomry  is  the  hypothecation  or  pledge 
of  a  vessel  for  the  payment  of  a  debt.  The 
creditor  has  no  right  to  take  possession  of  the 
ship  until  the  expiration  of  the  time  for  which 
the  loan  is  made,  and  then  (under  a  bottomry 
contract  in  the  usual  form)  only  by  the  inter- 
vention of  an  admiralty  court.  If  the  loan  is 
not  repaid  at  the  stipulated  time,  the  lender 
applies  to  an  admiralty  court,  which  (the  truth 
of  the  claim  being  established")  decrees  a  sale 
of  the  ship  to  satisfy  the  debt.  The  conditions  of 
such  a  contract  usually  are  that,  if  the  ship 
is  not  lost  or  destroyed  by  those  risks  which  the 


BOTTS  —  BOUCHARDON 


lender  agrees  to  run,  the  debt  is  to  become 
absolute.  The  risks  assumed  by  the  lender  are 
usually  the  same  as  are  enumerated  in  a  common 
policy  of  insurance.  If  the  ship  is  wholly  lost 
HI  consequence  of  these  risks,  the  lender  loses 
his  loan.  In  case  of  a  partial  damage,  the  bot- 
tomry bond  usually  provides  that  this  damage 
shall  be  borne  by  the  lender  in  the  proportion 
of  the  amount  loaned  to  the  value  of  the  ship. 
If  this  amount  is  equal  to  half  the  value  of  the 
ship,  the  lender  is  to  bear  half  the  amount  of 
such  loss,  etc.  As  the  lender  thus  assumes  a 
certain  risk  he  is  justly  entitled  to  a  greater 
interest  than  if  he  did  not  thus  take  the  hazard 
of  the  loss  of  the  whole  loan ;  and  this  is  called 
♦•marine  interest.^^  He  is  entitled  to  the  usual 
rate  of  interest  on  his  loan,  in  addition  to  the 
usual  premium  of  insurance  for  the  same  voy- 
age or  period.  The  stipulation  for  such  a  rate 
of  marine  interest  is  not  a  violation  of  the 
laws  against  usury,  for  it  is  not  merely  a  com- 
pensation for  the  use  of  the  money  lent,  but 
also  for  the  risk  assumed.  The  ship-owner 
may  borrow  money  on  bottomry  whether  his 
vessel  be  in  port  or  at  sea.  But  the  captain  of 
the  ship,  as  such,  cannot  so  borrow  when  in  the 
port  where  the  owner  resides,  or  near  enough 
to  consult  him  on  any  emergency.  In  any 
other  port  he  may  pledge  the  ship  on  bottomry 
for  the  purpose  of  raising  money  necessary  for 
repairing,  suppljang,  and  navigating  her,  if  he 
can  obtain  it  in  no  other  way.  If  he  borrow 
thus  without  necessity  the  bond  is  void,  and 
the  lender  can  look  only  to  the  personal  respon- 
sibility of  the  captain. 

Botts,  John  Minor,  American  legislator: 
b.  Dumfries,  Va.,  i6  Sept.  1802;  d.  Culpeper, 
Va.,  7  Jan.  1869.  He  studied  law  and  in  1833 
entered  the  Virginia  legislature.  He  was 
elected  to  Congress  in  1839  and  was  frequently 
re-elected.  Upon  the  outbreak  of  the  Civil  War 
he  asserted  his  devotion  to  the  Union,  and  in 
1862  he  suffered  imprisonment  on  that  account. 
After  the  war  he  published  'The  Great  Rebel- 
lion, Its  Secret  History,  Rise,  Progress,  and  Dis- 
astrous Failure-'  ;  was  one  of  Jefferson  Davis' 
bondsmen ;  and  attended  the  Convention  of 
Southern  Loyalists  in  Philadelphia. 

Botulism,  bot'ii-lism,  a  form  of  poisoning 
due  to  the  eating  of  tainted  sausages,  ham,  head- 
cheese, or  other  impure  meats.  As  a  rule  a 
certain  stage  of  decomposition  has  taken  place 
in  the  meat.  Bacteria  are  abundant  and  gen- 
erate toxins,  some  of  which  are  responsible  for 
the  symptoms,  which  are  those  of  acute  gastro- 
intestinal irritation.  There  is  usually  a  period 
of  from  12  to  24  hours  (even  48  hours)  after  the 
eating  of  the  meat  before  symptoms  develop. 
The  symptoms  are  various ;  there  may  be 
intense  muscular  weakness,  with  sudden  nausea 
and  vomiting;  chills,  small  rapid  pulse,  cold 
extremities,  headache,  and  pain  are  also  present. 
Following  the  chilly  sensations  the  temperature 
may  rise,  even  to  103°  or  104°  F.  Cramps, 
delirium,  hallucinations,  diarrhoea,  and  intense 
prostration  may  also  be  present.  In  some  sud- 
den and  severe  cases  death  has  resulted  with 
cholera-like  symptoms.  Recovery  is  very  pro- 
tracted. Many  of  the  cases  resemble  internal 
hemorrhage,  and  great  difficulty  sometimes  exists 
in  the  diagnosis.  There  are,  however,  more 
intestinal  symptoms  as  a  rule  in  meat  poison- 
ing    (ptomaine    ooisoning).     Abstaining     from 


all  tainted  meats  is  the  sole    preventive.      See 
Poisons. 

Boturini  Benaduci,  bot-ii-re'ne  ba-na-doo'- 
che,  Lorenzo,  Italian  antiquarian:  b.,  Milan 
about  1702;  d.  Madrid  about  1750.  In  1736  he 
went  to  Mexico  and  traveled  there  among  the 
Indians,  collecting  a  large  number  of  their 
writings  and  valuable  Spanish  records ;  these 
finally  came  into  the  possession  of  the  Mexican 
government  and  have  been  mostly  lost  or 
destroyed.  He  afterward  lived  in  Spain,  where 
he  held  the  office  of  historiographer  for  the 
Indies.  He  wrote  'Idea  de  Una  Nueva  Historia 
de  America.' 

Bot'zen,  or  Bolzano,  bol-tza'nd,  Austria, 
a  town  in  the  Tyrol,  54  miles  south  of  Inns- 
bruck, at  the  confluence  of  the  Talfer  with  the 
Eisack.  It  is  a  well-built,  flourishing  town, 
surrounded  by  a  wall  two  miles  in  length,  built 
to  protect  it  from  a  mountain  torrent  close  by. 
The  parish  church  is  a  Gothic  building  of  the 
14th  century,  with  an  elegant  spire;,  adjoin- 
ing it  is  the  new  cemetery.  The  other  objects 
worthy  of  notice  are :  the  church  of  St.  Nicho- 
las, a  gymnasium,  custom-house,  two  monas- 
teries, a  normal  school,  and  a  nunnery.  It  has 
some  silk  and  woolen  manufactures,  tanneries, 
dye-works,  etc.  Botzen  has  an  important  transit 
trade,  and  has  four  annual  fairs,  resorted  to 
by  commercial  travelers  from  all  parts  of  Italy 
and  Germany.  In  the  environs  wine  and  fruits 
are  produced.     Pop.  about  12,000. 

Bouch,  bowch.  Sir  Thomas,  English  civil 
engineer :  b.  Thursley,  Cumberland,  22  Feb. 
1822;  d.  Moffat,  30  May  1880.  He  was  early 
attracted  to  engineering  studies,  and  in  1839 
began  his  apprenticeship  to  a  civil  engineer  in 
the  north  of  England.  He  was  a  resident  engi- 
neer on  the  Stockton  &  D.  Ry.  for  a  period  of 
four  years,  and  in  1849  went  to  Scotland  as 
manager  and  engineer  of  the  Edinburgh  & 
Northern  Ry.  While  in  the  service  of  this 
company  he  devised  a  sort  of  floating  railway 
for  carrying  goods  trains  across  such  estuaries 
as  those  of  the  Forth  and  Tay.  After  this  he 
was  for  a  time  engaged  in  railwaj^  construction 
in  England.  He  was  engineer  of  the  first  rail- 
way bridge  across  the  Tay,  which  was  com- 
pleted in  September  1877,  and  opened  in  May 
of  the  following  year.  For  this  he  received  the 
freedom  of  Dundee,  and  in  1879  the  honor  of 
knighthood.  On  28  December  of  that  year  the 
bridge  gave  way  during  a  stormy  night,  while 
a  train  with  some  70  passengers  was  crossing. 
All  were  drowned,  and  the  accident  caused 
such  severe  mental  distress  to  Sir  Thomas 
Bouch  that  it  undoubtedly  hastened  his  death. 

Bouchardon,  Edme,  ed-ma  boosh-ar-doh, 
French  sculptor:  b.  Chaumont-en-Bassigny, 
1698;  d.  Paris,  27  July  1762.  In  order  to  devote 
himself  to  statuary  he  went  to  Paris  and  entered 
the  school  of  the  younger  Coustou.  He  soon 
gained  the  highest  prize,  and  was  made  royal 
pensioner  at  Rome.  The  Duke  d'Antin  recalled 
him  to  Paris  and  gave  him  a  studio  at  the 
Louvre.  He  assisted  in  repairing  the  fountain 
of  Neptune  at  Versailles,  and  executed  10 
statues  which  adorn  the  church  of  St.  Sulpice. 
The  fountain  in  the  Rue  de  Crenelle,  which  the 
city  of  Paris  ordered  to  be  constructed  in  1739, 
was  made  by  him.  and  is  considered  his  master- 
piece. The  execution  of  the  greatest  monument 
of  that  period,   the  equestrian   statue  of   Louis 


BOUCHER  —  BOUCICAULT 


XV.,  which  was  erected  by  order  of  the  city  of 
Paris,  was  committed  to  hini.  He  labored  12 
j-ears  on  this  with  inconceivable  perseverance, 
and  has  left  in  the  horse  a  model  which  may 
be  ranked  with  any  work  of  antiquity.  His 
pieces  bear  the  character  of  simple  grandeur, 
but,  in  general,  more  fire  is  to  be  desired  in  his 
sculpture.  Latterly  he  adopted  a  more  polished, 
delicate  manner,  to  suit  the  taste  of  the  age. 
Caylus  has  written  his  life. 

Boucher,  boo-sha,  Alfred,  French  sculp- 
tor: b.  Bouy-sur-Orvin,  1850.  He  studied 
under  Dumont  and  Paul  Dubois.  His  statues 
include  <Venus  Astarte^  and  *At  the  End,^ 
both  bought  by  the  French  government  for  the 
Luxembourg  Gardens;  *Eve  After  the  FalP ; 
'The  Earth'  ;  and  'A  Sleeping  Woman. ^ 

Boucher,  Frangois,  fran-swa,  French 
painter:  b.  Paris,  29  Sept.  1703;  d.  30  May  1770. 
While  a  pupil  of  the  celebrated  Lemoyne  he 
gained  at  the  age  of  19  the  first  prize  of  the 
Academy.  He  produced  with  remarkable  facil- 
ity, and  his  sketches  alone  amounted  to  more 
than  10.000.  He  also  etched  some  plates,  and 
many  of  his  paintings  have  been  engraved. 
Some  of  his  more  important  works  are:  *L'Au- 
rore  et  C^phale'  ;  *  Diane  Sortant  du  Bain'  ; 
'Femme  Couchee'  ;  *Le  But'  ;  *Le  Repos  en 
Egypte'  ;  etc.  He  was  a  director  of  the  Acad- 
emy of  Painters. 

Boucher,  bow'-cher,  Jonathan,  English 
clergyman:  b.  Cumberland,  12  March  1738;  d. 
Epsom,  27  April  1804.  He  came  to  Virginia 
about  1754;  officiated  first  as  private  teacher, 
and,  after  receiving  episcopal  ordination  in  Eng- 
land, as  rector  in  Virginia  and  Maryland  until 
1775,  when  he  returned  to  his  native  country, 
his  anti-revolutionary  sentiments  having  given 
umbrage  to  his  American  congregation.  From 
1784  to  the  time  of  his  death  he  officiated  as 
vicar  of  Epsom,  Surrey.  He  is  the  author  of 
a  glossary  of  provincial  and  archaeological 
words,  which  was  intended  by  him  as  a  supple- 
ment to  Dr.  Johnson's  dictionary.  In  1799  he 
published  2  assize  sermons,  and  15  sermons 
which  he  had  delivered  during  his  ministry  in 
America,  and  which  treated  of  the  American 
Revolution.  These  he  dedicated  to  Washing- 
ton ;  they  are  interesting  from  the  political  anec- 
dotes which  they  contain. 

Boucher,  Pierre,  pe-ar  boo-sha,  French 
pioneer  in  America :  b.  Perche,  France,  1622 ;  d. 
Bouchdrville,  Canada,  20  April  1717.  He  came 
to  Canada  in  1635,  took  part  in  an  Indian  war, 
and  was  sent  to  France  in  1660  as  a  deputy  for 
the  colony  of  New  France.  He  was  later  made 
governor  of  Three  Rivers.  He  wrote  ^A  True 
History  of  the  Customs  and  Products  of  New 
France.' 

Boucher  de  Crevecoeur  de  Perthes, 
Jacques,  zhak  boo-sha  de  krav-kcr-de  part, 
French  anthropologist:  b.  Rethel,  10  Sept.  1788; 
d.  Abbeville,  5  Aug.  1868.  Through  his  father, 
an  active  botanist,  he  came  under  the  notice 
of  Napoleon,  and  was  employed  in  numerous 
missions  to  Italy,  Germany,  Austria,  and  Hun- 
gary. After  the  Restoration  he  lived  at  Abbe- 
ville. He  wrote  travels,  poems,  and  an  early 
apology  for  free  trade;  but  only  his  works  on 
the  arc'hseology  of  man  are  of  consequence  now. 
The  first.  'Oii  the  Creation'  (5  vols.  1839-41). 
already  brought  him  some  reputation,  but  his 
long  investigations  on  stone  weapons  piri  other 


remains  of  early  human  civilization  in  the  Ter- 
tiary and  older  Quaternary  Diluvial  strata  made 
him  famous.  His  most  striking  discovery  wau 
that  of  a  fossil  human  jawbone  in  the  quarries 
of  Moulin-Quignon,  near  Abbeville,  in  1863. 
Other  works  of  great  value  are  < Celtic  and 
Antediluvian  Antiquities'  (3  vols.  1846-65)  ; 
and  'Antediluvian  Man  and  His  Works'  (1860!. 

Bouches  -  du  -  Rhone,  boosh  dii  ron, 
("Mouths  of  the  Rhone";,  a  department  in  the 
south  of  France,  in  the  ancient  government  of 
Provence,  bounded  north  by  Vaucluse,  west  by 
Gard,  east  by  Var,  and  south  by  the  Mediter- 
ranean. Chief  town,  Marseilles.  Area,  1,971 
square  miles,  of  which  about  half  is  under  cul- 
tivation, the  remainder  being  occupied  by  for- 
ests, heaths,  wastes,  water,  etc.  Between  the 
Rhone  and  the  lagoon  of  Berre  is  the  great 
plain  of  La  Crau.  Its  borders  are  tolerably 
well  cultivated  and  support  a  number  of  cat- 
tle; but  the  centre  is  little  better  than  a  desert 
of  stones  and  pebbles,  affording,  however,  winter 
pasture  for  sheep.  The  Rhone  is  the  principal 
river;  near  Aries  it  divides  into  two  branches 
which  enclose  an  island  called  La  Camargue. 
Several  canals  facilitate  transport  and  are  espe- 
cially useful  for  irrigation.  The  climate  is  gen- 
erally very  warm,  with  little  rain  during  the 
summer.  A  cold  and  generally  violent  wind, 
called  mistral,  always  blows  from  the  Cevennes 
after  rain.  It  lasts  from  3  to  9,  sometimes, 
though  rarely,  even  12  days,  and  dries  up  the 
ground  with  astonishing  rapidity.  The  soil  of 
the  department  is  for  the  most  part  arid  and 
unproductive  without  irrigation.  Vines,  how- 
ever, thrive,  and  almonds,  figs,  capers,  nuts,  and 
particularly  olives,  are  extensively  cultivated. 
The  minerals  are  of  little  commercial  impor- 
tance. Salt  is  extensively  manufactured  from 
the  lagoons,  and  the  salt-works  of  Berre  are 
celebrated  both  for  the  quality  and  quantity  of 
their  produce.  The  articles  manufactured, 
besides  salt,  are  principally  soap,  brandy,  olive 
oil  (the  best  in  France),  soda,  chemicals,  vine- 
gar, scents,  leather,  glass,  etc.  The  fisheries  are 
productive.  The  department  includes  the  three 
arrondissements  of  Marseilles,  Ai.x,  and  Aries. 
Pop.    (1896)   673,820. 

Boucicault,  Dion,  di'on  boo'se-ko,  Irish 
dramatic  author  and  actor :  b.  Dublin,  26  Dec. 
1822;  d.  New  York,  18  Sept.  1890.  He  was 
educated  at  London  University  and  wrote  his 
first  play,  'London  Assurance,'  when  he  was 
only  19  years  old.  This  was  produced  at  the 
Covent  Garden  Theatre  in  London  and  won 
immediate  success.  He  made  his  first  appear- 
ance as  an  actor  in  1852  in  his  own  play.  'The 
Vampire'  ;  in  1853-60  he  was  in  the  United 
States,  where  his  success  on  the  stage  was  as 
great  as  it  had  been  in  England.  He  founded  a 
theatre  in  Washington  and  reconstructed  the 
Metropolitan  Theatre  in  New  York,  but  was  not 
very  successful  as  a  manager.  Returning  to 
London  in  i860  he  brought  out  'The  Colleen 
Bawn.'  one  of  his  best-known  plays,  and  was 
at  one  time  joint  manager  of  the  Adelphi  and 
manager  of  a  new  theatre,  the  Westminster. 
The  latter  venture  was  unsuccessful,  but  he 
shortly  afterward  brought  out  a  number  of  very 
popular  plays.  In  1876  he  came  to  New  York, 
where  he  lived  until  his  death.  He  continued 
his  work  as  both  actor  and  playwright,  and  also 
opened   the   New    Park  Theatre   on   Broadway. 


BOUCICAULT  —  BOUGAINVILLE 


Boucicault  wrote  about  400  plays,  many  of 
which  were  adaptations;  among  the  best  not 
already  mentioned  are:  *01d  Heads  and  Young 
Hearts^  ;  ^Love  in  a  Maze^  ;  ^Used  Up^  ;  *^Cor- 
sican  Brothers^ ;  ^The  Octoroon,^  dealing  with 
the  condition  of  the  slaves  in  the  United  States ; 
'The  Streets  of  London^  ;  'The  Shaughraun^  ; 
'Daddy  O'Dowd^  ;  and  'Foul  Play,^  a  dramati- 
zation of  Charles  Reade's  novel  of  the  same 
name.  In  'The  Colleen  Bawn^  he  created  one 
of  his  favorite  types,  the  Irish  hero  that  appears 
in  many  of  his  plays.  He  also  rewrote  and 
adapted  'Rip  Van  Winkle^  especially  for  Joseph 
Jefferson's  use.  While  writing  his  numerous 
plays  he  found  time  to  engage  in  a  political  con- 
troversy with  Lord  Beaconsfield  over  the  rights 
and  liberties  of  the  Irish  people.  He  intro- 
duced many  improvements  in  the  staging  of 
plays,  being  the  first  to  use  carpets  on  the 
stage  and  moving  scenery. 

Boucicault,  Mrs.  Dion,  English  actress. 
Before  her  marriage  to  Boucicault  she  had  won 
success  as  Agnes  Robertson  in  'Our  Clerks^ 
and  other  plays.  After  her  marriage  she  came 
with  her  husband  to  the  United  States,  but 
returned  with  him  to  London  in  i860  and  took 
important  parts  in  several  of  his  plays.  She 
again  came  to  the  United  States  and  was  later 
separated   from  her  husband. 

Boudin,  Eugene,  e-zhan  boo-dan,  French 
painter:  b.  Honl^eur,  12  July  1824;  d.  8  Aug. 
1898.  He  lived  in  Paris  for  most  of  his  life, 
traveling  somewhat  in  Brittany  and  Holland. 
He  was  devoted  to  the  painting  of  seaports  and 
river  scenes,  the  gray  expanses  of  French  skj'^s 
and  waters,  the  picturesque  confusion  of  ships 
in  hai-bors.  Among  his  works  are:  'Fishing*; 
'The  Meuse  at  Rotterdam*  ;  'Low  Tide*  ; 
'High  Tide*;  'Getting  Under  Sail*;  'A  Dutch 
Bark  at  Antwerp*;  and  'Bordeaux  Harbor.* 

Boudinot,  boo-di-not,  Elias,  American 
philanthropist:  b.  Philadelphia,  21  April  1740; 
d.  Burlington,  N.  J.,  24  Oct.  1821.  He  studied 
law  at  Princeton  with  Richard  Stockton,  and 
in  1760  commenced  practice  at  Elizabethtown, 
N.  J.  He  early  became  a  devoted  advocate  of 
the  patriot  cause,  and  in  1774  was  a  member 
of  the  Provincial  Convention  which  took  the 
control  of  New  Jersey  out  of  Gov.  Franklin's 
hands.  Congress  appointed  him  commissary- 
general  of  prisoners,  15  Maj'-  1777;  he  was 
elected  to  Congress  in  1777,  1780,  1781,  and 
1782,  and  was  chosen  its  president  4  Nov.  1782, 
and  as  such  signed  the  treaty  of  peace  with 
Great  Britain.  He  was  director  of  the  mint  at 
Philadelphia  1795-1805,  being  appointed  by 
Washington,  whose  trusted  friend  and  counsel- 
lor he  was  throughout  the  Revolution  and 
afterward.  From  1772  to  1805  a  trustee  of  the 
College  of  New  Jersey  (Princeton),  he  founded 
its  cabinet  of  natural  history  with  a  liberal  con- 
tribution. He  was  active  in  the  organization  of 
the  American  Bible  Society,  becoming  in  1816 
its  first  president.  By  his  will  he  left  the  bulk 
of  his  large  estate  to  various  institutions  and 
charities.  He  wrote:  'The  Age  of  Revelation^ 
(1790).  to  counteract  Paine's  'Age  of  Reason*  ; 
'Oration  4  July  1793,'  before  the  New  Jersey 
Society  of  the  Cincinnati;  'Second  Advent  of 
the  Messiah*  (1815)  ;  'The  Star  of  the  West* 
(1816} ,  an  attempt  to  identify  the  North 
American  Indians  with  the  descendants  of  the 
lost  tribes  of  Israel. 


Boudinot,  Elias,  Cherokee  Indian:  d.  10 
June  1839.  He  was  one  of  three  Cherokee  youth 
brought  before  Elias  Boudinot  (1740-1821)  in 
1818,  and  he  received  that  philanthropist's  per- 
mission to  assume  his  name.  He  was  educated  at 
the  mission  school  at  Cornwall,  Conn.,  and 
married  a  white  lady  of  that  place.  He  became 
a  man  of  considerable  talent  and  ability,  and  of 
influence  among  his  people.  In  December  1835, 
he,  with  others  of  his  nation,  was  persuaded 
to  make  a  treaty  with  the  United  States.  He 
was  thereupon  accused  of  having  betrayed  his 
country  and  was  murdered  by  the  John  Ross 
party  west  of  the  Mississippi,  10  June  1839. 
He  published  'An  Address  to  the  Whites* 
(1826),  delivered  at  Philadelphia,  25  May  1825, 
and  edited  the  Cherokee  Plicenix,  1828-34. 

Bouflflers,  Louis  Frangois,  loo-e  frah-swa 
boo-flar  (Due  de,  diik  de),  French  soldier:  b. 
10  Jan.  1644;  d.  Fontainebleau,  20  Aug.  1711. 
He  saw  active  service  under  Conde,  Turenne, 
Crequi,  Luxembourg,  and  Catinat,  and  was  cre- 
ated a  marshal  of  France  in  1693.  His  defense 
of  Namur  in  1695,  and  of  Lille  in  1708,  are 
famous.  The  siege  of  the  former  place  was 
conducted  by  King  William  in  person,  and  cost 
the  allies  more  than  20,000  men.  The  latter 
was  conducted  by  Prince  Eugene.  An  order 
was  sent  from  Louis  XIV.,  signed  by  his  own 
hand,  commanding  Boufflers  to  surrender;  but 
he  kept  it  secret  until  all  means  of  defense  were 
exhausted.  The  retreat  of  the  French  after 
their  defeat  at  Malplaquet,  under  the  direction  of 
Boufflers,  was  more  like  a  triumph  than  a  defeat. 

Boufflers,  Stanislaus,  Chevalier  de,  she- 
va-le-a  de  stan'is-low,  French  soldier  and 
author  (son  of  the  Marchioness  of  Boufflers, 
mistress  of  Stanislaus,  king  of  Poland)  :  b.  Luni- 
ville,  31  May  1738;  d.  Paris,  18  Jan.  1815.  He 
entered  the  army,  was  soon  appointed  governor 
of  Senegal,  and  while  in  this  ofiice  made  many 
useful  regulations.  After  his  return  he  devoted 
himself  to  that  light  kind  of  literature  which 
distinguished  the  age  of  Louis  XV.  His  repu- 
tation gave  him  a  seat  in  the  States-General, 
where  he  was  esteemed  for  his  moderation  and 
his  good  intentions.  After  10  Aug.  1792  he  left 
France  and  met  with  a  friendly  reception  at 
Reinsberg  from  Prince  Henry  of  Prussia,  and 
Frederick  William  II.  A  large  grant  was  made 
to  him  in  Poland  for  establishing  a  colony  of 
French  emigrants.  In  1800  he  returned  to  Paris, 
where  he  devoted  himself  to  literary  pursuits 
which  in  1804  procured  him  a  seat  in  the  French 
Institute.  He  lies  buried  near  the  Abbe  Delille, 
and  on  his  tomb  is  this  inscription,  written  by 
himself  and  characteristic  of  his  lively  dispo- 
sition:  "Mes  amis,  croyez  que  je  dors.**  His 
works  were  published  in  8  i2mo  volumes  in 
181S. 

Bougainville,  Louis  Antoine  de,  loo-e  an- 
twan  de  boo-gan-vel,  French  soldier  and 
statesman:  b.  Paris,  11  Nov.  1729;  d.  same 
place,  31  Aug.  181 1.  At  first  a  lawyer,  after- 
ward a  distinguished  soldier,  diplomatist,  and 
scholar,  he  was  always  remarkable  for  his  energy 
of  character.  He  fought  bravely  in  Canada 
under  Montcalm,  and  it  was  principally  owing 
to  his  exertions  in  1758  that  a  body  of  5,000 
French  withstood  successfully  a  British  army  of 
16,000  men.  Toward  the  _  conclusion  of  the 
battle  he  received  a  shot  in  the  head.  The 
governor  of  Canada,  finding  himself  unable  to 


BOUGAINVILLE  ISLAND  —  BOUGIE 


defend  the  colony,  sent  Bougainville  to  France 
for  reinforcements.  He  set  off  in  November 
1758,  and  returned  January  1759,  after  the  king 
had  made  him  colonel  and  knight  of  St.  Louis 
After  the  battle  of  Quebec,  13  Sept.  1759,  in 
which  Montcalm  was  killed,  and  the  fate  of  the 
colony  decided,  Bougainville  returned  to  France 
and  served  with  distinction  under  Choiseul 
Stainville,  in  the  campaign  of  1761,  in  Germany. 
After  the  peace  he  entered  the  navy  and  became 
one  of  the  greatest  naval  officers  in  France.  He 
persuaded  the  inhabitants  of  St.  Malo  to  fit  out 
an  expedition  for  the  purpose  of  establishing  a 
<:olony  in  the  Falkland  Islands,  and  undertook 
the  command  of  the  expedition  himself.  The 
king  appointed  him  captain,  and  Bougainville  set 
sail  with  his  little  fleet  in  1763.  But  as  the 
Spaniards  had  a  prior  claim  to  the  islands 
France  \yas  obliged  to  surrender  them,  and 
Bougainville,  having  returned  to  France,  was 
commissioned  to  carry  the  surrender  into  exe- 
cution on  receiving  from  Spain  a  remuneration 
for  his  expenses.  For  this  purpose  he  set  sail 
with  one  frigate  and  a  merchant  ship  from  St. 
]\lalo,  15  Dec.  1766.  After  the  immediate  object 
of  his  voyage  was  accomplished  he  circumnavi- 
gated the  world  and  returned  to  St.  Malo  16 
March  1769.  He  enriched  the  science  of 
geography  by  a  number  of  new  discoveries.  In 
the  American  war  he  commanded  several  ships 
of  the  line  with  great  honor;  was  in  1779  chief 
of  squadron  and  in  the  following  year  field- 
marshal  in  the  land  forces.  After  1790  he 
devoted  himself  to  science,  and  in  1796  was 
admitted  to  the  Institute. 

Bougainville  Island,  an  island  in  the 
Pacific  Ocean,  belonging  to  the  Solomon  group 
and  under  German  protection;  area,  4,000 
square  miles.  It  is  separated  from  Choiseul 
Island  by  Bougainville  Strait. 

Bougainvil'lea,  a  small  genus  of  South 
American  tropical  shrubs  of  the  natural  order 
Xyctaginacece,  largely  used  for  ornament  in 
warm  climates  and  in  greenhouses.  Their  chief 
beauties  are  their  large,  brilliantly  colored 
bracts,  which  subtend  the  inconspicuous  flowers. 
In  the  climbing  species,  which  are  the  most 
popular,  the  bracts  are  so  numerous  as  to  con- 
ceal the  foliage  and  stems  as  well  as  the  walls 
upon  which  the  plants  are  trained.  They  often 
remain  thus  attractive  for  months.  Because 
of  their  ease  of  propagation  and  cultivation 
they  are  rapidly  growing  in  popularity  in  the 
United  States.  For  discussion  of  species,  prop- 
agation, and  cultivation,  consult  Bailey  and 
Miller,  "^Cyclopedia  of  American  Horticulture^ 
(New  York  1900-2). 

Bough,  Samuel,  English  painter:  b.  Car- 
lisle, 8  Jan.  1822;  d.  Edinburgh,  19  Nov.  1878. 
He  never  obtained  any  systematic  art  instruc- 
tion. In  1845  he  was  a  scene-painter  in  Man- 
chester, and  later  in  Glasgow,  where  Daniel 
Macnee  encouraged  him  to  become  a  landscape- 
painter;  and  he  shortly  produced  ^Shipbuilding 
on  the  Clyde.  ^  Among  the  more  important  of 
his  oil  pictures  are:  ^Edinburgh  from  the 
CanaP  (1862);  <Holy  Island'  (1863):  ^In 
the  Trossachs'  (1865)  :  <The  Vale  of  Leith> 
(1866)  ;  'Kirkwall  Harbor>  C1867)  ;  <Borrow- 
dale'  :  <St.  Monance'  ;  'London  from  Shoot- 
er's HilP  (1872).  His  'Royal  Volunteer  Re- 
A'iew'  (i860)  is  in  the  National  Gallery  of 
Scotland.     His  best  oil  pictures  are  spirited  and 

Vol.    J— 5  7. 


expressive  in  touch,  and  possess  a  fine  sense  of 
atmosphere;  but  he  frequently  painted  care- 
lessly and  hurriedly,  and  produced  much,  espe- 
cially during  his  later  years,  that  was  unworthy 
of  his  brush.  His  numerous  water-colors  are 
of  more  uniform  excellence;  they  are  strongly 
influenced  by  the  example  of  David  Cox,  and 
are  especially  remarkable  for  the  delicate  gray 
tones  of  their  skies.  He  settled  in  Edinburgh 
in  1855.  A  collection  of  over  200  of  his  works 
was  brought  together  in  the  Glasgow  Institute 
in  1880. 

Bought  and  Sold  Notes,  written  memo- 
randa of  a  transaction,  made  by  the  broker  in 
the  case,  and  delivered  by  him  to  his  principals. 
They  state  respectively  that  the  broker  has 
bought  for  the  vendee,  and  sold  for  the  vendor, 
the  subject  of  the  transaction.  When  the  broker 
has  not  exceeded  his  authority,  both  parties  are 
bound  thereby  (4  Esp.  114;  2  Camp.  337).  No 
particular  form  is  required,  but  there  are  four 
kinds:  (i)  "Where  the  broker  professes  to  act 
for  both  parties,  whose  names  are  disclosed  in 
the  note.  (2)  Where  the  broker  does  not  dis- 
close in  the  bought  note  the  name  of  the  vendor, 
nor  in  the  sold  note  the  name  of  the  buyer,  but 
still  shows  that  he  is  acting  as  broker  and  not 
as  principal.  (3)  Where  the  broker,  on  the 
face  of  the  note  appears  to  be  the  principal.  (4) 
Where  he  professes  to  sign  as  broker,  but  is 
really  the  principal"  (4  Am.  &  Eng.  Enc.  Law, 
751)-  The  bought  and  sold  notes,  however,  do 
not  constitute  the  contract.  They  may,  however, 
be  accepted  as  evidence  of  the  contract,  and  not 
the  original  contract,  when  so  established  by 
the  usage   of  trade. 

Boughton,  bor'ton,  George  Henry,  Eng- 
lish painter :  b.  near  Norwich,  England,  1833  ;  d. 
London  19  Jan.  1905.  His  parents  came  to  the 
United  States  in  1839,  and  settled  in  Albany.  He 
studied  art  without  a  master,  and  in  1853  went 
to  London  and  Paris  to  continue  his  studies. 
After  1861  he  resided  in  London.  His  best  pic- 
tures were  'The  Idyl  of  the  Birds*;  'Hay-Har- 
vest in  Brittany'  ;  'The  Scarlet  Letter'  ;  'Way- 
side Devotion';  'Puritans  Going  to  Church'; 
'Snow  in  Spring';  and  'The  Return  of  the 
Mayflower.'  He  became  a  member  of  the 
National  Academy  in  1871 ;  associate  of  the 
Royal  Academy,  London,  in  1879;  and  member 
of  the  Royal  Academy  in  1896. 

Boughton,  Willis,  American  educator:  b. 
Victor.  N.  Y.,  17  April  1854.  He  graduated  at 
the  University  of  Michigan,  and  since  1892  has 
been  professor  of  rhetoric  and  English  litera- 
ture at  Ohio  University.  He  has  won  note  in 
the  work  of  imiversity  extension.  His  writings 
include  'Mythology  in  Art'  and  'History  of 
Ancient  Peoples.' 

Bougie,  boo-zhe',  Algeria,  a  port  on  the 
Bay  of  Bougie,  120  miles  east  of  Algiers. 
Bougie  was  the  Sald?e  of  the  Romans,  and  in 
the  5th  century  was  a  chief  seat  of  the  Vandals. 
Under  the  Arabs  it  was  raised  to  such  impor- 
tance that  it  was  called  Little  Mecca,  and  was 
the  entrepot  of  the  trade  between  Christendom 
and  north  Africa;  but  after  various  vicissitudes 
it  had  sunk  to  a  small  village  in  1833,  when  the 
French  captured  the  place.  Their  extensive  i 
works  have  since  rendered  it  a  strong  fortress  ( 
and  a  commercial  centre  of  some  value.  Pop. 
(1892)   7,862. 


BOUGIE  —  BOUILLON 


Bougie  (Fr.  ^^taper®),  in  surgery,  a  smooth 
cylindrical  rod,  designed  to  widen  the  ca- 
nals of  the  human  body  by  its  introduction 
therein,  or  to  apply  medicaments  to  a 
particular  part  of  the  interior  of  the  body. 
It  is  distinguished  from  a  catheter  by  being 
solid,  while  the  latter  are  hollow  and  open 
at  the  ends  for  the  purpose  of  affording 
a  passage  for  fluids.  Bougies  are  gener- 
ally pointed  at  one  end,  and  grow  gradually 
thicker  toward  the  other  end,  but  in  some  cases 
they  are  of  the  same  thickness  throughout  their 
whole  length,  the  ends  being  only  rounded  off. 
They  are  made  sometimes  of  linen  dipped  in  wax 
and  then  rolled  up,  sometimes  of  a  kind  of  plaster 
and  linen,  also  of  caoutchouc  or  gutta-percha, 
or  of  metal,  such  as  'lead,  silver,  or  German 
silver. 

Bouguer,  Pierre,  pe-ar  boo-ga,  French 
scientist:  b.  Croisic,  Brittany,  i6  Feb.  1698;  d. 
15  Aug.  1758.  He  studied  the  elements  of  math- 
ematics under  his  father,  who  was  an  able 
hydrographer,  and  is  well  known  as  the  author 
of  an  excellent  *  Treatise  on  Navigation.^  In 
1727  he  gained  a  prize  at  the  French  Academy 
for  the  best  essay  on  the  masting  of  vessels. 
He  gained  similar  prizes  in  1729  and  1731,  and 
added  still  more  to  his  fame  by  a  work  enti- 
tled ^Traite  de  la  Gradation  de  la  Lumiere,^  in 
which  he  endeavors  to  ascertain  the  quantity  of 
light  absorbed  by  transparent  bodies,  explains 
the  construction  of  several  ingenious  instru- 
ments which  he  had  invented  for  the  purpose  of 
facilitating  such  investigations ;  and  maintains 
that  the  light  of  the  sun  is  more  intense  at  its 
centre  than  on  the  edges  of  its  disk,  while  in 
the  moon  the  reverse  is  the  case.  About  this 
time  the  figure  of  the  earth  was  the  subject  of 
frequent  discussion  in  the  Academy  of  Sciences; 
and  for  the  purpose  of  ascertaining  exactly  how 
much  it  was  elevated  at  the  equator  and  flat- 
tened toward  the  Poles,  it  was  proposed  to 
measure  the  length  of  a  degree  at  each  of  these 
positions,  and  at  the  same  time  make  other 
observations  and  experiments  of  importance  to 
astronomy  and  navigation.  An  expedition  was 
accordingly  fitted  out,  in  which  Bouguer  was 
associated  with  Godin  and  La  Condaniine.  The 
main  burden  of  the  task  fell  upon  Bouguer,  who 
published  the  results  in  a  work  entitled  *The- 
orie  de  la  Figure  de  la  Terre.^  A  quarrel  with 
La  Condamine  concerning  the  honors  of  the 
work  embittered  the  latter  part  of  his  life,  and 
probably  hastened  his  death. 

Bouguereau,  Guillaume  Adolphe,  ge-yom-e 
ad-61f  boo-gro,  French  painter:  b.  La  Ro- 
chelle,  30  Nov.  1825;  d.  there  20  Aug.  1905. 
After  many  hardships  he  succeeded  in  reach- 
ing Paris,  where  he  was  educated  at  the  studio 
of  Picot  and  at  the  Beaux  Arts.  In  1850  he 
gained  the  Prix  de  Rome  and  went  to  Italy 
to  study.  His  first  great  success  was  ^The 
Body  of  St.  Cecilia  Borne  to  the  Catacombs^ 
in  the  Salon  of  1854.  Among  his  paintings  are: 
<The  Meeting_  of  Christ  with  His  Mother'  ; 
an  ^Annunciation'  ;  *^The  Holy  Women  at  the 
Sepulchre'  ;  <_The  Trium'ph  of  Venus,'  etc.  He 
paints  _  portraits  occasionally,  but  his  subjects 
are  chiefly  ideal,  idyllic,  and  religious.  He  is  a 
thorough  draftsman,  and  is  thought  to  excel 
in  the  painting  of  flesh.  In  1885  he  received 
the  medal  of  honor  at  the  Salon,  was  president 
of  the  Society  of  Artists,  and  received  the 
medal  of  the  Legion  of  Honor. 


Bouilhet,  Louis,  loo-e  boo-e-ya,  French 
poet:  b.  Cany,  Z/  May  1822;  d.  Rouen,  ly  July 
1869.  He  first  achieved  fame  with  'Melsenis, 
a  Story  of  Rome^  in  the  time  of  the  Caesars,  and 
*The  Fossils,'  a  series  of  delineations  of  ante- 
diluvians. His  versified  dramas,  ^Mme.  de 
Montarcy'  (1856)  ;  "^Dolores'  (1862)  ;  and  espe- 
cially ^The  Conspiracy  of  Amboise,'  are  elegant 
in  style,  rich  in  imagery,  perfect  in  melody,  but 
lack  compactness  of  structure  and  are  open  to 
moral  censure.  The  same  faults  are  found  in 
his  comedies,  ^Uncle  Million'  (1861)  ;  *Faus- 
tine'  (1864)  ;  and  especially  in  his  posthumous 
^M'lle  Aisse. 

Bouille,  Frangois  Claude  Amour,  fran-swa 
cl5d  a-moor  boo-e-ya  (Marquis  de),  French 
soldier :  b.  Cluzel  Castle,  Auvergne,  19  Nov. 
1739;  d.  London,  14  Nov.  1800.  He  distin- 
guished himself  in  the  Seven  Years'  war ;  was 
appointed  governor  of  Guadaloupe  in  1768;  and 
conquered  Dominica,  St.  Eustatia,  Tobago,  St. 
Christopher,  Nevis,  and  Montserrat.  After  the 
Peace  of  1783  he  returned  to  Paris  and  was 
appointed  lieutenant-general.  He  afterward 
traveled  in  England,  through  Holland  and 
a  jgreat  part  of  Germany,  until  he  was  made 
chief  of  the  province  Trois-Eveches.  In  the 
Assembly  of  Notables  (1787-88)  he  declared  for 
the  proposed  reforms  of  Calonne,  which,  how- 
ever, were  defeated  by  Cardinal  Brienne.  He 
was  opposed  to  the  plan  of  Necker  for  the  union 
of  the  provinces.  At  the  breaking  out  of  the 
Revolution  he  supported  the  existing  govern- 
ment, both  in  his  former  province  and  in  Lor- 
raine, Alsace,  and  Franche-Comte.  It  was  only 
at  the  urgent  desire  of  the  king  that  he  swore 
allegiance  to  the  constitution  of  1791.  He 
repressed  in  1790  the  rebellion  of  the  garrisons 
of  Metz  and  Nancy;  and  although  the  National 
Assembly  decreed  him  a  vote  of  thanks  for  the 
bravery  and  ability  he  had  displayed  on  this 
occasion,  still  the  revolutionists  distrusted  him. 
Shortly  afterward  he  made  preparations  to 
assist  Louis  XVI.  in  his  escape.  Bouille  had 
made  his  arrangements  well,  and  had  not  the 
king  forbidden  any  bloodshed  he  certainly  would 
have  rescued  him.  Being  thus  compelled  to 
leave  the  king  at  Varennes  to  his  fate,  he  fled 
from  the  dangers  to  which  he  himself  was 
exposed  by  the  attacks  of  the  revolutionists. 
From  Luxembourg  he  wrote  a  threatening  let- 
ter to  the  National  Assembly,  and  then  exerted 
himself  to  excite  the  foreign  powers  against  the 
republic.  He  succeeded  well  at  Vienna,  gained 
over  Gustavus  III.,  and  obtained  the  promise  of 
30,000  men  from  the  Empress  Catherine  II.,  to 
be  put  under  the  command  of  the  king  of 
Sweden  and  the  French  general.  But  Gustavus 
was  murdered,  the  empress  forgot  her  promises, 
and  Bouille  went  over  to  England  in  1796. 
Here  he  wrote  his  ^Memoirs  of  the  Revolution,* 
which  appeared  in  an  English  translation  (Lond. 
1797).  and,  after  his  death,  in  the  original. 

Bouillon,  boo-e-yoii,  the  name  of  one  of 
the  most  distinguished  historical  families  of 
France.  The  last  Duke  of  Bouillon  of  the  first 
line  had  sold  the  duchy  to  the  bishop  of  Liege, 
but  a  new  line  arose  toward  the  end  of  the  isth 
century.  It  originated  with  a  cadet  of  the  house 
of  Marck,  which,  at  the  commencement  of  the 
15th  century,  possessed  the  principality  of 
Sedan.  In  1482  William  de  la  Marck,  well- 
known  as  "The  Boar  of  Ardennes,"  seized  the 


BOUILLON  —  BOULAINVILLIERS 


territory  of  Bouillon,  belonging  to  the  bishopric 
of  Liege,  and  conferred  it  on  his  brother  Rob- 
ert. The  bishop  of  Liege  attempted  by  force 
to  regain  it,  but  this  Robert,  and  a  son  of  the 
same  name  who  succeeded  him,  were  successful 
in  resisting;  and  at  the  end  of  the  war,  which 
was  brought  to  a  close  in  1492  by  the  mediation 
of  the  king  of  France,  Robert  the  younger 
remained  virtually,  if  not  formally,  Lord  of 
Bouillon.  The  third  Robert  succeeded  his 
father  last  mentioned ;  and  having,  like  his 
predecessors,  entered  the  service  of  France,  was 
made  prisoner  with' Francis  I.  at  the  battle  of 
Pavia.  He  afterward  obtained  a  marshal's 
baton,  and  under  the  name  of  Marshal  de  Fleu- 
ranges,  which  was  the  title  he  assumed,  is 
known  as  the  author  of  very  curious  memoirs. 
Robert  IV.,  son  of  Robert  III.,  appears  to  have 
been  temporarily  dispossessed  by  the  bishop  of 
Liege,  but  recovered  possession,  and  not  only 
became  marshal  of  France,  but  received  the  title 
of  Duke,  and  thus  became  the  first  Duke  of 
Bouillon  of  the  new  line.  He  was  taken  by  the 
Spaniards  at  the  siege  of  Hesdin  in  1553;  and 
three  years  after,  when  he  had  been  liberated 
on  parole  for  the  purpose  of  procuring  the 
60,000  crowns  at  which  his  ransom  had  been 
fixed,  died  by  poison.  His  wife  was  a  daughter 
of  the  celebrated  Diana  of  Poitiers.  His  son, 
Henry  Robert,  lost  Bouillon,  which,  by  the 
Treaty  of  Chateau-Cambray,  returned  to  the 
bishop  of  Liege,  but  he  still  preserved  the  title, 
and  transmitted  it  to  his  son  William  Robert, 
who  died  in  1588  without  having  married.  The 
male  line  thus  became  extinct.  He  was  survived 
by  a  sister,  who  married  Henri  de  la  Tour 
d'Auvergne,  Viscount  Turenne,  but  died  without 
children  in  1594.  She  had,  however,  bequeathed 
her  possessions  to  her  husband,  and  thus  the 
two  powerful  houses  of  Turenne  and  Bouillon 
were  merged  into  one.  This  new  Duke  of 
BouiHon  was  one  of  the  most  distinguished  per- 
sonages of  his  time.  He  was  at  first  devotedly 
attached  to  Henry  IV.  while  he  was  fighting 
his  way  to  the  throne,  but  afterward  leagued 
with  his  enemies ;  and,  being  implicated  in  the 
conspiracy  which  cost  Marshal  Biron  his  life, 
was  long  obliged  to  live  in  exile.  He  was 
restored  to  favor  in  1606,  and  figured  much  dur- 
ing the  intrigues  in  the  suljsequent  part  of  the 
following  reign  ;  and,  having  embraced  the  doc- 
trines of  the  Reformed  Church,  became  one  of 
its  most  distingui.shed  leaders.  He  died  in  1623, 
leaving  two  sons,  the  younger  of  whom  was  the 
celebrated  Marshal  Turenne.  The  elder,  narned 
Frederic  Maurice,  after  serving  with  distinction 
in  the  Low  Countries,  returned  to  _  France, 
became  a  Roman  Catholic,  served  Louis  XIII., 
then  joined  the  insurrection  against  him  headed 
by  the  count  of  Soissons,  and  helped  him  to 
gain  the  battle  of  Murfee.  During  the  Fronde 
he  joined  the  princes  and  took  a  prominent  part 
in  the  civil  war,  but  was  reconciled  to  the  court 
in  1651,  obtained  the  title  of  prince,  and  received 
large  accessions  of  territory  in  exchange  for  the 
principality  of  Sedan.  He  died  in  1652,  leaving 
interesting  memoirs  of  his  life  and  times.  He 
was  succeeded  by  Godefroi  Maurice,  who  figured 
much  in  the  wars  of  the  period  and  became 
great  chamberlain  to  Louis  XIV.,  and  who  died 
in  1721.  One  of  his  brothers  was  the  cele- 
brated Cardinal  de  Bouillon,  who  was  born  in 
1644,  obtained  the  cardinalate  when  only  26 
years  of  age,  was  long  the  representative  of  the 


Galilean  Church  at  Rome,  made  himself  noto- 
rious by  his  vanity,  ambition,  and  intriguing 
spirit,   and  died  in   1715. 

Bouillon,  originally  a  German  duchy,  now 
a  large^  district  in  Belgium,  9  miles  wide  and  18 
long,  on  the  borders  of  Luxembourg  and  Liege. 
This  woody  and  mountainous  tract  consists  of 
the  town  of  Bouillon  with  2,800  inhabitants, 
and  25  villages  with  20,000  inhabitants.  The 
town  was  once  the  capital  of  the  duchy  of  the 
same  name.  This  ancient  place  lies  in  the  midst 
of  hills,  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Semois,  which 
abounds  with  fish,  40  miles  from  Liege  and  8 
from  Sedan.  It  has  a  strong  castle  upon  a 
rock,  which,  however,  is  commanded  by  the 
neighboring  mountains.  Godfrey  of  Bouillon 
once  possessed  the  dukedom  of  this  name.  He 
was  Duke  of  Lower  Lorraine,  and  Bouillon  was 
bestowed  upon  him  as  belonging  properly  to  the 
county  of  Ardenne.  In  order  to  supply  himself 
with  funds  for  his  expedition  to  the  Holy  Land, 
Godfrey  mortgaged  his  duchy  of  Bouillon  in 
1095  to  the  bishop  of  Liege.  After  the  estate 
had  been  held  for  many  years  by  the  bishopric, 
the  houses  joi  La  Marck  and  La  Tour  d'Au- 
vergne laid  claims  to  Bouillon,  but  in  1641  relin- 
quished their  pretensions  to  the  bishop  of 
Liege  for  150,000  Brabant  guilders.  In  the  war 
of  1672  France  conquered  Bouillon,  and  Louis 
XIV.  gave  it  in  1678  to  the  Chevalier  La  Tour 
d'Auvergne,  his  chamberlain.  After  this  time 
it  belonged  to  the  house  of  La  Tour  until  the 
Revolution,  when  it  was  taken  from  them  in 
1792.  The  last  possessor,  Godfrey  Charles 
Henry  de  La  Tour  d'Auvergne,  died  December 
1812.  By  the  Peace  of  Paris,  in  1814,  the  duke- 
dom was  included  in  that  of  Luxembourg,  which 
had  fallen  to  the  king  of  the  Netherlands.  The 
title  of  prince  of  Bouillon  was  assumed  in  1792 
by  Philip  d'Auvergne,  captain  in  the  British 
navy,  and  he  continued  to  bear  it  till  his  death 
in  i'8i6.  The  congress  which  met  at  Vienna  in 
1815  appointed  commissioners  to  investigate  the 
comparative  claims  of  this  nobleman  and  Prince 
Charles  of  Rohan.  They  decided  in  favor  of 
the  latter.  By  him  it  was  sold  to  the  Nether- 
lands in  1821,  and  on  the  division  of  the  king- 
dom at  the  revolution  of  1830  it  fell  to  Belgium. 

Bouilly,  Jean  Nicolas,  zhoii  ne-ko-lar  boo- 
e-ye,  French  poet:  b.  Coudraye,  4  Jan.  1763; 
d.  Paris,  14  April  1842.  He  made  his  debut 
with  the  comic  opera  <  Peter  the  Great^  in  1790. 
For  a  few  years  he  was  judge  and  prosecuting 
attorney  at  Tours,  and  then  was  called  to  Paris 
to  assist  in  organizing  the  primary  school  sys- 
tem. He  was  a  man  of  ancient  Roman  virtue, 
and  his  character  is  reflected  in  all  his  works. 
His  comedies  and  comic  operas  (music  by  the 
first  masters)  were  eminently  successful  as  well 
in  Germany  as  in  France,  particularly  'The 
Abbe  de  I'Epee,^  <The  Two  Days,'  <Mme.  de 
Sevigne.'  He  also  wrote  'Stories  for  French 
Children,'*  and  'Counsels  to  My  Daughter.' 

Boulainvilliers,  Henri  de,  oii-re  de  boo- 
lan-ve-ya,  French  historian:  b.  Saint  Saire, 
Normandy,  11  Oct.  1658;  d.  23  Jan.  1722.  He 
studied  at  the  College  of  Juilli,  entered  the 
army,  but  shortly  after  became  devoted  to  his- 
torical and  antiquarian  pursuits.  He  wrote  a 
number  of  works  in  connection  with  the  history 
of  France,  but  is  perhaps  best  known  by  his 
'History  of  Mohammed,'  in  which  he  writes  in 
a  very  Oriental   style,  lauds   the   Prophet,  and 


BOULANGER  —  BOULEVARD 


«eems  almost  disposed  to  become  a  believer  in 
the  Koran.  He  is  said  to  have  been  muck  ad- 
dicted to  astrology. 

Boulanger,    Georges    Ernest   Jean    Marie, 

zhorzh  ar-nest  zhori  mii-re  boo-lon-zha, 
French  soldier :  b.  Rennes,  29  April  1837 ;  d. 
Brussels,  30  Sept.  1891.  After  a  successful 
career  in  Algeria  and  in  the  East  he  became 
minister  of  war  in  1886,  and  the  fact  that  a 
new  man  was  in  possession  of  that  portfolio 
was  speedily  felt.  He  introduced  many  needful 
reforms,  insisted  on  the  adoption  of  a  repeat- 
ing rifle,  and  caused  important  experiments  to 
be  made  with  high  explosives.  In  the  minis- 
terial crisis  of  1887  he  lost  his  portfolio  and 
was  appointed  to  the  command  of  the  13th  Army 
Corps,  but  was  retired,  28  March  1888.  In  Jan- 
uary 1889  he  was  elected  deputy  to  the  National 
Assembly  by  81,000  majority,  in  consequence  of 
which  the  Floquet  ministry  resigned.  In  Aug- 
ust 1889  he  was  charged  with  embezzlement, 
treason,  and  conspiracy,  and  found  guilty  by  the 
Senate ;  the  elections  in  the  12  cantons  were 
annulled,  and  he  was  sentenced  to  deportation. 

Boulanger,  Gustave  Rodolphe  Clarence, 
goos-tav  ro-dolf  klii-rons,  French  painter:  b. 
Paris,  25  April  1824;  d.  Paris,  22  Sept.  1888. 
He  had  a  wide  reputation  as  a  painter  of  classi- 
cal subjects;  received  the  Prize  of  Rome  in 
1849,  and  was  decorated  with  the  Legion  of 
Honor  in  1865. 

Boulanger,  Louis,  loo-e,  French  painter: 
b.  Vercelli,  Piedmont,  11  March  1806;  d.  Dijon, 
7  March  1867.  He  studied  under  Guillon- 
Lethiere  and  Deverias ;  became  acquainted  with 
Victor  Hugo  and  illustrated  many  of  his  works ; 
also  taking  subjects  for  many  of  his  paintings 
from  the  poems  of  Hugo  and  Chateaubriand. 
Among  his  paintings  are  ^Mazeppa,^  *^The  Tri- 
umph of  Petrarch,^  and  ^ Macbeth.^ 

Boulay  de  la  Meurthe,  Antoine  Jacques 
Claude  Joseph,  an-twan  zhak  klod  zho-zef 
boo-la-e  de  la  mert  (Count),  French  lawyer 
and  politician :  b.  Chamousey,  Lorraine,  19  Feb. 
1 761 ;  d.  Paris,  2  Feb.  1840.  During  the  Revo- 
lution he  served  as  a  volunteer  in  the  army, 
and  as  a  judge  on  the  bench,  until  the  Reign 
of  Terror,  when  he  was  outlawed.  After  the 
9th  Thermidor  he  was  appointed  presiding  judge 
of  the  civil  court,  and  afterward  held  the  office 
of  attorney-general  at  Nancy.  He  sat  in  the 
Council  of  Five  Hundred,  was  active  in  the 
coup  d'etat  of  the  i8th  Fructidor,  and  aided  in 
the  revolution  of  the  i8tli  Brumaire.  Being 
appointed  chairman  of  the  legislative  section  in 
the  Council  of  State,  he  took  an  active  part  in 
digesting  the  Code  Civil.  On  the  first  restora- 
tion he  kept  aloof  from  public  affairs ;  during 
the  Hundred  Days  he  was  again  a  minister  of 
state ;  on  the  abdication  of  Napoleon  I.  he 
caused  his  son  to  be  proclaimed  as  Napoleon 
II.,  and  was  appointed  minister  of  justice  by 
the  commission  of  government.  He  was,  of 
course,  outlawed  by  the  returning  king,  and  for 
four  and  a  half  years  was  an  exile.  In  1819 
he  was  permitted  to  return  to  France. 

Boulay  de  la  Meurthe,  Henri  George, 
on-re  zhorzh  (Count),  son  of  the  preceding: 
French  statesman:  b.  Nancy,  15  July  1797;  d. 
1858.  He  took  an  active  part  in  the  revolution  of 
1830.  In  1837  he  was  elected  to  the  chamber  of 
deputies.    In  1843  he  voted  for  the  repeal  of  the 


decree  of  banishment  against  the  Bonaparte 
family.  In  February  1848  he  sided  with  the 
moderate  Republicans,  was  elected  to  the  Con- 
stituent Assembly,  and  there  again  supported  the 
motion  for  the  return  of  the  Bonaparte  family. 
When  Louis  Napoleon  was  elected  president  the 
name  of  Boulay  de  la  Meurthe  was  placed  by 
him  at  the  head  of  the  list  of  candidates  for 
the  vice-presidency ;  and  the  assembly  almost 
unanimously  chose  him.  After  the  coup  d'etat 
of  185 1  he  was  made  a  member  of  the  Senate. 
Boulder,  Col.,  city  "and  county-seat  of 
Boulder  County,  situated  on  Boulder  Creek  and 
the  Union  Pac.  and  other  railroads ;  30  miles 
north  of  Denver,  the  State  capital.  It  is  in  a 
noted  gold,  silver,  coal-mining,  agricultural,  and 
stock-raising  region,  at  the  eastern  base  of  the 
Rocky  Mountains.  It  was  settled  in  1858  and 
received  a  city  charter  in  1880;  is  the  seat  of 
the  State  University ;  and  has  three  national 
banks,  daily  and  weekly  periodicals,  and  a  prop- 
erty valuation  of  over  $1,000,000.  The  famous 
Boulder  Canon  is  an  object  of  wide  interest  to 
the  tourist.     Pop.   (1900)  6,150. 

Boulder,  a  rounded  water-w^orn  stone  of 
some  size;  in  geology,  applied  to  ice-worn  and 
partially  smoothed  blocks  of  large  size  lying  on 
the  surface  of  the  soil,  or  embedded  in  clays  and 
gravels,  generally  differing  in  composition  from 
the  rocks  in  their  vicinity,  a  fact  which  proves 
that  they  must  have  been  transported  from  a 
distance,  probably  by  ice.  When  lying  on  the 
surface  they  are  known  as  ^'erratic  blocks. ^^ 

Boulder  Clay,  the  name  given  to  the  mass 
of  clay,  sand,  and  boulders  deposited  by  the  ice- 
sheet  which  invaded  the.  northern  portions  of 
North  America  and  Europe  during  the  Pleisto- 
cene period.  It  is  also  known  as  "tilP^  and 
Aground  moraine.^^  The  material  is  generally 
compact  and  tenacious  and  shows  no  stratifica- 
tion, the  stones  and  boulders  being  irregularly 
distributed.  It  represents  the  detritus  carried 
along  beneath  the  ice  and  finally  left  in  its 
present  position  covering  the  eroded  rock- 
surfaces  upon  the  retreat  of  the  glacier.  Its 
thickness  varies  from  a  few  inches  to  100  feet 
or  more ;  the  heaviest  accumulations  are  gath- 
ered into  rounded  hills  called  drumlins  (q.v.). 
The  stones  included  in  boulder  clay  are  usually 
oblong  with  rounded  edges  and  frequently  with 
striated  surfaces,  the  latter  being  produced  by 
the  friction  of  the  moving  mass.  See  Drift; 
Glacial  Period. 

Boulevard,  bool-var  (O.  Fr.  hoidevart,  a 
word  derived  from  the  German  bolhverk,  the 
same  as  the  English  ^^bulwark").  The  word 
was  formerly  applied  to  the  ramparts  of  a  forti- 
fied town,  but  when  these  were  leveled,  and  the 
ditches  belonging  to  them  filled  up,  and  the 
whole  planted  with  trees  and  laid  out  as  prom- 
enades, the  name  "boulevard*  was  still  retained, 
and  thus  came  to  have  its  present  signification. 
The  most  famous  boulevards  are  those  of  Paris, 
especially  those  which,  in  the  time  of  Louis 
XIV.,  took  the  place  of  the  fortifications  on  the 
northern  side  of  the  city,  and  became  first  a 
promenade  and  then  a  street.  Modern  usage 
has  applied  the  word  to  many  streets  which  were 
not  originally  ramparts,  but  which  have  been 
cut  through  the  older  and  denser  parts  of  the 
town,  or  have  been  laid  out  in  the  new  quarters. 
All  that  the  more  modern   boulevards  have  in 


BOULGER  —  BOULTON 


common  with  the  older  ones  is  that  they  are 
broad  and  are  planted  with  trees.  The  modern 
boulevards  are  for  the  most  part  situated  at 
some  distance  from  the  bustle  of  the  town, 
and  are  therefore  less  frequented  than  the  older 
,  ones,  which  are  in  the  very  heart  of  the  city, 
and  in  the  neighborhood  of  the  chief  resorts  of 
amusement  and  pleasure.  In  the  United  States 
the  name  is  applied  to  wide  avenues  planted 
with  shade-trees,  and  with  more  or  less  orna- 
ment in  the  v.-ay  of  stcituary,  flower-beds,  lawns, 
etc.  The  Thames  Embankment,  in  London, 
though  not  usually  called  a  boulevard,  is  of 
this  order.     See  Paris. 

Boulger,  Demetrius  Charles,  English 
writer:  b.  14  July  1853.  He  is  an  authority  on 
military  topics  and  with  Sir  Lepel  Griffin 
founded  the  ^Asiatic  Quarterly  Review^  in  1885 
and  edited  it  for  nearly  five  years.  He  has 
published  <Life  of  Jakoob,  Bey  of  Kashgir^ 
(1878)  ;  *  England  and  Russia  in  Central  Asia^  ; 
*  Central  Asian  Portraits'  ;  <The  History  of 
China'  ;  'General  Gordon's  Letters  from  the 
Crimea'  ;  'Armies  of  the  Native  States  of 
India'  ;  'Central  Asian  Questions'  ;  'Lord  Wil- 
liam Bentinck'  ;  'Short  History  of  China'  ;  'Life 
of  Sir  Stamford  Raffles'  (1897);  'The  Congo 
State'  (1898);  'The  Belgians  at  Waterloo'; 
'India  in  the  19th  Century'    (1901). 

Boulger,  Dorothy  Henrietta  (Theo.  Gift), 
English  novelist :  b.  30  May  1847.  She  is  a 
daughter  of  Thomas  Havers  of  Thelton  Hall, 
Norfolk,  and  married  George  S.  Boulger  (q.v.), 
in  1879.  She  began  to  publish  in  1871,  and  is 
the  author  of  'True  to  Her  Trust,'  'Pretty 
Miss  Bellew,'  'Maid  Ellice,'  'A  Matter-of- 
Fact  Girl,'  'Visited  on  the  Children,'  'Victims,' 
'Lil  Lorimer,'  'An  Innocent  Victim,'  'A  Gar- 
den of  Girls,'  'Not  for  the  Night-time,'  'Dis- 
honored,' 'Wrecked  at  the  Outset,'  'An  Island 
Princess,'  'Women  Who  Work,'  'Cape  Town 
Dicky,'  'The  Little  Colonists,'  'Fairy  Tales 
from  the  Far  East,'  'The  Case  of  a  Man  with 
His  Wife.' 

Boulger,  George  Simonds,  English  bota- 
nist: b.  Blechingly,  Surrey,  5  ^Iarch  1853.  He 
has  been  professor  of  botany  and  geology  at 
City  of  London  College  from  1884  and  has  pub- 
lished 'Familiar  Trees'  (1886-9)  ;  'The  Uses 
of  Plants'  (1889)  ;  'Biographical  Index  of 
British  and  Irish  Botanists,'  with  Britten 
(1893)  ;  'The  Country,  Month  by  Month,'  with 
Owen  (1894-5)  ;  'Elementary  Geology'  (1896)  ; 
'Flowers  of  the  Field'  (1900)  ;  'Wood' 
(1902). 

Boulogne  -  sur  -  Mer,  boo-l5n  siir  mar, 
France,  a  seaport  of  the  department  Pas  de 
Calais,  at  the  mouth  and  on  the  right  bank  of 
the  River  Liane.  with  the  suburb  of  Capecure 
on  the  left.  The  town  proper  consists  of  an 
upper  and  lower  town.  The  former  is  sur- 
rounded with  old  and  well-planted  ramparts ; 
the  latter,  which  is  the  business  section,  has 
straight  and  well-built  streets  and  is  semi- 
English  in  character,  many  of  the  signboards 
being  in  English,  the  shops  having  an  English 
air,  and  much  English  being  spoken.  The 
Church  of  Notre  Dame  (begun  in  1827,  conse- 
crated in  1866)  has  a  magnificent  high  altar,  and 
a  crypt,  part  of  which  dates  from  the  12th 
century.  Among  the  churches,  some  of  which 
are  handsome  edifices,  there  are  several  for  the 
English    population.     The    castle,    which    dates 


from  1231,  is  a  massive  structure,  communicat- 
ing with  the  upper  town  by  a  bridge.  It  serves 
at  present  as  a  barrack  and  artillery  depot. 
Here  Louis  Napoleon  was  imprisoned  in  1840. 
Other  noteworthy  buildings  are  the  Hotel  de 
Ville,  the  Palais  de  Justice,  the  large  and  hand- 
some bathing  establishment,  the  library  of  50,000 
volumes,  the  museum  of  natural  history  and 
antiquities,  the  custom-house,  the  exchange,  etc. 
Boulogne  carries  on  various  industries,  is  one 
of  the  chief  French  seaports,  and  is  a  great 
fishing  centre,  giving  employment  to  about  5,000 
hands.  Extensive  improvements  in  its  accom- 
modation for  shipping  are  being  carried  out  or 
projected.  There  is  a  large  passenger  traffic 
between  Boulogne  and  Folkestone.  Steamboats 
run  daily  between  this  place  and  England.  Bou- 
logne still  exhibits  some  Roman  remains.  The 
Northmen  took  it  in  882  and  massacred  the 
inhabitants.  In  1544  the  town  was  taken  by 
Henry  VIII.  of  England  after  a  siege  of  si.x 
weeks.  The  English  retained  it  till  1550,  when 
Edward  VI.  sold  it  to  France  for  400,000  crowns^ 
The  Emperor  Charles  V.  demolished  it  in  1553. 
During  the  first  republic  Boulogne  received  the 
name  of  Port  de  1' Union.  With  a  favorable 
wind,  vessels  can  reach  the  coast  of  England  in 
two  or  three  hours  from  this  place.  Bonaparte, 
therefore,  ordered  the  harbor  to  be  made  deeper, 
and  a  number  of  vessels  to  be  built  in  order  to 
transport  the  armj'  intended  for  the  invasion  of 
England,  and  some  small  forts  and  batteries  to 
be  erected  in  order  to  strengthen  the  harbor 
and  the  town.  A  large  army  remained  here  for 
many  months  in  a  camp,  which  almost  resembled 
a  town,  waiting  to  embark ;  but  upon  the  break- 
ing out  of  hostilities  with  Austria  in  1805  they 
were  called  to  other  places.  Pop.  (1896) 
46,807. 

Boulogne-sur-Seine,  san,  France,  a  town 
in  the  department  of  the  Seine,  southwest  of 
Paris,  of  which  it  is  a  suburb.  It  is  from  this 
place  that  the  celebrated  Bois  de  Boulogne  gets 
its  name.     Pop.  (1896)  36.984. 

Boulton,  Charles  ArkoU,  Canadian  soldier 
and  statesman :  b.  Coburg.  1841  ;  d.  1899.  He 
entered  the  British  army  in  1858  and  served  for 
10  years.  During  the  first  Manitoba  insurrec- 
tion he  fought  against  the  rebels  and  was  cap- 
tured in  1870  and  condemned  to  death ;  when 
the  rebellion  broke  out  the  second  time  he 
commanded  a  corps  organized  by  himself  and 
known  as  the  Boulton  Scouts.  He  became  a 
member  of  the  Canadian  Senate  in  1889.  He 
wrote  'Reminiscences  of  the  Northwest  Rebel- 
lion.' 

Boulton,  Matthew,  English  engineer:  b. 
Birmingham,  3  Sept.  1728;  d.  Soho,  17  Aug.  1809. 
After  being  educated  at  a  grammar  school  he 
was  instructed  in  drawing  by  Worlidge,  and 
he  also  studied  mathematics.  He  engaged  in 
business  as  a  manufacturer  of  hardware,  and 
as  early  as  1745  he  is  said  to  have  invented 
and  brought  to  great  perfection  inlaid  steel 
buckles,  buttons,  watch-chains,  etc.,  of  which 
large  quantities  were  exported  to  France,  whence 
they  were  repurchased  with  avidity  by  the  Brit- 
ish as  "the  offspring  of  French  ingenuity."  In 
1762  Boulton,  finding  his  manufactory  at  Bir- 
mingham too  confined  for  his  purposes,  purchased 
a  lease  of  the  Soho,  about  two  miles  distant,  in 
the  county  of  Stafford.  This  spot,  then  a  barren 
heath,  was   gradually  converted  into  an  exten- 


BOUNCING  BET  — BOUNTY  LANDS 


sive  manufactory  and  school  of  the  mechanical 
arts,  where  ingenious  men  found  ample  employ- 
ment for  their  talents  from  the  liberal  patronage 
of  the  proprietor.  The  introduction  of  that 
important  machine,  the  steam-engine,  at  Soho, 
led  to  a  connection  between  Boulton  and  James 
Watt,  of  Glasgow,  who  became  partners  in  trade 
in   1769. 

Bouncing  Bet,  or  Old  Maid's  Pink,  an  old- 
time   garden    flower   common   as   a    weed.      See 

SOAPWORT. 

Bound  Brook,  N.  J.,  a  town  of  Somerset 
County,  situated  on  the  Raritan  River  and  on 
the  Baltimore  &  O.,  the  Central  N.  J.,  the  Lehigh 
Valley,  and  the  Philadelphia  &  R.  R.R.'s.  It 
has  a  large  lumber  trade,  and  rnanufactures 
woolen  goods,  electric  dynamos,  paint,  roofing- 
paper,  etc.  During  the  Revolutionary  War  it 
was  the  scene  of  a  surprise  of  the  American 
troops  by  Cornwallis.  The  Americans,  being 
largely  outnumbered,  were  forced  to  retreat  after 
a  short  battle.    Pop.  (1900)  2,622. 

Boundaries,  American.  English  monarchs 
were  very  ignorant  of  American  geography  and 
were  perpetually  making  grants  irreconcilably 
and  even  grotesquely  conflicting;  as  when  the 
grants  to  New  Hampshire  and  New  York  each 
included  all  of  Vermont,  and  those  ^westward 
to  the  South  Seas»  included  all  the  possible 
territory  out  of  which  later  grants,  often  with 
the  very  same  phraseology,  were  made.  The 
Wyoming  dispute  between  Connecticut  and 
Pennsylvania,  and  the  Western  Reserve  of  the 
former  in  Ohio,  are  only  samples  of  the  end- 
less wrangles  occasioned  by  these  royal  gifts; 
and  a  considerable  part  of  intercolonial  history 
is  the  account  of  the  struggles  —  by  influence 
before  the  Privy  Council,  or  by  compromise 
or  outright  war  among  themselves  —  by  which 
the  present  limits  were  gradually  shaped.  Short 
of  this,  much  interesting  history  is  involved  in 
the  surveys,  from  that  of  Mason  and  Dixon's 
Line  down  to  that  between  Connecticut  and 
Massachusetts,  which  rectified  lines  admitted  in 
theory.  After  the  Revolution,  jurisdiction  over 
boundaries  was  assumed  by  Congress,  which,  in 
i;8i,  under  the  Articles  of  Confederation,  pro- 
vided minutely  for  the  selection  of  a  courtto 
determine  such  cases,  modeled  on  the  Grenville 
Act  of  1770.  The  adoption  of  the  Constitution 
in  1788  placed  all  such  matters  in  the  final 
determination  of  the  supreme  court.  The  bound- 
aries between  foreign  powers  and  the  United 
States  as  a  whole  present  a  different  problem, 
or  rather  a  series  of  problems;  for  which  see 
also  Alaska;  Annexations;  Canada;  Florida; 
Gadsden  Treaty;  Louisiana  Purchase;  Mexi- 
can War;  Northeast  Boundary;  Oregon 
Question;  Treaty  of  Versailles. 

Bounty,  a  grant  or  benefaction  from  the 
government  to  those  whose  services  directly  or 
indirectly  benefit  it,  and  to  whom,  therefore, 
it  desires  to  accord  some  recompense,  or  at  least 
recognition.  In  law  and  commerce,  it  is  a 
premium  paid  by  a  government  to  the  producers, 
exporters,  or  importers  of  certain  articles,  or  to 
those  who  emplojr  ships  in  certain  trades.  This 
is  done  either  with  the  view  of  fostering  a  new 
trade  during  its  infancy,  or  of  protecting  an  old 
one  which  is  supposed  to  be  of  special  impor- 
tance to  the  country.  In  1890  Congress  passed 
an  act  providing  for  a  premium  to  be  paid  to 
the  producers  of  cane,  beet,  and  sorghum  sugar 


by   way   of   bounty.     This   bounty   was    in    the 

nature  of  a  contract  (made  with  each  and  every 
person  in  the  United  States  engaged  in  the  cul- 
tivation of  such  varieties  of  sugar),  providing 
that,  in  the  event  their  produce  attained  a  given 
standard  of  saccharine  strength,  they  should 
receive  the  bounty  provided  therefor  by  the 
appropriation  from  the  treasury.  This  act 
greatly  stimulated  the  sugar-producing  industry 
of  the  country,  and  large  amounts  of  money 
have  been  invested,  and  a  larger  amount  of 
sugar  has  been  produced  in  the  United  States 
during  the  years  that  have  followed  the  passage 
of  the  act  than  in  any  equal  period  in  the  his- 
tory of  the  country.  All  bounties  or  premiums 
are  not  offered  for  the  encouragement  of  domes- 
tic talent  and  industry  to  the  exclusion  of  for- 
eign competition.  Many  of  those  offered  by  the 
British  and  French  governments,  and  by  private 
associations,  are  held  out  to  all  competitors  indis- 
criminately; and  where  the  object  is  universal 
improvement,  this  is  one  of  the  appropriate  modes 
of  encouragement,  though  others  concur  with 
it,  such  as  the  monopolies  of  copyrights  and 
patents,  and  the  honors  and  distinctions  con- 
ferred on  those  who  make  any  important 
improvement.  One  other  class  of  cases  may, 
properly  enough,  be  made  the  subjects  of  boun- 
ties or  premiums ;  namely,  the  productions  of 
extraordinary  efforts  of  ingenuity  and  skill.  A 
competition  is  in  this  way  excited,  by  which 
none  suffers,  and  all  the  effects  of  which  are 
beneficial  to  a  community. 

Bounty  Mutiny.     See  Bligh,  William. 

Bounty- jumper,  a  term  used  during  the 
Civil  War  in  the  United  States  to  denote  one 
who  enlisted  in  the  United  States  military  ser- 
vice to  secure  the  bounty  paid  by  the  govern- 
ment for  volunteers,  and  then  deserted.  Some 
of  these  enterprising  individuals  carried  on  a 
regular  business  of  enlisting  in  one  place  under 
a  certain  name,  hurrying  to  the  front,  receiving 
the  bounty,  deserting  at  once  upon  its  receipt, 
and  reappearing  in  some  other  place  under  a 
different  name,  only  to  re-enlist  and  repeat  the 
process.  The  risks  were  great,  but  as  the  bounty 
was,  in  some  cases,  quite  large,  the  practice 
found  many  votaries. 

Bounty  Lands.  By  royal  proclamation  of 
7  Oct.  1763,  American  colonial  governors  were 
prohibited  from  making  land  grants  west  of 
the  sources  of  the  rivers  flowing  from  the  west 
or  northwest  into  the  Atlantic.  This  was  to 
quiet  the  apprehensions  of  the  Indians  in  the 
Ohio  region  that  their  lands  were  to  be  granted 
out.  But  Lord  Dunmore  of  Virginia  was  em- 
powered to  offer  bounties  in  land  to  all  officers 
and  soldiers  who  had  served  in  the  French  and 
Indian  war,  and  should  personally  apply  to  him 
for  warrants, —  5,000  acres  to  each  field  officer, 
3,000  to  captains,  200  to  subalterns  or  staff  offi- 
cers, and  50  to  private  soldiers, —  up  to  200,000 
acres,  from  the  king's  domain  either  in  Canada 
or  Florida,  or  the  ^*^crown  lands. '^  This  was 
imderstood  by  Americans  to  mean  precisely  the 
above  western  lands,  and  those  who  had  the  abil- 
ity and  foresight  selected  choice  tracts  beyond 
the  Alleghanies  provisionally  in  hope  of  the 
government  validating  them  later.  Washing- 
ton, for  example,  by  himself  and  his  land  agent 
Crawford,  had  surveyed  70,000  acres,  and  se- 
cured patents  in  his  own  and  other  officers' 
names  for  63,000,  of  which  his  own  share  was 


BOUQUET  —  BOURBON 


32,000  Dunmore  began  giving  these  warrants 
on  his  own  responsibility  as  early  as  July  1773, 
and  on  21  Jan.  1774  notified  all  gentlemen,  offi- 
cers, and  soldiers  to  have  their  surveyors  as- 
semble at  the  mouth  of  the  Great  Kanawha 
River  and  proceed  to  survey  their  claims.  The 
land  agents  and  surveyors  who  went  down  the 
river  were  stopped  and  in  some  cases  attacked 
by  the  Indians  ;  and  this  was  one  of  the  agencies 
in  bringing  about  Dunmore's  War  (q.v.),  al- 
though trouble  had  been  gathering  for  a  long 
period  from  white  settlement  and  Indian  mur- 
ders. The  name  ^'bounty  lands*'  has  been  defined 
as  pertaining  to  the  Northwest  Territory  land--^ 
belonging  to  the  States,  because  on  16  Sept. 
1776  Congress  olTered  land  bounties  to  volun- 
teers in  the  Revolution  (assessing  the  money 
to  buy  them  on  the  several  States,  to  which 
Maryland  objected  because  the  other  States  had 
lands  and  she  had  none,  and  so  would  be  un- 
fairly taxed)  ;  but  it  does  not  appear  that  the 
phrase  was  ever  used  of  them  at  the  time. 

Bouquet,  boo-ka,  Henry,  British  officer  in 
the  French  and  Indian  wars :  b.  Rolle,  Switzer- 
land, 1719;  d.  Pensacola,  Fla.,  23  Aug.  1765. 
He  entered  the  army  of  the  States-General  of 
Holland,  then  served  in  the  Sardinian  army 
against  France  and  Spain  but  returned  to  the 
Dutch  service  in  1748  as  an  officer  of  the  Swiss 
Guards.  When  war  broke  out  between  France 
and  England  in  1755,  Bouquet  was  made 
lieutenant-colonel  of  an  English  regiment  known 
as  the  Royal  Americans.  He  reached  Phila- 
delphia in  1756  and  in  1757  was  ordered  to 
Charleston  with  a  small  detachment  of  his  regi- 
ment;  but  in  1758  returned  to  Pennsylvania  and 
was  made  second  in  command  of  an  expedition 
against  Fort  Duquesne  in  which  George  Wash- 
ington al'SO  took  part.  The  French  deserted  and 
set  fire  to  the  fort  before  the  expedition  reached 
there.  This  gave  the  control  of  Pennsylvania 
to  the  English,  but  Bouquet  remained  in  the 
province,  mostly  at  outlying  posts.  In  1763  the 
Indians  united  in  an  attempt  to  expel  the  Eng- 
lish; they  massacred  many  settlers,  coming 
within  a  few  miles  of  Lancaster,  and  blockaded 
Fort  Pitt.  There  was  no  time  to  raise  provin- 
cial troops  if  the  fort  was  to  be  saved,  so 
Bouquet  set  out  with  a  force  of  500  regulars, 
made  his  way  through  the  forest,  taking  every 
precaution  against  surprise,  and  defeated  the 
Indians  at  Bushy  Run,  within  20  miles  of  Fort 
Pitt.  The  number  of  the  Indians  that  attacked 
him  was  as  great  as  his  own  force,  and  his 
soldiers  had  never  seen  Indian  warfare,  but  by 
•skilfully  feigning  a  retreat  Bouquet  drew  the 
Indians  from  their  cover  and  completely  routed 
ihem  by  a  sudden  charge.  In  the  following  year 
^c  led  a  force  of  regulars  and  provincial  troops 
to  the  forks  of  the  Muskingum  River,  150  miles 
west  of  Pittsburg.  The  Indians,  overawed  by 
bis  former  victory  and  by  his  boldness  in  pene- 
trating so  far  into  the  wilderness,  were  ready 
to  make  peace  and  surrender  their  white  prison- 
ers. He  was  subsequently  made  brigadier-gen- 
eral and  commandant  of  the  Southern  Colo- 
nies of  British  America  and  went  to  Pensacola, 
where  he  died. 

Bouquet,  Jean  Claude,  zhon  klod.  French 
mathematician:  b.  i8ig;  d.  1885.  In  1865  he 
became  professor  of  mathematics  in  the  Faculte 
des  Sciences  of  Lyons.     He  was  then  called  to 


Paris,  where  he  taught  special  mathematics  at 
the  Bonaparte  Lyceum,  and  subsequently  at  the 
Louis-le-Grand  Lyceum.  In  1873  he  was  ap- 
pointed professor  of  mechanics  at  the  Sor- 
bonnc,  and  was  elected  member  of  the  Academy 
of  Sciences  in  1875  i"  the  place  of  M.  Bertrand. 
He  also  received  the  decoration  of  the  Cross 
of  the  Legion  of  Honor. 

Bouquet  de  la  Grye,  Jean  Jacques  Anatole, 

zhoh  zhiik  an-a-tol  boo-ka-de-la-gre',  I'Vench 
hydrographical  engineer:  b.  Thiers,  Puy-de- 
Dome,  20  May  1827.  He  studied  at  the  Poly- 
technic School,  whence  he  was  graduated  in 
1847  in  the  hydrographical  engineers,  and  in 
1866  he  became  their  engineer-in-chief.  He  be- 
came a  member  of  the  Institute;  commander  of 
the  Legion  of  Honor,  and  a  member  of  the 
Academy,  elected  in  1884.  He  is  also  a  member 
of  the  bureau  of  longitudes  and  vice-president 
of  the  committee  on  hydrography.  A  project 
which  he  has  long  urged  is  to  make  Paris  a 
seaport  by  means  of  a  ship-canal  up  the  Seine. 
He  is  also  known  as  an  inventor  and  improver 
of  astronomical  instruments.  He  has  written 
^Paris  as  a  Seaport*;  <Notes  on  Soundings  of 
the  Sea*  :  '.\  Ilydrographic  Study  on  the  Bay 
of  Rochclle,'  ;  etc. 

Bouquet  of  Wine,  a  pleasant,  non-spirituous 
aroma  characteristic  of  good  wines,  and  named 
on  account  of  its  real  or  fancied  resemblance  to 
the  odor  of  flowers  and  fruits.  The  precise 
chemical  nature  of  the  substances  that  give  rise 
to  the  ^bouquet"  is  not  known.  They  consist 
partly,  without  doubt,  of  a  mixture  of  compound 
ethers,  derived  from  fatty  acids  that  are  pro- 
duced by  the  oxidation  of  albuminous  sub- 
stances and  vegetable  fats  or  oils.  Essential 
oils  of  various  kinds  must  also  be  included 
among  them.  According  to  some  authorities, 
the  kind  of  yeast  that  is  used  in  the  fermenta- 
tion has  much  to  do  with  the  bouquet  that  is 
developed.  Fruit  blossoms  are  occasionally 
added  to  the  must  on  account  of  the  "ferment 
oil"  that  is  developed  by  their  fermentation, 
and  which  communicates  a  fruity  smell  to  the 
wine.  Elder  flowers,  when  added  to  the  must 
in  this  way,  give  rise  to  an  aroma  of  Muscatel 
bouquet. 

Bouquetin,  boo-k'taii'.  a  wild  goat  of  the 
Alps  and  Pyrenees.     See  Ibex. 

Bourbaki,  Charles  Denis  Sauter,  sharl 
de-ne  s6-ta  boor-ba-ke,  French  general:  b. 
Pan  22  April  1816;  d.  Bayonne  22  Sept.  1897. 
He  entered  the  army  in  1836,  and  fought  in  the 
Crimea  and  Italy.  In  1870  he  commanded  the 
Imperial  Guard  at  Metz,  whence  he  was  sent 
to  England  on  a  secret  mission  to  the  empress. 
LTnder  Gambetta  he  organized  the  Army  of  the 
North,  and  commanded  the  .'Xrmy  of  the  Loire. 
His  attempt  to  break  the  Prussian  line  at  Bel- 
fort,  though  ably  conceived,  ended  in  disastrous 
failure ;  in  a  series  of  desultory  attacks  on  a 
much  inferior  force,  15-17  Jan.  1871,  he  lost 
10,000  men.  In  the  wretched  retreat  to  Switzer- 
land that  followed  on  the  27th,  reduced  to 
despair  by  the  ill  success  of  his  plans,  he 
attempted  to  commit  suicide.  From  1873  to 
1879  he  commanded  the  14th  Army  Corps  at 
Lyons,  and  in  1881  he  retired  from  service. 

Bourbon,  Antoine  de,  an-twan  de.  Duke  of 
Vendomc,  and  afterward  king  of  Navarre :  b.  22 
April    1518;   d.    17   Nov.    1562.     He  married,  in 


BOURBON  — BOURBON  FAMILY 

1548,  Jeanne  d'Albret,  only  child  of  Henry  II.,  expedition  of  Francis  into  Italy  was  arrested, 
king'  of  Navarre,  and  assumed  the  title  of  king  Having  been  appointed  to  the  command  of  the 
in  her  right.  After  the  accession  to  the  throne  imperial  troops,  he  made  an  unsuccessful  attack 
of  Franc'e  of  the  young  king  Francis  II.,  he  upon  Marseilles,  but  contributed  greatly  to  the 
endeavored  to  obtain  the  control  of  the  afifairs  victory  of  Pavia.  When  Francis  was  carried  a 
of  that  country,  but  failed  through  his  want  prisoner  to  Madrid  he  went  there  in  person,  that 
of  energy  and  perseverance.  On  the  death  of  he  might  not  be  forgotten  in  the  treaties  between 
Francis^'lL,  in  1560,  he  was  made  lieutenant-  the  two  monarchs  ;  but  Charles  V.  delayed  con- 
general  of  the  kingdom  and  adviser  to  the  queen  eluding  them,  and  Bourbon  discovered  that  he 
mother  (Catherine  de  Medici)  during  the  minor-  could  not  trust  the  emperor,  who  had  even 
ity  of  her  son.  Upon  the  breaking  out  of  the  promised  him  his  sister  in  marriage.  Compelled 
civil  war,  in  1562,  he  commanded  the  royal  to  smother  his  resentTuent  he  returned  to  Milan, 
forces,  and  died  of  a  wound  received  at  the  maintained  possession  of  Italy  by  the  terror  of 
siege  'of  Rouen.  His  son.  Henrv  of  Navarre,  his  arms,  and  obtained  so  much  authority  as  to 
isec'ame  king  of  France,  as  Henry  IV.  (1594).  become  an  object  of  suspicion   to   the   emperor, 

■n       i.         /-"u     i„  /(^.„T^T,.TAT  ^        v^^r^r^u  who,  in  order  to  weaken  him,  refused  to  grant 

Bourbon.  Charles         (Cardinal),      rrencn  ,  •     '  ,  ,■         t         j      ^  ^ 

I3UU1UU11,  yiiax     o         vv>      .        ■/ '    ,     T)^„_  him  the  necessary  supplies.     In  order  to  prevent 

prmce  and  prelate;  brother  of  Ai  tome  de  Bour-  ^^^  dispersion  of  his  army  he  led  the  soldiers  to 

bon;  uncle  to  Henry  IV.,  king  of  France,  b.  22  ^^^  ^.^^    ^^  ^  ^^^     y^^^^^  ^^ 

Dec.    1520;   f.    Fontenay^le-Come  9   May    15^.  i,%^  them.     He  was  the  first  to  mount  the 

He  was  archbishop  of  Rouen    legate  of  Avig-    i^^  ^^^^  ^,^^  ^.„^^        ^  .^ 

non,   cardinal,   peer  of   Trance,   and  member   01    ,      ^i  4.     r-  ir    ■      xj-    u  ^     u  •  J 

the  Council.     In  spite  of  family  ties  he  ardently    ^y  Benvenuto  Cellini.     His  body  being  conveyed 
supported  the  Guises  and  the  League,  and  was    ^o  Gaeta,  his  soldiers  erected  over  it  a  splendid 
declared  by  that  faction  heir  presumptive  to  the     monument     afterward    destroyed.     See    Coignet, 
throne  on  the  ground  that  his  brother,  Antoine,     ^Francis  the  First  and  His  Times>    (1888). 
through    heresy,    had    forfeited    his    claim.     On  Bourbon,  Louis,  loo-e.  Spanish  prelate:  b. 

the  death  of  Henry  III.  he  was  declared  king,  as  ^         ^^^^^^  ^g         j^e  was  the  son  of  the 

Charles  X  and  was  recognized  by  a  majori  y  .^^^^^^  Louis,  brother  of  King  Charles  III.  of 
of  the  parlemcnts;  though  he  was  all  the  while  ^  ■  ^^^^  ^j^^  Duchess  of  Chinchon.  The  mar- 
a  prisoner  at  Fontenay-le-Comte.  ^-^^^    ^^^^    concluded    with    the    royal    assent: 

Bourbon,  Charles  sharl  (Duke  of  Bour-  nevertheless,  it  was  doubted,  after  the  death  of 
BONNAis),  French  general,  known  as  Constable  Charles  III.,  whether  the  prince  would  be  law- 
DE  Bourbon;  son  of  Gilbert,  Count  of  Mont-  f^l  heir  to  the  throne,  if  a  male  descendant  of 
pensier  and  Clara  of  Gonzaga :  b.  17  Feb.  1489;  the  old  line  should  be  wanting.  He  therefore 
d.  6  May  1527.  He  received  from  Francis  I.,  in  entered  the  Church,  was  appointed  archbishop  of 
the  26th  year  of  his  age,  the  sword  of  Constable.  Seville  in  1799,  and  of  Toledo  in  1800.  A  ear- 
By  the  coolness  with  which  he  faced  death  in  final's  hat  was  also  given  to  him  in  1800.  After 
posts  of  the  greatest  hazard  he  excited  the  ad-  ^^^^  imprisonment  of  Ferdinand  VII.  at  Valen- 
miration  of  his  fellow-soldiers.  When  viceroy  ^^y^  ^^  joined  the  party  of  the  Cortes,  and 
of  Milan  he  won  all  hearts  by  his  frankness  and  became  very  influential.  He  offered,  in  1814 
affability.  His  fame  was  not  yet  tarnished  when  ^he  constitution  of  the  Cortes  to  Ferdinand  VII. 
the  injustice  of  his  king  deprived  him  of  his  f^j.  ^^^s  signature;  and  the  king  having  altered 
offices,  banished  him  from  France,  and  brought  j^j^  determination,  Bourbon  lost  his  favor  and 
the  family  of  Bourbon  into  disgrace,  in  which  ^^^  deprived  of  the  archbishopric  of  Seville, 
state  it  continued  until  the  conclusion  of  the  ^fter  the  events  which  took  place  on  the  insur- 
reign  of  Henry  III.  Whatever  may  be  the  true  rection  of  the  army  at  the  island  of  Leon,  he 
cause  of  her  conduct,  it  is  certain  that  the  engaged  in  the  revolution,  and  was  president  of 
Duchess  of  Angouleme,  mother  of  Francis  I..  ^^^  provisional  junta  before  which  the  king 
strove  to  invalidate  a  formal  donation  of  gwore,  at  Madrid,  9  March  1820,  to  abide  by  the 
Louis  XII.  The  constable,  enraged  at  see-  constitution  of  the  Cortes  of  1812. 
ing    himself    deprived    of    his    estates    by    the  ^  ^ 

mother  of  the  king  whom  he  had  served  with  Bourbon,  Louis   Henri,   loo-e   oii-re    (Due 

so  mAich  fidelitv  and  zeal,  listened  to  proposals  de),  French  courtier,  Prince  of  Conde :  b.  Ver- 
made  him  by  Charles  V.  and  the  king  of  Eng-  sailles,  1692;  d.  Chantilly,  27  Jan.  1740.  As 
land.  He  experienced  the  usual  fate  of  de-  chief  of  the  Council  of  Regency  and  superin- 
serters;  he  was  well  received  while  his  services  tendent  of  the  king's  education,  he  robbed  the 
were  needed,  but  narrowiy  watched  to  secure  public  treasury  and  extorted  huge  bribes.  Made 
his  fidelity.  Exposed  as  he  was  to  the  con-  prime  minister  in  1723.  he  persecuted  the  Prot- 
tempt  of  the  Spanish  nobility  and  the  jealousy  estants,  and  granted  exorbitant  privileges  to  the 
of  the  generals  of  Charles  V.,  nothing  remained  India  Company,  in  which  he  held  shares.  He 
to  him  but  his  courage  and  repentance.  His  ^^g  entirely  controlled  by  his  mistress,  the  Mar- 
ability,  however,  induced  the  emperor  to  bestow     guise  de  Prie. 

upon  him  the  command  of  an  army,  and  to  treat  ,  .  .  n  t:-       -i         tUc  fr^,^r^r\pr 

him   with   honor.     He   was   already  beyond   the  Bourbon  (boor-bon)  Family.      ihetounoer 

confines  of  France,  when  Francis  I.  sent  to  of  this  family,  which  has  governed  !:< ranee, 
demand  the  sword  which  he  bore  as  constable,  Spain,  the  two  Sicilies,  Lucca,  and  Farma  was 
and  the  badge  of  his  order.  His  answer  dis-  Robert  the  Strong,  who  in  861,  became  ^"^6  ot 
■  plays  the  anguish  of  his  heart:— «The  king  took  Neustria,  and  in  866  lost  his  lite  in  a  Dattie 
from  me  mV  sword  at  Valenciennes,  when  he  against  the  Normans.  Some  trace  his  descent 
gave  to  D'Alenqon  the  command  of  the  van-  from  Pepin  I'Heristal,  others  from  a  natinal  son 
guard,  which  belonged  to  me:  the  badge  of  my  of  Charlemagne,  and  others  from  the  kings  ot 
order  I  left  under  my  pillow  at  Chantelles.»  Lombardy.  It  is  certain  that  the  two  sons  ot 
His    flight    was    a    misfortune    to    France;    the     this   Robert   were  kings  of   France,      ihe   elder. 


BOURBON  FAMILY 


named  Eudes,  ascended  the  throne  in  888,  and 
died  in  898;  the  younger,  Robert,  in  922,  and 
died  in  923.  The  eldest  son  of  this  Robert  was 
Hugh  the  Great,  Duke  of  the  Isle  of  France, 
and  count  of  Paris  and  Orleans.  Hugh  Capet, 
son  of  Hugh  the  Great  (great  grandson  of  Rob- 
ert the  Strong),  founded  the  third  French 
dynasty  in  987.  One  of  his  descendants,  named 
Robert,  was  the  root  of  the  elder  line  of  the 
dukes  of  Burgundy,  which  became  extinct  in 
1361.  A  descendant  of  this  Robert,  Henry  of 
Burgundy,  was  first  regent  of  Portugal  in  1995, 
where  his  legitimate  descendants  became  extinct 
in  1383.  Pierre  de  Courtenay,  a  descendant  of 
Hugh  Capet,  in  the  fifth  generation,  was  father 
and  ancestor  of  many  emperors  of  Constan- 
tinople. The  house  of  Anjou  descended  from 
Hugh  Capet,  in  the  eighth  generation,  possessed 
the  throne  of  Naples  for  two  centuries,  and  for 
some  time  that  of  Hungary.  Another  descend- 
ant of  Hugh  Capet,  in  the  loth  degree,  founded 
the  house  of  Navarre,  which  continued  from 
1328  to  1425.  A  second  family  of  Anjou, 
descended  from  Hugh  Capet,  in  the  13th  degree, 
gave  some  distinguished  princes  to  Provence. 
In  the  same  degree,  the  younger  line  of  the 
powerful  dukes  of  Burgundy  derived  its  origin 
from  him.  This  line  became  extinct  with  the 
death  of  Charles  the  Bold,  in  1477,  whose  suc- 
cessor, Maria,  married  Maximilian,  archduke  of 
Austria,  and  became  grandmother  of  Charles  V. 
Robert,  Earl  of  Clermont,  second  son  of  St. 
Louis,  married  Beatrice,  Duchess  of  Bourbon. 
In  this  way  the  city  of  Bourbon  I'Archambault, 
or  Bourbon  les  Bains,  in  the  department  of  Allier 
(formerly  Bourbonnais),  became  the  birthplace 
of  the  house  of  Bourbon,  and  Louis  I..  Duke  of 
Bourbon,  son  of  Robert  and  Beatrice,  its  founder. 
Two  branches  took  their  origin  from  the  two 
sons  of  this  Louis,  Duke  of  Bourbon,  w-ho  died 
in  1 341.  The  elder  line  was  that  of  the  dukes 
of  Bourbon,  which  became  extinct  at  the  death 
of  the  Constable  of  Bourbon  in  1527,  in  the 
assault  of  the  city  of  Rome.  The  younger  was 
that  of  the  counts  of  La  Marche,  afterward 
counts  and  dukes  of  Vendome.  Of  these, 
Charles,  Duke  of  Vendome,  who  died  in  1537, 
and  who  had  been  the  head  of  the  house  of 
Bourbon  since  the  death  of  the  Constable,  had 
two  sons,  Anthony  and  Louis,  founders  respec- 
tively of  the  royal  line  of  Bourbon,  and  of  the 
line  of  Conde.  Henry,  the  son  of  Anthony, 
obtained  the  throne  of  France  as  Henry  IV., 
when  the  house  of  Valois  became  extinct  in  1589 
by  the  murder  of  Henry  III.  His  father  had 
obtained  the  kingdom  of  Navarre  through^  his 
wife,  who  inherited  it,  and  Henry  now  added 
it  to  the  French  dominions.  Anthony's  younger 
brother  Louis,  Prince  of  Conde,  was  the  founder 
of  the  line  of  Conde.  There  were,  therefore, 
two  chief  branches  of  the  Bourbons  —the  royal, 
and  that  of  Conde.  The  royal  branch  was 
divided  by  the  two  sons  of  Louis  XIII.,  the 
elder  of  w'hom,  Louis  XIV.,  continued  the  chief 
branch,  which,  through  his  son,  Louis  (the  dau- 
phin), and  grandson,  Philip  V.,  was  separated 
into  the  elder  or  royal  French  branch,  and  the 
younger  or  royal  Spanish  branch  :  while  Philip, 
younger  son  of  Louis  XIII.,  founded  the  house 
of  Orleans,  when  he  received  the  duchy  of 
Orleans  from  Louis  XIV.  The  kings  of  the 
elder  or  French  line  of  the  house  of  Bourbon 
are  as  follows:  Henrv  IV.,  Louis  XIII..  XIV., 
XV.,  XVI.,  XVIL,  XVIII.,  and  Charles  X.    The 


house    of    Bourbon    consists    of    the    following 
branches  and  members : 

A.  The  Elder  French  Royal  Line  of  Bourbons 
as  Distinguished  from  the  Younger  Branch  or 
House  of  Orleans.  The  last  sovereigns  of  this 
line  were  three  brothers,  Louis  XVI.,  Louis 
XVIII.,  and  Charles  X.  (Louis  XVIL,  son  of 
Louis  XVI.,  never  obtained  the  crown),  all  of 
whom  were  grandsons  of  Louis  XV.  Louis 
XVIII.  had  no  children,  but  Charles  X.  had 
two  sons,  namely:  Louis  Antoine  de  Bourbon, 
Duke  of  Angouleme,  who  was  dauphin  till  the 
revolution  of  1830,  and  died  without  issue  in 
1844,  and  Charles  Ferdinand,  Duke  of  Berr>% 
who  died  14  Feb.  1820,  of  a  wound  given  him 
by  a  political  fanatic.  The  Duke  of  Berry  had 
two  children,  (i)  Louise  Marie  Thercse,  called 
Mademoiselle  d'Artois,  and  afterward  by  mar- 
riage Duchess  of  Parma,  died  at  Venice,  i  Feb. 
1864;  and  (2)  Henri  Charles  Ferdinand  Marie 
Dieudonne,  born  in  1820,  and  at  first  called  Duke 
of  Bordeaux,  but  afterward  Count  de  Chambord. 
His  mother  was  the  Princess  Caroline,  daughter 
of  Francis  I.,  king  of  the  two  Sicilies.  Charles 
X.,  having  abdicated  in  favor  of  his  grandson 
Henri  above  mentioned  in  1830,  and  the  dauphin 
having  renounced  his  claims  on  the  French 
throne  also  in  favor  of  the  latter,  the  Count  de 
Chambord  was  until  his  death  looked  upon  by 
his  party  as  the  legitimate  heir  to  the  crown  of 
France,  and  was  styled  by  them  Henri  V. 

B.  The  Branch  of  the  Bourbons  Knozcn  as 
the  House  of  Orleans. —  This  branch  raised  to  the 
throne  of  France  by  the  revolution  of  1830,  and 
deprived  of  it  by  that  of  1848,  derives  its  origin, 
as  already  mentioned,  from  Duke  Philip  I.  of 
Orleans  (d.  i/Oi),  second  son  of  Louis  XHI., 
and  only  brother  of  Louis  XIV.  By  his  second 
wife,  Charlotte  of  the  Palatinate,  he  left  as  his 
successor  in  the  dukedom  his  son  Philip,  known 
as  Duke  of  Chartres  during  his  father's  life- 
time, and  was  regent  of  France  during  the 
minority  of  Louis  XV.  Philip,  second  Duke, 
was  succeeded  by  his  son,  Louis  Philip  (b.  1703), 
who  married  a  princess  of  Baden,  and  died  in 
retirement  in  1752,  leaving  a  son  of  the  same 
name.  Louis  Philip.  Duke  of  Orleans,  who  was 
born  in  1725,  and  died  in  1785.  The  son  of  the 
last-mentioned  Duke  was  Louis  Joseph  Philip, 
the  Duke  of  Orleans  whose  name  figures  in  the 
first  French  Revolution,  who  perished  on  the 
scaffold  in  1793,  after  he  had  laid  aside  his 
princely  name  the  year  before  and  assumed  that 
of  "Citizen  Egalite."  He  left  four  children  :  (i) 
Louis  Philip,  before  the  Revolution  Duke  of 
Chartres,  after  his  father's  death  Duke  of 
Orleans,  from  1830  to  1848  king  of  France,  died 
26  Aug.  1850,  leaving  a  numerous  family;  (,2) 
the  Duke  of  Montpensier.  who  died  in  England 
in  1807;  (3)  the  Count  de  Beaujolais.  w^ho  died 
at  ]\Ialta  in  1808;  and  (4)  a  daughter.  Adelaide, 
Mademoiselle  d'Orleans.  born  in  1777.  died  31 
Dec.  1847.  The  eldest  son  of  King  Louis  Philip 
was  Ferdinand.  Duke  of  Orleans  (b.  1810.  d. 
1842).  who  married  a  daughter  of  Frederick 
Louis  of  Mecklenburg- Schwerin.  and  left  two 
sons:  (i)  Louis  Philip.  Count  de  Paris,  b.  Paris, 
24  Aug.  1838;  and  (2)  Robert.  Duke  of  Char- 
tres, b.  Paris,  1840.  Louis  Philip  having  abdi- 
cated in  favor  of  the  former  in  1848.  the  Count 
de  Paris  till  his  death  in  1894  was  looked  upon 
by  the  Orleanists  as  the  true  heir  to  the  throne. 
He  was  married  to  his  cousin,  Isabella,  a  daugh- 
ter of  the  Duke  of  Montpensier,  and  left  issue. 


BOURBON  —  BOURCHIER 


C.  The  Spanish-Bourbon  Dynasty. —  In  1700 
Louis  XIV.  placed  his  grandson  Philip,  Duke  of 
Anjou,  on  the  Spanish  throne,  who  as  Philip  V. 
founded  the  Bourbon  dynasty  in  Spain.  Philip 
V. 'was  succeeded  in  1746  by  his  son,  Ferdinand 
VI.,  who,  dying  in  1759  without  heirs,  was  suc- 
ceeded by  his  brother,  Charles  III.  To  him 
succeeded  (1788)  his  son  Charles  IV.,  who,  in 
1808,  resigned  the  throne  in  favor  of  a  successor 
nominated  by  Napoleon,  and  died  at  Naples  in 
1819.  His  son  Fernando,  Prince  of  the  Astu- 
rias,  obtained  the  crown  on  the  fall  of  Napoleon, 
and  reigned  as  Ferdinand  VII.,  dying  29  Sept. 
1833,  and  leaving  behind  him  two  daughters  by 
his  third  marriage,  the  elder  of  whom  succeeded 
him  as  Isabella  II.  She  was  married,  in  1846, 
to  her  cousin  Francisco  de  Assis.  In  1868  she 
had  to  leave  Spain  in  consequence  of  the  revo- 
lution, and  in  1870  she  renounced  her  claims  to 
the  throne  in  favor  of  her  son  Alphonso,  who 
became  Alphonso  XII.,  and  died  in  1885,  his  son, 
Alphonso  XIII. ,  succeeding  him. 

D.  The  Royal  Line  of  the  Two  Sicilies. — 
The  Two  Sicilies  being  then  a  possession  of 
the  Spanish  monarchy,  in  1735  Don  Carlos,  the 
younger  son  of  Philip  V.  of  Spain,  obtained 
the  crown  and  reigned  over  Sicily  and  Naples  as 
Charles  III..  In  1759,  however,  he  succeeded  his 
brother  Ferdinand  VI.  on  the  Spanish  throne, 
when  he  transferred  the  Two  Sicilies  to  his  third 
son  Fernando  (Ferdinand  IV.),  on  the  express 
condition  that  this  crown  should  not  be  again 
united  with  Spain.  Ferdinand  IV.  had  to  leave 
Naples  in  1806;  but  after  the  fall  of  Napoleon 
he  again  became  king  of  both  Sicilies  under  the 
title  of  Ferdinand  I.  He  was  succeeded  by  his 
son  Francis  I  in  1825 ;  Francis  was  succeeded  by 
his  son  Ferdinand  11.  in  1830;  and  the  latter 
was  succeeded  by  his  son  Francis  II.  in  1859, 
who  was  deprived  of  the  kingdom  in  i860. 

E.  The  Ducal  Line  of  Parma. —  This  line,  like 
that  of  the  Two  Sicilies,  was  founded  by  a  son 
of  Philip  V.  of  Spain,  namely:  Don  Philip,  his 
youngest  son,  who  obtained  the  duchies  of 
Parma  and  Piacenza  in  1748.  Louis,  grandson 
of  Don  Philip,  obtained  Tuscany  likewise  (1802), 
with  the  title  of  king  of  Etruria.  The  family 
did  not  long  retain  this  honor,  however,  being 
soon  forced  by  the  power  of  France  to  give  up 
not  only  Etruria,  but  also  Parma  and  Piacenza ; 
and  it  was  not  till  1847  that  there  was  again  a 
Bourbon  Duke  of  Parma.  In  1859  the  reigning 
Duke,  Robert,  had  to  leave  his  dominions,  which 
were  soon  incorporated  in  the  kingdom  of  Italy. 
See  Coiffier  Demoret,  <Histoire  du  Bourbonnais 
e*-  des  Bourbons^  (1824)  ;  Achaintre,  *Histoire 
Chronologique  et  Genealogique  de  la  Maison 
Royale  de  Bourbon^  (1825)  ;  Coxe,  ^Memoirs  of 
the  Kings  of  Spain  of  the  House  of  Bourbon^ 
(1815)  ;  Lehes,  <Genealogie  des  Bourbons  de 
France,  d'Espagne,  de  Naples,  et  de  Parme^ 
(1880)  ;  Bingham,  ^The  Marriages  of  the  Bour- 
bons >    (1890). 

Bourbon,  Isle  of.  See  Reunion,  Isle  de  la. 

Bourbon-Lancy,  laii-se,  a  French  watering 
place,  department  Saone-et-Loire,  famous  for  its 
thermal  springs,  containing  chloride  of  sodium 
and  iron.  Its  situation  is  notably  fine,  and  by 
the  Romans  it  was  called  Aquae  Nisineii  or  Nis- 
ienses.  Remains  of  the  Roman  baths  are  still  to 
be  seen  here,  and  the  town  contains  a  hospital, 
built  by  the  Marquis  d'Aligre,  with  400  beds. 
Pop.   (1896)  4,162. 


Bourbon- Vendee,  v6n-da,  Napoleon-Ven- 
dee, or,  since  the  dissolution  of  the 
Second  Empire  in  1870,  La  Roche-sur-Yon, 
a  town  in  France,  the  capital  of  the  depart- 
ment Vendee,  231  miles  southwest  from 
Paris,  situated  on  a  hill  on  the  right  bank  of  the 
Yon.  The  streets  nearly  all  end  in  a  spacious 
square,  bordered  with  ranges  of  fine  trees,  and 
surrounded  by  public  monuments  and  elegant 
mansions.  The  parish  church,  with  a  peristyle 
of  six  Doric  columns,  and  the  mairie  or 
mansion-house,  an  elegant  Italian  building,  are 
both  in  the  square.  Besides  these  there  are  an 
elegant  market-house,  theatre,  and  extensive 
public  offices,  large  barracks,  and  a  small  public 
library.  There  is  an  active  trade  in  woolen 
cloth,  and  hardware.  It  was  founded  by  Napo- 
leon I.  on  the  site  of  the  ancient  castle  of  Roche- 
sur-Yon,  destroyed  at  the  Revolution,  and 
received  the  name  of  Napoleon- Vendee,  which 
was  changed  to  Bourbon-Vendee  at  the  Restora- 
tion.    Pop.  (1891)  12,215. 

Bourbon  Whisky,  a  term  applied  to  Ken- 
tucky whisky,  made  from  a  mixture  of  corn, 
rye,  and  malt,  of  which  the  corn  constitutes 
the  larger  part.  In  its  distillation  some  of  the 
oils  and  acids  are  allowed  to  remain.  These, 
with  age,  undergo  chemical  action,  and  are 
converted  into  aromatic  ethers. 

Bourbonnais,  a  province  and  government  of 
old  France,  with  the  title,  first  of  a  county, 
and  afterward  of  a  duchy,  Jying  between  the 
Nivernais,  Berry,  and  Burgundy.  It  now  forms 
the  department  of  the  Allier.  It  derived  i^s 
name  from  the  small  town  Bourbon  I'Archanl- 
bault,  from  which  the  Bourbon  family  received 
their  title.  Consult  Montegut,  ^En  Bourbonnais 
et  en  Forez*  (1880), 

Bourbonnais,  boor-bon-na,  111.,  a  village  in 
Kaskaskia  County,  56  miles  south  of  Chicago, 
the  seat  of  two  important  Roman  Catholic 
schools,  Notre  Dame  Academy,  and  Saint  Via- 
teur's  College,  opened  in  1865.    Pop.  595. 

Bourbonne-les-Bains,  boor-bun-la-ban,  a 
town  of  France,  department  of  Haute  Marne, 
21  miles  east-northeast  of  Langres,  with  hot 
springs,  which  were  resorted  to  by  the  Romans. 
They  contam  much  chloride  of  sodium,  with  a 
temperature  which  varies  from  140°  to  150°  F.^ 
and  frequented  by  some  3,coo  invalids  annually. 
The  town  has  a  12th  century  church,  a  large 
military  hospital,  and  interesting  ruins  of  an 
ancient  chateau.     Pop.   (1896)  4,156. 

Bourboule,  boor-bool.  La,  France,  a  health 
resort  in  the  department  of  Puy-le-Dome,  22 
miles  southwest  of  Clermont.  It  is  pic- 
turesquely situated  amid  striking  scenery  and  its 
mineral  thermal  springs  are  visited  by  over 
7,000  persons  yearly.  Its  waters  when  bottled 
are  extensively  exported  for  medicinal  use.  Pop. 
1,947- 

Bourchier,  boor'chi-er,  Arthur,  English 
actor:  b.  Speen,  Berkshire,  22  June  1864.  He 
was  educated  at  Oxford  where  he  was  promi- 
nent in  amateur  theatricals  and  in  1889  went 
upon  the  stage.  He  has  played  in  leading 
theatres  in  England  and  the  United  States 
and  took  the  Royalty  Theatre  in  1895  when  he 
brought  out  one  of  his  own  adaptations,  ^The 
Chili  Widow, ^  which  ran  300  nights,  and  the 
Garrick  Theatre  in  1900,  where  he  produced 
Barrie's   play,    ^The  Wedding   Guest.^ 


BOURDALOUE  —  BOURGEOIS 


Bourdaloue,  Louis,  loo-e  boor-da-loo,  the 
founder  of  genuine  pulpit  eloquence  in  France : 
b.  Bourges,  20  Aug.  1632;  d.  Paris,  13  May 
1704.  He  was  sixteen  when  he  entered  the 
society  of  Jesuits  and  his  instruUors  succes- 
sively entrusted  to  him  the  chairs  of  polite  let- 
ters, rhetoric,  philosophy,  and  moral  theology. 
In  1669  he  entered  the  pulpit,  and  extended  his 
reputation  by  attacking,  with  a  powerful  and 
religious  eloquence,  free  from  the  bad  taste  of 
the  age,  the  passions,  vices,  and  errors  of 
mankind.  The  dignity  of  his  delivery,  and 
the  fire  of  his  language,  made  him  distinguished, 
amidst  the  victories  of  Turenne  and  the  feasts 
of  Versailles,  among  the  master-spirits  of  the 
arts  and  of  literature  in  the  time  of  Corneille 
and  Racine.  Louis  XIV.  invited  him,  in  1670, 
to  preach  before  the  court,  and  Bourdaloue 
acquitted  himself  with  so  much  success  that  he 
afterward  received  invitations  at  10  different 
times.  After  the  repeal  of  the  Edict  of  Nantes, 
he  was  sent  to  Languedoc,  in  order  to  explain 
to  the  Protestants  the  doctrines  of  the  Roman 
Catholic  faith,  and  he  succeeded  in  this  difficult 
business  in  reconciling  the  dignity  of  his  office 
with  the  rights  of  mankind.  In  his  latter  days  he 
devoted  himself  to  the  care  of  hospitals,  prisons, 
and  religious  institutions.  He  well  knew  how 
to  accommodate  his  manner  to  the  capacity  of 
those  to  whom  he  gave  instruction,  advice,  or 
consolation.  With  the  simple,  he  was  simple; 
with  the  learned,  he  was  a  scholar ;  with  free- 
thinkers, he  was  a  logician ;  and  came  off  suc- 
cessful in  all  those  contests  in  which  the  love 
of  his  neighbor,  religious  zeal,  and  the  duties 
of  his  office,  involved  him.  Beloved  alike  by 
all,  he  exercised  authority  over  the  minds  of 
all ;  and  no  consideration  could  make  him  give 
up  his  openness  and  integrity  of  character.  His 
^Sermons  and  Moral  Discourses*  appeared  in 
English  (3d  ed.  1855);  and  < Married  Life:  Its 
Obligations  and  Trials*  (1897).  See  Fengere, 
*  Bourdaloue,  sa  predication  et  son  temps* 
(1874)  ;  Tousserat.  ^Etude  genealogique  sur  les 
Bourdaloue'     (1900). 

Bourdillon,  Francis  William,  English  poet: 
b.  22  March  1852.  He  has  taught  private 
pupils  for  many  years  and  as  a  poet  is  widely 
known  as  the  author  of  the  lyric,  <The  Night 
Has  a  Thousand  Eyes.*  His  published  works 
include  <Among  the  Flowers*  (1878);  'Aucas- 
sin  and  Nicolette*  edited  and  translated  (1887)  ; 
<Ailes  d'Alouette*  (1890);  <A  Lost  God* 
(1891)  ;  <Sursum  Corda*  ;  <Nephele,*  a  much 
admired  musical  romance  (1896);  'Minuscula* 
(1897). 

Bourdon,  Sebastian,  sa-bas-te-oii  boor- 
doh,  celebrated  French  painter:  b.  Montpel- 
lier,  "1616;  d.  1671.  Being  poor  and  without 
occupation,  he  enlisted  as  a  soldier.  After 
receiving  his  dismission,  he  visited  Italy,  and 
studied  under  Poussin  and  Claude  Lorraine. 
In  1652  he  was  driven  from  the  French  kingdom 
by  the  religious  troubles,  when  he  was  appointed 
first  painter  to  Queen  Christina  of  Sweden.  He 
afterward  became  distinguished  in  his  own 
country  by  many  great  works,  among  which  are 
the  following:  the  <Dead  Chri.st.*  the  <01d  Kings 
of  Burgundy  in  the  Senate-house  at  Aix,' 
the  <Adulteress.*  He  had  no  peculiar  man- 
ner, but  he  imitated  others.  He  was  a  good 
engraver  on  copper.  He  died  while  engaged  in 
painting  the  ceiling  of  the  Tuilenes. 


Bourdon,  named  after  the  inventor,  a 
barometer  consisting  of  an  elastic  flattened  tube 
of  metal  bent  to  a  circular  form  and  exhausted, 
of  air,  so  that  the  ends  of  the  tube  separate  as 
the  atmospheric  pressure  is  diminished,  and 
approach  as  it  increases.  The  Bourdon  is  com- 
monly known  as  the  metallic  barometer,  although 
the  aneroid  is  also  metallic,  and  both  holosteric. 

Bourdon  de  L'Oise,  Frangois  Louis,  fraii- 
swa  loo-e  boor-doh-de-lwaz,  French  revolu- 
tionist: b.  Saint  Remy,  about  1750;  d.  Cayenne, 
Guiana,  after  1797.  He  figured  in  the  attack  on 
the  Tuileries,  10  Aug.  1792,  and  did  much  to 
bring  to  pass  the  execution  of  the  king  and  the 
fall  of  the  Girondists,  but  from  July  1794, 
adopted  ^  the  side  of  the  nobles  and  clergy. 
After  joining  a  Royalist  club  he  was  proscribed 
and  transported  to  Cayenne  in  1797,  where  he 
died  not  long  after. 

Bourg-en-Bresse,  boorg-ah-bres,  a  town  of 
France,  capital  of  the  department  of  Ain,  situ- 
ated 232  miles  southeast  of  Paris,  on  the  Rcys- 
scuse  and  the  Cone.  It  is  well  built,  and  orna- 
mented with  public  fountains,  one  of  which  was 
erected  to  the  memory  of  Gen.  Joubert.  On 
the  Promenade  du  Bastion  is  a  bronze  statue  of 
Bichat,  the  celebrated  anatomist,  who  pursued 
his  early  medical  studies  in  the  hospital  here. 
The  parish  church  of  Bourg-en-Bresse  is  a 
handsome  edifice  of  the  i6th  century.  Out- 
side the  town  is  a  magnificent  hospital,  sur- 
rounded by  gardens ;  and  the  beautiful  Gothic 
church  of  Brou,  built  by  the  direction  of  Mar- 
garet of  Austria,  daughter  of  Maximilian  I. 
In  front  of  the  portal  stands  a  curious  elliptical 
sun-dial,  reconstructed  by  the  celebrated  astron- 
omer Lalande,  who  was  a  native  of  this  place. 
Bourg-en-Bresse  has  a  library,  a  museum,  a 
lyceum,  seminary,  two  hospitals,  a  lunatic 
asylum,  some  manufactories  of  linen  and  hosiery, 
tanneries,  a  cotton-mill,  grain  market,  etc. 
Its  trade  in  grain,  cattle,  horses,  and  wine  is 
considerable.     Pop.    (1896)    18,501. 

Bourgelat,  Claude,  klod  boorzh'la,  French 
lawyer,  founder  of  the  veterinary  schools  and 
creator  of  the  art  of  veterinary  surgery  in 
France:  b.  Lyons,  1712;  d.  3  Jan.  1779.  He  estab- 
lished the  first  veterinary  school  in  his  native 
town  in  1762,  and  by  his  works  on  the  veterinary 
art  furnished  the  world  with  a  complete  course  of 
instruction  both  in  its  theory  and  in  its  practice* 
they  include  'Elements  d'Hippiatrique,  ou  Nou- 
veaux  Principes  sur  la  Connaissance  et  sur  la 
Medecine  des  Chevaux^  (1750-3);  and  *Traite 
de  la  Conformation  Exterieure  du  Cheval' 
(1776). 

Bourgeois,  Charles  Arthur,  Baron,  sharl 
ar-tiir  boor-zhwii,  French  sculptor:  b.  1838;  d. 
1886.  He  was  a  student  of  Duret  and  M.  Guil- 
laume.  Among  the  more  notable  of  his  works 
are  the  ^Arab  Washerwoman*  ;  and  the  'Greek 
Actor,*  in  bronze;  *St.  Agatha*;  <The  Slave*; 
and  'Hero  and  Leander,*  in  plaster;  'The 
Delphic  Pythos*  and  several  busts  in  marble, 
and  'St.  Joachim*  and  'Religion,*  two  stone 
figures  for  the  church  of  St.  EuStache  and  the 
Church  of  the  Sorbonne,  respectively. 

Bourgeois,  Leon  Victor  Auguste,  la-6h 
vek-tor  a-goost,  French  politician:  b.  Paris, 
1851.  After  holding  several  positions  of  impor- 
tance he  t)f*came  director  of  the  ministry  of  the 


BOURGEOIS  —  BOURGOING 


interior  in  1886  and  in  1887  prefect  of  police. 
He  was  minister  of  the  interior  in  1889;  min- 
ister of  public  instruction  1892-3  and  prime 
minister  1895-6.  He  was  .for  a  time  in  1S98 
minister  of  public  instruction  for  the  second 
time,  and  in  1899  was  at  the  head  of  the  French 
delegation  to  the  peace  conference  at  The 
Hague.    He  has  written  <Solidarite^    (1897). 

Bourgeois,  Sir  Peter  Francis,  English 
painter:  b.  London,  1756;  d.  8  Jan.  181 1.  At 
first  intended  for  a  military  career,  he  soon 
determined  to  become  an  artist.  In  1776  he  went 
on  a  tour  through  France,  Holland,  and  Italy, 
and  three  years  later  he  exhibited  his  first  pic- 
ture. Elected  A.R.A.  in  1787,  he  became  R.A. 
in  1793,  and  landscape  painter  to  George  HI.  in 
1794.  King  Stanislaus  of  Poland  in  1791 
aippointed  him  his  painter  and  conferred  on  him 
the  honor  of  knighthood,  and  shortly  afterward 
George  III.  also  knighted  him.  He  bequeathed 
many  pictures  and  a  considerable  sum  of  money 
to  Dulwich  College. 

Bourgeois,  bur-jois',  a  size  of  printing  type 
larger  than  brevier  and  smaller  than  long 
primer,  used  in  books  and  newspapers. 

Bourgeoisie,  boor-zhwa-ze,  a  name  applied 
in  France  to  citizens  of  towns  who  do  not  belong 
to  the  nobility  or  clergy,  and  in  a  narrower 
sense  to  townspeople  occupying  an  independent 
position  —  merchants,  tradesmen,  independent 
artisans,  lawyers,  etc.  In  the  early  period  of  the 
Middle  Ages  this  class  was  much  oppressed,  and 
as  a  consequence  of  that  it  was  poor  and  pos- 
sessed little  culture  and  refinement.  In  subse- 
quent centuries  it  succeeded  in  raising  itself  in 
all  these  respects,  and  latterly  attaining  a  posi- 
tion of  political  equality  with  the  nobility  and 
clergy,  came  to  be  spoken  of  as  the  ''third  estate" 
(tiers  etat).  The  word  is  now  used  in  a  some- 
what vaguer  sense  than  formerly,  and  may  be 
taken  to  correspond  with  the  equally  vague  Eng- 
lish appellation  the  ''middle  classes.*' 

Bourges,  boorzh,  France,  capital  of  the 
department  of  Cher,  124  miles  south  of  Paris, 
on  the  canal  of  Berry  and  the  Central  railroad, 
in  an  extensive  plain,  at  the  confluence  of  the 
Auron  and  the  Yevrette.  When  the  Romans 
invaded  Gaul,  it  was  known  as  Avaricum,  the 
capital  of  Biturigescubi.  It  was  taken  by  Czesar, 
52  B.C.,  and  almost  all  its  inhabitants  slaugh- 
tered. Under  the  name  of  Bituriges,  it  was  for 
475  years  the  metropolis  of  Aquitania.  During 
the  Middle  Ages,  many  councils  were  held  here. 
The  French  clergy  assembled  here  in  1438  to 
receive  the  famous  charter  known  as  the  Prag- 
matic Sanction,  by  which  the  liberties  of  the 
Gallican  church  were  secured.  Jacques  Coeur 
and  Louis  XL  were  both  born  here.  The  former 
established  here  in  1463  a  university,  where 
Cujas  taught  during  the  i6th  century.  Bourda- 
loue,  the  famous  preacher,  was  born  here  in 
1632.  Don  Carlos  resided  here  from  1839  to 
1845,  when  he  signed  the  abdication  in  favor  of 
his  son.  The  trial  of  Louis  Blanc,  Albert,  and 
others,  took  place  before  the  supreme  court  at 
Bourges,  7  M^ch  to  2  April  1849.  The  city  is 
partly  surrounaed  by  a  thick  wall,  flanked  with 
lofty  towers  ;  its  streets  are  irregularly  laid  out, 
while  the  houses  are  generally  mean-looking, 
with  their  gables  to  the  street.  Among  the  old 
buildings  which  it  contains  are  the  magnificent 
'cathedral,    larger   than    Notre    Dame   de    Paris, 


and  one  of  the  finest  Gothic  monuments  of 
Europe;  the  city  hall,  built  at  great  cost  by 
Jacques  Cceur  as  a  dwelling-house,  and  now  oc- 
cupied as  the  Palais  de  Justice;  and  the  palace 
of  the  archbishop.  The  establishments  of  public 
instruction,  including  the  imperial  college,  the 
theological  seminary,  and  the  normal  school, 
are  well  patronized.  Bourges  has  manufactories 
of  fine  and  coarse  cloths,  iron  foundries,  and  tan- 
yards.     Pop.   (1896)   43,587. 

Bourget,  Paul,  pol  boor-zha,  French  nov- 
elist :  b.  Amiens,  2  Sept.  1852.  After  a  brilliant 
course  at  the  Lyceum  of  Clermont-Ferrand, 
where  his  father  was  professor  of  mathematics, 
and  the  College  of  Sainte  Barbe.  he  graduated 
with  high  honors  in  1872.  He  began  to  write 
in  1873,  but  it  was  10  years  before  he  found  his 
true  work,  though  he  contributed,  the  while, 
numerous  articles  to  the  magazines,  and  pub- 
lished three  volumes  of  striking  verse,  'La  Vie 
Inquiete>  (1875);  'EdeP  (1878);  and  'Les 
Aveux>  (1881).  His  'Essais*  (1883)  was  the 
first  indication  of  his  strength.  The  second 
series,  'Nouveaux  Essais  de  Psychologic  Con- 
temporaine'  (1886),  was  a  singularly  subtle  and 
exceedingly  searching  inquiry  into  the  causes 
of  the  pessimism  then  widely  prevalent  in 
France.  Bourget's  first  novel.  'LTrreparable' 
(1884),  was  followed  by  'Cruelle  Enigme' 
(1885);  'Un  Crime  d'Amour>  (1886);  'Andre 
Cornells'  (1887),  and  'Mensonges'  (1887). 
The  keen  insight  into  the  hidden  springs  of 
human  motive,  and  the  marvelous  subtlety  of 
psychological  analysis  of  these  stories,  together 
with  their  clearness  and  refinement  of  style,  have 
lifted  Bourget  into  the  front  rank  of  contem- 
porary French  novelists.  His  intimate  know- 
ledge of  English  and  Italian  life,  and  his  travels 
in  Spain  and  Morocco,  gave  him  the  material 
for  'Sensations  d'ltalie'  (1891)  ;  and  'Cosmopo- 
lis'  (1892)  ;  and  he  recorded  his  impressions 
(1894)  of  travel  in  the  United  States.  Other 
novels  are  'Le  Disciple,'  'Notre  Cceur,'  'La 
Terre  Promise,'  'Un  Saint,'  'Antigone,' 
'Drame  de  famille'  (1900);  'Un  homme  d'Af- 
faires'  (1901)  ;  'La  fantome'  (1901).  Bourget 
was  admitted  to  the  Academy  in  1894. 

Bourgoin,  Edme  Alfred,  ed-ma  al-fra  boor- 
gwaii,  French  chemist :  b.  Saint  Cyr-les- 
Colonne,  1836.  In  1867  he  became  chief  phar- 
macist of  the  Children's  Hospital  in  Paris  and 
has  been  director  of  the  central  pharmacy  of 
the  Paris  hospitals  from  1885.  Among  his  writ- 
ings are  'Electro-chimie'  (1868)  ;  'Chimie 
organique,  Principes  de  la  classification  des  sub- 
stances' (1876);  'Traite  de  Pharmacie  galen- 
ique'    (1880). 

Bourgoin,  a  French  town,  capital  of  a 
canton  in  the  department  Isere  in  southeastern 
France.  It  is  situated  on  the  River  Bourbre 
and  was  called  by  the  Romans  Bergusium.  It 
contains  important  paper,  linen,  and  woolen 
industries.     Pop.   (1901)  7,279- 

Bourgoing,  Jean  Frangois,  zhon  fran-swa 
boor-gwaii,  French  diplomatist:  b.  Nevers, 
20  Nov.  1748;  d.  Carlsbad,  20  July  181 1.  While 
at  a  military  school  in  Paris  his  talents  were  so 
marked  that  he  was  educated  by  the  government 
at  the  University  of  Strassburg  for  the  diplo- 
matic service.  After  four  years  spent  in  Ger- 
many on  diplomatic  missions  he  went  to  Madrid 
in    1777    and    was    secretary    of    legation    there 


BOURIGNON  —  BOURNE 


seven  years,  writing  in  that  time  his  noted  ^Nou- 
veau  voyage  en  Espagne,  ou  Tableau  de  letat 
actuel  de  cette  monarchic'  (1789).  In  1791  he 
was^  minister  plenipotentiary  to  Spain,  minister 
to  Saxony  in  1808,  and  was  at  various  times 
employed  on  diplomatic  missions  to  Germany 
and  Holland.  Besides  the  work  above  named 
he  wrote  ^Memoires  historiques  et  philosoph- 
iques  sur  Pie  VI.'    (1789). 

Bourignon,  Antoinette,  an-twiin-et  boo-re- 
nyoh,  Flemish  visionary:  b.  Lille,  13  Jan. 
1616;  d.  Ffaneker,  30  Oct.  1680.  She  was  born 
so  ugly  that  her  parents  held  a  consultation  to 
determine  whether  it  would  not  be  better  to 
•destroy  her  as  a  monster.  She  was  spared,  but 
her  infancy  was  spent  in  neglect  and  solitude. 
The  first  books  she  put  her  hands  on  were  lives 
•of  early  Christians  and  mystical  tracts,  which 
she  read  eagerly.  She  entered  a  convent  and 
was  subsequently  in  charge  of  a  hospital  at  Lille, 
but  was  obliged  to  leave  on  account  of  her  reli- 
gious vagaries.  She  held  that  religion  consists 
in  internal  emotion  and  is  independent  of  know- 
ledge or  practice.  Her  views  were  adopted  by 
large  numbers  of  Protestants  and  Roman  Catho- 
lics, and  in  the  17th  and  i8th  centuries  Scottish 
Presbyterian  ministers  were  for  a  long  time  com- 
pelled to  renounce  Bourignianism  at  their 
ordination.  Among  her  works  are  ^Treatise  of 
Solid  Virtue'  (1699)  ;  <The  Light  of  the  World' 
(1696,  in  English  1863)  ;  ^Restoration  of  the 
Gospel  Spirit'    (1707). 

Bourinot,    boo're-not.    Sir    John    George, 

Canadian  publicist :  b.  Sydney,  Nova  Scotia,  24 
Oct.  1838;  d.  14  Oct.  1902.  He  was  educated  at 
Trinity  College,  Toronto ;  founded  and  edited 
the  Halifax  Reporter,  became  clerk  of  the 
Dominion  parliament  in  1880;  was  created  a 
member  of  the  Order  of  St.  Michael  and  St. 
George  in  1890 ;  and  in  1892  became  president 
of  the  Royal  Society  of  Canada.  His  publica- 
tions include  ^The  Intellectual  Development  of 
the  Canadian  People'  (1880)  ;  ^Manual  of  Con- 
stitutional History'  (1888);  <  Parliamentary 
Government  in  Canada'  (1892)  ;  'Parliamentary 
Procedure  and  Practice'  (1884)  ;  'How  Canada 
is  Governed'  (1895)  5  'Canada's  Intellectual 
Strength  and  Weakness'  (1893)  ;  'Canada 
Under  British  Rule'  (1900)  :  'Cape  Breton  and 
Its  Memorials  of  the  French  Regime'  (1892). 

Bourke,  John  Gregory,  American  military 
officer:  b.  Philadelphia,  Pa.,  22,  June  1846;  d.  8 
June  1896.  He  was  graduated  at  West  Point  in 
1869,  and  saw  much  service  against  the  Indians, 
rising  through  various  grades  to  the  rank  of 
major.  He  became  an  expert  in  American  eth- 
nological lore ;  was  a  past  president  of  the  Amer- 
ican Folk-lore  Society,  and  wrote  'Snake  Dance 
of  the  Moquis,'  'Medicine  Men  of  the  Apaches,' 
and  other  books.  He  distinquished  himself  on 
the  Mexican  border.  He  was  an  officer  of  great 
courage  and  ability. 

Bourmont,  Louis  Auguste  Victor,  loo-e 
a-goost  vek-tor  boor-moh,  (de  Chaisnes 
CoMTE  de),  marshal  of  France:  b.  2  Sept.  1773, 
at  the  castle  of  Bourmont  in  Anjou;  d.  there 
27  Oct.  1846.  At  an  early  age  he  took  part  in 
the  campaign  in  La  Vendee,  at  a  later  period 
entered  the  Republican  army,  and  was  advanced 
hy  Napoleon,  under  whom  he  had  distinguished 
himself  at  Dresden  and  Nogent,  to  the  rank  of 
general  of  division.     Although  he  had  gone  over 


to  the  Bourbons  in  March  1814,  Napoleon,  on 
his  return  from  Elba,  gave  him  a  command, 
which,  however,  Bourmont  resigned  before  the 
battle  of  Ligny,  in  order  to  go  over  to  the  side 
of  the  allies.  Some  years  after,  as  commander 
of  the  army  of  intervention  in  Spain,  he  obtained 
some  brilliant  successes.  His  greatest  victory 
was  the  conquest  of  Algiers,  which  procured 
him  a  marshal's  staff  in  1830.  After  the  revo- 
lution of  July  1830,  he  followed  the  banished 
dynasty  into  exile.  In  1833  Dom  Miguel,  king 
of  Portugal,  placed  him  at  the  head  of  his 
troops  which  were  to  act  against  the  adherents 
of  Dom  Pedro ;  but  he  was  unsuccessful.  He 
afterward  sought  to  act  in  the  interests  of  the 
Carlists  in  Spain,  and  when  he  at  last  returned 
to  his  native  country  found  that  he  had  almost 
entirely  lost  his  popularity,  and  accordingly 
retired  for  the  rest  of  his  life  to  his  estate  in 
Anjou. 

Bourne,  Edward  Gaylord,  American  edu- 
cator: b.  Strykersville,  N.  J.,  24  June  i860.  He 
was  graduated  at  Yale  in  1883,  and  has  been 
professor  of  history  there  since  1895.  He  has 
written  'The  History  of  Surplus  Revenue'  ;  is 
one  of  the  editors  of  the  'Yale  Review'  ;  and 
published  a  collection  of  his  writings  on  histor- 
ical subjects  under  the  title  of  'Essays  in  His- 
torical Criticism.' 

Bourne,  George,  American  clergyman  and 
anti-slavery  writer:  b.  Westbury,  Wiltshire, 
England,  1780;  d.  New  York,  14  Dec.  1845. 
In  1804  he  settled  at  Harrisburg,  Pa.,  where 
he  set  up  a  printing  office.  He  was  an  earnest 
advocate  of  the  total  and  immediate  abolition 
of  slavery,  a  position  which  aroused  consider- 
able opposition  to  him,  and  in  1815  he  formed 
a  church  composed  of  non-slaveholders.  His 
ultra-radical  views  at  last  obliged  him  to  re- 
move to  Germantown.  Afterward  he  resided 
for  intervals  at  Sing  Sing,  N.  Y.,  Quebec,  and 
New  York,  where  he  founded  a  paper,  The 
Protestant  Vindicator.  He  wrote:  'The 
Book  and  Slavery  Irreconcilable'  (1815)  ; 
'Lectures  on  Ecclesiastical  History'  (1822)  ; 
'Pictures  of  Quebec'  (1830)  ;  'Slavery  Illus- 
trated in  Its  Effects  upon  Women'    (1834). 

Bourne,  Hugh,  founder  of  the  sect  of 
Primitive  Methodists  in  England :  b.  Fordhays, 
Staffordshire,  3  April  1771  ;  d.  Bemersley,  Staf- 
fordshire, II  Oct.  1852.  About  1810,  some  of 
the  Wesleyan  Methodists  were  desirous  of  re- 
newing the  primitive  form  of  worship  and  con- 
stitution, and  wished  particularly  to  revive  camp 
meetings.  These  practices  were  considered  un- 
advisable,  and  accordingly  Mr.  Bourne  and  his 
friends  were  expelled  from  the  body.  They, 
were  20  in  number,  and  Hugh  Bourne  was  ac- 
knowledged their  elder.  The  name  of  Primitive 
Methodists  was  adopted  in  1812,  but  by  their 
opponents  they  were  long  styled  "Ranters." 
The  sect  is  now  a  powerful  body  in  England, 
numbering  in  1901.  198.874  members  and  1,100 
ministers.  In  the  United  States  it  has  74  min- 
isters, 90  churches  and  6,549  members.  In  1844 
Bourne  visited  the  United  States,  where  his 
preaching  excited  much  attention.  He  also  vis- 
ited Canada,  Scotland,  and'  Ireland,  where  he 
met  with  great  success  in  his  work.  He  pub- 
lished a  'History  of  the  Primitive  Methodists' 
(1823),  and  founded,  in  1824,  'The  Primitive 
Methodist  Magazine.' 


THE  LIBRARY 
UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFCy^NIA 


T  nc   A  tsinvi  va     / 


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